Full text of "Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science"

9 FEB 27

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BRITISH ASSOCIATION

FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE

REPORT

OF THE

NINETY-FOURTH MEETING

(NINETY-SIXTH YEAR)

OXFORD— 1926

AUGUST 4-11

LONDON

OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.J

1926

CONTENTS.

PAGE

•Officeks and Council, 1926-27 v

Local Officers, Oxford, 1926 vii

Sections and Sectional Officers, Oxford, 1926 vii

Annual Meetings : Places and Dates, Presidents, Attendances,
Receipts, Sums Paid on account of Grants for Scientific
Purposes (1831-1926) x

Heport of the Council to the General Committee (1925-26) xiv

British Association Exhibitions xviii

General Meetings, Public Lectures, etc., at Oxford xviii

External Lectures xxi

General Treasurer's Account (1925-26) xxi

Research Committees (1926-27) xxvi

•Caird Fund xxxi

Resolutions and Recommendations (Oxford Meeting) xxxi

The Presidential Address: By H.R.H. The Prince of Wales,

K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S 1

Sectional Presidents' Addresses :

A.— The Analysis of Line Spectra. By Prof. A. Fowler, F.R.S. ... 16

B. The Scope of Organic Chemistry. By Prof. J. F. Thorpe, F.R.S. 46

,C. Progress in the Study of the Lower Carboniferous (Avonian)

Roclis of England and Wales. By Prof. S. H. Reynolds 65

D. Biology and the Training of the Citizen. By Prof. J. Graham

Kerr, F.R.S 102

E. The Economic Development of Tropical Africa and its Effect

on the Native Population. By the Hon. W. Ormsby-Gore, M.P. 113

F.^Inheritance as an Economic Factor. By Sir Josiah Stamp, G.B.E. 128

G.— Electricity Supply. By Sir John F. C. Snell, G.B.E 156

H.— The Regional Balance of Racial Evolution. By Prof. H. J.

Fleure 181

iv CONTENTS.

PAGE

I. — Function and Design. By Prof. J. B. Leathes, F.R.S 208

J. — Psychological Aspects of our Penal System. ByDr. James Dreatir 219

K.— 1860— 1894— 1926. By Prof. F. 0. Bower, F.R.S 231

L. — ^Address to the Education Section. By Sir Thomas H. Hollaitd,

K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., F.R.S 246

M. — The Relation Between Cultivated Area and Population. By Sir

Daniel Hall, K.C.B., F.R.S 255

Reports on the State of Science, etc 267

Sectional Transactions 337

Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies 432

References to Publication's of Communications to the Sections... 444

Discussion on Educational Training for Overseas Life 450

Index 461

§ritislj |.ssanati0n for t^t ^bbananteut

OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1926-27.

PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.

PRESIDENT.
H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S.

PRESIDENT ELECT FOR THE LEEDS MEETING.

Prof. Sir Aethur Keith, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR

The LOED-LlEUTENANT OF THE CoUNTY

OF Oxford (His Grace the Duke of

Marlborough, K.G.).
The Chancellor of the University

OF Oxford (Rt. Hon. Viscount Cave,

G.C.M.G., P.C, D.C.L.).
The Lord Bishop of Oxford (Rt. Rev.

T. B. Strong, G.B.E., D.D.).
The Vice-Chancellor of the Univer-
sity (Joseph Wells, D.C.L., Warden

of Wadham College).
The Rt. Worshipful the Mayor of

Oxford (Rev. J. Carter, M.A.).
The Chairman of the County Council

OF Oxford (W.H.Ashhurst, C.B.E.).
The Rt. Hon. Viscount Valentia,

K.C.V.O.
The Rt. Hon. Lord Saye and Sele.
The Dean of Christ Church (Very

Rev. H. J. White, D.D.).
Sir Arthur Evans, D.Litt., LL.D., F.R.S.

VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT

The Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor of
Leeds (Alderman Hugh Lupton).

His Grace the Lord Archbishop of
York (Most Rev. Cosmo G. Lang,
P.C, G.C.V.O., D.D.).

The Chancellor of Leeds University
(His Grace the Duke of Devonshire,
K.G., P.C, G.CM.G., G.C.V.O.).

The Lord-Lieutenant of the County
of the West Riding of Yorkshire
(Rt. Hon. the Earl of Haeewood,
G.C.V.O.).

Viscount Lascelles, K.G., D.S.O.

The Lord Bishop of Ripon (Rt. Rev.
E. a. Burroughs, D.D.).

The Rt. Hon. Lord Airedale.

The Pro -Chancellor of Leeds Uni-
versity (Col. C H. Tetley, D.S.O. ,
T.D., M.A.).

The Vice-Chancellor of Leeds Uni-
versity (J. B. Baillie, O.B.E., M.A.,
D.Phil., LL.D.).

THE OXFORD MEETING.
Prof. Sir Charles Sherrington, O.M.,

G.B.E., F.R.S.
Sir Herbert Warren, K.C.V.O., D.C.L.

(President of Magdalen College).
Sir W. Buchanan Riddell, Bart., M.A.

{Principal of Hertford College).
Prof. E. B. Poulton, D.Sc, LL.D.,

F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Perkin, Ph.D., Sc.D., LL.D.,

F.R.S.
The Vice-Chancellor of the Univer-
sity OF Reading (W. M. Childs,

M.A.).
G. C Bourne, D.Sc, F.R.S.
Alderman G. Claridge Druce, D.Sc,

LL.D.
J. F. Mason.

Mrs. G. Herbert Morrell.
Vernon James Watney, M.A., F.S.A.
J. Herbert Benyon.
C E. Keyser, M.A., F.S.A.

FOR THE LEEDS MEETING.

The Chairman of the Leeds Education
Committee (Alderman Leslie Owen).

The Chairman of the West Riding
Education Committee (Sir Percy-
Jackson, LL.D.).

The Hon. Sir Gervase Beckett, Bart.,
M.P.

Col. Sir E. a. Brotheeton, Bart., LL.D.

Sir Berkeley Moynihan, Bart.,
K.CM.G., C.B., F.R.C.S.

Sir Charles Wilson, LL.D., M.P.

Sir Edwin Airey.

The Vicar of Leeds (Rev. W. Thompson
Elliott, M.A.).

The Bishop of Leeds (Rt. Rev. J. R.
Cowgill).

The President of the Free Church
Council.

The Chief Rabbi of Leeds (Rev. Dr. J.
Abelson).

Alderman G. Ratcliffe.

Alderman Charles Lupton.

Alderman J. Arnott.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL.

GENERAL TREASURER.
E. H. Griffiths, Sc.D.. D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.

GENERAL SECRETARIES.

Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., D.Sc, F.S.A.
F.B.A.

F. E. Smith, C.B., C.B.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.

SECRETARY.
0. J. R. HowARTH, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1.

LOCAL SECRETARIES FOR THE LEEDS MEETING.

James Graham {Director of Education) ; Prof. A. Gilligan.

LOCAL TREASURER FOR THE LEEDS MEETING.

J. Mitchell {City Treasurer).

ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

Prof. J. H. AsHWORTH, F.R.S.

Sir W. H. Beveridgb, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe, K.B.E.

Prof. A. L. Bowley.

Prof. E. G. CoKER, F.R.S.

Prof. W. Daley, F.R.S.

Dr. H. H. Dale, Sec. R.S.

Prof. C. H. Desoh, F.R.S.

E. N. Fallaizk.

Sir J. S. Flett, K.B.E., F.R.S.

Prof. H. J. Fleure.

Sir R. A. Gregory.

C. T. Heycock, F.R.S.

Prof. J. P. Hill, F.R.S.

A. R. Hi>,KS, C.B.E., F.R.S.

Sir T. H. Holland, K.C.S.I., F.R.S.

Col.SirH. G.Lyons, F.R.S.

Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S.

Prof. T. P. NuNN.

Prof. A. W. Porter, F.R.S.

Prof. A. 0. Rankinb.

Sir J. Russell. F.R.S.

Prof. A. C. Seward; F.R.S.

Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

Prof. A. Smithells, C.M.G., F.R.S.

EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the
President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present
General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and
the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the Annual Meetings immediately
past and ensuing.

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT).

Major P.
F.R.S.

A. MacMahon, D.Sc, LL.D.,

Hon,

Sir Arthur Evans, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.
F.S.A.
Sir Charles A. Parsons, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.

PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Rt. Hon. the Earl of Balfour, 0.M.,F.R.S.

Sir E. Ray Lankester, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S.

Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer, F.R.S.

Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.

Sir Arthur Schuster, F.R.S.

Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S.

Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir C. S. Sherrington, O.M.,

G.B.E., F.R.S.
Sir Ernest Rutherford. O.M.,Pres. R.S.
Major-Gen. SirD. Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R.S.

PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.

Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer, F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.
Dr. J. G. Garson.

Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.
Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S.

Prof. A. Bowley.

HON. AUDITORS.

I Prof. A. W. Kirkaldy.

LOCAL OFFICERS
FOR THE OXFORD MEETING.

CHAIRMAN OF EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.

The Vice-Chancellob of the University of Oxford
(Joseph Wells, M.A., D.C.L., Warden of Wadham College).

LOCAL HON, SECRETARIES.
F. A. DiXEY, M.A., D.M., F.R.S. | Brig.-Gen. H. B. Hartley, C.B.E., F.R.S.

A. C. Cameron, M.A.

LOCAL HON. TREASURER.

B. Rowland Jones.

SECRETARY.

Miss P. M. Middleton.

SECTIONS & SECTIONAL OFFICERS, 1926,

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

President.— Proi. A. Fowler, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.— PtoL G. H. Hardy, F.R.S. ; Prof. F. A. Lindemann, F.R.S. ;
Prof. A. E. H. Love, F.R.S. ; Dr. C. C. Simpson, C.B.E., F.R.S. ; Prof. J. S.

TOWNSEND, F.R.S.
Recorder. — Prof. A. M. Tyndall.

Secretaries.— M. A. Giblett ; W. M. H. Greaves ; Prof. E. H. Neville.
Local Secretary. — I. 0. Griffith.

B.— CHEMISTRY.
President.— Prof. J. F. Thorpe, C.B.K., F.R.S.
Vice-President.'i.— Prof. C. H. Desch, F.R.S. ; Prof. W. H. Perkin, F.R.S. ; Dr.

N. V. SiDGWiCK, F.R.S.
Eecorder. — Dr. H. McCombie.
Secretary. — Prof. C. S. Gibson.
Local Secretary. — Dr. A. C. G. Egerton.

C— GEOLOGY.

President. — Prof. S. H. Reynolds.

Vice-Presidents.— Proi. Sir T. W. Edgeworth David, F.R.S. ; Dr. GEBTRtiDE Elles ,

Sir J. S. Fi.ETT, F.R.S. ; Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.
Recorder. — Prof. W. T. Gordon.
Secretary. — I. S. Double.
Local Secretaries. — Dr. K. S. Sandfoed ; C. J. Bayzand.

D.— ZOOLOGY.

President. — Prof. J. Graham Kerr, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.— C. Tate Regan, F.R.S. ; Prof. E. S. Goodrich, F.R.S.

Recorder. — Prof. F. Balfour Browne.

Secretary. — Prof. W. J. Dakin.

Local Secretary. — G. R. De Beer.

Viii OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1926.

E.— GEOGRAPHY.

President. — Hon. W. Obmsby-Gobe, M.P.

Vice-Presidents. — H. 0. Beckit ; Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown ; A. R. Hinks, C.B.E.,
F.R.S. ; Dr. D. G. Hogakth, C.M.G. ; Sir John Russeli,, F.R.S. ; Lt.-Col.

WiNTEEBOTHAM.

Recorder. — W. H. Baeker.
Secretary. — F. Debenham.
Local Secretary. — J. N. L. Baker.

F.— ECONOMICS.

President. — Sir Josiah Stamp, K.B.E.

Vice-Presidents. — Prof. Edwin Cannan ; Misa L. Grier ; Prof. H. M. Hallsworth ;

Prof. D. H. Macgregor ; Rev. P. H. Wicksteed.
Recorder. — R. B. Forrester.
Secretaries. — K. G. Fenelon ; A. Radford.

G.— ENGINEERING.

President. — Sir John Snell, G.B.E.
Vice-President.— "Proi. C. F. Jenkin, C.B.E.
Recorder. — -Prof. P. C. Lea.
Secretaries. — -Prof. G. Cook ; J. S. Wilson.
Local Secretari/. — Prof. C. F. Jenkin, C.B.E.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.

President. — Prof. H. J. Fletjre.

Vice-Presidents. — H. Balfour, F.R.S. ; M. L'Abbe Breuil ; G. A. Garpitt ; Prof.

J. P. McMurrich; Dr. R. R. Marext ; Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S.; Prof.

Arthur Thomson.
Recorder. — E. N. Fallaize.
Secretary. — Miss R. M. Fleming.
Local Secretary. — L. H. Dudley Buxton.

I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

President. — Prof. J. B. Leathes, F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.— Sit E. Sharpey-Schafer, F.R.S. ; Dr. J. S. Haldane, F.R.S.

Prof. R. A. Peters ; Sir C. S. Sherrington, O.M., 6.B.E., F.R.S.
Recorder. — Dr. M. H. MaoKeith.
Secretary. — Dr. B. A. McSwiney.
Local Secretary. — D. Denny-Beown.

J.— PSYCHOLOGY,

President. — Dr. J. Drever, Universitj', Edinburgh.

Vice-Presidents. — Dr. W. Brown ; Prof. W. McDougall, F.R.S. : Prof. C. Lloyd

Morgan, F.R.S. ; Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S. ; Prof. C. Spearman, F.R.S.
Recorder. — Dr. Ll. Wynn Jones.
Secretaries. — R. J. Bartlett ; Dr. S. Dawson.
Local Secretary. — H. Sturt.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 192C. ix

K.— BOTANY.

President.— Fioi. F. 0. Bower, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Rt. Hon. liOED Clinton [Sub-Sec. Forestry) ; Sir F. W. Keeble,

C.B.E., F.R.S. ; Sir David Peain, F.R.S. ; Miss E. R,. Saunders ; Dr. D. H.

Scott, F.R.S. ; Prof. J. Li.oyd Williams.
Hecorder. — F. T. Brooks.
■Secretaries. — Dr. W. Robinson ; Prof . J. McLean Thompson ; Prof. A. W. Borthwick

(Sub-Sec. Forestry).
Local Secretary. — W. H. Wilkins.

L.— EDUCATION.

Fresident.—S\x Thomas Holland, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents.— Dr. W. W. Vaughan ; Rt. Hon. H. A. L. Fisher, F.R.S. ; Dr.

M. W. Keatinge.
Recorder. — D. Beeeidge (acting, vice C. E. Browne).
Secretaries. — Dr. Lilian Clarke ; Prof. A. E. Heath.
Local Secretary. — H. E. M. Icely.

M.— AGRICULTURE.

President.— ^iv Daniel Hall, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Vice-Presidents. — W. H. Ashhurst ; His Grace the Dukt; of Marlboeouoh, K.G.

J. F. Mason ; Dr. J. B. Ore ; Prof. J. A. S. Watson.
Recorder. — C. G. T. Morison.

■Secretaries. — T. S. Dymond ; Dr. G. Scott Robertson.
Local Secretary. — G. D. Ameey.

ANNUAL MEETINGS.

TABLE OF

Date of Meeting

Where held

Piesideots

Old Life
Members

New Life
Members

1831, Sept. 27 ..

1832, June 19...

1833, June 25...

1834, Sept. 8 ...

1835, Aug. 10...

1836, Aug. 22...

1837, Sept. 11...

1838, Aug. 10...

1839, Aug. 26...
18»0, Sept. 17...

1841, July 20 ...

1842, June 23...

1843, Aug. 17 ...

1844, Sept. 26 ...

1845, June 19...
184S, Sept. 10...

1847, June 23...

1848, Aug. 9 ...
1819, Sept. 12 ...

1860, July 21 ...

1861, Julj2

1862, Sept. 1 ...

1853. Sept. 3 ...

1854, Sept. 20 ...

1855, Sept. 12 ...

1856. Aug. 6 ...

1867, Aug. 26 ...

1858, Sept. 22..

1859, Sept. 14..

1860, June 27 ..

1861, Sept. 4 ..

1862, Oct. 1 ..

1863, Aui. 26 ..

1864, S^pt. 13 ..

1865, S»pt. 6 ..

1866, Aug. 22..,
1867, Sept. 4 ...

1868, Aug. 19..,
1869, Aug. 18..
1870,Sept. 14..

1871, Aug. 2 ..

1872, Aug. 14 ..

1873, Sept. 17 ..

1874, Aug. 19..

1875, Aug. 25..

1876, Sept. 6 .

1877, Aug. 15 ..
1 1878, Aug. 14..

1879, Aug. 20 ..
I 1880, Aug. 25 ..
i 1881, Aug. 31 ..

1882, Aug. 23 ..

1883, Sept. 19 ..

1884, Aug. 27..

1885, Sept. 9 .,

1886, Sept. 1 ..

1887, Aug. 31 .,

1888, Sept. 5

1889, Sept. 11 .
18H0, Sept. 3 .
1S91, Aug. 19

1892, Aug. 3 .
i 1893, Sept. 13.
I 1894, Aug. 8 .
I 1895, Sept. 11 .

1893, Sept. 16.
I 1897, Aug. 18 J
' 1898, Sept 7 .
i 1899, Sept. 13.

York Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S

Oxford I The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S

Cambridge i The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S

Edinburgh ! Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...

Dublin The Rev. Provost Uoyd.LL.D., F.R.S.

.1 Bristol The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S....

.[ Liverpool The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S

. Newcastle-on-Tyne... The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S.

. J Birmingham The Rey.W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.

.1 Glasgow The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S.

.'Plymouth The Rev. W. WheweU, F.R.S

. Manchester The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S. ...

. Cork The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S

. York TheRev.G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S. ...

. I Cambridge Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.S.

.i Soutliampton 1 Sir Roderick I. Murchison,Bart.,P.R.S.

. Oxford I Sir Robert H. Inglis. Bart., F.R.S.

. Swansea i TheMarquisofNorthampton.Pres.R.S.

. Birmingham The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S.

. Edinburgh Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S...

Ipswich G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.

Belfast

Hull ,

Liverpool

Glasgow

Cheltenham

Dublin

Leeds

Aberdeen

Oxford

Manchester

Cambridge

Newcastle-on-Tyne. .

Bath

Birmingham

Nottingham

Dundee

Norwich

Exeter

Liverpool

Edinburgh

Brighton

Bradford

Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S,

William Hopkins. F.R.S

The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S

The Duke of Argyll. F.R.S

Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S....

The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S

Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L., F.R.S....

H.R.H. The Prince Consort

The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. ...

William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.

The Rev. Professor WiUis,M..A.,F.R.S.

SirWiUiam G. Armstrong.O.B., F.R.S.

Sir Charles Lvell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S

Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S,

William R. Grove, Q.O., F.R.S

The DukeofBuccleuch, K.C.B.,F.R.S.

Dr. Joseph D. Hooker. F.R.S

Prof. G.G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R.S. .

Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D.. F.R.S.

Prof. Sir W. Thomson. LL.D., F.R.S.

Dr. W. B. Carpencer, F.R.S

Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S....

Belfast I Prof. J. Tyndall. LL.D., F.R.S. ..

Bristol 1 Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S

Glasgow 1 Prof. T.Andrews, M.D., F.R.S. ..

Plymouth I Prof. A. Thomson. M.D., F.R.S.

Diiblin I W. Spottiswoode, M.A.. F.R.S. .

Sheffield i Prof. G. J. AUman, M.D., F.R.S.

Swansea A. 0. Ramsay. LL.D.. F.R.S

York Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.

Southampton Dr. 0. W. Siemens. F.R.S

Southport Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., F.R.S |

Montreal Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S

Aberdeen Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S.

Birmingham Sir J. W. Daivson, O.M.G., F.R.S |

Manchester Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F.R.S

Bath Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S I

Newcastle-on-Tyne Prof. W. H. Flower. O.B., F.R.S ;

Leeds Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S I

Cardiff Dr. W. Huggins. F.R.S i

Edinburgh Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S I

Nottingham Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.

Oxford The Marquis of Salisburv,K.G..F.R.S.'

Ipswich Sir Douglas Galton. K.C.B.. F.R.S. ...

Liverpool Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R.S. ...

Toronto Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S

Bristol Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S

Dover Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S....

169

303

169

109

226

160

313

241

314

149

227

235

172

164

10 i

141

238

194

182

236

222

184

286

321

113

239

203

287

292

207

167

196

204

314

246

245

212

162

239

221

173

201

184

16 '

144

11 1

272

28 ;

178

203

60
20

235

225

314

428

266

277

259

189

280

201

327

214

330

120

281

296

• Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. t Tickets of Admission to Sections only.

l_Co7itmved onj). xii.

ANNUAL MEETINGS.

Amount

Slims paid

Old
Annual
Members

New
Annual
Members

Asso-
ciates

Ladies

1
Foreigners

Total

received

for
Tickets

on account
of Grants
or Scientific
Purposes

Tear

353

1831

1832

_ j

900

—

1833

1298

£20

1834

167

1835

1350

436

1836

1840

922 12 6

1837

11 00*

2400

—

932 2 2

1838

1438

—

1595 11

1839

1353

—

1546 16 4

1840

317 i

60*

891

—

1236 10 11

1841

376 .

33t

3S1»

1315

1449 17 8

1843

71
46

185 1

160

—

1565 10 2

1843

190

260

—

981 12 8

1844

407

172

1079

—

831 9 9

1845

270

196

857

—

685 16

1846

197
54

495

203

1320

—

208 5 4

1847

376

197

819

£707

275 1 8

1848

447

237

1071

963

159 19 6

1849

128

610

273

1241

1085

345 18

1850

244

141

710

620

391 9 7

1851

610

292

9 I

1108

1085

304 6 7

1862

367

236

6 :

876

903

205

1853

121

768

624

10 1

1802

1882

380 19 7

1854

142

101

1094

643

26 '

2133

2311

480 16 4

1856

104

412

346

1115

1098

734 13 9

1856

166

120

900

669

2022

2016

507 15 4

1857

111

710

609

1698

1931

618 18 2

1858

125

179

1206

821

2564

2782

684 11 1

1859

177

636

463

1689

1604

766 19 6

1860

184

125

1589

791

3138

3944

nil 5 10

1861

150

433

242

1161

1089

1293 16 6

1862

154

209

1704

1004

3335

3640

1608 3 10

1863

182

103

1119

1058

2802

2965

1289 15 8

1864

215

149

766

508

1997

2227

1591 7 10

1865

218

105

960

771

2303

2469

1750 13 4

1866

193

118

1163

771

2444

2613

1739 4

1867

226

117

720

682

45:

2004

2042

1940

1868

329

107

678

600

1866

1931

1622

1869

303

195

1103

910

2878

3096

1572

1870

311

127

976

754

2463

2575

1472 2 6

1871

280

937

912

2633

2649

1285

1872

237

796

601

1983

2120

1685

1873

232

817

630

1951

1979

1151 16

1874

307

884

672

2248

2397

960

1875

331

185

1265

712

2774

3023

1092 4 2

1876

238

446

283

1 11

1229

1268

1128 9 7

1877

290

1285

674

1 17

2578

2615

725 16 6

1878

239

629

349

1404

1426

1080 11 11

1879

171

389

147

915

899

731 7 7

1880

313

176

1230

514

2557

2689

476 8 1

1881

253

516

189

1263

1286

1126 1 11

1882

330

323

952

841

2714

3369

1083 3 3

1883

317

219

826

26 & 60 H.§

1777

1855

1173 4

1884

332

122

1053

447

2203

2256

1385

1885

428

179

1067

429

2463

2532

995 6

1886

510

244

1985

493

3838

4336

1186 18

1887

399

100

639

509

1984

2107

1611 5

1888

412

113

1024

579

2437

2441

1417 11

1889

368

680

334

1776

789 16 8

1890

341

162

672

107

1497

1664

1029 10

1891

413

141

733

439

2070

2007

864 10

1892

328

773

268

1661

1653

907 15 6

1893

435

941

451

2321

2175

583 15 6

1894

290

493

261

1324

1236

977 15 5

1895

383

139

1384

873

3181

3228

1104 6 1

1896

286

125

682

100

1362

1398

1059 10 8

1 1897

327

1051

639

2446

2399

1212

1 1898

1 324

548

120

1403

1328 1 1430 14 2

1 1899

* Including Ladies. § Fellows oftheAmericanAssooiation were ailmitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.

[ Continued on p. xiii.

XI]

ANNUAL MEETINGS,

Table of

Date of Meeting

Where held

Presidents

Old Life
Members

New Life
Members

■

i 1900, Sept. 5

1 1901, Sept. 11

1 1902, Sept. 10

1 1903, Sept. 9

i 1904, Aug. 17

' 1905, Aug. 15

1 1906, Aug. 1

1907, July 31

1908, Sept. 2

1909, Aug. 25

1910, Aug. 31

1911, Aug. 30

1912, Sept. 4

1913, Sept. 10

1914 July-Sept. ..

1915, Sept. 7

1916, Sept. 5

1917

1918

1919, Sept. 9

1920, Aug. 24

1921, Sept. 7

1922, Sept. 6

1923, Sept. 12

1924, Aug. 6

1925, Aug. 26

1926, Aug. 4

i 1
1 1

Bradford

Sir William Turner, D.O.L., P.R.S. ...
Prof. A. W. Rucker, D.Sc, SecJl.S. ...

Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., P.R.S

Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., P.R.S.
Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., P.R.S.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., P.R.S.
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., P.R.S.

Sir David Gill, K.O.B., P.R.S

Dr. Francis Darwin, P.R.S.

Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, P.R.S

Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, P.R.S

Prof. Sir W. Rimsay, K.O.B., P.R.S.

Prof.E. A. Schafer, P.R.S

Sir Oliver J. Lodge, P.R.S

Prof. W. Bateson, P.R.S

Prof. A. Schuster, P.R.S

Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S J

Hon. Sir 0. Parsons, K.C.B., P.R.S....

Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S.

Sir T. E. Thorpe, O.B., P.R.S

Sir 0. S. Sherrington, G.B.E.,
Pres. R.S

Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S.

Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., P.R.S

Prof . Horace Lamb, P.R.S

H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, E.G.,
P.R.S

267

310
243
250
419
115
322
276
294
117
293
284
288
376
172
243
164

235

288
336

228

326
119

280

358

37
21
21
32
40
10
19
24
13
2«
21
14
40
13
19
12

12
7
8

Glasgow

Belfast

Southport

Cambridge

South Africa

York

Leicester

Dublin

Winnipeg

Sheffield

P 'rtsmoiith

Dundee

Birmingham

Australia

Manchester

Newcastle-on-Tyne...
(No Meeting)

(No Meeting)

Bournemouth

Cardiff

Edinburgh

Hull

Liverpool

Toronto

Southampton

O.'ctord

' Including 848 Members of the South African Association.

" Including 137 Members of the American Association.

=" Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
Report, 1914, p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of
L'Associatlon Fran(;aise at Le Havre.

* Including Students' Tickets, 10*.

' Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge.

ANNUAL MEETINGS.

XllI

Annual Meetings — (continued).

Old
Annual

New
Annual

Asso-
ciates

Ladies

Foreigners

Total

Amount
received

for
Tickets

Sums paid

on account

of Grants

1
Year

Members

for Scientific
Purposes

1900

297

801

482

1915

£1801

£1072 10

374

131

794

246

1912

2046

920 9 11

1901

314

647

305

1620

1644

947

1902

319

688

365

1754

1762

845 13 2

1903

449

113

1338

317

121

2789

2650

887 18 11

1904

»37'

411

430

181

2130

2422

928 2 2

1905

356

817

352

1972

1811

882 9

1906

339

659

251

1647

1561

757 12 10

1907

465

112

1166

222

2297

2317

1157 18 8

1908

290'

162

789

1468

1623

1014 9 9

1909

379

563

123

1449

1439

963 17

1910

349

414

1241

1176

922

1911

368

1292

359

2504

2349

845 7 6

1912

480

149

1287

291

2643

2756

978 17 1

1913

139

4160"

539=

—

6044-'

4873

1861 16 4"

1914

287

116

628*

141

1441

1406

1569 2 8

1915

250

251*

—

826

821

985 18 10

1916

—

677 17 2

1917

—

326 13 3

1918

254

102

688*

153

1482

1736

410

1919

Annual Members

Old

Transfer-
able

Students

Annual

Regular
Members

Meeting

and
Report

Meeting
only

Tickets

136

192

571

120

1380

1272 10

1251 13 0'

1920

133

410

1394

121

343

2768

2599 15

518 1 10

1921

294

757

235"

1730

1699 5

772 7

1922

Compli-

mentary.

123

380

1434

163

550

308'

3296

2735 15

777 18 6'

1923

520

1866

139

2818

3165 IS'"

1197 5 9

1924

264

878

119

1782

1630 6

1231

1925

101

453

2338

169

225

3722

3542

917 1 6

1926

" Including grants from the Oaird Fund in this and subsequent years.

' Including Foreign Quests, Exhibitioners, and others.

' The Bournemouth Fund for Kesearoh, initiated by Sir 0. Parsons, enabled grants on account of
scientific purposes to be maintained.

• Including gi-ants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years
to 1926.

'° Subscriptions paid in Canada were |5 for Meeting only and others pro rata ; there was some
gain on exchange.

XIV

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1925-26.

I. The Council presented an address of condolence to The King on
the death of Queen Alexandra, and received His Majesty's gracious
acknowledgment.

II. The Council presented a resolution of welcome and con-
gratulation to H.E.H. The Prince of Wales, President-elect, on his
return from South Africa and South America, and received The Prince's
gracious acknowledgment.

III. The Council has had to deplore the loss by death of Sir
Francis Darwin (President, 1908) ; of Mr. W. Bateson (President, 1914),
who was to have presided over Section K (Botany) at the Oxford
Meeting ; of Dr. W. Evans Hoyle, local secretary for the Cardiff Meeting
in 1920 and a recent member of the Council; and, among other
supporters and former ofBce-bearei's, Prof. A. R. Cushny, Prof. F. Y.
Edgeworth, Mr. J. S. Gamble, Prof. A. Gray, Mr. W. P. Hiern,
Prof. J. W. Langley, and the Eev. T. E. E. Stebbing.

IV. Prof. Sir Arthur Keith, F.E.S., has been unanimously nominated
by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association for the
year 1927-28 (Leeds Meeting).

V. Eepresentatives of the Association have been appointed as
follows : —

Carnegie U. K. Trustees' Conference on

Museums as a factor in Education. . Dr. H. Bolton.

American Association for the Advancement

of Science, Kansas City Meeting . . Prof. J. C. Fields and

Prof. W. A. Parks.
French Society of Chemical Industry, Paris,

Oct. 1925 • Sir W. Pope.

Sheffield University, Coming-of-Age, June

30, 1926 Mr. F. B. Smith.

Congress of Chemical Industry, Brussels,

September, 1926 Sir W. Pope.

VI. Eesolutions referred by the General Committee at the South-
ampton Meeting to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for
action, were dealt with as follows : —

(«) The Council adopted by a majority a resolution that invitations
to attend the Oxford Meeting should be issued to eminent scientists
irrespective of nationality.

The temporary suspension of honorary corresponding membership,
appHed in 1919 in the case of certain foreign scientific men, has been
removed.

(6) The Council regrets that the railway authorities do not see
their way to including scientific parties specifically in the regulations
governing the issue of return period tickets. (Eesolutions of Sections
0, D, E.)

(c) The Council referred to the Board of Education a resolution
inviting consideration of an amendment of a cbuse in Circular 826
(1913), permitting in certain events the curtailment or discontinuance
of instruction in geography. (Eesolution of Section E.)

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1925-26. XV

{d) The Council recommended Miss W. S. Blackman to the Egyptian
and other authorities for assistance in her investigation of the culture
of the peasant population of modern Egypt. The Council regrets that
its preUminary endeavours have been without result. (Resolution
■of Section H.)

(e) In regard to resolutions of Sections E, H, and M relating to the
Eeport of the East African Commission (upon which the General
Committee itself took action), the Council learned with satisfaction from
H.M. Secretary of State for the Colonies that scientific research is
receiving attention and financial support in the territories of East Africa,
and that the Amani Institute is being revived.

(/) The Council referred to the Ministry of Agriculture and the
Board of Education a resolution dealing with the facilities offered by
local scientific societies for supplementing the curriculum of schools in
matters bearing upon local geography, natural history, and antiquities,
and communicated their replies to the Corresponding Societies, recom-
mending individual consultation with local education authorities by
any societies which might find this desirable. (Resolution of the
Conference of Delegates.)

ig) The Council has been in correspondence with interested parties
in relation to the spoliation of ancient monuments on Dartmoor for
road-metal. (Resolution of the Conference of Delegates.)

(/() The Council has received and approved a report on regional survey
from the Corresponding Societies Committee, which has been communi-
cated to the Societies. (Resolution of the Conference of Delegates.)

(i) The Council referred to the British Correlating Committee for
the Protection of Nature a resolution asking for inquiry into the
threatened extermination of many rarer British plants and animals. The
Committee asked that any information should be passed to it, and
Corresponding Societies have been notified accordingly. (Resolution
of the Conference of Delegates.)

VII. The Council resolved that the list of papers bearing on zoology,
botany, and prehistoric archaeology published in connection with the
Report of the Corresponding Societies Committee should be discontinued
after the present year, as it was not found to be of sufficiently wide
use to justify the expenditure upon it. Mr. T. Sheppard received the
thanks of the Council for his unsparing work in the preparation of the
list.

The Council proposes to omit from Rule XI., 3, reference to the pre-
paration of a list of papers published by the Corresponding Societies.

VIII. The Council reported last year upon the discussion, for which
the Toronto Meeting afforded occasion, upon an international abstracting
service for biological sciences. Having learned from the Royal Society
during the present year that the American authorities had decided
not to propose any formal co-operation with the Society, the Council
conveyed to them its thanks for the opportunity which they had given
the Association of discussing the matter.

IX. In regard to the question of the distribution of Government
scientific publications for review and of reprints to authors, which also

xvi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1925-26.

had been previously before the Council, careful inquiry failed to reveal
the necessity for formally bringing the matter to the notice of H.M.
Treasury ; it appeared that any individual cases of difficulty would
receive sympathetic consideration from the authorities concerned.

X. In co-opei'ation with the British Science Guild, the Council
summoned a conference of representatives of leading scientific Societies
to consider the desirability and possibility of establishing a science news
service, and a committee was appointed to deal further with this matter.

XI. The Council has received reports from the General Treasurer
throughout the year. His accounts have been audited and are presented
to the General Committee. The Council made the following grants to
research committees from the Caird Fund : —

£ £

Naples Table 100 Marine Laboratory, Plymouth 20

Seismology ... ... 100 Zoological Eecord ... ... 35

Tables of Constants ... 6 Bronze Implements 80

Upper Atmosphere ... 38 Index Kewensis ... ... 70

Colloid Chemistry ... 5 Kent's Cavern ... ... 10

Quaternary Peats ... 38 Corresponding Societies

Committee ... ... 40

and a donation of £10 10s. to the Optical Convention, 1926.

Having regard to the exceptional circumstances of the Oxford Meet-
ing (namely the possibility of an unusually large attendance at a
meeting in a non-industrial area, involving unusual expenditure upon
entertainment, etc., in a locality where financial resources might be found
to be restricted), the Council agreed with the Local Executive Committee
that from any receipts for membership tickets in excess of £2,500
(exclusive of life compositions and payments for the Eeport) the
sum of 5s. in the pound should be earmarked as a guarantee fund to
supplement the local fund if necessary. Further, the Local Executive
Committee having decided that each subscriber of £5 and upwards to
the local fund should be given a membership ticket, it was agreed that
the sum of 15s. instead of one pound should be payable to the
Association as the price of each such ticket.

The General Treasurer, with the authority of the Council and the
assistance of a Committee, has had under consideration the possibility
of increasing the capital funds of the Association by means of an appeal.

The remaining balance of accrued interest upon the Caird Gift for
research in radio-activity has been granted, for the year 1926-27, as to
£50 each to Mr. P. Blackett, Dr. J. Chadwick, and Dr. A. S. Eussell,
any balance remaining from the income of the gift being brought into
general funds and earmarked as available for a grant to any Committee
of the Association appointed in the future to undertake research in radio-
activity. The trust fund is thus finally disposed of.

XII. At the instance of certain of the Corresponding Societies, upon
which demands for the payment of income tax, previously remitted,
have recently been made, a full inquiry was undertaken, and after
consultation with the Society of Antiquaries and societies in union
therewith, and with other leading societies, a joint deputation discussed

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1925-26. Xvii

the question with the Financial Secretary to the Treasury, and a
committee subsequently met representatives of the Board of Inland
Revenue. It was proposed by the Board that a test case should be
brought against two selected societies during the year 1926-27, H.M.
Treasury bearing costs according to &n agreed scale irrespective of
the decision, and to this course the Council, on the part of the
Association, agreed. Discussion and arrangements are proceeding.

XIII. The Corresponding Societies Committee has been nominated as
follows: the President of the Association {Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T.
Sheppard ( Wee- C'/ia /nwajf) , the General Treasurer, the General Secretaries,
Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir R. A. Gregory, Sir D. Prain, Sir J. Russell,
Mr. Marli Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney.

XIV. The retiring Ordinary Meml:)ers of the Council are : Dr. F. W.
Aston, Mr. E. Barker, Sir Daniel Hall, Dr. P. Chalmers Mitchell, and
Mr. A. G. Tansley.

The Council nominates the following new members: — Professor J. P.
Hill, Sir John Russell, Professor A. C. Seward; leaving two vacancies
to be filled by the General Committee without nomination by the
Council.

The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows : —

Professor J. H. Ashworth.
Sir W. H. Beveridge.
Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe.
Professor A. L. Bowley.
Professor E. G. Coker.
Professor W. Dalby.
Dr. H. H. Dale.
Professor C. H. Desch.
Mr. E. N. Fallaize.
Sir J. S. Flett.
Professor H. J. Fleure.
Sir R. A. Gregory.

XV. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as
follows : —

General Treastircr, Dr. E. H. Griffiths.

General Secretaries, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. F. E. Smith.

XVI. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee : — •

Mr. C. T. Heycock.
Professor J. P. HilL
Sir T. H. Holland.
Dr. C. S. Myers.
Professor T. P. Nunn.
Professor A. W. Porter.
Professor A. O. Rankine.
Sir J. Russell.
Professor A. C. Seward.
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Professor A. Smithells.

Mrs. IS. L. Alcock.

ilr. A. Leslie Armstrong;.

Dr. A. Bramley.

Dr. Winifred E. Brenchley.

Dr. \V. T. Caiman.

Miss C. Coignou.

Dr. E. P. Farrow.

Mr. G. A. Garfitt.

Mr. W. Godden.

Sir J. B. Henderson.

XVII. Inquiry has been received as to the possibility of the Association
favourably considering an invitation to meet in South Africa in or about
1929. The Council had the advantage of discussing the matter with
Prof. H. B. Fantham (Johannesburg), and promised to refer anj^ such
proposal to the General Committee for its sympathetic consideration.

Dr. H. Henstock.
Prof. G. Hickling,
Mr. R. H. Kinvig.
Mr. H. Knox-Shaw.
INIiss M. A. Murray.
Mr. G. Leslie Purser.
Mr. W. P. Pycraft.
Dr. J. H. Shaxby.
Dr. T. A. Stephenson.
Dr. H. Hamsbaw Thomas.

XV] 11

BRITISH ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS.

For the Oxford Meeting, British Association Exhibitions (referred to
in § IX. of the Report of the Council, 1922-23) were awarded to nineteen
students nominated by the same number of universities and colleges.
Their travelling expenses (railway fares) were met by the Association,
which also issued complimentary students' tickets of membership to
them ; they were entertained in Oxford by various colleges, &c., arrange-
ments being made by the Local Executive Committee. Eight of the
universities or colleges allowed expenses for twenty-six additional
exhibitioners, while five selected students from Liverpool received grants
for the same purpose out of a fund formed from the surplus of the moneys
collected for the local fund in connection with the Liverpool Meeting, 1923.
The exhibitioners were presented to the President, H.R.H. The Prince
of Wales, in Magdalen College on August 5. Two of their number (Mr.
H. G. Littler, Liverpool, and Mr. L. L. Barnes, King's College, London)
were elected respectively president and secretary of the exhibitioners
for the purpose of communication by them as a body with the general
officers.

GENERAL MEETINGS, ETC.,
IN OXFORD.

The Inaugural General Meeting was held on Wednesday, August 4,
1926, at 8.30 p.m. The proceedings took place in the Sheldonian Theatre,
and were relayed to the Town Hall and to the hall of the Union Society.
After the Vice-Chancellor of the University and the Rt. Worshipful the
Mayor of Oxford had welcomed the Association, Prof. Horace Lamb,
F.R.S., resigned the office of President of the Association to H.R.H. The
Prince of Wales, K.G., F.R.S. The new President, after communicating
to the meeting a gracious Message from his Majesty the King, and the
terms of his reply, delivered an Address (for which see p. 1). The Rt. Hon.
the Earl of Balfour, K.G., O.M., F.R.S. , ex-President, proposed a vote of
thanks to the President, which was carried by acclamation.

On the conclusion of the proceedings in the Sheldonian Theatre the
President was escorted by the Mayor to the Town Hall. He was received
there by Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S., ex-general secretary of thfe Associa-
tion, who had occupied the chair, and by principal representatives of the
city, and briefly addressed the audience which had heard the relayed
proceedings. The chair at the meeting in the Union Society's hall was
taken by Prof. E. B. Poulton, F.R.S.

On Thursday evening, August 5, receptions were given by the Vice-
Chancellor in the Examination Schools, by the Rt. Worshipful the Mayor
in the Town Hall, and by the Dean, Canons and Students of Christ Church
in Christ Church, all of which were honoured by the presence of the
President.

GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c. xix

Evening Discourses.

Prof. A. S. Eddington, F.R.S. : ' Stars and Atoms.' 8 p.m., August 6,
Union Society's Hall.

Prof. H. Fairfield Osborn, For. Mem. E.S. : ' Discoveries in the Gobi
Desert by tlie American Museum Expeditions.' 8 p.m., August 9, Town
Hall.

Citizens' Lectures.

Prof. P. F. Kendall, F.R.S. : 'Coal' 8.30 p.m., August 5, Union
Society's Hall.

Capt. P. P. Eckersley : ' "Wireless.' 8.30 p.m., August 6, Town Hall.

Sir Dugald Clerk, K.B.E., F.R.S. : ' The Rise of the Internal Combus-
tion Engine.' 5.30 p.m., August 7, Union Society's Hall.

Sir William Bragg, K.B.E., F.R.S. : ' Necessity is the Mother of
Invention.' 8.30 p.m., August 9, Union Society's Hall.

Prof. Julian Huxley : ' Animal Courtship.' 8.30 p.m., August 10,
Union Society's Hall.

Lectures to Young People.

Prof. W. Garstang : ' The Songs of Birds.' 10.30 a.m., August 6,
Electra Palace Cinema.

Mr. 0. G. S. Crawford : ' A Day in the Life of a Cave Man.' 10.30 a.m.,
August 10, Oxford Super-Cinema.

Concluding General Meeting.

The concluding General Meeting was held in the Examination Schools
on Wednesday, August 11, at 12 noon, Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S., ex-Presi-
dent, in the chair. The following letter from the President was read to the
meeting : —

St. James's Palace, London, S.W.I.

As it has unfortunately not been possible for me to return to Oxford
for the conclusion of our Meeting, I must ask the General Secretaries to
convey to the Council my warmest congratulations on the success of what
I hope will prove to have been one of the most successful of the British
Association's annual gatherings.

To that result, many people, both within and without the Association,
have contributed. In the first class are our General Officers, whose admir-
able preliminary arrangements ensured the smooth working of the Meeting
as a whole and of its many separate units ; our Sectional Officers, on whom
rested the responsibility of organising those units ; and, not least, the rank
and file of our members, whose enthusiasm and devotion to the cause of
Science has been a great inspiring force.

Secondly, there are our hosts in the University and City of Oxford,
who have thrown open their wonderful heritage to all of us, and shown us
unwearying kindness; and our guests, who, by their very presence and
by the added weight of learning which they have given to our proceedings,
have emphasised the all-important fact that Science works not for one
nation, or even one race, but for the common good of all living things.

jjj, GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c.

All of these deserve our heartfelt thanks, and I consider it a high
honour to be able, as President of the Association, to express them.

Lord Balfour, at our inaugural session, suggested that the future
harvest, of which this Meeting is the seed-time, might be a notable one.
I do not know how far this prophecy is likely to be justified in the immediate
future. But, from what I saw during my stay in Oxford, I do feel confident
that there is alive in the army of scientific workers to-day a spirit of
enthusiasm and energy which cannot fail to achieve great things. I strongly
hope that at any rate the coming shadow of such achievement, if not the
achievement itself, may be visible before the close of my Presidency a
year hence.

(Signed) Edward P.,
August 10, 1926. President.

The following reply was adopted and ordered to be forwarded to the
President :

Oxford,
August 11, 1926.
To His Royal Highness

The Prince of Wales, our President.

Sir,

At the Concluding General Meeting of the British Association, held
in Oxford to-day, Your Royal Highness' gracious message as President
has been read and received with acclamation. We desire most gratefully
to express our deep sense of the personal sympathy with our aims and •
endeavours, and the keen interest in our proceedings, which made your
presence among us memorable. Especially do we appreciate the signifi-
cance of the Address with which you inaugurated the meeting, and the
high ideal of co-operation between research and administration which you
have set before us all and before the wider public by whom your words
were heard.

We return to our work in the confidence that your year of office as
President, so auspiciously begun, will be fruitful of benefit to the Associa-
tion and to the advancement of science.

I am, Sir,

Your Royal Highness' obedient servant,

(Signed) Oliver Lodge,

Ex-President, Chairman.

The following Resolution was then adopted with acclamation :

At the conclusion of a memorable meeting, the British Association
for the Advancement of Science thanks the University and City of Oxford
for the unbounded hospitality with which the Association has been received,
and for the generous opportunities afforded its members to prosecute their
labours and enjoy their recreations in an environment previously endeared
to many of them, and unsurpassed in its manifold interests for them all.

XXI

EXTERNAL LECTURES,

Public lectures were given, in connection with the Oxford Meeting : —
At Banbury, by Mr. H. J. E. Peake, on ' The Beginnings of Civilisation ' ;
at Swindon, by Prof. H. E. Eoaf, on ' The Effect of Sun-light on Health ' ;
at Abingdon, by Mr. C. P. Chatwin, on ' The Geology of the Neighbour-
hood of Abingdon ' ; at Wantage, by Dr. T. F. Chipp, on ' The Work of
Botanic Gardens ' ; and at Newbury, by Mr. C. J. P, Cave, on ' Climatic
Conditions.'

GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT

July 1, 1925, to June 30, 1926.

NOTE.

Special arrangements in connection with the Oxford Meeting led to
the payment of an unusually large number of membership subscriptions
in advance. The total of the sums on account of these items amounts to
£1,666 10s. ; last year under normal working the corresponding sum was
£339 10s. This difference of £1,327 accounts for the £1,327 2s. 8d.
stated as ' excess of income over expenditure.'

Again, in order to meet, however inadequately, the applications for
grants to Research Committees received at Southampton, the Council had
to utilise the accumulations of income in the Caird Fund, and draw on that
fund to the extent of £185 above the year's income.

Thus, apart from the excess pre-payments above referred to and the
utilisation of the Caird accumulation, the year's working shows a
deficiency of £185.

B. H. GRIFFITHS.

XX 11

GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.

Balance Sheet,

Correspondin!
Figures

1925.
£ s. d.
10,575 15 2

9,5S2 16 3

555 14 2

249 IS 11

62 11 8

10,000

708 12 2
450

3.505 6 S

35,865 15

LIABILITIES.

To Capital Accounts — •

General Fund, as per contra

(Subject to Depreciation in Value of
Investments)

Caird Fund —

As per contra ......

(Sub.icct to Depreciation in Value of
Investments)

Caird Fund —

Revenue Account, Balance as at July 1, 1925

Less Excess of Expenditure over Income

for the year .....

Caird Gift, Radio -Activity Investiarations —
Balance as at July 1, 1925 . .

Add Income Tax recovered .

Less Grants paid

Sir F. Bramwell's Gift for Enquiry into Prime
Movers, 1931 —

£50 Consols now accumulated to £132 12s. 9d.,
as per contra ......

, Sir Charles Parsons' Gift ....

, John Perry Guest Fund —

For cases of emergency connected with
Guests of the Association

, Life Compositions — -

As at July 1, 1925 ....
Add Received during year .

, Legacy — T. W. Backhouse

, Toronto University Presentation Fund

Add Dividends ....

, Income and Expenditure Account —
Balance as at July 1, 1925 .

Add Balance being Excess of Income over
Expenditure for the year .

£ s. d. £ s. a
10,575 15 2

9,582 16 3

055 14 2
185 9 4

249
2

18 11
5

252
200

3 11

708 12
225

178 11
4 7

4
6

470 4 10

52 3 H

65 16
10,000

933 12 2
450

182 18 10

3,217 15 10
1,327 2 8

4,544 18 6

£30,933 5 8

I have examined the foregoing Account with tlie Books and Vouchers and certify the same
Approved,

ARTHUR L. BOWLEY.I ,„j;,,,„
A. W. KIRKALDY, } -luditors.

JiiIU 9, 1920.

GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.

June 30, 1926.

xxin

Corresponding
Fiararos

1925.
£ s. d.

10,575 15 2

9,5S2 16 3

655 14 2

249 18 11

62 11 8

10,000

7 08 12 2

450

3,505

35,865 15

S. d.

,942
5' -2

ASSETS.

By Investments on Capital Accounts — General
Fund —

£4,651 lO.s. od. Consolidated 2J per cent, at

cost . . . . • . .3

£3,600 India 3 per cent. Stnclc at cost. . 3

£879 14s. 9rf. £43 Great Indian Peninsula

Railwav ' B ' Annuity at cost . . . 827 15

£52 12s. Id. War Stock (Post Office Issue) at

cost . . . . . . . 54 5

£834 16s. 6d. 4i per cent. Conversion Loan at

cost .......

£1,400 War Stock 5 per cent. 1929/47 at cost

^7,605 2s. lid. Value at date, £7,880 18s. Sd.

f 'aird Fimd —

£2,627 Os. lOrf. India 3 i per cent. Stock at cost 2,400 13 3

£2,100 London Midland and Scottish Railway
Consolidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock
at cost 2,190 4 3

£2,500 Canada 3i per cent. 1930/50 Regis-
tered Stock at cost 2,397 1 6

£2,000 Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per

cent. Preference Stock at cost . . . 2,594 17 3

835 12 4
.393 16 11

£7,045 16s. Id. Value at date, £7,343 18s. Id.

Caird Fund Revenue Account^

Cash at Bank ......

Caird Gift-
Cash at Bank ......

Sir F. Bramwell's Gift —

£126 17 6 Self-Accumulatins Consolidated
Stock as per last Balance Sheet
Add Accumulations to June
5 15 3 30, 1926

62 11 8
3 4 4

£132 12 9

Sir Charles Parsons' Gift —

£10.300 4i per cent. Conversion Loan
£9,682 Value at dat«, £9,888

John Perry Guest Fund —

£96 National Savings Certificates at cost
Cash at Bank .....

Life Compositions —

£1,403 6s. 7rf. Local Loans at cost .
Cash at Bank .....

Legacy — T. W. Backhouse —

Cash at Bank .....

Toronto University Presentation Fund —
£175 5 per cent. War Stock at cost
Cash at Bank

74 8
12

915
18 12

S. (/.

10,575 15 2

9,582 10 3

470

4 10
3 11

65 16

10,000

933
450

12 2

178 11 4
4 7 6

182 18 10

Revenue Account —

£2,098 Is. 9(i. Consolidated 2 J per cent.

Stock at cost .....

£1,949 8s. 9rf. Conversion 3 J per cent. Stock

at cost .......

Sundry IJcbtors and payments in advance
Cash at Bank ......

Cash in Hand ......

1,200

1,500

153

1,679

4,544 18 (5

£36,933 5 8

to be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers and the Investments.

W. B. KEEX,

Chartered Accountant.

XXIV

GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.

Income and

FOR THE Year Ended

Corresponding

Period

1925.

£ s.

20 3

45 7

176 1

78 11

245 10

914 16

261 8

1,802 IS

1,202 10

1,675 12

4,756 S

50
8,421 13 4

451

EXPENDITURE.

■er

Heat, Lighting and Pow

Stationery .

Rent .

Postages

Travelling Expenses

Exhibitioners

General Expenses ._

Lift and Preparinu iVell, etc.

Decorations and Iinprove^nents

Salaries, Wages, etc.
Pension Contribution
Printing, Binding, etc. .

Sir Robert Hadfield's Gift —

Grants to Universities ....

Grants made in aid of Expenses, etc., re Toronto
Meeting out of moneys received from Dominion
Government of Canada, as per contra
Grants to Research Committees —

Growth in Children Committee .

Old Red Sandstone of Bristol Committee

Sumerian Copper Committee

Overseas Training Committee

Triplets Committee ....

Palaeozoic Rocks Committee

Medullary Centres Committee .

Palaeolithic Implements Committee .

London Tertiary Rocks Committee

Geography Teaching Committee .

Oxfordshire Anthropological Investigations
Committee ....

Vocational Tests Committee

Old Red Sandstone of Kiltorcan, Ireland
Committee .....

Cost of Cycling Committee . '.

, Balance being Excess of Income over Expendi
ture for the year

£ s.

140

121

187

584

. 1,184

. 1,466

—

3,310 19

s. d.

170

1,327

£4,808 13 7

s. d.

43 'J

430

EXPENDITURE.

To Grants Paid —

Index Kewensis Committee

Quaternary Peats Committee

Corresponding Societies Committee

Zoological Record Committee

Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, Committee

Optical Convention .

Seismology Committee

Kent's Cavern Committee .

Bronze Implements Committee .

Colloid Chemistry Committee

Naples Tables Committee .

Upper Atmosphere Investigations Committee

s. d.

70
38
40
35
20
10

100

100
38

Gaird

s. d.

546 10

£546 10

GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.

Expenditure Account

June 30, 1926.

XXV

Corresponding

Period

INCOME.

1925.

£ s.

By Annual Members (Including £95, 192G/27, and

207 4

£1, 1927/2S)

„ Annual Temporary Members (Including £1,031,

249

1.956 19

1926/27)

1,806

870 2

„ Annual with Report (Including £430, 1920/27)
„ Transferable Tickets (Including £67 10s.,

732

.56

1926/27)

148

50 18

„ Students' Tickets (Including £38 10s., 1926/27)

50 3

,, Donations .......

51 7

,, Interest on Deposit .....

613 15

„ Sale of Publications .....
„ Advertisement Revenue ....

581
167

40 6

„ Income Tax recovered .....

157

90 12

,, Unexpended Balance of Grants returned.

„ Sir Robert Hadfield's Gift ....

a, 421 13

,, Dominion Government of Canada for expenses

re Toronto Meeting, as per contra .
,, Dividends —

S.140 5 5

Consols ......

£135

95 17

India 3 per cent. ....

25 15 11

Great Indian Peninsula ' B ' Annuity.

16 19 S

4 J per cent. Conversion Loan .

209 10 11

Ditto Sir Charles Parsons' Gift .
3J per cent. Conversion Loan

370
54

16
11

69 1 3

Treasury Bonds ....

16 7 10

Local Loans .....

57 15

War Stock .....

€22 13

792

696 15

By Balance being Excess of Expenditure over Income
for the year ......

I3,67S 14

£4,808

292
62

s. d.

4 10

75 15 2

430

INCOME.

^ ^. ., , £ s. d.

By dividends —

India 3 i per cent. . . . . . 73 11

Canada 3 } per cent. . . . . . 70

London Midland and Scottish Railway Con-
solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock . 66 13 6
Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per cent.

Preference Stock . . . . . 79 7 6

Income Tax recovered .....

Balance being Excess of Expenditure over

Income for year. .....

s. d.

289 12
71 8 8

185 9 4

£546 10

XXVI

RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc.

APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN

OXFOED, 1926.

Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected
ivith researches are indicated in heavy type.

Seismological Investigations. — Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw
(Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison,
Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J.
Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald, Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell,
Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Mr.W. E. Plummer, Rev. J. P. Rowland,
S.J., Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker,
Mr. F. J. W. Whipple. £100 (Caird Fund grant).

Tides. — Prof. H. Lamb (Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson (Secretary), Dr. G. R.
Goldsbrough, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. J. Proudman, Prof. G. I. Taylor, Prof.
D'Arcy W. Thompson, Commander H. D. Warburg.

Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological.

—Sir E. Rutherford (Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter (Secretary), Mr. Alfred

Egerton. £5.
Calculation of Mathematical Tables. — Prof. J. W. Nicholson (Chairman), Dr. J. R.

Airey (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Dr. A. T. Doodson, Prof. L. N. G. Filon,

Mr. R. A. Fisher, Prof. E. W. Hobson, and Profs. Alfred Lodge, A. E. H. Love,

and H. M. Macdonald.

Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere. — Sir Napier Shaw (Chairman), Mr. C. J. P.
Cave (Secretary), Prof. S. Chapman, Mr. J. S. Dines, Mr. L. H. G. Dines, Mr.
W. H. Dines, Dr. G. M. Dobson, Commr. L. G. Garbett, Sir R. T. Glazebrook,
Col. E. Gold, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Dr. H. Knox-Shaw, Sir J. Larmor, Mr. R. G. K.
Lempfert, Prof. F. A. Lindemann, Dr. W. Makower, Mr. J. Patterson, Sir J. E.
Petavel, Sir A. Schuster, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Sir G. T. Walker, Mr. F. J. W.
Whipple, Prof. H. H. Turner. £70.

To investigate local variations of the Earth's Gravitational Field. — Col. Sir H. G. Lyons
(Chairman), Capt. H. Shaw (Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Hoys, Dr. C. Chree, Col.
Sir G. P. Lenox-Conyngham, Dr. J. W. Evans, Mr. E. Lancaster-Jones ; the
Director-General, Ordnance Survey ; the Director, Geological Survey of Great
Britain.

SECTION B.— CHEMISTRY.

Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications. — Prof. F. G. Donnan (Chairman),
Dr. W. Clayton (Secretary), Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Prof. J. W.
McBain. £5.

Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds. — Prof. I. M.
Heilbron (Chairman), Prof. E. C. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart. £10.

The Chemistry of Vitamins. — Sir F. G. Hopkins (Chairman), Prof. J. C. Drummond
(Secretary), Prof. G. Barger, Prof. A. Harden, Sir J. C. Irvine, Prof. J. W. McBain,
Prof. Lash Miller, Dr. S. Zilva. £5.

SECTION C— GEOLOGY.

The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland. — Mr. W. B. Wright (Chairman),
Prof. T. Johnson (Secretary), Dr. W. A. Bell, Dr. J. AV. Evans, Prof. W. H. Lang,
Sir A. Smith Woodward. £10.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. xxvii

To excavate Critical Sections in the Palaeozoic Rocks of England and Wales.— Prof.
W. W. Watts {Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Mr. W. S. Bisat,
Prof. W. 8. Boulton, Mr. E. S. Cobbold, Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles,
Prof. E. J. Garwood, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. V. C. lUing, Prof. 0. T. Jones,
Prof. J. E. Marr, Dr. T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. A. E. Trueman. £20.

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo-
logical Interest. — Prof. E. J. Garwood [Chairman). Prof. 8. H. Reynolds (Secre-
tary), Mr. G. Binglev, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. A. S. Reid, Prof. W. W. Watts,
Mr. R. Welch.

To investigate the Quaternary Peata of the British Isles. — Prof. P. F. Kendall (Chair-
man), Mr. L. H. Tonks (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Miss Chandler, Prof.
H. J. Fleure, Dr. E. Greenly, Prof. J. W. Gregory, Prof. G. Hickling, Mr. J. de W.
Hinch, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mrs. Reid, Dr. K. S. Sandford, Mr. T. Sheppard,
Mr. J. W. Stather.'Mr. A. W. Stelfox, Mr. C. B. Travis, Dr. A. E. Trueman, Mr.
W. B. Wright. £80.

To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary Rocks of the London Area. To
tabulate and preserve records of new excavations in that area. — Prof. W. T.
Gordon (Chairman), Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), Miss M. C. Crosfield, Prof.
H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling. £10.

To obtain Photographic Records of the Geological Effects of the ' debacle ' which
resulted from the recent bursting of a dam at Dolgarrog, North Wales. —
Dr. E. Greenly (Chairman), Mr. E. Montag (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell,
Prof. W. G. Fearnsides. £5.

SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY.

To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces
of work at the Zoological Station at Naples. — Prof. E. S. Goodrich (Chairman),
Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. O. Bower, Sir W. B.
Hardy, Sir S. F. Harraer, Prof. S. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester, Prof. W. C.
Mcintosh. £100 (Caird Fund grant).

Zoological Bibliography and Publication. — Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A.
Bather (Secretary), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. T. Caiman, Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, Mr. W. L. Sclater.

To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine
Laboratory, Plymouth. — Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Chairman and Secretary), Prof.
W. J. Dakin, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Prof. 8. J. Hickson, Sir E. Ray Lankester.
£35.

To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for
the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record. — Sir S. Harmer
(Chairman), Dr. W. T. Caiman (Secretary), Prof. E. S. Goodrich, Prof. D. M. S.
Watson. £50.

On the Influence of the Sex Physiology of the Parents on the Sex-Ratio of the Offspring.
— Prof. W. J. Dakin (Chairman), Mrs. Bisbee (Secretary), Prof. Carr-Saunders,
Miss E. C. Herdman. £10.

To report on the Pre-Linnean Zoological Collections and Specimens still extant in
Great Britain, with a view to their safe custody. — Prof. E. S. Goodrich (Chairman),
Dr. R. T. Gunther (Secretary).

To draw up recommendations for the taking and presentation of Biological Measure-
ments, and to bring such before persons or bodies concerned. — Prof. J. S. Huxley
(Chairman), Dr. R. A. Fisher (Secretary).

Investigations on Pigment in the Inseeta. — Prof. W. Garstang (Chairman), Dr. J. W.
Heslop Harrison (Secretary), Prof. E. B. Poulton, Prof. A. D. Peacock. £15.

Experimental investigation of the effects of Vasoligation, Cryptorchidism, Grafting,
etc., on the Seminal Tubules and Interstitial Tis.sue of the Testes in Mammah.
—Dr. F. A. E. Crew (Chairman), Mr. J. T. Cunningham (Secretary), Prof. J. 8.
Huxley. £10-

xxviii RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.

To consider the advisability of making a provisional Population Map of the British
Isles, and to make recommendations as to the method of construction and
reproduction. — Mr. H. O. Beckit {Chairman), Mr. F. Debenham (Secretary),
Mr. J. Bartholomew, Dr. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. B. H. Kinvig,
Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Mr. 0. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby, Lt.-Col. H. S. L.
Winterbotham. £25.

To inquire into the present state of Geographical Knowledge of Tropical Africa, and
to make recommendations for furtherance and development. — Sir Charles Lucas
(Chairman), Mr. A. G. Ogilvie (Secretary), Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. J. McFarlane,
Prof. P. M. Roxby. £5.

SECTIONS E, L.— GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION.

To formulate suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching of Geography both to Matricu-
lation Standard and in Advanced Courses ; to report upon the present position
of the geographical training of teachers, and to make recommendations thereon ;
and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee
of Section E, upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of
Education (including Scotland) affecting the position of Geography in Training
Colleges and Secondary Schools. — Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. W. H.
Barker (Secretary), Mr. L. Brooks, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. 0. J. R. Howarth,
Sir H. J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. Marion Newbigin, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie,
Mr. A. Stevens, and Prof. J. F. Unstead (from Section E) ; Mr. D. Berridge, Mr.
C. E. Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss 0. Wright (from Section L).
£5.

SECTION F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

To investigate certain aspects of Taxation in relation to the Distribution of Wealth.—
Sir Josiah Stamp (Chairman), Mr. R. B. Forrester (Secretary), Prof. A. L. Bowley,
Prof. E. Cannan, Prof. H. Clay, Mr. W. H. Coates, Miss L. Grier, Prof. H. M.
Hallsworth, Prof. J. G. Smith.

Earth Pressures. — Mr. Wentworth Sheilds (Chairman), Dr. J. S. Owens (Secretary),
Prof. G. Cook, Mr. P. M. Crosthwaite, Mr. T. E. N. Fargher, Prof. F. C. Lea,
Mr. R. V. Southwell, Dr. R. E. Stradling, Dr. W. N. Thomas, Mr. E. G. Walker,
Mr. J. S. Wilson. £10.

Electrical Terms and Definitions. — Sir John Snell (Chairman), Prof. Baily and Prof.
G. W. 0. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Prof. Sir
James Henderson, Prof. E. W. Marchant, Dr. F. E. Smith.

SECTION H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.

To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements. — Prof. J. L. Myres (Chair-
man), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour,
Prof. T. H. Bryce, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. H. J.
Fleure, Dr. Cyril Fox, Mr. G. A. Garfitt. £90.

To conduct Arch»ological Investigations in Malta. — Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman),
Sir A. Keith (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. H. Balfour.

To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.—
Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr.
J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr.
H. J. E. Peake.

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia. — Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Mr. S.
Casson (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. M. Thompson. £40.

To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments. — Mr,
G. A. Garfitt (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. 0. G. S. Crawford,
Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. C. Fox, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L.
Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Rev. Canon Quine.

The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro-
pological Interest.— Mr. E. Torday (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary),
Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof. J. L. Myres.

RESEARCH COMMITTEES. xxix

To report on the probable sources of the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians. —
Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour,
Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. C. H. Deseh, Mr. E. Mackay, Sir Flinders Petrie,
Mr. C. Leonard WooUey.

To conduct Archaeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete. — Dr. D. G. Hogarth
(Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A.
Evans, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.

To investigate the Culture of the Peasant Population of Modern Egypt. — Prof. J. L.
Myres (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary). Mr. H. Balfour,
Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Capt. Hilton Simpson, Prof. H. J. Rose. £20.

The Investigation of a hill fort site at Llanmelin, near Caerwent. — Mr. Willoughby
Gardner (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Prof. H. J. Flcure,
Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Prof. H. J. Rose, Dr. R. Mortimer Wheeler.

To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent's Cavern. —
Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Dr. R. V. Favell, Mr.
G. A. Garfitt, Prof. W. J. Sollas, Mr. Mark L. Sykes.

To conduct Anthropological investigations in some Oxfordshire villages. — Mr. H. J. E.
Peake (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. Vaughan Cornish,
Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. F. G. Parsons. £10.

To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Palaeolithic
Implements to Glacial Deposits. — Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N.
Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. M. Burkitt, Prof.
P. F. Kendall, Mr. G. Lamplugh, Prof. J. E. Marr. £30.

To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the explora-
tion of Caves in the Derbyshire district. — Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman),
Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. M. Burkitt, Mr. E. N.
Fallaize, Dr. Favell, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Dr. R. R. Marett,
Mr. L. S. Palmer, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £25.

To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering Differences
due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women.- — Sir
A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. L. H. Dudlev Buxton,
Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. £25.

To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archaeological Bibliography, with
power to co-operate with other bodies. — Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N.
Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. 0. G. S. Crawford,
Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Dr. D. Randall-Maclver,
Mr. T. Sheppard.

To report on the progress of Anthropological Teachmg in the present century. —
Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure,
Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman.

To investigate certain Physical Characters and the Family Histories of Triplet Children.
—Dr. F. C. Shrubsall (Chairman), Mr. R. A. Fisher (Secretary), Miss R. M. Fleming,
Dr. A. Low. £20.

To conduct explorations on early Neolithic Sites in Holderness. — Mr. H. J. E. Peake
(Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. M. Burkitt, Dr. R. V.
Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Mr. L. S. Palmer.

To investigate the antiquity and cultural relations of the ancient Copper Workings
in the Katanga and Northern Rhodesia.^Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E.N.
Fallaize and Mr. G. A. Wainwright (Secretaries), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. G. A. Garfitt,
Dr. Randall-Maclver.

To co-operate in Ethnological and Geographical exploration on the Sepik River, New
Guinea. — Mr. H. Balfour (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary),
Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman.

To arrange for the publication of a new edition of ' Notes and Queries on Anthro-
pology.' — Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mrs.
Robert Aitken, Mrs. H. Balfour, Capt. T. A. Joyce, Prof. J. L. Myres, Prof.
C. G. Seligman.

XXX RESEARCH COMMITTEES.

SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

The Cost of Cycling witli varied rate and work. — Prof. J. S. Maedonald (Chairman),
Dr. F. A.'Duffield {Secretary). £10.

The Investigation of the Medullary Centres. — Prof. C. Lovatt Evans (Chairman),
Dr. J. M. Duncan Scott (Secretary), Dr. H. H. Dale. £20.

Colour Vision, with particular reference to the classification of Colour-blindness. —
Sir C. S. Sherrington (Chairman), Prof. H. E. Roaf (Secretary), Dr. Mary
Collins, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green.

SECTION J.— PSYCHOLOGY.

Vocational Tests. — Dr. C. S. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C.
Burt, Mr.F. M.Earle, Dr. LI. Wynn Jones, Prof. T. H.Pear, Prof. C. Spearman,
Mr. F. Watts. £14.

The place of Psychology in the Medical Curriculum. — Dr. W. Brown (Chairman),
Dr. R. D. Gillespie (Secretary), Dr. C. H. Bond, Prof. E. P. Cathcart, Dr. Devine,
Dr. J. A. Hadfield, Dr. Bernard Hart, Dr. D. K. Henderson, Mr. J. R. Lord,
Dr. C. S. Myers, Prof. T. H. Pear, Dr. Ross.

The Character of a first-year University Course in Experimental Psychology. — Dr. J.
Drever (Chairman),' Dr. Mary Collins (Secretary), Mr. F. C. Bartlett, Mr. R. J.
Bartlett, Prof. C. Burt, Dr. Shepherd Dawson, Prof. A. E. Heath, Dr. LI. Wynn
Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear.

SECTION K.— BOTANY.

To make investigations on the Marine Alg® attached to the salvaged German Warships
at Scapa Flow. — Dr. A. B. Rendle (Chairman), Miss L. Lyle (Secretary), Mr. A. D.
Cotton, Mr. A. Gepp. £45.

Investigations on the effect of duration and nature of Illumination on Growth and
Flowering in Arachis hypogcea and Voandzeia subterranea. — Prof. W. Neilsoii
Jones (Chairman), Dr. E. M. Delf (Secretary), Prof. V. H. Blackman. £40.

To consider the advisability of instituting a diploma in biology for students in training
colleges. — Prof. F. O. Bower (Chairman), Prof. S. Mangham (Secretary), Miss
A. Moodie, Mr. J. L. Sager, Miss E. H. Stevenson, Dr. Ethel N. Miles Thomas,
Prof. J. Lloyd Williams.

SECTION L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

To inquire into the Practicability of an International Auxiliary Language. — Dr. H.
Forster Morley (Chairman), Dr. E. H. Tripp (Secretary), Mr. E. Bullough, Prof.
F. G. Donnan, Prof. J. J. Findlay, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir W. B. Hardy,
Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Sir E. Cooper Perry, Mr. Nowell Smith, Mr. A. E.
Twentyman.

To consider the educational training of boys and girls in Secondary Schools for over-
seas life.- — Rev. H. B. Gray (Chairman), Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Major
A. G. Church, Mr. H. W. Cousins, Dr. J. Vargas Eyre, Mr. G. H. Garrad, Sir R. A.
Gregory, Mr. 0. H. Latter, Miss E. H. McLean, Miss Rita Oldham, Mr. G. W.
Olive, Miss Gladys Pott, Sir J. Russell, Rev. Canon H. Sewell, Mr. A. A. Somer-
ville, Mrs. Gordon Wilson. £10.

The bearing on school work of recent views on formal training. — Prof. F. A. Cavenagh
(Chairman), Prof. A. E. Heath (Secretary), Prof. R. L. Archer, Miss E. R. Conwaj',
Prof. M. W. Keatinge, Mr. H. P. Sparling, Major E. R. Thomas, Prof. G. Thomson.

CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.

Corresponding Societies Committee. — The President of the Association (Chairman
ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairynan), the General Secretaries, the General
Treasurer, Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir David Prain, Sir John
Russell, Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney ; with authority to co-opt representa-
tives of Scientific Societies in the locality of the Annual Meeting.

XXXI

THE CAIRO FUND.

An unconditional gift of £10,000 for research was made to the Association at the
Dundee Meeting, 1912, by Mr. (afterwards Sir) J. K. Caird, LL.D., of Dundee.

The Council, in its report to the General Committee at the Birmingham Meeting,
made certain recommendations as to the administration of this Fund. These
recommendations were adopted, with the Report, by the General Committee at its
meeting on September 10, 1913.

The allocations made from the Fund by the Council to September 1922 will be
found stated in the Report for 1922, p. xxxi. Subsequent grants from the fund are
incorporated in the lists of Research Committees.

In 1921-25 the Council authorised expenditure from accumulated income of the
fund upon grants to Research Committees apj)roved by the General Committee by way
of supplementing sums available from the general funds of the Association, and in
addition to grants ordinarily made by, or applied for from, the Council.

Sir J. K. Caird, on September 10, 1913, made a further gift of £1,000 to the
Association, to be devoted to the study of Radio-activity. In 1920 the Council decided
to devote the principal and interest of this gift at the rate of £250 per annum for five
years to purposes of the research intended. The grants for the years ending March 24,
1922 and 1923, were made to Sir E. Rutherford, F.R.S. The grant for the year ending
March 24, 1924, was made to Prof. F. Soddy, F.R.S. The grant for the year ending
March 24, 1925, was divided between Messrs. C. T. R. Wilson (£100), J. Chadwick
(£75), and A. S. Russell (£75). The grant for the vear ending March 24, 1926, was
divided between Mr. P. M. S. Blackett (£100), Dr. J. Chadwick (£100), and Dr. A. S.
Russell (£50). For the year 1926-27 grants of £50 each were made to Messrs. Blackett.
Chadwick and Russell, and balance remaining was brought into general funds and
earmarked as available for a grant to any committee of the Association
appointed in the future to undertake research in radio-activity.

RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS.

The following Resolutions and Recommendations were referred to the
Council by the General Committee at Oxford for consideration, and, if
desirable, for action (except where specified as approved for action) : —

' From Section A.

That the administrative officers of the Association be instructed to standardise
the title of Section A in the form ' Mathematical and Physical Sciences.' (Approved
for action.)

From Section A.

That the Council be requested to inquire into the possibility of republishing the
reports of the Mathematical Tables Committee in collected form.

From Section D.

That, in view of the prohibitive duty required by H.M. Customs for the introduction
into this country of Dr. Cushman Murphy's cinematograph film, the Council of the
British Association be requested to take up the matter with a view to some distinction
being made between scientific and commercial films in the matter of Customs charges.

From Section H.

That the British Association deplores the detriment to scientific investigation
which results from certain details of the present scheme for the imposition of duties

XXxii RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.

on imported cinematograph films, and aslts for such revision of the Customs regulations,
as will facilitate the introduction into this country of films dealing with purely
scientific subjects not intended for commercial uses.

From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

That the Council be asked to represent to His Majesty's Government the serious
detriment to scientific investigation and to the dissemination of scientific knowledge
which results from the present restrictions on the importation into this country of
cinematograph films recording scientific observations, intended for purposes of educa-
tion and advanced study, and not for commercial purposes ; and to ask for their
amendment.

From Section K.

That the Sub-section of Forestry and the Section of Botany desire to emphasise
the disastrous effects which follow the reckless destruction of forests on hill slopes and
in the mountainous regions in the Tropics.

From Sections L and M.

That, with a view to the promotion of imperial interests overseas and the unlimited
opportunities for land settlement, the Council be requested to draw public attention
to the demand of the Dominions for the supply of J^oung people of both sexes of good
education, and to urge that adequate preparation for overseas life should be given in
schools.

From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.

That steps be taken, with the co-operation of local societies, to make systematic
records of temporarily open geological sections, well-borings and the like.

From the General Committee.

The General Committee desires to express the cordial thanks of the Association
to the President and Secretary of the South African Association for their telegram of
good wishes, and especially for their early intimation of the desire of the South
African Association that the British Association should hold its Meeting in South
Africa in the year 1929 ; and hereby instructs the Council to make the necessary
inquiries as to the date of the proposed Meeting, the necessary period of absence
from this country, the probable expenses of the journey to members, and the financial
provision which it is proposed to make for the Meeting ; and in accordance with usual
procedure to report to the next meeting of the General Committee. "

A report of the Discussion on Educational Training for Overseas Life was ordered
to be printed in extended forin, with provision for the cost of reporting.

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

H.R.H. THE PRINCE OF WALES, E.G., D.C.L., F.R.S..

President of the Association.

Ladies and Gentlemen,

My first duty, as President of our great Association, must be to read to
you the following message from His Majesty The King : —

I am sensible of the distinction conferred upon my dear son, The
Prince of Wales, in presiding at this year's meeting of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science ; for I realise that no
Member of my Family has occupied this position since my grandfather
was President in 1859. I cannot do better than repeat the assurances
then made by the Prince Consort on behalf of Queen Victoria, and
express my deep appreciation of the all-important and ceaseless labours
in the cause of Science of those eminent men who enjoy the Member-
ship of your world-renowned Society.

I propose on behalf of the Association to forward the following reply
to this message : —

The members of the British Association for the Advancement of
Science assembled at Oxford humbly beg to express to Your Majesty
their loyal appreciation of the patronage extended to the Association
by your Father and Yourself, and of Your Majesties' repeated expres-
sions of personal interest in its work.

The Advancement of Science is the constant object of the British
Association ; to give a stronger impulse and more systematic direction
to scientific inquiry, to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate
science in different parts of the British Empire with one another and
with foreign philosophers, to obtain a greater degree of national atten-
tion to the objects of science, by removing those disadvantages which
impede its progress, for the well-being of Your Majesty's realm and the
general good of mankind.

My second duty is to try and tell you — if this be possible — something

which you do not know already. I must admit frankly that, for a long time,

the prospect of attempting this has weighed on me heavily. For a man who,

along with the great majority of his fellow-creatures, can lay claim to no

intensive scientific training, it is no light responsibility to be called on to
1926 B

2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

address the annual gathering of the British Association. But, believe me,
I do not intend to shirk that responsibility ; for it seems to me that only
by discharging it as well as I possibly can, shall I be able to show you how
highly I value the great honour you paid me, when you added my name to
those of the distinguished men who have been your Presidents in past years.

At first sight, it might appear a hopeless task for anyone who knows
nothing of Science to talk to you, who know everything about Science.
But those who work in the scientific field will be the first to admit that no
task is really hopeless, and, when I approached this one, I began to think
I might perhaps find a few topics in which I could interest you. For, after
all, Science is only another name for Knowledge, and any man who goes
about the world with his eyes open cannot fail to acquire knowledge of
some sort, which, if he can express it, must appeal to any audience.

To adapt one of our most familiar sayings, the onlooker can see a great
deal of the game. And I, for instance, though I claim no insight into pure
Science, can fairly claim an onlooker's experience of very many practical
instances of Science as applied to the needs of our civilisation as we know it
to-day. For some years past, in war and in peace, I have been privileged to
have countless opportunities of examining, at close quarters, the concrete
results of such applied science. In things military and naval, in factories,
workshops, mines, railroads, in contact with the everyday problems of
education, health, land-settlement, agriculture, transport or housing — in all
such varied departments of human life, it has been borne in on me more
and more that if civilisation is to go on, it can only progress along a road of
which the foundations have been laid by scientific thought and research.
More than that, I have come to realise that the future solution of practically
all of the domestic and social difficulties with which we have to grapple
nowadays will only be found by scientific methods.

It is from this experience, and with the convictions it has brought,
that I should like to-night to tell you something of my general impressions
of the bearing of Scientific Kesearch on the daily life of the community ;
and to show how that relationship can be developed by the mutual co-
operation of scientific workers and the State. I cannot better embark on
this attempt than by quoting to you the words of my distinguished pre-
decessor, though without the hope that what follows will maintain the
high standard which he set in his Presidential Address at the last meeting.

Professor Lamb, on that occasion, expressed confidence that the efforts
of scientific workers ' have their place, not a mean one, in human activities,
and that they tend, if often in unimagined ways, to increase the intellectual

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

and the material and even the sesthetic possessions of the world. And in
that assurance (he continued) we may rejoice that Science has never been
so widely and so enthusiastically cultivated as at the present time, with
so complete sincerity, or (we may claim) with more brilliant success.'
This claim, by no means exaggerated, invites reflection upon the intimate
association of the results of scientific research with the daily lives and affairs
of everyone of us. And it is a good thing to reflect upon this, even for those
who have no sort of direct contact with scientific research, if only because
the doing so may dispel an attitude towards Science, which personifies
it somewhat as the ancients personified the powers of darkness, and invests
it with some of their sinister attributes. Such an attitude of mind is
fortunately less common than it used to be. Professor Lamb, in the address
already qiioted, referred to a certain feeling of dumb hostility toward
Science and its works, which still survives. No doubt it does ; but at
least it has ceased to be vocal, as it was in the earlier days of the Associa-
tion. It became loud (for example) at two of the meetings in this very place.
The later of these two occasions was the Oxford Meeting in 1860, and the
field of battle was the section of Botany and Zoology, in which the theories
put forward in Darwin's Origin of Species were debated, in a manner which
has passed into history, between Wilberforce, Bishop of Oxford, on the one
hand, and Huxley and Hooker on the other.

The earlier occasion, however, more appropriately illustrates, by
contrast, the modern realisation of our debt to Science.

The second meeting of the Association, in 1832, took place in Oxford.
The University was not, at that time, without distinguished cultivators of
Science. The invitation to Oxford came from Charles Daubeny, who com-
bined the professorships of chemistry, botany, and rural economy, and the
president was William Buckland, then Canon of Christ Church and pro-
fessor of mineralogy and geology. But a strong body of opinion resented the
recognition of Science by the University when carried to the extent of
conferring honorary degrees upon four of the distinguished visitors. The
famous Keble, moved for once to anger, referred to those who were thus
honoured as a ' hodge-podge of philosophers.' Their names were David
Brewster, Kobert Brown, John Dalton, and Michael Faraday. Each of
these men has left in the history of his own special branches of Science an
outstanding memorial. Brewster's researches into optics were his greatest
scientific achievement ; to our own gratitude he has an especial claim as
the leader ainong the founders of our Association. Brown's services to

botany were unsurpassed ; perhaps that of widest appeal is his very

B 2

4 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

thorough investigation of the flora of the coastlands of Australia, made
during the voyage on which he accompanied Flinders in 1810-14 ; an early
example of what may be termed imperial research. Dalton's name is
identified for ever with the atomic theory, and he placed meteorology on a
scientific footing. Faraday's labours provide one of the most wonderful
examples of scientific research leading to enormous industrial development.
Upon his discovery of benzene and its structure the great chemical indus-
tries of to-day are largely based, including, in particular, the dyeing
industries. Still wider applications have followed upon his discovery of the
Jaws of electrolysis and of the mechanical generation of electricity. It
has been said, and with reason, that the two million workers in this country
alone who are dependent upon electrical industries are living on the brain
of Faraday ; but to his discoveries in the first instance many millions more
owe the uses of electricity in lighting, traction, communication, and in-
dustrial power. Oxford, then, was not dishonoured in the hodge-podge
of philosophers whom she recognised in 1832. Nor will she recall with any
disfavour the singularly doubtful compliment paid her on that occasion
by another distinguished visitor, in whose mind the opposition must have
rankled ; the University, he said, had prolonged her existence for a hundred
years by the kind reception he and his fellows had received. The Associa-
tion will scarcely make that claim to-day. But its visiting members will
have ample opportunity to learn how, through her museums and labora-
tories, Oxford, within the hundred years thus tolerantly allotted to her,
has kept pace with the scientific development of the period. It need surely
be no matter for regret if Science has worked for and is taking a place,
not only in the university but in the schools, complementary with that
occupied by the humanities. For complementary these two branches of
learning must ultimately be. All the greatest exponents of scientific
learning have been men of attainment also in letters.

The services rendered to mankind by the labours of outstanding figures
in Science, such as Faradaj^, or Kelvin, or Pasteur, or Lister, are matters
of too common knowledge to need insisting upon in this place. What is
perhaps less generally appreciated is the extent to which, through the
efforts of very numerous workers, the results of scientific research have been
brought to bear upon many of the most pressing domestic and industrial
problems of the day, and that the co-operation between the laboratory
and the State (which means the community) has been greatly strengthened
of recent years. The British Association has always supported such co-
operation. One of its principal aims, as stated by its founders and main-

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

tained ever since, is ' to obtain more general attention for the objects of
Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which im-
pede its progress.' In an article contributed by Brewster to the * Quarterly
Review ' in 1830, he asserted frankly that ' the sciences of England ' were
' in a wretched state of depression, and their decline is mainly owing to the
ignorance and supineness of the Government ' as well as to various other
causes which he detailed. The same theme (if less forcibly stated) recurs in
some of the earlier addresses from the chair of the Association : the Prince
Consort, for example, as President in 1859, thus indicates his view of the
situation at that time — ' We may be justified in hoping,' he said, ' that by
the gradual diffusion of Science, and its increasing recognition as a principal
part of our national education, the public in general, no less than the legis-
lature and the State, will more and more recognise the claims of Science
to their attention ; so that it may no longer require the begging-box, but
speak to the State, like a favoured child to its parent, sure of his parental
solicitude for its welfare ; that the State will recognise in Science one of
its elements of strength and prosperity, to foster which the clearest
dictates of self-interest demand.'

It may be fairly said that the position foreshadowed in those words is
now, in a large measure, attained. The progress towards it was visible,
if .''low, down to the end of the last century ; but the beginning of a new
era was then marked by the establishment of the National Physical
Laboratory. This was at first set up in Kew Observatory, a building which,
as a laboratory for magnetic and meteorological observations, and for
the standardising of instruments, owed its maintenance to the British
Association for thirty years from 1841, when, as a royal observatory, the
Government decided to dismantle it. The building proved incapable of
extension to accommodate the whole of the work, and in 1900 Bushy
House, Teddington, was placed at the disposal of the laboratory by the
Crown. The laboratory, at its inception, was divided into departments
dealing with physics, engineering and chemistry, and it possesses also
the famous William Froude experimental ship tank. The investigations
with which it has been so largely concerned — -the testing and standardisa-
tion of machines, materials, and scientific instruments, researches into
methods of mea.surement with the utmost accuracy, work on scale-models
of ships, and the like — -while of the first importance to Government Depart-
ments concerned with such applications of science, have also achieved
many valuable results for industry in improving standard (jualities, in
indicating scientific methods applicable throughout a variety of manu-

6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

factures, and thus in bringing about an improvement in the quality of

their output for the benefit of consumers — which is to say, ourselves.

In historical sequence among the events which have strengthened
interaction between Science and the State, there follows the establishment
of the Development Commission in 1908. Until that date the only agency
for agricultural research in Great Britain was the classical experimental
station at Rotharasted, a private benefaction ; and the expenditure of
the State on this prime factor in national economy was trifling. Since
1908 the Rothamsted station has been expanded to cover the whole field
of nutrition and disease in the plant, while other institutes have been
founded to deal with other aspects of agriculture such as plant breeding,
the nutrition and diseases of animals, agricultural machinery and the
economics of the industry. Not only are these institutes providing know-
ledge for our own farmers, but they form the training-ground for agri-
cultural experts required by the Dominions, India, and the Crown Colonies,
which need no longer look abroad for their advisers. At the plant-
breeding institute at Cambridge, Sir Rowland Bifien has provided several
new wheats, of which two are generally grown throughout the country ;
the extra yield and value of these wheats must already have more than
repaid the whole expenditure on agricultural research since the institute
was founded. Among other examples of the value of research there may
be mentioned the discovery of a variety of potato immune from the
ineradicable wart disease, which a few years ago threatened the principal
growing districts. The clearing up of the ccflifusion into which com-
mercial stocks of fruit trees had fallen has ensured that growers may plant
orchards upon uniform stocks suitable to the soil and climate. And
among the most important inquiries are those into the production and
cleansing of milk, which have resulted in an entire reform of rationing,
increasing the yield of each cow by one to two hundred gallons a year, and
in freeing milk from the risk of contamination with disease.

Research into fisheries (which are administratively associated with
agriculture) has become a matter of necessity in the light of evidence that
even the vast resources of the sea have their limit, and can be injured if
they are not exploited with due care and knowledge. Great Britain,
acting in co-operation with the other nations who share with us the
northern seas, has accomplished much in ascertaining the causes of the
fluctuating herring supply, and has contributed notably to the study of
the methods by which the stocks of plaice can be maintained. Research
again is active in finding methods by which we can mitigate one of the

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7

consequences of our dense population — the pollution of our rivers anrl
estuaries, and a method has been found whereby great supplies of shell-
fish that had been condemned are once more available as food. Some of
my hearers will know, too, of the remarkable results obtained from the
scientific study of the habits of the salmon. Though fishing has been
described as ' a fool at one end of a string and a worm at the other,' the
subject is not without its personal interest, I believe, to many learned
men.

Reverting to the historical sequence, it is appropriate to recall, with
gratitude for its labours, the constitution of the Medical Research Com-
mittee in 1913, under the Insurance Act of 1911 : this has since (in 1919)
been transferred to a committee of the Privy Council under the name of
the Medical Research Council, and its funds are directly voted by Parlia-
ment instead of being drawn from the contributions made by or on behalf
of insured persons.

Research alone could provide the knowledge on which must be based
all wise and effective legislation or administrative action in the interests
of the nation's health. Yet until 1913 the State had played at best a
subsidiary part in the organisation of such research and the provision of
its material support. Under the new conditions the State is actively
concerned with the promotion and co-ordination of medical research
towards conquest of those infirmities with which ignorance has afflicted
humanity. A few only may be mentioned, which have rightly appealed
to wide public interest. Insulin, a gift to science and to humanity from
young enterprise and enthusiasm in the Dominion of Canada, is not only
saving lives that were threatened, and restoring almost to normal health
and enjoyment many that were crijipled by weakness and restriction, but,
as a tool of investigation, is shaping new knowledge that will influence all
our ideas of the functions of the body, in health or disease. The dis-
covery of the vitamins, those still mysterious and minute constituents of
a natural diet, has brought understanding of various defects of health and
of develoj)ment, created for us largely by the blindness of civilisation to
dangers accompanying its progress, dangers which science can avert.
Closely linked with the discovery has been the more recent development of
knowledge concerning the need of sunlight for health, in man and his
fellow animals as in plants. We know now that crippling deformity
appears in the growing child unless he receives his proper share of the
vitalising rays of the sun, either directly or through the presence in natural
foods of vitamins which these rays have produced. Sunlight, or its

8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

artificial equivalents, have some importance already in the treatment of
disease ; but a realisation of its significance for health has a much greater
importance in preventive hygiene. There can surely be no plainer duty,
for a State charged with the health of an industrial civilisation, than to
promote with all its resources the search for such knowledge as this, as
well as to provide for its application when obtained.

Among diseases which painfully affect the popular imagination, cancer
has an evil pre-eminence, largely on account of its mysterious, and there-
fore seemingly inevitable nature. For many years past a volume of
investigation, supported by private benefactions and organised charity,
has patiently accumulated knowledge of the beginnings of cancer and the
conditions of its growth. Now, at length, there are signs of more rapid
progress towards a penetration of its secret. Patience and caution are as
necessary as ever ; a new and exacting technique is still in development ;
but there is a new spirit of hope and enthusiasm. And it is reassuring
to know that in this, as in other directions, the State is giving its direct
support to investigation, and co-operating with the foundations due to
private generosity.

Looking backward a dozen years or so, one may say that Science was
definitely, by that time, a working part of the machinery of the State,
though, as we see now, uot a part working at full power. The Great War
caused a broadening, so to speak, of the scientific horizon for men of
science themselves in some measure, but for the layman in a measure far
greater. We all were brought to recognise the applications of Science as
adding, it may be, in certain respects to the distresses of warfare ; but also
as immensely alleviating the sufierings caused by it, and as indicating
many methods of strengthening the arts of defence — some of which methods
are no less valuable in strengthening the arts of peace. The creation of
the Government Department of Scientific and Industrial Research was
an act which falls, historically, within the period of the war ; but as an
outstanding incident in -the scientific advancement of national affairs,
it certainly is not to be regarded as merely a war measure ; it was once
described as a near relative of ' Dora,' but that was a mistake. Neverthe-
less, by an odd freak of history, it needed the whole period of a century
between one great war-time and the next — between the Napoleonic and
the World Wars — to mature the conception of a State department of
scientific research. Some idea of this kind was clearly present in the mind
of Brewster, and certain of his contemporaries, concurrently with his idea
of the foundation of our own Association in 1831 ; and later (in 1850)

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9

when he addressed the Association from the chair, lie claimed a strong
advance in scientific and public opinion toward his views. Five years
later a concrete proposal for the creation of a Board of Science, possessing
' at once authority and knowledge,' was put forward by the Parliamentary
Committee of this Association (a committee no longer existing) ; but our
Council at the time considered that the proposal had ' yet to receive
sanction from public opinion, and more especially from the opinion of
men of science themselves.' It was not, in fact, entirely owing to lack of
prevision on the side of successive Governments that the developments
which have been outlined were so long delayed. There was an element
of mutual distrust between Science and the State — now, it may happily
be believed, almost if not quite wholly removed. A strong body of scientific
opinion was avowedly afraid (as Sir George Airy phrased it) of ' organisa-
tions of any kind dependent on the State.' It is to be hoped that modern
developments have removed that fear. The progress of Science cannot be
kept wholly within training-walls, and no one wants to try to keep it so.
The waters of a river may be guided artificially to do the work of irriga-
tion ; but not at their sources, nor yet where, at the last, they percolate
the soil. The guidance of scientific research, in its inception, lies with the
genius of the individual ; its results for the future may lie far beyond the
realisation even of the scientific workers themselves. The Oxford Meeting
of the Association in 1894 supplies a simple example of this. There was a
discussion on flight, in the Section of Mathematics and Physics, opened by
Hiram Maxim ; and no less a leader in science than Kelvin afterwards
described Maxim's own flying machine as a child's perambulator with a
sunshade magnified eight times. Yet it was not many years before research
in aeronautics had become the care of the State as well as of the individual ;
and the work carried out before 1914 under (what is now) the Aeronautical
Research Committee led on to our wonderful development of aircraft
during the war.

A recent report of the Committee of the Privy Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research shows that under the Department there are
eleven research boards, some of which direct the work of committees to
the number of three dozen in all. These boards co-ordinate and govern
researches in chemistry, fabrics, engineering, and physics, radio, building,
food-investigation, forest-products, and fuel ; and to these are to be added
the board of the Geological Survey and the executive committee of the
National Physical Laboratory. Under the general supervision of the
Advisory Council there are upwards of twenty industrial research associa-

10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

tions, formed in alliance with the same number of the principal industries
of the country, for the purposes of scientific investigations connected with
those industries. No attempt can be made here to review the whole field
of work of these various bodies ; but a few examples may be chosen for
the purpose of pointing out what may be called their homely application.
First, then, as to the building of the home. The Building Eesearch Board
was created in 1920, and in 1925, at the request of the Ministry of Health,
considerably extended its activities. Researches are concerned with the
study of materials from the chemical and geological aspects, their strength,
weathering, moisture condensation on wall coverings, acoustics, and various
other problems ; these inquiries, together with the collection and supply
of information both by publication and through an intelligence bureau,
represent (as the report states) ' an attempt to create a real science of
building, to explain and supplement the traditional knowledge possessed
to-day in the industry.' It can scarcely be questioned that industrial
Britain inherits a legacy of discomfort in the housing of its workers, with
all which that implies, dating from a period when the building of the home
lacked scientific as well as aesthetic guidance. We need that guidance no
less to-day, when the saving of labour is one of the main objectives of the
' ideal home ' and its fitments.

Next, a further word as to our food supplies. The Food Investigation
Board directs committees concerned with meat and fish preservation,
fruit and vegetables, oils and fats, and canned foods. There is also a
committee for engineering problems associated with the investigations ;
conditions of storage have been investigated on ships between this country
and Australia, and problems of heat-conductivity at the National Physical
Laboratory, while chemical substances suitable for refrigerants have been
studied at the Engineering School here in Oxford. At Cambridge a low-
temperature research station has been established on ground given by the
University, and is working in co-operation with the University bio-
chemical, botanical, agricultural, and other laboratories. As for the
investigations upon fruit and vegetables, the report may again be quoted,
for it illustrates in a sentence something approaching the ideal of scientific
co-operation brought to bear upon one particular home necessity, and
(what is more) upon a particular and important branch of Imperial
commerce. ' There is (it says) a closely knit scheme of work, which rests,
on the one hand, in university schools of botany, and, on the other, in
commercial stores scattered all over the country, where accurate records
of results and conditions have been kept, and extends to the conditions

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11

of transport by ship, and overseas so far even as the Aiistralasian orchards.'
Other directions of research which touch upon commonplaces of our daily
life are those concerned with fuel, with illumination, with the deteriora-
tion of fabrics and the fading of coloured stuffs, and— perhaps most homely
example of all — with the application of scientific methods in the laundry
industry. This will be good news to those of us who may have suffered,
or may even be suffering to-night, from the torture of a collar which comes
back from the wash with an edge like a surgical saw. It must be clearly
understood that the few instances mentioned represent only a small
fraction of the present activities of Science in co-operation with the State.
And expressed as they are here expressed, they may appear to wear an
aspect even of triviality, because they deal with common things. But it
is precisely because they do deal with common things that they are not
trivial. There may be matter for amusement in the fact that Science is
concerning itself with the contents of the clothes-basket ; but there is
also matter for congratulation, and there may, in the future, be matter
for sincere gratitude. Scientific research, properly applied and carried
out, is never wasted. It may prove that a thing can be done, or that it
can not be done ; but even the proof of a negative may save the waste of
further effort.

This attitude of the State toward Science makes for an easing of the
paths for the advancement of science in many directions ; it marks a
definite step in human progress, taken after long hesitation, but in itself
new ; and because it is new, we may believe with some reason that, we
live, not merely in an age of science, but at the beginning of it. The
movement for co-operation which we have been discussing is not confined
to this country. It has borne fine fruit already in other lands ; and in
particular it is active in our own Dominions. The Indian Empire stands
in a somewhat different category from these : there is here a tradition,
so to say, for the application of science in its government, and the
scientific results of its census investigations, its surveys, its agricultural
forestry, and other administrative departments have long been famous.
This is not to imply that brilliant scientific work has been wanting in the
Dominions — far from it — but the co-operative movements with their
governments have followed that in this country and with a laudable
promptitude. The trend of developments following upon all these move-
ments has been similar broadly speaking ; it is sought to take a compre-
hensive survey of the natural resources and industrial opportunities of
each Dominion, to explore the means by which Science may be best applied

12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS,

to their exploitation, to provide, whether in State institutions or in uni-
versity and other laboratories, for the pursuit of the necessary researches,
to co-ordinate the work, and to ensure the dissemination of knowledge
acquired. The nature of the researches themselves is conditioned to a
large extent (though by no means wholly) by geographical circumstances
in the respective territories : agricultural, pastoral, and forestry problems,
for example, are not identical in all of them, and that very fact adds to
the interest and value of co-ordinating the results of research work
throughout the Empire. While problems may difEer, solutions may
point to a common end. Nothing but good can follow from personal
contact between scientific workers in different parts of the Empire. Nothing
but good can follow from their researches if they add, as gradually they
must add, to the wider knowledge of the Empire not only among the
workers themselves, but ultimately among the whole body of informed
Imperial citizenship ; not only in the overseas territories, but here at
home. For us at home the Empire is worth knowing. Our knowledge
of it begins with the school lessons in geography and history — or should
do so ; no doubt the ideal here is yet to be attained. Such knowledge
may become later of vital importance to those who wish to join the stream
of overseas migration. The British Association, in pursuit of its policy
of obtaining from time to time ' reports on the state of science ' in one
department or another, has recently, through a committee of the Section
of Educational Science, been collecting evidence as to the facilities existing
in our schools for training boys and girls for life overseas. In the crowded
curriculum of most schools these facilities, at any rate in their particular
Imperial application, are not conspicuous. Yet any labour which time
allows us to spend, whether in school days or after them, upon the advance-
ment of scientific knowledge of the Empire, of the means and manner and
environment of life in its component territories, must be well spent. The
British Association has played its part in this advancement since, in 1 884,
it admitted the principle and established the practice of holding occasional
meetings overseas. Those of our members who travelled from this
country to take part in these meetings have had peculiar opportumties
to meet and discuss each his own scientific problems with fellow-workers
in the Dominions — and it should be added with particular reference to
those meetings which have been held in Canada that they have provided
almost unique opportunities for personal contact between British workers
in science and their American colleagues. Our travelling members have
been able to see how science is cultivated in the universities of the

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13

Dominions and in many other institutions ; they have gained first-hand
acquaintance with the special problems of one territory and another ; and
when they have returned home they have talked— as anyone who travels
the Empire is impelled to talk. I have myself been guilty of giving
way to this impulse once in a while. Opportunities for travel are none
too common for most of us, but most of us can at least cast our minds
back to the exhibition at Wembley. Science herself, as an exhibitor,
took a place there befitting her natural modesty. The scientific exhibit
arranged by the Royal Society, admirable as it was, was confined to two
rooms of the Government Pavilion. But was not a very large proportion
of the entire exhibition, in point of fact, an exhibition of applied science ?

It is impossible in the Imperial connection to overstate the case for
Science. Sir William Huggins, in his Presidential Address to the Royal
Society in 1901, said that ' assuredly not only the prosperity, but even
the existence of this Empire will be found to depend upon the more
complete application of scientific knowledge and methods to every depart-
ment of industrial and national activity.' To-day we see that application
in much fuller progress than when Huggins spoke only a quarter of a
century ago, and already we know how truly he prophesied.

It is not for a moment to be supposed, because the State has come
to take a more active and practical interest in scientific research, that
there is therefore any occasion for the lessening of interest on the part of
societies and individuals. The State interest involves that other interest,
and invites it. It can never become the exclusive function of the State
to aid the individual research worker. The State may, and does, co-operate
in aiding him, as for instance through the universities and the Royal
Society. Nevertheless, there are whole departments of research which
do not come within the range of public assistance, but are no less valuable
because they do not. Therefore the support of science remains the
concern of our scientific societies, educational institutions, industrial
organisations, and private benefactors, no less than it ev^ did ; nay, the
very fact that the State has lent its aid should encourage them to continue
their aid and to reinforce it — ^indeed, there is satisfactory evidence that
this actually happens. One example will suffice which indicates, inci-
dentally, that from the purely materialistic point of view scientific research
is not a luxury ; for the community it is probably the cheapest possible
form of investment. The Government's fuel-research station has not yet
proved the commercial possibility of the low-temperature treatment of
coal which would result in the more economical production of smokeless

14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.

fuel, oils, and gas ; but in attempting this difficult task it has already,
by results unforeseen when the task was undertaken, shown at any rate
the possibility of economies for the State and for some of its major
industries which are well in excess of the cost of the research itself.

There are parallels in many respects, as has been often pointed out
and as often forgotten, between the periods of our history following the
Napoleonic Wars and the Great War. The application of science in
industry and daily life received impetus in the earlier of these periods in
such directions as the introduction of steam motive-power ; it is receiving
it now, as it has been attempted here to show. The auspices now are more
favourable. Science is more powerful. Men more adequately and more
generally recognise its power, and therein should lie a certain ethical
value for it as offering a new point of view, in the manifold interest of
which all can share. Should not the application of science, for instance,
offer a new field for community of interest, not only between one industrial
organisation and another, but within the whole body of workers in any
single organisation ? But in order that the community may fully realise
all that it owes, and all that it might owe, to the advancement of science,
the channels of communication between research and the public mind
have to be kept clear, maintained and widened. The non-scientific public
is accustomed to view science as it might view a volcano ; prepared for
the eruption of some new discovery from time to time, but accepting the
effects of the eruption without realising the processes which led up to it
during the preceding period of quiescence. The period of preparation by
research before science can offer the world some new benefit maj' be long,
but the scientific machine is always running quietly in the laboratory.
There is an example ready to our hands. We recall the introduction of
wireless telegraphy and telephony as a scientific gift of quite recent years.
Do we all realise that it was here in Oxford, at the Meeting of the British
Association so long ago as 1894, that the first public demonstration of
wireless signaling by means of electro-magnetic waves was given by Sir
Oliver Lodge ? It was the work of science to develop the methods then
demonstrated until they have been brought to their present marvellous
uses. On the other hand it is often the case, whether in industrial or agri-
cultural, domestic or whatever application, that science has knowledge at
command, awaiting use, long before mankind can be brought actually to
apply it. Though we have quickened, we are not yet so quick in the uptake
of the results of applied scientific research as, for instance, some of our
commercial competitors. The public support of scientific research, upon

THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15

all these grounds, should be accorded freely, with understanding, and with
patience.

This brings me, Ladies and Gentlemen, to the close of what I have to
say to you this evening. From my opening remarks, you will have
gathered that I looked on you as an extremely formidable audience. That
was when I only knew you, so to speak, on paper. Now that I have met
some of you face to face — and hope to meet others in the Town Hall in a
few minutes — I can only say that, if the Presidential Address has not the
traditional weight of knowledge behind it, no President in the history of
the Association has ever received a more kindly and sympathetic welcome
than you have given me to-night. I am deeply grateful for it.

One more duty remains to me— a duty to our hosts and to our guests.
The University and the City of Oxford have received us all with a high
hospitality worthy of this town, to which all who have known it in the
past always return with delight, and which never fails to throw its spell
on those who see it for the first time. Their friendly reception has made
it possible for those who have worked so hard at the organisation of this
meeting to bring it to the successful culmination which it promises to
attain. Not the least successful feature of it is the large number of
distingmshed guests whom it has attracted from overseas. To all of
these I wish to offer a most cordial welcome, with the sincere hope that
they may always carry with them, as I shall myself, the most pleasant
recollections of a very memorable gathering.

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

SECTION A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

THE ANALYSIS OF LINE SPECTRA.

ADDRESS BY

PROFESSOK A. FOWLER, F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Although spectroscopy formed the subject of Prof. McLennan's Presi-
dential Address to tlie Section so recently as 1923, I feel that no apology
is needed for returning to this subject on the present occasion. In the
three years which have elapsed spectroscopy has, in fact, made immense
progress in several directions. It has now become one of the most
important developments of physical research, and seems likely in the
near future to make contributions of a fundamental character to other
branches of science. Its development from a subordinate and little-known
adjunct of chemistry to the commanding position which it now occupies
forms a most interesting chapter in the history of science, and, as one who
has long been associated with spectroscopic research on the experimental
side, I may perhaps best approach the modern viewpoint by recalling some
of the more important stages in its progress.

Rather more than sixty years ago, when the spectroscope became an
effective instrument of scientific research through the work of Kirchhoff
and Bunsen, it was regarded essentially as providing a new and powerful
method of chemical analysis. It soon had brilliant results to show in the
discovery of a number of new elements, but this kind of discovery could
not go on indefinitely, and the interest of chemists as a body in spectrum
aneJysis would appear to have declined rather rapidly. In contrast with
the present outlook in spectroscopy, it is interesting to recall that what
was then regarded as one of the greatest attributes of the spectroscopic
test was its extreme delicacy, so that Kirchhoff and Bunsen, for example,
were able to show that one three-millionth of a milligram of sodium could
be recognised with certainty. Spectrum analysis, however, as was soon
realised, was not so simple a matter as it first appeared, and called for so
much study that its pursuit was mainly left in the hands of a small band
of specialists.

The introduction of the spectroscope into astronomy, which also
followed almost immediately the discovery by Kirchhoff in 1859 of the
nature of the dark lines of the solar spectrum, gave another interest to
spectroscopic investigations, which has continued to grow without a break.
Some of the most important developments of spectroscopy have, in fact,
been closely associated with attempts to interpret the spectra of celestial
bodies. It was not long before Huggins and Lockyer, who were prominent
among the pioneer workers in this field, realised that laboratory experi-
ments must go hand in hand with observations of the heavenly bodies.

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 17

and a spectroscopic laboratory came to be regarded by them as an
indispensable adjunct to an astrophysical observatory. The methods of
physical laboratories were freely utilised in these investigations and the
chemical interpretation of celestial spectra made rapid progress. The
introduction of photographic methods of observation by Huggins led
almost at once to the discovery of new lines apparently belonging to
hydrogen in the spectra of Sirius and other white stars, which were subse-
quently of great value in the establishment of Balmer's law of the hydrogen
spectrum. Perhaps the greatest contribution of early astrophysics to
our stock of knowledge, however, was that which so clearly pointed to the
essential identity of matter throughout the universe.

With the discovery that the spectra of certain elements were modified
by varying the character of the exciting source, chemical analysis of the
sun and stars was supplemented and eventually overshadowed by
investigations of the physical conditions which prevail in those bodies.
The sun and stars thus came to be regarded as natural experiments on
generally similar masses of matter at various high temperatures — experi-
ments ready prepared for observation and always in operation. Thus
many laboratory researches were directly instigated by astrophysical
observations. To take one instance, the fragmentary observations by
Lockyer and by Liveing and Dewar of what were afterwards called enhanced
lines were extended and systematised through an attempt by Lockyer,
in which I myself took part, to interpret the spectrum of the solar chromo-
sphere as photographed during the total eclipses of the sun in 1893 and
1896. The immediate result was an important correlation of the changes
in the laboratory spectra of the elements with the succession of types
in stellar spectra, ^ from which it appeared that enhanced lines were
especially characteristic of stars which, on other grounds, were believed
to be hotter than the sun. These investigations laid the foundations for
a true interpretation of the spectra of the hotter stars, and led to the
more extended studies of enhanced lines which have proved of such great
importance in the development of the theory of the origin of spectra and
the structure of atoms.

On the other hand, it may be remarked, astrophysics owes much to
laboratory experiments which were undertaken without regard to the
sun and stars. One of the most notable examples is Zeeman's famous
discovery of the splitting of spectrum lines when the source is placed
in a magnetic field — a discovery which was afterwards appHed with such
brilliant success by Hale to the detection of the magnetic fields in sun-
spots and of the general magnetic field of the sun.

In one way or another the spectrum has thus become much more than
a key to chemical composition ; it has become also a key to the physical
conditions under which the corresponding radiation is excited ; and, as
some of the earlier workers clearly anticipated, a key to the problem of
atomic and molecular structure.

The remarkable developments of modern spectroscopy in the direction

of atomic physics have resulted from discoveries relating to regularities

in spectra. Such regularities were suspected as long ago as 1869, and

were actually revealed about ten years later by the admirable experimental

1 Lockyer, Boy. Soc. Proc, vol. GO, p. 475 (1897).

1 92(5 C

18 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

work of Liveing and Dewar and of Hartley, who appear, however, to have
made no very serious attempts to represent their results in any systematic
way. The first important step in this direction was the formulation by
Balmer in 1885 of the law of the line spectrum of hydrogen, in which the
four laboratory and ten stellar lines then known were represented by a
very simple formula involving a sequence of integers. The idea of a
' series ' of spectrum lines which originated in this way was shortly after-
wards extended by Kayser and Runge, and by Rydberg, to the regularities
in other comparatively simple spectra, with results which are now generally
familiar. Three types of series — the so-called Principal, Sharp and Diffuse
series'- — were recognised, and while some of the series consisted of single
lines, others consisted of doublets or triplets.'"'

The foundations for subsequent developments were firmly laid by the
classical work of Rydberg, in which the interrelationships of the different
series in the spectrum of a single element were clearly formulated.
Rydberg also suspected that other lines might be brought into the series
relationships, but it is to Ritz that we owe the first clear statement of the
' combination principle ' and the emphasis which it gives to the significance
of spectroscopic ' terms ' as distinct from spectrum lines.

In the representation of series spectra the wave-number of a line
always appears as the difference of two terms, and a series of lines appears
as a regular succession of differences between a limiting term and a
sequence of terms, the limit itself being a term of another sequence. Thus
the entire line spectrum of hydrogen, including the ultra-violet and infra-
red series, as well as the Balmer series, is represented by dift'erences between
terms of the form R/«^ where R is the Rydberg constant (=109,678 in
wave-number) and n takes successive integral values beginning with 1
and theoretically extending to infinity. Other spectra are more complex,
but lines in these also were found to be represented by dift'erences between
terms of the form R/(n*)^, where n* is not restricted to integral values and
has different values for the different sequences of terms included in a
spectrum ; ?i* increases, however, approximately by unity from one term
to the next in each sequence.

Much of the early work on series regularities in spectra is summarised
in the now well-known symbolic representation of a series system, namely.
Principal series . . . . . . ..IS — wP,

Sharp series . . . . . . . . 1 P, — wS

Diffuse series . . . . ..IP, — »iD,

Fundamental series .. .. 2D, — mF,

where 1 S, for example, represents an individual term, and mS a sequence
of terms of S type. The S terms are always single, but the others are
complex in all but singlet systems ; so that i=l for singlets ; 1, 2 for
doublets ; and 1, 2, 3 for triplets (in the older numeration). A sequence
of terms may be represented by an approximate formula such as that
of Hicks, in the form R/[m-|-(j(. + a/m]'", where R is the Rydberg constant,
m a serial number, and [x and a constants (usually proper fractions) to be
determined from the observed Unes. The possible combinations of terms

- The ' Fundamental Series ' was added later.
* See Fowler's ' Report on Series.'

A.— JLVIHEJIATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 19

in the production of lines are restricted in accordance with selection rules
which have since been extended to more complex spectra, as will appear
later.

From the theoretical point of view the terms have a more direct physical
significance than the actual lines, and it is therefore important to determine
them with the greatest possible accuracy. Actual values of the terms can
be determined only from spectra in which series have been identified. The
calculated limit for one of the series then gives one of the terms of a system,
and all the rest follow from the interrelations by subtracting the observed
wave-numbers of lines from the limits of the series to which they belong.
Since the same terms may enter into several combinations, it is obvious
that the representation of a spectrum by terms is a great simplification.

It should be understood that these studies of the structure of spectra
were pursued with the clear conviction that they would ultimately reveal
the secrets of atomic structure, and the analysis of spectra, as distinct
from spectrum analysis, gradually became one of the principal objects
of spectroscopic research.

Notwithstanding the absence of a guiding theory of the origin of
spectra, experimental spectroscopy continued to attract a number of
workers, who approached the subject from various points of view and
accumulated a vast store of observational data.

With the advent of Bohr's theory of spectra in 1913, spectroscopy
entered on a new phase of activity. The theory and its immediate
explanation of the spectra of hydrogen and ionised helium are now so
well known as to call for little more than mention. Adopting the Ruther-
ford conception of a neutral atom (namely, a positively charged nucleus
with sufficient electrons in orbital motion around it to neutralise the
positive charge of the nucleus) and restricting the possible orbits by
quantum considerations, Bohr was able to extend the theory to account
in a general way for the series spectra of other elements. Spectroscopic
terms were translated by the theory into ' energy levels ' of the atom, so
that a spectrum line is considered to represent the energy emitted by
an excited atom when it passes from a non-radiating state of a certain
energy to another of lesser energy. The terms are, in fact, proportional
to the energies of the corresponding 'stationary' states.

The spectrum of a neutral atom is supposed to be generated, one
line at a time, by the transitions from one possible orbit to another of
the most loosely bound of the outer electrons (the ' series electron ' or
' light electron '), while the whole spectrum represents the integration
of the various transitions taking place in different atoms. In partial
justification of this view, one might point to the spectra of the alkali
metals, which are very closely similar, and thus indicate that the general
type of spectrum is independent of the total number of electrons present.
The influence of the underlpng electrons, or of the nuclear charge, however,
becomes apparent in the increase of doublet separations with atomic
number, and in the displacement of corresponding lines to different parts
of the spectrum.

The theory in its first form also gave a definite significance to the
enhanced lines occurring in the spectra of other elements besides helium.

20 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Lockyer's hypothesis that such lines originated in dissociated atoms —
i.e. atoms split up into parts of comparable size, constituting ' proto-
e.lements' — was in fact replaced in the new theory by the conception that
the first stage of dissociation is the breaking up of a neutral atom into an
ionised atom and an electron. An excited atom in which the series
electron does not pass outside the sphere of influence of the nuclear charge
remains neutral as a whole, and the spectrum is that of the neutral atom,
having the Eydberg number R for the series constant. If the most loosely
bound electron be driven out of the atom, and the next most loosely
bound one transferred from its normal position to larger orbits by the
exciting agency, the spectrum generated by the return of the second
electron will be that of the ionised atom. This process could obviously
be supposed to be repeated, so that spectra originating in doubly- or
multiply-ionised atoms might be considered possible. The theory pre-
dicted that such spectra would be characterised by series systems for
which the series constant would be 4 R, 9 R, 16 R, and so on, for atoms at
successive stages of ionisation. The spectrum of ionised helium, which
had previously been obtained without its identification as such,^ had
indeed already contributed very materially to the formulation of the new
theory.

Bohr's theory proved a great stimulus to experimental spectroscopy
as well as to theoretical investigations. Among the first-fruits was the
experimental verification of the predicted 4 R value for the series constant
in the spectra of ionised magnesium, calcium and strontium.^ Next,
Sommerfeld's well-known extension of the theory of the hydrogen
spectrum by taking account of the relativistic variation of the mass of
the electron with its orbital velocity predicted a fine structure of the
lines of hydrogen and of ionised helium which was almost immediately
verified by Paschen's remarkable observations of the structure of ionised
helium lines under very high resolving power.

A general explanation of the existence of several types of series
S, P, D . . .in the spectra of more complex atoms immediately followed,
namely, that such types of series are to be attributed to the action on the
series electron of a perturbing field due to the presence of other electrons
in the atom, producing a precessional motion similar to that associated
with the relativity effect, but of very much greater value. Two quantum
numbers thus became necessary in order to describe the motion of the
series electron. They are usually written as n,., where n is the
' principal ' quantum number and k the so-called ' azimuthal ' quantum
number. In a simple ellipse, n determines the semi-major axis, and k
the semi-minor axis ; kJij2Tz is the angular momentum of the electron.
In the case of the simpler spectra first dealt with, the same quantum
numbers could be used to specify the characters of the corresponding
spectral terms, so that we have k—1, 2, 3 . . . corresponding to the term
types S, P, D. . . .

« A. Fowler, Mon. Not. R.A.S., vol. 73, p. 62 (1912).

» A. Fowler, Phil. Trans., A, vol. 214, p. 225 (1914).

The verification of 9 R for doubly-ionised aluminium by Va,schen (Ann. d.Phys.,
vol. 71, p. 142, 1923), and of 16 R for trebly-ionised silicon by A. Fowler (Roy. Soc. Proc,
A, vol. 103, p. 413, 1923), followed in due course.

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 21

The azimuthal quantum number is the same for all terms of the
same sequence, and, in accordance with the previous empirical deductions,
considerations based upon Bohr's correspondence principle indicated
theoretical reasons for the restriction imposed on combinations of terms
of different types, namely, that terms of different types combine in
ordinary circumstances only when their h values differ by unity.

When a series consists of doublets or triplets, ' inner ' quantum
numbers, usually represented by j, are introduced to distinguish the
individual components ; the accepted physical interpretation is that
jhj'Iiz represents the resultant angular momentum of the entire atom, and
fixes the orientation of the orbit of the series electron relative to the axis
of the remainder of the atom (the atom core).

The theory also indicated an important relation between the ionisa-
tion potential of an element and the highest spectroscopic term, repre-
senting the normal state of the corresponding atom, which has been
verified experimentally for numerous elements.'^ Indeed, the ionisation
potentials of many elements can be determined with greater accuracy
from series data than by direct measurements.

Other earlier successes of the quantum theory of spectra which should
not be passed over without mention are Sommerfeld's derivation of a
formula for the normal Zeeman effect in 1916, and the theoretical interpre-
tation of the Stark effect, which was given independently by Schwarzschild
and Epstein in the same year. The latter is rightly regarded as one of the
greatest triumphs of the quantum theory, since classical electrodynamics
had failed to give any explanation at all.

Following the pioneer work of Schwarzschild, Lenz and Heurlinger,
the quantum theory has also been applied with conspicuous success to
the highly complex band spectra of molecules by several workers, notably
by Kratzer, Curtis, Jevous, and Midliken. The underlying idea is that
each component line of such a spectrum results from the simultaneous
occurrence of three distinct quantum transitions, involving the electronic
energy, the energy of nuclear vibration, and the energy of molecular
rotation. In general, the quantum number of each may change by integral
steps, and the complexity of the spectrum results from the great variety
of possible changes. Of special interest is the application of the theory
to the investigation of the isotopes of a given element."

It will have been observed that while certain experimental data were
essential for the formulation of the quantum theory of spectra, the theory
has sometimes been in advance and has suggested new observations. I
shall next refer to new discoveries in experimental work which have given
a great impetus to theoretical investigations of a far-reaching character.

Apart from the first two groups and the aluminium sub-group of the
periodic table, the spectra of the elements, with few exceptions, are
extremely complex and long defied analysis. It is true that certain
' constant differences ' had been noted in many of these spectra by Kayser
and Runge, Paulson, and others, but these gave little knowledge of the
real structure of the spectra. It was not until 1922 that a key to the

^ See Foote .and Mohler's Origin of Specira. uhap. 3 (1922).

' MuUikeu, Phys. Rei\, vol. 2.5, p. 119 (192.5), and other papers.

22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

structure of complex spectra was furnished by the investigations of
Catalan, who was then working at the Imperial College. Catalan first
made an extended study of the spectrum of manganese," in which series
of triplets of somewhat peculiar character had already been partially
disentangled by Kayser and Runge, and discovered that, while the
principal and sharp series consisted of simple triplets, the members of the
diffuse series each consisted of nine lines in place of the six which had up
to that time been considered to characterise a diffuse ' triplet.' It followed
that the D terms had five values, as against three values in calcium and
other elements of the second group. Besides lines forming regular series,
Catalan also identified several complex groups which he called ' multi-
plets,' one of which included as many as fourteen lines. In each multiplet
the lines were of similar character and generally of the same class in King's
temperature classification, and the lines could be arranged on a simple
plan to show the regularity of their distribution.

The essential feature of Catalan's work was the discovery that in the
arc and spark spectra of manganese, and in the arc spectrum of chromium,
there were terms of greater complexity than the triple terms which had
previously been recognised. It was this discovery that opened a way to
the analysis of complex spectra in general. It has been pursued with
amazing success by Catalan himself, Walters, Laporte, Meggers, Sommer,
and others, and the main features of the structure of many spectra as
complicated as that of iron have been revealed.

It is not necessary to go into all the intricate details of the spectra,
because the general results can now be very simply summarised in conse-
quence of the theoretical developments which have gone hand in hand with
the experimental investigations. Bohr and Sommerfeld had already
established certain ' selection rules ' for the combination of the terms of
the simpler spectra on a quantum number basis, and, immediately following
the work of Catalan, Sommerfeld showed that the scheme of ' inner quantum
numbers ' which he had devised for the simpler spectra could be extended
so as to fit the observations empirically. As other spectra came to be
disentangled, an assignment of quantum numbers which appears to be
adapted to all spectra was completed by Lande.'''

In accordance with the work of Bohr, Sommerfeld and Land^, a spectral
term may be represented by four quantum numbers, written in the form
nlj or 'n^j. Here n is the principal quantum number, increasing by
unity for successive terms of the same sequence"* ; k is the azimuthal

quantum number and has the values 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 for the term

tyjaes S, P, D, F, G, ; j is the inner quantum number, having one

8 Phil. Tram., A, vol. 223, p. 127 (1922).

» Zeit.f. Phys., vol. 15, p. 189 (1923).

''■" For descriptive purposes the initial values assigned to n in the respective
sequences of terms are of no great importance. In the Ritz-Paschen system of
numeration, the first terms are IS, 2P, 3D, 4F ; in the Rydberg system adopted in
Fowler's ' Report on Series ' they are IS, IP, 21) (occasionally ID), 3F. The latter
system has the advantage that the term numbers are usually the integral parts of the
' effective quantum numbers,' i.e. the values of 7t* in the expression R/(n*)- for the
terms. Paschen's numeration, however, has been extensively used. In theoretical
investigations the values assigned to n are definitely associated with the corresponding
values in the hydrogen spectrum.

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

or more values according as the term is single or multiple ; r represents the
maximum muUiplicity of terms in the system to which the term belongs,
so that r= 1 for singlets, 2 for doublets, 3 for triplets, and so on. Correspond-
ing members of successive terms of the same sequence have the same values
of j. Values of r, k, j different from those mentioned are used in certain
theoretical discussions, but the above suffice for expressing the empirical
results obtained in the anah'sis of spectra.

In practice the azimuthal quantum number is most conveniently indi-
cated by retaining the old designations S, P, D, F for the term

sequences, and the value of r representing the multiplicity of the system
is now, by general agreement," written on the upper left of the term
symbol ; for example, T, represents a term of the triplet system for which
k—2 and_^=l. The values oi j corresponding to the various terms and
systems are collected in Table I.

Table I.

Inner Quantum Numbeks.
Odd Multiplicities.

Terms

Ic '

Singlet
r=l

Triplet
r=3

Quintet
r=5

Septet
r=l

s 1

P 1
D
F
G

1
2

3
4
5

2
3
4

1
1 2
1 2 3
2 34
3 45

2
1 2 3
12 34
12 345

2 345 6

2 3 4

12 345

12 3456

12 34567

Even Multiplicities.

p , Doublet
Ferms k ^ ^_o

Quartet Sextet Octet
r=4 1 r==6 r=8

S 11
P 2 12
D 3 23

F 4 3 4

G 1 5 1 4 5

2
1 23
1234

2345
345 6

3 4
2 34 34 5
12345 23456
123456 1234 5 67
234567 1234567 8

There is theoretically no limit to the number of types of terms, and other

types H are found for which k>b. In each system, however,

the number of components in these additional types of terms never exceeds
the maximum indicated by the value of r for the system.

It is to be noted that since differences of j values are alone embodied in
the combination rules for inner quantum numbers, there is a certain
arbitrariness in the values tabulated. With j'=0 for the singlet S term and
j=l for the doublet S term, however, all the other values follow from the
combinations indicated by observational data.

The selection rules regulating the term combinations of most general

occurrence are :

For different types of terms : Ak-

:1.

>* Aslrophys. Journ., vol. 61, p. 66 (1925).

24 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

For individual component terms : Aj=±l or 0, with ^=0 to j=0
forbidden.

For systems of terms : Ar= ±2 or 0.

Thus, according to the first rule, D terms may be combined with P or
F terms, but not with terms of types S or G. The second rule greatly
reduces the number of combinations which are arithmetically possible,
so that an FGr combination in the octet system, for example, does not
consist of 56 lines, but of 20 ; no individual term combines with more than
three other terms of the same set. Although more than one system of terms
may occur in the same spectrum, such systems are either all of odd or
all of even multiplicity,'^ and the third rule indicates that, in addition to the
ordinary combinations within the same system (Ar=0), there may be
inter-system combinations for which Ar=2. Thus, terms of a singlet
system may be found in combination with terms of a triplet system — still
subject to the azimuthal and inner quantum number restrictions — but
not with terms of a quintet system which might occur in the same
spectrum.

In the more familiar spectra the components of multiple terms which
have the smallest j values have the highest actual values, corresponding
to deeper levels in the atom — i.e. 'n,.y < 'n,,. ^-.i. The more recent
analyses of spectra, however, have revealed the frequent occurrence of
' inverted ' terms, for which the components with largest j values have
the largest actual values — i.e. '% > 'n,. j,-^. Such inverted terms are
especially numerous in the spectra of the elements of the later groups of
the periodic table, all the known terms of the iron arc spectrum (Fe I),
for example, being inverted. ' Partially inverted ' terms are also of
occasional occurrence.

The general character of the regularities which appear in a group of
lines resulting from the combination of two multiple terms will be best
gathered from examples, which will at the same time illustrate applications
of the inner quantum rules. The examples chosen are PD and DF quartet
combinations from a recent analysis of the spectrum of ionised oxygen''
(Table II).

The table is almost self-explanatory, but it should be mentioned that
the sufSxes are inner quantum numbers, and that the numbers in brackets
which follow the wave-numbers representing the actual lines of the
spectrum denote the relative intensities on a scale of ten for the maximum.
The numbers printed in italics are differences of terms, or intervals
separating lines in the multiplets ; the slight departures from equality of
corresponding intervals are due to difficulties of observation. It should
further be noted that, while the relative values of the terms have been
determined with considerable accuracy, the actual values quoted above
are only approximate.

Apparent exceptions to the first selection rule, A^-=Hhl, are of very
frequent occurrence. In the spectra of the alkaline earths there are
several groups of lines — some of them of great intensity — which do not
belong to the regular series, but are related to them through the character-
istic separations of the respective triplet systems, as was first recognised

12 Neutral helium is possibly an exception.

" A. Fowler, Roy. Soc. Proa., A, vol. 110, p. 497 (192G).

A.— .^LATHEAIATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 25

by Rydberg more than thirty years ago. Groups of this type were furtiicr
investigated by Popow and by Gotze/^ and their real structure was
deduced from observations of Zeeman effects. It then appeared that
such a group was derived from combinations of P terms of the regular
series with another set of P terms, or of ordinary D terms with a second
set of D terms. The additional types of terms, which are usually distin-
guished as ' anomalous terms ' and designated by P', D' . . . , have the
same inner quantum numbers and show the same Zeeman effects as
ordinary terms of corresponding types ; but in their combinations v«'ith
the regular terms they mostly follow the rule AZ;=0, giving the combina-
tions PP', DD'. . . . Among themselves, however, the anomalous terms
combine in accordance with the ordinary selection rule, Ak=±l, giving
such combinations as P'D', D'F'. . . . Such terms are not restricted to
the spectra of the alkaline earths, but have been found to be of very
general occurrence in all but the simplest spectra.

Russell and Saunders'^ have since found other terms in the alkaline
earth spectra which have the same combining properties as ordinary
terms of corresponding types, but are anomalous in the sense that thev
do not form part of the regular term sequences ; they have distinguished
such terms by the convenient symbols, P", D". . . .

Further examples from the spectrum of ionised oxygen will conveniently
indicate the selection rules applicable to quartet D'P' and D'D combina-
tions (Table III).

Multiplets formed from terms of higher multiplicities thanthose shown in
the foregoing examples are built up on the same general plan, but naturally
include a greater number of lines. The combination rules for anomalous
terms have thus been more or less systematised, but exceptions to the
selection rule for azimuthal quantum numbers occasionally occur also
among regular terms. Thus in the arc spectrum of sodium there is a
series of faint lines represented by 2-P — m'-^P (Lenard's series) and another
by 2'-P— wrF, corresponding to Ak=0 and AZ;=2 respectively. Such
combination lines are generally faint, except when produced under the
influence of a strong electric field, in which case they may be very
numerous. It should be observed, however, that the series I'S — »rD,
for which Ak — 2, appears in the absorption spectrum of potassium under
conditions in which no electric field would appear to be present.'"^ Excep-
tions to the inner quantum combination rule are very rare under ordinary
conditions of observation, but such lines are especially liable to be excited
in strong magnetic fields. Paschen and Back, for example, were able to
excite the complete T — ^D ' triplets ' of Ca, Zn and Cd, the usual six
lines in each being increased to nine. Among other observations which
could be mentioned, extensive experiments on ' forbidden lines ' in
zinc, cadmium and mercury have been made by a number of Japanese
physicists. ^^

1* Ann. d. Phys., vol. 66, p. 285 (1921).

15 Astrophys. Jour., vol. 61, p. 38 (1925).

i« Datta, Hoy. Soc. Proc, A, vol. 99, p. 69 (1921) ; Foote, Mohler and Meggers,
Phil. Mag., vol. 43, p. 659 (1922).

1' E.g., Fukuda, Kuyama and Uchida, Sr. Pap. Xo. 56, In'^i. of Phiis. and Chem.
Res. (1926).

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Table II.

^d^'p and ^rf""/ Combinations of Oil.

di 4 (/.,

rf,

Term Values.

78496-68 72=^-62 78621-30 r?2-56' 78712-86

.55-5-^ 78768-40

O-Vx =

= 100263-84

21550-98(6)

55-55 21495-43(6)

105-32

105-34

105-31

aPi =

= 100158-52

21537-23(9) 91-59 21445-64(9)

55-52 21390-12(4)

158-52

158-53 15S-49

a_pa =

= 100000-00

21o03-32(10) 124-62 21378-70(8) 91-55 21287-15(2)

(ap - d) i

hpy =

= 46872-88

31840-27(4r)

55-37 31895-64(3r) '

105-22

105-10

105-18

bp2 =

= 46767-66

SlS5S-78{8r)91-59 31945-37(7r)

55-45 32000-82(2?)

161-42

161-36 161-38

bp:, =

= 46606-24

31890-56(10r)y24-5.S 32015-14(6r)9i-(Si 32106-75{lr)

(d - bp)

h =

= 54203-15

24418-05(0) 91-69 24509-74(4)

55-57 24565-31(4)

54-03

54-15 53-96

/. =

= 54149-12

24347-57(0) 124-63 24472-20(3) 91-50 24563-70(6)

77-91

77-88 77-91

/. =

= 54071-21

24425-45(5) 72^^-66 24550-11(8)

102-27

102-29

f., =

= 53968-94

24527-74(10)

(d-f)

Table III.

^d' *p' and *d' *d Combinations of II.

d'.

d^2

Term Values.

52745-34

6-35

52751-69

1-53 52753-22

0-47 52753-69

p\= 77153-03

24399-76(4)

0-42 24399-34(1)

46-10

46-08

p:,= 77106-93

24355-24(5)

1-56 24353-68(7)

[24353-26]

91-97

91-99

91-90

p\= 77014-96

24269-61(8)

6-36

24263-25(3)

1-47 24261-78(2)

ip' - d')

rf, = 78768-40

26015-20(3)

[26014-71]

55-54

55-51

d.2 = 78712-86

25961-22(2)

1-53 25959-69(3)

[2.5959-17]

91-56

91-63

rf, = 78621-30

25875-96(2)

6-37

25869-59(5)

7 -,5.3 25868-06(1)

124-62

124-59

1-24-57

di = 78496-68

25751-37(7)

6-35

26745-02(3)

(d - d')

A.— MATHEMATICAL ANJJ PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 27

In the actual analysis of a spectrum, the selection rules which have
been indicated for the combination of terms are supplemented in a very
practical way by Sommerfeld's ' intensity rule ' and to a less degree bj
Landc's ' interval rule.'

The intensity rule was indicated in the first instance in connection witl
the simpler spectra, but has since been found to be of general application.
It is to the effect that lines for which the changes in j and Ic are in the
same direction are the strongest, while those for which the changes are of
opposite sign are the weakest. Thus, in the 'DT combination previously
shown, where ^ is 3 for D and 2 for P, the strongest line is DjP.„ while
the weakest is D.^P,, ; the same rule holds good for the combination
■"D'^P'. In combinations of ordinary and anomalous (or ' primed ')
terms, however, such as ^D'^D' previously tabulated, k is the same for
both, and the strongest line is that resulting from the terms having the
largest (identical) j values (D'^DJ. The detailed relations may easily
be gathered from the examples of multiplet structures given above.

The whole question of intensities in related groups of lines has recently
been placed on a quantitative basis through photometric measurements
initiated by Ornstein, Burger and Dorgelo at Utrecht. It results that the
intensities in such groups are in the ratio of integers, and it may accordingly
be concluded that intensities, like frequencies, are determined by quantum
considerations. In an application of the correspondence principle Sommer-
feld and Heisenberg had already investigated the probabilities of emission,
and formulae for computing the relative intensities in multiplets on this
basis have since been deduced.'** Russell has found excellent agreement
between calculated and observed values in an extensive comparison with
the approximate experimental data available. Further photometric
measurements to test the formulae are much to be desired. The constancy
or otherwise of the intensity relations in the same multiplet imder different
conditions of excitation is a question which also calls for the attention of
experimental workers.

In general the separations between successive components of a multiple
term increase as the inner quantum number j increases. In systems of
odd multiplicity these separations are approximately proportional to the
larger values of ^ ; thus in a triplet P term with_^'=2, 1, 0, the separations
are in the ratio 2:1. In a group of terms of even multiplicity the separa-
tions are proportional to the means of the j values ; in a quartet P term,
for example, j'=3, 2, 1, and the separations are in the ratio 5:3; for a
sextet system the rule gives the ratio 7 : 5 for the P separations. The
interval rule in its present form, however, frequently breaks down, as is
emphasised especially by Hicks. '^

The characteristics of the various systems and types of terms which
are outlined above are sufficient for the classification of the lines of most
spectra in a form adapted for theoretical investigations. The quantum
numbers which have been assigned, however, may be considered entirely

" Ornstein and Burger, Zeit. /. Phys., voL 31, p. 355 (1925). Kronig, Zeit. f.
Phys., vol. 31, p. 885 ; vol. 32, p. 261 (1925). Sommeifeld and Honl, Sitz. Preuss.
Akad. Wiss., vol. 9, p. 141 (1925). Russell, Proc. Nat. Acad. Wash., vol. 11, p. 31-t
(1925).

i» Phil Mag., vol. 48, p. 1036 (1924).

28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

empirical so far as they are concerned in the mere analysis of a spectrum,
and are subject to such modifications as may be indicated by theoretical
considerations.

Unfortunately, the analysis of a spectrum does not always lead to a
knowledge of the actual values of the terms, or energy levels. These can
be determined for any of the relatively simple spectra, in which com-
paratively extended series can be traced and their limits calculated. In
most of the complex spectra, only the relative values of the terms have
been deduced, since extended sequences in these spectra are apparently of
rare occurrence. Even for these, however, the term of highest numerical
value, representing the lowest energy level, can often be identified, and
this is of special value in view of its association with the normal state of
the atom.

This completes the story of spectroscopic terms and their possible
combinations on what might be called a purely numerical basis ; that is,
in so far as the analysis of a spectrum can at present be based merely on a
table of wave-lengths and intensities. Especially as regards the more
complex spectra, however, advantage has to be taken of every possible
experimental aid to the classification of the lines — particularly, in the
first instance, as a means of sorting out the lines characteristic of an
element at difierent stages of ionisation. I shall return to this subject
later.

Thanks to the industry of numerous workers, many of the complex
spectra have now been partially analysed, and two of the principal
generalisations foreshadowed some years ago have been greatly
strengthened. The first of these is expressed by the so-called 'alternation
law,' according to which the arc spectra of the elements are alternately
of even and odd multiplicities in passing from the first to the higher groups
of the periodic table. No exceptions to the rule have yet been found.
Until recently it was thought that the maximum term multiplicity was
equal to the chemical group number increased by unity, but recent work
has shown that this simple rule is not of general application ; for example,
in the arc spectrum of copper quartets occur as well as doublets.™

The second generalisation is expressed by the spectroscopic ' dis-
placement law,' which states that the first spark (enhanced) spectrum of
an element has a structure similar to that of the arc spectrum of the
element which precedes it in the periodic table. To make this generally
applicable, however, it is necessary to qualify the rule by restricting the
meaning of similarity to a common odd or even multiplicity. The
spectrum of ionised scandium, for example, though including singlet and
triplet terms, differs from the spectrum of neutral calcium in having a
^D term in place of a SS term corresponding to the normal state. The
same rule may be extended to higher states of ionisation, the second
spark spectrum, for example, resembling the first spark spectrum of the
preceding element, or the arc spectrum of the element of atomic number
two units smaller. Clearly the alternation law of multiplicities is also
applicable when the first or higher orders of spark spectra of the elements
are respectively compared.

20 Shenstono, Phil. Mag., vol. 49 (May 1925) ; Beals, Roy. Soc. Proc, A,
vol. Ill, p. 168(1926).

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

The above rules have by no means been proved for all elements, but
they are true for all spectra which have been disentangled up to the
present time, and may safely be adopted as a starting-point in the analysis
of further spectra. They have been almost completely verified for the
elements of the two short periods Li (3) to CI (17), but may be more
effectively illustrated by the arc spectra of the elements K (19) to Ni (28)
by the use of data collected by Catalan,'"' which are given in Table IV.

The table includes references to the ' ground term ' {i.e. the highest
term or deepest energy level), and indicates also the regular or inverted
character of the terms.

Table IV.
Term Systems in Aec Spectka., K-Ni.

Group.

Ill

VII

VIII

Element.

19.K

20.Ca

21.Sc

22.Ti

23.V

24.Cr

25.Mn

26.Fe

27. Co

28.Ni

Multi-

plicities

Ground

term

Class of

Reg.

Inv.

terms

& Inv.

For the elements Rb-Pd, similar data collected by Meggers and Kiess^*
are given in Table V.

Table V.
Term Systems in Arc Spectra, Rb-Pd.

Group

I II

III

V VI VII

VIII

Element.

37.Rb SS.Sr

39.Y

40.Zr

41. Nb 42.Mo 43.Ma

44.Ru

4o.Rh 46.Pd

Multi-

4 (4)

plicities

6 ^ (6)

(8)

(7)

(5)
(6)

Ground

*S 'S

«D 'S (6D)

«F IS

term

Note. — The numbers in brackets have been filled in from considerations of
symmetry.

" An. Soc. Esp. Fis. y Quimica. vol. 23, p. 403 (1925).
22 Jour. Opt. Soc. Amer., vol. 12, p. 446 (1926).

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Catalan has remarked that, iu passing from Ca to Ni, the terms are
regular so long as the maximum multiplicity is increasing, and inverted
when it is decreasing, both classes of terms occurring at the turning-point
(Mn), as shown in Table IV. A similar alternation of even and odd
multiplicities is shown by the spark spectra of the elements Ca to Ni, as
will appear from Table VI, which is also taken from Meggers and Kiess.
The data here are less complete and for Co* and Ni* they are merely
conjectural.

Table VI.

Teem Systems in Spark Spectra, Ca'''-Ni"'".

Group

I II

III

VII VIII

Element

19.K+ 20.Ca^-

21. Sc--^

22.Ti+

23. V+

24.Cr-^

25.Mn+ 26.Fe+

27.CO+

28.Ni+

(1)

2?
3?

(3)

(2)

Multi-

(i)

plicities

(5)

Ground

•^s

«S

'S °D

(=E)

(4F)

term

The spark spectra of only very few of the elements of the next row
(Rb-Pd) have at present been classified, but these are in accordance with
the above so far as they go. Thus 38.Sr"^=doublets ; 39.Y'^=singlets
and triplets ; 40.Zr^=doublets and quartets.

It will be observed that the alternation law and restricted displacement
law are completely satisfied by the observational data includedinthe tables,
and the same appears to be true for other spectra which have been
sufficiently analysed. The tables, however, bring out several other points
of interest. It will be noted, for example, that not more than three
different systems of terms have yet been found in the same spectrum, and
it would seem probable that this is the actual maximum number which
can occur.

A very striking relation, to which attention appears to have first been
directed by Hund,^* is that, as regards the ground term, the spark
spectrum of each of the elements Ca to Ni is more closely related to its
own arc spectrum than to the arc spectrum of the preceding element.
Thus, from Ca to Fe, the ground terms of the arc and spark spectra are of
the same type, and, apart from Cr, which is in certain other respects
exceptional, the multiplicity of the system to which the ground term
belongs is increased by unity in passing from the arc to the spark
spectrum. This may be shown as follows : —

20.Ca 21.Sc 22.Ti 23.V 24.Cr 25.Mn 26.Fe 27.Co 28.Ni

Arc
Spark

IS
^S

2D
3D

«s

«D
«D

(5F)

(4F)

" Zeif. f. Phys., vol. 33, p. 362 (1925).

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 31

It is not improbable that such systematic relations will be of con-
siderable assistance in the unravelling of the numerous complicated spectra
which remain to be investigated.

The more recent results of the analysis of complex spectra have pro-
vided an ordered knowledge of a multitude of facts which have an
important bearing upon the development of the theory of spectra and the
arrangement of electrons in the outer parts of normal atoms. Theoretical
workers have not been slow to utilise the new data, and have, indeed,
frequently been able to forge ahead of experimental results. I shall not
attempt to discuss in detail these theoretical developments, more
especially as a critical discussion by Prof. J. H. Van Vleck has been
published very recently.'"'' It will suffice to refer briefly to the more
important steps in the interpretation of the empirically known spectra, as
supplementing the interpretation of the simpler spectra previously given
by Bohr.

Among the principal problems immediately resulting from the analysis
of the more complex spectra are those indicated by the existence of
anomalous terms, the absence of extended sequences of terms in most of
the complex spectra, and the question of reconciling our ideas of the
arrangement of electrons in the outer parts of atoms with the structure
of the spectra — in particular with the occurrence as ground terms of such
types as 'F.

These problems, however, are not independent of one another. It
will be recalled that the existence of sequences of terms involving the
Rydberg constant, in the spectra of elements whose atoms contain more
than one electron, was explained by Bohr on the assumption that the
spectra were generated by the transitions of a single electron between
orbits in an approximately Coulomb field arising from the unchanged
remainder of the atom. This, however, is not a process which, in the
absence of experimental evidence, would be expected to take place in all
atoms. Excitation of a complex atom might well be expected to involve
simultaneous disturbances of more than one electron, and the fact that
many spectra do not appear to exhibit Rydberg sequences naturally
leads to a consideration of the possibility that such simultaneous dis-
turbances actually take place. Again, the occurrence of unexpected
ground terms is a matter for surprise only when the ground term of a
spectrum is directly associated with the innermost orbit of the series
electron. If there is no uniquely characterised ' series electron,' there is
no reason to expect any particular type of term to be the highest, and the
problem of determining the ground term is merged into that of deducing
the spectroscopic terms (anomalous as well as regular) from the simul-
taneous movements of the disturbed electrons. The problems of complex
spectra thus resolve themselves into two — first, the distribution of the
electrons among the various possible types of orbit ; and, second, the
deduction of spectroscopic terms from a given distribution of electrons.

In the consideration of the first problem we are not confined to the
evidence afforded by optical spectra. Other data towards this end are

^* ' Quantum Principles and Line Spectra.' Bulletin No. 54, Nat. Ees. Council,
Washington {1926).

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Table VII.
X-Ray Levels and Optical Teems.

K L,

yt= 1

i=i

1
1

1 o

3„

4„

5,1

Is, 2s,

3s,

4s,

5s,

L„

M„

N„

o„

i=i

221

3-21

4=1

521

(

2pi

3pi

4pi

5pi

A = 2

I'm

M„,

N„,

0„i

j = 2

222

3o.,

422

522

2P2

3P2

4p2

5po

M,v

N,v

0,v

i = 2

3.2

3do

4.2

4d.2

5:^2

od2

k = 3

i = 3

3:«

4.,.

Saa

3d,

4d,

5d, 1

Nv:

1
1

i = 3

44.S

4f.,

5is

k = 4:

1
(

■

Nv„

j = 4

444

4f,

5f4

Table VIII.

Aebangement of Electrons in Rare Gases.
Bohr.

Atomic

Number

2, 22

3, 32 3;i

4, 42 4, 4,

4 4

6 6 6

4 4

Main Smith and Stoner.

Atomic
Number 1

K
111

L i M
2ii 2,1 222 3,1 821 822 3a2 33,

421 422

He
Ne
A
Kr

10
18
36

2
2
2
2

2 2 4

2 2 4 ; 2 2 4

2 2 4; 2244 6

2 4

nk=

2, 22 3, 3.3 83

' *^

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 33

furnished by X-ray spectra and by the variations of the chemical and
physical properties of the elements according to their positions in the
periodic classification. Bohr's well-known table of electron orbits (1922)
was built up by taking account of these properties and considering the
formation of atoms by the successive capture and binding of electrons.
The orbits themselves were distinguished by the quantum numbers
«* (A; < n), and it was assumed that the orbits of the earlier bound electrons
were essentially unchanged when another electron was introduced into
the system. The classification was notably successful in accounting for
the appearance, at certain stages, of elements which deviate in their
properties from corresponding elements of the previous periods.

These ideas of Bohr have been remarkably developed in recent years,
especially through the work of Main Smith'^^ and Stoner,-* who inde-
pendently arrived at similar conclusions, chiefly from the consideration
of chemical and physical properties respectively. Whereas Bohr had
considered only the distribution of electrons among sub-levels defined by
the quantum numbers n^, Main Smith and Stoner suggested a distribution
among all the sub-levels which were known to exist from X-ray spectra,
and which were characterised by the three quantum numbers n^j. In
partial justification of the proposed new distribution of electrons in the
different groups, Stoner pointed to the remarkable analogy between the
accepted classification of X-ray levels and the terms of the optical doublet
spectra of the alkali metals which had previously been discussed by
Lande. This correspondence between X-ray and alkali terms may
perhaps be most conveniently shown in the form adopted by Wentzel,
as in Table VII.

The combinations between the X-ray terms are governed by precisely
the same selection rules as those between the optical terms, and it can
scarcely be doubted that the two types of doublets have a similar origin.
This analogy was regarded by Stoner as strong justification for assuming
a relation between the inner quantum number and the number of electrons
in a sub-group. His reasoning was as follows. In the case of alkali
doublets, if the inner quantum numbers are given the values shown above
{k and k~l), the number of components into which each term is split in
a weak magnetic field, as revealed by observation, is double the inner
quantum number {e.g. 2 for S, 2 for Pj, and 4 for P.,). Since, therefore,
there are 2j possible states of the atom corresponding to each energy
level %j (distinguishable, however, only when there is an external magnetic
field), it seems reasonable to suppose that the number of ' possible and
equally probable ' orbits % also is 2j ; i.e. that there are 2j electrons in
a complete sub-group n^j. Although the doublet term values seem to
depend primarily on the outermost electron orbits, Stoner suggested that
the rule might be of general application. The distinction between orbits
having the same values of ?i,^ was ascribed to differences in orientation
with respect to the atom as a whole.

These considerations led Stoner independently to an electron distribu-
tion similar to that proposed by Main Smith and differing in important

" Chemistry and Atomic Structure, London, 1924 ; Review of Chemistry and
Industry, March 28, 1924.

26 Phil. Mag., vol. 47, p. 719 (1924) ; vol. 49, p. 1289 (1925).

1926 ^

34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

details from that first given by Bohr. In the new scheme the inner
sub-levels are completed at an earlier stage, and there is a greater concen-
tration of electrons in the outer sub-levels of each group. For the present
the nature of the modification will be sufficiently indicated by comparing
the electron distribution among the sub-levels in helium, neon, argon and
krypton, according to the old and new arrangements.

With the_^' values assigned above, the total number of electrons required
to fill each n^. group is double the sum of the inner quantum numbers for
the group. From the relation of the j's and k's, however, the number may
also be considered as being equal to 2{2k — 1).

In this connection it should be observed that Sommerfeld and others
now assign half-integral values to j in term systems of even multiplicity,
so that, although integral values as above are most frequently adopted
for convenience of writing and printing, it is to be understood that they
are to be reduced by ^ for certain purposes. With this modification
the number of electrons in each sub-level is equal to 2j-\-l, which Sommer-
feld calls the ' quantum weight,' representing the number of possible
orientations of the angular momentum, j, in a magnetic field.

The new scheme of electron distribution was shown by Stoner to be
supported by a consideration of the intensities of X-ray lines, the absorption
of X-rays, chemical and magnetic properties, and optical spectra. It
retains all the essential features of Bohr's picture of the building up of
atoms, and is equally in accord with chemical considerations, as is especially
shown by the work of Main Smith.

The electronic arrangements of all the elements from 1 to 92, in their
normal states, may now be specified with considerable confidence. They
are indicated in Table IX, which, with slight modifications, has been
taken from a paper by Foote.^' The spectroscopic ground term associated
with the normal state of each neutral atom is shown in the fourth column,
the values directly determined from spectra being marked with an asterisk,
while the remainder are the ground terms predicted by the new theory of
complex spectra.

" Amer. Inst, Mining and Metallurgy, Sc. Paper No. 1547D (1926).

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

Table IX.
Abbanqememt of Electboms in Atoms.

1 1

•-5

Number of Electrons in Shell of Quantum Number %4'

•u

oxi

2 r^*

1 ( (

1 ■

a s

a a

L„

Liii

M„ M,„|

M„

N„

Nrx,

111

2^1

222

321

322

33,

333

4ii

421

422

Pk ■

«2

1
2

4
5
6

Li
Be
B

"Si*
^So
»Pi
»Po

*Si

»P2*

'Pi

2
2

2
2
2

1
2
2
2
2
2
2
2

1
2
2
2
2
2

2
3
4

3 11

^SJ*

4 1

4 2

'Pi*

"Po*

*si

'Pa*

"PS

^So

'Si*

»Df •

'Fa*

•FS*

's;*

•S5*

SD4*

*Fi *

3F4*

'Si*

'Pi*

»Po

«ss

»P.2

'Pg

^So

.D2

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Table IX.
Akeangement of Electrons in Atoms — {Continued).
K, L, and M Shells like Kr Complete with 28 Electrons.

■I

Number of Electrons in Shell of Quantum Number n^^t-

„l

->i

§~

o .n

O •■

^ a

N„

N„,

N„

Nvx

Nv„

o„

Or„

Olv

Pi I

421

422

432

4,3

4«

621

^22

63,

6„

37
38

2
2

4
4

1
2

2D,3 *

»F2*

»DJ*

'S,,*

'D?

(2).

(1)

"f;*

4Ff •

%♦

»SJ*

^So*

"Pi*

"Po*

*s?

'Pa

'Pf

^So

«Si*

«Df

»h'

»KV-

»Le

•LV-

'K,

"HI

•De

"HA,-

'K,;

«L%i.

«L,o

•K-V-

'He

«DS

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.

Table IX.

Areangemekt of Electrons in Atoms — (Continued).

K, L, M and N Shells like Lu Complete with 60 Electrons.

'e^

Number of Electrons in Shell of Quantum |

mic
imber

g .

is a

Number n^j^'

o„

0,v

P.n

Piv

5,1

021

622

^32

^33

6ai

622

632

='F,

*FJ

'Du*

"Si
«D8

2
3

2
1

»d;

^SJ*

'So*

spj*

"Po*

2 2

«S^

»P.2

»P§

»s;

"Si

'So

«D§

4 (1)

(2)

'F,"

4 1(2)

(2)

PAo

«Fi|

4 (3)

(2)

*Do

4 (4)

(2)

38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

With the attainment of a definite conception of the electronic structure
of the various atoms it becomes possible to approach the second of the
two problems referred to above, namely, the determination of the spectro-
scopic terms associated with a given distribution of electron orbits. The
first steps were taken by Russell and Saunders,''^- and independently in
part by Wentzel,^^ who, in a discussion of the so-called ' anomalous '
terms, which have already been mentioned, made one of the most
illuminating contributions to spectroscopy of recent years. To the three
^PP' groups of calcium already known two more were added by Russell
and Saunders, who were thus able to show that the five groups formed a
series which could be approximately represented by a Ritz formula. The
surprising result then appeared that, as referred to the regular triplet
limits, the later P' terms were numerically negative. The earlier P'
terms, having positive values, certainly originated in the neutral atom,
and it could scarcely be doubted that the later terms also had the same
origin.

The existence of these negative terms implies a greater equivalent
energy than that required for ionisation of the atom, and it follows that
it is possible for an atom to remain neutral while absorbing more energy
than that necessary to remove the series electron. Hence, in accordance
with a previous suggestion made by Bohr, but unknown to them, Russell
and Saunders concluded that the energy must be divided between two
(or more) electrons, each of which is displaced to a higher energy level,
without the removal of either of them. The detailed numerical evidence
led inevitably to the conclusion that both valence electrons might jump
at the same time from outer to inner orbits, and that the net loss of energy
would then be radiated as a single quantum, i.e. as monochromatic
emission. Epstein has shown that such simultaneous transitions of two
electrons, with the emission of a single quantum of energy, is con-
sistent with the correspondence principle, and similar combinations of
transitions into a single emission had already been found to be involved
in the theory of band spectra.

Experimental evidence in support of this view of the origin of the
anomalous terms in neutral atoms of the alkaline earths is afforded by
the fact that such terms do not appear in the spectra of the alkalis, where
the energy required to displace a second electron is known to be much
greater than that for the first. Additional evidence is provided by the
observation that they do occur in the spectra of most of the elements in
which enhanced lines are easily produced. It may be added, in further
support of the hypothesis, that PP' groups appear conspicuously in the
arc spectrum of silicon, in which lines of the ionised atom are entirely
wanting.

In their theoretical discussion Russell and Saunders showed that the
anomalous relations could be explained by assuming that the angular
momenta of the two valence electrons are quantised in space with respect
to each other, and their resultant quantised with respect to the angular
momentum of the residue of the atom.

Arising out of the work of Russell and Saunders, together with further

" Phys. Mev., vol. 22, p. 201 (1923) ; Astrophys. Jour., vol. 61, p. 38 (1925).
"» Phys. Zeit., vol. 24, p. 106 (1923) ; vol. 25, p. 182 (1924).

A.— IVIATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 39

contributions by Pauli,'" Goudsmit,^^ and Heisenberg,'" a general theory
of complex spectra has been developed in a practical form by Hund.^'
By a complex spectrum, from this point of view, is to be understood the
spectrum of an atom which contains more than one electron with k>l
in outer uncompleted n^ groups. Thus, while aluminium, with two of
the outermost electrons in 3i orbits and one in a 3., orbit, gives a ' simple '
spectrum, the next element, silicon, with tivo electrons in 3^ orbits, gives
a ' complex ' spectrum. The theory enables the deeper spectrum terms
corresponding to any specified configuration of electrons to be determined
with considerable certainty. While it adds nothing to the theory of
simple spectra, the theory is clearly of great importance in relation to
spectra of greater complexity. It shows, for example, that deep-lying
terms which must be classed as F terms on account of combination
properties and Zeeman effects, are quite compatible with low values of
the angular momenta of the individual electrons.

It is a fundamental feature of the new theory that, in a complex
spectrum, the quantum numbers which specify an electron orbit are quite
distinct from those which specify a spectroscopic term. The former are
five in number, viz., n, k^, k^, m^, m.^ The latter, which number three,
are represented by r, l,j. n is the principal quantum number as previously
defined ; k^ is equal to k — h (where k is the azimuthal quantum number) ;
jfcj may be either k^ — ^ or k^-i-^ ; and wij and m.^, which are expressible
in terms of k^ and ko, are the magnetic quantum numbers for weak and
strong fields respectively. The term quantum numbers are defined as
follows : r is half the multiplicity of the system ; I denotes the type of
term (1=^, |, f . . . for S, P, D . . . terms respectively) ; and j is the
inner quantum number which distinguishes the components of a given
I term. The theory consists of semi-empirical rules for deducing r, I, and j
for the deeper-lying terms from the quantum numbers of the electrons in
uncompleted groups.

The assignment of five quantum numbers to each electron orbit is due
to Pauli, who supplemented it by a hypothesis — generally known as Pauli's
principle — which asserts that no two electrons in an atom can occupy
orbits having the same values for these five quantities. This principle
can be shown to lead immediately to the scheme of electron distribution
suggested by Main Smith and Stoner ; so that in deducing spectroscopic
terms from the orbital quantum numbers given above, it is consistent,
and even necessary, to deal with the particular orbits given by Main Smith
and Stoner's scheme.

It is impossible here to give in detail the procedure to be followed
in deriving the terms ; when the rules are grasped it becomes mainly a
matter of arithmetic. There is a particular case, however, in which the
calculation is greatly simplified. If the normal state of an ionised atom
is known to be specified by values, r=R, Z=L, then the neutral atom,
formed by the addition of an electron in an n,. orbit (provided n, k are not

»» Zeit.f. Phys., vol. 31, p. 765 (1925).
» Zeit.f. Phys., vol. 32, p. 794 (1925).
'2 Zeit.f. Phys., vol. 32, p. 841 (1925).
s' Zeit. f. Phys., vol. 33, p. 345 ; vol. 34, p. 296 (1925).

40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

both equal to n, k of an electron already present), will contain deep-lying
terms for which r=Rii, and I has the several values, IL— A;+^,
iL-^l+t, . . . L+i-i/ _

The theory has been applied in great detail by R. H. Fowler and D. R.
Hartree^'' to the spectrum of ionised oxygen (0 II), and the terms to be
expected on the theory have been found to be in very satisfactory agree-
ment with the numerous regularities deduced from the analysis of the
observed spectrum.

By the application of these methods it has been possible, as indicated
in Table IX, to determine the probable ground terms of elements for which
the spectra have not yet been classified, or even for which no spectroscopic
observations are available. In cases where the arrangement of electrons
is most doubtful, such as osmium and iridium, on account of the near
equality of energies of different configurations, alternative arrangements
and ground terms are suggested. The precise arrangement in such
atoms can be decided only by further discussion of the spectroscopic data.

Grimm and Sommerfeld^^ have drawn attention to two general rules,
namely : (1) All elements with completed sub-groups (n^.^..) of electrons
have ground terms with j=0. (2) The element which immediately
precedes or follows one that completes such a sub-group has a value
of j for the ground term identical with the inner quantum number (k')
of the sub-group to which the last bound electron belongs ( = k' for odd,
and k'—h for even multiplicities). Mg (12), for example, has ^S^ for the
ground term, while the'preceding element, Na (11), has °S| corresponding
with 3ii, and the following element, Al (13), has ^F^ corresponding with
3.2J. In these simple spectra we also have l=k, but, as already indicated,
this does not hold for complex spectra. A partial exception to thfe second
rule is apparently found in comparing Rh (45) with Pd (46), but it is to
be noted that there is a discontinuity in the succession of configurations
at this part of the table.

There can be little doubt, however, that the foregoing table of electron
arrangements and ground terms is substantially correct, and it may
accordingly be utilised in the consideration of such questions as that of
chemical valencies. In the paper above mentioned, Grimm and
Sommerfeld have discussed the closing of sub-groups in relation to
valencies, and have concluded, among other things, that the completion
of the shell of two electrons must be taken into account, as well as that of
the shell of eight which occurs in the inert gases. Attention is also
directed to the elements copper, silver, and gold, which are of special
interest because they immediately follow nickel, palladium, and platinum,
respectively, these being the last of the ' triad ' elements of Group VIII
for which completed shells of eighteen electrons might have been expected.
The position with regard to silver is quite clear, because it has been found
that palladium has a ground term ^Sq, lying considerably below other
levels, and implying a completed shell more or less resembling that of
the inert gases. Thus the silver atom, with one additional electron,
behaves essentially like the alkali metals, which have underljdng com-
pleted groups or inert gas shells ; silver is correspondingly always

34 Proc. Roy. Soc, A, vol. Ill, p. 83 (1926).

35 Zeit.f. Pkys., vol. 36, p. 38 ; Nature, vol. 117, p. 793 (1926).

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 41

monovalent, and its spectrum contains relatively few arc lines which have
not been classified in the system of doublets. The spectrum of copper,
on the other hand, is more complex than that of silver ; in addition to a
doublet system similar to the doublets of the alkalis, it shows many lines
of a quartet system. The underlying shell cannot therefore be always
completed, and it must be assumed that, in addition to the valence
electron, one or more of the underlying electrons is easily displaced, giving
an uncompleted group resembling that of nickel, which has a *F^ term for
ground term. The two valencies are probably to be accounted for in this
way. A similar argument applies to gold, which is monovalent and
trivalent, since the preceding element, platinum, has a ^D term for ground
term, and the spectrum also is of greater complexity than that of silver.

An outstanding difficulty in connection with the scheme of atomic
structures embodied in Table IX is that the azimuthal quantum numbers
of Sommerfeld's theory of the regular X-ray doublets correspond with
inner quantum numbers, and not with the azimuthal quantum numbers of
the levels indicated. The difficulty is further emphasised by Millikan and
Bowen's^* important discovery that the regular doublet law is valid also
in the optical doublet and triplet spectra, which they have especially
investigated in the extreme ultra-violet, and by the further work of
Land^^' on the same subject.

An important step towards the removal of this and other theoretical
difficulties, however, appears to have been taken by Uhlenbleck and
Goudsmit^^ in a consideration of the possible effects of a rotation, or spin,
of each electron. In further developments of the theory by Heisenberg
and Jordan,^' it has, in fact, been found that the ' spinning electron,'
combined with the ' new quantum mechanics ' previously initiated by
Heisenberg, is competent to explain why the relativity doublet occurs
between two levels that differ in their inner quantum numbers, and not,
as in the original theory, in their azimuthal quantum numbers. At the
same time, it may be noted, the conception of a spinning electron suggests
a modified view of the fine structure of the hydrogen lines, which has been
further developed by Sommerfeld and Unsold*" and appears also to be
capable of giving an explanation of anomalous Zeeman effects.

The extraordinary theoretical developments in recent years, leading to
the prediction of certain features of the spectra of elements and the
structure of atoms, have possibly overshadowed the progress in experimental
spectroscopy. Nevertheless, much experimental work of immediate
importance to theory has been carried on, and much more is urgently
called for. It must not be forgotten that, notwithstanding their general
probability, the adopted electron configurations and the spectroscopic
terms which are deduced therefrom are by no means all finally established.
The theory is at present largely empirical, and important modifications
may be demanded when the structures of other spectra have been deter-
mined. Indeed, there are relatively few spectra for which the analysis

3« Phys. Rev., vol. 24, p. 209 (1924).

»' Zeit. f. Phys., vol. 25, p. 46 (1924).

38 Nature, February 20, 1926 ; see also Thomas, Nature, April 10, 1926.

»» Zeit.f. Phys., vol. 37, p. 263 (1926).

*" Zeit.f. Phys., vol. 36, p. 259 (1926).

42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

can be regarded as complete, and many which have not been explored.
at all. Naturally, the spectra in which the regularities have not yet been
traced are those which present special experimental difficulties. The
spectra of some of the rare earths, for example, consist of a vast number
of lines, and the determination of their structure will be extremely
laborious, demanding in the first instance great accuracy in wave-length
measurements. On the other hand, boron presents a difficulty because
its lines in the ordinary region of observation are too few for complete
classification. Very little is known also of the structure of the spectra
of the halogen elements, and much work remains to be done on the
classification of the lines of some of the inert gases, in continuation of
Paschen's masterly analysis of the spectrum of neon.

Furthermore, predictions which can be made remain to be tested ;
for example, the spectrum of doubly-ionised scandium, which, in opposition.
to earlier expectations, should not resemble that of neutral potassium, is.
as yet unknown. Results of great importance to theoretical progress with
respect to atom building may confidently be expected also from investiga-
tions of the spectra of other elements at successively higher stages of
ionisation, as witness the results already obtained for the spectra of
numerous elements in which the outermost shells of the atoms have been
reduced to a single valency electron. *i

The present resources of experimental spectroscopy would appear ta
be adequate for the elucidation of the majority of the outstanding
problems. For most elements the conditions of excitation can be sa
modified that the spectrum is well under control, so that all the lines, or
only a selection of them, can be produced at will. In the discussion of
regularities it is, in fact, often required to excite the complete spectrum,
including the fainter lines, for the completion of multiplet groups. On
the other hand, as an aid to the determination of ground terms, one
desires to produce the smallest number of lines that an element can be
induced to give.

The old, well-tried methods of exciting substances to luminosity — the
flame, arc, spark, and vacuum tubes — have by no means been superseded.
They provide the observer with a wide range of exciting energies, and
seem likely to continue long in use as standard methods applicable to
most of the elements. While the flame yields only the lines representing
combinations with the deepest terms of the spectrum, the spark with some
elements, such as silicon, is capable of exciting even trebly-ionised atoms,
and it is usually possible to sort out the lines associated with atoms at
different stages of ionisation by merely observing the extensions of the
lines from the tips of the electrodes. Experiments on the absorption
spectra of metallic vapours will no doubt also continue to be of effective
service in the identification of lines which originate in the normal atomic
energy levels, or in the verification of deductions as to the normal states
based upon analyses of the more complex emission spectra.

The older methods of observation, however, have been supplemented
by numerous other experimental arrangements. Some of these, like the

" A. Fowler, Phil. Trans., A, vol. 225, p. 1 (1925). MilUkan and Bowen, Phys.
Rev., Sept. 1924 ; Phil. Mag., May 1925. J. A. Carroll, Phil. Tram., A, vol. 225,
p. 357 (1925). D. R. Hartree, Roy. Soc. Proc, A, vol. 106, p. 552 (1924).

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 43

electric furnace so effectively employed at Mount Wilson by A. S. King,
have brought the spectrum of an element under more gradual control,
so that a valuable aid in the classification of the lines of a complicated
spectrum is provided by the order of their appearance as the temperature
is raised. From other experiments by A. S. King,*- it would appear that
an arc with a current of the order of 1,000 amperes, at 100 volts, has the
advantage, from the present point of view, that it exhibits with relatively
greater intensity the high temperature lines which are weak in ordinary
arcs ; moreover, the fact that the widenings and reversals of lines, which
are a prominent feature of this kind of arc, are of the same type in the same
multiplet, promises to be of distinct value in the analysis of complicated
spectra.

A valuable method of producing or modifying the spectra of certain
gases by admixture with helium was introduced by Merton" in his
experiments on the band spectrum of hydrogen. Among the most
remarkable results obtained by this method was the production, almost
free from enhanced lines, of spectra attributed to atoms of neutral carbon
and neutral nitrogen when a trace of one of these elements was present
in helium at a pressure of several centimetres.** Little was previously
known of these spectra, apparently because carbon compounds and
nitrogen, in ordinary vacuum-tube observations, mainly break down
directly from the molecular state (giving band spectra) to ionised atoms,
the spectra of which were already well known. Other observations have
shown that while the presence of helium is not essential for the develop-
ment of these spectra, the mixture method has the advantage of bringing
out the lines with greater completeness and intensity.

A further important application of this method to oxygen has been
made by McLennan and Shrum,** resulting in the appearance of a
previously unrecorded oxygen line at 5577 -35, apparently agreeing in
position with the well-known green line in the spectrum of the aurora.
Here again, the line could be obtained, but with much lower intensity, in
the absence of helium. A continuation of the experiments may be
expected to reveal other members of the singlet system, which probably
forms part of the spectrum of oxygen in company with the already known
triplet and quintet systems.

Among numerous other methods of controlling the spectra of certain
elements which have been successfully adopted, it will suffice to mention
the electrodeless ' ring discharge ' of Sir J. J. Thomson, in which different
spectra of the same element may be excited by varying the voltage and
the pressure in the bulb or tube. Zeeman and Dik,'"^for example, in this
way obtained the second spectrum of potassium entirely free from
arc lines, and, as expected from the displacement law, found it to be of
the same general character as that of argon. McLennan^' similarly found
it possible to obtain spectra of potassium apparently corresponding to the

*2 Astrophys. Jour., vol. 62, p. 238 (1925).
*3 Roy. Soc. Proc, A. vol. 96, p. 382 (1920).

** Merton and Johnson, Boy. Soc. Proc, A. vol. 103, p. 383 (1923). Merton and
Pilley, Roy. Soc. Proc, A, vol. 107, p. 411 (1925).
*5 Roy. Soc Proc, A, vol. 108, p. 501 (1925).
*« Proc. Kon. Acad. Amst., 1922, 1925.
*' Roy. Soc. Proc, A, vol. 100, p. 182 (1921).

44 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

' red ' and ' blue ' spectra of argon. By using a cylindrical tube for this
form of discharge, L. and E. Blocb^® were able to distinguish the lines of
mercury representing the first and second stages of ionisation by observing
the extension of the lines from the edges towards the centre ; and in the
same way, Esclangon** has sorted out lines attributed to four successive
spectra of cadmium.

Some of the newer methods have definitely brought additional spectra
within the range of laboratory experience. Thus, by electric bombard-
ment of lithium at a temperature of 1,000 deg. C, Werner^" succeeded in
producing the spectrum of ionised lithium, which had resisted all attempts
to obtain it by ordinary spark discharges. In accordance with theoretical
expectation, the new spectrum was resolvable into series having 4R for
the series constant, and was found to correspond closely with the spectrum
of neutral helium. A similar, but less complete, spectrum of ionised lithium
was also obtained by Schuler.^^ who made use of the ' hollow cathode '
method, and by Morand*^ with an apparatus in which the metal was
excited by anode rays.

One of the few sources which can at present be employed for observa-
tions in the extreme ultra-violet is that known as the 'vacuum spark,'
which has been extensively utilised by Millikan^^ and his colleagues. In
this method the spectrograph and spark chamber are highly evacuated,
and a powerful spark is made to pass between electrodes separated by
one or two millimetres or less. The spectra include lines representing
various stages of ionisation in a single photograph, but their disentangle-
ment can be effected with the help derived from the analysis of spectra
obtained under better controlled conditions in more accessible regions.
The interpretation of such spectra, however, has been greatly simplified by
the recent remarkable work of Bowen and Millikan,^* who, by utilising high
orders of the grating, have obtained a high degree of resolution of complex
groups, and wave-lengths of a degree of accuracy approaching that
obtainable in ordinary parts of the spectrum.

Another class of ' experiments,' as I have previously mentioned, is
provided by the heavenly bodies. Saha's theory of high-temperature
ionisation, further developed by Fowler and Milne^^ and by Miss C. H.
Payne, 8« has already been utilised in the prediction of the ionisation
potentials of certain multiply-ionised atoms for which the structures of
the corresponding laboratory spectra have not yet been sufficiently
determined to indicate the energies of the normal states. In this way it
is conceivable that we may obtain approximate values of the actual
energy levels in some of the complex atoms for which only relative values
can at present be directly determined from the spectra.

" Jour, de Phys., vol. 4, p. 333 (1923).
«» Dissert., Paris, 1926.

50 Nature, vol. 115, p. 191 (1925).

51 Die Naturwiss., July 11, 1924.

52 Comptes Rendus, vol. 178, p. 1528 (1924).
" Astrophys. Jour., vol. 52, p. 47 (1920), etc.
51 Phys. Rev., vol. 26, p. 150 (1925).

55 Mon. Net. R.A.S., vol. 83, p. 403 (1923) ; vol. 84, p. 499 (1924).
5^ ' Stellar Atmospheres,' Harvard Obs. Monographs, No. 1 (1925).

A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 45

Apart from the question of sources for spectroscopic study, Zeeman
effects, with the rules of Laude" for their interpretation, provide the
observer with a powerful means of determining the types of terms in many
spectra.

Enough has been said, I hope, to give some idea of the main lines of
development and present trend of spectroscopy. The analysis of spectra
with which I have been chiefly concerned is a fascinating pursuit, and the
establishment of a beautiful order out of an apparent chaos of spectrum
lines brings great satisfaction to the investigator. I have endeavoured
to show, however, that the analysis of spectra is not an end in itself, but
that under the guidance of quantum theory it has fundamental con-
tributions to make to our understanding of atomic structure and of the
periodic classification of the chemical elements. It appears not at all
improbable that some of the mysteries of chemical valency may also find
a solution in the classification of spectrum lines, and there are indications
that the conceptions of spectroscopy may ultimately extend our knowledge
of the structure of matter in the liquid and solid states.

It may be that in the future the theory of spectra will be so far
developed that it will become possible to calculate the positions and
intensities of the lines composing the spectrum of an element with greater
accuracy than they can be observed. We are, however, still very far
from this ideal, and meanwhile experiment and theory must go hand in
hand towards a better understanding of the problems that lie immediately
before us.

*' Back and Lande, Zeemaneffeki vnd Multipletistrvkiur, Berlin, 1925.

SECTION B.— CHEMISTRY.

THE SCOPE OF ORGANIC CHEMISTRY.

ADDRESS BY

PROF. J. F. THORPE, C.B.E., D.Sc, Ph.D., F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OP THE SECTION.

The chemistry of the compounds of carbon covers a wide field, wider
than that covered by any other element. Its scope embraces all living
matter, as well as the vast number of non-living substances which are
produced through the agency of life. Moreover, it includes a very great
number of compounds unrelated to life or to living processes which have
been built up by the chemist in the laboratory by methods he has devised.
Already some 200,000 definite compounds have been tabulated in
Richter's Lexicon and in the supplements thereto, and this number is
increased yearly by several thousands through the agency of a band of
zealous workers scattered over the globe. It may well be asked what is
the good of continuing to increase this already astonishing number ; and
is the expenditure of time, labour and energy justified which leads to the
discovery of some new fact having, apparently, no useful application to
any department of human activity ? The answers to these questions are
quite clear and definite. You must acquire a knowledge of the simple
before you can attack the complex with any hope of success. The element
carbon has been used by nature as the basis of organised life because the
capacity of carbon to combine with itself is shared by no other element,
and it is upon this capacity that nature has relied in order to build up
the tissues and reserve materials which form the living world around us.
Moreover, since the compounds of carbon containing a moderate number
of atoms of the element are usually crystalline or capable of becoming
crystalline, and there are obvious disadvantages attaching to the use of
potsntially crystalline substances as the basis of living matter, it has been
found necessary to employ the more complex carbon derivatives con-
taining many hundreds of elemental atoms, which by reason of their
high molecular complexities no longer possess, or seem capable of acquiring,
a crystalline structure, but belong to the class of jelly-like or colloidal
substances. Until we can determine how a small number of carbon atoms
combine one with the other we cannot hope to obtain any insight into
the manner in which the more complex natural substances are built up,
or any information regarding the way in which they are utilised to bring
about the changes occurring during animal and vegetable metabolism.

Structure.

The science of structural organic chemistry is only just fifty years old.
It was born when the genius of van't Hoff gave to the world the clue upon
which the three-dimensional formula we now use is based. It is, therefore,

B.— CHEMISTRY. 47

DO inconsiderable achievement to have gained in so short a time a know-
ledge of many of the reactions and properties of the more simple complexes
of carbon in combination with oxygen, nitrogen, and other elements.
But much yet remains to be done before we can attack with any real
hope of success the problems which the chemistry of nature presents.
It is true that the knowledge already gained has led to the synthetic
preparation of quite a number of natural products, many of which are of
service in relation to human needs. Many of the alkaloids, colourin''
matters like indigo and alizarine, camphor, and a large number of natural
products, have yielded the secrets of their structures and have been produced
by laboratory methods and, where necessary, on the factory scale. But the
synthesis of such compounds has not provided much insight into the
mechanism leading to their production in nature, and, indeed, the reason
for their occurrence in the plant is not understood. They are, moreover,
crystalline substances which either occur in the plant as such or are formed
by the hydrolytic fission of some more complex plant materials. Their
homogeneity is, therefore, not open to doubt, and their degradation into
known fragments and the rebuilding of these fragments into the original
substances, although by no means easy, is nevertheless comparatively
simple when the difficulties attending the investigation of more complex
natural products are taken into account. Even so, some of the simpler
type, for example, strychnine, still resist the attack of the chemist.

The Electronic Theory.

It is clear that our knowledge of the finer mechanism of reactions is
slight, and that, great as has been the advance made through the discovery
of van't Hofi, we are still at a loss to explain or predict the shades which
determine whether one particular type of reaction will be more, or less,
facile than another. The chief trouble seems to be that the electronic
theories, which are quite satisfactory in themselves, are not yet developed
so fully that they can include any quantitative statement relating to the
changes in the free energy of systems. Yet it is evident that any theory
of organic structure must conform to the modern physical conceptions of
matter. The principle of shared electrons is primarily justified by its
success in explaining the linking of atoms, i.e. valency, and by its successful
interpretation of the theory of co-ordination and ' onium ' salt formation.
The subsidiary hypothesis of electron displacement also provides a means
by which an explanation can be supplied to account for the ease of forma-
tion, stability, and general reactions of conjugated systems, thus placing
the hypothesis of Thiele on a sounder theoretical basis.

Butadiene.

CH.,=CH-CH=CHo

H H H H

II II II II
"C=C=C=C-

II 11

H H

(Thiele.) (Electronic formula.)

CHj : CH— CH

II
CH2 : CH-CH

CHj : CH-OH

II
CH-CH

(cis.)

(trans.)

48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

In the formula for butadiene shown above, the dotted line indicates
the interchange of an electron between the two end carbon atoms of the
system ; it is to be assumed that this condition provides a point of attack
and leads to the 1 : 4 addition which is characteristic of this substance.
Evidence has been sought in order to substantiate this view, and with,
this object an extended investigation on the properties of hexatriene has
been undertaken.

Hexatriene contains a three-conjugated system, and must, in accordance
with stereo-chemical theory, exist in two forms, which may be represented
diagrammatically thus :

=CH,

In accordance with the Thiele hypothesis these would be conjugated
thus :

CH-, : CH— CH CHa : CH— CH

II II

CH2 : CH-CH CH-CH=CHj

• m

and there should thus be no difference in the behaviour of the two forms
towards additive reagents such as bromine.

On the other hand, if these two forms are expressed in terms of the
electronic hypothesis thus :

H H H H H H

II II II II II II

H=C=C=C H=C=C=C

H=C=C=C C=C=C=H

II 11 II II II II

H H H H H H

the cis form, in which the two terminal atoms are near together, might
be expected to share the electron, as shown by the dotted line, whilst the
trans form, having the terminal carbon atoms too remote from one another
to enable this interchange to take place, would react in the form

H H H

II II II
H=C=C=C H

II II II
H H H

There can be no doubt that the hexatriene prepared by van Romburgh
is the trans form. This, as its discoverer showed, adds on bromine in the

positions 3 : 4 to give

CH2=CH-CHBr

CHBr-CH=CH,

B.— CHEMISTRY. 40

It is, therefore, not a conjugated system in the sense that butadiene is
a conjugated system.

We have now succeeded in isolating cis-hexatriene, and are studying
the action of bromine on it. If, as is to be anticipated, the addition takes
place in the 1 : 6 positions, direct evidence will be available in favour of
the electronic hypothesis. The work is, however, exceedingly difficult
because, unlike those of the trans series, the cis compounds are liquids
and therefore dilficult to identify. Moreover, they are unstable and
readily polymerise to resins on keeping. There is no doubt, however,
that these difficulties will be overcome.

In the same way the Thomson^ formula for benzene provides an
expression for the intermediate state as postulated by Kekule, and renders
the so-called centric formula, which is meaningless, now unnecessary.

Benzene.

(Kekule.

)

(Centric.)

H : C C ; H
„ .1 l,H

(Thomson.)

There can be no question that the distribution of electrons among the
carbon atoms and other atoms of organic molecules must determine the
reactions of the complexes involved, and future research will no doubt
lead to an advance in our knowledge concerning the causes which promote
or retard this distribution.

The ductility of the carbon to carbon bonds which have now been
clearly demonstrated enables us to impart strains to certain parts of an
organic molecule at will, and it is reasonable to assume that such strain
when once set up will be shared as far as possible equally by all the atoms
of the system involved. If this distribution is, as Robinson postulates,
effected by a restricted flow * of electrons from one atom to another in
the molecule, we have, at any rate, a definite picture of the process which
the mind can grasp ; and if the distribution leads ultimatelj^— as is to
be surmised— to the establishment of polar characteristics at different
parts of the molecule, which will determine reactivity at those points, we
are in a fair way to reconcile the views of various contending schools and
to reach a general hypothesis acceptable to all chemists, and which may
even satisfy the physicists. It seems that, despite the organic chemist's
proneness and ability to distort the molecules with which he deals, nature
has provided a means by which a certain degree of molecular equilibrium
can be attained. Nevertheless it will be by the investigation of the
conditions leading to the setting up of strain and of the effect produced

' See also H. Kaufimann {Die Valenzlehre, 1911, p. 539).

2 Robinson considers that an electron may leave its 'moormga' on one of the
atoms which holds it but never on both.

1926 E

50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

thereby that we shall gain the most information regarding the chemistry of
carbon structures in the near future. The course of a reaction in
organic chemistry which involves an equation such as the following

^,^^000 Et.
CHa.CHa.CHjBr + CHNa

-^ COO Et.

->- NaBr + etc.

is determined by the tendency to form NaBr — the organic residues have
to make the best they can of the situation, and the manner in which they
will combine with themselves or react each with the solvent is dependent
on the influence of many factors. Undoubtedly there will be a tendency
to produce the most stable system and the one whose formation involves
the greatest loss of free energy, but there must be a possible mechanism,
and this involves the polar factors. Even these cannot force a group
into a position in which there is no room for it, and therefore the effect of
polarity must always be dependent on steric conditions. No doubt polar
conditions determine the order of priority of a number of possible arrange-
ments, but it is the steric condition that determines which of these arrange-
ments shall be followed.

Strainless Systems.

It is reasonable to assume that the organic substances that occur in
nature as such are produced by means which involve the least expenditure
of energy, and that they are, therefore, strainless. Among such natural
products there are many containing carbon rings belonging to ring systems
which cannot normally be produced without distorting the carbon tetra-
hedral angles of the component carbon atoms, and thus imparting intra-
molecular strain to the compounds formed. Nevertheless it is inter-
esting to note the means adopted by nature to relieve this strain and thus
to confer equilibrium and stability on quite unlikely ring systems. Ring
systems stabilised in this way are found frequently among terpenes ;
two, namely camphor and pinene, need only be mentioned to illustrate
the general method. In camphor the bridged ring is stabilised by the
presence of two dimethyl groups, and in pinene, where the junction of
the inner ring has to take effect in the position 3, the presence of a double

C . CHs C . CH,

/ \ //\

CHs CO CH CH

QCHs).,

CHs
\

CH, CHa

/ \

C(CH3)

!
CH.,

CH CH

(Camphor.) (Pmene.)

bond on the shoulder of the external ring is necessary. Still more remark-
able examples are afforded by more complex natural ring systems. For
instance, there is a substance named civetone, which is extracted from

B.— CHEMISTRY. 51

certain glands of the Civet-cat. There is no doubt as to its structure,
which has been shown to contain a 17-membered ring, thus :

CH. (CHa),

II )^C0

CH. (CHa),

the evidence of structure being" derived both from a study of the degrada-
tion products of the substance and also by its recent synthesis. If this
compound is set up on the tetrahedral models, thus :

it will be found to form a triplanar figure which is strainless ; the condition
being produced by the presence of the double bond in the position shown.

Biochemistry.

In its earliest days the science of organic chemistry dealt only with
those compounds which were derived from natural sources, and it was
regarded as certain that such substances could only be produced through
the agency of life and by no other means. Since then this theory has
been shown to be wrong by the preparation in the laboratory of many
substances identical with those formed during the operation of life pro-

E 2

52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

cesses. Nevertheless, the more complex substances which nature utilises
in building up her animal and vegetable structures still show no signs of
yielding the secrets of their constitutions, or the mechanism by which
they are produced. Indeed, although we can imitate in the laboratory
certain natural operations such as the hydrolysis of starch to glucose,
we are still quite ignorant of the means by which glucose is converted, by
the appropriate enzyme, into alcohol and carbon dioxide, neither can we
imitate this process in the laboratory.

When once the chemist has passed beyond the crystalline and the
distillable he enters a region full of difficulties, because he has few means
either of purifying the materials with which he has to deal, or of deter-
mining their homogeneity when they have been purified. These are the
real difficulties which confront the biochemist when he approaches his
subject from the structural side of organic chemistry. Biochemistry is
in the unique position of being both a descriptive or observational science
and also one of the experimental sciences. From the biological side it has
at its disposal the wealth of knowledge acquired by the physiologists and
pathologists, and from the chemical side it is in touch with the recorded
experience of several generations of organic chemists. If biochemistry is
to justify its name it must carry out its function of bringing into line the
discoveries of the physiologists with organic chemical structure, for by
this means only will it be possible to gain an insight into the chemistry
of natural processes which it is the object of biochemistry to discover.
It is far from my object to disparage the wonderful work which has been
done and is being done bj' physiologists and pathologists in their attack
on the mechanism of normal and abnormal life processes. Their record
speaks for itself. But too little is being done to approach the problems
from the purely organic chemical side, and too few of the people engaged
in biochemical research have an adequate knowledge of organic chemistry
or the methods of the organic chemist. The number of organic chemists
who are co-operating with biologists in their attack on natural processes
is too few. Indeed, the very difficult question arises here as to how best
to organise methods for dealing with problems which are essential border-
land problems between two great sciences. I do not propose on this
occasion to discuss the vexed question of the chemical engineer, but actually
the analogy between this hybrid and the biochemist is fairly close. Is the
biochemist to be a biologist with a knowledge of chemistry, or is he to be
a chemist with a knowledge of biology ? I refer, of course, to the method
of training required for a man or woman who proposes to take up bio-
chemical research during the fourth year. Given twenty years and the
requisite capacity it is, of course, possible for a man to acquire sufficient
acquaintance with both sciences to render him an effective worker in the
borderland field, although here again the temperament which promotes
enthusiasm for research in the experimental sciences and that which
leads to initiative in the descriptive sciences is not usually found in the
same individual. As knowledge increases the need for specialisation must
also increase, because the time factor — that is, the time during which it
is possible for a student to undergo training — cannot be prolonged beyond
a certain period. Even at the present time it is an open question whether
it is possible to give a student a special training in more than one science

B.— CHEMISTRY. 53

and in the sciences subsidiary thereto in the time available, and this
problem will become more acute as knowledge increases. It has been
suggested that we should revert to the older method by which a student
was instructed in, say, three sciences without any special training in anv
one of them, and doubtless this method was a good one for the require-
ments of those times. But the day of the universalist is past, and general
scientific culture has become a luxury of the leisured classes. It is only
by the aid of the specialist that, nowadays, we can hope to obtain advances
in knowledge either in the sciences or in the sciences applied to industry.
It seems that the best method to attack problems in the borderland
subjects is by co-operation between two types of trained investigators.
In the case of biochemistry, for example, by the provision of trained
students of two kinds, the one trained in physiology but with a sufficient
knowledge of organic chemistry to promote sympathy with and knowledge
of the chemist's point of view, and the other trained as an organic chemist
with a similar knowledge of the methods and requirements of the
physiologist. The former would be a trained physiologist who would
devote his final year to organic chemistry, the latter an organic chemist
who would devote his final year to a study of physiology. This is, of
course, no new idea, but one which is being carried out in at least one
institution in this country in connection with other borderland subjects.
But it is the absence of any real attempt to approach biochemical problems
from the chemical side that renders it particularly desirable that the need
for some such scheme should be emphasised. It is true that the fault is
largely on the side of the organic chemists, who, for the most part, seem
appalled by the difficulties attaching to the study of natural processes.
The difficulties are indeed great, but not insurmountable. We are far
from gaining any insight into the meaning of life, but it is not unlikely
that we shall, in the near future, obtain some information regarding the
mechanism of the action of the enzyme, the important agent in the non-
living transformation of living matter into chemical products. It may
be that organic chemists are waiting to see how Willstiitter, who has
already made great progress in enzyme chemistry, will surmount the
difficulties confronting him, and it may well be that this great organic
chemist will introduce new methods of attack which will open up fresh
fields for investigation. '

Analytical,

Except for the substitution of gas for charcoal, it cannot be said that
the ordinary methods of analysis employed by the organic chemists have
changed much since the days of Liebig. They have been modified,
notably by Dennstedt, and more recently some have adopted the micro-
chemical methods introduced by Pregl, but the older methods, for example
the long and tedious process for the estimation of halogens by the method
of Carius, are still in vogue in many of our laboratories and are taught
to the students. In any case the usual operations entailed by the estima-
tion of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and the halogens require
considerable time, which has not been materially shortened by the intro-
duction of the less cumbersome methods due to Dennstedt. Pregl's
methods, in which a very small quantity of material is used requiring

54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the provision of a special type of balance, have been tried in many-
laboratories, and have found favour, it is understood, in several of them,
more particularly abroad. But the general experience has been that the
technical skill required to obtain good results is acquired only after long
practice, and that whereas the methods are useful for gaining an indication
of structure when the quantities of material at hand are so small as to
necessitate their use, yet when a sufficient quantity of substance is available
the older methods are more reliable and more easily carried out. It is
interesting to note that the new methods which have been introduced by
Prof, ter Meulen, of Delft, are going to be described to us by Prof, ter Meulen
himself, who is fortunately with us at this meeting. Prof, ter Meulen will
give an account of his methods on Tuesday morning, and they will be
shown in actual operation during the soiree on Tuesday evening. Chemists
will then see that a great saving of time can be effected by methods which
can not only be used to analyse the small quantities employed by Pregl,
but also quantities of 0.1 grm., such as organic chemists have been accus-
tomed to use in the past, and which have been shown to produce the most
accurate results.

The Utilisation of Forest Products.

The immense number of organic compounds distributed among the
plants, trees, and grasses which form the forests and jungles of the world
offer a wide field for research which has still much to yield. Our know-
ledge of the medicinal properties of organic substances and the various
uses to which they could be put in the service of mankind did not come
to us through any effort of the chemist, but as the outcome of a process
of trial and error which is as old as the human race itself. These products
were obtained from vegetable materials present in the forests, and as
time went on they were extracted in a form possessing some degree of
purity, and the plants containing those with specially valuable properties
were cultivated for their production. As soon as a theory of organic
structure was evolved upon which prediction could be based, these useful
products were subjected to close investigation, and in several cases they
were prepared by laboratory means. As an outcome several of them, such
as indigo and alizarine, were found to be capable of production more
economically by the chemical method than by the processes of life, and
the natural substances were rapidly replaced by the artificial products.
Others still resist all efforts to unravel their structures, and remain still
unsynthesised. Nevertheless it has been by a study of the chemical
structure of natural products that much has been learnt regarding the
relation between chemical composition and physiological action, and
although it may not have been found possible economically to prepare
the natural substance itself, the clue revealed by the determination of
structure has led to the production of other substances which have not
only shown the properties of the natural compound in an enhanced form,
but have also exhibited other valuable physiological effects. The
determination of structure has, therefore, two objects — to prepare the
natural substance and to ascertain the particular arrangement of the
atoms in the molecule which confers on it the properties which determine
its value. The determination of the striicture of indigo led not only to

B.— CHEMISTRY. 55

the production of the blue natural indigo, but enabled indigoes of every
shade of the spectrum to be prepared as commercial products. The
determination of the structure of cocaine revealed the molecular complex
which conferred on this substance its power to act as a local anaesthetic,
and has led to the production of a number of other substances possessing
this valuable property, but without the special disadvantages attaching
to the use of the natural substance. Examples of this kind are numerous
and should be increased. A systematic examination of our forest products
would undoubtedly lead to the discovery of many others, and would
provide opportunity for the investigation of many other important
problems, such as, for example, the utilisation of forest grasses as a source
of power alcohol.

Systematic team-work research by organic chemists in close association
with botanists is required, and now that the Forest Production Research
Board of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research is in active
operation, no doubt this branch of its work will receive attention.

Petroleum.

The complex hydrocarbons which form the main constituents of crude
petroleum belong to a section of organic chemistry at present too little
explored. Although many millions have been made through the produc-
tion and sale of petroleum products, it is safe to say that the percentage
of profit devoted to research in oil products has been infinitesimal. It is
true that in the United States large sums are given by the oil interests
towards research in other subjects, but until quite recently none of these
was, curiously enough, given for the purpose of improving our knowledge
of the science on which the utilisation and isolation of petroleum products
depends. The reason is not far to seek. The apparently inexhaustible
supplies of petroleum rendered it unnecessary to devise means for
economical working. The crudest and most wasteful methods were
employed, because economy and the conservation of the natural product
were not paying propositions. This applies not only to the methods
used in fractionisation, but to those employed for the purpose of ' cracking '
the higher boiling fractions into liquids of lower boiling-point. For at
the present moment it is the fraction up to 200° C. which is the important
product, because it is the ' petrol ' of the internal-combustion engine.
Time was, before the introduction of this particular machine, when the
light fraction from crude petroleum was a drug on the market, and in
many cases was actually set on fire at the refinery because no use could
be found for it. In those days the chief product was the kerosene fraction
which was used as lamp-oil. At the present time the rapid increase in
the use of the motor-car for personal and commercial transport indicates
that at no distant period, if progress continues to be made in the same
direction, the amount of the ' petrol ' fraction will be insufficient for the
world's needs. This point has already been reached in America, where
approximately 70 per cent, of the world's consumption of petrol (gasoline)
is effected. During 1925 the consumption of petrol in the U.S.A.
approached 800,000,000 gallons a month, which is about twelve times
the amount consumed in this country. It has been stated that one in
every five persons in the States — men, women, and children — possess a

56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

motor-car,' and, be this as it may, it is evident that to meet such a colossal
consumption means have to be found to utilise the higher boiling fractions,
and, indeed, even the residues from the distillation processes. This
' cracking ' operation is now carried out on an enormous scale by numerous
processes, all subject to patents, but differing from one another only
slightly on the question of principle. All depend on the well-established
fact tlaat hydrocarbons of high molecular weight will break down into
those of lower molecular weight if they are subjected to the requisite
degree of temperature. Pressure appears to play an important part in
the character of the product, as does also the surface action of the container
or material used in the container to promote surface action. All are
wasteful, because little or no research has been carried out on the true
chemical nature of the cracking operation. Much permanent gas is
always produced, consisting for the most part of ethylene and propylene.
In the States the ethylene is allowed to go free, because its obvious
utilisation in the form of ethyl alcohol is attended with difficulties, but
the propylene is usually absorbed in sulphuric acid, and thus converted
into isopropyl alcohol, useful as a solvent. The production of these two
unsaturated hydrocarbons provides a clue to the mechanism of the
cracking process which is of some significance. If you break a long chain-
saturated hydrocarbon one of your products must be an unsaturated
hydrocarbon, and it is evident that cracked spirit contains a considerable
proportion of such unsaturated bodies. Moreover, the cracking processes
at present in use do not produce aromatic hydrocarbons, and it is on the
presence of a proportion of these aromatic hydrocarbons that certain
special properties of petrol depend. For example, the tendency at the
present time is to produce for motor-cars internal-combustion engines of
increased compression ratio, in order mainly to diminish the petrol con-
sumption and thus increase mileage per gallon consumed. For some
reason, which research has not yet ascertained, the use of petrol which
does not contain the right quantity of aromatic hydrocarbons of the
benzene type leads to ' detonation,' ' knocking,' or ' pinking ' when ignited
in cylinders giving more than a small compression ratio. This detriment
diminishes the value of cracked spirit as such for any but low-compression
engines, and many have been the devices suggested in order to overcome this
difficulty. A vast number of substances, selected more or less at random,
have been tried as ' anti-knock ' materials, and as an outcome it has been
found that one, namely lead tetraethyl, possesses the property, when
present in exceedingly small quantities, of preventing the ' detonation '
of the explosion mixture in the cylinder. For a time lead tetraethyl
(ethyl gas) fell under a ban in the States owing to a fatal accident which
attended the spilling of a certain amount in one of the American factories,
but it is understood that further investigation has led to a revision of
the view first formed, and that considerable quantities of ' ethyl gas '
are now being used. The writer remembers visiting Wilmington in 1924,
when some 500 gallons of lead tetraethyl were being made daily. Although
there was naturally a strong smell of the material in the factory building,
and he remained for some hours there, no ill-efiects were noticed. It is

s Cars registered on January 1, 1925, were: U.S.A., 17,591,981; Canada, 638,794;
Great Britain, 1,094,534.

B.— CHEMISTRY. 57

obvious that the conditions which produce ' knocking,' and the reason why
certain substances are ' anti-knock ' compounds, and why the presence
of aromatic hydrocarbons prevent the phenomenon, must be made the
subject of systematic research.

The question is also one of national importance, because in the case
of high-compression engines, such as those used in aeroplanes, it is essential
that a petrol should be used containing a high percentage of aromatic
hydrocarbons. In war-time these aromatic compounds will be required
for the manufacture of explosives, and it is quite certain that there will
not be enough for both purposes.

Nevertheless, it must be remembered that it is only at the moment
that the low boiling fraction of petroleum is the chief marketable product.
It is probable that progress in the future will tend more and more to
produce a motor-car engine of the Diesel type, or one having a carburettor
capable of effectively vaporising the higher fractions of petroleum. In
these circumstances it may well be that the low fraction will become the
less important part of crude petroleum, and that, instead of having to
resort to ' cracking, ' a process of synthesis, by which the lower hydrocarbons
can be converted into higher ones, will have to be adopted. As a matter
of fact there are methods known by which this can be effected. Pure
i'soamylene can, for example, be converted into diamylene by interaction
with stannic or aluminium chloride, and the process can be carried
further, so that perfectly good lubricating oils can now be made by the
polymerisation of the lower unsaturated hydrocarbons.

Polymerisation and depolymerisation are, therefore, the two operations
which the petroleum industry must investigate and establish on a firm
■scientific basis by research, so that it may be in a position to supply the
public need for any particular form of engine which the engineer may
■evolve. Especially is it desirable to ascertain under what conditions
polymerisation leads to the formation of aromatic and naphthenic hydro-
carbons. Considerable attention has been drawn within recent times to
what may be termed in general the Bergius processes for depolymerising
organic substances. The operation, which consists in heating the material
under high pressure in the presence of hydrogen, was introduced in the
first instance for the treatment of coal. There can be no question that
great and fundamental changes are brought about in organic substances
by the treatment whether a catalyst is present or not, and that a wide
field for research is opened up thereby, but it is doubtful if, at the moment,
general operations of this type can be regarded as commercial propositions.
The plant is exceeding costly and the conditions subject to wide variations
which are difl&cult to control. Actually it has been ascertained that in
the ' cracking ' of the kerosene fraction of petroleum hydrogen is un-
necessary, and can be replaced by nitrogen without affecting the character
of the final product.

Little is known of the constituents of crude petroleum, or, indeed,
of the fractions into which it can be separated after purification and
distillation. Some of the simpler hydrocarbons of the pentane and
hexane type have been isolated and the presence of cyclic compounds has
been established. Many of them are classed under the head of ' naphthenes, '
but these are of uncertain structure. No doubt many are present in the

58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

crude oil, but it is certain that others are formed during the distillatiou
process. It is clear that much opportunity for research work offers itself
here, and it is probable that small alterations in the method of distillation
may cause deep-seated changes in the character of the distillate, causing
it to be of greater service for particular purposes. The occurrence of
hydrocarbons of the naphthalene series in petroleum products has also
been clearly established. The higher fractions which constitute the
valuable lubricating oils also need attention, for it is now certain that
viscosity bears no relation to oiliness, that is, the capacity for acting as
an efficient lubricator. The addition of small quantities of ' polar '
substances of the type of fatty oils or acids confers increased oiliness on
these compounds, and although we are now gradually reaching a stage
when we know more about the effects of such ingredients, the field for
research is still a large and important one.

The formation of free carbon occurs during both the distillation and
' cracking ' processes, in some cases to a very considerable extent. The
utilisation of this carbon for the purposes of making electrodes is an
important part of the industry, and the formation of carbon in a condition
in which it can be used by the rubber-tyre manufacturers is also likely
to become practicable as an outcome of the thermal decomposition of
hydrocarbons.

At present we know nothing about the structure of the hydrocarbons
present in the lubricating oils. Indeed, it seems possible that these may
net be long-chain hydrocarbons with which the organic chemist is familiar,
but rather polymerised products formed from unsaturated components
liable to be formed or destroyed under comparatively mild conditions.
The relative ease with which the oil in the engine sump of a motor-car
loses its oiliness through continued use is not characteristic of the stability
usually associated with an organic hydrocarbon. Recent researches on
the formation of dimeric products of the simple type

XCH=CHY XCH-CHY XCH-CHY

-^1 I or I I

XCH=CHY XCH-CHY YCH-CHX

show that the ease of formation and stability of such systems depend on
the composition of X and Y. In some cases stable complexes of this
kind are formed which can be distilled without undergoing disruption, but
which are broken down slowly on prolonged heating even at a moderate
temperature.

In the complex hydrocarbons under discussion the letters X and Y
represent hydrocarbon residues, probably themselves containing other
unsaturated linkages, and under the conditions of high pressure which
were probably present during the formation of natural petroleum it is
possible many of these four-membered rings are formed in a single
molecule, for example :

XHC - CH - CH2 - CH - CHX

II II

YHC-CH-CH2-CH-CHY

an expression which, incidentally, indicates the manner in which the
cyclohexane complex can also be produced by a similar process. So far

B.— CHEMISTRY. 59

as the chemistry of petroleum is concerned this is at present mere surmise,
which must be investigated as soon as practicable. The view is, however,
rendered plausible by the work which has been carried out at the Imperial
College during the past five years, which shows conclusively that the
formation and stability of ring systems depend on the character of the
groups attached to the carbon atoms forming the rings, and are not merely
dependent, as Baeyer supposed, on the tetrahedral angle of the carbon
atoms involved. It is probable also that a similar explanation may account
for the ' naphthenes,' and will provide a general explanation of polymerisa-
tion and depolymerisation upon which it will be possible to base improved
technical processes.

The composition of petroleums varies in accordance with their origin.
Some are rich in aromatic hydrocarbons, and some are practically sulphur
free ; others contain so much of the last-named element as to render them
unfit for use. The Kimmeridge shale oils are instances of the latter type,
although doubtless if it were a paying proposition the sulphur could be
readily eliminated from these products. The oil from the Persian,
Mexican, and Ohio fields contains sulphur, which has to be eliminated
during the process of refining. Among the sulphur compounds present
mercaptans and thioethers have been identified, although whether they
are present in the crude oil as such or whether they are formed during
the refining process is still an open question. Their removal by washing
with liquid SO.^, an operation which is now carried out on a very large
scale at the refineries at Skewen, is of interest.

It is clear, therefore, that the need for systematic research into the
character of petroleum products is urgent, and it is gratifying to note
that the Anglo-Persian Oil Company has established a research laboratory
at Sunbury-on-Thames, in which the important principles underlying the
industry have been and will be studied.

Dyestuffs and Intermediates.

Prior to the war Germany manufactured three-fourths of the dyestuffs
required for the world's markets. Of the remaining one-fourth, one-half
was made from German intermediates and was, therefore, dependent on
Germany. Switzerland, although without a domestic source of raw
materials, ranked second with about 7 per cent, of the world's production.
Great Britain produced about one-tenth of her requirements, and France
produced in French-owned and operated plants from 10 to 15 per cent,
of her cousiimption. In order to meet the patent requirements of France
and Great Britain, German manufacturers operated plants in those
countries where the final assembling operations were completed. The
small dye industry of the United States was almost entirely dependent
upon German intermediates. At the present time Great Britain produces
80 per cent, of the dyestuffs required for our own use, and we are, therefore,
in a position to review the conditions which have led to this remarkable
change and to consider the procedure necessary to strengthen it. It
cannot be said that any fundamental advance in the chemistry of the
dyestuffs has been made since Bohn discovered indanthrene in 1901,
although great advances have been made since then in the preparation of
new colours belonging to this and other known series. Consequently the

60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

researcli work necessary in order to establish our position as a dye-making
country has been mainly along known lines, involving the extension of
reactions which had already been established rather than the discovery
of new ones. Nevertheless it is no inconsiderable achievement for our
research chemists to have established a position such as that indicated
above in so short a space of time, for many of the preparations, the details
of which could only be found in the patent literature, had to be worked
out de novo and the correct conditions found for their adaptation to the
technical scale. It is probably along the lines of decreased cost of produc-
tion that research work in the immediate future will be mostly engaged,
and especially is this the case with the intermediate products from which
the dyestuffs are derived. Moreover, the intermediate products are of
the greatest importance for other industries, for example, the Fine Chemical
Industry, the Perfumery, and the Explosives Industries, and any improve-
ment in the processes for their manufacture or the production of new
compounds having enhanced value from the commercial point of view is
of the greatest importance to all these industries alike. The parent
substances of the intermediate products are the hydrocarbons of coal-tar
or the coke-oven by-products. The operations required to convert these
hydrocarbons into the finished intermediates often involve many stages,
any one of which depends for its cost on the purity and yield of the product,
when large quantities are involved a difference of 1 per cent, in the yield
may lead to a considerable difierence in the cost of production, and it
is obvious that reactions which yield their products in a state of purity
sufficient for the market or further stage production' without subsequent
treatment make for reduced cost in production. There is thus a wide field
for research into the improvement of technical methods which may well
occupy the attention of our dyestufis chemists for some time to come.
On the other hand, the question of fundamental research into new
processes, both for the preparation of new intermediates and new dyestufis,
must not be lost sight of. The intermediate determines the character of
the dyestufi, and it is always possible that a new intermediate may be
discovered which will yield a dyestufi with just that difference of shade
as to catch the public fancy, and which will lead to the replacement
of the older dyestufi on the market. The sulphonic acids of the
naphthol, naphthylamines and amino-naphthols are cases in point.
These substances are used extensively for the preparation of azo
dyes. There are a great number of these compounds theoretically
possible, but only a few have found technical application, owing mainly
to the high cost of producing the others. The high cost is nearly
always caused by poverty of yield, an objection which may be at any
time removed by the discovery of an improved process. The same
argument holds good for the dyestuffs themselves. It is futile to
say that the vast field of organic chemistry has been thoroughly explored
f r the production of new types. At any moment one or other of the
men or women engaged in fundamental research may repeat Bohn's
discovery of 1901, and obtain a new compound which will be the fore-
runner of a new series of dyestufis. It is perhaps too much to ask an
industry which is struggling to hold its own to expend large sums on the
prosecution of abstract research, most of which will be of no use to it.

B.— CHEMISTRY. Gl

but it is not too much to expect that the industry will take every means
to foster and encourage abstract research in our university institutions,
and even to give some hint as to the direction in which its experience
leads it to think that advances may be made. There is at present n"b
organisation which can bring the manufacturers of dyestuffs and inter-
mediates into touch with the work being carried on in our university
laboratories, and it is possible that if at the present time a valuable dis-
covery were to be made it would be unrecognised as such, and, following
the usual course of academic research, would be published and thus lost
to the country. What is required is a lead from manufacturers which
will indicate the matters which they regard of importance, but which
they do not consider as likely to yield results sufficiently quickly to justify
them in employing their own research stafE for investigating them. This
aspect is of all the more importance at the present time, when organic
chemistry is entering on a new phase which will undoubtedly revolutionise
many of the existing processes of manufacture. It is now recognised that
the presence of a small quantity of a catalyst may either alter the course
of a reaction or may lead it to proceed to completion where otherwise a
totally inadequate yield would be obtained. The catalyst may either
be added or the containing walls of the reaction vessel may act in this
capacity. The well-known example of the oxidation of naphthalene to
phthalic anhydride by vanadium pentoxidc is an example of this, but
similar cases are continually recurring, and it has only recently been
found that the classical method for preparing ketones by the distillation
of the calcium salt of the appropriate acid can be utilised in the most
unexpected directions if the thorium salt instead of the calcium salt is
employed. It is perhaps appropriate to conclude this section by the
following quotation from the United States Tariff Commission Report,
No. 32 :—

' The acute shortage of dyes arising in the various dye-consuming
markets, due to the disappearance of German dyes shortly after the
beginning of the war, was soon followed by prices of unprecedented levels,
while certain dyes were not to be had at any price. This dye famine
threatened the activities of the vast textile industries, as well as other
industries dependent upon dyes for their operation. The manufacture of
dyes was soon entered upon in the United States, Great Britain, France
and Italy, and each of these countries has developed a dye industry capable
of supplying from 80 to 90 per cent, of its requirements and has, in
addition, exported significant quantities of dyes since the war. As a
result of this remarkable period of expansion and development the world's
present capacity to produce dyes is nearly double that of the pre-war
period. This existing capacity to produce over and above normal require-
ments is resulting in an era of severe competition in the world's markets
which may eliminate many of the plants now in operation. The German
industry has certain advantages over the industries of the new producing
countries, including cumulative experience, unified organisation for buying
and selling, and lower manufacturing costs. The high post-war price
levels of dyes exported from Germany would appear to indicate a strong
probability of price reductions during the next few years. The com-
mercial warfare which is likely to follow may involve the utilisation of

62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

such methods as full-line forcing and dumping, such as was practised by
the German chemical industry prior to the war. The retention of a tariff
and other protective measures by the new producing countries will doubt-
less lead the German industry to form affiliations to establish branch
plants in those countries. The war made clear the relationship of the
coal-tar dye industry to the production of munitions, war gases, medicinals,
and other essential products, and demonstrated the desirability of home
dye production as a means to prevent shortage in times of war. This
will probably result in an effort by the large industrial nations to retain
dye industries of sufficient size to meet peace requirements and to provide
for war emergencies. Reduced production costs and constructive research
will be vital factors in the maintenance of their competitive place in the
world's trade.'

This seems to sum up the situation with which we are at present faced.

Publications.

Our chemical publications grow apace — already they have outstripped
in number and size those produced prior to the war. If one may take the
Joitrnal of the Chemical Society as representing a standard example, it
may be noted that the number of pages published in 1914 was 2,909,
whilst in 1923 the number was 3,441. This was reduced in 1924 to
2,698 pages, but rose again in 1925 to 2,986 pages. The drop in 1923-1924
was not, however, due to lack of material but to the exercise of necessary
economy, because the costs of printing have increased- by 70 per cent, since
the war, and the funds of the Society could not carry the increased
expenditure. Until new sources of income could be created economy had
to take the form of asking authors to cut down their papers to the greatest
possible extent, and this had the effect of checking the advance for that
year. Nevertheless during 1925, although authors continued to co-operate
and still expressed their views and results in as small a space as possible,
the steady rise in the amount of research work carried out in the country
led to an increase in that year, showing that the new matter was due to
new research, and was not the outcome of any remissness on the part of
the Publications Committee. This fact is well brought out by the following
graph, which shows the incidence of the number of published papers and
the number of pages published.

The increase is still continuing, and is a welcome sign of the healthy
condition in which research in chemistry stands at the present time. Still
it means a Journal of well over 3,000 pages for 1926, and represents a
condition of affairs which is shared by many other scientific societies.

There were many national scientific shortcomings revealed by the war,
but it is probable that those in the chemical sciences loomed largest
because they were the ones which had to be rectified by makeshift arrange-
ments at the time, and although our national aptitude rose to the occasion,
and we blundered through in our usual manner, yet when time for thought
occurred the contrast between our state of unpreparedness and the
complete scientific equipment of our enemies was very marked, and gave
cause for earnest consideration. The result has been a great increase in
the numbers entering our chemical research schools and the consequent
output of an increased amount of new knowledge, all of which has to be

B.— CHEMISTRY.

3250

Record of Pages and Papers

Published by

The Chemical Society. (1921-1925).

4 00

64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

recorded. The burden of publication has fallen, therefore, heavily on
the societies dealing with chemistry, and more particularly on the Chemical
Society, which is the chief means by which, through its Journal, new
knowledge is published to the world.

The remedy is not obvious. The societies caimot increase their
subscriptions without inviting loss of membership. Neither does it seem
that much is to be gained by amalgamation, because each society deals
with some branch of chemistry, and there is little or no overlapping or
duplication. Amalgamation of the societies would not, therefore,
decrease the costs of publication nor materially diminish the subscriptions
necessary to meet these costs.

You cannot curtail papers beyond the point which enables the work
described to be repeated, otherwise publication is valueless. You cannot
say within wide limits that new knowledge is not worth recording, or that
views expressed are best suppressed. The criticism has been raised that
the modern tendency to issiie short communications at frequent intervals
leads to premature publication, and that much that is published has to
be corrected in later papers, and it cannot be denied that recent experience
has shown this criticism to be partly true. But it has been the custom
of societies to accept short papers with more avidity than long ones, and
in consequence authors have come to realise that the short communication
stands more chance of acceptance than longer ones. The policy is in a
sense wrong, because a series of short papers on the same subject neces-
sarily leads to redundancy and frequently to a revision of the views
expressed in earlier parts as the work progresses. The trouble seems to
lie in the custom which requires an introduction to the series, the aim of
which is to give the reader who has no interest in the experimental details
a readable account of the scope of the work. If this ' introduction ' were
abolished and a ' summary and conclusions ' placed at the end of the
paper or series of papers, it would no doubt crab the literary style of the
author and detract from the value of the communication as bed-side
reading matter, but it would most certainly shorten the paper and would
no doubt enhance its value from the scientific standpoint.

When it is remembered that there are some 23,000 scientific periodicals
published throughout the world the mind stands appalled at the prospect
that will confront civilisation even in so short a time as 100 years hence,
unless some general method of curtailment is agreed on. The space
occupied by our ever-increasing libraries must cause alarm to those who
contemplate the possibilities of the future. The agreement between the
various societies dealing with chemistry to form a joint library at Burling-
ton House means at the present time an increase of something like 800
volumes yearly — an increase which will augment as time goes on. In
the not far distant future the library will occupy the whole of the space
available in the society's apartments, and the same problem has to be
faced by every other scientific society. Indeed, ciA'ilisation seems to be
confronted with two ever-growing problems — the increases in its
cemeteries and in its libraries. The former, no doubt, will be solved by
cremation. Is it too much to hope that a judicious exercise of this method
may also be applied to our libraries 1

SECTION C— GEOLOGY.

PROGRESS IN THE STUDY OF THE
LOWER CARBONIFEROUS (AVONIAN)
ROCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES.

ADDRESS BY

PROF. S. H. REYNOLDS, M.A., Sc.D.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

It is now about ten years since our science suffered an irreparable loss in
the premature death of that brilliant worker on the Carboniferous rocks,
Arthur Vaughan. Only twenty years have passed since the publication
of his classical paper on the ' Palseontological Sequence in the Carboniferous
Limestone of the Bristol Area,' and when we think of what he accomplished
during the ten years in which he devoted his scanty leisure to the study
of the Lower Carboniferous rocks we may well wonder what he would
have achieved by now were he still with us.

Vaughan's chief work was done at Bristol, but the last few years of
his life were spent at Oxford. I hoj^e it is not inappropriate that one
who hails from Bristol and was associated with Vaughan in some of his
work should choose the Lower Carboniferous rocks for an address at Oxford.

This subject was not chosen without careful consideration, but it may
be doubted whether I am well advised in attempting it. In the first place
I am fully aware of the others who are better qualified to deal with it than
I am myself. In the second place there is so much work in progress, par-
ticularly in the Midlands and in the North, and there is still such difEerence
of opinion on many important problems, that there is much to be said for
postponing any such attempt as I am now making. Part of the ground,
too, has been covered by the report of a committee of this Association
jjiesented at the last Meeting (Southampton), while Prof. Kendall's
chapter in the ' Handbuch der rcgionalen Geologic ' renders any general
survey of the succession unnecessary. I have therefore chosen for con-
sideration a number of subjects unrelated except in so far as they are
concerned with the study of the Avouiau rocks.

All the workers to whom I have applied for information have most
kindly and willingly helped me, and I should like to acknowledge my
special indebtedness to Mr. R. 6. S. Hudson, Dr. Stanley Smith, and
particularly to Mr. Ernest Dixon. Thanks to the help I have received I am
hopeful that, although this address contains little that is novel, it may
prove a useful summary.

1926 ' ¥

66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

I have decided to restrict my subject to England and Wales.

Note. — I wish to convey my sincere thanks to the following for help and
information : Mr. W. S. Bisat, Mr. R. G. Carruthers, Dr. R. Crookall,
Prof. E. J. Garwood, JMr. T. Neville George, Dr. E. Greenly, Mr.
J. W. Jackson, Mr. W. W. Jervis, Mr. Cosmo Johns, Dr. D. Parkinson,
Mr. H. C. Sargent, Dr. T. Franklin Sibly, and Dr. A. E. Trueman.

It has long proved convenient to divide England and Wales into
provinces, each characterised by its own special features of deposition
diuring Lower Carboniferous times. The following provinces have been
generally recognised :^

1. Devonshire, including parts of North Cornwall.

2. Soidh-ivestern Province, including the Bristol district, the Forest of
Dean, South Wales, and the Clee Hills.

3. Midland Province, including Anglesey and North Wales, the Wrekin,
and the midland area of Derbyshire, Staffordshire and Leicestershire.

4. Yorkshire Province, including the Craven and Dale country and
the Clitheroe and Colne region of Lancashire.

5. North-western Province, including parts of North-west Yorkshire,
Westmorland, North Lancashire and Cumberland.

6. Northern Province, including Durham and Northumberland.

Subdivisions o£ the Avonian Rocks in the South-western Province.

Vaughan's subdivisions have been adopted by . all workers on the
Carboniferous Limestone in the central and south of England and by all
recent workers in Wales and Ireland.

Certain modifications of his original classification have been introduced
from time to time and will be alluded to in stratigraphical order.

1. In his original ' Bristol ' paper (1905) he called the lowest Carbon-
iferous rocks transitional from the Old Red Sandstone Modiola zone (M),
pointing out, however, in a footnote that the Modiola zone had better be
regarded as a shallow-water phase of the Cleistopora zone (K). Soon he
definitely adopted this arrangement, so that the Modiola zone became Km.
Later on^ Vaughan dropped the term Km, including these deposits in Kj.
The term Km is, however, used in the table of classification appended to
the Belgian^ paper, and is \ised in a phasal sense in the Tenby memoir.

2. Although, as Vaughan explains, the fact that Caninia has two
maxima, one in the Tournaisian and one in the Visean, is a reason why he
did not adopt it as an index fossil, he still makes use of the term Caninia
zone. In his original paper he uses it as including the Syringothyris
zone (C), which he did not then subdivide, and the lower part of the
Seminnla zone (SJ. In the Winnipeg report the expression ' Syringothyris
and Caninia zone C ' is used. In the Gower paper (1911) the term
' Syringothyris zone ' is still used, but in the Burrington paper (1911' it is
dropped in Vaughan's portion of the paper, the Caninia zone (Middle
Avonian) being taken to include y and C^ Dixey and Sibly ^ also drop
the term Syringothyris zone.

1 Q.J.O.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), p. 363.
a /6ti., vol. Ixxi. (1915).
"Ibid., vol. Ixxiii. (1918).

C— GEOLOGY. 67

The symbol y was originally applied to rocks at the level of
co-occurrence of Zaphrentis and Caninia. In the table of succession of
the Bristol paper these arc grouped with Z, but in that of the Gower paper
with C. In the Burrington paper Vaughan re-defined horizon y as beds
with abundant Caninia patula and without C. cyUmlrica (Scouler) Salee,
and extended it so as to include the major portion of C, (styled C'ly in
the illustrations). As Dixon* remarks, the value of y as a means of
comparing distant developments has been much enhanced, C. patula
having a wide distribution but apparently limited range.

3. The most important change since the publication of Vaughans
original paper has been in the dividing line between Tournaisian and
Visean. Vaughan originally drew the line at the top of the Syringothyria
zone. Dixon,'^ however, showed by the study of the Gower section and
others in South Wales that a slight discordance, becoming more pronounced
along the outcrop north of the coalfield, occurs in places between C, aud
C.J, and that it was at the top of C, that emergence in the south-western
province temporarily interrupted subsidence, to give way in turn to
renewed subsidence. He further showed that over a large area, particu-
larly in Pembrokeshire, C, aud S, are not sharply separable, either as
regards lithology or fauna. Consequently he drew the line between
Tournaisian and Visean at the top of C„ and in this he has generally beer,
followed by workers in the South-western Province. Vaughan, however, on
fossil evidence preferred to draw the line somewhat above the break, t.e.
in the middle of C.„ and this is also the level adopted by Delepine m
Belgium.

4. In the Bristol paper horizon S, that of overlap between the C and S
zones, is shown in the table of succession, but its limits and faunal characters
are not defined, as was done in the case of horizons [3 and y.

The term horizon S is practically dropped in all the earlier papers on the
British Carboniferous Limestone. In his later paper (Correlation of
Avonian and Dinantiau) Vaughan revives the term in an emended and
extended sense so as to include upper C.^ and S, of the original classifica-
tion, i.e. from the maximum of Cyathophyllum 4> to the incoming of Cyrtina
carbonaria. Vaughan •* gives full details as to the faunal characters of this
level, and indicates the corresponding level in a number of sections through-
out the British Isles and in Belgium.

Vaughan introduced the term Avonian, which is nearly equivalent to
the Belgian Dinantian, to replace the somewhat cumbersome designation
Carboniferous Limestone Series. He also habitually used the terms
Tournaisian and Visean for the lower and npper Avonian respectively,
though the use of the terms was not quite identical with their use in
Belgium. He suggested the terms Clevedonian aud Kidwellian as alter-
natives, and if it be essential that terms be used strictly in the sense in
which they were originally employed, these should replace Tournaisian
and Visean. The terms Tournaisian and Visean are now so thoroughly
established with us that it would probably be impossible, even if desirable,
to displace them. British geologists will doubtless continue to use them

* Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 65.
■ Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), p. 542.
« Ibid., vol. Ixxi. (1915), p. 17.

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Vaughan's earlier
usage.

'a
o
t>
<1

Dibunophylluui
zone

Seminula
/ zone

Lower
'Millstone Grit'

Base_o y of Visean

'a
a

Syringothyrie
zone

1 1-

1 a '

Zaphrentis
zone

Cleistopora
zone

Modiola
phase

Base of Tournaisian

s.;

Y
Z2

Vaughan's later
usage.

Top of Visean

Belgian
equivalents.

M
O.R.S.

Base of Visean

,--0)

Cleistopora
zone

Base of
Tournaisian

a
.2

'5
■ c

EiG. L

Table showing the Subdivisions of the Avonian Rocks in the
South-western Province and thetr Equivalents in Belgium.

C— GEOL0C4Y. 69

in the same sense as heretofore, not binding themselves by adherence to

the Continental usage.

Note. — The chief differences between the British and Belgian use of the

terms Tournaisian and Visean, and between Avonian and Dinantian,

are :

1. In Belgium the K beds are excluded from the Dinantian and
grouped with the Famennian.

2. The line between Tournaisian and Visean is drawn in Belgium
at about the middle instead of at the base of C.^.

3. The top of the Dinantian is drawn at the base of the Yoredale
equivalent, that of the Avonian at th»^ top.

Variability and Persistence.

In my remarks on this subject the Northern Province is not taken
into account.

The several horizons of the Avonian difier much as regards variability
and persistence.

The Cleistopora beds are both the lowest and most constant horizon.
Throughout the Bristol area, South Wales and the Forest of Dean, where
alone they are present, they show remarkable constancy not only in fauna!
and lithological character but in thickness. Metasomatic changes such
as dolomitisation and silicification have affected them very little, and
while in parts of the South Wales coalfield all the other horizons are
concealed by overstep of the Millstone Grit, the Cleistopora beds are never
reached.

The Zcvphrentis beds, wliich are also comparatively little developed in
the region under consideration outside the South-west Province, are
relatively constant in lithological character. They are predominantly
crinoidal limestones of the ' petit granit ' type, but may sometimes be
highly dolomitised or silicified. They are concealed by overstep in parts
of the South Wales coalfield.

The Syringothyris beds, the oldest strata commonly seen in the North-
west Province, show much variability. In the south they contain much
dolomite, and the whole or part may be cut out by non-sequence or con-
cealed by overstep as in the South Wales coalfield.

The Seminula beds, the oldest strata occurring in the Midlands or North
Wales, are also a variable series. In the Bristol district they are on the
whole more frequently exposed than any other horizon.

The limestones of the lower Dibimophyllum zone (Dj) are the most
constant limestones in faunal and lithological characters of the whole
succession. Throughout the whole of the Bristol district, North and
South Wales, the Midlands, Yorkshire and the North-west Province,
wherever limestones of this level occur, they are of the same general type,
save in certain districts where the Knoll facies is found. The Avonian
rocks of later date than the D, beds are much more variable.

Relations ot the Carboniferous to the underlying Rocks.
Wherever the Carboniferous and Devonian (O.R.S.) rocks are seen
in relation to one another the succession is conformable save in Carmarthen-
shire, at Kidwelly and Llandebie, where, as Mr. T. N. George informs me,

70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

ther«! is evidence of a slight discordance. Except in North Devon, where
the Carboniferous rocks succeed marine Devonians, there is a gradual
passage from rocks of the Old Red Sandstone facies deposited under conti-
nental conditions to rocks of definitely Carboniferous character deposited
under marine conditions, and the horizon at which the dividing line
between the two formations is drawn is often, as in the Avon section,
merely a matter of convenience. Thus in the Avon section the line is
drawn above the highest band in which fish remains were found. In the
Tenby district Dixon "^ states that the conformable passage is sometimes
gradual, sometimes with abrupt change of conditions. In the Forest of
Dean^ there is no appreciable development of a transition series.

In North Devon the lower part of the Pilton beds — a variable series of
shaly, gritty and calcareous strata — contains a fauna of predominantly
Devonian type, while the upper Pilton, though containing some Devonian
species, is more related to the Carboniferous. No full description of the
Pilton faunas is yet available, but Vaughan^ correlated the Proditctella
■productoides beds with Km, and stated that in the uppermost Pilton beds
the fauna is essentially a p fauna with a few persistent Devonian forms.
This would be in accord with Evans' ^'^ correlation of the Baggy and Lower
Pilton beds of North Devon with the Upper Famennian.

The Midland counties of England were mainly land areas in lower
Avonian times, and the upper Avonian rocks rest with strong unconformity
on Lower Palaeozoic or Precambrian rocks.

Unconformities and Breaks in the Succession.

A. In the Culm of Devon and Somerset.

While the Upper Pilton beds of North Devon apparently represent the
K and p beds of the S.W. Province, no representatives of any later horizon
have been recognised till one reaches D.^, to which level the lowest zones
of the Culm are assigned.

B. In the Smith-western Province.

(1) Mid- Avonian breaks and unconformities.

It is well established that there is evidence of disturbed conditions in
mid-Avonian times in the S.W. Province, increasing in intensity as one
passes N. and N.W. from the Bristol area. Thus, while in the Mendip
region the C beds are to a large extent represented by ' standard ' limestone,
in the Avon section and those of Gower and along the S.E. margin of the
South Wales coalfield the place of standard limestone is taken by shallow-
water oolites, shales and dolomites. Farther west, in Carmarthen, much,
if not all, of the C beds and of horizon y is missing, while in most localities
the Z beds are also absent, so that at Fan and other places near Kidwelly,
and for many miles along the outcrop to the north of the South Wales coal-
field, the Sj beds rest directly on the K beds. Along the northern crop
of the Pembroke coalfield west of Carmarthen Bay the same state of affairs

' Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 67.

8 Sibly, Oeol. Mag., Dec. v., vol. ix. (1912), p. 418.

• Q.J.O.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), p. 385.

w GeoL Mag., Dec vi., vol. vi. (1919), p. 548.

C— GEOLOGY. 71

is found, the S., beds resting directly on the K beds. At Pendine they
have a conglomeratic base, but no such rock is known E. of Carmarthen
Bay. On the south crop of the Pembroke coalfield, at Wesfc Williams-
town, there is only a slight break between C^ and C.^, while at Tenby the
sequence is complete, though the C beds are of shallow-water type. In
the southernmost part of Pembrokeshire not only is the sequence complete,
but the C beds are represented by ' standard ' limestones.

(2) Post-Avonian Unconformities.

Throughout South Wales, in the Forest of Dean and in the Glee Hills
district, there were upheaval and erosion prior to the deposition of the
Upper Carboniferous. At the Titterstone Clee^^ and in the Forest of Dean
the Coal Measures rest unconformably on various levels of the Avonian.
Along both the south-eastern and northern crops of the South Wales coal-
field the Millstone Grit shows remarkable over-stepping relations to the
Avonian rocks. These are described in the section dealing with the
Millstone Grit. In the Clevedon and Clapton district of North Somerset
no representatives of any Avonian horizons higher in the series than the
Caninia-doloimte (C.^) are met with. In the Clapton district the Coal
Measures rest directly on Zafhrentis beds. In the Clevedon district the
relation of the Coal Measures to the Avonian rock is sometimes faulted,
sometimes indeterminable.

It is very rare in the Bristol district and North Somerset to get sections
showing the relations of the Millstone Grit to either the overlying or under-
lying strata. The best section from the Carboniferous Limestone to Mill-
stone Grit is probably that at Wick Rocks, while the best section from the
Millstone Grit to the Coal Measures is that described by Dr. H. Bolton ^^
from Ashton Vale.

In neither of these sections has any break in the sequence been observed,
though, as is pointed out more fully in the sequel, the occurrence of
Yorkian plants in the upper part of the Millstone Grit shows that if, as is
generally believed, the lower part is Avonian, the upper is much later,
so that a considerable gap occurs in the sequence. In the Radstock area
a second big gap occurs, namely between the Yorkian (upper Millstone
Grit) and the Coal Measures, which are represented only by the uppermost
group, the Radstockian.^*

C. In the Midlands and North of England.
Mr. J. W. Jackson's work shows the existence of an important un-
conformity above the D, beds of North Derbyshire. The Edale shales,
which lie between these beds and the Kinderscout grit, were formerly
regarded as Avonian, and often grouped with the Yoredalian. Mr. Jackson
confirms Hind's i* conclusion that they are of later date, and shows that
they contain goniatites of Bisat's zones Rj, H and Upper and Middle E
{bisidcafum beds). There is a break below the bisulcatum beds, the

" Dixon, Hep. Brit. Ass., Sheffield (1910), p. 611, and Geol. Mag., 1910, p. 458.
^■^ Q.J. 0.8. , vol. Ixiii. (1907), pp. 445-69.

1' The ahove statements are based on information supplied by Dr. R. Crookail
and on his papers in the Qeol. Mag., vol. Ixii., 1925.
" Oeol. Mag., Dec. iv-, vol. iv. (1897), p. 209.

72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

pseudobilinque beds aud certain underlying shales (' Pendleside shales ')
being absent.

Sibly ^^ describes a case near Youlgreave where the ' Pendleside shales '
with Posidoniella Icevis rest on D.^, the Cyathaxonia beds, D.„ being absent ;
Wedd ^^ a similar case near Bridgetown, Derbyshire. Mr. Hudson informs
me that in the Knoll region of Cracow the upper Bowland shale rests
unconformably on the Knoll limestones, which were subject to uplift and
denudation prior to the deposition of the lower E beds.

The great post-Avonian unconformity at the base of the Millstone Grit
is described more fully in the sequel.

Note. — The nomenclature of the rocks of the Pendle Hill area is very
confusing to those unfamiliar with the district. The Pendleside
group of Hind and Howe (1897) originally included all the strata
between the Mountain Limestone and Millstone Grit, and was con-
sidered to be all of Upper C!arboniferous age. Subsequently Hind
relegated the lower part of his ' Pendleside series ' (the ' shales with
limestone ' of the Survey and the Worston shale of Parkinson) to the
D beds, leaving the Pendleside limestone and overlying shales, the
Bowland shale of Phillips, in his ' Pendleside group.' He also included
in it the shales overlying the Pendle top grit, which later work has
shown to be Lancastrian. It is clear from the above account that,
although the terms ' Pendleside ' and ' Pendleside group ' are frequently
employed as roughly equivalent to Phillips' Bowland shale, they lack
definiteness and there is little to justify their retention. Mr. Bisat ^^
and Dr. Parkinson^* clearly show that the terms, as indicating a time
division, had better be drojaped.

The grits of the Pendleside section are also confusing, and in
hopes of making things clearer I have carried on the section in
Table II. up to the Kinderscout grit from information supplied by
Dr. Parkinson.

Piping or Pot-holing under Subaerial Conditions on Levels of

Unconformity.

Several interesting examples liave been described : —

(a) Dixon describes^" very remarkable cases from If ton, Monmouth,
where the S beds below the Millstone Grit are worn into steep-sided
channels and cavities, some of imknown depth filled with sandstone and
shale.

(b) In the Forest of Dean Sibly describes^" piping of the Carboniferous
Limestone by Coal Measure sandstone at Kuardean.

(c) Dixon alludes 2^^ to piping at Llanmarch Dingle, near Brynmawr,
in the north-eastern portion of the South Wales coalfield. Here grit fills
holes in the Carboniferous Limestone.

^^tQ.J.0.8., vol. Ixiv. (1908), p. 63.

1" iV. Derby Memoir, p. 35.

1' Proc. Yorks Oeol. Soc, vol. xx., pt. 1 (1923-4), p. 45.

i« Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxxii. (1926), p. 223.

" Geol. Mag., vol. Iviii. (1921), p. 157.

=" Ibid.,*T)eo. vi., vol. v. (1918), p. 26.

" g.J.G.8., vol. Ixxiii. (1917), pp. 161-2.

C— GEOLOGY. 7:i

{(l) Piping occurs in Z beds at Pendine^'^ bel?»w the conglomeratic base
of the S beds, and at Haroldston St. Issell-^ Millstone Grit pipes into
limestone of a low S horizon. At West Williamstown"* the case is some-
what different, as here the material forming pipes in the C«>m??"a-oolite(C,)
is C, mudstone, and consequently does not imply any considerable break.
It was found, however, that the upper part of the CVf;(?/«i«-oolite is
missing, and the inference was drawn that the case at West Williamstown
is analogous to the others, the emergence, though brief, being sufficient to
bring the limestone within reach of subaerial agencies.

(e) Greenly describes ^^ cases in Anglesey where at several levels in D.,
beds of sandstone pipe into the limestone.

(/) In the West Cumberland area Edmonds"'** and Dixon ^^ describe
contemporaneous pot-holes recurring at several horizons intho Fourth lime-
stone (Di to D3). They are mainly cylindrical, with an average diameter
of 2 feet and depth of 4-6 feet. They widen oiit rapidly at the top and
are filled with mudstone, sandstone or rubbly limestone. They point to
repeated intervals during which subsidence and deposition of limestone
were interrupted by elevation above sea-level and contemporaneous
erosion.

(g) Near Ingleton pot-holes in D, limestone have been recognised by
Dixon.2*

(h) The pits in the pitted D^ limestone of Gower^® are also of the
character of contemporaneous pot-holing.

Phasal Equivalents oJ the Avonian.

In his most suggestive report presented at the Winnipeg Meeting of
the British Association in 19(j9 Vaughan recognised three phasal equiva-
lents, and introduced, though without defining, the following terms to
express them : —

1. Standard fauna.

2. Zaj)hrentid and Cyathaxonid phase.

3. Modiola and Posidonomya phase and other shallow-water deposits.
He regarded the ' standard fauna ' as indicating the greatest depth of

water, and the Modiola and Posidonomya phase the least.

1. Standard -phase. — This type of deposit, which is mainly calcareous
in character, is seen in most of Z, y, S.j and Dj in the Avon section and
in the Mendips also in C, and C,. In the North-west Province and in the
Midlands D, and D.^ are standard phase and in N.W. Yorkshire and
Westmorland S and the whole of Dj and Dj.

2. Zaphrentid and Cyathaxonid phase or fauna. — Dixon gives a clear
statement of the sense in which he uses this expression. He describes the

"^ Haverfordioest Memoir, p. 142.

23 Ibid., p. 161.

'*Ibid., p. 142.

'^Oeol.Mag., Dec. iv., vol. vii.( 1900), pp. 20-24, and Anglesey Memoir, pp.612-16.

20 Ibid., vol. lix. (1922), pp. 120-1.

■^' Summary of Progress for 1921, pp. 53-4.

•;« Q.J.G.S.. vol. Ixxx. (1924), p. 215.

23 Figured Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), pi. Ixxxviii., fig. 1.

74 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

rocks as thinly and evenly bedded dark argillaceous limestones inter-
bedded with shales and including much chert, which is typically black.
Fossils are generally abundant, and include crinoids, simple corals
{Zaphrentis, CyatJmxonia, Caninia), bryozoa, such brachiopods as frilled
athyrids, spinose productids, Syringothyris and Sjnriferina, Leptcena
analoga, Rhipidomella michelini, ScMzophoria resupinata. Small trilobites
are less abundant.

Rocks of this type occur in the K and Z beds of various sections in the
South-west Province, and are typically represented in the D., {Cyathaxonia
beds) of Oystermouth Gower, the Craven lowlands, and Derbyshire. They
probably indicate muddy conditions, depth being immaterial. Dixon ^^
points out that the study of the fauna of Zaphrentid phases has upset
former ideas as to the zonal importance of certain forms. Thus an upper
Avonian Zaphrentid phase such as that of Sj at Bosherton, Pembroke,
suggests at first sight a level in Z or y.

The thin-bedded dark limestones of upper D.^ in Derbyshire and the
Cement Stone development of the Northern Province seem to be inter-
mediate in character between standard limestones and Zaphrentid-phase
beds.

3. The third phase is styled in Vaughan's table ' Modiola and Posido-
nomya phases and other shallow- water deposits.' The deposits included
under this head, which are very varied and widespread, are divisible into
two main sections : —

(a) The lainellihnmcli-goniatite or Culm phase. .

(b) The lagoon-phase deposits (Dixon), including

(1) Modiola j)^rese=calcareous lagoon-phase.

(2) Radiolarian phase^cheitj lagoon-phase.

This large and varied series of deposits seems to me to overweight the
third phase, and I think that it would be a distinct convenience to separate
the lagoon-phase deposits as a fourth phase.

(a) The lamellibranch-goniatiie or Culm phase is very widespread
and important in the North of England, and is represented also
by the Culm of North Devon.

The rocks consist of thin-bedded black shales, often papery, with thin
limestones prevalently of the calcite-mudstone type, and more rarely
radiolarian cherts. Sandstone bands may be present, but are not essential.
The fauna is somewhat monotonous, and forms with thin shells prevail.

(&) Lagoon-pihase Deposits.

The term was introduced by Dixon^^ to connote a group of rocks
deposited in wide but shallow coastal areas more or less isolated from the
deeper parts of the sea. In siich ' lagoons ' rocks of a peculiar type and
containing a peculiar fauna and flora were deposited. Dixon distinguishes
two types of lagoon phase : — ■

(1) Modiola j:?^ase= calcareous lagoon-phase.

3° Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 72.
" Q.J.Q.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), p. 511.

C— GEO LOG Y. 75

The rocks grouped here include china stones and otlior calcile mud-
stones, dolomite mudstone, oolite, i)isolite, algal limestones, ferruginous
bryozoal and crinoidal limestone of the type of the well-known Bryozoa
bed (hor. a) of the South-west Province.

The characteristic fossils of the Modiola phase are small lainellibranchs,
ostracods, spirorbid annelids, foraminifera and calcareous alga;. The
brachiopod Seminula is also characteristic.

Bands of standard limestone witli the normal fauna are intercalated
at certain localities and horizons, probably indicating invasion of the
lagoon area by the open sea.

(2) Rcdiolarian phase=GheTty lagoon-phase.

These rocks show far less lithological variability than the calcareous
lagoon-phase rocks, and are far less abundant. They consist of chert
bands alternating with shales.

Dixon shows that radiolarian cherts are not, as was claimed by Hinde,
necessarily deep-sea deposits, and that they may be interbedded with
shales wliich are clearly of shallow-water origin. The finely laminated
and current-bedded character of many cherts is inconsistent with a deep-
water origin. The evidence for the existence of these radiolarian lagoon
phases was obtained by Dixon in Gower, and he points out that, though
absent in the Bristol area, such phases occur throughout the whole area
south of the Pembroke coalfield. He claims that the radiolarian cherts
of the Culm of North Devon were accumulated under lagoon-phase conditions.
Dixon in the Gower paper recognises four Modiola phases, three of which,
those of Km, G,, and top of S,,, are very widely traceable throughout the
South-west Province. They are essentially similar in the Avon, Sodbury
andTytherington sections, tlie S, development being particularly prominent
at Sodbury. In the Burrington section Modiola phases are not con-
spicuous, the Km beds being ill-exposed, C, being mainly standard
limestones, and the S,, development relatively thin. The fourth Gower
lagoon phase is at the base of P.

In the eastern part of the South Wales coalfield Morftok-phase conditions
start earlier than in the Gloucestershire sections, and a lower Modiola
phase (Ci-G,), 250 ft. thick, is separated by 100 ft. of dolonaite from an
upper Modiola phase (S,) at Cefn On, to the north of Cardiff.

The rocks of the isolated mass of Cannington Park^'^ (S,) near Taunton
appear to be mainly of Modiola-\)hase type.

In the Forest of Dean the Km Modiola phase is not well developed, and
includes bands of standard limestone, but the Whitehead limestone (C.,)
constitutes a well-marked Modiola phase, the algal development bemg
one of the most remarkable in Britain.

In the outcrop south of the Pembroke coalfield (Tenby, &c.) Modiola
phases are thinner than in most of the country farther east, but occur
at the same general levels Km, C, and top of S,. The Km phase is recog-
nisable throughout except at Freshwater West; the C, phase is thin along
the northern outcrop (West Williamstown and Tenby), and is absent
south of Tenby. The S, phase is present throughout, but poorly developed
in the southernmost outcrop.

"■■i F. S. Wallis, Geol. Mag., vol. l.xi. (1924), p. 218.

76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

The Yoredale rocks of Wensleydale include typical algal ' lagooii-
phase ' deposits intercalated with the standard limestone, shale and
sandstone, but the finest development of such deposits in the north of
England hitherto described is that of the Solenopora sub-zone of Garwood
at Shap and Raveustonedale.

In the Winnipeg report it might appear that each of the three facies —
standard, Zaphrentid and Culm — is to be regarded as a phasal equivalent.
Dixon,^^ however, points out that this was not quite the sense in which
Vaughan intended the expression to be used. He did not regard the
standard limestones as a phase, but applied the term only to the
Zaphrentid and Culm developments. I can see no reason why the
calcareous development, even though recognised as ' standard ' in
Vaughan's sense, is not to be regarded as a phase exactly as with the
other phases.

D., is the horizon of greatest importance from the point of view of these
phasal equivalents. The symbol D.^ was first used by Sibly for rocks in
the Midland area overlying D.^. These rocks are of Zaphrentid-phase
type, and it has hence been frequently assumed that Sibly intended to
restrict the symbol D., to rocks of this character. I have never been
able to see that there was anything phasal in his original use of the symbol,
and he informs me by letter that the symbol was, as I imagined, originally
employed in a chronological, not phasal, sense. This usage was not,
however, adhered to. Vaughan, while originally iising the symbol in a
chronological sense, subsequently, as in the Loughshinny paper, employed
it in a phasal sense as indicating rocks of Zaphrentid phase at any level
in the D beds. He employed the symbol Dy in a chronological sense as
equivalent to Dj and D^. Other authors have followed Vaughan in using
D., in a phasal sense. Thus the symbol is attached to the Botany Beds
in Garwood's vertical section of the succession in the North-west Province,
and clearly indicates a phasal use of the term.

The net result of this varying use of these symbols has proved very
confusing, and probably no worker would disagree with Sibly and the
British Association Committee in recommending that the use of Dy in
a chronological sense be discontinued. Sibly,^^ when discussing the
nomenclature of the D beds, suggested that, taking the numbers 1, 2, 3 to
indicate time divisions, the letters y,x and p should be added to indicate re-
spectively the standard or calcareous phase, the Zaphreutid-Cyathaxonid
phase, and the Culm or lamellibranch-goniatite phase. If this method
were adopted and were extended to the whole Avonian system it would
afford a simple method of stating the character of the rocks at any level or
locality, and would be specially useful in the case of developments like
those of Loughshinny, Gower and Wensleydale, where more than one
phase is represented at a horizon ; thus at Gower lower D , is D.,x, upper
is D.,p. If all phases were dealt with in this way any suggestion that one
phase was less important than another might be avoided.

The foregoing account is chiefly confined to the phases of deposition
originally recognised by Vaughan. There are, however, other well-

33 Geol. Mag., vol. Ixii. (1925), p. 382.
31 Proc. Geol. A.ss., vol. xsxi. (1920), p. 81.

C— GEOLOGY. 77

marked phases or sub-phases, and the whole series may be classified
as follows : —
Predominantly limestone.

1 . Standard phase.

2. Modiola phase (calcareous lagoon-phase).

3. Reef-kuoll phase (including the ' brachiopod beds ' of the Midlands).
Partly limestone, partly shale.

4. Zaphrentid and Cyathaxonid phase.
Predominantly shaly.

5. Goniatite-lamellibranch or Culm phase.

6. Radiolarian phase (siliceous lagoon-phase j.

7. Shale phase.

Variable — limestone, shale, sandstone, and sometimes coal.

8. Yoredale phase.
Sandy.

9. Massive sandstones.

Of these Nos. 2, 4, 5 and 6 have already been defined, Nos. 7 and 9
require no definition, while No. 3 is defined in the sequel.

The standard phase may be said to consist of limestone, frequently
coarse-grained or crystalline, in which fossils are commonly abundant.
Some of the chief varieties are crinoidal limestone, coral limestone and
brachiopod limestone. Foraminiferal limestone and oolite link these
rocks with those of the calcareous lagoon-phase.

The Yoredale phase. — The limestones are sometimes of standard,
sometimes of Zaphrentid phase type, and include also calcite mudstones
and algal limestones. The standard limestone fauna may be a coral-
brachiopod assemblage, or may be mainly a brachiopod fauna or mainly
a coral fauna. The fauna of the associated shale may be very much
that of the shales of the Zaphrentid phase, but sometimes bands with
the goniatite-lamellibranch fauna occur.

The Cement Stones of the Northern Province have features linking
them to the Zaphrentid phase and to the Yoredale phase. They consist
of thin-bedded sandstone and shale, the latter often highly coloured, with
bands of argillaceous limestone or cement stone, which is sometimes algal.
The fossils, which are somewhat scanty, are mainly of shallow-water
type — spirorbids, ostracods, horny brachiopods, and small lamellibranchs
and gastropods.

'Millstone Grit.'

As has been emphasised by Prof. Kendall,^^ the rocks alluded to under
the name of Millstone Grit are the most difficult of all the members of the
Carboniferous series to reduce to any systematic arrangement. The term
has been, and still frequently is, used in a purely lithological sense, as
indicating the prevalentlj' sandy rocks which sooner or later succeed the
prevalently calcareous or sometimes argillaceous rocks of the Avouian.
Any general account of the Millstone Grit is quite outside the scope of this
address, which will be concerned merely with the n'latious of the Millstone

'* Handbuch der re.gionahn Gcnl., iii., 1, s. 153.

SECTIONAL ADI>RESSES.

Grit {sensu lato) to the underlying strata. In briefly considering this
subject the following regional diAnsion is most convenient, A-iz. : —

1. West of England.

2. Sonth Wales.

3. North Wales, Midlands and Northern Counties.

West of England (see fig. 2).
In the West of England, as is well known, ' jMillstone Grit ' conditions
set in at a progressively lower level as one passes northwards from the
Bristol area. Thiis in the Avon section ^^ and in the Mendips they set in
at the top of D.^. At Sodbury, where the section is incomplete, 84 ft.
of Dj limestones are exposed, but in the Wickwar cutting''' a few miles
to the north the early advent of ' ilillstone Grit " conditions reduces the
limestone to 55 ft. In the Tji:herington district ^^ and in the Chepstow
area Millstone Grit conditions set in at the top of S.,. In the Forest of
Dean the Drybrook sandstone (jMillstone Grit of earlier authors) is probably

Mendipa and
Avon Section.

Wickwar.

Tytherington
and Chepstow.

Forest of
Dean.

Cloo.

>^^

ii S

Q-^

■iA s

o a
2,3.

b c

O cj

K K K K K

Fig. 2.

Table showikg the Level at which Sandy Co^'DITIONS set in at
Certain Localities in the South-west Province.

{Not to scale.)

»« Q.J.O.S., vol. Ixi. (1905), pi. xxvii.

»^ Proc. Bristol Nat. Soc, 4th Ber., vol. vi.. pt. 3 (1926, issued for 1925), p. 242.

»• Ibid., pt. 1 (1924, is8u«d for 1923), p. 64.

C— GEOLOGY.

7'J

of S.^ age. lu the Clee Hill district the Millstone Grit facies (Cornbrook
sandstone) comes on at about the base of C,. In all these districts then
the ' Millstone Grit ' is wholly or partly {vide infra) Avonian.

The thickness of the ' Millstone Grit ' in the West of England is
insignificant as compared with the thickness of the rocks generally called
by the same name farther north, and it was suggested by Vaughan that
it may all be of D, age.^^ Kecent work*" shows, however, that the upper
part of the ' Millstone Grit ' near Yate contains plants of Yorkian type.
This would imply a big unconformity between upper and lower ' Millstone
Grit ' of the Bristol area.

Lithologically, as Kendall*^ points out, the quartzosc grits and con-
glomerates which go by this name near Bristol are totally distinct from
the arkoses of the Millstone Grit farther north. He consequently suggests
that the term ' Millstone Grit' as used in the Bristol area be dropped and
replaced by ' Farewell-rock.' There is, however, the objection that the
term ' Farewell-rock ' is also used in South Wales, a region where the
true post-Avonian Millstone Grit is found; and I am informed by Mr. Dixon
and Dr. A. E. Trueman that in parts of South Wales the Farewell-rock is
Yorkian in age. Were it not for the fact that the upper beds contain
Yorkian plants it would probably be best to use Sibly's term Drybrook
sandstone for the ' Millstone Grit ' throughout the whole Bristol area,
instead of confining it to the Forest of Dean. The existence of these
Yorkian plants necessitates a local name for the Avonian ' Millstone
Grit ' of the Bristol district — I suggest the use of the term ' Brandon Hill
Grit,' from Brandon Hill, Bristol, where it is well developed. The term
* Farewell-rock ' could be used for the Yorkian portion.

South Wales and the Forest of Dean (see fig. 3).
The Millstone Grit of South Wales shows very remarkable and varying
relations to the Avonian. ^^ j^ ^j,g south-east part of the South Wales coal-
field and in Monmouth it sometimes overlies a big thickness of D beds (Ruthin
and Llansanuor), sometimes rests directly on upper S.^ (Miskin), sometimes

Diagram showing Overstep of the Millstone Grit on the south-eastern margin of the

South Wales Coalfield. (From figs, and descriptions in the paper by Dixey & Siblv,

Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxiii. (1918), pp. 1 1 1-164.)

" Rep. Brit. Ass., Winnipeg (1909), table 3.
*» R. Crookall, Geol. Mag., vol. l.xii. (1925), p. 403.
" Handbuch der reg. Geol., iii., 1, s. 156.
*-Q.J.G.S., Ixxiii. (1917), p. 119.

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Swaledale Wensleydale

Kettlewell

Trollet's Gill
near BurnsaM

Mirk Fell ■
Main Li' ■■

Sitnonstone ■

HardrawScar
Girvanella Bed

Fig. 4.

Diagram showing Overstep of the Millstone Grit in the Yorkshire Dale and Craven
Country. (From information supplied by Mr. R. G. Hudson.)

on the very base of Sj (Oefn On). This is uot, however, due to the coming
in of grit conditions at successively lower levels, but, as suggested by
Dixon ^^ and confirmed by Dixey and Sibly,** to overstep. Farther to
the north-east the overstep continues to still further reduce the exposed
thickness of the Carboniferous Limestone, till at the north-east corner of
the coalfield little, if anything, more than the K beds remains between
Millstone G-rit and Old Red Sandstone. This is the limit of the overstep,
as, when followed westward along the north crop, the Millstone Grit rapidly
retrogresses, with the result that all the zones up to S.^ reappear in a distance
of six miles, and farther west the D beds are seen. Still farther west,
however, overstep again sets in, Mr. T. N. George informing me that at
Penwyllt (Tawe Valley) the Upper Limestone Shales or rottenstones (D.^.^)
are cut out by overstep and the Millstone Grit rests directly on D.^. Finally
at a point about three miles east of Kidwelly it oversteps down to about
the base of D,^.

At Pendine, to the west of Carmarthen Bay, it again rests on D,„ but
at Haverfordwest it rests on S.,.

In the Forest of Dean there is no Millstone Grit seen, owing to the
overlap of the Coal Measures, which may overstep all the Avonian rocks
till they come to rest on the Old Red Sandstone.^^ The Coal Measures
play in the Forest of Dean the part which is played by the Millstone Grit
in the South Wales coalfield.

North of England.

In the Yorkshire dales it has long been known that the beds of the
Yoredale series immediately below the Millstone Grit disappear in
successioii southwards, the Grit thus appearing to become estalilished at
lower and lower horizons in that direction. The officers of the Survey,
especially Dakyns and Clough, realised this, but Goodchild*^ was the first
to show that it was due to unconformable overstep of the Millstone Grit,
and this fact has been fully established by later workers,*' by whom it has
been shown that the Millstone Grit of North- West Yorkshire rests in

*^ Newport Memoir, 2nd ed., p. 20.

*^ Q.J.G.S., Ixxiii. (1917), p. 167.

« Sibly, Oeol. Mag., Dec, v., vol. ix. (1912), p. 421.

** Victoria County History, Cumberland, Geology, 1901, p. 28.

*' See L. J. Chubb and R. G. S. Hudson, ' The Nature of the Junction between the
Lower Carboniferous and the MiUstone Grit of North West Yorkshire,' Proc. Yorks
Oeol. Sac, n.s., vol. xx., pt. 2, 1925, p. 257 ; and L. H. Tonks, ' The Millstone Grit
and Yoredale Rocks of Nidderdale,' ibid. p. 226.

C— GEOLOGY. 81

succession on all the Avonian rocks from the Mirk Fell beds, which are
high up in the Yoredalian above the Fell Top limestone, to strata probably
as low down as D.*^ (see fig. 4). Mr. Hudson informs me that un-
published work shows a continuation of this overstep south of the Craven
faults in the region of TroUer's Gill, near Burnsall, on to the base of D,
and almost on to S.^. Mr. Hudson's work also shows overlap of the successive
zones of the Millstone Grit, the pseudobilinque zone of Bisat (lower E)
resting on the Avonian at Craven, while at Grassington and Arkendale the
bisulcatum zone (upper E) is the lowest level represented.

While the stratigraphical level at which the so-called ' Millstone Grit '
of the South-west Province comes on is so variable, the base of the true
Millstone Grit seems to be at a fairly constant stratigraphical horizon
throughout South Wales and the North-western and Northern Provinces.
The evidence now available from so many areas shows that the uncon-
formity between Millstone Grit and Avonian which was first observed by
Prof. 0. T. Jones*^ in the Haverfordwest area is of widespread occurrence,
and the establishment of this very important fact has helped and will
help to the solution of many problems in Carboniferous stratigraphy.

There are cases in the North of England where beds with fossils of a
characteristically Avonian facies overlie some considerable thickness of
grit. This may in some cases be due to early establishment of grit con-
ditions, in other cases to a late survival into Lancastrian times of
Avonian types. Thus the Snebro Gill beds^'' ol West Cumberland which
overlie some 50 ft. of grit are considered by Mr. Dixon to be high in the
Yoredalian, but the evidence as to their age is admittedly inconclusive,
and Mr. Bisat is inclined to correlate them with the Cayton Gill beds
(Lancastrian). In Teesdale, Prof. Garwood's Botany Beds,'^ with a late D
fauna, are believed to overlie strata about 200 ft. thick originally mapped
as Millstone Grit.

In Yorkshire, when circumstances were favourable, a marine fauna
temporarily invaded regions ^^ where Millstone Grit conditions were
thoroughly established. Thus Hind^^ described the Cayton Gill beds of
Nidderdale, which lie just below the Kinderscout grit equivalent and have;
an Avonian type of fauna. The goniatite fauna of these beds is not
sufficient to enable Mr. Bisat to speak confidently as to their age, but he
suggests lower R.^* The Colsterdale ^^ marine band of the same area,
with a goniatite-lamellibranch fauna, is assigned by Mr. Bisat ^* to his
horizon E. Again, the Shunner Fell limestone ^^ of Yorkshire contains a
coral and brachiopod fauna such as is usually found in Avonian rocks of
Zaphrentid or Cyathaxonid phase, associated with a goniatite {Anthra-
coceras glabrum) characteristic of zone E of Bisat's table.

*^ Well brought out in Chubb and Hudson's map, op. cit., pp. 282-3.

*^ Haverfordwest Memoir (1914), p. 151.

*" Eastwood (Mem. Gaol. Surv.), Sum. Progress for 1922, p. (54; and Dixon, Proc.
Geol. Ass., vol. xxxvi. (1925), p. 44.

•^1 Q.J.O.8., vol. Ixviii. (1912), p. 542.

»= See L. H. Tonks, Proc. Tories Geol. Soc, n.s., vol. xx., pt. 2 (1925), pp. 226-5*),
for fuU references on the marine bands.

S3 Hind, Naturalist {1902), T;i]p. 17-63 and 90-96; also Bisat. I'roc. Yorks Geol. Soc.
vol. xix., pt. 1 (1914), p. 20.

" Ibid., vol. XX., pt. 1 (1924), pp. 40-124.

•"'S Chubb and Hudson, ibid., pt. ii. (1925), p. 261. Other references are given.

82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

But, in addition to these brief and local minglings of Avonian and
Lancastrian, evidence is accumulating to show that the upper Yoredalian
was synchronous with the lower Lancastrian ; in other words, that the
Yoredale type of deposit was being laid down in parts of Yorkshire while
Mr. Bisat's lower E beds were accumulating elsewhere. If this is established
it will mean that the upper Yoredalian is not Avonian at all, but Lancastrian,
and will render it more possible to regard the D, and D^p beds of the
Midlands and South as the time equivalent of the Yoredalian, reduced as
it will then be by the separation of its Lancastrian portion.

The Dibunophyllum Zone (sensu lato) and its equivalents in the

North of England.

While, as regards the -pie-Dibunophyllum beds, the calcareous phases
in England and Wales are far more important than any other phase, when
we come to the Dibunophyllum beds this is not so, at any rate in the North
of England, where rocks predominantly shaly are fully as important as
those of the calcareous phases.

While, too, in the South-western Province the difficulties of correla-
tion are comparatively slight, when we reach Yorkshire this is far from
being the case, and much difference of opinion exists even on major
questions of classification and correlation. To clear up these difficulties,
a Committee of this Association was appointed, and a report, mainly drawn
up by Mr. R. G. S. Hudson, the secretary, was issued at the Southampton
Meeting last year. Largely owing to the still imperfect state of our
knowledge, it proved impossible to obtain general agreement among the
members of the Committee, and two sub-reports dissenting from certain
parts of the main report are appended. These differences of opinion are
partly on questions of terminology, partly as to the correlation and sub-
division of the strata. The various proposals will be found in the Report
of the British Association Committee, and in Mr. Cosmo Johns' paper in
the Naturalist of July 1926. Little is to be gained by recapitulating
these in detail. The main thing to strive for is to avoid increasing and,
if possible, to lessen the existing confusion. Some of the chief questions
at issue are : —

(1) As regards ' Yoredalian.' Is the term to be used ? If so, what are
its limits to be ? Is it to be (a) a major division of the Lower Carboniferous
equivalent to the Tournaisian and Visean, or (6) a subdivision of the
Visean equivalent to the D zone and S zone, or (c) an alternative name
for the highest part of the D zone, equivalent in fact to an extended D., ?

(2) Is it desirable to adopt the zone (of Orionastrcea philUpsi) as
proposed by the B.A. Committee 1

(3) What are the best levels to take for delimiting Dj and D.j ?

(4) If the term Yoredalian is adopted, is D3 also necessary ? or may D.,
as far as the northern development is concerned be merged in Yore-
dalian ?

We have in the first place Phillips' main division into Great Scar
Limestone and Yoredale Series, based on obvious differences conspicuous
throughout the greater part of the area, though, as he recognised, this is
not the case in part of the south-eastern section, owing to the lower
members of the Yoredale series being represented by massive limestone.

C— GEOLOGY.

i <0

O 'O
02 t.

•J

ID
bl
O

<u
o

Lancastrian

Q ^

fi"

fii

« i « - q"-

I I I I I

I I I I I I I

Great, or Main

Underset

Middle

y Orionastrsea level

Simonstone

Hardraw (of Wensleydale,
not Ingleborough)

.1?

Gayle
Girvanella band

C. septosa band

5,°

>H .S 0-1

FiQ. 5.

Classification of the Uppermost Avonian (calcareous phases)

OF Yorkshire.

84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

I think there can be no doubt as to the desirability of the use in
Yorkshire of the term Yoredale Series or Mr. Cosmo Johns' variant
Yoredalian. Its top must clearly be taken as the level of entry of the
Lancastrian fauna of Upper Carboniferous type defined by Bisat.

As regards the level to take as the base of the Yoredalian, the difficulty
is increased by the uncertainty as to what significance is to be attached
to the expressions ' top of D.^ ' and ' top of D.,.' The top of D,^ in the
Settle paper is just below the Orionastrcea band (Simonstone limestone
level), while in the Southampton report the Orionastrcea band is the top
of D3 (or 'upper D.^ ').

The level taken as the top of D.^ (and base of the Yoredalian) by Mr.
Johns is in the shale below the Hardraw limestone, which he says corre-
sponds exactly with the base of the Yoredale series as defined by Phillips,
and with the base of Bisat's zone P. I am informed, however, by Mr.
Hudson that the latter argument no longer holds, recent goniatite work
having shown that part of D.^ is to be correlated with lower P. The
chief argument in favour of Mr. Johns' proposal is the admitted con-
venience of the base of the Yoredalian coinciding with a well-marked
change in lithology, and with the base of the Yoredale series of Phillips.

On the other hand the following facts tell in favour of the adoption of
the Orionastrcea level as the top of D.^ : — ■

1. It is a level having as a rule a well-marked palseontological character.

2. If this level be adopted, D^ forms a subdivision of considerable
thickness and includes both the upper and lower Lonsdaleia beds, instead
of only the lower.

3. This is the level adopted for the top of Dj in the two most important
papers published in recent years on the northern succession, viz., that on
the Carboniferous Succession in the North-west Province by Prof.
Garwood, and that on the Lower Carboniferous Succession in the Settle
district by Prof. Garwood and Miss Goodyear.

4. The level appears to coincide with the horizon of important strati-
graphical events, such as the Derbyshire and Cracoe unconformities.

In view of these facts, I think that, on the whole, the best course to
pursue is to commence the Yoredalian at the base of the Orionastrcea level
and to include all between that level and the Girvanella level in D.^. There
would then be no need to use the expression D., in Yorkshire and the
North-west Province.

The chief argument for giving the Yoredalian the status of a major
division of the Avonian equivalent to the Tournaisian and Visean is its
thickness and importance in the North of England. If, however {vide
supra), the Yoredalian is to be reduced by including its upper portion in
the Lancastrian, the argument loses much of its force. As was pointed
out by the authors of the sub-reports, the Yoredalian is not sufficiently
marked off faunistically or otherwise to merit its recognition as a major
division. The fauna is essentially a D fauna, and, in spite of its thickness
and importance in the North, I think there is nothing for it but to group
it with the D beds.

I do not feel capable of expressing an opinion as to the desirability or
otherwise of recognising the zone 0. The fact that Orionastrcea is found

C— GEOLOGY. 85

in the Bristol district, Midlands and North Wales at a lower level (D.^) than
the proposed zone is no valid argument against its adoption.

There is, I think, no difference of opinion as to the limits of Di ; it begins
with the entry of the D-coral fauna, and particularly of Cyathophyllum
{PalcBOsmilia) murchisoni, and ends below the Girvanella bed.

The following classification of the chief limestones of the North of
England is drawn up with the aid of Dr. S. Smith.

Di, the sub-zone of Cyathophyllum murchisoni. — The base of D is marked
by the entry of the D-coral fauna. Dp which in Westmorland has at
the base a well-known level, the Bryozoa bed of Garwood, includes
part of the Great Scar limestone of Yorkshire, part of the Melmerby
Scar limestone series of the North- West Pennines, and all the strata from
the Redesdale and Woodend limestones at the base to the Oxford lime-
stone at the top in Northumberland. In West Cumberland it includes
the sixth and fifth limestones, and the lower part of the fourth up to the
base of the Girvanella nodular bed.

Dj, the Lonsdaleia sub-zone of Vaughan's original classification, is
divided into lower D.^, the sub-zone of Lonsdaleia floriformis (lower
Lonsdaleia beds) ; upper D.,, the sub-zone of Lonsdaleia duplicata (upper
Lonsdaleia beds). The Girvanella nodular bed, which is very well marked
throughout much of Yorkshire and the North-west Province, is found also
in Northumberland (Oxford limestone), and forms an admirable datum
line for the base of D.^. The top of D.^ will lie just below the Orionastrcea
level, and in D.^ will be included all strata from the Productus giganteus
to the Productus edelbergensis beds of the Settle district, the Gayle,
Hardraw, and lower part of the Simonstone levels of the Dale country,
and in Northumberland from the level of the Oxford limestone to that
of the Eelwell and Tynebottom limestones.

The Yoredalian under the scheme here adopted includes the Orion-
astrcea zone and others not yet defined of the Southampton report, and
extends on to the base of the Lancastrian. In the Settle area it includes
the strata from the Orionastrcea level (Simonstone) to the Great, Upper
Scar, or Main limestone, and in the Dale covmtry also strata above the
Main limestone. In the Alston district and in South Northumberland it
includes the succession from the Tynebottom to the Fell Top limestone.
As has been already pointed out, some of these strata may prove to be of
the age of the lower Lancastrian.

The Shaly development {Goniatite or Culm phase P).

Rocks of this phase form the large Culm area of North Devon, and in
the North much of the contiguous parts of Yorkshire, Lancashire, and
Derbyshire, the type area beiiig that of Pendle Hill and Clitheroe.

Although Wheelton Hind devoted much time to their study, they
were, until a comparatively few years ago, relatively neglected by workers
on the British Carboniferous rocks, but, thanks primarily to Mr. W. S.
Bisat's work on the goniatites, this is far from being the case at the
present time, and their succession is now known with an accuracy and
detail which has often not yet been reached in areas where the rocks are
of the calcareous phase. Mr. Bisat's work on the goniatites, following on

86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the earlier work of Wheelton Hind in England and of Haug in France,
shows them to have a value for zonal purposes in the Upper Carboniferous
comparable to that of the graptolites in the Lower Palaeozoic and the
ammonites in the Mesozoic. It may be safely stated that his paper on
the Carboniferous goniatites of the North of England is by far the most
important contribution to Carboniferous stratigraphical palseontology
which has appeared since Vaughan's classical paper.

Goniatites are on the whole characteristic of the Upper Carboniferous,
and it is not till quite near the end of Avonian times (D^ or D,) that
they appear in British Carboniferous rocks in any number. As far
as I know, not a single goniatite has been found in the Avonian rocks of
the Bristol area, although in Dj and D2 are thick shales in which they
might be expected to occur. The D3 beds of the Bristol district are un-
fossiliferous quartzites or grits, but the Lower Coal Measures of Ashton,*^
near Bristol, include marine bands with a typical Culm assemblage,
including goniatites.

Although the non-occurrence of certain forms may commonly be due
to unsuitability of physical conditions, the best explanation of these facts
seems to be to conclude that goniatites did not migrate into the Bristol
area till Lower Coal Measure times.

While as a rule the calcareous coral and brachiopod facies and the
shaly goniatite facies are sharply defined, rendering correlation a matter
of great difficulty, it has long been known that goniatites appear
sparingly in the Knoll limestone of Craven and the Yoredale series of
Settle and Wensleydale. Bands with the goniatite facies are occasionally,
as at Budle Bay, intercalated in the upper Bernician series of Northumber-
land. In the classical area of Pendle Hill, originally described by Hind
and Howe, and recently restudied by Parkinson, both calcareous and
goniatite phases are represented.

Although as regards the highest Avonian rocks, in view of the difficulty
of correlating the deposits of the two chief phases, the standard phase and
the goniatite-lamellibranch or Culm phase, it is clear that two time scales
and two ?ets of zonal indices are for the present necessary I think few
workers on the Avonian will disagree as to the desirability of eventually
correlating all phases in one scale. Further, I think there will be few to
dispute that, partly as it is only in the case of the uppermost Avonian rocks
that a goniatite scale is necessary or proposed, partly owing to the fact
that modern work on the Avonian rocks was first put on a firm basis by
the study of the standard or calcareous phase, it is this development with
which other facies should be compared, and as far as possible correlated.
For the Lancastrian deposits no one can doubt that the goniatite succession
is the one with which any others must be correlated.

The use of the symbol P may next be considered. Some authors have
used it in a chronological sense, others in a phasal sense, and others again,
including its original users Vaughan and Matley, partly in a chronological
and partly in a phasal sense. Vaughan and Matley first used it in 1908
for strata at Loughshinny above D^ in which a Zaphrentid or Cyathaxonid
facies alte nated with a lamellibranch or Culm facies.

«« H. BoJtoa, Q.J.G.S., Ixiii. (1907), pp. 445-69, and Ixvii. (1911), p. 337.

C— GEOLOGY. 87

In the Gower paper ^' P is used primarily in a chronological sense for
strata succeeding D,,,.,, while Sibly^^ suggests its use in a purely phasal
sense.

The zone P was re-defined by Bisat^^ in a strictly chronological sense as
the zone of Goniatites crenistria, and probably that of any member of the
genus Goniatites {sensu stricto). This use is somewhat more restricted than
that of the Loughshinny paper, but wider than that of the Gower paper.
It is thus clear that there has been no uniformity in the use of P, and
probably it would really be best if, as Dixon®" suggested, the symbol as
used in a chronological sense were dropped, and, as Sibly proposed, it were
used purely in a phasal sense for Avonian rocks displaying the Culm or
goniatite development. The successive zones might then (as Dixon pro-
posed) be alluded to by the zonal fossil, as is done with the graptolites of
the Lower Palaeozoic and the ammonites of the Mesozoic.

It cannot, however, be expected that such a course should commend
itself to the workers on the Culm-goniatite development, particularly in
view of the already extensive literature based on Mr. Bisat's work. It
seems to me that both zone P and Yoredalian are north-country
denominations, and that in the south it would be more convenient to
designate their equivalents D^p and D.jy.

Reef Knolls

The general facts regarding reef knolls are well known. They are
highly fossiliferous limestone, in certain cases dolomite, hills or mounds,
the fossils being exceptionally well preserved. ' The term reef as used in
these cases implies that, though not composed of corals, the masses have
undoubtedly caused local elevations at the bottom of the Carboniferous
sea ' (Dixon). ®^ In some cases the stratification shows a quaquaversal
dip, and the massive and frequently crystalline limestone of which the
reefs are composed is succeeded in all directions by rocks of the
Zaphrentid phase — thinly-bedded limestones and shales.

Mr. Hudson, in describing the Cracoe knolls, says that the characteristics
of reef limestone are seen in its irregular non-bedded nature, in the con-
temporaneous breccias, in the frequent shell-beds of rolled and broken
Productids, and in the abundant pockets packed with shells in perfect
preservation, often showing colour bands and evidently in the position
of growth. He remarks that the frequent occurrence of sheets of
calcareous tufa points to deposition in shallow water or even to emergence.

Such reefs are met with in the Lower Carboniferous rocks at a number
of localities in the British Isles, but particularly in West Yorkshire, in
the South Craven area between Skipton and Malham, and in the Cracoe
and Burnsall areas between Skipton and Grassiugton, and in the Bowland

•' Cf. table facing p. 105.

" Proc. Oeol. Ass., xxxi. (1920), p. 81.

■''■> Op. cit., pp. 43-5.

'^ Southampton Report, sub-report i.

^1 Note. — Dr. D. Parkinson's paper on the ' Faunal Succession in the Carboniferous
Limestone of Clitheroe,' Q.J.O.S., vol. Ixxxii. (1926), pp. 188-249, contains an import-
ant account of the Clitheroe knolls.

" Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 68.

88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and Clitheroe areas. Other examples occur at Poolvash, near Castleton,
Isle of Man, while the Waulsortian of Belgium, part of the Syringothyris
beds of Co. Clare, and the well-knowu brachiopod beds of the Midlands^^
(Treak Cliff, Castleton, Park Hill, near Longnor, Thorpe Cloud, in Derby-
shire, Narrowdale, near Wetton, and Cauldron,®* in Staffordshire), and
those of St. Doulagh, near Dublin, are analogous.

From South Wales, Dixon ®^ describes in C\ reef dolomites largely of
bryozoal origin and a small limestone reef of C2 age, the relations of which
to the surrounding rocks of the Zaphrentid-phase are particularly well
seen.

The Waulsortian of Belgium is described by Vaughan®® as ' composed
of thick irregular accumulations of powdery limestone often brecciated
and seamed with calcite veins ; its most striking aspect is a massive lime-
stone, mottled with bluish blotches rich in Fenestellids. Every now and
then the beds swell out into mushroom-shaped lenticles of unstratified
reefs (the " knolls ") roofed over by the next stratified deposit, which
spread over the uneven floor.'

Both in Britain®'^ (S. Wales and Clitheroe) and in Belgium^® a peculiar
laminar structure occurs associated with the Fenestellids of the reef
dolomites. The significance of this is not yet understood. Fenestellids,
though generally characteristics of reef-knoll limestones, are not common
in the Cracoe knolls.

It was observed by Tiddeman,®^ who first described them, that the
knolls do not all lie on the same horizon. He divided them into two
groups — an upper series which he grouped with the Pendleside lime-
stones, and a lower series included in the Clitheroe limestone. Vaughan''''
maintained that Tiddeman's upper group is of D2 age, and showed that
his lower group included two distinct series, an upper series of S age and
a lower series of C age. Dr. Parkinson's recent work is in accord with
that of Vaughan as to the age of the Clitheroe knolls.

With few exceptions recent workers are agreed that Tiddeman's
original views as to the origin of reef-knolls are essentially correct. He
held that they are due to the original deposition of the remains of calcareous
organisms in an area undergoing depression, not to any subsequent packing
by earth movements, as was maintained by Marr.''^ Tiddeman's theory
was originally supported by Dakyns, and received weighty confirmation
from Vaughan, who showed that there is a special reef-facies easily recog-
nisable as such, whatever the level may be from which the specimens are
derived. Gastropods and lamellibranchs, sometimes bryozoa and trilo-
bites, and in particular certain persistent brachiopods {Piignax, Schizo-
phoria, Martinia), which often attain an exceptional size, abound in these
reef deposits, but corals, with the exception of Amplexus, are rare.

" Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixiv. (1908), p. 49.

«« Oeol. Mag., vol. Iviii. (1921), p. 367.

^ Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 127.

«8 Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxi. (1915), p. 12.

*' Dixon, Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 127.

«» Delepine MS.

«5 Rep. Brit. Ass., Newcastle, 1889, p. 602, and Bradford, 1900, p. 740.

'" Proc. Yorks Oeol. Soc, vol. xix. (1916), pp. 41-60.

'1 Q.J.O.S., vol. Iv. (1899), pp. 327-58.

C— GEOLOGY.

Viiugliau'- gives a list of species characteristic of reef knolls in general,
and further lists of those characterising Tournaisian and Visean knolls
respectively. It remains to be seen whether any comparison can be made
between the physiographic relation of Avonian reefs and those of the
coral reefs of our own time.

Distribution of Reef Knolls and Limestone.

/■South Craven Area.

Cracoe neighbourhood : Swinden, Skeltertou, Stebden,

Butterhaw, Garden.
Burnsall neighbourhood : Elbolton, Thorpe Kail, Hart-

lington Kail.
Grassington neighbourhood: Thorpe to Hebden.^^
Gargrave neighbourhood : Fogger,^^ Crag Laithe.^^
D \ Malham neighbourhood : Cawden, Wedber.
Settle neighbourhood : Scaleber.

Midland Area.

Wetton, Thorpe Cloud.

Isle of Man.
Poolvash.

BowLAND Area.

Ashnott.

Bowland Area.

Dunmow, near Slaidburn, Knowlmere.

Clitheroe Area.

Salt Hill, Crow Hill, Worsaw, Withgill, Gerna, Sykes,
Twiston.

Clitheroe Area.

White Croft Wood, Waddow, Coplow.

Pembrokeshire.
Freshwater West.

D or

high S i

Pseudobreccia.

This well-known rock type, originally described by Tiddeman^* and
subsequently and much more fully by Dixon, ^^ is very characteristic of
the D beds, particularly of Dj, throughout the whole South-western
Province. While, perhaps, best developed in Gower, where these rocks

" Q.J.Q.S., vol. Ixxi. (1915), p. 13.

'* Mr. Hudson informs me that these are not true knolls, but are local develop-
ments of limestone of reef type. Similar developments occur at other places in the
Craven lowlands.

'* Swansea Memoir, p. 10.

''^ Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), p. 507.

90 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

were first described, they are typically exposed in tlie Avon section, in
South Pembrokeshire and many other localities. The following is in
the main an abstract of Dixon's account. The rock consists of patches
(' fragments ') of dark limestone generally crowded with foraminifera,
surrounded by lighter and more argillaceous limestone (' ground mass or
matrix '), the two generally occurring in approximately equal proportions.
Both ■' fragments ' and ' matrix ' consist essentially of a calcareous mud,
and microscopic examination shows that the outline of the ' fragments ' is
not sharp and well defined, but that they shade off into the ' matrix.'
The material of both ' fragments ' and ' matrix ' is partly recrystallised,
but the change has affected the ' fragments ' more than the ' matrix,'
tending to slightly clarify them, and has been accompanied by concentra-
tion of the argillaceous and ferruginous material in the ' matrix.' This
recrystalhsation is believed to have taken place shortly after deposition.
The patchy distribution of pseudobreccia, its widespread occurrence on
the same level, and the fact that the ' matrix ' has often been dolomitised
while still under the influence of the Avonian sea, point to this conclusion.
Dolomitisation tends to increase the appearance of brecciation ; indeed, it
was the emphasising of their structure by contemporaneous dolomitisation
which first drew Tiddeman's attention to pseudobreccias. Pseudobreccia
often passes laterally into what has been termed in the Gower area ' clay
with rubble,' and in the Avon section ' rubbly limestone.' These bands,
which are very discontinuous, consist of rounded masses of limestone often
several inches in diameter, embedded in a red shaly matrix ; they probably
owe their character to a concretionary or recrystalhsation process whereby
the lime gathered in nodules, from which the iron and shaly material
became separated. The characters are emphasised by weathering.

There are other noteworthy features shown by weathered pseudo-
breccia. The more coarsely crystalline character of the ' fragments '
renders them relatively resistant to chemical change, so that they stand
out prominently on the weathered surface. This is well seen both in
Gower and the Avon section. A more remarkable feature is the deep
pitting of the bedding planes, best known from Gower, where it was
originally described by Tiddeman,''® but also very well seen at Mells in
Somerset. These pits are roughly circular, and as described from Gower
are 18-30 inches in diameter and a foot deep. The Mells examples are
rather wider and shallower. In each case they contain some clay, and
it is suggested that they, like the rubbly limestone, may be an expression
of a process of recrystalhsation leading to a local concentration of the
argillaceous material. Mr. Dixon, however, informs me that after seeing
the pot-holed limestones of the Whitehaven district he believes that the
Gower pitting is shallow pot-holing.

Pseudobreccias, though mainly met with in foraminiferal limestones of
Di age, may also occur at other horizons and in other kinds of limestone.
High up in D.2 in the Avon section'^ is a band of sandy limestone showing
pseudobrecciation in which recrystalhsation has led to the concentration
of sandy and ferruginous material in the ' matrix,' while in the more
usual type of pseudobrecciation it is argillaceous material that is so

'* Swansea Memoir (1907), p. 10.

" Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxvii. (1921), p. 235.

C— GEOLOGY. 91

concentrated. The honeycomb sandstone described by Cantrill'^ which
occurs at the base of I>^ along part of the North Crop of the Souili Wales
coalfield seems to be similar. A second exceptional case of pseudo-
brecciation in the Avon section occurs on a small scale in the Cleistopora
beds, some four feet above the base of the Bryozoa bed. In this case the
change has led to much sei^aration of iron and some of argillaceous
material. The rock affected is a crinoidal limestone.

The prevalence of pseudobreccias in the Dj beds of the Midlands and
the North-west Province, as well as in the South, is one of the features
emphasising the uniformity of conditions which apparently prevailed in
the Avonian seas of England and Wales at this time.

Though pseudobreccias are not alluded to as such in the Anglesey
Memoir, the term not having been introduced when the field work was in
progress. Dr. Greenly informs me that they are extensively developed
both at the top and near the bottom of D.^. They are alluded to in the
Memoir as mottled limestone.'^ Pseudobreccias occur in the Lilleshall
limestone (D.,), but, as Mr. Wedd informs me, are characteristic and
apparently confined to the ' White Limestones ' (upper Dj and lower D.,)
of Denbigh and Flint. In the southern part of the area they mark a well-
defined and persistent horizon near the top of the ' White Limestone.'

Typical pseudobreccias are described by Jackson*'' from the upper D,
of the Miller's Dale area, Derbyshire.

Garwood®^ describes from the D, beds of the North-west Province
certain structures under the names of (1) spotted beds, (2) pseudobreccias,
saying that the two occasionally pass into one another. The spotted beds
are of two types ; in the first the spots consist of small spherical patches
of darker limestone surrounded by a lighter matrix, the two grading into
one another. No constant difference between spots and matrix was
detected beyond the concentration of the coloured impurities in the spots,
this being attributed to slight concretionary action. The second type of
spotted bed, which is far less common, differs in the fact that the original
rock contained a considerable amount of sandy material. Concretionary-
action in this case has led to the concentration of the sand grains in the
matrix, while the colouring matter as in the first case collected in the spots.
In each case the process is believed to be contemporaneous. The structures
described appear to be identical with those of the South-west Province.

Pseudobreccias are known from many other localities in the D^ beds of
the North of England ; thus Garwood and Goodyear ®^ describe them from
the Great Scar limestone of the Settle area, and Edmonds*^ from Cumber-
land, while they occur also in the Dale Country (Wensleydale).

In West Cumberland they are found at many levels in the D beds and
extend up to D^.

Though nodular structures suggesting pseudobrecciation are present
in some dark limestones, the structure is only typically developed in beds

" Ammanford Memoir (1907), p. 69 et seq.
'• Anglesey Memoir, vol. ii. (1919), p. 606.
80 Oeol. Mag., vol. lix. (1922), p. 467.
" Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixviii. (1912), p. 476.
" /6i(/., vol. Ixxx.( 1924).
" Geol. Mag., vol. lix. (1922), p. 80.

92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

free from dark mud, but we have still to learn what were the conditions
that determined its formation.

Algal Limestones.

Mr. E. B. Wethered and the late Prof. H. A. Nicholson were the
earliest British workers to pay attention to the calcareous algae and other
somewhat obscure organisms which are met with in the Carboniferous
Limestone. But it was not till Prof. Garwood turned his attention to the
subject that their importance as rock-builders was fully recognised. His
presidential address to Section C (Birmingham, 1913) and papers in the
Geological Magazine** have led to the recognition of these organisms at
several horizons and in many localities.

In the North-west Province, Garwood describes*^ well-marked algal de-
velopments at three levels, viz. : (1) the Solenojpora sub-zone (lower Ci),
(2) near the base of the Seminula gregaria sub-zone (lower C.^), and (3) the
Girvanella nodular bed (base of D.J which forms the top of the Great Scar
limestone.

The Girvanella band is met with in many of the Yorkshire dale sections,
and occurs in the equivalent of the Great Scar limestone of other areas,
such as the Melmerby scar limestone of Alston, and the Oxford limestone
of North Northumberland.

Algse also occur at the base of Dj in the Woodend, Eedesdale and Dun
limestones of Northumberland. In the Berwick-on-Tweed Memoir
Girvanella-Yik.Q nodules are recorded from several levels.*®

Garwood*'' mentions that Mitcheldeania is found in the highest
calcareous bands of the Cement Stones at a number of localities in
Northumberland.

The rhythmic succession in the Yoredale series of Wensleydale,
described by Hudson,** ends in each case with algal limestone deposited
under shallow-water conditions. His table of succession shows such
bands in the Middle, Simonstone, Hardraw Scar, and Gayle limestones.
There are also indications of a rhythmic succession in the Northumberland
sequence. In West Cumberland algal bands occur at a number of levels.
Edmonds*^ mentions three principal ones in addition to the Girvanella
band at the base of D.2.

A study of the rocks of the Avon section^" has shown that a strong
algal development occurs at three levels, Km, C.^-Si, and the top of S.^.
The well-known ' concretionary beds ' at the top of S.^, and the pisolites
which occur at various levels in Sj and S.^, were shown to be — in part, at
any rate — algal. Algal limestones have been recognised in all the other
Carboniferous Limestone sections in the Bristol district that have been
studied in detail wherever rocks deposited under MocZtoZa-phase conditions
occur. Thus algal Umestones occur in both Sj and S.^ in the Wickwar

«« Dec. v., vol. X. (1913), pp. 440, 490, 545, and Dec. vi., vol. i. (1914), p. 265.

" Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixviii. (1912).

^^ Hem. Oeol. Surv., Berwick-on-Tweed (1926), pp. 18 and 23.

" Geology in the Field, p. 676.

" Proc. Yorks Oeol. Soc, vol. xx., pt. 1 (1923-24), p. 125.

«» Geol. Mag., vol. lix. (1922), p. 119.

*» Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxvii. (1921), and Geol. Mag., vol. Iviii. (1921), p. 546.

C— GEOLOGY. 93

area,^^ that in Sj at Bury Hill being one of the finest in the Bristol district.
In the Burrington section algal layers were tound only in S.^, and in the
Sodbury^'^ section in CVSi and So.

The algal development of the Whitehead limestone at Mitcheldean is
perhaps the most remarkable in the Soixth of England. In the Pembroke
and Tenby district^^ algal limestones occur in the K and C^-Sj beds, while
the Sg pisolites of the Kidwelly area are doubtless algal.

Dolomitisatiou.^^

This subject would by itself afford sufficient material for several
presidential addresses. I make no attempt to deal with the general
question, and in particular cannot discuss the important results obtained
by American investigators of coral-reef dolomitisation. My aim is merely
to summarise some recent work on British Carboniferoiis dolomites and
provide a brief statement as to their distribution.

The dolomites of South Wales were very carefully studied by Dixon, ^'
while those of the Midlands are fully described by Parsons. ^^ These
authors agree as to the general classification of dolomites, Parsons dividing
them into : —

1. Primary, including

(a) Those deposited as clastic rocks derived from some pre-existing

dolomite.
(6) Those chemically precipitated as dolomite.

2. Secondary, including

(a) Contemporaneous, i.e. rocks deposited as ordinary limestones but
dolomitised soon after deposition.

(6) Subsequent, i.e. rocks dolomitised at some later period.
Primary dolomites are of comparatively slight importance among
Avonian rocks, but, according to Dixon, ^^ include dolomite-mudstones
and reef dolomites. Dolomite-mudstones occur in the Athyris glabristria
zone of the North-west Province. The reef dolomites of the Tenby dis-
trict are grey unbedded dolomite-mudstone showing a peculiar association
with Fenestellids, which is to be matched exactly in the knoll limestones of
Clitheroe and the Waulsortian of Belgium. It is now generally admitted
that most dolomites are secondary and contemporaneous, having been
produced in part by a process of leeching out of the lime and subsequent
concentration of the magnesia, in part by a process of replacement of
lime by magnesia derived from sea-water. The occurrence over a wide
area of dolomite of constant character points to its contemporaneity,
e.g. the Zaminosa-dolomite of the South-west Province, while patchy
dolomite such as occurs on a large scale in the D beds of Derbyshire is
subsequent. The lateral and often abrupt passage into unaltered lime-
stone such as occurs in Derbyshire is also characteristic of subsequent

•1 Proc. Bristol Nat.Soc, 4th series, vol. vi., pt. 3 (1926, issued for 1925), p. 246i

•2 Geol. Mag., vol. Ix. (1923), p. 117.

•' Dixon, Pembroke and Tenby 3Iemoir, p. 69.

•* See F. W. Clarke, The Data of Geochemistry (1908), p. 480. Full references.

•5 Swansea Memoir (1907), p. 11, and Pembroke and Tenby Memoir (1921), p. 70i

»« Qeol. Mag., vol. Ux. (1922), pp. 51 and 104.

•' Pembroke and Tenby Memoir (1921), p. 70.

94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

dolomites. In contemporaneous dolomites, which are normally dark grey,
the crystals interlock with one another and produce a granular mosaic
of allotriomorphic crystals, while in subsequent dolomites, which are
normally light grey or reddish, the crystals as a rule tend to be relatively
large and idiomorphic. In Derbyshire, however, the thick dolomites
claimed by Parsons as subsequent are mainly allotriomorphic. The inter-
bedding of a dolomite with non-dolomitised strata is not necessarily a
proof of contemporaneous alteration, for, as Parsons points out, subsequent
dolomitisation is capable of afiecting a bed while leaving those above and
below unaltered.

Organic remains, particularly those which, like crinoidal 'ossicles,' are
composed of calcite in fairly large crystals, tend to be more resistant to
dolomitisation than the matrix, which is acted on with special readiness
if consisting originally of aragonite mud. Dixon^* shows that in con-
temporaneous dolomites corals and ooliths are resistant as compared with
the matrix, while in subsequent dolomites the corals and ooliths are
affected first. In several districts where Triassic rocks rest or have rested
on the Avonian, the dolomite crystals are seen to contain haematite,
presumably derived from the Trias, and affording proof that the dolomite
is subsequent ; Parsons®^ figures an excellent case of this from Breedon,
in Leicestershire.

Selective dolomitisation is a term employed by him when the formation
of dolomite occurs in certain portions of the rock, tending to produce a
mottled or brecciated appearance, e.g. the pseudobreccias of the South-
west Province. Cases are known where there is evidence of the secondary
addition of Mg. at more than one period ; such are termed by Parsons
complex dolomites.

Distribution of Dolomites.

South-ivestern Province. — There is progressive increase in dolomiti-
sation as one passes northwards from the Mendips and eastward from
Pembrokeshire, the phenomenon reaching its maximum in the region
south and east of the South Wales coalfield. It is not easy to trace any
relation between the amount of dolomitisation and the shore-lines of the
period.^""

In the Burrington section lower Cj is dolomitised, and there is some
dolomite at various levels in S^

In the Avon section^"^ dolomitisation is widely prevalent throughout
Z and y, without, however, leading to the obliteration of the fossils. Lower
Cj and C.2 are almost completely dolomitised, while there is a good deal
at various levels in S. The Sodbury section^"^ is essentially the same as
the Avon section as regards dolomitisation.

In the Chepstow area Z and C are greatly dolomitised, while there is
a good deal in S, especially Sj.

"8 Q.J.G.S., Ixxiii. (1917), p. 110.
" Ibid., pi. X., fig. 4.

^'"' See Vaughan, ' Shift of the Western Shore-lines in England and Wales during
the Avonian period,' Eep. Brit. Ass., Manchester, 1915, p. 429.
"1 Oeol. Mag., vol. Iviii. (1921), p. 544.
"- Ibid., vol. Ix. (1923), pp. 112-3.

C— GEOLOGY. 95

In the ' Main Limestone ' (Z,— y) of the Forest of Dean dolomitisation
is very complete,^"^ and while chiefly contemporaneous, in the hsematite-
bearing beds where it is at its maximum, subsequent (vein) dolomitisation
has been added to the contemporaneous. Along the south-eastern margin
of the South Wales coalfield in the TaflE Valley, and to the east, there is an
almost unbroken series of dolomites extending throughout the whole
section from the base of Z to the Millstone Grit. The change is mainly
contemporaneous, but in C.^ and S.^ there has been vein dolomitisation.
West of the TafE Valley, as at Ruthin, dolomitisation is in the main
restricted to Zj and Cj.^''*

Throughout Gower"^ C, retains the character of the laminosa-dolomite
of the Avon section, and there is much dolomite in Z^. In B. Gower Zj is
also dolomitised, as are to some extent the pseudobreccias of D. There is
less dolomite in the S beds of W. Gower than in those of B. Gower.

In the Tenby district,!"*' except for the fact that there is little dolomite
in Z, dolomites prevail at much the same levels as in Gower, viz., Cj, various
levels in C^ and in the pseudobreccias of D^. The peculiar reef-dolomite
of Ci has been alluded to above. On the whole, in Pembrokeshire, as in
the eastern part of the South-west Province, dolomitisation of the
Tournaisian increases northwards.^"^ Both in Pembrokeshire and along
the north crop of the main South Wales coalfield it is almost wholly
absent from the Visean.

Midland Area and North Wales.

In the D limestones of the Midland area, as Parsons ^^^ points out,
dolomitisation shows two contrasting types. In the main limestone mass
of central Derbyshire it is wholly subsequent, while in the marginal deposits
of the Leicester coalfield it is almost or wholly contemporaneous.

In North Wales there are no horizons of widespread dolomitisation, but
Greenlyi"" states that local dolomitisation is not uncommon in Anglesey,
and appears to have been, partly at any rate, contemporaneous. On the
other hand the masses of dark-brown dolomite of Seiriol and Peumon
(top of D.j) are subsequent.

North of England.

In Yorkshire and the North-west Province dolomitisation is com-
paratively slight. No contemporaneous dolomite is mentioned as occur-
ring in the Settle district, though extensive subsequent dolomitisation has
taken place locally in relation to the Craven faults.^^"

Dolomitisation is not a characteristic feature of the North-west
Province, but the dolomite mudstones of the Solenopora sub-zone (Oi) of
the Shapi" area are characteristic examples of primary dolomites.

103 Geol. Mag., Dec. v., vol. ix. (1912), p. 419.

"1 Dixey and Sibly, Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxiii. (1917), p. 122.

105 Gower paper, Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixvii. (1911), table facing p. 505.

io« Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 70.

107 Dixon, Sum. Prog. (1906), p. 54.

108 Geol. Mag., lix. (1922), p. 115.
io» Anglesey Memoir, ii., p. 606.

110 Q.J.O.S., Ixxx. (1924), pp. 210-212.

"1 Ibi'l., vol. Ixviii. (1912), pp. 456 and 487.

96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

In the Whitehaven district^^^ subsequent dolomitisation occurs locally
m many of the limestones.

There is very little dolomitisation in the limestones of Northumberland
and Durham, though Dr. S. Smith informs me that the Great or Dryburn
limestone of Beadnell (D3) shows subsequent dolomitisation.

Chert.

The subject of chert, or even of Carboniferous chert, would alone jaeld
material for a lengthy address. I make no attempt to deal with it
exhaustively, and there is the less reason to do so since the publication
of Mr. H. C. Sargent's^^^ two important papers, which contain full
references to the literature, British and foreign.

Distribution, Stratigraphical and Geographical.

In the Culm area of North Devon chert is strongly developed in Dg,
where the fauna includes forms characteristic of D^x and D^p.

In the Mendip region cherts are plentiful, particularly at the y level in
the Frome area. In the Burrington section chert occurs in Z, and is
strongly developed in Cjy and S.^. At Vallis there is a great development
of laminated chert in Z.^. There is much chert in ^ and Zj at Portishead.

In a large proportion of the North Somerset sections the fossils in Zj
are much silicified (beekitised), even if massive chert is not present.

Chert is much less developed in the Gloucestershire sections than in
those of Somerset. In the Avon section it is not conspicuous, but a little
occurs in Zj and above and below the Seminula oolite in S^. There is
no sign of chert in the Sodbury, Tytherington and Wickwar sections. With
regard to the Forest of Dean, Dr. Sibly informs me that he does not know
any considerable development at any horizon anywhere in the district.

Chert occurs low down in Z along the S.E. margin of the South Wales
coalfield and in the Gower area, where it is also found at three other levels —
in Sp in the Black Lias of lower D.^ (Dgx), and in the lagoon-phase rocks of
upper D3 (D.,p).

In the Pembroke and Tenby district Dixon^^* describes chert as
occurring at many horizons of the Main Limestone {i.e. ^ to D^), especially
in rocks of the Zaphrentid phase, which form most of the sequence in the
southern outcrop. Cherts are mentioned as occurring at the base of the
Millstone Grit at Lydstep, Gower, and all along the north crop of the
South Wales coalfield.

In the Midland^^^ area there is a great development of nodular and
lenticular chert in the thinly-bedded upper D^ limestones. Feeble
development may occur in the thickly-bedded Dj limestones. The D.,
beds also contain abundant chert, while in Flint^^® the development of chert
in the upper D, and lower Lancastrian (' Cefn-y-fedw sandstone ') is one
of the most remarkable in the British Isles. These cherts are not of the

"2 Geol. Mag., \ix. (1922), p. 79.

"3 Ibid., vol. Iviii. (1921), pp. 265-78, and vol. Ix. (1923), pp. 168-83.
'" Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 69.
"5 Q.J.O.S., vol. Ixiv. (1908), p. 38.

"^ See Sargent, Oeol. Mag., vol. Ix. (1923), p. 168. Other references will be found
here.

C— GEOLOGY. 97

nodular type, but, as Mr. Wedd informs me, are a cherty silicification of
silts and shales, sometimes accompanied by patches of chert, in calcareous
sandstones. Beekitisation of fossils may also be a marked feature of the
Flint development.

Chert occurs in the Pendleside limestone of Pendle Hill. In the
Settle^i^ district chert occurs in the upper part of the Bryozoa series (Sj)
in the districts between the faults, and is typically developed in the
OrionaslrvBa bed (base of Yoredalian). In Wensleydale and other York-
shire dales cherts are well developed at several levels in the upper
Yoredalian, particularly just above the Undersett limestone.

In the North-west Province chert isnot characteristic ; Garwood^^* states
that it is met with locally, especially in the higher part of D, but never
in any great quantity. Replacement of fossils by beekite is not unusual
at various horizons. Cherty limestones occur in the Botany Beds, the
highest calcareous beds in the Avonian of the North-west Province.
Chert occurs low in the series near the bottom of the Seventh limestone
(upper S.J in the Whitehaven^^" district, and again in D.^ in the upper
part of the Fourth limestone.

Classification of Cherts.

The cherts alluded to in the above list fall into three groups, which
practically correspond with the three phases of deposition of Vaughan's
Winnipeg report.

(a) The irregular nodular chert often forming impersistent bands at
various levels throughout the South-west Province, and in the Dj beds
of the Midlands and Yorkshire, is specially characteristic of the standard
limestones.

(fe) The great development of bedded cherts in D,, of the Midlands
and North Wales and in the Bishopston beds (' Black Lias ') of Gower is
intermediate in character between those of groups (a) and (c), and is
specially characteristic of the Zaphrentid and Cyathaxonid phase. The
laminated cherts of Z.^ at Vallis, Somerset, should probably be placed here.

Note.—h\ alluding to these cherts as bedded, it is not intended to imply
that they themselves show traces of bedding. They are lenticular or
nodular cherts developed along the bedding planes. The laminated
cherts mentioned below are those frequently alluded to as banded
cherts, but the term laminated is substituted in view of the fact that
the term banded has often been applied to concentrically zoned flints.

(c) The laminated cherts of the lagoon-phase deposits of Dixon are
represented by those of the North Devon Culm, by those of the P beds
(Dap) of Gower, and by those at the base of the Millstone Grit of the
Pembroke area. The deposits in which they occur belong to the third
phase of Vaughan's table {Modiola and Posidonomya phases and other
shallow-water deposits).

"' Q.J.O.S., vol. Ixxx. (1924), p. 206.

"8 Ibid., vol. Ixviii. (1912), p. 551.

"• See Edmonds, Geol. Mag., vol. lis. (1922), pp. 78 and 81.

1926 2

98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

The two chief problems which confront a student of the cherts in any
area are to determine in the first place the source of the silica, and in the
second place to obtain proof as to its period of origin, i.e. to ascertain
whether its deposition was contemporaneous with that of the associated
strata, or whether it was due to some process of replacement.

Note.- — There are possibilities of confusion in the use of the term contempo-
raneous. It may be used (1) as implying direct deposition at the
same time as the associated strata. Or it may be used (2) in a sense
corresponding to that in which the term contemporaneous dolomite
is used, implying that the chert was produced by a metasomatic
change shortly after the formation of the limestone with which it is
associated. To avoid confusion I propose to allude to cherts of
type (1) as contemporaneous and those of type (2) as penecontempo-
raneous. The term subsequent may then be applied to cherts produced
by a relatively late alteration, i.e. one taking place after the consolida-
tion of the limestone.

Mr. Dixon points out (by letter) that proof as to the period of origin
is clearest in the case of cherts associated with contemporaneous dolomite.
The organisms are perfectly preserved in the chert but obliterated in the
surrounding dolomite. Consequently chert formation preceded the bulk
of the contemporaneous dolomitisation.

The problems both as to the source of the silica and as to the period of
its formation have attracted much attention of recent years, especially
in America, and have been discussed in considerable detail by Mr. H. C.
Sargent ^2" in his study of the cherts of the Midlands and North Flintshire.
As regards the source of the silica, one view is that it has a directly organic
origin, being derived from the tests of radiolaria,or perhaps in some cases
of diatoms, and from the sjDicules of certain kinds of sponges. The other
view regards the silica as directly deposited from solution in sea-water.

The three types of chert may be separately considered.

{a) The irregular nodular chert often forming impersistent bands is the
prevalent type in the South-west Province, and is probably the most widely
spread in general. I have found no radiolaria and few sponge spicules
in a limited number of sections of this rock from the Bristol district. Hull
and Hardman,^^^ and also Renard,^-^ referring probably to chert of this
type, consider it to be a pseudomorph of gelatinous silica after limestone,
and believe that the change took place when the strata were more or less
plastic. In the Burrington section the chert is particularly developed in
bands of Lithostrotion, and at Waterlip and Windsor Hill in the Mendips
in highly crinoidal limestone. In each case I am convinced that the
chert is due to replacement, and I do not see any reason to assume that
the limestone was still plastic when this took place. I should therefore
regard the chert as subsequent in the sense alluded to above. As far as
I know, all workers on the limestone of the South-west Province agree as
to the origin of the associated chert by replacement.

120 Geol. Mag., vol. Iviii. (1921), p. 265, and vol. Ix. (1923), p. 168.
1=1 8ci. Trans. Roy. Dublin Soc, vol. i. (1878), pp. 71-94.
1" Bull. Acad. Boy. de Bel i ue 2me aer., t. 46, pp. 471-98.

C— GEOLOGY. 99

Silicified foraminiferal limestones and oolitic cherts such as those
from Bullslaughter Bay, Tenby, described by Dixon, ^^^ are obviously
cases of replacement. The oolitic cherts, which are devoid of spicules,
are lenticular intercalations in rocks of Zaphrentid phase, crowded with
highly spicular cherts, so that the average sea -water which soaked them
while they were still within its influence would probably carry some
dissolved organic silica.

(b) We now come to the cherts occurring in bands or beds, sometimes
tabular, more often nodular, at various levels and horizons. Such cherts
are particularly characteristic of the D.^ beds of the Midlands and N. Wales,
and the equivalent level of Pembrokeshire and of Gower ('Black Lias' );
and whatever be the method of formation of the cherts of the Midlands
and Flint, there can be no doubt that some of the Zaphrentid-phase
cherts of S. Wales resemble the standard-phase cherts in being due to
replacement. Of these rocks Dixon ^'•^* remarks that doubtless in all
cases they owe their silica largely to sponge spicules. Such spicules have
been observed in sections of the chert from many localities, e.g. the ' Black
Lias ' of Gower, also Chirk, Holywell and Prestatyn^-^ in Flint. G. J.
Hinde^"® refers to the cherts of N. Wales as ' remarkable and hitherto
unequalled sponge beds.'

The presence of the sponge spicules has hitherto been as a rule claimed
as indicating the source of the associated chert. Sargent regards the
matter from a different light, his argument being that, if solutions capable
of dissolving organic silica were present to the extent necessitated by the
sponge-spicule theory, it is hardly likely that any spicules would be
preserved. This argument would, on the other hand, counter' that adduced
from the frequent absence of spicules in sections of Carboniferous cherts.

Mr. Sargent's opinion as regards the bedded cherts of the Midlands and
Flint is that they are due to deposition contemporaneously with the
•country rock, and not, except to a limited extent, to any metasomatic
replacement thereof. The source of the silica is found in the immense
■quantity which must be poured into the sea in solution in river-water.

(c) Evidence of the presence of organisms is generally very clear in
the case of the laminated cherts of Dixon's lagoon-phase deposits. Thus
the radiolarian character of the Codden Hill cherts of Barnstaple has long
been familiar. Similar radiolarian cherts occur in the P beds (D,p) of
'Gower. There can be little doubt that the silica of these deposits is
largely, at any rate, derived from the associated organisms, and that
the cherts are contemporaneous in the sense that they are not due to the
:subsequent introduction of silica. It cannot be denied, however, that
the amount of silica present in these rocks is so much in excess of the
ladiolaria themselves as to suggest direct precipitation.

The chief facts relative to cherts may be summarised as follows : —
The origin of the silica is (1) organic, and derived from siliceous

organisms (radiolaria, diatoms and sponges); (2) inorganic, and derived

from the silica in solution in sea-water.

12S Pembroke and Tenby Memoir, p. 70.

i2« Ibid., p. 70.

i'-'6 G. H. Morton, Proc. Liverpool Biol. Soc, vol. i. (1887), p. 69.

"0 Geol. Mag., Dec. iii., vol. iv. (1887), p. 444.

100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Although sections of many cherts disclose the presence of siliceous
organisms, this is not generally the case, and although the absence of
such organisms is by no means a conclusive argument against their former
presence, yet it does not seem probable that they can have supplied the
immense quantities of silica that are so often met with. Hence inorganic
silica must sometimes be called on.

As regards the period of chert formation, the best case for contempo-
raneous direct deposition is that aiJorded by the laminated chert of
group (c).

Penecontemporaneous cherts in the sense defined above are illustrated
by those interbedded with contemporaneous dolomites, while the irregular
nodular cherts of the South-west Province and many other areas (group a)
are due to replacement and may sometimes be penecontemporaneous, but
in many cases are probably subsequent. The same is probably the case
with many of the cherts of group (b). Difference of opinion exists regarding
the group (b) cherts of the Midlands and N. Wales, the bulk of which,
according to Mr. Sargent, are due to contemporaneous deposition.

C— GEOLOGY. 101

DETAILS CONCERNING VERTICAL SECTIONS.

The iiiinimum of detail is introduced into the actual section.
Unconformities and other breaks = U . . ., a = algal layer, c = coal,
ch = chert, d = dolomite, m = Modiola-phase deposits, p = goniatite —
lamellibranch or Culm phase, ps = pseudobreccia, x == Zaphrentid or
Cyathaxonid phase.

1. Bristol. — Mainly from Vaughan. Post-Avonian not to scale.

2. Devonshire. — From table given by Evans, Proc. Geol. Ass., vol. xxxiii.

(1922), p. 205 (not to scale).

3. Chepstow Area. — From information supplied by Mr. W. W. Jervis.

4. Forest of Dean. — From Sibly, Geol. Mag., 1912 and 1918, and from
information supplied by him.

5. North Crop oJ South Wales Coalfield. — From the Geological Survey
Reports and information supplied by Mr. T. N. George.

6. Gower. — Compiled from Dixon, Q.J.G.S., 1911, p. 505. Thickness of
the K beds from N.W. Gower, the remainder from E. Gower. In
addition to that at the levels indicated, there is some dolomite through-
out D, S, C and Z. Mr. Dixon informs me that the shales above D^,
classed as P in the Gower j^aper, are probably Lancastrian.

7. South Pembroke. — From Dixon, Pembroke and Tenby Memoir. Post-
Avonian from Tenby area, not South Pembroke. In addition to the
levels indicated there is some dolomite at intervals throughout
D, S, C and Z.

8. Anglesey (principal region). — From thicknesses given by Greenly,
Anglesey Memoir.

9. Flint. — From thicknesses given by Wedd, Flint, &c., Memoir, 1924.

10. North Derbyshire.— The Avonian from Sibly, Q.J.G.S., 1908, the
Lancastrian from information supplied by Mr. J. W. Jackson. S.^
also entered on the authority of Sir. Jackson.

11. Clitheroe District. — Adapted from Parkinson, Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxxii.

(1926), with additions from information supplied by him.

12. Settle. — Adapted from Garwood and Goodyear, Q.J.G.S., vol. Ixxx.

13. Yorkshire Dales (generalised). — From section drawn by Mr. R. G. S.
Hudson.

14. West Cumberland (Whitehaven). — Mainly from Edmonds, Geol. Mag.,

1922. The upper beds chiefly from information supplied by Mr.
Dixon.

15. East Cumberland (Alston). — Drawn up by Dr. Stanley Smith from

Westgarth Forster's section.

16. South Northumberland. — Drawn up by Dr. Stanley Smith from the
Northumberland Memoirs of the Geological Survey.

17. North Northumberland. — Drawn up by Dr. Stanley Smith from the
Northumberland Memoirs of the Geological Survey.

Note. — In sections 1, 3, 4, 6 and 7, the K beds succeed upper O.R.S. conformably; in
section 5 an unconformable junction is indicated between K beds and lower
O.R.S.

SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY.

BIOLOGY AND THE TRAINING OF
THE CITIZEN.

ADDRESS BY

PROFESSOR J. GRAHAM KERR, F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

I PROPOSE in tliis address to depart somewhat from precedent, and to
devote it neither to a general review of recent progress in our science, nor
to the exposition of my own special views on problems of evolutionary
morphology, but rather to a more general subject — -one which I believe
to be at the present time of transcendent importance to the future not
merely of our nation but, indeed, of our civilisation— namely, the relation
of Biology to the training of the future citizen. Speaking as I do from
this chair, I need hardly say that by Biology I mean more especially
Animal Biology.

It is unnecessary to emphasise at length the enormously important
part which biological science plays in the life of our modern civilised
State. The provision of food for the community — crop-raising, stock-
breeding, the production of dairy products, fisheries, the preservation of
food by canning and freezing, and so on — is obviously an immensely
complicated system of applications of biological science. And so also
with the maintenance of the health of the community — the prevention
of disease, much of which is now known to be due to the machinations of
parasitic microbes, often transported and spread by other living
organisms, and the cure of disease by the modern developments of medicine
and surgery — these again are applications of biological science. When we
contemplate merely such simple facts known to everyone, when we see to
what an extent the results of biological science are woven in and out
through the whole complicated fabric of modern civilisation, when we con-
template further the gigantic expenditure in money devoted to the school
training of our future citizens, it must surely strike us as an extraordinary
fact that biological science enters hardly, if at all, into the school training
of our average citizen.

What I have said, indeed, applies, if only in lesser degree, to the
subordinate position occupied by science as a whole in our school training.
In the earty stages of human evolution, as we see illustrated on the earth
of to-day by those comparatively primitive savages who still remain in
the nomadic hunting phase, what we should now call science plays an all-
important part in the education of the J^oung individual : he is taught to
observe accurately the phenomena of nature, dead and living, to draw
the correct conclusions therefrom, and to regulate his actions accordingly.
In our own early history science undoubtedly played an equally important

D.— ZOOLOGY. 103

part in the training of the young. Even down into the Middle Ages it
supplied an appreciable part of the curriculum of the educated man, the
seven liberal arts of those days containing a large infusion of what we
now call science. In later times, however, from the renaissance of
classical learning onwards, science has been kept in the obscure back-
ground of our educational curriculum, and in spite of much tinkering of
detail in recent years that curriculum continues unchanged in its main
features : it remains preponderatingly literary and classical. Even to-day,
if we listen to contemporary discussions on education, we commonly hear
arguments as to the relative merits of different constituents of the current
curriculum, but the general framework of that curriculum seems to be
regarded as sacred from all interference.

And yet these recent years have witnessed the most tremendous
advances in the evolution of our social organisation, and, as the position
now is, it seems as certain as anything can be that unless further advance
is accompanied by a corresponding evolution in the training of our future
citizens a condition of instability will soon be reached such as to involve
the risk of complete disaster. Probably the factor in our modern social
evolution which has brought in its train the greatest danger is the develop-
ment of what in general terms we may call means of intercommunication —
the means by which transport is effected — on the one hand of material
things, on the other hand of ideas. Primitive man in the hunting phaise of
his evolution is a nomad, but a nomad within a restricted area : his wander-
ings are limited by the more or less vague boundaries between his own terri-
tory and that of neighbouring tribes. He is entirely dependent for food and
raiment upon what nature provides within these limits : he knows little of
the world beyond except that it is peopled by strangers of varpng degrees
of hostility : his code of ethics is limited by the same boundaries — highly
developed as regards intercourse with his own tribe, it ceases to exist in his
intercourse with those outside. His dominating idea is loyalty to his own
kinsfolk and fellow tribesmen, and for this idea he is ready to make any
sacrifice.

With advancing evolution, when the conmiunal unit is no longer the
clan or tribe but the nation or federation of nations, geographical and
political boundaries still exist; but with the evolution of means of transport
by road and rail and sea they cease to form impassable barriers — men
and goods are able to pass them freely. Of even greater moment to
citizenship than the transport of material things is the transmission of
ideas. The great developments in this have come about in the first
place with the evolution of language, the vehicle of thought, which has
rendered possible the transmission of thought from individual to individual.
The use of visible material symbols of a lasting kind — whether
pictorial or simply conventional, as in writing and printing — while
facilitating still further the transmission of thought from individual to
individual and from place to place, has done far more, for it has enabled
the achievements of each generation to be handed on to its successors
with a completeness that was quite impossible by the merely spoken word.

While these advances in the methods of transmitting thought have
played an all-important part in rendering secure the orderly progress of
human knowledge, they have brought in their train curiously one of the

104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

most potent disturbing factors to the progress of communal evolution.
This disturbance is brought about through interference with the workings
of one of the great principles of communal evolution — that of leadership.

Leadership.

Already in the primitive tribal community we find this factor at work.
Tribes differ in their size and power^their men may number a mere half-
dozen or several hundreds — and the main factor in this is the personality
of the tribal chief. Among his own men the chief stands out by his
capacity, mental and physical : a quick and accurate observer, he is also
quick and accurate in drawing his deductions : he is wise, he is rich in
knowledge and in its bearings ; while alert and quick in decision, he is of
steady nerves, has a good sense of balance, and is reliable in emergency.

And so it is onwards through historical evolution — ^the chief, the ablest
man of his tribe, finds his successors in a long sequence of natural leaders
of men.

It is the more modern developments concerned with the transmission
of thought — printing, telegraphy, wireless telephony, cinematography,
and so on — that constitute the great disturbing factor, inasmuch as they
have given enormously increased importance to elements of individual
personality quite distinct from general strength and capacity, mental and
physical. Amongst such elements there stand out conspicuously
oratorical power and skill in the method of advocacy. - The leader no
longer forces himself to the front by the sheer power of his outstanding
constructive ability ; the place of this is to a great extent taken over by
the power of effective and persuasive writing and speaking. The most
responsible posts in the leadership of the modern State have been rendered
accessible to the skilled orator, even though his constructive ability in
statesmanship may not be of the highest. That this development involves
serious dangers is obvious ; it seems equally obvious that one of the
main tasks confronting the. community is the devising and setting up of
the educational safeguards which alone can be efficient against these
dangers. The task will, indeed, be no easy one : it will clearly, for its
satisfactory accomplishment, call for the best intellects the community
can provide. However great the ability of those to whom the task is
entrusted, it will prove one of high complexity and much difficulty ; but
certain inevitable conclusions seem to be visible, one of the chief of these
being the need of drastic cutting down of the number of subjects at present
inflicted upon the young citizen in training during his school period. How
exactly this is to be done will have to be carefully worked out; but it seems
clear that at present an immense amount of time is given, during the early
stages of the curriculum, to subjects which might profitably be replaced by
others of greater value in mind-training during these earlier stages. If
postponed to a later stage of mental development such subjects can be
mastered in a small fraction of the time required in the earlier stages — when,
by the way, their prolonged and wearisome study is but too apt to kill
effectively all interest on the part of the pupil in the particular subject.

While I am in complete agreement with those who desire to see the
school curriculum greatly lightened as regards number of subjects and who
desire to see ' snippets of many subjects ' replaced by more thorough

D.— ZOOLOGY. 105

training in a few, my special task now is to urge the necessity of including
in the training of every citizen before the completion of his school period
.at least a grounding in the main principles of biological science.

It is necessary in approaching any such question to keep clear in our
minds the two main functions of education : (1) the educative function
in the strict sense— the training and development up to the highest
attainable level of the brain-power which Nature has provided, and (2) the
informative function— the providing the mind with an equipment of
information which will be of use to it later on.

Science and the Curriculum.

It is again necessary to glance for a moment at the general question
oi science in relation to education. I, of course, believe that the almost
■complete exclusion of science from the elementary education of the young
which has persisted over a prolonged period has been a real tragedy.
In the life of the ordinary active citizen, as opposed to that of the mere
scholar and recluse, some of the most important factors are those which
training in science is specially adapted to develop. Such, above all, are the
powers of accurate and rapid observation, and of the accurate and rapid
drawing of conclusions from observation.

But I do not support the claim of Biology to an important place m
the basic stage of school education, which should have to do with the early
development of these powers. On the contrary, I harbour no doubt m
my mind that the department of science to be used for this purpose is not
Biology but Physical Science. For the early training of the powers of
observation there are two essentials : (1) that the phenomena observed
should be capable of numerical expression to a high degree of accuracy,
or, in other words, that they should be measurable; and (2) that a given
observation should be capable of repetition over and over again under
approximately the same set of conditions. Biological observation fails as
regards both "of these essentials. When we proceed to apply the method
of measurement to something that is alive or that has once been alive,
or to some form of vital activity, we find ourselves confronted not with a
phenomenon of comparative simplicity, but with a complex of extreme
and, in great part, unknown intricacy. If we measure the length of
marks upon a piece of paper, or of similar rods of a particular metal, we
obtain by so doing data of a totally different order of scientific reliability
from those that we obtain by measuring the length of some particular
animal, where the particular dimension is the visible residuum left at the
end of an immense chain of events during the racial and the individual
history of the animal. While such measurements may provide important
material for the skilled biometrician, they are, as I believe, totally
unsuited for use in elementary education. And a somewhat similar con-
sideration affects the repetition of observations upon living things or upon
things that have lived— the observable phenomena result from the
interaction of so many imperfectly known factors, and are so liable to
the influence of disturbing forces, that it is difficult or impossible to repeat
observations with any assurance that all the conditioning factors are really
the same.

It is rather in the later stage of education— the informative stage-
when the individual has already had his powers of observation and

106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

reasoning developed iu the earlier stages, that Biology should be called
upon to play its role.

What is required is by no means the storing of the memory with a vast
array of separate facts. It is rather that the budding citizen should be given
a grasp of broad principles, as accepted by the competent authorities of
the day. Such broad principles are generalisations from immense masses.
of detail. The probable soundness of the generalisation is intimately
related to the broadness of its basis of fact. It is, of course, impracticable
to place before the pupil the entire body of facts that constitute this base,
and if it were possible it would be useless, for it is only a master who is
able to perceive clearly the relations of superstructure to base. The object
of the teacher is, then, not to attempt the vain task of demonstrating the
truth of the general principle in the short period available : such facts as
are introduced should serve merely to ilhistrate the particular principle
and facilitate its appreciation.

I know that there are many who will criticise as unscientific andl
unsatisfactory such a simple manner of approach to general principles^
They will say you cannot really instil such principles unless you make
the pupil go through an elaborate course of laboratory training in dis-
section and microscopic observation such as we impose upon the specialist
student of Biology. I do not agree. My experience has been that an
audience, whether of youths or of adults, of ordinary average composition
such as we get in a public lecture in a big industrial city, appreciates the
points and follows the argument perfectly satisfactorily without such
elaborate preparation, provided always that the argument is clothed in
plain, non-technical English.

Biology in the Curriculum.

The question may now be put : What exactly are the biological facts
and principles that should be introduced into such a course of instruction 'I

I. Firstly, the great fact of evolution. We still see with tiresome
frequency in magazine articles the statement that evolution is not a fact,
but merely an unproved hypothesis. No doubt it may be said with
perfect accuracy that in one sense absolute proof is unknown to science,
except in relation to successive steps of an operation in pure mathematics.
Taking, however, the word ' proved ' as we use it in ordinary life, e.g. in
relation to a matter inquired into by a Court of Law, then we are com-
pletely justified by the data of embryology and palaeontology in stating
that evolution is a definitely proved fact. The realisation that it is a fact
admitted by all competent judges should be incorporated in the mental
equipment of every citizen at an early stage of his training.

II. Secondly, the broad fact of inheritance : the fact that the offspring
repeat the characters of the parent — physical, mental, moral — but that
this repetition is never so complete as to amount to identity as regards
such characters. It is not always realised that, were the repetition
actually exact and complete, it would constitute a fact that would shake
our whole biological philosophy to its foundations !

The voyager upon the open ocean often sees a towering wave
approaching his vessel, overwhelmingly impressive in its seeming
individuality, and yet we know from physics that that onwardly rushing

D.— ZOOLOGY. 107

wave is merely an apparent form, its outward semblance cloaking a
comparatively gentle heave of the constantly changing particles of water.
Or, again, one sees a cap of cloud covering a distant mountain peak. It
seems to remain unchanged for hours, and yet we know it is undergoing
constant change — water particles separating o£E on its leeward, and
others being added on its windward, side. So it is with every mass of
living substance : active interchange of substance — regarding much of
the details of which we are profoundly ignorant — is constantly taking
place not only between different parts of itself, but also between itself and
its environment. It is this swirl of activity that constitutes life, and it
carries with it the necessary implication that a bit of living substance is
never the same at two separate instants of time, nor two .separate bits of
living substance ever identical in detail with one another. As soon might
we think of constancy in a flickering candle-flame as in substance that is
• alive. And how, in view of this lack of constancy in all that lives, could we
expect the progeny to be exact repetitions of the parent ? How could we
expect them to be otherwise than different from one another ? If I
would emphasise this point, commonplace though it will seem to many, it
is because of the widespread tendency to ignore it even amongst biologists
themselves.

The biologist constantly using the species as his classificatory unit
involuntarily becomes dominated by his mental picture of the ideal
member of the species, conforming exactly to description, and an
individual which obviously does not so conform impresses him as a
departure from his ideal. He comes in this way to think of variation as
being an active j^ositive process by itself, instead of an inherent
characteristic of life and of inheritance. It would not occur to him to
decry the science of physiology because it does not know the ultimate
nature of the phenomena of life with which it deals, but yet he will some-
times attempt to discredit our evolutionary philosophy because it is
similarly without any clear idea as to the ultimate nature and cause of
the variation which is the necessary accompaniment of life.

This instability of living things which finds its expression in the
constantly fluctuating incompleteness of inheritance has to be driven well
home — in the first place because it constitutes the raw material of
evolutionary progress, and in the second place because its proper appre-
ciation provides the citizen with his surest safeguard against the talk of
those who make it their business to belittle, if not to deny, the ever-
present differences in the capacities of their fellow-men.

III. Thirdly and lastly, the fact of the struggle for existence in nature
and the consequent elimination of the less fit. To the biologist and, indeed,
to anyone who devotes thought to the matter, the struggle for existence and
the consequent elimination of the unfit is an obvious truism, apart
altogether from the question whether or not he accepts the Darwinian
view of its potency as a factor causing evolutionary change ; but yet
among our fellow-citizens interested in sociological questions there is a
very prevalent lack of appreciation of the widespread nature and the
intensity of the struggle, induced in many cases by the perusal of
charming descriptions of mutual aid in the animal kingdom, combined
with ignorance of the fact that such mutual aid is restricted to the

108 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

individuals of a community, and is actually an important factor in
rendering the community efficient in holding its own in the struggle with
other communities.

When once the pupil has fully grasped the three great primary facts
I have mentioned, he can profitably pass on to elementary notions of the
biology of communal life. Gateways leading to these may be found by
way of the fascinating phenomena presented by communities of social
insects such as bees and ants and termites. Still better in some ways is
the study of cell-communities, culminating in the immensely complex
cell-communities that constitute the bodies of the higher animals. By
whichever route, the pupil is easily led to the three great principles of
communal evolution : (1) increase in the size of the community, (2)
increased specialisation of its constituent individuals, (3) increased per-
fection of the organisation by which the constituent individuals are knit
together into the communal indi\aduality of a higher order. In some
animal communities this organisation is of a material kind, the individuals
being linked together by strands of living substance, in others the connection
is not material but is of the nature of social interrelationships.

When once these basic principles are clearly apprehended an approach
may profitably be made to the study of human society, where the same
principles are seen clearly at work — the simple nomadic group with its
individuals few in number, showing hardly any trace of specialisation, and
so loosely knit together that they separate from one another under stress
of circumstances, such as attack by a hostile tribe — leading up to the
complex modern civilised State with its millions of inhabitants, intensely
specialised for the performance of the various communal functions, and
knit together by an immensely complex social organisation.

The Intercommunal Struggle.

The appreciation of the fact that our civilised community has come
about by a long process of social evolution paves the way to an aj^pre-
ciation of the further fact that human societies are still in process of
evolution — States becoming larger and larger, the specialisation of their
citizens becoming ever more pronounced, their social organisation more
complicated — and that here again a great dri\ang force is the struggle for
existence, in this case an intercommunal struggle.

It is surely one of the saddest experiences a biologist can have, to live
amongst men whose communal evolution has lagged behind, and to see how,
unless helped in their struggle with competitors at a higher level of social
evolution by some natural protective feature such as geographical isolation
or immunity to local diseases, they are doomed to disappear. Innumerable
examples of this are seen in the continents of the New World, where the
relatively primitive communities of red men have been displaced by whites
in a higher stage of communal evolution. The same process has taken
place in the past, races that lagged behind in their communal evolution
giving place to others more progressive.

The realisation of the importance of intercommunal and interracial
competition is of use indirectly as a safeguard against falling into the
common error of ignoring differences — in material interests, in racial
prejudices, in religious beliefs — ^those troublesome factors which, in actual

D.— ZOOLOGY. 109

practice, form serious obstacles in the way of those who would find in
signed agreements between different nations a sure shield against the
danger of war.

The Biological Outlook.

Finally, our training, if successful in inducing in our citizen's mind
what we may call the ' biological outlook,' enables him to take a fresh
and an enlightening view even of that distressful subject, economics.
He appreciates more fully how the customary units of the economist,
pounds and dollars, are merely tokens with local values dependent on their
power of purchase. In a remote spot on the earth's surface, a pile of
golden coins becomes merely so much workable material out of which
articles useful or ornamental may be fashioned ; a bundle of scrip becomes
material of possible use for kindling a fire. Their actual value bears no
relation whatever to their token value in other circumstances.

Our citizen from his biological view-point looks beyond this veil of
make-believe and realises that the true unit of value is the capacity of the
human individual. He sees in each individual a biological capitalist.
His store of capital may be small or large. It may consist of the precious
bullion, intellectual power, or the humbler metal, bodily strength. And the
store, small or great as it was to begin with, may have been simply left like
talents buried in the earth, or by education it may have been increased in
amount and coined into the kind of currency, such as skill in handicraft
or other form of social activity, which gives it its greatest local value
in the community.

To what End?

But now the question may fairly be put : what good would come of it
all were the biologist given his way, and his subject, resting on a basis of
elementary physical science, accorded the place in the ordinary school
curriculum that he claims for it ? How might it fairly be expected to work
out in practice to the advantage of the community and of the individual
citizen ?

To state adequately the answer to this question would exhaust the
time not merely of one address but of many, and I can only indicate one
or two points which the answer would include. The scientific training we
are arguing for would in the first place be a potent power on the side of
social stability, inasmuch as it would help to develop the scientific habit
of mind with its constant distrust of the ably stated ' case.' There is no
more potent defence against the plausible rhetoric of the advocate than
infusion of the scientific habit of bringing verbal statements up against
the touchstone of actual fact.

With recognition of the principle that the welfare and happiness of the
individual citizen is by no means independent of the material prosperity of
the community, proper appreciation would be given to biological economics.
It would be recognised that the training of the individual citizen must
include the scrutiny of the nature and amount of his biological capital,
and the taking of appropriate measures to increase his stock and to ensure
its being minted into the most suitable form of currency.

Individual scrutiny would in turn drive home the necessity of confining
within as narrow limits as possible the workings of the principle of mass

110 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

production in education. The application of that principle plays a great
part in industry, but its introduction into the sphere of education is apt
to be accompanied by forgetfulness that its success in industry is entirely
conditioned by one basic factor, namely, uniformity of raw material.
Without such uniformity the practice of mass production is recognised as
absurd. The clearer realisation how completely wanting this uniformity is
in the human raw material on which education works will serve to impress
upon us all the desirability of confining mass education within the narrow
limits at the commencement of the educational period when it is for practical
reasons unavoidable.

The fostering of the biological element in education would do some-
thing to quicken into renewed life the primitive relationship of parent
a.nd offspring which has tended to become deadened under the influence
of modern civilisation and more especially of mass education. The
parent would be no longer encouraged to regard his child as merely
number so-and-so in a vast number of units poured into the hopper of the
educational mill. He would be encouraged to keep up his natural sense
of responsibility for the welfare and interests of his offspring — the
slackening of which in our present s)^stem is responsible for so much that
is dej)lorable — and incidentally he would be stimulated to take a live
interest in the education of his children, in the selection of those
responsible for the ordering of that education, and in the subject of
■education as a whole.

This greater interest would lead him to a better appreciation of many
things connected with education. One of those of which a deeper appre-
ciation is greatly needed has to do with the reciprocal relations of physical
and mental deportment. Passing along a city street the biologist is
constantly having his attention caught by little peculiarities of attitude
and movement which reveal to him the existence of peculiarities of quite
-another kind — stability or instability of character, mental sluggishness or
alertness. He realises to the full that there is a reciprocal relation between
mind and body. With the spread of the biological outlook through the
community this realisation would become general, and we should have
the average parent awakening to the full appreciation of the fact that
he is inflicting grievous harm upon his children if he fails to see to it that
their ordinary education is accompanied by the full allowance of physical
training and games, which, while developing physical activity in the first
place, plays a great part in developing mental alertness as well.

The training of the individual to the highest attainable degree of
biological aptitude as a citizen involves naturally his relations to other
members of the community. He must be fit not merely to play his part
as an isolated individual, but also to carry out smoothly and eificiently
his communal activities. As communal evolution progresses, these latter
relations become relatively more and more important. In the primitive
savage phase the individual is still subject to the ruthless pressure of
natural selection. His whole organisation — his bodily health and strength,
the acuity of his senses, his mental alertness — is kept up to the highest
pitch. As communal evolution goes on, however, the pressure of natural
selection becomes modified. In one particular respect no doubt it
becomes intensified, for the crowded community provides greatly increased

D.— ZOOLOGY. Ill

liability to the attacks of pathogejiic microbes, and consequently we find
active evolution proceeding in the direction of increased immunity to such
as are prevalent and dangerous. It is a hideous experience to witness
the immigration of people from a more highly evolved society with their
.accompanying microbes into the midst of a remote and primitive com-
munity, and to see the horrible ravages these microbes produce when
disseminated amongst the virgin population. While, however, in this
particular respect evolution jjroceeds actively in the more advanced
communities, it is not so in other respects. The individual no longer depends
on his perfect bodily fitness, on the acuity of his senses, on the alertness
of his mind, to survive and reproduce. As a result, as seems beyond
question, the individual necessarily deteriorates with high civilisation in
his all-roimd fitness both mental and physical, and this retrogression
renders him correspondingly more and more dependent upon the com-
munity for his welfare. Emerging from this consideration, we have the
•conclusion that with higher and higher communal evolution, with more
and more intimate dependence of the individual upon the community,
we should have greater and greater attention paid in our educational
system to these subjects which have to do with the citizen's relations to
and duties towards the community — such as discipline, ethics, patriotism
and loyalty to country and comrades, and the past history of the community
and race.

The last of these, in fact, the history of our race, is one of the subjects
of the present school curriculum which the biologist would be particularly
anxious to see retained, and even accorded increased importance. His
natural sympathies go out to it, for his own philosophy — Evolution — is
but history of a larger growth. No doubt he would sometimes wish its
■teaching to be modified in detail : he would like to have less attention
•devoted to brawls and murders — on however great a scale — and to have a
little space spared for the achievements of science. In my own town of
Glasgow I often wonder how much the average child is taught regardinf
the two great events of the world's history which took place in that city — ■
.James Watt's improvement of the steam-engine and Joseph Lister's
inauguration of antiseptic surgery.

In these flippant days there is a tendency to scofE at pompous lines
regarding 'lives of great men,' and so on ; but are we quite sure that our
•children are not greatly the losers by hearing so little in their school days
regarding the dedicated lives of great heroes of science like Darwin or Lister ?

In this address, which I must now draw to its close, I have touched
•upon some of the general considerations which naturally come to the
mind of the biologist when he thinks of his subject in relation to this
great and, as it has become, vitally important problem of the training of
the future citizen. Some matters that at once suggest themselves I have
deliberately avoided : Eugenics — ^there are others who speak of that ;
■Sex — the whole air is abuzz with discussions on sex. The importance of
■€very citizen being given a little elementary knowledge of the biological
-aspects of health and disease ; the importance of the school paying more
attention than it generally does to training the power of prolonged and
concentrated effort upon dull bits of work : neither of these points requires
Any special emphasis.

There are, however, many other aspects of the problem which I refrain

112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

from developing, only because forbidden by the tyrant Time. Summing
up the more important of these, I would say that the biologist would like
to see a movement of our whole educational system away from the merely
literary, doctrinaire, academic regions, in which it is apt to be out of
touch with the reality of biological fact and practical affairs. He would
like to see a far more general recognition of the fact that the primary
object of education is to make the individual able rather than learned. A
learned individual may be, and often is, a stupid one. And in any case
the development and the training of general brain-power fits biologically
into the earlier years of life in a way that is not the case with the acquire-
ment of mere learning.

He would regard as another prime object in the training of the citizen
the getting him back towards the primitive habit of thinking constantly.
The primitive savage is kept constantly alert by ever-present danger. He
is constantly thinking about the meaning of what he sees and hears.
Civilised man, freed from the stress of savage life, gets into the habit of
not thinking. His actions become automatic. He gulps down whatever
is served up to him. If he were only to think he would promptly dis-
criminate as to what is worthy of acceptance and what is not.

The biologist would like to see still another reawakening of ancient,
custom, namely, the more effective shackling of personal liberty in the:
bonds of duty towards the community. Amongst primitive men one
finds a high degree of personal freedom, but this is bounded strictly by the:
interests of the community. These interests are regarded as sacred, and'
the offender against them receives prompt and severe punishment.
Throughout the long ages of social evolution, the traitor^the blackleg ta
his country — has ever been regarded as the most despicable of men, and it.
is a new and strange development of modern times that toleration is.
extended to those who deliberately work an injury to their country and
kindred — it may be on the grounds of their own material interest. A
biologically educated community, while according to the individual in.
his ordinary affairs the widest range of personal freedom, would take
measures to prevent effectively its interference with the public welfare
whatever might be the form of this interference.

There is one other argument I would use for the biological factor in
training the citizen. As social evolution progresses, the natural differences
between men become more and more marked, as does also the material
expression of these differences. One individual — say, a Lister — is worth-
to the community many millions of pounds ; another is worth little or
nothing, or in some cases his value may be expressed by a negative
quantity. And along with this increase of inequality there comes,,
unhappily, the deteriorating nervous balance which accentuates dis-
content and social friction.

The biological outlook I believe to furnish a most potent aid towards,
the smoothing away of such social difliculties and the lubrication of the-
social mechanism, for it enables us to see with clear vision through the-
obscuring veil of superficiality that separates class from class, and shows-
us how our fellow-citizens beyond, in spite of their differences in manners-
and clothes and language, are, after all, on the average, merely human,
beings like ourselves, fitted out with the same strengths and trammelled
by the same weaknesses as our own.

SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.

THE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF

TROPICAL AFRICA AND ITS EFFECT

ON THE NATIVE POPULATION.

ADDRESS BY

THE HON. W. ORMSBY-GORE, M.P.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Four million square miles of Africa lie within the British Empire. In
fact there is more of the British Empire in Africa than in any other
continent. British North America and Australasia are both smaller
in area than the African possessions of the Crown. Approximately three-
quarters of this African area lie within the Tropics, and it is only outside
the Tropics, in the Union of South Africa and Southern Rhodesia, that
European colonisation has yet succeeded in establishing the European
race m any considerable numbers.

I define Tropical Africa as that part of Africa which lies south of the
Great Sahara and north of the Zambesi River. As far as the British
Empire is concerned this area comprises three main blocks of territory :
first, the East African group, consisting of British Somaliland, Kenya
Colony, Uganda, Tanganyika Territory, Zanzibar, Nyasaland, and Northern
Rhodesia. This block contains a population of approximately 12,500,000
Africans, 50,000 Asiatics, and less than 20,000 Europeans.

The second block, almost equal in area to the East African group, but
with less than half the population, is formed by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan.

In West Africa we have four colonies with a total area of half a million
square miles and a population of over 24,000,000 Africans. In British
West Africa there are no permanent European settlers or colonists, and
owing to climatic reasons the European is only a temporary resident,
usually for quite brief spells at a time. A small exception is found in
the German plantations on Cameroon Moimtaiu.

The greater part of these vast territories has only been brought under
the guidance of British administration within the last forty years, conse-
quently the problems of economic development as well as of policy and
adminstration are comparatively new. . We are beginning to realise,
however, that this new African Empire is one of enormous potentialities
and great natural riches. These riches are in the main agricultural, as
the mineral deposits so far discovered are comparatively few. History
shows that the discovery of valuable minerals is one of the most fruitful
causes of the rapid opening up of new country. There is copper, zinc, and
lead in Northern Rhodesia ; tin and coal in Nigeria ; gold and manganese
in the Gold Coast ; but so far, at any rate, the value of these products is
1926 I

114 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

comparatively small wlien compared with the value of the products of
the soil and forests. For example, more than four-fifths of the exports
of the Gold Coast are cocoa, and more than nine-tenths of those of Uganda
are cotton.

The leading products of Nigeria and Sierra Leone are those of the oil-
palm ; those of Kenya and Tanganyika, sisal hemp and cofEee. The
principal export of Nyasaland is tobacco ; of Uganda and the Sudan,
cotton ; and of the Gambia, groundnuts.

This brief re\aew shows us we are considering countries to which the
temperate world is looking to-day, and is bound to look more and more
in the future, as the source of those raw materials and foodstuffs which
cannot be grown in the temperate zones. They are thus of peculiar
importance to Britain as a manufacturing country, but also to the whole
civilised world inhabited by persons of European race.

Conversely the absence of iron and coal, as well as the character of
the population, seem to point to Tropical Africa as an area of the world
where manufacturing industry is not likely to develop. Consequently
Tropical Africa is a natural new market for the manufactured goods of
the temperate zones, and between Tropical Africa and the countries
inhabited by Europeans there is a natural complementary trade between
raw materials and foodstuffs of the one and manufactured goods of the
other.

Thus we see that the development of the economic resources of Tropical
Africa is one of our duties as well as one of our rights. We undertake the
task from no selfish motive, but from the dual point of view of helping the
indigenous populations to advance in the scale of ci\Tlisation and of
furnishing the world with an increased supply of products which it urgently
requires.

The task is complicated by two main factors : the first climate, and
the second the wide differences in traditions and capacities between the
ruling race and the native population.

As regards climate, we have to recognise that throughout practically
the whole of the area with which we are dealing manual labour cannot be
undertaken by Europeans. In many parts of the area the climate, and
the dangers of disease which I include imder the heading of climate, are
such that even the task of supervision and leadership by Europeans is
often rendered difficult.

There are in each of the five principal mainland territories of East
Africa comparatively small areas in which the general altitude exceeds
5,000 ft. above sea-level, where this generalisation does not obtain. But
even in these highland patches the European requires the assistance of
native labour in any work of development which he undertakes.

So for the most part the role of the European in Tropical Africa, and
especially in West Africa, is strictly confined within definable limits.
The European in these areas is the administrator, the teacher — using the
word in its broadest sense — and the organiser of trade and commerce.
He is seldom, if ever, a direct producer.

Before the advent of European rule there was astonishingly little
contact between Tropical Africa and the outside world. Africa was practi-
cally a sealed continent, both as regards knowledge and trade. But

E.— GEOGRAPHY. 115

to-day we are confronted by the impact of highly organised Western
civilisation, with its immense command over natural forces by means of
machinery, science and skill in the arts, on a people and a country in a
far more primitive stage of development.

Perhaps nothing brings this out more clearly than the fact that, with
the exception of a comparatively slight infiltration of the use of Arabic
script from the north-eastern Sudan and from Zanzibar, we have found in
Africa no knowledge of writing, and consequently no means of communica-
tion between man and man by means of the written word.

We still know astonishingly little regarding the history of the interior
of the continent. We learn dimly the traditions of the continual move-
ment of peoples, constant and almost universal warfare, of slavery and
the slave trade. We must admit that the first contact between Europe
and Tropical Africa was to take a hand in this last nefarious business, and
up to a hundred years ago African trade and commerce may be summed
up in the two words ' slaves ' and ' ivory.'

It was only in the last decade of the nineteenth century and the first
decade of the ^jresent century that the interior of Africa became effectively
parcelled out among the principal European Powers. In some parts of
it we are still in the pioneer stage, in others we are just passing out of the
pioneer stage into a new stage of consolidation.

The history of modern Africa is bound up with the history of the
railways which European enterprise is pushing every year into the interior
of the continent. Forty years ago there were no railways in Tropical
Africa. To-day there are over 10,000 miles, and the locomotive may be
taken as the outstanding symbol of this new force which is entering into
the continent for the first time.

One other fact is illustrative of our problem. Money is a new thing
in Africa. I have visited a market town in Nigeria where I have seen
cowrie-shells still being used as currency. Twenty-eight years ago the
missionaries opened the first post-office in Uganda. British administration
had not yet been established, and the missionaries produced their own
postage-stamps, and the value on those stamps was expressed in cowrie-
shells, not in pence. To-day something over £3,000,000 in coin and notes
is being paid out annually to Uganda natives for their cotton crop alone.
In West Africa money has only recently replaced square-shaped bottles
of alleged gin and yards of cloth as the medium of exchange.

Money is therefore quite a new idea to the African mind, and it is even
true to say of many parts of Africa that the idea that the products of the
soil or of the forests have a value in the exchange is a new one. The
' economic crop ' is really a new factor. The idea that land has a value
is a new factor, particularly among the Bantu people of the continent,
whose previous agricultural activities were limited to the production of a
sufficient quantity of food by each family for that family and as tribute
to a chief, while wives and cattle were regarded as the chief measure of a
man's wealth.

The farther we push our investigations into the contrast between the
old Africa of the past and the new just dawning, the more we have to realise
how great is the gulf between them. In the old Africa, disease was regarded
as the work of evil spirits, and the prevention and cure of maladies was

116 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

regarded, and is still so regarded in many places, as the task of propitiating
these spirits. The European arrives and tells the native that these maladies
are not caused by evil spirits but by mosquitoes and the tsetse fly ! We
must not be surprised if we were not believed.

I do not wish to draw an exaggerated picture, and the marvel is that
the African native is accommodating himself so rapidly, and on the whole
so cheerfully, to all this new world that has been brought into his midst.

It is, of course, a mistake to generalise about Africans as a whole, for
there are probably just as great differences between the different races of
Africa as there are between the different races of Europe, but generally
speaking the African is probably the most imitative and adaptable of all
races of the human family. He starts with a far cleaner slate than the
populations of Asia with their ancient civilisations and intensely conserva-
tive traditions.

To the African the steam-engine is not so much a foreign devil as a new
and wonderful toy. The African, too, has no idea of caste; he is ready to
turn his hand to any trade or craft, and to try anything new. He is perhaps
even too ready to jettison his old ideas and customs. The Mohammedan
peoples of Northern Nigeria, the Sudan, and Somaliland are more
conservative and more stable, but, for the rest, Africans are eager to
adopt hurriedly European clothing and European ideas. The moment they
acquire wealth they demand education, and the particular form of
education which they seek most is what is described in West Africa as
' education for book.' The main source of attraction to the Missions is
the Mission school.

It is true that the impact and sudden development of the African
produce changes which are only skin-deep. This must necessarily be
so where things are moving so rapidly. The mere fact that the African
native so readily abandons his own primitive paganism for Christianity
or Mohammedanism is an indication not that his conversion is ungenuine
but that it is frequently not very profound. Reversions and breakdowns
are inevitable. Remove the impetus and the example and the African
will quickly sUp back into old ways. The fact is that both the African
himself and we ourselves are setting a very fast pace, and we must expect
that the results of our efforts will be frequently superficial.

I have already said that we still know comparatively little about the
history and mental traditions and aptitudes of the African native. The
work of the anthropologists is yearly widening our knowledge. Anthro-
pology is a science which is rapidly expanding in its scope. It is now recog-
. nised that it must include a study of native law and customs, methods of
agriculture, beliefs, and languages. Their variety is infinite, and as we are
still in the stage of collecting a vast mass of data there has as yet been
little time or opportunity to develop adequately the comparative and
synthetic side of the work ; still less to be able to deduce from our know-
ledge those lessons which will be most useful in guiding polic3^ There are
so many tribes, so many languages to be studied, and such a variety of
local problems, that it is very difficult to ensure that scientific investigation
shall keep pace with the practical day-to-day running of Government
administration and of economic development. Consequently our methods
and the whole character of our administrations in different parts of Africa

E.— GEOGRAPHY.

117

may seem to be empirical rather than to follow any clear line or consistent
principles. We are always supposed to have a natural genius for empiri-
cism, and probably our greatest successes in Colonial Administration are
•due to the fact that we are naturally suspicious of the doctrinaire, and are
prepared to delegate authority to the individual on the spot. Nevertheless
we must henceforth clear our ideas on certain fundamental questions which
are common to our problem. We can begin to take stock, and judge of
cause and eiiect on the basis of a great mass of ascertainable knowledge.

Perhaps the first problem which we should examine is what is the efEect
of the European impact and economic development on the numbers and
health of the African population. Africa is a very sparsely populated
continent. The group of our six East African dependencies has an area
approximately equal to that of British India. Yet in East Africa we have
a, population of \2h millions, as against over 220 millions in British India.
Even in British West Africa, which has double the population for half the
area of East Africa, the population is still sparse. The following table
of population densities is taken from the Report of the East Africa
Commission : —

(1) Transkei (Cape Colony Native Reserve)

(2) Nigeria

(3) Gold Coast (Colony only)

(4) Basutoland .

(5) Uganda

(6) Nyasaland

(7) Tanganyika Territory

(8) Kenya Colony

(9) Northern Rhodesia

The population per square mile of
England is . . 701

Belgium
Germany

658
348

Japan

Italy

France

59 per square mile
53
50
42-5
33
31
11
11
3

. 339
. 319

. 187

On the other hand, our African territories have a far denser population
than our as yet undeveloped Dominions or the rapidly developing countries
of South America. The population per square mile of

New Zealand is .11 Australia ... 2

Brazil ... 9 Canada ... 2
Argentine . . 8

Naturally these all-inclusive figures do not give a complete picture of the
distribution of population. For instance, in Nigeria the population of the
great Province of Kano is over 100 to the square mile, while that of Bornu
adjoining it is only 23 ! Broadly speaking, however, there is more fertile
land in Tropical Africa than there are people to cultivate it, and in the
development of Africa it is an axiom that with rare exceptions — such as
British Nyasaland — the demand for labour always exceeds the supply.
This shortage of available labour is already observable in connection with
the native cultivation, as in the cocoa industry of the Gold Coast or the
cotton industry of Uganda, quite as much as upon the European plantation.s
of Kenya and Tanganyika.

118 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

An increase in the man power of Africa is everywhere required if its
resources are to be developed by any means whatever, and it is very
important to ascertain what effect European contact and economic
expansion are having on the vital statistics of the various territories.

The trouble is that we have very little data to go upon. In regard to
many of the territories the 1921 census was really the first one that can
be taken as effectively reliable — and the absence of scientific statistics is
one of our difficulties. It is only in the Union of South Africa, with its
far longer history of established government, that we have sound figures
for purposes of making deductions.

The Royal Society of South Africa has recently published an extremely
valuable paper by Senator Alexander Roberts, entitled ' A Statistical
Enquiry into the Population Problem in South Africa.' He proves that
the rate of increase of both the European and native populations is
astonishingly low and seems to be decreasing. Between 1904 and 1921
the white population of the Union has only increased by I'S? per cent,
per annum, whereas between 1835 and 1904 the annual average increase
was nearer 5 per cent. A normal percentage increase such as one has the
right to expect would seem to be at least three.

Similar results appear from his examination of the statistics of native
population. Enumerations show a declining rate of increase everywhere
except in Zululand. The native increase throughout the Union was
about 2"4 per cent, at the commencement of this century. The figures
for the famous Transkei native reserve, containing nearly one quarter of
the total native population of the Union, are of special interest. Reliable
data are available for that district from 1875 to 1921. The average rate
of increase for the whole period 'is 2 per cent, but for the period 1911
to 1921 the rate has dwindled to '68 per cent, per annum.

These figures are significant. They show that even in the healthiest
part of the African continent, where modern hygiene and sanitary con-
ditions are more developed, the native population, so far from tending
to increase more rapidly, is increasing at an unexpectedly low rate, and
that even the rate is diminishing.

When we turn to the more populous tropical areas of the continent
we are faced by the fact that we have no scientific data to go upon. A
great part of the area has only come under effective administration during
the last thirty years. We have only the censuses of 1911 and 1921 to go
upon. The 1911 censuses were admittedly far from perfect, and though
the 1921 censuses marked a great improvement in accuracy, it is now
generally admitted that in many places the enumeration involved
estimating rather than actual counting.

There are very few places in Tropical Africa where it is yet possible to
secure the recording of vital statistics. In the townships of Lagos and
Freetown fairly accurate figures are obtainable, but nowhere else in West
Africa. Thanks to the co-operation of the native administrations, useful
figures are now obtainable in regard to several parts of the Uganda
Protectorate, but elsewhere in East Africa the registration of births and
deaths is as yet impracticable, and still more the causes of death.

From such figures as are available we can deduce the fact that in
Uganda theie can be little doubt that the population declined between

E.— GEOGRAPHY. 119

1900 and 1924. Such •decline was due to two main causes. First, the
great sleeping-sickness epidemic of 1902, which caused the death from
this disease alone of 300,000 out of 3,000,000 in one year. The second
cause of decline was undoubtedly venereal disease. This was particularly
striking in the Principality of Bunyoro, where until active measures were
undertaken by the British medical stafl: it was estimated that 90 per cent.
of the population had become infected by syphilis. Thanks to the energy
of the medical administration the tide has now turned, and during the last
two years it would seem that there has been a slight increase — but very
slight — in the population.

But, broadly speaking, in East and West Africa the principal cause
arresting the natural growth of population is infantile mortality. It has
been estimated that in the purely native district of Tanganyika Territory
between Tabora and Lake Victoria there is an infantile mortality rate
under the age of twelve months of anything up to 400 per 1,000. I
was recently given the estimated figure of 250 per 1,000 in more than
one part of West Africa.

The main cause of this very high mortality would seem to be mal-
nutrition both of mothers and babies, and the continuance of barbarous
superstitions in connection with childbirth and early rearing of children.
Further, it must be remembered that in many parts of Africa it is the
native custom that the women should perform a very large part of the
agricultural work on the native holdings. This undoubtedly is afiecting
the infantile mortality, which has always been abnormally high.

The medical care of the natives, hygiene, sanitation, and preventive
medicine are only just beginning to operate in many parts of Tropical
Africa. In many places the natives first resort to the witch doctor or the
old women, and only come to the European medical officer as the last resort.

It is not surprising, therefore, that in countries where infective diseases,
many of them insect-borne, are rampant progress is slight. We must
remember also that in many parts of Africa — South-Eastern Nigeria for
example — the native methods of agriculture are still so primitive that the
existing native diet is quite inadequate to provide the stamina necessary
to withstand the attacks of disease. The great prevalence of septic
ulcers is due partly to the unhygienic habits of the natives and partly to
the low general health and resistance, due to malnutrition. The
investigations now being undertaken by Dr. Fisher and others in Kenya
into this problem of native diet are most important.

We must admit, however, that over and above these endemic causes
the coming of settled rule and civilisation has aggravated the problem.
Before we established roads and railways and suppressed the tribal wars,
communities lived in comparative isolation. There was little trade or
intercourse between neighbouring peoples. Now, however, the old
barriers are broken down and natives travel all over Africa comparatively
freely, with the result that they carry infection with them and diseases
have far more opportunities of spreading than heretofore.

I think I have said enough to show what a vast task we have before
us in increasing the number and well-being of populations for whom we
have become trustees, and I now turn to some of the more important
social problems that are arising as a result of rapid economic development.

120 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

How rapid this development is few people have yet realised. In 1921
tlie domestic exports of Nigeria were valued at 8j millions sterling, in
1925 at 17 millions. Those of the Gold Coast in 1921 were £6,000,000,
in 1925 £10,500,000.

Such examples of expansion are sufficiently sensational, but the rate
of development in West Africa is completely eclipsed by the rate of
progress in East Africa. The domestic exports of Kenya and Uganda
in 1921 were £2,250,000, and in 1925 £7,820,000. The corresponding
figures for Tanganyika Territory are £1,000,000 in 1921 and £2,900,000
in 1925.

These figures are illustrative of the sudden acquisition of money
wealth among peoples to whom in a very large measure such an experience
is entirely novel, and there are not a few students of the problem who are
inclined to think that the rate of progress is almost too fast.

However this may be, I doubt if we can stop it or should be justified
in doing so. Practically the whole of this rapid increase in production is
represented by agricultural products and only a fraction by minerals.
The two most sensational examples of the expansion have been cocoa in
the Gold Coast and cotton in Uganda. The exportation of cocoa from the
Gold Coast rose from 7,000 tons in 1905 to 78,000 tons in 1915 and
220,000 tons (nearly half the world's total supply) in 1925.

Uganda exported 93,000 bales of cotton lint in the season 1923-24,
and the past season's crop has exceeded 200,000 bales.

In both these cases the crops have been produced entirely by
what is termed ' native production,' i.e. by the native working for him-
self on his own holding, or for native chiefs or other native employers
of labour.

Apart from the great accretion of wealth to the native producers, the
development of a permanent crop like cocoa has an important bearing
upon the development of native ideas in regard to land tenure. In parts
of Uganda where the chiefs are large landowners, a new relation between
landlord and tenant and landlord and labourer is developing.

I should say that the main efEect of this economic development due to
the native production of money crops is the enhancement of the individual
vis-a-vis his society. In the old Africa society was largely communal, the
rights and functions of the individual being entirely subordinate to those
of the tribe or the village. With personal wealth an individual becomes
emancipated from the former limitations and controls, and his first
instincts are to better himself and his family not only in the economic
but also by using his wealth to better himself in the social and political
spheres.

The nature and sanctions of tribal authority are undergoing rapid
changes, due in part to these economic causes and in part to a more pro-
found spiritual and moral change. In many parts of Africa the two
principal sanctions behind the chief's authority were formerly military
and religious. The chief was not only the tribal or national leader for
purposes of defence and offence, but also the guardian of the national
fetishes and the chief executive of native law and custom, which are bound
up ultimately with religious sanction. Consequently the missionary in
converting the individual native to an individualist religion such as

E.— GEOGRAPHY'. 121

Christianity must inevitably sooner or later affect not only the sanctions
behind native political authority, but also the whole moral order associated
with that authority.

In the coast towns of West Africa, where European contact has been
established for a longer period than elsewhere in Tropical Africa, we
observe this decay in tribal authority and the development of the individual
in its highest degree. A very large proportion of the population of these
towns is completely de-tribalised and no longer bears any allegiance to
a native authority.

Some people go even farther than that, and describe these individuals
as ' denationalised.' That is to say, we are witnessing the rise of a new
community of people who have thrown off all their ancestral traditions
and are engaged in imitating Western civilisation as fast as they can.
Certainly the demand for Western education, particularly Western
literary education, creates a most formidable problem, and throws special
responsibilities on Government and missionaries alike in providing the
right type of education for the African with his special characteristics,
still living in Africa but in a new and rapidly changing environment.

Hitherto we have been perhaps too easily content to give the African
a mere veneer of the nineteenth-century English Board-school education,
without studying the real needs of the people or the right methods of
bringing out their innate capacity on modern scientific lines. This is
why a great experiment like the Prince of Wales College, Achimota, in
the Gold Coast, is fraught with so much interest not only for that Colony
but for Africa as a whole.

There are so many disruptive tendencies at work in Africa to-day that
constructive thinking is urgently needed if the African communities are
not to be reduced by our impact to the condition of disorganised mobs
drifting about without leadership and without any clear goal before them
except the new desire to acquire personal wealth.

I turn now to another aspect of the problem. Both deliberately and
also unconsciously we are teaching the African the mastery of new arts
and crafts, new methods of agriculture, and in some cases entirely new
methods of life. In Tropical Africa we are forced, by the difficulty and
expense of running things like railways with European staffs unsuited
to the climatic conditions, to develop the skill of the African. He is
being trained to become an engine-driver, a fitter, a mechanic, a stone-
mason and a carpenter. Every year he is being entrusted with the
management of more and more complex machinery, and every year sees
an increase in the number of quite highly skilled African industrial crafts-
men. Our recent experience shows that the African can very readily
acquire skill in the mechanical arts and is capable of becoming an industrial
craftsman of quite a high order.

Thus we are training up a new African labour class of wage-earners,
for the most part in the employ of the various Government Departments,
but in West Africa also in the employ of the mining companies and in
East Africa in the employ of the European, farmer settlers.

In the old Africa wage labour was largely unknown. Compulsory
labour for communal purposes was a fairly general rule, while in many
places, particularly in West Africa and those parts of East Africa which

122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

had become subject to Arab domination, slavery was general for nearly
all labour purposes. We have suppressed slavery and regularised the
amount of compulsory labour which may be performed for chiefs or
Government, and prohibited the employment of forced labour for purposes
of private gain. That such drastic changes in the customs of the continent
have already produced great economic and social changes — in this case
for the better — must be obvious.

Nevertheless the labour problem in Tropical Africa is a most important
one. As I have already stated, there is a far greater demand for labour
than supply. There is no unemployed problem such as we have in Great
Britain. On the other hand, there is not the same necessity for the Africaa
native to work as there is for the European. In Africa nature is bountiful,
and food can usually be easily and cheaply obtained. The climate is.
such that the cost of housing and of such clothing as may be required is
comparatively insignificant. The wants of the ordinary African in his
present stage of development are few, and therefore the incentives to
effort are far less insistent than in temperate climates and more civilised
conditions.

In the old Africa — especially Bantu Africa — a young man's life was
very largely taken up by fighting, with the preparation for fighting, and
with hunting the wild game. Now that tribal warfare has ceased there
is a real danger that deterioration will set in unless the energies formerly
expended upon fighting are diverted to honest toil. To allow the manhood
of a race to remain dependent on the labour of its women-folk is bound to
result in national decay. I see nothing wrong in encouraging the African
to work either as a direct producer or as a wage-labourer. In fact, his
advance in the scale of civilisation is bound up with his economic advance
as a producer. Nevertheless it is our duty to ensure that such a new
development is made consistent with the lessons of experience concerning the
welfare of labour and the best relations between employer and employed.
A good deal of discussion is going on just now regarding the treatment
of native labour engaged on capitalistic enterprise in the development of
the continent. In Tropical Africa the Governments, notably the Railways
and Public Works Departments, are by far the largest employers of African
labour, and they set the standards. Then there is the wage-labour engaged
in the mining industries and upon the farms of European and Asiatic
settlers in East Africa, and on the larger native farms in parts of West
Africa and in Uganda.

In the past year there have been published two very important reports
dealing with this problem. The first is the ' Rapport de la Commission
pour I'etude du probleme de la main-d'oeuvre au Congo Beige,' issued
by the Government of the Belgian Congo in 1925 ; and the second is the
report by Major G. Orde Browne, Senior Commissioner of Tanganyika
Territory, on labour in that country, issued last month by H.M. Stationery
Ofiice as Colonial Paper No. 19 of 1926. The last named is the most
interesting and objective study that has yet been made by an experienced
British native administrator on this subject. It touches upon almost
every aspect of the question. It reveals great diversities of practice, and
Major Orde Browne's observations on the data which he has collected
are of the highest value.

E.— GEOGRAPHY. 123

There are, of course, many varieties of labour engaged in work on the
same plantation. There is often the nucleus of permanent labour —
squatters, as they are often termed — who live permanently with their
families on the estate. Then there are the contract labourers, recruited
often from great distances, who work for six months or a year and return
to their homes at the conclusion of their contracts. Thirdly, there is
casual local labour — usually harvest labour — drawn spasmodically from
the neighbourhood. Each category requires special investigation.

Without going deeply into these questions I should like to quote some
of Major Orde Browne's conclusions.

He writes : ' The impact of the capitalistic system upon the African
social organisation in Tanganyika has not the dangers that it would have
elsewhere ; the almost entire absence of any class earning a living by
industrial crafts eliminates the tragedy of the gradual crushing of such
a class by mechanicalised competition, and there is no fear of a duplica-
tion of the situation which has arisen from this cause in Indian industrial
centres. The African is self-supporting through his own agriculture, and
if he goes to work for wages it is primarily to secure money for hitherto
imrealised needs or luxuries. The class sometimes termed " wage slaves "
— i.e. people who are forced by economic pressure to work willy-nilly at
some particular task — is non-existent in Tanganyika and likely to remain so.

' The introduction of non-native enterprise has conferred a real boon
on the African, since it has tended to regulate and equalise the extreme
fluctuations resulting from the success or failure of the harvest. Whereas
in former years a bad season might entail literal starvation for great
numbers, it is now largely mitigated by the possibility of work on a
property that provides foods as well as money ; while improved transport
consequent upon economic development has also done much to ease the
situation created by a bad harvest.

' In . another direction the native benefits to a minor though still
appreciable extent from work on a plantation, it secures him adequate
food at a time when the natural improvidence of the African has possibly
led to a shortage before the new crop is reaped. That this aspect is fully
appreciated is proved by the flow of labourers seeking work during the
hungry months ; I have, in fact, frequently been told by natives that
they were going to work because the food in the village was growing
scarce. It is, indeed, quite possible that this feature will have a beneficial
effect on the whole population in time, for there is no doubt that at
present many tribes are definitely under-nourished towards the approach
of the new harvest, not through any failure of the previous one, but because
the thriftlessness of the African frequently leads to inadequate storage
or excessive sales.

' The creation of large industrial centres with workers completely
divorced from food production would be an entire innovation of very
doubtful desirability ; it appears most unlikely to occur. The African
man, and still more the woman, is firmly attached to the soil, and the
whole fabric of social organisation is based upon the right to cultivate ;
it thus seems probable that the native will always aim at having his
own home among his own crops, whether in a distant village or as a
" squatter " on an estate.'

124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

I thiuk it is quite clear that there are four main duties which we have
to perform if we are to render the impact of European civilisation upon
the African not only innocuous but in the long run beneficial to the latter's
welfare. We have in the first place to concentrate upon the various
problems summed up under the words ' public health.' We have in the
second place to improve the standard and quality of the native as an
agricultural producer both of food and economic crops. Thirdly, we have
to provide for further transport facilities both to secure the wider
marketing of African products and to secure that in the movement of
labour there is not the same wastage as obtains at present. Fourthly,
we have to educate the native in such a manner that, whether he is a
direct producer or a wage-earner, he may advance in the scale of civilisa-
tion and assimilate such new moral controls as will fit him to withstand
the dangers and make the best use of increasing wealth.

As regards the second point, I think we must recognise that throughout
the greater part of Tropical Africa below the 5,000 feet altitude native
production under the guidance of European agricultural officers is the
only practicable policy. Where there are highlands — and it so happens
that these highland areas are at present very sparsely populated by
Africans — European colonisation can be introduced. Personally, I hold
that this European colonisation, so far from being detrimental to the
native, may be of the highest educative value. The European farmer and
stock-owner introduces examples of more scientific development, and
I think it is already clear from the experience of Kenya that no small
proportion of the natives who have worked on European plantations
have learnt not only improved methods of cultivation which they can
apply on their family holdings when they return to their reserves, but
also something of a higher standard of life.

There are many plantations, particularly in Kenya, where an ever-
increasing interest is being shown in the housing and sanitation of native
labour. The settler's wife is frequently quite as valuable as her husband
in educating up native labour not merely to be a more efficient labourer,
but to be a better man.

The recent articles in ' The Times ' from the pen of Mr. J. H. Oldham
are among the most striking that have recently appeared upon native
policy in Tropical Africa. He has clearly come to the conclusion that
Kenya presents not merely a series of problems of local significance, but
offers an almost unique opportunity for an experiment in racial
co-operation, which, if wisely directed and based upon a scientific study
of cause and effect, is perhaps more full of promise than any experiment
that has hitherto been tried.

I think it is clear that in East Africa, where the contact between
European and native is probably closer than elsewhere and the mutual
interdependence most marked, we have an opportunity, such as seldom
presents itself, for working out on scientific and humane lines the various
contributions which European civilisation can give to the African races
without destroying what is valuable and distinctive in their characteristics.

European colonisation, in the few areas where it is climatically
feasible, has been the principal means of introducing not only a new
crop but a whole series of new ideas which can contribute to the advance-

E.— GEOGRAPHY. 125

ment in the scale of civilisation of the peoples for whom we have become
trustees. It is now generally accepted that throughout Tropical Africa
we are in the position of trustees. In the words of Article 22 of the
Covenant of the League, we are entrusted with the guidance of ' peoples
not yet able to stand by themselves under the strenuous conditions of the
modern world.'

The field of work covered by the phrase ' public health ' is a gigantic
one, especially in Tropical Africa. In addition to certain disi. ases peculiar
to the tropics, we find practically all the diseases common to temperate
climates. Some of the latter appear to have been introduced as a result
of European contact, and with regard to these it sometimes happens that,
being new, there is no acquired resistance on the part of the populations
affected. As an instance, I was told iu my recent tour in West Africa
that an African who gets tuberculosis rarely, if ever, recovers.

The special tropical diseases, such as malaria, sleeping-sickness, and
the like, aj^pear in both endemic and epidemic forms. It sometimes
happens that an infectious disease will suddenly flare up and spread in
tropical conditions with terrible results. The task of combating these
epidemics is a gigantic one, and the field for research as well as treatment
and cure is still large. I cannot overestimate the importance or value
of research workers of all kinds in Africa.

I include in this field and in the field of ' public health ' the animal as
well as human diseases. The scourges of rinderpest, pleuro-pneumonia,
east-coast fever, red- water fever and trypanosomiasis require the services
of an increasing number of veterinary research officers and veterinary
staff throughout Tropical Africa.

We have been, so far, able to do little in the way of developing the
immense potential resources of Tropical Africa in animal foods. I am
told there are something like 6,000,000 head of cattle within 200 miles
of the Uganda railway system, but at present there is no export of meat,
and the first small shipment of East African butter reached England this
summer.

In Northern Nigeria there are approximately 3,000,000 cattle cut oflE
from the coast by a wide belt of tsetse-ridden country.

The development of animal husbandry is still in its infancy, as it is
only in the European highlands of East Africa and among a few natives
in Uganda and Tanganyika that the plough has been introduced. Else-
where the land is cultivated by means of exclusively human labour with
the hoe.

Finally there is transport. In many parts of Africa the principal
means of transportiug produce is still the human carrier. The human
carrier is the most expensive and wasteful form of transport, as each
individual is limited to an average load of approximately 60 lb., with a
speed of 15 to 18 miles a day.

During my recent tour in West Africa I was at great pains to collect
some figures regarding the comparative costs of different forms of transport.
In the populous cotton-growing area round Zaria in Northern Nigeria
head transport costs from 2s. 6c^. to 3s. Qd. per ton-mile, motor transport
Is. per ton-mile, and animal transport 9d. per ton-mile, but the railway
is carrying cotton and groundnuts at approximately l^d. per ton-mile.

126 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

There can be no doubt that in the conditions of Tropical Africa, where
roads are diflficult to construct and even more difficult to maintain, the
railway is by far the cheapest, as well as by far the most expeditious form
of transport.

We are only at the beginning of the construction of our arterial system
of railways. In the bulk of our African possessions such railways as do
exist not only pay directly, but their indirect effect in bringing about
production is sensational. When the railway from Baro to Kano was
first constructed it was estimated that two trains a week would be all
that would be required to carry the produce. When I was in Kano in
February this year the average number of goods-trains leaving Kano
was eight per day, and the tremendous expansion of the cultivation of
groundnuts round Kano is due entirely to the coming of the railway.
The export of groundnuts from Nigeria has risen from nil in 1910 to
120,000 tons last year. Similarly the expansion of cotton cultivation in
Uganda is the direct outcome of the Uganda Railway and the feeder
roads and water transport provided as auxiliaries to that railway.

Railways without roads are of little value, but I have definitely come
to the conclusion that in the conditions of Tropical Africa roads are no
substitute for railways. Tropical rains alone prevent the use of roads
except during the dry seasons of the year.

Cheap transport is the life-blood of commerce, and everywhere I have
been in Africa I have met the same demand by European and native alike
for the provision of more roads and more railways. An example of the
comparative stagnation of a naturally rich and populous country where
the transport facilities are at present inadequate is provided by Nyasaland,
where, in consequence of the incompleteness of Lake Nyasa's communica-
tion with the sea, some thousands of the most progressive natives leave
the country every year in search of opportunity in more developed parts
of Africa.

As in the other questions that I have discussed, the right solution of
the many transport problems which arise in Africa can only be brought
about by scientific study, and we should do well to watch all new develop-
ments in the means of transport, in new fuels and such-like matters which
have a bearing upon any undertaking.

It is quite clear that we cannot develop either the land or the people
unless we have easier and quicker means of access which modern rapid
transport alone can give, but every line of railway we open, every road
we construct, adds to the jiressure of the impact of our coming, and I feel
that, in addition to research into all these practical sciences, we shall
require in ever-increasing degree the scientific observation of the sociological
facts of our development ; mere humanity and enthusiasm is not sufficient.
We have to study the problems we ourselves are creating with a con-
siderable degree of objective detachment, and make certain that in our
natural zeal for material development we are not disrupting more than
we are creating. Here again it is Kenya that is leading the way, and the
Kenya Government have asked that a portion of the loan to be spent on
transport development in East Africa shall be ear-marked for the closer
scientific study of what is rather loosely called ' the native problem.'
I think I have said enough to show that both our opportunities and

E.— GEOGRAPHY. 127

our responsibilities in our African Empire are very great. We can only
solve our problems by applying to them the energies of our best brains,
working in a sjairit of objective detachment, studying failures and successes
with a view to building up gradually a body of knowledge and experience
which will render mistakes few and successes great. In this task we shall
have to rely not only upon the continued efforts of those officials and
unofficials who are actually working in Africa, but also on the men of
science over a whole range of human experience such as are meeting under
the auspices of the British Association.

There is no finer field for scientific investigation and endeavour than our
tropical dependencies, and I should regard myself as fortunate if I were
able on this occasion to arouse your interest in matters of great importance
not only to the Empire but to the advancement of human welfare.

SECTION F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

INHERITANCE AS AN ECONOMIC

FACTOR.

ADDRESS BY

SIR JOSIAH STAMP, G.B.E., F.B.A.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

I. Introduction.

It will probably not be disputed that one of the fundamental institutions
of our modern life which is likely to come under criticism and challenge
in the next twenty or thirty years is that of Inheritance. In the first
place, it is considered to be inextricably bound up with the inequality of
incomes and wealth ; this inequality is said to be an ofience against social
justice ; and this offence, in turn, is said to be a source of social unrest
which is against the interests of the whole community. In the second
place, it is said to be essential to the accumulation of capital resources
which, irrespective of their ownership, are said to be vital to progress,
and, indeed, to the maintenance of industrial civilisation. In the third
place, the satisfaction of fiscal needs, with the problems of the most suitable
forms of taxation, raises important questions as to the economic reactions
of inheritance. And lastly, the theory of socialism, continually urged as
a better and more advanced system for economic life, is demanding
profound changes in this principle.

It is the purpose of my address to ask whether economic science,
standing clear of the political arena and so-called class interests, with
their mere defence of what is, or their mere attack upon it, has had any
definite findings to contribute to the discussion of the whole case ; and, if
not, to suggest some of the chief questions which have to be explored
and answered by economists before such findings can properly be arrived
at, and to set out some possible or provisional answers which are at
present available.

I am aware that a complete discussion of the matter extends beyond
economics into ethical, and even philosophical fields. For example,
suppose that a case of social injustice stands clearly proven upon all those
facts of a case which are apparent to and comprehensible by the average
individual who is moved by such a feeling. But suppose, also, that if
an extension of mental power or experience were possible, a second series
of underlying tendencies could be brought into comprehension which would
modify that case, and correct an illusion. What is the proper mode of
action ? If society has a right to determine its own form and destiny,
must it be dealt with as it thinks it is, or as it ought to think it is ? It
may well be that the full economic case will ultimately present the most
difficult dilemma of all — a dilemma of two planes, transcendental, or, at

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 129

least, indeterminate. But ray reflections upon the subject convince me
that there is a field of deliberation and inquiry for economists which has,
so far, only been casually and cursorily surveyed, but which uuist be
carefully explored before the economic case can be 2)Tesented.

n. Methods of Inquiry.

It has often and rightly been remarked that economics sufters as a
science because it is unable to avail itself of the method of agreement and
difference as an engine of discovery. The isolation of the presence of a
I^articular factor, in order to discern if some effect or concomitant is always
present ; the isolation of its absence, to determine whether the supposed
eSect or concomitant is always absent ; or, failing isolation, the association
of that factor with a wide variety of others, and the observation of absence
or presence of the antecedent with the presence or absence of the conse-
quent ; or again, the establishment of a quantitative relationship so that
small and large ' doses ' of the antecedent are accompanied by small and
large doses respectively of the consequent : all these methods of direct
experimentation ox^en to the phj'sical sciences are lacking to the economist.
At the most he can follow by induction, with all the dangers bi the false
cause or the multiple cause, from observation of conditions existing at
the same moment in different places, or at the same place at different
times. If he is told that a given economic condition is brought about by
a particular factor, such as a law or a social custom, he is seldom in a
position to try the absence of that law or custom directly. Even if he
docs, the other conditions will not remain constant, and a logical weakness,
if not a common-sense doubt, will exist. It will exist especially if some
human likes or dislikes are involved, with consequent sectional feeling or
sentiment. The precise economic effect of Prohibition, for example, is
open to dispute because of the difficulty of dispassionate observation and
reasoning where feelings as distinct from intellectual processes are involved.

But the economist has one advantage over the physicist. If the
latter cannot actually remove the element in question from his phenomena
or introduce it at will, he is usually at a loss. It is not generally open to
him to imagine what would follow from its absence or presence, or to
reason from analogy. (And here I am not overlooking the immense
advances made by postulating, from observation of what are imagined
to be effects, certain qualities which any factor, operating as a cause,
would need to possess, and then elaborating what would follow from such
qualities if they really existed, and finding, under other or dift'erent circum-
stances, that those prognostications are verified. Working hypotheses of
this order are the commonplaces of science.) I am, rather, referring to
another kind of postulation from experience. We see about us a certain
set of economic conditions, and co-existent a certain law or custom.
Interest or ignorance, or superficial observation, or political prejudice,
may urge that they are related as cause and effect. But the economist
has to be wary and watchful. It is open to him to imagine an economic
world free from such a law or custom, and, by what he knows as to the
behaviour of the average man under the hodonic impulse, to work out a
new or hypothetical economic system. This type of economic psychology
is rendered more possible if there are, in fact, alreadv in existence a number

1926 " K_

180 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of individuals unaffected by the factor in question, whose behaviour is
known and observed. By splitting the problem or the community up
into its smaller significant or fractional sections, and making an estimate
for each section, the possibility of error in the aggregated estimate is much
reduced. If the resultant economic system which the economist deduces,
following the subtraction or the addition of the particular custom or law,
differs widely from the actual state, then the efiect of that custom or law
is obviously large and important. But if much the same state of affairs
is hypothetically evolved, then the explanation of such a state must be
elsewhere, if the explanation that is being sought is a true diflferential.

Everywhere we observe that men are not born equal ; stations oi
fortunes in life are influenced by the fact that A and B were their parents,
and not C and D. Something that A and B did or had, that C and D did
not or had not, lives after them, and influences the economic position of
X, the son of A and B, so that he is essentially different from Y, the son
of C and D. The fact that men ' inherit ' seems to be a fact that prima
facie should have real economic significance. What would the economic
world be like, as compared with the present economic world, if men really
started equal ? Or what would the economic world be like if men started
with great inequalities, but these inequalities were quite fortuitous and
had no relation to the circumstauces or qualities of parents ? In either
case we postulate a world in which inheritance is absent as an economic
factor.

It may well be that such an analysis would be inconclusive or indeter-
minate at the last, that at certain points we find we need close or exact
statistical data that are absent, that at others the balance of probability
as to economic psychology in the mass is in doubt, and that at a critical
point unbiassed scientific estimates differ widely. At the worst we should
know the area of scientific uncertainty ; we should have exposed the points
on which exact observation ought in future to be focussed ; we should
have given an estimated result with an idea of the probability of error. All
of these stages are some way towards truth, at least further on than no
analysis at all. In practical matters we may, after all, like others who have
not joined in our analysis, have to ' jump ' the gap and flagrantly guess, or
act empirically by instinct. This the world has been doing on the widest
scale for centuries while knowledge has been growing. But it is some-
thing to know that we are voting or deciding not indeed unscientifically
but «on-scientifically, which we have no business to do, ssivefautedemieux.

III. The General Heritage of an Environment formed under Certain
Conditions of Inheritance.

I am not referring particularly to what we call our social heritage, i.e. to
what the whole community A enjoys by reason of all that the preceding
whole community B has left, either produced and evolved by B itself, or
received and perpetuated by the whole community C that preceded B.
I am dealing with the principles and fact of individual heritage. But the
two cannot be wholly dissociated. As Prof. Pigou has said, ' environments
have children as well as individuals.' And if the social heritage which
A received from B was one in which individual heritage played an
important part, it may well be that it is an entirely different social

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 131

heritage from what it would have been if the practice of individual
inheritance in that heritage had then been absent. All men to-day are
the heirs of a body of knowledge accessible to them without distinction ;
to a system of law, and to a considerable amount of communal wealth
in parks, roads, and public facilities. That social heritage is an important
factor in the total quantity of wealth which is produced in response to a
specified aggregate of human effort to-day. If that heritage had been less
in quantity or different in quality from what it actually is, the economic
response to human effort to-day would certainly be quite different. It
may also be, though this is less capable of proof, an important factor in
the share of that quantity which accrues to a specified individual effort
on the part of M and N, members of that community, respectively. Now
the social heritage in question when it was ' incubating,' so to speak, in
readiness for the present generation, was incubating iinder certain con-
ditions of individual inheritance. Would it have been the same social
heritage if the incubating conditions had not included individual inherit-
ance ?

It will be seen, therefore, that while we may focus on individual
inheritance, it cannot be wholly dissociated from the communal aspects.
When M comes into the world, he has, as an economic unit, to associate
with two types of assistance, i.e. what he individually inherits from his
parents, and what he socially inherits from previous society, and in both
of these the principle of individual inheritance has been present.

But this social heritage, which is either economically richer or poorer
in potentiality because it was the product of a set of conditions which
included indi\'idual inheritance, is one of the chief working assets of every
individual to-day, whether he has the benefit of some particular individual
inheritance or not. The effects of inheritance as a custom do not,
therefore, exhaust themselves in the direct line, as may be clearer from
hypothetical illustrations. Suppose that the power of bequest is an
immense stimulus to an able man, who under its influence exerts his
ingenuity to the highest degree, creates new capital forms, and new mental
embodiment of his genius in organisation. He raises the potentiality of
the average worker as a unit in the social system, enriching himself and
his social environment simultaneously. Under this system an individual
in the next generation observes that he is not so well off as he would have
been if the inherited wealth had not gone to the heir, but had been diffused
over the community, but he perhaps fails to observe or realise that if the
personal wealth had not been destined to go to the heir, the addition to
the social heritage might never have come into being. He has not,
indeed, inherited his share of the wJwle results of that man's life, but only
that unseen, unrealised part which was enjoyed by the community. It
was, moreover, impossible to inherit both, because this non-inheritance"of
the personal part was a condition under which both the personal part and
the social part came into being. Whether this is a likely picture of reality
or not depends obviously on the initial assumption, i.e. whether it is true
in any sense that the power of bequest is a real differential as an economic
incentive. Let us take an assumption applicable to the environment as
distinct from the individual, and suppose that the knowledge that the
individual can leave his wealth to his son and not to the community acts

132 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

as a social irritant, an economic ' sulkiiier.' All workers' efforts are then
crabbed and limited by their psychological state ; their output is restricted,
and often interrupted on trivial pretexts ; they have no ready elasticity
to participate willingly in new combinations of the organising mind. Then
the total economic result of the community's efforts may be less than if
our original mind had never exerted itself at all, producing individual
wealth for individual bequest. The individual may, indeed, have
abstracted, by his ingenuity, something as an accumulation for bequest,
but the quantitative reaction on the economic or environment heritage is,
in minute individual amounts, greater in the aggregate. The social
heritage for the forthcoming generation to work with is poorer. Even if
the lucky inheritor comes into his personal share he may have to employ it
with an impoverished social heritage which will reduce his share far below
what he, a man of ability, might have secured with a responsive social
environment and a better social heritage. And each individual of that
second generation has a poorer standard because of the stunted social
heritage, poorer perhaps even if he had his share of the direct inheritance
as a set-off. Here the truth of the conclusions is not objectively measur-
able, and depends on the truth of the assumption that the system is an
economic irritant. Whether the system is au individual incentive or a
social irritant, or both, or neither, is a question of average psychology. If
both assumptions are true, the effects may balance, and the resultant
economic systems, with or without the inheritance factor, be identical. But
if either is more powerful the result must be different, and a system
including inheritance either worse or better than the system without it.

I have laboured all this preliminary analysis, because it is so necessary
to observe that tlie social and individual interact ; so necessary to convince
people that the dynamic tendencies of forces affecting the distribution of
wealth are at least as important as the static results, and may even be
more powerful.

IV. Contributions by Classical Economists.

The discussion by economists has usually arisen in connection with
' social justice ' in distribution, or justice and expediency in connection
with taxation. I will take two examples : —

In 1795 Jeremy Bentham asked the question, ' What is that mode of
supply of which tlie twentieth part is a tax, and that a heavy one, while
the whole would be no tax and would not be felt by anybody ? ' His
plan was to abolish intestacy, all property where there was no will going
to the State. He also proposed to limit the power of bequests of testators
who had no direct heirs, and, in addition, that the State should have a
half-share of sums going, either under a will or not, to such relatives as
grandparents, uncles and aunts, and perhaps nephews and nieces, and also
a reversionary interest in the succession of direct heirs who had no
children anc^no prospects of them. I am not concerned to give you all
the^various legal and philosophical reasons underlying Bentham's proposal.
He held that this was not a tax, and that its chief advantage was freedom
from oppressiveness. In the case of a tax on successions, a man looks on
the whole of what is left to him as his own, of which he is then called
upon to give up something. Bvit if, under the law regulating successions,

F._ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 133

he knows that nothing, or only a small share, is due to him, then Bentham
claimed that he would feel no hardship, ' for hardship depends on dis-
appointment, disappointment upon expectation, and if the law of
succession leaves him nothing, he will not expect anything.'

Prof. Seligman remarks that, exaggerated as Bentham'a idea and
distinction undoubtedly was, it contained a kernel of truth — namely, that
there is no such thing as a natural right of inheritance, and that the
extension of intestate succession to collateral relatives is, under existing
social conditions, defensible only to a very limited extent. Graduation
of the tax according to the degree of relationship was the definite corollary
of his ideas. The idea of the basis of taxation described as the theory of
copartnership originated later, when writers combined with Bentham's
argument the thought that the State should inherit property from
individuals because of what it does for them during their lives.* Andrew
Carnegie, the millionaire, was an enthusiastic advocate of this idea. I
am not concerned with the socialist or ' diffusion of wealth ' theory,
based upon the doctrine that it is a proper function of Government to
use the power of taxation as an engine of social improvement, to stop the
growth of large fortunes and bring about an equal distribution of wealth.
Here it is necessary to remark that those defences of inheritance which
rest upon the family theory of property are not altogether consistent
with that kind of freedom of bequest which is commonly found in English-
speaking countries. In Continental Europe, of course, the ' legitime,'
and in the United States some of the State laws providing for a
certain portion of the estate to go, in a definite direction, to near relatives,
make for a better support of the family theory. Seligman says that most
thinkers, as well as the mass of the public, would still to-day maintain
the custom of inheritance, not, indeed, as a natural right or necessary
constituent in theory of private property, but as an institution that is,
on the whole, socially desirable. Those who are not prepared to accept
socialistic methods of reasoning cannot acknowledge the validity of the
' diffusion of wealth ' argument.

Other economists have discussed the question almost entirely as one
of ' social justice,' and in so doing have often begged the question of its
economic effects without examination.

John Stuart Mill held the view that there was nothing implied in
property ' but the right of each to his own faculties, to what he could
produce by them and to whatever he could get for them in a fair market,
together with his right to give this to any other person that he chooses,
and the right of that other person to receive and enjoy it.' He thought
that it followed that, although the right of bequest or gift after death
formed part of the idea of property, the right of inheritance, as distinguished
from bequest, did not. The succession, in the absence of disposition, by
children or near relatives, might be a proper arrangement, but he agreed
that there were many other considerations besides those of political
economy which entered into it. He traced in antiquity a definite economic
factor, where the disposition of the property -otherwise than to the family
surrounding it and interested in it had the effect of breaking up a little
commonwealth, united by ideas, interests, and habits, and casting them
' Vide Max West : The Inheritanee Tax.

184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

adrift upon the world. This created the idea of an inherent right in
children to the possessions of their ancestors. But bequests at random
were seldom recognised. Other reasons have usually been assigned by-
later writers, such, for example, as the supposition that the State in
disposing of property along recognised lines would be likely to do it in a
better way than the proprietor would have done, if he had done anything
at all. Such reasons were hardly economic in their basis. Mill argued
his case almost entirely on ethical and moral considerations, and not from
the point of view of any greater economic advantage, either to the
individual or the community. He reached more economic ground when
he discussed the conflict that may exist between bequests and the
permanent interests of the community. He says : ' No doubt persons have
occasionally exerted themselves more strenuously to acquire a fortune
from the hope of founding a family in perpetuity. But the mischiefs to
Society of such perpetuities outweigh the value of this incentive to
exertion, and the incentives in the case of those who have the opportunity
for making large fortunes are strong enough without it.'- By this, he
would appear to imply that economic expansion or betterment in one
direction was more than offset by economic contraction or worsement in
another, although one is never quite clear whether he is balancing against
improved material welfare deficiencies in other kinds of welfare.

Of the French law he remarked that ' the extreme restriction in the
power of bequest was adopted as a democratic expedient to break down
the custom of primogeniture and counteract the tendency of inherited
property to collect in large masses. I agree in thinking these are greatly
desirable, but the means used are not, I think, the most judicious.'

When Mill comes to his case for limitation of bequests, he touches
somewhat lightly several economic considerations — e.g. where capital is
employed by the owner himself, there are strong grounds for leaving it to
him to say which one person of those who succeed him is the best equipped
to manage it and avoid the inconveniences of the French law of breaking
up a manufacturing or commercial establishment at the death of its
chief. He refers to the upkeep of ancestral mansions. He regards it as
advantageous that, while enormous fortunes are no longer retransmitted,
there would be, by the limitation, a great multitude of persons ' in easy
circumstances,' for from this class the community draws benefits which
are semi-economic or non-economic. Moreover, the practice in the
United States, neither compulsory partition nor a custom of entail and
primogeniture, allows for liberty to share wealth between kindred and the
public, leading to munificent bequests for public purposes.

I will refer later to those other economic considerations which have
merged in the discussion of taxation, both for justice and expediency.

V. The Discussion To-day.

Scientific economic inquiry into the subject of inheritance from the
point of view of its purely economic effects has thus been very scanty
amongst the classical economists. It is referred to, in passing, as a
powerful factor in producing an uneven distribution of wealth, but its
influence upon the direction of wealth production, or t)ie actual aggregate

'^ Principles, B. II., Ch. II., §4.

F,— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 185

mass of such production, has, so far as I am aware, not been really analysed.
The economic asjieot of the subject sufEers from the fact that it has nearly
always been developed in an environment of political thought rather than
scientific analysis— of a programme of social change to be formulated or
supported. As a consequence, therefore, assumptions have been made
and adopted, without critical examination, as the basis of the case which
the economist ought to admit only as the conclusion of abstract argument
or definite research. However much a politician may desire to ' get on '
with the argument and develop his theme, and therefore treat as axiomatic
a common belief, the economist who treats his science seriously is hardly
justified in imitating him.

The normal approach to this subject is by way of innate or instinctive
ideas as to social justice, based upon a study of distribution of product.
It is pointed out that largo individual fortunes exist side by side with
extremes of poverty, or that a large proportion of the natiorial income is
enjoyed by a relatively small fraction of the people. It is suggested that
the inequality arises from inheritance as an exercising cause, which there-
fore serves no socially useful purpose, or even a socially harmful purpose.
It is stated to be an offence against the general sense of the fitness of things.
The tendency by way of reaction is to assume thai; if the right of inlieritunce
did not exist the economic condition of affairs would not be similar, and
that current economic problems would tend to be simpler and on their
way to solution. This may indeed be the case, but it is not demonstrated.
It may be one of those lucky instincts for political truth which the popular
mind sometimes possesses. On the other hand, having regard to the
unlucky instinct for error which popular economic ideas have been shown
by experience to entertain, it is rather much to expect that in this particular
matter instinctive judgment can be wholly trusted to dispense with
analysis, reasoning, or research. To put the matter quite bluntly, any
assumption that an apparent social injustice is also an economic ill is a
non sequitur. I am using the word ' economic ' in a strict sense, viz.
in relation to the aggregate production of goods and satisfactions which
are exchangeable, and which are produced in response to human demand
and for human satisfaction, together with their distribution to individuals.
I use it in no ethical sense, and am not concerned with whether the things
produced in response to demand, or first produced and then provoking
demand, are the things most worthy of human effort, or most likely to
lead to the highest types of life, or even in the long run to give the highest
forms of happiness. To bring in these conceptions would be to overweight
the argument and analysis and make it intractable. It is quite sufficient
to deal with those aspects which are uppermost in the ordinary mind,
that is, purely material welfare, the greatest quantity of objects of desire
produced for the least human effort, the question of worthy use and aim
being entirely begged until the economic conclusion is introduced into a
set of considerations for ' the whole duty of man.'

Dr. Dalton, in his valuable work on ' Some Aspects of the Inequality
of Incomes in Modern Communities,' summarises much previous observa-
tion on the subject of the effect of inheritance on the proportions of
distribution. The different national practices in regard to inheritance
may also be conveniently studied in his book, from which will be realised

1 Pjf) SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

that IIh' liglit of inheritance is not an absohite. liglit of ])roperty, but has
varied much in different places and at different times even in this country.
(I have written a short note upon it myself in the introduction to the
English edition of Eignano's ' Social Significance of the Death Duties.')
Dr. Dalton concludes that the effect of inheritance upon distribution of
wealth has been almost ignored by economists.^ Ho takes the view that
inequality of incomes is due not merely to the direct influence of bequest,
but also indirectly because inheritance enables some to have higher earning
power than fithers. But he does not specifically deal with the subject of
the aggregate wealth to be divided.

Prof. Hobhouse in his book on Liberalism says, ' Inherited wealth is
the main determining factor in the social and economic order of our time,'
with particular reference to the existing distribution of the common
product. But there is no examination of its actual economic tendencj^ in
the sense in which alone an economic answer is complete. Prof. Henry
Clay, in his contribution to the Liberal Summer Schools, gives us the best
approach to economic analysis of recent times, but even he does not come
to grips with the central problem. He takes as his starting-point the
inequality in distribution of proj^erty, as deduced statistically from the
Estate Duty returns, and says : ' This inequality enhances and, in part,
accounts for the inequality of incomes which is the chief cause of social
imrest and the chief cause of waste in the modern economic system.'
But again he recognises that inequality of property is, in part, merely a
reflection of inequality of incomes. People with large incomes can save
and so accumulate property. It is the diffusion of wealth that to him is
the central problem, and, although the allied problems are there in his
mind, he too takes much as axiomatic that I think ought to be examined.
Mr. E. D. Simon, in a recent address to the Liberal Summer School, avows
his object to be to point out ' how dangerous is the social effect of the
excessive inequality of v/ealth that exists among us to-day.' He says
' there is a strong and growing feeling among the workers that the existing
social and industrial order, with its excessive inequalities of wealth, is
fundamentally unjust.' And he gets the whole ' jump off ' in his argument
by a graphic and moving contrast between the low wages and poverty of
the jute industry and the great stone mansions of the jute lords, ' set in
spacious, well-tended gardens." The recent debate in the House of
Commons on this subject, when reduced to its simplest elements,
consisted of the following nou sequiturs :

There arc gross inequalities in wealth, which are socially unjust.
Inheritance laws bring these about, and if they were abolished wealth
would be better distributed. If wealth were better distributed the
average man would be economically better off. To be better off economi-
cally is to be aware of the fact and to be more contented. A sense of
social justice and actual economic betterment are identical. People
would then have a ' fair start in life.'

The economic question-begging, or confusions of thought on the other
side, bluntly summarised, were : ' Capital is an essential of life, and the
worker would be badly off if it were not accumulated. Incentive is
required for this. Right of bequest is an incentive to accumulation ;

'P. 283.

K— ECONOMIC yClENOE AND STATISTICS. 137

inheritance and bequest are correlatives. Therefore, if rights of inheritance
were altered, capital would dry up, and workers would suffer. The worker
lias no real right to be annoyed or sulky at a system which really benefits
him, and in which the appearance of social injustice is an illusion ; there-
fore we can ignore the fact that he actually is annoyed and sulky. Great
businesses give the worker something he would not otherwise liave — they
depend on the right of accumulation, and therefore inheritance laws are
sacrosanct."

Now I would say that since what people think, however unjustifiably
or erroneously, affects their conduct and motives, and has, therefore,
economic significance, these ideas are, as existing features of conduct,
economic /ads or ingredients. But to say they represent actual economic
truths, or logical economic analysis, would be very inexact.

VI. The Problem To-day.

Before we can approach to any conclusions upon inheritance laws as
an economic factor, we need research and analysis to give answers to a
number of specific questions, some of them quite central and critical in
making an economic contribution to the subject, and others less important,
but helpful.

First, we have those which depend upon an inductive study of periods
and places, and which can at best be only broadly indicative of the pre-
disposing causes :

1. Has distribution tended to become more unequal under freedom
of inheritance or beqiiest as tinie has gone on l

2. Is it most unequal where freedom is greatest ?

3. Is there any evidence that the actual standard of life and oppor-
tunity of a person of given powers has failed to improve under such a
system, or has improved at a less rate than it would have done under
another system ?

4. Is there any evidence that the actual modal standard is highest
wherever and whenever inequalities, however caused, are least ?

5. Ignoring the proportions in which aggregate wealth or income is
distributed, and focussing upon the increase in the aggregate wealth or
income of separate communities, is there anj' evidence that the rate of
increase is greater or less in communities with most liberal rights of
bequest ? (This is similar to 3 stated in another way, and disregards the
effect upon average wealth which an increase or decrease of population,
stimulated by increasing prosperity, may have.)

Second, there is the group of questions bearing on the importance
of inheritance amongst all the factors which proniote inequality.

6. What other factors besides inheritance are held to promote or niain-
tain inequality, and what is their relative importance in such causation ?

7. What proportion of the number of recipients of the larger incomes
draw such incomes wholly from invested sources ? What proportion of
the total amount of income drawn liy the recipients of the larger incomes
comes from sources unconnected with their personal toil or enterprise ?
(This is essential to help us find the relative importance of inheritance under
question 6.)

188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

8. If cessation of inheritance could in itself bring about even distribu-
tion, what would be the maximum effect on the average worker ?

Third. Next we have to consider, a priori, whether the even distribu-
tion test is the economic summum honum. This involves psychological
factors, and whether anything is economically good in itself if thinking
does not make it so.

9. Is absolutely even distribution an economic, as distinct from a
social, ideal? i.e. will wealth production be at its maximum in quantity
and quality ?

10. If not, at what point is ' gross ' inequality reached ? By what
standards, absolute or comparative, does one conclude that a given range
of inequality is ' gross," ' indefensible,' and, above all, economically dis-
advantageous ?

11. Is a ' fair wage ' a relative or an absolute idea? i.e. in view of
differences between different epochs and countries, is there any evidence
that men's ideas are sufficiently stable for a ' fair wage ' finally to be
reached ? How far is it the product of difference of station ?

Fourth. Then we have to ask, what motives, with any economic effect,
are set up in the human mi'id or will, by a system of free bequest ?

12. Is the right of bequest an overmastering factor in capital accumula-
tion ? What proportion of capital accumulation would go on without it ?

13. Is the sense of social injustice arising from it of economic signifi-
cance in aggregate production ?

Fifth. There may be directional, or partial, as distinct from aggregate,
advantages in a system, which are a useful ingredient in social and economic
betterment, i.e. variety and stability as against mere quantitative tests.

14. Does the right of bequest best preserve economic values which
are of importance in particular directions, i.e. consolidation of estates,
hindrance to natural development, the conservation of amenities as
against utilities, continuity of policy, &c. ?

Si.cth. In the last group we have a series of inquiries which approach
the problem from the reverse direction, and also have a highly practical
bearing.

15. What are the economic consequences of discouraging or nullifying
bequest and inheritance by heavy taxation ? Is there any evidence to
show that its distribution is made more even in this way, ex pod facto,
or that aggregate wealth-making is discouraged or wealth-making capacity
is reduced ?

16. As regards the many who benefit, what is the effect upon motives
towards production and towards psychological contentment ?

17. As regards the few who suffer, what is the effect upon motive to
work and to save ? Must a given amount of taxation laid upon a given
amount of capital wealth left at death have the same total effect, however
it is imposed ? Is it possible to arrange the imposition on any principle
which will depress wealth-making motives to a minimum degree and fall
more heavily at points where the harmful economic reactions are least ?

There is a seventh group of questions which deal with the broader
aspects of inheritance.

18. As other things besides objective wealth are inherited, can wealth
be really or effectively dissociated from them ?

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 18.9

VII. Comparative Inequality of Distribution.

I regard the foregoing imposing schedule of questions as all pertinent
to the economic inquiry. To some of them we have at present no answer
at all ; to others we have a partial answer or general indication ; to others,
again, a little reasoned analysis will afford us a high degree of probability.
Within the scope of this paper I cannot do justice to all these questions
or explore them all. I may perhaps summarise what we know in regard
to some of them and give provisional answers to a few and suggest my
views on others.

I. I have been able to find no positive evidence that the slope of distri-
bution has materially changed in the past hundred years.* The scale of
wealth is different and the whole population is strung out on the line
further up. There are probably at the very top much richer men, and
wealth on a scale unknown in former times. In this way I think that a
given minute fraction of the people holds to-day a slightly larger fraction
of the total income. So much of this has arisen, in the cases of great
wealth, from activity during the income-receiver's life that it is not so
much a part of the problem of inheritance as of distribution of the product
of industry, the potentiality of the industrial system and accumulation of
savings during life. This broader aspect of distribution is not the subject
of our discussion. Some forces tend in an opposite direction, i.e. to lessen
the centralising force of bequest : Heavy Death Duty taxation on these
large aggregations, and the lessening importance of land in total wealth,
and the weakening influence of primogeniture, which makes for family
diffusion rather than concentration. Even if the distribution slope has
not greatly changed, probably the inheritance system affects the angle
of the existing slope. Prof. Pigou remarks, in regard to the alleged
immutability of the Pareto law, that income depends not on capacity
alone, but on a combination of capacity and inherited property, and the
latter is not distributed in proportion to capacity but is concentrated
upon a small number of persons. This must deflect the curve from its
normal form. The actual form cannot, therefore, be ' necessary ' unless
the broad scheme of inheritance now in vogue is also necessary. But a
very large change in the existing laws is not essential to bring about a
great difference in the income curve, since property is more unevenly
distributed. Thus 76| per cent, of the population owned only 7 per cent,
of the property, but 73 per cent, owned 35^ per cent, of the income.
(Clay : ' Property and Inheritance,' p. 19.) As regards the United
States, Watkins ( Growth of Large Fortunes ') says : ' For wages, the
upper decile is less than twice the median down to 5/4ths the median. For
salaries it is twice the median, and for property eight times the median.'
So far as Great Britain is concerned, the statistical indications are that
static redistribution to-day would not add an appreciably different
percentage to the modal income than formerly. Statistical evidence for
past years for other countries on this point is too scanty to be of any use.
There are no distribution figures of any value for Germany prior to 1890,
and none for France at all, while the United States figures are good, but
quite recent, and no comparisons with earlier times are possible. Kesearch

•■ Vide my Wealth and Taxable Capacity, iii.

140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

in this field, I believe, will be barren, cand in the case of the United States,
owing to other powerful factors, the figures would be inconclusive.

2. Distribution seems to me to be probably less unequal where bequest
is trammelled, i.e. the ' legitime " in Continental countries makes for family
diffusion and equalit}^ as in France and Germany. But, for what it is
worth, we must observe that the two richest countries have freedom, and
the next two in order of wealth have conditional bequest. The only
considerable one (Russia) with no rights of inheritance is now sinking into
poverty, but this tendency, of course, cannot be assigned merely to
inheritance custom. In any case, owing to the effects of the war, the
comparison must be confined to pre-war years, and the evidence will be
found in the tables in my ' Wealth and Income of the Chief Powers.' There
is room for research and some comparative study of the diffusive effect of
the ' legitime ' as compared wth our own system. It must be remembered
that, so far as all past wealth is concerned, without accumulation and
concentrative power for new wealth being fullj- maintained, there must
be an increase in equality, even if wealth is left to all the children, where
the effective birth-rate for the wealthy is not maintained near the national
average. If 5 per cent, of the adult population own half the property,
then in the two generations (assuming a similar birth-rate to the general),
without any new accumulation, and, say, three times the total population,
this 5 per cent, would still own one-half, but they would be three times as
numerous and their individual shares only one-third the size. Now neiv
accumidation must be relatively of great importance if the individual
fortunes of the richest people are to be on the old scale of magnitude. It
follows, therefore, that in the economics of the venj ricli, current or
iumiediate right of accumulation tends to be much more important than
inheritance at the second and later stages. Taxation and family diffusion
tend to reduce the long-range inheritance effect on the size of individixal
fortunes in such a way that, even if inheritance ceased altogether, the
existence of the very large fortune would be very marked under the
influence of other economic factors.

3. My conclusions as to the average position or actual standard of
life have already been given elsewhere.* During the 120 years prior to
the war I concluded that the real position of a typical or standard person
in this country — e.g. at the lower decile — had improved four times. During
this period the inheritance system has been fully in force. There is
nothing to prove that the rate of increase would have been more if it had
not been in force. Education and improved health have doubtless done
a great deal in this advance, but probably the quota of accompanying
fixed and circulating capital per head in improved machinery and transport
has been the most effective feature. The question is, therefore, thrown
back on to the inquiry, which hardly admits of statistical research, whether
the accumulation of capital (regardless of ownership) could be as great
under another system. There are four rival systems on which we may
depend for the aggregate saving : (1) dependence on the better-off ;
(2) equalising individual resources and then expecting each individual
small-income receiver to save ; (3) saving through taxation ; (4) collec-
tive saving {e.g. company reserves). In my view the third is the least

■'- Wealth and Taxable Capacity.

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 141

satisfactory ; the second ought to be the best, but, in fact, is not. The call
of spending on a small income is great, and it is difficult to save perma-
nently for fixed capital assets. One man with £10,000 and 500 with £100
per annum may save £8,000 with its improvement in the future incomes
of the 500, but on even distribution 501 people will each have £119, and
they are not likely to save £16 each and spend only £103. This is where
the redistribution due to heavy taxation is affecting our present aggregate
savings to-day. Although the workers are saving more, they are not
making up the gap so caused. The real rival to nineteenth-century saving
is the saving that goes on silently through company reserves, &c., and that
never actually becomes anyone's spendable resources at all.

■4. Inequalities of wealth appear to be statistically less in France and
probably in Germany, and certainly in Italy. In all these the average
standard of life is lower than in the countries where inequality is greatest.
There is, therefore, no statistical correlation between extremes of
inequality and poverty of standard. The association is probably in the
opposite direction, but this is, of course, no proof of actual or causal
connection.

5. The comparative rapidity of increase in total national wealth can
be tested by statistics to only a limited extent {vide ' Wealth and Taxable
Capacity'). We can enquire back to 1850 with the United States, whether
other factors than inheritance are so powerful, but some research
would be needed to give good comparisons for the countries with
limited rights of bequest, France, drermauy, &c.

6. Coming now to the second group of questions. No. (3, Dr. Dalton
has auatysed some of the causes of inequality besides inheritance in the
work referred to. But quantitatively we know little of their relation.
Probably 110 years ago, when the income from property was to the income
from business as 100 to 60, instead of 100 to 400 as it is to-day,^ the effect
of inheritance and accumulation on distribution was far greater than to-day,
when many of the highest fortunes have generally been made within the
lifetime of the holder, without significant initial resources. I think there
is considerable room for statistical research upon this matter in different
countries.

7. The proportion of people in the higher ranks of income who have
income from occupations or businesses in which they are actively engaged,
and also the amount of the income so earned in relation to the total income
in each class, is, I believe, as follows : Speaking generally for the total
incomes of those with from £10,000 to £100,000, there has been a tendency
for the proportion of income coming from earned sources to increase, and
it would now be about 30 per cent. The proportion of the incomes over
£100,000, of c ourse, is rather lower. I have no means of knowing how much
of this 70 per cent, comes from savings accumulated within the lifetime
of the possessor, and how much from inherited wealth ; but having regard
to the rate of increase of the national wealth in the past fifty years, and
the rate of increase of the inheriting population, it is probably a much
smaller proportion from inheritance than is popularly supposed.

But when we come to consider how many of the rich people have an
occupation earning income, there are over 70 per cent, earning and under
''' Vide British Incomes and Properiy.

142 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

30 per cent, who have investment income only. (In the highest incomes
the percentage of incomes from investment only is much smaller.) Out
of this 30 per cent, a good proportion are of course doing voluntary unpaid
work as magistrates or in other public positions ; another section com-
prises women who have no opportunities ; while another section would
be men too aged to work. As you know, the larger investment fortunes
tend to be concentrated on the higher ages. On the whole, I should doubt
whether the percentage of able but unoccupied men living entirely on
investment income in these classes exceeds 10, and it may be as low as
5 per cent., or, say, under 1,000 people.' The actual numbers of the ' idle '
in the classes from £1,000 to £10,000 would exceed this by far, but I have
no means of knowing whether the percentage is greater. Moreover, of
those gainfully employed, only a minority are drawing their earned
incomes solely from directors' fees, and the majority have industrial or
financial activities in which they take a personal part.

8. I think the only test of the effect of equal distribution of wealth
upon the average worker would be by distribution of the income. I
have already published my statistical conclusion that if all the incomes
in excess of £250 were pooled, then, after deducting the present taxation
and a fund of new savings equivalent to the pre-war real savings, it would
not give each family more than 5s. per week.* But much of this
redistributed income is earned income, and therefore the redistribution
of property income would give spendable income falling below this figure.
There is room for research on this question for the United States, France,
and Germany.

VIII. The Standard of Life and Psychology.

The third group of questions deals with the psychology of the standard
of life and of ecj^uality of distribution.

9 and 10. There is as yet no economic evidence that equality of indi-
vidual income, whether derived from earnings or from property, would
give the maximum economic advantage. Nor is there evidence that
equality of investment income added to unequal earned incomes would
give an optimum point for national production. There are three possible
assumptions : —

(a) That the community should take over all accumulated savings at
death and hold them for common enjoyment in new social services in
common forms, and in payment for all public services ; (6) that the popula-
tion should receive the income and dividends by equal sharing ; and

' Since 16 per cent, of the large estates corresponding to these supertax incomes
are left by women, we may deduct 5 out of this 30 per cent., leaving 25 per cent, for
men. But since out of all estates of the magnitude left by men, 76 per cent, are left
by men of over sixty-four, this leaves only 6 per cent, out of the 30 per cent, for
younger men. Making due allowance for mortality rates in the estate distribution
tables, the estimate in the text is reasonable.

^ Vide Wealth and Taxable Capacity, iii., and The Christian Ethic as an Economic
Factor, Appendix III. Also Bowley : Distribution of the Product of Industry; and
Chiozza Money : The National Wealth.

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. l-tS

I have referred above to effects upon accumulation of savings which
I regard as of enormous importance in economic advance.

One may learn something from the proved effects of remission of
taxation and social expenditure, that direct additions to individual
resources soon exhaust their effects as direct additions to that kind of
contentment which makes for incentive to greater or better output. The
addition becomes the ex^^ected and the normal, and there is no evidence
that an improved standard of life in fifty years has made, through incentive
alone, for harder work. It has made a physically better worker, and
improved output has proceeded from this cause. In fact, even short-
period effects are often disappointing, and a betterment of conditions
through improved rate of wage has been partially offset by claims to
shorter hours by regulation or absenteeism. Here psychological effects
are not identical in different countries, and by no means all the workers
aim at working long enough or short enough, as the case may be, to bring
in a normal wage. If this is the case for additional direct rewards, it is
pretty clear that indirect additions to income through parks, libraries,
roads, &c., are much more removed as a direct stimulus to increased
economic effort. A small minority of workers will respond to the social
idea in which their additional effort will not enrich the few and carry
down the unearned property of those few to the select heirs. As regards
those whose incentive is being considered from the point of view of depriva-
tion of the privilege of bequest, we may study these later. A more even
family diffusion presents a difficult problem, which the example of France
does little to elucidate. Those who base their views as to the effects of
inheritance not so much upon the facts of inequality as of its extent, its
' grossness,' do not indicate at what point inequality ceases to be defensible
and becomes mischievous. We are entirely without guidance upon this
subject, nor does it appear that there will be a consensus of view upon it
sufficiently stable for common action. One cannot be dogmatic upon this,
because a similar lack of standard exists for fixing proper rates of progres-
sion in taxation ; but the problem is roughly, though only temporarily,
solved in practice, and progressions tend to increase in steepness, the
instances to the contrary being very few. Just as ideas about a fair
standard of life are relative, so ideas about the weight of taxation are
relative too. If anyone doubts this, let him read the Parliamentary
Debates on the subject of the income-tax at Is. 3d. in the £, which was
' gross ' and ' indefensible ' and ' disastrous.' I think, therefore, that it
would be exceedingly hard to say at what precise point between 1"3 and
rS in the oc slope of the Pareto line the line becomes either economically
indefensible or an offence against social justice. I am impressed with the
importance of a general popular sense of social injustice as a basis for
political ideas, in the absence of exact standards, but I distrust its finality
as an economic conception.

At the same time, men are moved in economic action by motive, and
the motive is no less potent because it is incorrectly or inadequately
informed.

It is my conclusion, after much study of men's attitudes, that they are

144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

much more afEected by comparisons than by absolute facts." Under a
state of affairs in which accumulation, inheritance, and bequest have been
the rule, A finds himself in possession of 10 units out of a total of 10,000,
and he sees B enjoying 1,000 out of that total. His assumption may be
that if the present practice of inheritance did not exist, but some other
practice obtained in its place, he would enjoy some different number, a
number, in his judgment, much more than 10— say 20 — and B would
have less, say 500. Or perhaps he assumes that equality would reign,
and that with 500 inhabitants each would enjoy 20. This, so far, is only
an argument post hoc ergo propter hoc, for, failing demonstration, some
other reason majr exist for the difference. But it is almost invariably
assumed in this, as in other discussions of distribution of wealth, that
under a system in which inheritance was not the rule, the aggregate jDroduc-
tion to be divided would be at least the same — -viz. 10,000 units^ — -whereas
of course it remains a probability that it would be either less or more,
and an improbability that it would be identical, for the inheritance system
must have some appreciable economic effect on accumulation and produc-
tion. Sujjpose, for example, that inheritance, whatever its effects on
distribution, has a net beneficial effect on aggregate production ; then it
might well be that, instead of 10,000 units, there would in its absence be
only 8,000, of which A would have 18 and B 500— that is, the distribution
is not so extreme, though, measured absolutelj^, all are worse oft'. Now
men are not given to the comparison of absolute changes, mainly because
they arc not available at any moment of time, and arc at best historical.
Thej^ do not compare their own absolute position at one moment in their
actual condition with what it would be in liypothetical conditions.
Neither does it im2)ress them very much if it is proved to them that under
the existing scheme of society they are four or five times as well off abso-
lutely in goods and services as their forefathers in similar circumstances
a hundred years ago. They compare themselves with their fellows at
the same moment of time. So a man may be even worse oft' absolutely,
but his sense of social justice will be less oft'ended if the difference between
himself and B is less marked than it was. He would rather have 10 jjcr
cent, of a moderate cake than 8 per cent, of a larger one, because he is
always comparing his angle of the sector with another man's angle or the
length of the arc, but never thinks of the cubic content. As a matter of
fact, any sense of injustice in distribution based upon this attitude of mind
is a very poor measure of actual economic welfare.

We can thus postulate three possible positions of the economic aggre-
gate for a community which results when a system of unlimited inheritance
is banned as compared with a system where inheritance is in force. The
first is that it would be lower, the second that it would be the same, and
the third that it would be greater. But this tells us little about the

f '•> Dr. Daltou, in touching upon ambiguities and confusions between absolute and
relative shares, dismisses this aspect by accepting it. ' Though absolute shares are
the chief determinant of actual economic welfare, relative shares are one of the
determinants of the potential economic welfare, which might be realised under a
difierent scheme of distribution. Human psj'chology is such that the satisfaction,
and hence the economic welfare derived from an income, depends not onl,y on the
absolute size of this income, but also on its relative size as compared with other
incomes.' Op. cit., p. 161.

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.

145

fortunes of a particular person A of given ability and energy in that
community. These three cases may be subdivided to give twelve con-
ceivable positions.

1. Where the aggregate is lower than 10,000, say 8,000 units.

A's actual
position.

Wealth

distribution

and A's sense

of justice.

(a) A's fraction higher than l/500th and actual sum

greater than 20— say 25 or 1 /320th
(6) A's fraction higher than l/oOOth, but actual sum

the same— say 20 or l/400th ....

(d) A's fraction and actual sum both lower — say
15 or l/600th

better
same
worse
worse

better

somewhat
better

same
worse

2. Where the aggregate is the same— 10,000 units.

A's actual
position.

Wealth
distribution
and A's sense
: of justice.

better

same

worse

(a) A's fraction higher than l/500th and actual sum

greater than 20— say 25 or 1 /400th
(6) A's fraction and sum the same — 20 and l/500th .
(c) A's fraction worse and actual sum lower — say

16 or l/625th

3. Where the aggregate is higher, say 12,000 units.

j Wealth
A's actual i distribution
position. and A's sense
of justice.

(a) A's fraction higher and actual sum higher — say
l/400th or 30 units

(6) A's fraction the same and actual sum higher
l/500th or 24

(d) A's fraction lower, but actual sum the same
l/600th or 20

better

better
1,

same

better

worse

sa tne

worse

. 1 worse

worse

On the assumption that it is a definitely higher //ad joh of the total,
as distinct from a definitely better absolute amount, which will give rise
to a feeling of greater contentment or a less sense of social injustice, it is
1926 L

146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

clear that there are only three out of twelve possible alternatives which
can yield the required result, although there are five possible cases in which
A may be actually no worse ofi and five in which he may/eeZ worse off.

Here I may pass to question 13.

To what extent does a feeliry of social injustice operate to affect a
man's motives to make him work harder, or less hard, or work less regu-
larly, and thus in itself become, psychologically, an economic factor
affecting the aggregate production ? It is only in certain special circum-
stances that the feeling will lead to harder work. It would do so where
an effort to escape the inferior position is great, but this is hardly distin-
guishable from the incentive which is afforded by the prospect of wealth,
and of distinction itself, which must be examined later. It is probable
that with many temperaments the feeling operates to exasperate, not,
indeed, all the time, but at occasional periods when the difference is brought
home by some marked external incident. It is probable, therefore, that
it contributes to an underlying feeling of unrest, and a complete unwilling-
ness to do more for the wages obtained than the minimum that will pass
muster. There must be many thousands, even millions, who continue to
accept inequality, not so much of wealth, as of wealth due to inheritance,
as part of the scheme of things against which they have little grievance.
They are believers in ' luck,' and coming into wealth from a forgotten uncle
in Australia may move to envy, but it does not lead into malice or resent-
ment. These vast numbers are sufficiently untouched in their economic
activity by a sense of social injustice in everyday life not to work less
faithfully or less hard. There are, however, numbers who, in times of dis-
tress and unemployment or labour trouble, can be brought to considerable
moral reaction against any display of luxury on the part of the ' classes '
who do not work for a living. We have heard of the resentment against
mining royalties, which as a peculiarly provocative form of inherited
wealth are contributory in a marked degree to that lack of good feeling in
the mining industry which has a marked economic significance in output.
In my judgment the feeling of resentment against wide differences of
fortune due to inherited wealth is seldom distinguished in popular feeling
from differences due to the right of accumulation as distinct from inherit-
ance. It is the inequality of reward and the multiplying power of
accumulated wealth which excites animosity, not so much that particular
part of it which may be due to the inheritance system. I- find it difficult
to believe that a sense of social injustice addressed simply to the existence
of a system of inheritance is, in itself, an important economic factor. The
average man is unaware that inheritance is not a ' natural right ' existent
at all times and in all places. If he has any sense of injustice it is against
inequality in general, and not to inequality as brought about by this
system.

I have made many inquiries in America of workmen and of those who
are in touch with them and know their psychology, and I am assured that
grievances about inheritance as such have no adverse effect whatever on
production. Indeed, I was assured that inequality of wealth, to which
this is contributory, stirs men to effort, to emulation, to ambition, and

F.— EC!ONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 147

gives a dream and a goal. In this sense the inequality serves to urge
many to greater efforts than would otherwise be made if all were on a
dead level of attainment and power.

At the same time, so far as this country is concerned, if there were
no inherited wealth at all, it might be easier for the average mind to accept
as inevitably associated with difference in human capacity, and even with
the luck of the game, inequalities of fortune arising entirely in their own
lifetime. But the rooted practice of the ' legitime ' in France gives an
entirely different outlook upon the abolition of inheritance altogether in
its psychological influence.

I can give the answer to question 11 only generally, viz. that ideas
concerning the standard of life and fair wages are relative and not absolute.
As arrived at subjectively, they are of little use as an indication of economic
actualities or possibilities. I have dealt with this elsewhere.^"

The right of bequest and the right of inheritance respectively may
differ as incentives. When we come to consider the effect of an
inheritance system, we have four sections to study. We divide, first,
on a time basis, into those living at the time wealth is accumulated in
response to the stimulus of the system, and those living at later times
when the wealth accumulated has been inherited, and when the system
has the effect of ' dictating ' the distribution of currently produced wealth.
Again, we di\'ide the people in each period into two functional sections,
those who do the accumulating and those who watch others do it.

Here we are in the field of personal views about human psychology in
the mass, although the statistics of the growth of life insurance, and the
proportion of wealth left out of the direct family line, are valuable. There
is room for research into systematic life-insurance statistics, but the
indications are clear that the family-provision incentive (including a
buttress against death duties) is more powerful even than formerly.
There is fair statistical evidence that the proportion of amounts bequeathed
to distant relatives and ' strangers ' to those bequeathed to close relatives
was relatively stationary in the depressed eighties, and, with the rising
tide of prosperity in the twenty years before the war, slowly rose and has
since fallen. Two kinds of incentive must be distinguished — the first
is to save more out of a definite income or work, and the second is to
produce more in order that still more may be saved. Two kinds of
objectives must be distinguished : first, provision for old age merging into
provision for a surviving widow, but irrespective of children's welfare ; and,
second, provision definitely for children or others. A positive and a
negative side must be distinguished : first, the positive right to bequeath
may have less importance in creating savings that would otherwise not
exist, than the knowledge that all savings would be annihilated would
have in stopping savings coming into existence at all. If there were no
power to bequeath by inter vivos giving, there would be a great tendency
to individual cZecumulation.

My own view, after long consideration of the available data, is that the
power to bequeath savings that will remain intact is a most important
factor in wealth accumulation and saving, and the desire to leave these
savings for the direct line, children and grandchildren, is an important

"> Wealth and Taxable Capacity, iii. Also Christian Ethic as an Economic Factor.

148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

special case of that incentive.^^ But I am equally convinced that the
mental horizon, which is so powerful an agent in business calculations
during life, which reduces the present value of a reversion over fifty years
hence to a negligible figure, is even more restricted for events after death.
The fate of one's savings, with the special case of landed estates ruled out,
after, say, thirty or forty years, has but a negligible influence on present
eft'ort or production. I therefore accept the popular estimate of this
incentive, but I emphasise it much more in its immediate effects and
belittle it much more in its final effects. This distinction is of great
importance in the theory of taxation.

As regards incentive to the recipients, it is possible to exaggerate its
influence in making idle men, who would otherwise add more to the mass
of production. This effect really exists, but it is a very slight percentage
of potential production, however glaring individual cases may be. A man
who has great capacity to add to production and raise the general standard,
has enough character not to be idle and unproductive simply because he
has other means ; indeed, he may play less for safety and be a risk- taker
and pioneer, and so add to economic welfare. The gilded idlers would
not, in any case, have made much greater economic additions than their
own subsistence. I am not referring to moral or ethical aspects, of course.

But the effect upon subsequent saving and accumulation is most
important. A man with an inherited fortune of £20,000 who works hard
and makes, say, £1,500 a year, has no strong incentive to do any more
saving out of his combined income of £2,500, and may be content to pass
on the £20,000 intact. But for this fortune he might have been a new
saver. I think there is singularly little statistical evidence of accumulative
saving, and while inheritance sustains inequality, it does not greatly
increase it ; the old inequalities of fortune are fed from new inequalities in
earning and the immediate bequests made from that source. I doubt,
therefore, if the deterrents to saving which high death duties create are
so important in their final effects when one considers the increased
incentive to new saving (and perhaps effort) which the lesser fortune to
the recipient brings about.

IX. Special Cases o£ Inheritance.

(fl) Land. — One of the most obvious ways in which the laws or practice
of inheritance move to a direct economic result is in the sphere of land
tenure. Clearly, there will be a prima facie difference between the
agricultural conditions that would exist after a long period of compulsory
division of property on Continental lines as compared with centuries of
primogeniture and the desire to maintain large land-units intact. There
have been certain important changes lately in the law of property which

^1 For estates over £1,000, 80 per cent, of the married men and 90 per cent, of
widowers have children living at the time of their death, while married women and
widows have children in 68 to 70 per cent, of the cases. There is no weakening of
these figures — if anythmg, the reverse — m the higher sections. In 10 per cent, of the
cases of single men there are parents living at the time of death. Intestacy, of course,
decreases with the size of theestate, and in the case of single men,for estates exceeding
£1,000, over 21 per cent, die intestate; but in the case of married men it is under
10 per cent., and even less for widowers.

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 149

may have economic reactions, but I am leaving the whole of this field to
the succeeding paper by Sir Henry Rew on the effect of land-tenure
systems on production.

In stressing the iniportance of the right of bequest without diffusion,
reference is frequently made to the continuity of management and interest
in large businesses. A man of energy and resource builds up a great
business, and one of his incentives is the knowledge that he is training
his son to follow him and make it greater and better. The old instinct
which vented itself in landed estates passes to commerce. It is urged
that the right to bequeath and the power to keep the control in the family
has been an actual feature in economic development, in this country at
any rate, and a study of the history of typical firms, especially in the
North of England, during the first three-quarters of the nineteenth century,
does much to confirm it. But it is doubtful whether such a practice
occupies a sufficiently important place to-day to deserve a front place in
the general argument. Two modern features have seriously influenced
it. The fiirst is the growth of an independent managerial class as a pro-
fession who can, for a salary, pass from business to business and lead
its administration. The second is the facility with which private businesses
at the height of success pass into the joint-stock form, often with a public
issue of preference shares, and the family taking the cash and retaining
the equity.i^ The percentage of profit made by private businesses out
of the total changed from 70 to a little over 30 in a period of forty years.
It would be a bold thing to say that a big business depended to any serious
extent upon continuation of direct family control or interest for a number
of generations. On the contrary, the infusion of new blood and outside
interest has rejuvenated many a business that has been living on its
traditions. The death of a rich part-owner rarely affects modern business.
The proportion of wealth, excluding War Loan, passing in the form of shares
at death, has increased from 32 to 48 per cent, of the whole in ten years.
However important this element of inheritance may have been in the
past, it is now relatively insignificant in dealing with the whole mass of
accumulated saving.

A correspondent who raises no claim to be an economist sends me a
thoughtful letter in which he says : —

' I live in the country and have some opportunities of observing and
reflecting upon the more primitive social and economic order of the country-
side, centuries behind the specialised professional labour of the city only
a dozen miles away. As long as sons generally followed their father's
trade— as I suppose they mostly did in England until a century ago— it
seemed reasonable that a son shoidd inherit his father's tools, and this
not so much because he is a son as because he is a junior partner in business.
For any outside body, parish, county, or state to step in with an extraneous
€laim to these tools or to some of them is simply to shatter the economic
order and the chance of maintaining production just when the business

'^ Fide Chapman and Ashton on 'Sizes of Businesses' {Statistical Journal, 1914)
and ' Growth of Textile Businesses ' (S.J., 1926). Out of 221 concerns in 1884, 127
were private firms with a modal size of 20,000 spindles, the mode for companies being
about 80,000. In 1924, out of 203, only 5 were private, with 20,000 spindles as a
maximum. The mode of the companies was about 110,000 spindles.

150 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

is hard hit by the loss of its senior partner. To-day " tools " might be
interpreted in the city to include a factory and all its machinery ; in the
country 1,000 acres of woodland is a means of production using the sun's
radiant energy instead of coal. The limited liability company is a shock-
absorbing system in the economic order of the city, and factory work
goes on in spite of the funeral of a director. In the more primitive order
of the country the death of the landlord may paralyse his estate. Even
if one were to accept the argument that big estates ought to be broken
up into small estates (no matter whether these would be more or less
remunerative per acre), one effect of heavy death duties levied on rural
estate is to withdraw capital from agriculture at a most inconvenient
moment. Death duties on a landlord's personal effects — pictures, furni-
ture, &c. — might have one sort of justification — the distribution of luxuries.
Death duties (in excess of one year's rent on land) may mean the paralysis
of repairs, fencing, draining, planting, &c., for years, and inhibition of
capital development for decades. It might be more defensible if death
duties on land all went to the Board of Agriculture, to be redistributed
to the same industry in the form of agricultural education, expert advice,
new breeding stock, &c. But the drain on the capital sources of the industry
(to be distinguished from the drain on individuals) has widespread effects
which need not be confused with the whinings of discomforted individuals.
The old order accepted disposition by will to the family ; it was justified
as long as the family continued the business. If the families do not
continue the business, would it be wise to initiate a .new order in which
inheritance should go by occupation, so that if a manufacturer died intestate
his employees would succeed to his factory, so that legacy duties should
differentiate not in favour of near relatives, but in favour of those in the
same business, so that if there were any death duties these should
go not to the State but to the trades union, or in bonus shares to the
employees ? '

Businesses both of landowning and of commerce have become so
impersonalised that no great case for unlimited powers of bequest for
economic reasons can be based on the objective personal link. We are
thrown back on the subjective factors.

In the sixth group, with questions 15 to 17, we touch upon the large
question of the influence of taxation, and it would take me too far afield
to deal with them at all adequately, because they involve comparisons
with the effect of alternative methods of raising revenue. But the Report
of the Colwyn Committee on Taxation and the National Debt, with which
I am concerned, will, when issued, probably deal with many features
germane to this address. I will content myself with saying that if practical
considerations are ignored, to raise a given revenue with some reference
to graduation by order of succession and time on the Rignano principle,
and to extend the graduation of taxation of bequests outwards by relation-
ship, would, in my judgment, offer some important economic advantages
over the present methods of raising the revenue.

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 151

XI. Inheritance of Ability.

The principle of the inheritance of wealth is complicated by its biological
affiliations. A man has certain qualities which make for distinction and
success in himself and for unusual service at the same time to the com-
munity. His son may inherit a full or partial measure, and this inheritance
is a factor of economic importance, making both for an uneven distribution
of the aggregate of wealth, which is obvious, and also, what is less obvious,
for a greater economic aggregate for all to share. Now such inherited
powers, so far as they exist, are a part of nature, and cannot be gainsaid,
nor abrogated nor repealed. But in a developed national science of
eugenics, in a socialistic community with a certain type of socialist ideal,
in which equality of division of wealth (or wealth-making power) is counted
as of greater importance than the greatest accretion to aggregate wealth
unevenly divided (by which the individual benefit may be even greater
after subtracting the rich man's portion), it would be logical to direct
human mating so that inherited tendencies to superior wealth-making
powers should be diffused or defeated. If it were found that the mating
of types A and B would perpetuate a characteristic particularly forceful
in economic afiairs for the individual exercising that characteristic under
the hedonic stimulus, and not exercising it under any other, but that the
mating of A and C would obliterate it, then the obvious duty of those
who put equality of wealth as paramount would be to promote eugenic
laws that discouraged A and B and encouraged A and C to matrimony.
But I do not wish to pursue this type of eugenic speculation. I am dealing
with the inheritance of qualities, only because of the argument that a
man's accumulated wealth is an objective extension of his personality, a
material result of his qualities, and that if nature passes on the effective
element of his personality to his heirs this extension logically and legiti-
mately, by social sanction, goes with them.

In my judgment, while we are apt to regard the cultivation of mental,
moral, and physical qualities, and their effect upon future descendants,
as biological problems, internal to the human organism, we also tend to
regard those extensions of a man's personality which are reflected in his
ability to acquire and accumulate belongings around him, as purely
economic. No such hard-and-fast line is final. A man may enrich his
life by the expenditure of a part of his income in immediate travel and
widening of his powers and knowledge, or he may externalise it by the
acquisition of works of art, or he may put it into the field of economics
by saving that portion of his income so that it will jdeld him an income
which will perhaps enable him to travel or to extend his personality in
some way or other in years to come, after he has ceased to be an earner.
Similarly in his treatment of his children. For one he may spend a large
amount of money to make him a professional man, a doctor or solicitor,
in which case the bequest or inheritance goes on without any obvious sign
of his ' leaving ' wealth. To another son he may leave an equivalent
amount to be invested in a business, and if they are men of equal ability
it may be assumed that the income from personal effort and invested
capital will be similar in the business and in the profession. In the one
case the effect of inheritance is clear ; in the other it is masked. Nothing

152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

can stop him bequeathing certain personal qualities of character and the
environment of early life to his children, and they perhaps, in a less marked
degree, to his grandchildren, but that extension of his personality which
represents the modification of their environment by their control over
saved wealth seems to be on another footing. But a man conscious
that his sons were ' fitted ' in the best sense, and that they ought to
survive, could help their survival both by personal training and also by
accumulation of wealth which he bequeaths to them, in either case repre-
senting personal self-denial, and in either case representing some quality
imposed upon their human environment. Whetham, in ' The Family
and the Nation,' says that unless the fittest to survive hand on their
qualities to a larger number of descendants than are left by the failures,
natural selection cannot act. It is of no use for an organism individually
to survive unless it transmits the character which enabled it to do so to
a preponderating number in succeeding generations. A struggle for life
and the survival of the fittest are meaningless alone ; the qualities of the
fittest must survive superabundantly his own fleeting existence if the
struggle and the survival are to produce any good effects on the race.
The bequest of some investment income to a man undoubtedly enables
that man to be freed from some of life's cares, and in that sense to devote
himself more closely to his pursuits, and to make him more fitted to
survive. The qualities that brought about the original accumulation
have had social advantages, and the reflection of those qualities is in their
tangible objective results plus the subjective capacity for continuation of
them. Whether qualities are inherited in a great measure or a small, and
whether they are important as economic factors, I am not greatly con-
cerned, for such inheritance, so far as it is a fact, is unalterable, and I am
pursuing this subject more with its bearing upon practical social action
in mind. So if biological inheritance is marked and substantial, the
argument for transmission of accompanying wealth may be relevant.
But if biological inheritance is wayward or unimportant, the bequest
argument, however closely knit to such heredity, has certainly no greater
force. Suppose that it could be shown that only in one case in ten thousand
does the distinctive personality of a parent descend to his son. Then,
even if the argument that objective extensions of that j^ersonality should
not be separated from it were fully valid, it could only apply to one case
in ten thousand. Moreover, even if the biological descent were effective
one hundred per cent., the doctrine does nothing to support freedom of
bequest or primogeniture or the British ideas at all. If the argument is
valid at all, since every child would share its parents' personality, every
child should share the parents' wealth, and the doctrine leads towards
family diffusion of fortunes on the Continental princiiale of 'legitime,' and
would discontinue all bequest out of the direct blood descent, to collaterals,
&c. Besides, even in the direct line any force the argument possesses
is greatly weakened. If a man can claim on biological grounds his inherit-
ance of ability from a great-grandparent to be a merely fractional part,
qualified and diffused by his inheritance from seven other primary sources,
then his right to rank his claim superior to the rest of the community for
the inheritance of the whole of the wealth is equally tenuous. Nevertheless,
the bioloi^ical argument may have some economic ' point ' so far as the

F.— ECONOMIC SCIKNCE AND STATISTICS. 153

first generation is concerned, mainly when it is viewed in its eugenic setting,
(1) Heredity in genius exists to a definite extent, and this fact has economic
value to the community, since, if one dare put a qualitative aspect in quanti-
tative terms, a community of 100 persons of n degrees of ability flus one
with 100 n degrees, will reach higher economic levels than a community
of 101 persons each with n-\-\ degrees.

The starting-point of any consideration of the inheritance of ability
is Sir Francis Galton's great work on ' Hereditary Genius,' published in
1869, and recently quoted with approval by the Whethams in their book
on ' The Family and the Nation,' in which the most recent eugenic and
biological views confirm Galton's works. Galton found that the propor-
tion of eminent men in the population — that is, eminent in the sense of
having manifested unusual ability — was about 250 in the million, or about
"025 per cent., and it was found that the chance of the son of a man of
great ability, such as a judge, himself showing great ability, was five
hundred times as great as that for a man taken at random. (You must
refer to these works to see the effect, upon these chances, of marriage
with an able or an ordinary woman respectively.) The Whethams state
as a conclusion : ' As long as ability marries ability a large proportion of
able offspring is a certainty, and ability is a more valuable heirloom in a
family than mere material wealth, which, moreover, will follow ability
sooner or later.'

They say : ' Since the assumption of the responsibility of offspring
falls on those of the younger generation whose financial position, even in
the upper classes, is usually not yet secure, it should become an increasing
habit for the older generation, where they have it, to distribute a sub-
stantial part of their property during their lifetime. Such a distribution
should not excite the animosity of the Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Security or affluence often comes too late to make easy the heavy burdens
of early maturity, and when it comes provides but bitter reflection over
lost opportunity. Those in the prime of life can make the best use of
wealth in the service of the nation. May each generation as they grow
older learn to relinquish it in time to watch their successors meet their
responsibilities fully.'

Let us assume that the peak responsibility of the average married
couple is reached at a period in their lives when they have not got to their
highest earning power, and that they could do better for their families —
educate them better, and bring them up in a superior style — if they had
some assistance from outside.

There could be no better eugenic or sociological institution than a
kind of moving annuity which should pass from generation to generation,
not at the death of each person, but from him to his children at a point
when his personal need for it has become less, and when his son's need for
it has become greatest. The inheritance would not, therefore, be one
passing at death, but would be one passing at middle life ; it would be
like a permanent endowment of the family at its most difficult periods,
and there could be no more honourable object of ambition than to endow
one's family and descendants in this way, because it would be of the
highest eugenic value to the community. In middle life a man cannot
both save for his old age and retirement and also spend the best of his

154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

income upon his family. It is here that the inheritance from the previous
generation, coming at an earlier date, would enable him to be sure of this
fund in time, and to save his own surplus towards his own old age, after
he had passed on what might be called the succession, to his children.

What, however, is the upshot of a ' survey ' of the biological side of
inheritance upon the economic aspects of inheritance of wealth without
a more minute analysis of its trend ?

The more we survey the biological field the less do we find justification
for inheritance of wealth by others than direct descendants or dependents.
On the other hand, it does seem to me that we derive considerable support
for the orthodox view that the power to make bequests in the direct line
is an important economic factor in the accumulation of capital and in great
personal effort. It does not, indeed, justify that kind of inter vivos giving
which means the escape, almost on the death-bed, or within three years
from it, from the Chancellor's net, but it does support the scheme of trans-
mission of wealth in middle life as an economic factor of some importance,
and a worthy use of accumulated wealth, which cannot be regarded as a
net toll upon the community in view of its indirect contribution to the
community. The argument, of course, spends its force as generations
go on.

XH. Conclusions.

It will have been seen that the answers we have to the critical questions
put at the outset vary in completeness and conclusiveness, and that in
certain fields fruitful research is possible. Certain " elements that have
at one time been highly significant are now of less importance, while others
are emerging.

My own present views, which, of course, are provisional in the sense
that they are open to modification as new facts emerge and as analysis
reveals tendencies not previously put into the balance, are as follows : —

1. In the past century unprecedented economic advance has been due
in the main to the greater use of invention and fixed capital. This has,
in turn, made new accumulation of savings possible, and has been made
possible by the growing fund of accumulation. In this accumulation
the principle of inheritance or bequest has played an important part.
Where there has been freedom from the shackles of a family-diffusion
system the greater progress has been possible. The individual motives
which are operative under such a system are stronger than ever, but
operate over a diminishing part of the field ; they are also stronger over
a short period, and of diminishing effect over a long period of time. In
other words, communal saving via company reserves (not subjected to
the individual volition for saving against spending) and via repayment of
debt through funds derived from taxation, and via large capital efforts
(housing, &c.) partly financed through taxation, is an increasing proportion
of the total. Although some of the values set up by such collective sums
may figure in individual estate values, they are not created or destroyed
by interference with, or promotion of, the right of inheritance.

2. The remaining considerable section of capital accumulation is still
powerfully affected by inheritance rights, and would be more affected
than heretofore by interference with rights in the direct line, though less
affected than hitherto bv rights out of that line. More considerable

F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 155

changes might be made in the loidtli of the rights than hitherto without
seriously affecting accumulation. On the other hand, the time clement
is changing — accumulation is just as sensitive in the immediate provision
and immediate rights of family enjoyment, but less sensitive to change
(by restriction or encouragement) in the most remote rights.

3. The sense of ' social injustice ' is directed against inequality of
wealth, of which inequality through inheritance is not now the larger
part. This sense, if limited to inheritance features, has less economic
reaction than is generally supposed. In any case, it is a sense which is
not scientifically based. I think it probable that, through the inequalities
due to the system in which inheritance has a part, the average man has
a slightly smaller proportionate share of the aggregate than he would
have had if there had been no inheritance system, but a substantially
larger absolute amount, because he shares a larger aggregate or better
standard of life than he would have had under a system with no such
aid to accumulation. Whether under these circumstances he is justified
in having a sense of injustice, whether it is better for human welfare to
have a low standard without envj^, or a higher one with envy, is a matter
lying beyond economics in the sphere of social psychology and philosophy.

4. The particular claims for unlimited rights of bequest, as settling
the best economic direction and control, are gradually losing their force.

5. The princij^les upon which death duty taxation is at present based,
though they may be the best available when administrative aspects are
included, might be improved upon by closer regard to the foregoing
analysis. The actual sum now being raised is not necessarily more
harmful economically than a similar sum raised by additional income-
tax, but it is more repressive in accumulation than the same sum would
be if a less sum were raised at lower rates on the first succession and the
balance were raised at higher rates on succeeding successions.^^

'•^ The practical aspects are discussed in the Stalisiical Journal, May 1926.

SECTION G.— ENGINEERING.

THE PRESENT AND FUTURE
DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRICITY

SUPPLY.

ADDRESS BY

SIR JOHN F. C. SNELL, G.B.E., M.Ikst.C.E.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

The rapid and almost universal development of electricity affords an
example of the practical application of a great source of power in nature
to the use and convenience of mankind with which there is no parallel.
In telegraphy, telephony, telephotography, and especially in wireless
telegraphy, the effects on humanity have been incalculable. Wireless
telegraphy especially adds nowadays to the amenities of life, whether
broadcasting world news, weather forecasts, music or educational addresses.
It enables commimication to be effected between, and the safe direction
of, ships at sea in fog and all weathers, and the direction of aeroplanes
and dirigibles in fog or at night, and it thus greatly lessens the risks of
those who go down to the sea in ships or who travel by air.

The jubilee of the telephone was celebrated only a few weeks ago,
and wireless telegraphy has come into prominence within recent years.

The aid to the surgeon and the electrical treatment of various diseases
have enormously reduced human suffering ; the investigations and researches
of J. J. Thomson, Ernest Rutherford, and others have thrown a new and
vivid light upon our conception of the structure of matter, and have aided
the knowledge and researches of both the physicist and the chemist.
Finally, in the almost universal application to all kinds of mechanical
requirements — ranging from 100,000 kw. turbine generators or heavy
freight locomotives at one end of the scale to motor-driven sewing-machines
or vacuum cleaners at the other end — the advance it may simply be said
has been remarkable.

Is there any other known form of energy which can be so readily and
generally applied to large and small power, chemical and metallurgical
processes, the production of light in various forms, or to all sorts of heating
appliances, surgical and dental implements and laboratory instruments
of the highest attainable degree of accuracy — in short, capable of almost
universal application to all kinds of tools and transformation into various
kinds of energy ?

The development of electricity supply as a necessary agent in the
progress of civilisation has been accomplished within a very few years,
for there was no general supply available in any part of the world prior

G.— ENGINEERING. 157

to 1889. Great Britain may be said to have been the pioneer of the
public supply of electricity. The first legislation actually dates from
1882, but effectively only from 1888. An electrical supply industry has
grown up in Great Britain by authorised undertakers (excluding railways
and private plants), in which alone over £200,000,000 has been expended
within the short period of thirty-seven years. In the earlier years distribu-
tion was confined to low-pressure direct current, with its necessarilv
restricted economic radius of supply, and to single-phase distribution at
higher pressures for series arc lighting, applied in some districts to what
was known as the ' house-to-house ' system at pressures of 2,000 volts,
and reduced by house transformers to the required service pressure.

It is interesting to note that at the present day, owing to the increasing
difficulties of meeting the growing density of loads due to domestic require-
ments and the relatively high cost of L.T. distribution, there is a revival
of the ' house-to-house ' system where there are large blocks of buildings
to be supplied. To such blocks of premises H.T. mains can be laid and
transformers can be installed locally in order to reduce the street pressure
to the low pressure required by consumers in the building itself.

The whole trend of development in this country was then towards
the adoption of small local government areas as the areas of electricitv
supply, fostered largely by the technical restrictions brought about by
the imperfect systems then available. The scientific world was divided
into two camps — one favouring direct current, which has the advantage of
using accumulators or storage batteries, and the other declaring in favour
of alternating current. At that time only carbon-filament lamps were
available, the single-phase alternating motor had not been perfected, and
multi-phase currents were commercially unknown. Electricity was
supplied mainly for lighting purposes, with a consequent low load factor.
Hence very numerous independent systems of small size grew up, with the
result that numerous private generating stations were installed in local
factories and the larger workshops.

Individual development rather than collective effort was encouraged,
and was, indeed, probably the only way at that time along which progress
could have been made. The whole art of electricity generation and supply
was also undergoing rapid development, and was the subject of numerous
experiments by many designers, some of whom adopted 100 cycles for
their alternating-current systems, others 93, 90, 87.5, 85, 83.5, 80, down
to 25 or 16 1 cycles, so that a chaotic condition followed, made worse by
a want of agreement between the engineers engaged on the work as to
the most effective pressures of supply.

Distribution systems were gradually evolved from a simple 2-wire
system, which, due to the influence of Hopkinson, became a 3-wire system,
greatly reducing the weight of conductor required for any given amount
of energy distributed and also extending the economic radius of supply.

There were two instances of 5-wire distribution, in Manchester and
St. Pancras, but these proved to be cumbersome and costly and were
eventually changed back to the 3-wire systems.

Among one's earliest recollections is the change-over in Kensington,
under that veteran Colonel Crompton, from 100 to 200 volts and from
a 2-wire to a 3-wire system ; and again under the late Prof. H. Kobinson,

158 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

when he laid the St. Pancras 5-wire system ; the space occupied under
the streets over thirty years ago by electrical mains would not be available
or allowable to-day.

An extension of the useful radius of direct-cmrent supply was made
in this city and came to be known as the Oxford system ; this was applied
to several other localities. Electricity was generated at 2,000 volts direct
current, or thereabout, and transmitted to sub-stations in which motor
generators reduced the pressure to that required for local distribution
and service to consumers, thus enabling a wider radius to be suppUed from
the generating station.

In those days great benefits were derived from the engineering skill
of Willans, whose high-speed single-acting engines were largely used iu
the power stations of that time, and later from the splendid double-acting
high-speed engines built by Belliss & Morcom and other well-known makers
of high-speed sets.

It was not uncommon then to construct non -condensing generating
stations, largely owing to the low load factor of the system ; the con-
sumption of coal per unit generated was correspondingly great and wasteful.

It is interesting to note how far we have progressed by comparing the
ideal put forward by Colonel Crompton thirty-two years ago with present-
day results.

The ideal cost of production was then placed at 1.^2d., excluding capital
charges, and the average price to the consumers 3d. It is true that the
load factor was only 20 per cent, and the capital outlay then as much as
£125 per kw.i. At the present time the average revenue from all classes
of consumer is 1.15d. — the average station load factor 29 per cent, and the
capital outlay £52 per kw.

Far too little credit has been given to the pioneer work of Dr. Ferranti,
who was the first to advocate generation on a large scale and transmission
by high pressure over an extensive area of supply. It was he, in fact, who
initiated this system at Deptford, necessarily limited to single-phase
current in those early years. The principles now generally accepted were
enunciated by him many years ago.

Then came the revolutionary discovery of the practical application of
multi-phase currents, with all the attendant advantages arising from
simpler construction of machinery, easy transformation by means of static
apparatus, efiicient long-distance transmission and facile application to
appliances for lighting, power, or heat. This immensely Avidened the
economic area of supply, and when a little later that illustrious pioneer.
Sir Charles Parsons, after persistent and indefatigable research from 1884
onwards, at length overcame his initial difficulties, and about the year
1892 gave the electricity industry the steam turbine, so peculiarly fitted
to the driving of 3-phase generators, electrical engineers at last possessed
an equipment which enabled them to revolutionise the methods adopted
in former years. Thereafter, all important power stations gradually changed
over from reciprocating engines to the steam turbine, A^dth its enormous
gain in higher revolutions per minute, a factor of so fundamental an import-
ance in the design and cost of modern electric generators. At the present
time, reciprocating-engine sets represent only 8 per cent, of the total
prime movers employed in public power stations, and their proportion is

G.— ENGINEERING. 159

decreasing each year. From speeds of 500 to 600 r.p.m. there was a stride
to 1,500, 2,400, or 3,000 r.p.m., according to the frequency of system
and size of generator. There was ahnost immediately a significant improve-
ment in the machinery constructed for electric-supply purposes.

In 1898 an important inquiry was conducted by a Committee, under
the chairmanship of Lord Cross, from whose Report sprang the power
companies which now operate in most of our industrial districts, and whose
areas of supply extend over whole counties and in some cases over several
county areas.

There had thus been growing up not only a constant increase in the
size and output of the generating stations, but constant increases in the
pressures adopted for transmission brought about an ever-widening radius
of supply and enlargement of the area served.

To-day we find a rapidly increasing growth of output, a decreasing
cost and consequent widening circles of application ; and as in due season
the industry simplifies its position still further by adopting one standard
frequency and by reducing the number of supply pressures to the minimum
practicable, the demands for electricity in this densely populated country
are bound to expand to a degree which is not yet visualised. An attempt
is made hereafter to envisage this growth of demand.

An important result follows from widening an area of distribution —
it enables supplies to be given from a common source to many industries,
to railways and tramways, and all kinds of domestic and trade require-
ments. It is found by investigation that the maximum requirements of
the various classes of consumer do not coincide in point of time, and, speak-
ing generally, if all their maximum demands occurred simultaneously,
no less than from 2| to 3 times the generating plant would be necessary
to meet the load than is the case when their several supplies are drawn
from one common source of generation. It is, in fact, only by supplying
all the needs of a community within a large area from one common system
that the maximum use can be made of the capital employed.

When one remembers that the annual capital charges on a generating
station represent some two-fifths of the total cost of generation, it will be
seen how important it is to obtain the greatest user of the plant installed.
In fact, the combination of all requirements of a community, whether for
domestic purposes, traction or industrial power, is a fundamental condition
of economy in the public supply of electricity.

The ' load factor,' an expression for which the industry was indebted
to Colonel Crompton at an early date in its history, is therefore a very
important matter. It may shortly be defined as the ratio of the electrical
energy actually produced by any generating plant in any period of time
to the amount which would have been produced had that plant been
■working at full load continuously during that time. A kilowatt of plant
working continually throughout a year (which is not a leap year !)
will produce 8,760 units or kilowatt hours.

Now the average v'early load factor (on units sold by undertakings)
throughout Great Britain to-day is under 25 per cent. — that is to say, the
aggregate kilowatts required to meet the individual demands for hundreds
of systems only produce one-quarter of the units possible were the plant
working continuouslv.

160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

No doubt the intrinsic load factor is really higher — by which is meant
that could all these numerous undertakings be supplied from one common
source, the resulting load factor on the generating plant would be found to
be higher in value.

Still the fact remains that the capital expenditure on generating plant
is four times what it would be were the load factor 100 per cent. The
latter condition is of course not attainable, but something much better
than 25 per cent, can certainly be obtained, an improved load factor on
his system being the objective of every responsible engineer.

A small undertaking supplying a district mainly for lighting purposes
will have only a low load factor, probably some 15 per cent, or less. If the
consumers add other domestic requirements to their demands for lighting,
such as heating rooms, cooking, and many small domestic appliances,
it is found in practice that there is a great diversity among the times
when the maximum loads of individual consumers occur.

Some observations made on the use of electric ranges, for example,
reveal a diversity factor as high as eight, or in other words the maximum
coincident load is only one-eighth of what would be recorded if all the
apparatus were working fully at the same time.

A recorder chart which was taken by the Glasgow Corporation and
published in Prof. S. Parker Smith's paper read before the Institution
of Electrical Engineers in December 1925, shows that the daily load factor
is 44 per cent, in the author's all-electric house, taking the maximum load
as the continuous half-hourly maximum consumption: In this case 36 per
cent, of the total units consumed are used at night for heating water on
the storage system, and a general adoption of this arrangement would
materially improve the load factor on the distribution system as well as
on the generating station.

A very complete investigation was made a few years ago in a large
southern residential district, which revealed the fact that the maximum
demand on the power station followed the growth of lighting connections
almost directly, and did not increase proportionately to the total connections
of heating and lighting. In other words, the connections for heating had
not noticeably affected the maximum load on the station. There was, in
fact, a high diversity factor. That is material in the economics of electricity
supply, for it meant in that particular case that no appreciable addition
to the generating plant or capital involved in generation was necessary in
order to supply the heating load, though a heavier outlay on distributing
mains was necessarily incurred.

This increased service raised the load factor, which was stated to be
15 per cent, or less for lighting alone, to 30 per cent, or more with the
comparatively limited application for heating and cooking at the time of
the investigation referred to. That improvement refers only to one
district. Consider further the combination of this district with another
where the customs of the residents are somewhat different, such as their
hours for meals, and an improved diversity would then be found.

If we go further and bring in industrial power loads, large and small,
a yet higher load factor will generally be realised, albeit some industries
per se have only a small load factor ; but again their maximum require-
ments do not coincide. There are industries such as coal-mining where

G.— ENGINEERING. 161

the pumping and ventilating loads are almost continuous, and the load
factor of which is therefore very high, and chemical or metallurgical works
where processes are almost continuous. Other industries record a much
smaller load factor, corresponding to the length of their working day.
Combination of these various classes of industrial load again raises the
general load factor. At the present time certain undertakings in this
country which are supplying a wide range of industrial loads from a
common source are enjoying load factors ranging from 40 to 50 per cent.
Were domestic requirements to be expanded greatly and added to these
industrial loads, the resultant load factor would be further raised in value.
Finally, there is the railway traction load, which must inevitably grow
to large dimensions. The load factors of generating stations supplying
railway demands are found to have values of 40 and 50 per cent.

If all these classes of demand can be met from a common source of
supply, the general load factor can be raised to a maximum value. The
result is to reduce the capital expended on generation to a minimum
value. This has been done on a wide scale in this country on the north-
east coast, where a supply over a wide area of approximately 1,400 square
miles has been afforded for many years past by three or four principal
generating stations supplemented by seven smaller waste-heat stations
interconnected by trunk transmission lines. The annual load factor is
not far short of 50 per cent., and the average costs of electricity supplied
are very low ; a large proportion of the output being delivered, of course,
in the form of high-pressure 3-phase energy.

At the present time the amount of electricity generated in Great
Britain, omitting privately-owned generating stations, amounts to about
7,000,000,000 units annually, of which 5,069,000,000 are sold by authorised
undertakers, the balance being required for railway and tramway traction
purposes.

It is found that in the four years 1921-2 to 1924-5 the average rate
of growth has been exactly 20 per cent, per annum, the growth of output
for power having been 25.3 per cent., domestic supplies 27 per cent., and
traction 12 per cent, per annum respectively.

In recent Government publications it has been estimated that the
output in Great Britain within the next fifteen years may reach a total of
21,000,000,000 units, or an even higher figure if electricity systems fulfil
the requirements of a more extensive railway electrification. Let us see
what are the possibilities of future development. While it may be unwise
to predict an estimate of future demands, it is at least wise to endeavour
to make some survey of possible extensions, however extravagant the
results may seem at the moment. This survey enables us to have some
vision of the extent of development and to plan the engineering system
and methods of distribution in an economic and co-ordinated manner,
while paying due regard to the more immediate needs. In other words,
to be able to plan boldly but without prejudicing practical judgment by
the adoption of a too extravagant immediate outlook.

An exhaustive survey has recently been completed by an influential

committee of the National Electric Light Association relating to nine of

the United States of America, and the Report of this survey ought to be

read carefully by all who are interested in assisting a wide and wise

1926 M

162 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

electrical development in tliis country. It is interesting to quote a
paragraph from this masterly Report, which is as follows : — •

' The futility of trying to forecast the development in time-steps

of a few years was early recognised, and some definite time, not too

near nor yet too far distant, had to be selected for the forecast. The

year 1950 was chosen for this purpose and the estimates are based on

that time. ... It may be thought that the conditions for 1930 or even

1940 could be forecast with more certainty, and probably they could.

However, the year itself is of no importance, but the approximate

correctness of the picture is. If the development here assumed for

1950 is actually reached by 1945 or not until 1955, this is of no importance

whatever. What is important is the direction that the development now

should take so as to insure building best for the future, and for this the

assumed 1950 picture should serve as a guide.'

Let us now try to sketch the probable scope in this country — a theme

which may be appropriate for such an occasion as this, as being of general

as well as of scientific interest.

There are three classes of supply in which great extensions may reason-
ably be expected : (1) domestic supplies, (2) industrial power, and
(3) railway electrification.

Let us first consider the possibility of an extended domestic supply.
Statistics derived from actual records of several housing estates and other
sources, where electricity has been extensively but not wholly employed
for heating, cooking, and lighting, show that the consumption per capita
is over 1,100 units per annum, or 5,500 units for each house.

When electricity is the sole agent and is used not only for the above-
named purposes but also for heating water for baths and general domestic
requirements, and for many minor but economic and necessary operations
such as vacuum cleaning, irons, sewing-machines, many kinds of small
domestic and table appliances, and in some cases electrical washers, wringers
and driers, the consumption per capita rises to over 2,500 units (equivalent
to 85.3 therms) per annum. The amount consumed appears to be largely
a question of the price of electricity ; the cost, reliability, and availability
of domestic appliances and competition with other sources of heat such
as gas or central heating by fuel.

The existence of a great gas industry would make it absurd to suggest
that in the course of the next generation the requirements of the country
for domestic purposes would rise to a figure represented by the multiplica-
tion of the population of the country by 2,500 units per capita, to which
would be added the requirements for industrial power and traction.

The output of the gas-supply industry for the year 1924 was
256,891,922 thousand cubic feet. The actual value in therms is not
recorded. On the assumption that the average calorific value of the gas
supply was 500 B.Th.U. per cubic foot, then the total therms supplied
amounted to 1,284,000,000, or 30 therms per head of population, the
total population of Great Britain being taken at 43,000,000 (1921 Census).
This output is thermally equivalent to 870 units of electricity per capita.
This is not a strictly correct statement, for a proportion of the population
has neither a supply of gas nor of electricity, and the consumption per
co^ito by the population actually served is really higher than the figure given.

G.— ENGINEERING. 163

Taking all these factors into consideration, and assuming the popula-
tion at the end of the next twenty-five years will have grown to 50 millions,
and that the methods and extent of distribution have advanced and
developed — coupled with a sensible reduction in the cost of appliances
resulting from scientific and commercial improvement and greatly increased
scale of manufacture — the total output for domestic requirements,
including residential premises, shops, offices, and public places, may bo
estimated at not less than 20,000,000,000 units, with a maximum load of
8,000,000 kilowatts.

An interesting speculation may be made and some support afforded
to the reasonableness of this estimate from the following figures : —

In 1924 the amount of raw coal used for domestic purposes was given
in the annual report of the Secretary for Mines as 34,280,000 tons, being
19 per cent, of the total consumption of coal in Great Britain.

Observations by the Fuel Research Board have assessed the average
thermal efficiency of open coal fires, allowing both for radiation and
convection of heat, at 22i per cent, of the total heat contained in the coal
consumed. If we assume that the average thermal value of the coal per lb.
is 11,000 B.Th.U., an average which is probably lower than the real
figure, this tonnage is equivalent to 190,048 x 10' B.Th.U.

The gas returns published by the Board of Trade show that the average
increase in the output between 1913 and 1924 of all the gas undertakings
in the United Kingdom was 2.2 per cent, per annum, based on the 1913
returns, and the annual increase expressed in therms (assuming an average
calorific value of 500 B.Th.U. per cubic foot of gas) was 22.7 x 10' over
that period.

The electricity returns record an average rate of increase in the sales
of electricity during the same period of 25.8 per cent, per annum, being
a yearly increase of 340,000,000 units, equivalent to 11.6 xlO" therms per
annum. Now it has been stated by the Fuel Research Board (Technical
Paper No. 12) that the radiation efficiency of modern gas fires is generally
from 55 per cent, to 60 per cent., to which must be added about 10 per cent,
for convection, as is usually claimed. The radiation efficiency of electric
heaters ' varies according to type, but reaches as much as 70 per cent. . . .
Whatever the radiation efiiciency, however, the total efficiency is 100 per
cent., the balance appearing as direct convection.'

In future years, through the public demand for effective means of
preventing atmospheric pollution and reducing the smoke nuisance, for
increased cleanliness of buildings and from other considerations of public
health, we can imagine most of the coal now consumed in open grates and
kitchen ranges to be replaced by gas or by electrical apparatus. Without
making any allowance for increased population, it would be fair to assume
that this substituted means of heating at the consumer's premises could
be subdivided approximately in the ratio of the recorded increased annual
sales of gas and electricity, paying due regard to the efficiency of utilisation
in each case. On this basis consumers' heating requirements would be
provided as to 22.7 xO.7 =15.9 parts by gas and as to 11.6 xl =11.6 parts
by electricity. The resultant annual sales of gas and electricity merely
for the purposes of displacing the above-mentioned tonnage of domestic
coal would then be : —

164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Gas, 1569.7 x 10» therms.
Electricity, 801.6 xlO« therms.
This will probably not be considered to be an unfair proportion of sub-
division as between the gas and electrical undertakings.

The quantity of electrical units equivalent to the 801.6x10" therms
apportioned to electrical undertakings is 23,500,000,000. This figure, to
which must be added the present electrical output for lighting and heating,
assists in confirming the estimated total output of 20,000,000,000 referred
to in previous paragraphs.

Unfortunately we have no idea at the moment of the total h.p. of
machinery employed in the many industrial trades of the country. The
last Census of Production dates back to 1907, and is obviously completely
out of date. Details are known, however, of the total machinery installed
in some of the industrial districts, which reveal the fact that the proportion
of private electrical generating plant to public utility plant in those districts
is 14 : 9 ; that is to say, that there is in those districts 55 per cent, more
electrical plant privately owned. This survey, moreover, does not account
for steam or other machinery unconnected with electric generators. In
the Interim Report of Lord Haldane's Coal Conservation Sub-Committee,
. published in 1917 (Cd. 8880), an interesting table was taken from the
Census of Production showing the average net output per employee in
relation to the mechanical power employed in the factory. The table
showed that when the net output per employee was between £50 and £75
per annum the h.p. employed (per 100 persons) was 67. The net output
was increased to £125-£150 when the power used was 269 h.p., or £175
to £200 with 221 h.p. per hundred persons employed, according to the
class of industry. Speaking generally, this may be expressed as an
increase of earning capacity proportionate to the increased use of
mechanical power. It is well known that in the U.S.A. the amount of
power used is much greater per employee than in this country, and it was
pointed out in the report referred to that in the U.S.A. the standard rates
of wages were higher and the living conditions were better. Mr. John W.
Lieb, the vice-president of the New York Edison Company, stated at
last year's Conference on World Power, when discussing the social aspects
of the greater development of power in industry, that the power used in
productive industries in the U.S.A. increased from 2.14 h.p. to 3.24 h.p.
per worker between 1899 and 1919. ' Taking forty-two industries, it is
estimated that the actual value, measured in quantity of production added
per worker to manufactured products, was increased by about 23 per cent.,
and in terms of money about two and a half times, despite shorter hours
and less heavy labour. Increasing electrification is adding to the national
prosperity and improving the conditions of the worker.' Mr. F. S.
Low, the president of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, also
said : ' The workers are commencing to grasp another economic fact, that
the more power there is used per workman the greater the workman's
wages ; and that in various districts, and in other countries, the rates of
pay are in substantial proportion to the amount of power available to each
productive hand.' In fact, Lord Haldane's sub-committee summed up
the situation in the following words : ' The solution of the workman's
problem, and also that of his employer, is the same, viz. the greatest

G.— ENGINEERING. 165

possible use of power. Hence the growing importance of having available
an adequate and cheap supply of power produced with the greatest
economy of fuel.'

Mr. D. Brownlie, in papers published in * Engineering ' in 1918-1920,
recorded a survey made by him of the steam-raising plant in this country,
and an analysis of the statistics collected by him showed that the coal
used for the generation of steam in Great Britain for heat and power
purposes at that time was between 75 and 100 million tons a year. He
showed that the then existing boiler installations could be divided into
three classes — bad, average, and highly efficient. The respective per-
centages were 10 per cent, bad, 85 per cent, average, and 5 per cent, highly
efficient. It is clear, therefore, that there is scope for enormous economies,
and, as practice is tending more and more to centralise, much of the power
now provided locally by independent plants, 95 per cent, of which are
only of average efficiency, including some which are really bad, will be
gradually replaced by power electrically transmitted from central sources
of generation. As the late Sir George Beilby said : ' The problem of the
future which awaits solution is how to stimulate the practical interest of
owners of steam-raising plant throughout the country. It may be that
the permanently increased cost of coal will supply the necessary stimulus.'
In the Coal Conservation Committee's Report (Appendix A) the estimated
coal consumption for industries, excluding public utility plants, was
given as 66,000,000 tons, made up as follows : —

Mining, 18,000,000 tons.

Iron and steel, engineering, textiles, chemicals, paper, and all other
trades, 48,000,000 tons.

In the 1924 coal returns the coal-mines consumed 16.2 million ton,s,
while general manufactures and all other purposes consumed 68.5 million
tons, a total of 84.7 millions. It will be observed that the coal-mines have
dropped their consumption, due no doubt to the installation of modern
electrical machinery, such as we know that some of them possess.

Some of this coal is required for heating purposes by the textile trades,
or in brewing, chemical trades, brick-making, bakeries, and so forth. If
we deduct 25 per cent, for that purpose from the 68.5 millions, there remain
51.4 millions plus 16.2 millions used by coal-mines, or a total of 67.6 million
tons of coal for which electrical power could be substituted.

Owing to the prevalence at that time of iiidifierently efficient steam-
raising and power plant, it was stated in the Appendix to the Coal Con-
servation Report that approximately 8.03 lb. of coal per horse-power
hour were consumed, which, if true, represented an appalling waste, being
equivalent to no less than 10.76 lb. per kw.h. or electrical unit.

While so high a figure as 8.03 lb. may have been recorded at the time
of the last Census of Production in 1907, advance must assuredly have
been made in recent years. Making some allowance for this advance
(though necessarily not too liberal an allowance having regard to Mr.
Brownlie's figures for 1918-1920), we may reasonably assume a reduction
from 8.03 lb. to 6 lb. per horse-power hour, which is equivalent to 8 lb.
per electrical unit. From this it may be directly deduced that if all these
power requirements could be supplied, as in all probability some day they

166 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

will be supplied, from electrical systems, the equivalent output would be
19,000,000,000 units per annum.

Now we know that the usual ratio of plant connected to electrical
systems to the maximum load is 2.5 : 1, that the average industrial load
factor is about 30 per cent., having regard to the variety of trades — the
output from public generating stations for industrial power in 1924-.5
was 3,556,000,000 units, and the rate of growth has been in recent years
25 per cent, per annum.

From all these data it may be fairly assumed that if the majority of
our industrial works (omitting certain classes which require steam for
particular processes) derived their supply from public systems of supply,
and an increasing use of power per employee must also be assumed, we
should expect a future output for industrial power of not less than
20,000,000,000 units with a maximum load of 9,200,000 kilowatts. There
are certain well-equipped collieries which will probably continue to retain
their own plant by reason of their high load factor, and the cheap small
fuel which they consume with a consequent low cost of production. The
large output from these collieries cannot be credited to the future output
from public systems of supply.

There are possibilities of great expansion in railway electrification in
this country. The present electrified systems, with the exception of the
Shildon Branch Line in the County of Durham, are confined to suburban
services. The largest development is that of the Southern Railway
(Metropolitan Suburban) lines ; the others being the London Electric
Railways, the Metropolitan District Railway, London and North Eastern
Railway (Tyneside), and the London Midland and Scottish Watford line,
Lancaster-Heysham Branch, Liverpool Southport and Manchester-Bury
systems. The present output for railway traction is about 700,000,000
units, 615,000,000 units of which are generated at stations belonging to
the railway companies, the remainder being purchased from general
supply systems. A Committee of the Ministry of Transport reported
within the last few years the desirability of standardising railway electrical
systems so far as is practicable, having regard to what has already been
put into operation. That Committee recommended that the supply for
traction purposes should be generated in the form of 3-phase 50-cycle
energy, and converted in the requisite sub -stations to direct current with
a conductor pressure of 1,500 volts or a multiple (or sub-multiple) of
that pressure. The Inner London systems have already adopted 600
volts D.C. extensively, and cannot be reconciled comj^letely with a
pressure of 750 volts, which would be the practical sub-multiple of the
recommended standard. In the case of the A.C. 11,000-volt system — -
twenty-five cycles — in operation on that part of the Southern Suburban
services originally known as the L.B. & S.C., a recent public statement of
the chairman of that railway made it clear that a change to the D.C.
system is being contemplated. In France the Government have adopted
a standard of 1,500 volts D.C, and extensive systems in the Midi are now
being electrified ; other French railway systems will also be converted from
steam to electric traction. In a recent report published by the British
Government it was stated that calculations had been made by the
Ministry of Transport of the total consumption by British railways were

G.— ENGINEERING. 167

the whole of the lines to be electrified. The result was a total of nearly
7,000,000,000 units, equivalent to an output of 160 units 'per capita — •
a figure almost identical with the railway consumption estimated in the
survey of certain railways in some of the United States. At a load factor
of 40 per cent., this output would represent a maximum demand of
practically 2,000,000 kw.

Summarising these figures, the following total is obtained : —

Domestic, &c.
Industrial power
Railway traction only

Total

Units in

Millions.

20,000

7,000

Kw.D.

8,000,000
9,200,000
2,000,000

47,000

19,200,000

The aggregate maximum demand is 19,200,000 kw., but an allowance
for some diversity should be made on this output of 47,000 X lO*' units
which would probably reduce the maximum demand to 15,500,000 kw.,
representing an annual load factor on the whole output of about 35 per cent.

This, then, is a reasonably possible output to be provided for at some
future date — an expansion which can only be met by a much larger con-
ception of the methods of generation and transmission than has hitherto
been adopted. Such a figure may be criticised as being entirely visionary
and quite unlikely of attainment— but is it really so ? Development has
been accelerating during the last few years : improvements which are
already being carried out will certainly have a further economic effect,
and the whole trend of public requirements, domestic consumption, public
health improvement, improved means of transport, better organisation of
industry, and a greater use of power, with improved machine tools, are all
tending to a greatly increased application of electricity as being the
readiest agent for these purposes. This is a development which cannot be
denied, and must not be overlooked by those entrusted with the design
of the future electrical systems in this country.

The recent survey in nine of the United States before referred to
showed that at the time of the survey 86 per cent, of the prime movers
was steam-driven, only 13 per cent, was derived from water-power, and
10 per cent, from internal-combustion engines. The output from the
steam plant was 83 per cent, of the whole, and from water-power about
15 per cent.

The rate of growth in five years — i.e. between 1917 and 1922 — -was
63 per cent., or an average of 12.6 per cent, per annum on the 1917 figures,
which may be compared with the 20 per cent, annual increase in Great
Britain.

The powerful and skilled Committee made this exhaustive survey with
a view to regulating throughout that area the proper kind of development
of so important an industry as electricity supply, which, in the United
States, is considered so indispensable not only for industrial expansion
but also for railway electrification and for general domestic purposes.
This Committee endeavoured to envisage the output which may be expected
in the year 1950, when the population of the area in question is estimated

163

units

pel

• capita

833

383

. 153

. 1,651

168 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

to reacli a total of 32,624,000 persons (Electric Power Survey made
by Power Surveying Committee, National Electric Light Association,
December 1, 1925).

The consumption in 1950 is estimated at 1,651 units per capita, or
1,924 units generated.

The subdivision is interesting, and is as follows : —

Railways . .

Industrial power

Agricultural power and drainage

Domestic and business services

Public services, street lighting, sewage pumps,

&c.
Other uses

Total . .

While no exact parallel can be drawn between the consumption in
this country and the U.S.A. — because the conditions are so diiJereut —
it is nevertheless a modest estimate which only anticipates an average
consumption in this country of 940 units per capita, as against 1,651 units
estimated by a Committee of skilled investigators as the future require-
ments in the Central States of the great Republic.

Whether this estimate for Great Britain be exaggerated or not, it is
certain that provision for a largely increased output will have to be made.

The sources of power available in this country are mainly coal and
coke, but there are also inland and tidal water-power to a small extent,
and some sources of waste heat. It is certain, however, that the bulk of
this future electrical output must be produced in fuel-fired stations.

An investigation was made into the water-power resources of Great
Britain by the Water Power Resources Committee appointed by the Board
of Trade in 1918, whose final report was issued in 1921. Many watersheds
were carefully examined by eminent Civil Engineers, and these indicated
a capacity of some 275,000 kw. working continuously, being made up of
195,000 kw. in Scotland, 60,000 kw. in North and Mid Wales, and 20,000 kw.
in England. Of this total it was then considered that 210,000 kw. could
be economically developed. Since this report was issued. Parliamentary
powers have already been granted for the Lochaber scheme (54,000 kw.),
now in course of construction, the Grampians scheme (estimated to
develop 80,000 kw.), and for small schemes of 7,000 kw. in Ayrshire at
Loch Doon, and 12,000 kw. at the Falls of Clyde, now under construction
by the Lanarkshire Hydro-Electric Power Company.

This Committee was careful to note that the figures quoted above
relate only ' to certain specific water-power schemes, and that they by no
means represent the total water-power resources of Great Britain.' Having
regard to the average rainfall in North Wales and in Northern Scotland
and the contours of those districts, it is almost certain that other economic
sources of water-power would be revealed by a more extended survey.
For the present purposes, and including the important existing works of
the British Aluminium Company at Kinlochleven (23,000 kw. with an
annual output of 173,(X)0,000 units) and those of the North Wales

G.— ENGINEERING. 169

Power Company and the Aluminium Corporation in North Wales, it may
be taken that at least 400,000 kw. (continuous rating) could be developed
by inland water-power in Great Britain.

Suggestions and schemes have also been put forward for the develop-
ment of tidal power, notably in the Severn Estuary ; and the Water Power
Resources Committee, after hearing evidence, reported that a prima facie
case had been made out, and that more detailed investigation should be
undertaken. A hydrographical survey is, in fact, now being conducted by
the Government. Preliminary estimates of the power available — -making
allowance for secondary water storage at high elevation working supple-
mentary turbines in order to level out the intermittency of the lunar
cycle — show that approximately 260,000 kw. could be generated, equivalent
to at least 1,000,000,000 units transmitted annually from this source.
It is possible that tidal schemes in other situations may hereafter be deemed
practicable ; but in no part of Great Britain can such potentialities be found
as in the Severn, not only because of the enormous volume of water
flowing and ebbing in that estuary, but also because the physical con-
figuration assists in producing a 47-foot rise at ordinary spring tides.

The utilisation of water-power for electrical generation and transmission
is one of the finest and perhaps most fascinating ways of harnessing the
great forces in nature for the use and convenience of man. It is a power
which ought to be utilised as fully as possible in ouf country in the interests
of true national wealth. It must not be overlooked that a well-constructed
dam and works will last for centuries, that the wasting assets in the form
of turbines and possible pipe-lines represent only a small proportion of the
total expenditure. Moreover, of the total cost of electrical energy produced,
no less than 85 to 90 per cent, represents capital charges. When the capital
outlay on the permanent assets is redeemed the cost of energy is reduced
to a very low figure indeed. This is a factor which is insufficiently appre-
ciated in this country. Other countries which have been endowed with
more liberal sources of water-power will for this reason benefit considerably
a generation or two hence.

This is an additional reason for so laying our plans in this industrial
country, where we must depend upon our industries — agricultural,
engineering, shipbuilding, textiles, and others — in order to live and continue
to exist as a great nation. It is essential that abundant power shall be
available in all necessary parts of the country. The bulk of this power,
as has been said, must be derived from coal.

There is no known method of storing electricity on a very large scale,
and thus consideration must be given to the most economical means of
coping with the public demand from hour to hour, or even minute to minute.
If anyone will look at a 24-hour load-curve recorded at any electricity
station, a considerable variation in the height of the curve will be noted
at various times of the day or year according to the demand for power,
heating, traction, or lighting. But it will also be seen that if a line be
drawn through the curve parallel to the base, at a point some two-fifths
of the highest ordinate, all below that line represents an almost uniform
output all the year round, excepting week-ends and holidays ; in other
words, there is a base load of very high value, representing generally an
annual load factor of 50 or 60 per cent. The remainder of the curve,

170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

according to the time and season, is less regular and more intermittent. If
we take as example the estimated total requirements at some future day —
namely, the 15,500,000 kw. and 47,000,000,000 units output— the base
load would represent a load of 6,000,000 kw., the output of which would
be 30,000,000,000 units or thereabout, while the remaining 9,500,000 kw.
would produce the balance of the outpiit, viz. 17,000,000,000 units,
at the low annual load factor of 20 per cent, or thereabout. It is
a fundamental requirement in the economics of electricity supply that the
base load or high load factor component of the total output must be
generated at the most economical rate that engineers can devise. What are
the lines along which improvements are now being made to convert the
highest possible thermal units available in the fuel consumed into useful
work for the benefit of the consumer ?

The published Analyses and Summaries of Returns of fuel consumption
show that the average thermal efficiency of 1924-25 for all public generating
stations in this country was as low as 12.45 per cent, with an average
station load factor of 28.84 per cent. The highest recorded efficiency for
that year was at the Barton Station of the Corporation of Manchester,
viz. 19.85 per cent, based on units generated, the station working at an
average annual load factor of only 29.5 per cent. Corresponding figures
for the year 1925-26 show that the average thermal efficiency has been
raised to 21.48 per cent. — equivalent to 20.40 per cent, based on units of
' output '- — with an annual station load factor of 48 per cent.

From a paper recently presented to the Mid West Power Conference
in Chicago by Mr. Wm. S. Monroe, it would appear that the Crawford
Avenue Station of the Commonwealth Edison Company of Chicago has
recorded a thermal efficiency based on ' output ' of 22.24 per cent.,
working at a station load factor of between 60 and 70 per cent. It is
understood that the plant at this station is not yet in full operation, and
therefore higher operating efficiencies may be anticipated.

The steam pressure at Barton is 375 lb. per square inch, and at
Crawford Avenue 550 lb. In the former case the condensing water is
drawn from the Ship Canal, which has its limitations, while the Crawford
Avenue Station draws its condensing water from Lake Michigan, where
the volume is relatively inexhaustible and the average annual temperature
is low. A higher average percentage vacuum is therefore probable at
the latter station, assisting towards higher thermal efficiency.

The published results of other American stations — notably at Philo
and Boston- — would appear to indicate that thermal efficiencies of the
order of 24 per cent, have been obtained.

Let us examine, first, the improvements which are being tested in
practice to turn into useful work the highest amount of the heat available
in fuel, and then consider their commercial value ; having regard to the
capital invested. If we take a modern station as an example, working
at an annual load factor of 40 to 50 per cent., the total costs of generation
may be subdivided as follows : —

Coal . . . . . . 46 per cent, of the total generating costs

Capital charges . . 40 „ „ „ „

Other costs . . . . 14 „ „ „ „

100 per cent.

G.— ENGINEERING. 171

The two principal items in which economies must be sought are
obviously a reduction in the consumption of coal per unit generated, and
a reduction in the capital expenditure.

Many refinements can be employed which may economise coal, but at
the expense of an undue capital expenditure. Broadly speaking, the
employment of bigger stations and an increase in the size of plant employed
reduces the capital employed per kw. of plant installed. Interconnection
of stations fiirther reduces the percentage of reserve plant, and thus
reduces the capital employed per kw. of plant demanded.

The employment of higher steam-pressures, reheating the steam in the
later turbine stages, so as to reduce its total volume and minimise the diffi-
culties of design experienced in the vacuum stages of the turbine, stage
feed-water heating through ' bleeding ' the turbine, and thus utilising the
latent heat in the steam, are all producing higher thermal eSiciencies
between the electricity generated and the fuel consumed.

Sir Charles Parsons, to whom the world owes so much, has shown that
with a steam-pressure of 500 lb. per square inch and a 97.5 per cent,
vacuum we may hope to reach a full-load thermal efficiency (steam to
electricity) of 33i per cent., while with an initial steam-pressure of 1,000 lb,
per square inch we may obtain a thermal efficiency of 35 per cent.

Assuming a boiler-plant efficiency of 83 per cent., the equivalent
efl&ciencies (fuel to electricity) are 27.97 per cent, at 500 lb. pressure, and
29.2 per cent, at 1,000 lb., which are figures comparable with the best
realised results claimed from internal-combustion engines. The equivalent
heat consumptions per kw.h. are 12,200 and 11,685 B.Th.U. respectively,
or, assuming coal as fired to have a value of 11,500 B.Th.U. per lb., the
coal consumed is 1.16 lb. and 1.11 lb. per kw.h.

The development and steady improvement of the steam-using plant
at the generating station is proceeding satisfactorily, and we are certainly
within sight of a heat consumption not exceeding 12,000 B.Th.U. per
kw.h. generated at base-load stations. Where a group of stations is
interconnected the peak-load stations with annual load factors of only
about 20 per cent, woidd, cceteris paribus, require a fuel consumption of
about 20,000 B.Th.U. per kw.h. generated. Although the annual load
factor is low, the programme for running the plant can be so arranged
that the plant load factor is high. There is a probability that fewer
refinements would be commercially justified in peak-load stations, and in
the estimates which follow the heat consumption at such stations is
advisedly taken at 22,000 B.Th.U. per unit generated. The average
B.Th.U. per imit sent out or available for transmission would thus be
16,500, at a station load factor of 35 per cent., and representing a thermal
efficiency all round of 20.6 per cent., which would be a notable advance
on the last recorded figure of 12.45 per cent, for the whole country.

There is also the steam-raising plant to be considered, and it may be
well to review briefly the economic developments which may be looked for.

With the coming of the larger turbine, a demand has arisen for larger
boiler units and higher evaporative capacities. The present general land
practice is some 7 to 8 lb. of water evaporated per square foot of heating
surface, but in marine practice, and in naval practice particularly,
evaporations up to 20 lb. per square foot are normally called for.

172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Boilers are already in commission with an evaporative duty of 300,0001b.
per hour. For pressures of 800 lb. and over it is necessary to avoid
riveting and to adopt a seamless drum. With high evaporative duty
per square foot of heating surface, the de-aeration of the feed water
becomes of great importance, in order to avoid rapid corrosion of the tubes,
and in modern types especially, where pulverised fuel is used, the com-
bustion chamber is practically lined with tubes, so as to obtain as large
a tube surface as possible exposed to direct radiation.

The tendency in boiler design for large power stations is unquestionably
towards higher evaporative capacities, larger boiler units, and higher
steam-pressures.

The use of pulverised fuel appears to lend itself to these modern
requirements in capital stations, enabling better control to be exercised, a
higher thermal efficiency to be obtained, and less wear and tear of plant,
a better distribution of heat in the boiler, and therefore a better
evaporation.

It is reported that at the Lake Shore Station, Cleveland, U.S.A.,
boilers of 30,000 square feet heating surface and fed with pulverised fuel
are maintaining an average efficiency of 90.4 per cent.

The utilisation of pulverised fuel also raises a larger question. Not
only is there a possibility of commercially utilising the waste from coal-
mines, but it would appear to bring within the ambit of possibility a
combination of some form of low-temperature carbonisation of the fuel,
so as to enable some of the valuable by-products to be recovered, coupled
with the production of a soft coke which can be applied in a pulverised
form to the boilers for steam-raising purposes.

A practical application is now being made of the McEwen-Runge
low-temperature carbonisation plant to the Lakeside Power Station of
the Milwaukee Electric Railways and Light Company, Wisconsin, U.S.A.,
the result of which will be awaited with interest, and if satisfactory should
be of great value to designers of future base-load stations.

Suggestions have been made that gas and electricity undertakings
should be combined for the purpose of conserving fuel. It is significant
that although a large number of local authorities in Great Britain have
owned both gas and electricity undertakings for many years past, there
is no single instance of any such authority having effected a complete
amalgamation of its undertakings. There are a few cases where companies
operate gas undertakings in conjunction with electricity-supply under-
takings, but their total plant capacity is very small, and represents only
0.1 per cent, of all the generating plant installed by authorised undertakers
in the country.

There can be no advantage to a gas undertaking unless the price at
which the gas or coke can be supplied to the power station shows a margin
over the costs incurred in producing the gas or coke ; nor is there an
advantage to the electricity undertaking unless the price paid for the coke
or gaseous fuel on an effective heat-value basis is at the best not greater
than the cost at which raw coal of equivalent heat value can be purchased.
The average price paid for coal by electricity undertakings between
1922 and 1924 was approximately 205. per ton. If we assume the average
calorific value as being 10,500 B.Th.U. per lb., there would be no economic

G.— ENGINEERING. 173

advantage to the power station unless the gaseous fuel could be purchased
in the necessary quantity at 1.02(?. per therm delivered to the power
station, which is equivalent to 5.1ci!. per 1,000 cubic feet of gas, having a
calorific value of 500 B.Th.U. per cubic foot.

Nor does it appear that coke obtained from ordinary gasworks
practice can be commercially applied on a large scale to capital power
stations. There would, of course, be an advantage to the gas industry
if a regular and stable market for their principal by-product were thus
procured. In 1924 the principal gasworks of the country produced
14.2 cwt. (gross) of coke per ton of coal consumed — -before deducting the
amount of coke used for water-gas and for the carbonising plant^the net
amount per ton of coal being generally about 10.3 cwt. of coke. The
receipts from the sale of coke represented (in the principal gas under-
takings) some 19 per cent, of the total income of those undertakings, the
average price received having been 27s. 2d. per ton, which, was a higher
price than that of the coal used by electricity undertakings at equivalent
thermal values. There is, it must be remembered, a wider scope in the
classes of coal which can be purchased by electricity undertakings than is
the case with gasworks. The fact that in 1924 the average price paid by
electricity works for coal was 20s. per ton, and the average price paid by
gas undertakings which only produce coal-gas was upwards of 27s. per
ton, cannot be ignored, though the latter was of course of a higher thermal
quality, containing more volatiles and probably a less ash content. Gas-
works coke has a higher ash content and is less easily ignited than coal,
and so far has had only an exceedingly limited outlet as power-station fuel
in this country, the amount, in fact, being about 1 per cent, of the total
coke and breeze available for disposal by the gas industry, and being less
than 1| per cent, of the raw coal consumed in the generation of electricity
in public-utility stations. It lies with the gas industry to show whether
they can supply heat to future large power stations in the large volumes
necessary in modern practice, at rates which would be no greater than
the equivalent cost of raw coal, and in forms which will be as efficient in
application to boilers of large evaporative capacity. If they can do so,
then assuredly electricity undertakings should in the national interest give
the fullest consideration to such a proposal.

In the case of low-temperature carbonisation it is obvious that more
coal must be consumed for any given heat requirements at a power station.
Various technical problems still remain to be solved, and reliable com-
mercial data both as to capital and operating costs still remain to be
established. The application to a definite purpose, such as steam-raising
in a base-load power station, would, of course, minimise any commercial
uncertainty, for there would be a definite purchaser of the heat products,
while the other marketable products would be limited to the crude fuel oils,
for which a sale could probably always be found.

As Dr. C. H. Lander and Mr. R. T. McKay have pointed out, the peld
of coke (with a calorific value of about 12,500 B.Th.U. per lb.) per ton
of coal from straight low-temperature carbonisation processes averages
14 cwt., and ' therefore the value of the liquid and gaseous products must
be sufficient to yield a profit after paying the entire costs of retorting and
the costs of about 6 cwt. of the raw coal treated.'

174 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

The late Sir George Beilby, in his James Forrest Lecture at the Institu-
tion of Civil Engineers in 1921, said : ' When coal is used for steam- raising
under the best known conditions, it is obvious there is little to be gained
in thermal efficiency by any preliminary sorting out of the thermal units
of the coal into fuels of liigher availability. It is well known that an
efficiency of 75 to 80 per cent, is attainable in steady practice,' and he went
on to quote the results from two power stations — namely, the Central
Electric Supply Company at St. John's Wood, where the average boiler
efficiency was 75.5 per cent, although the average ash content in the coal
fired was 18.4 per cent., and the Southern Railway Company's power
station at Wimbledon, where the average boiler efficiency was 78 per cent,
with an ash content of 16 per cent.

Sir George Beilby also said : 'Supposing the coal used at these stations
had been submitted for preliminary carbonisation and its thermal units
sorted out into the forms of gas, tar, and coke, how would this have affected
the evaporative capacity ? Of the thermal units of coal

Per Cent.
The coke would contain . . . . . . . . 70

The gas „ „ 12

The oils „ „ . . . . . . . . 11

Per Cent.

Intrinsic thermal loss . . . . . . 7

Heat for carbonisation . . . . . . 6

— 13

Net thermal value . . . . . . . . 80

' The high thermal availability of the rich gas would be thrown away if
it were used for steam- raising, the fuel oil would be a boiler fuel decidedly
superior to the original coal, and the coke would not be of more than equal
value to the coal. Solely from a steam-raising point of view, therefore,
a thermal loss and not a gain would result from the operation. I am quite
prepared to admit that in special cases this thermal loss might be compen-
sated for if a local market for the rich gas were available. In most cases,
however, the margin of profit would be much too small to justify the extra
capital expenditure which would be required.'

The additional capital cost of low-temperature carbonisation plant
appears to be from £0.9 to £1.1 per ton of coal carbonised, which is equiva-
lent to £4 per kw.i. additional capital expended, or 28 per cent, addition
to the normal capital expended upon a modern power station. It has
been claimed that, after allowance for the extra capital charges on the
station and crediting the cost of production with the marketable value of
the fuel oils recovered by the process, the net cost of electrical energy
delivered (not only the net cost of the fuel consumed) would be reduced
by more than 50 per cent. One may be sceptical about the realisation of
so great an improvement, but until the matter has been put thoroughly
to the test it is impossible to say whether this method of treating coal will
really be a source of economy in the generation of electricity.

Whatever the future may bring forth in the application of coal

G.— ENGINEERING. 175

carbonisation to large power stations, it is clear that developments are
taking place which will bring about a substantial reduction in the cost
of generating electricity and effect a more scientific utilisation of our
natural fuel resources.

There can be little doubt about the modern tendency to concentrate
the points at which electricity can be generated and made available for
general distribution and consumption, whether it be for railway traction,
power stations taking the place of the individual locomotives ; or in large
industrial plants where a public system of generation and distribution of
■electricity takes the place of individual generating plant at the local
works ; or in domestic requirements for heating and other purposes in
place of the open coal fire. All of these measures assist in preventing a
wasteful expenditure of coal. It is clear, therefore, that any system which
can recover the greatest amount of the stored energy available in coal
should be fully explored, and it is the large power station of 200,000 kw.
and upwards that would appear to offer a means of investigating the value
of new fuel processes on a practical scale.

There has been a far too prodigal use of coal in the past and more
.scientific methods for its utilisation are urgently wanted. There is all
the waste of small coal at the pits to be dealt with, and there is this question
of the more perfect utilisation of the coal which is consumed. Having
regard to the recommendations of the recent Royal Commission on Coal
and to the very real need for national economy in the present and succeed-
ing generations, any improved method which will either turn into useful
work the highest heat units or obtain the utmost commercial value of the
raw coal consumed must be fully and practically explored.

There seems little doubt we may expect that within a few years elec-
tricity will be generated at modern power stations even with direct firing
at a figure of 0.3d. or less per unit. This will be transmitted at liigh pressures
for such purposes as railway traction, large blocks of industrial power,
and supplies in bulk to local undertakers, who in turn will retail it to their
consumers. This involves the construction of high-tension transmission
lines or cables and the provision of transformers and switchgear. Broadly
speaking, transmission costs would add 10 per cent, to the cost of the units
sent out from the power stations, assuming a reasonable average load
factor. So we can hope to transmit energy in quantity and transform it
locally to the required service pressure at a cost of 0.33d. or less per unit
sent out when applied at an average load factor of say 33 per cent. This
cost of bulk supplies is equivalent to about O.id. per unit transmitted and
delivered by means of H.T. mains, and transformed locally to the requisite
pressure.

In Great Britain it will probably not be possible to make use of overhead
lines to the same extent as is possible in the U.S.A. and some other countries.
The advantage of overhead lines lies in the ability to use the highest
pressures and in their smaller cost compared with underground cables.
For equal losses the cost of cable transmission of large carrying capacity,
and working at the comparatively low pressures of 33,000 and 66,000 volts,
is proportionate to the cost of overhead lines working at like pressures as
2.5 : 1 and 2 : 1 respectively.

176 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

The highest working pressure on 3-core cables so far applied in practice
has been 66,000 volts between phases or 37,500 volts phase to earth. The
construction of 3-core cables for large power transmission, i.e. with con-
ductors of 0.25 square inch, for example, offers great difficulties of both an
electrical and mechanical nature. Moreover, the short lengths in which
such heavy cables can only be constructed entail the use of numerous joint
boxes.

It would seem that future practice in cable transmission at the higher
pressures must tend towards the adoption of single-core cables which
can be manufactured in greater lengths and with greater facilities in the
factory. These have the benefit of simpler jointing and are more easily
handled in the road. Single-core cables are now being constructed with
a pressure of 132,000 volts between phases or 76,000 volts to earth, and
cable manufacturers are confident that such cables can be applied with
safety.

It is the cost of local distribution which causes a considerable addition
to be made to the cost of generation and transmission, and in which
economies must also be made possible in future extensions. As the
published official statistics show, the present average capital expended on
distribution systems in Great Britain is £21 per 1,000 units sold, including
the cost of sub-stations ; in numerous cases rotary converter sub-stations
are included, the cost of which is some seven to eight times that of static
transformer stations. The actual cost, for example, in Glasgow is £15.96
per kw.i. for rotary sub-stations and only £1.822' per kw.i. for static
sub-stations ; the ratio of costs in this case being 8.76 : 1. If one com-
pares the operating costs, including capital charges on the sub-station,
the rotary sub-stations required 0.1926c?. per unit sold, as against only
0.0334cZ. in the static sub-stations — in other words, the rotary sub-station
expenses are nearly six times those of the static sub-stations per unit sold.
In a large English city where A.C. distribution has been exclusively
adopted (excepting the supply to the local tramway system), the capital
outlay on distribution, including H.T. feeders and sub-stations, L.T. mains
services and meters, is actually reduced to £13.48 per 1,000 units sold.
The future cost where A.C. distribution is exclusively used is estimated at
£11.25 per 1,000 units sold.

In ordinary town-distribution systems the capital cost depends upon
the number of consumers obtained per niile of main laid.

The conditions of domestic electric services and loads are changing so
rapidly that it reqm'res considerable judgment on the part of the engineer
to lay out a distribution system with a due regard to a reasonable balance
between future requirements and the immediate outlay.

It is not unreasonable to assume that future capital investment in
distribution will not exceed £11 or £12 per 1,000 units sold, since the bulk
of future distribution will be by means of alternating current and the
simpler static transformer sub-stations.

Assuming that the average price of coal (of 10,500 B.Th.U. value)
delivered to the generating stations throughout the country is 20s. per
ton, it is safe to say that the average price at which electricity should be
available within a few years should be under ^%ths of one penny per unit.

G.— ENCIINEERING. 177

This may be expressed in the following terms when applied to various

classes of consumer : —

A.C. energy transmitted in bulk to large From 0.5(1 to Q.25d. per unit,

consumers, such as railways and large according to increasing load

industries factor.
A.C. energy distributed locally for

general domestic purposes, including

lighting . . . . . . . . About O.Sd. per unit.

Lighting only . . . . . . . . About 2d. per unit.

Small power supplies . . . . . . About l.25d. per unit.

As was previously mentioned, energy in bulk and supplied after simple
transformation directly from the high-pressure transmission system can
then be sold for an average of 0.4 penny. It is the capital expenditure there-
after on local distribution systems and their operating costs which raise
the price to the local consumer. In the figures referred to it will be noted
that the average cost of low-tension energy after distribution is 2J times
the average cost of energy requiring only high-pressure transmission lines.
And when one speaks of an average cost of xn^^is of a penny, even after this
cost of local distribution is included, it must be remembered that local
costs of distribution differ widely at the present time, due mainly to the
differing densities of load and load factor and number of consumers served
per unit length of main laid. Therefore, although it will be possible
hereafter to supply electricity for lighting purposes at an average cost of
2d., it is certain that sparser districts will have to pay more owing to the
incidence of the capital expended on local distribution, unless a much
greater freedom is allowed in the use of overhead lines. One cannot
readily understand the great objection raised to the use of such lines if
they be properly designed and erected. They are far less obtrusive than
the ordinary telephone and telegraph lines which are now so ubiquitous.
Light steel taper poles painted to suit their environment are barely notice-
able, and in many places bracket attachments can be made to buildings.
Without entering into too much detail, it is enough to say that local distribu-
tion systems in villages can be installed at a quite small expenditure, and
local communities must assist in this matter if they desire to obtain the
benefit of a cheap electrical service at an early date.

What prospect is there of electricity helping what is, after all, our
greatest industrj'- — agriculture ? For it umst not be forgotten that half
of the area of the country is farm- laud, and that there are nearly 500,000
farms in Great Britain. For several years past it has been a matter of
great interest to preside over a Committee appointed by the Minister of
Agriculture and Fisheries, the purpose of the Committee being to investi-
gate the application of electrical discharge to the growth and yield of
crops. Under the patient and skilled investigation of Prof. V. H. Black-
man, assisted by that great authority Sir E. J. Russell, experimental
work has now been conducted at Rothamsted and at Lincluden for several
years, with variable but on the whole definitely encouraging results.

For the time being work is concentrated on scientific pot-culture and
small-plot observations, but it is hoped soon to resume field experiments
on a wider and practical scale. While the future may reveal a way by
which electricity can be used directly to stimulate growth and improve

1926 N

178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the yield of cereals and other crops on a definitely practical and com-
mercial basis, for the present it is in the application of power to the farm
and the provision of better and more convenient lighting of the farmstead
to which we must look for affording immediate assistance to the farmer.
It is doubtful whether electricity will be used to any marked degree in
this country for field operations such as ploughing or reaping, partly owing
to the small area of the average holdings and to the prevalence of hedges
and comparatively small fields which are so essentially an English institu-
tion. In some of the larger holdings, however, as in the eastern counties
of England or in southern Scotland, it is probable that electricity will be
used in field operations, as is the case in other countries, more especially
in Scandinavia and some parts of Germany and Canada. In Sweden,
for instance, there are 52,000 farms, representing 40 per cent, of the arable
land, which have the advantages arising from an electrical service. It is
interesting to note that the average consumption is 53 units per acre,
and the individual load factor is only about 15 per cent. It is stated that
the consumption by these farms is one-twentieth of the total electricity
supplied, and is equal in amount to the aggregate consumption for lighting
and domestic purposes in the Swedish towns.

In Norway and Canada considerable progress has been made in the
supply to the rural communities, there being no less than 350 out of the
645 rural districts in toto in the former country which possess an electrical
service.

In parts of Canada great progress has been made- in this direction, due
mainly to the utilisation of water-power and the consequent large trans-
mission systems which enable rural districts readily to be served by
secondary distributing systems.

Though the conditions are very different in this country, it is quite as
feasible to afford supplies to rural districts if the people desire to use
electricity and will support it locally. The conditions should be better
here than in Canada, owing to the greater density of population even in the
rural districts.

Apart from work in the field or the application of electricity for inten-
sive culture, the immediate applications wliich are already being made
successfully include the curing of ensilage by electrically served silos, an
operation which can be carried out at night ; hay-drying ; threshing ;
chaff-cutting ; oat-crushing ; root-cutting ; wood-sawing ; milking ;
cream separation and churning ; water-pumping ; sheep-shearing ;
clipping and grooming ; incubator heating ; besides electrical cooking and
heating and the lighting of the farmhouse, byres, and yards. Altogether
quite a useful list of mecham'cal appliances can be compiled through
which electricity can help the farmer. In Great Britain the useful pioneer
work of Mr. Borlase Matthews is steadily making progress. The problem
to be solved is the reduction of the cost of distribution to these generally
somewhat isolated farms. Where it can be made commercially possible
any increase in the extent of the high-pressure transmission systems con-
structed in this comitry must gradually envelop more and more of the
rural districts.

On the Continent considerable development has taken place in the
provision of an electrical service to rural communities. It is true that

G.— ENGINEERING. 17&

facilities have been afforded in some of these districts by transmission
lines conveying the energy derivable from water-power and traversing the
rural districts on their way to the main outlet for the consumption of the
electricity generated at the distant source. In Denmark, nevertheless,
where there is no large water-power at all, a considerable service has been
afforded to rural districts, and small pole transformers with cheaply con-
structed overhead lines are made to serve districts within a two-mile
radius from each transformer. Surely we can devise similar means of
assisting our great agricultural industry in this country.

This short review would be incomplete without a reference to electrical
research — a subject which must always be of interest to this Association.

Excellent progress is being made by the British Electrical and Allied
Industries Research Association, now in its sixth year, under the direction
of Mr. E. B. Wedmore. This Association was instituted principally by
the British Electrical and Allied Manufacturers Association, under the
auspices and with the help of the Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research. Fundamental researches have been conducted and are being
continued on dielectrics in general; on conductors and on apparatus for
electric control, including severely practical experimental work on heavy
switches ; prevention of corrosion in condenser tubes ; steam-turbine
bladings, and in the properties of extra high-pressure steam up to 1,500 lb.
per square inch and at temperatures of 850^ F., conducted by Prof.
H. L. Callendar. A most important and patiently investigated research
into the behaviour of buried cables (that is, cables laid underground in
various ways, either direct in the soil or drawn into iron and earthen-
ware pipes) has resulted in obtaining the most useful information of a
practical and economic nature.

Great possibilities of a beneficial kind lie ahead of the Association,
assisted as it is in many directions by the skilled investigators of the
National Physical Laboratory under the directorship of Sir Joseph Petavel.
The completion next year of the uiillion-volt testing laboratory at the
N.P.L. will make possible tests which will be of great practical value to
the industry.

The investigations of the Fuel Research Board begun under the
chairmanship of the late Sir George Beilby, now succeeded by Sir Richard
Threlfall, and under the direction of Dr. C. H. Lander, will greatly assist
the designers of future power houses, as well as generally helping the great
gas industr)'^ and other fuel industries, including the development of low-
temperature carbonisation processes. These researches will have an influence
upon public health, will bring about the better utilisation of our fuel re-
sources, and help to educate the general public to a better and less prodigal
use of the natural wealth laid down in this old country in past geological
times.

It has been a privilege and. an education to be associated directly or
indirectly with these bodies through the Advisory Council of the Depart-
ment of Scientific and Industrial Research, and of real assistance in dealing
with the problems involved in the consideration of systems for future
electrical development.

The work done by these bodies and by the research departments
separately established by the great cable-making and manufacturing

180 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

firms is bound to be reflected in practical improvements and general
progress.

One has got the impression that more encouragement is required to
be given to Research Students in Engineering to enable full advantage
to be taken of the excellent training facilities offered by our Universities
and so that a sufficient number of recruits may be forthcoming.

Development of another kind is rapidly overtaking the laissez-faire
policy of past years. The Electrical Development Association, under
the direction of Mr. J. W. Beauchamp, is making known by educative
processes and by practical demonstrations the most efficient manner in
which to use electricity for all kinds of purposes. Both classes of develop-
ment — scientific research on the one hand, commercial application and
intelligent use on the other — are bound to benefit greatly the whole
industry of electricity supply and the people. The most liberal support
and encouragement must be afforded by all electricity-supply authorities.

In 1925 the -first World Power Conference was convened in London
and was attended by leading engineers and scientists from all parts of
the British Empire and the world. A series of valuable papers was
submitted on fuel resources, water-power, electrical methods of trans-
mission, and many other cognate subjects. The value of such a gathering
cannot be over-estimated, and the success of this first conference was so
marked that further conferences are to be arranged and will assemble in
other capitals from time to time. The good work thus begun will be
continued.

Such is a brief review of the possible future develo])ment of the elec-
tricity-supply industry in this country. It is clear that a period of great
activity and progress is before us, which must inevitably be of great value
to the nation.

It is a duty laid on those of us who may be in responsible positions to
shape properly and with foresight the lines along which this progress shall
be made. Although a steady development is already discernible, much
bigger things are before us, and it may be that we shall sow that a suc-
ceeding generation may reap. As Great Britain is essentially dependent
on imported foodstuffs to a large degree and on other raw materials for
the feeding of her essential industries, it is clear that the most efficient
and economic systems of industrial power and transport are necessary
parts of the future equipment of the country. If we can add to this
work of increased power application a notable improvement in the condi-
tions of rural life, we shall help to improve the physical conditions of our
people in both urban and rural districts, in addition to providing those
engaged in industrial pursuits with better means of competing and holding
their own with manufacturers in other countries. In this electricity
must necessarily play a great part. Public opinion will increasingly
require that this indispensable service shall be brought to the highest degree
of efficiency and made as generally available throughout the country aa
true economic development will allow. j

SECTION H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.

THE REGIONAL BALANCE OF
RACIAL EVOLUTION.

ADDRESS BY

PROFESSOR H. J. FLEURE, D.Sc,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

I. Introduction.

A MEETING of the British Association at Oxford naturally recalls to one's
mind the famous stand of Huxley for the Darwinian theory of descent
with modification at the 1860 Meeting, as well as his speech at the 1894
Meeting in this city. At the present time there is no longer any doubt
among scientific workers that the body and mind of man are the outcome
of a long process of descent with modification, and that all life on earth is
genetically one. The unity of animate nature is accepted without reserve
or qualification, despite little outbursts where old modes of thought linger
on the fringes of civilisation. These outbursts serve only to demonstrate
the widespread applicability of the principle that survivals tend to have a
peripheral distribution.

The general acceptance of the idea makes it important to survey
what is known and thought as to how, when, and where the remarkable
evolution of modern man worked itself out. Of the early stages of man's
•evolution little need be said here, as Elliot Smith ^ has recently dealt with
it in a fresh and masterly fashion. He has emphasised the correlated
improvement of brain and eyes as the key fact. Stereoscopic vision has
heen promoted by the habit of walking on two legs on the ground, for this
ireed the hands to carry objects to the mouth, bringing them within range
of minute observation by the eyes working together. Improved ajij^recia-
tion of objects was, in his opinion, one factor in the development of names
for them.

The period of pre-natal life in apes ancestral to man was probably
220 days, as compared with the period of 280 ± accepted for mankind.
'This represents a change of great importance, for it appears to have led
to a marked continuance of growth of the head region and to the j)ostpone-
ment of the hardening of the frontal and facial elements that must once
have occurred soon after birth, i.e. soon after the 220th day, but which
now is unnecessary at that stage. Increased growth of the fore-brain is
a main feature of mankind. We must not, and need not, argue that this
increase occurred somehow because it would be useful to its possessors ;
it is nearer the truth to say that it did occur, and that those who showed it
were thereby enabled to take advantage of opportunities their predecessors

1 Smith, G. Elliot. Lectures on the Evolution of Man, 1924.

182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

could not grasp. That the utilisation of these opportunities led to the
survival of the bigger-brained beings is also probably true, but it may
well have been a physiological change which started the remarkable
process.

The fact that only slight differences in the duration of pre-natal life
occur throughout mankind, and that there is a widespread tendency to
premature birth about the 220 ±th day suggests that the extension of the
pre-natal period is a very old-established feature of mankind, and is a
change from a 220 ± days' period. It does not seem useful to speculate on
the position of extinct early types of man in this respect, apart from a
reminder of the fact that they show some measure of increased growtli of
fore-brain as compared with ape-relatives.

The extension of pre-natal life seems to have induced further important
changes which must be mentioned.

First, it seems that the growth of hair is affected. Downy hair spreads,
over the embryo body, becoming very apparent after about the 100th day,
and reaching a maximum about the 200 ± th day, but afterwards it becomes
less and less, though a little remains throughout life, especially in women,
and to some extent in men of the Ainu, Australian, and some European
groups. It is much less abundant in the negro, though the Bushman
retains some of it, and cases of specially marked persistence of the downy
hair occur, with other supposed traces of infantilism, among the Central
African pigmies. The indications of hair in lines down the chest and
abdomen of a woman depicted at Laugerie Basse (la femme aii renne) in
Aurignacian times should be remembered.

The persistence of an embryonic character such as the downy hair is-
a remarkable feature in mankind and an example of partial emancipation
from the otherwise general rule that development nearly completes itself
by the time of sex-maturity. It will be best at this stage of our ignorance
to say merely that there is a pronounced prolongation of features of youth
in mankind.

From about the 170±th day of life-before-birth the growth forms of
hair change, and this change becomes very marked after the 200th day.
Now in an ape this is near the period of birth and just after it, and the
conditions are necessarily those which promote grov/th of protective hair.
In man, on the other hand, the conditions rather favour maintenance of
the downv hair, though it is not so abundant in the new-born as in the-
200 ±th d'ay baby.'

Thus the lengthening of pre-natal life seems to have been an important
factor in the reduction of hairiness in the human race, and also in the
retention of a measure of embryonic downiness, and this has increased the-
' tactile ' sensitiveness of the skin of those who retain the downy covering,
i.e. especially of children and women. That this has had consequences
for the development of the relations between mother and child is almost
beyond doubt.

It is thought by physiologists that the growth of hair absorbs rather
a large quantity of energy, and that the thyroid secretion is closely
associated with this growth. We shall, therefore, not go far wrong i£

^ Friedenthal, H. Das WoUhaarkleid, Das Dauerhaarkleid, &c., 4 Lieferungen^
1908.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 183

we take it that, with diminished hair-growth, the influence of the thyroid
secretion has been liberated to exert itself elsewhere, and, as we understand
its relations with brain-growth are also close, we may see in this an accessory
factor of brain-growth in man.

The increased brain-growth, whatever its causes, is an outstanding
fact of human development, and the corresponding increase of the volume
of the skull has apparently made the training for the holding up of the head
a longer process, consequently the helplessness of the infant, the oppor-
tunities for maternal care, and the delaying of hair-growth are all empha-
sised. The process of brain-growth and delay of skull-hardening can also
be prolonged still further as infancy is lengthened.

The changes just noted have doubtless contributed, from early stages,
to the differentiation of men's and women's activities, a differentiation
which is a marked feature of our race,'' for, among other mammals, the
two sexes for the most part share much the same habits and run together,
though there are well-known partial exceptions. The emphasis on this
differentiation of work between the sexes seems to have arisen as man
was becoming man in a fairly full sense, and we can hazard an hypothesis
as to how it came about.

Man's animal relatives search out nuts and fruits and various forms of
vegetable food, and occasionally indixlge in animal food ; man, even as
early as the middle Pleistocene, and probably even earlier still, was partly,
perhaps largely, carnivorous. Though General Smuts warns us against
overweighting European evidence, we must agree that the Euro-Africo-
West- Asiatic quadrant of the world was a very important home of early
and mid-Pleistocene man. The cold winter anti-cyclone of that period
limited vegetation severely, and, while much of mid-Pleistocene Europe
was ice-covered, the belts of climate were shifted southward,^ so that
parts of the Sahara and Arabia got winter rain and were more grassy than
now. Lands with climate most suitable to the type of modern man (see
details below) would thus be largely grasslands, and here the food problem
seems to have urged the men towards hunting, while the women were
occupied with maternal duties, probably more necessary imder mid-
Pleistocene conditions on the grasslands than in earlier times. The
success of hunting in providing energising food which helped to maintain
body-heat under cold conditions, and generally promoted activity, must
soon have become evident, and man became largely a hunter. Women
seem to have continued more or less the traditional gathering, but there
were no doubt many grades and variations in this differentiation of work.
It was not the substitution of a largely carnivorous for a largely vegetarian
diet which was so important ; rather should we emphasise the supple-
mentary natures of the two diets among people who had not yet the
assured position of food-producers. The strenuous exercise of hunting,
using the accompanying increase of energising food, would prolong growth
and probably retard the oncoming of sex-maturity in the young men.

It is noteworthy that among hunting peoples the difference in stature
between the two sexes is still often much greater than it is among culti-
vating peoples. Here, again, we seem to get another indication of the

8 Thomson, J. A. ' What is Man ? ' 1923.

* See discussion in Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst., L, 1920,

184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

prolongation of growth as a feature of mankind alongside of a growing
sex-differentiation affecting general habits to a degree previously unknown.

It is, next, very important to remember that this differentiation took
place within groups rather than among solitary individuals or even isolated
families, for in all likelihood the habit of group-life is part of man's heritage
from animal ancestors. So human society does not so much result from
the coming together of individuals as human individuality results from
the liberation, bit by bit, of individual initiative within groups. This
is a fact which sociologists have in the past too often neglected. The
different food-quests of the two sexes, the increased dependence of the
infant, and the growth of brain all helped to make society more durable
and more complex, especially as organised hunting provided a link between
the younger fathers and the elder boys. Another factor, which must
have operated at the same stage, was Fire. As it was used both by mid-
Pleistocene men and by the almost unrelated late Pleistocene men in
Europe, it must be very old indeed, and it was almost certainly used by
the Foxhall men, who date very far back, while ashes of fires are known
from the later phases (Acheulian) of the early Pleistocene. It would help
to give society a focus, and to give women another stay-at-home function.
Its values for warmth in a cold climate, for food preparation, for scaring
wild animals, for hardening and pointing the ends of broken branches, for
preparing flints for flaking, are all too well known to need long discussion.

One more theoretical point. Elliot Smith has shown that some
measure of human speech is a very old feature indeed in mankind, and
the exercise of the faculty of speech is an insistent need all through man-
kind. Probably progress towards the erect attitude freed the laryngeal
region from the constraints of some of the tissues previously helping to hold
in place the projecting snout. The increase of family life must have pro-
moted development of intercommunication, and the growth of brain made
possible new and varied registrations of associations of sounds with objects,
which became better appreciated, thanks to improved detailed vision.

The ceremonial burial at La Chapelle aux Saints in the mid-Pleistocene
period is very generally held to imply that, probably from reflection on
their dreams, men were already beginning to picture a life after death.
This development of fancy can be seen to have bearings on the conduct
of nurture, on the relations of the generations, on the continuity and
stability of society.

The stone implements of early Pleistocene man are generally of a few
types only, though they may be wonderfully executed, with evident
affection and esthetic appreciation. They illustrate the heavy hand of
tradition limiting initiative but allowing the compensation of the crafts-
man's joy, a feature of society one might demonstrate from many regions
at many periods.

II. — The Early Forms of Modern Man— General Considerations.

The foregoing inevitably too speculative preface seemed necessary in
order to help us to know the rock whence modern man was hewn, and it
is the evolution of the forms of modern man that I should like to touch as
my main theme. Here we find a difficulty at the outset. Modern man
is known first from the north-west quadrant of the Old World, chiefly from

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 185

Europe. Research was long hampered by the grouping of all or nearly all
the men of the later Pleistocene under the one name of the Cro Magnon
Race. Thanks largely to the lamented Giuffrida Ruggeri,' we have got
beyond that unsatisfactory position, and now recognise several sub-groups
of modern man in Europe as early as the Aurignacian period. This
implies that modern men had, somewhere or other, gone through a long
history before they came to Europe with Aurignacian culture. On the
whole the divergences between the various types do not seem great enough,
in the present state of our knowledge, to force us to assume that they
developed from widely different types of ancient man, but we need not
assume a single ancestral pair or even a small number of ancestral pairs
all very much alike.

Huntington, Hill, Taylor, and Olbrichf^ have tried in various ways to
•estimate the climates which make the body and mind of the European
function most efficiently, and it is generally agreed that much depends
upon the number of calories of heat which the body is able to emit. This
amount may be well over 3,200 calories per day for a strong man's active
life in a cool climate, and as little as 1,500 calories for a sedentary life
under equatorial conditions. More heat can be emitted when the
•atmosphere is dry as well as cool, as in the United States of America.
White people there find it useful to have houses, &c., warmer than ours in
England during the winter. The conditions that make us function most
■actively are those of a climate with temperatures usually varying between
70° and 20° F., without too long spells at either of these limits, with
■enough, but not too much, bright sunshine, and with variability and
storms as a feature. It would appear that these conditions are most
favourable to activity and general well-being of some other race types
besides Europeans, and Huntington, for example, believes, with some
justification, that the Bantu peoples coming into South Africa profit by
the greater cooling power of the region, and are physically and mentally
better than those in the equatorial regions. Very great cold appears to
have deleterious effects mentally and physically. We must not argue too
•crudely that the ' ideal climate ' is the climate of the region where modern
man originated, but we may go so far as to say that, as his constitution
seems attuned to certain climatic conditions, those conditions must not
be very far from the conditions of the region in which he evolved, admitting
■that quite possibly he migrated into a region of the climate in question
and so gained an access of vigour. His mental processes are most active
at a temperature below that of the greatest comfort physically, and this
has induced Olbricht to venture the suggestion that the great mental
advance to the fully human condition occurred in a cold period, probably
one of the later phases of the Ice Age.

5 Giuffrida Ruggeri, V. ' Quatro crani preistorici dell' Italia,' Arch, yer I'Ayitr. e
■la Etn., xlv., 1915 ; ' Antropologia e Archeologia,' ibid., xlvi., 1916 ; ' La posizione
antr. d. Uomo d. Combe Capelle,' Riv. di Anir., xxi., 1916-17; ' Su I'orieine dell'
Uomo,' 1921.

6 Huntington, E., 'Civilisation and Climate,' 1915; 'World Power and Evolu-
tion,' 1919. Hill, L., ' The science of ventilation and open-air treatment ' (Medical
Research Committee), pt. 1, 1919, pt. 2, 1920. Hill, L., and Campbell, G., ' Health
and Environment,' 1925. Taylor, G., ' Evolution and Distribution of Race, Culture
and Language,' Geographical Review, 1921. Olbricht, K., ' Khma und Entwicklung,'
1923. Cornish, Vaughan, ' The Great Capitals,' 1923.

186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

If modern men are descendants of one ancestral group, it was probably
a group of Pleistocene and possibly of mid-Pleistocene date. At that
period, we may take it that the requisite climatic conditions obtained in
various parts of the belt now forming the Sahara and S.W. Asia, for the
belts of climate then lay farther south, and the winter westerlies apparently
visited that belt ; it is interesting that the Sahara shows a good deal
of evidence of inhabitants of possibly mid-Pleistocene date. We may,
perhaps, venture to ' place ' the ancestors of modern man in the zone
from the Atlantic edge of the Sahara to Persia, and may think of several
groups not all exactly alike. Those on the colder side of the zone may
well have been distinguished by greater mental activity.

What were the early modern men like ? Firstly, as all men of modern
type walk nearly erect and as the older extinct types of man did not, we
may argue that an advance, still incomplete in some cases [Grimaldi
(lower levels) and Chancelade], towards the erect posture was character-
istic of early modern man. Next, nearly all healthy men show some
tendency to produce brown pigment, and, save in N.W. Europe, have
dark hair and eyes. In fact, these are almost universal in the rest of the
world except for migrants from North Europe, in which area (possibly
also, slightly, in parts of N.E. Asia) therefore a process of depigmentation
has most probably occurred. So it is likely that early modern men were
more or less brown-skinned, dark-haired and dark-eyed, and if this be
so they doubtless lived where there was a good deal of summer sunshine,
as, no doubt, there was in the region indicated.

Next we note that, however strong the jaws and brow-ridges of modern
types of men (fossil or living) may be, they are less strong and project
far less thaii those of the most ancient types of men. Reduction of jaws
and brow-ridges is thus a process we can postulate, and we may go one
step farther and associate this with progress towards the erect posture.
Reduction of face and jaws would certainly make it easier to balance
the head on the end of the vertebral column, and this reduction was.
undoubtedly made possible by increased use of the hands. There was.
also, no doubt, some influence of what Roux called the ' Struggle of the
Parts,' according to which parts that are of increasing importance draw
nutrition during development from their neighbours. In this case it
would be the growing fore-brain that was capturing energy. It may also
be that there has been a relative reduction of the pituitary secretions
or of one or other of them, and it has already been suggested that there
had been a liberation of thyroid secretion from old duties, or even an
increase of that secretion.

III. — Early Forms of Modern Man — A Brief Summary.

Among the early (Aurignacian and Solutrean) examples of modern
men we notice a good deal of difference of characters, and this suggests
a number of ancestors spread over a fairly large zone rather than an origin
from a very small group of very localised origin. It is admitted that the
number of skeletons known is, as yet, too small for us to argue with con-
fidence about races and migrations in that early time. Nevertheless, it
is useful to have some working hypothesis, and for this purpose we shall

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 18T

venture to sketch out characters of some groups of men of the periods in
question.

The well-known youth and old woman from the lower layers at
Grimaldi' show very long high heads, which, however, altogether lack
the brow-ridges found in some of the others. The nose is very broad and the
mouth projects strongly, while the teeth are much larger than those of
living men. The stature is short.

These two skeletons have been said to be ' negroid,' but it would be
better to say that, both in them and in some African individuals, we find
some of the characters above enumerated. If it is right to look upon a
marked relative elongation of the head as an early specialisation in some,
but not all, forms of modern man, then we can say that these two Grimaldi
skeletons show that specialisation, and are also characterised by absence
of brow-ridges. The proportion of the lower limb to the upper one was
remarkably high, as Verneau has shown, and it is interesting that this
seems also to be a feature among some African peoples, notably the
Bushmen. The relations are quite reversed among some West African
negroes, and apparently among the Semang pigmies. There thus seems
reason to suppose that among the early forms of modern man — for I
shall claim later on that the pigmies are, to some extent, survivals of such
forms — there were differences in the proportions of the limbs. This is
what might be expected to occur in a species with an original home
probably on the grassland borders of the forest, and possibly an arboreal
stage in its ancestry.

Menghin" has recently ventured the suggestion that the Grimaldi type
is to be linked with the rock-face art of Alpera and other places in E. and
S. Spain. The idea is that here we have a type and culture related to
those of N. Africa, though the indications are that the culture (Capsian)
concerned reached Europe from Africa via Italy rather than via Spain.

The name of Cro Magnon has been widely used as a label for nearly
all the types of the late Palaeolithic with the exception of the two Grimaldi
skeletons above mentioned, though often the calotte from Briinn or that
from Briix, both in Moravia, have also been made into types. The late
Giuffrida Ruggeri helped greatly to make our conceptions clearer, but some
exaggerations of Klaatsch hindered the spread of a more reasonable view.
It is interesting that Klaatsch withdrew those exaggerations before he died.

Three individuals are known from Cro Magnon," one, ' the old man,'
being almost perfectly preserved. There is also a very closely similar
skeleton from La Grotte des Enfants on the Riviera. Further, two malo
skeletons from Barma Grande (Riviera), and possibly two or three more
from Cavillon and Baousso da Torre (Riviera), show facial characters of
this type combined with the very long and high-ridged character of the
skull-roof of the type to be discussed next.

This combination of the broad, short, strong- jawed Cro Magnon face,
with a very long and high head as just noted, also occurs in the male
skeleton of Magdalenian date from Obercassel, near Bonn.

■' Verneau, R. ' Les grottes de Grimaldi,' vol. ii., 1906.
" Hoernes-Menghin. ' Urgeschichte der bildenden Kiin.st in Europa,' 1925.
de Quatrefages, H., and Hamy, E. T., ' Crania Etlmica,' 1882. Also Verneau, R.»
oj). cit.

188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

In the Cro Magnon type the head is long absolutely, but only moderately
long relatively, so the cephalic index is moderate (74-5-6). The malar
bones are strong, and it is clear that both the temporal muscles and the
muscles for lateral working of the jaws were powerful. The height of the
skull is much less than its breadth. The nose and chin are prominent
•and narrow. The stature is great. It would seem that the pull of the
jaw muscles was exerted well away from the median line, and with this
standing out of the jaw muscles at the side seems to be associated the
breadth of cheek-bones, orbits and jaws, which is such a marked feature
here. The pre-frontal region seems to have grown out to the level of
the heavy brows, so that the latter do not project out as strong brow-
ridges, though the eyes are deep-set beneath.

It is difficult to accept either the Briinn or the Briix'" skull-caps as
suitable subjects from which to name a race, and there are difficulties
about naming it from the allied skull from Combe Capelle. Science is
waiting anxiously for a full account of skulls found at Predmost, as it
seems likely that these will furnish a useful basis for naming the type.
The general characters here are the extreme length and narrowness of
the head, so that the cranial index is rarely as high as 73 on the skull, and
the strong development of the brow-ridges. It was once supposed that
the strong brow-ridges betokened Neanderthaloid kinship, but that idea
has been given up, though some have discussed whether the skull-cap
recently found at Podkoumok " in the Caucasus should not be included in
this group rather than in the Neanderthal group. The accepted distinc-
tions between the two groups have included the lowness of the vault in
the Neanderthal group, and the fusion in that group of all the elements
of the brow-ridges and glabella to form a frontal torus.

It has, however, been found that some of the Lautsch skulls (Moravia)
a.re very low in the vault, and this is true for one from Mechta-el-Arbi
(cranial index, however, 76.7) in N. Africa. In one of the Lautsch skulls
also the brow-ridges and glabella are fused, though there is nothing like
the strength of the frontal torus of the Neanderthal type. It may be that
the progress of discovery will lead us to a knowledge of a type approxi-
mately ancestral to both the Neanderthal group and the group now under
■discussion, these two representing divergent specialisations.

From the fact that Briinn, Briix, Lautsch, Predmost are all in Moravia
one may speak tentatively of the Moravian group, with the Combe Capelle
skeleton as an outlying find in the French Aurignacian. The group is
important because it is so widely represented in skulls of subsequent
periods and in present-day populations, in both cases with modifications
in detail.

The Combe Capelle, Briinn, and apparently some Predmost skulls are
high, with the median line standing out as a ridge. Where it is known, the
face is longer and less broad than that of the Cro Magnon type, though
iere again the cheek-bones stand out. The nose is sometimes fairly broad,
the stature is moderate.

Menghin has ventured the suggestion that this type may be linked with

1° Schwalbe, G. ' Die Schildel von Briix,' Z. fiXr Morph. und Anth., 1906.
" Fleming, R. M., ' The Podkoumok Skull,' Man, June 1926. Szombathy, J..
■* Die Mensclienrassen im oberen Palaolithikum,' Mitt. Anth. Ges. Wien, 1926.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 180

the art of sculpturing in the round, so characteristic of some Aurignacian
stations in Europe.

Skulls from Solutre show high heads apparently without strong brow-
ridges, but here the head is relatively shorter and the cranial index is
much higher (77.9-83.2, as against 74-5-6 in Cro Magnon, and about 70
or less in several others). We await with great interest further details of
these Solutre skulls.''^

IV. — A Comparative Review of the Early Forms Noticed.

We must note first that it is no longer possible to speak of the people
of the Aurignacian and Solutrean jDhases as all long-headed ; the Solutre
skulls show that fairly broad-headed men had already appeared in Europe
at that time. It is also evident that there are several characters which
are widespread among these early forms of modern man, but that these
characters occur in different associations in different cases. Extrezne long-
headedness is common to several specimens, and is usually, but not always,
associated with high-headedness and with strength of brow-ridges and of
cheek-bones, connected with great strength of the temporal muscles.
There is, however, also a fairly frequent occurrence of a somewhat greater
width combined with less height of head, as in the Cro Magnon type, and
here it would seem that the brow-ridges do not stand out forwards in
most cases. The temporal muscles were undoubtedly strong in this last
type, but they seem to have been set farther out to the side.

The increase in length of the skull, which undoubtedly seems to have
occurred in the early forms of modern man, appears to have been mainly
an increase in length in front of the ear, and it is important that, in
children's growth, the part of the head in front of the ear increases in
length more and faster than the part behind the ear. Here it is interesting
to note that the Chancelade skull seems to have less lengthening of the
front part than many others, and to remember also that Chancelade jnan
did not walk quite erect. He has not been described in the previoiis section
because he is later in presumed date than those mentioned, but he appears
to show some early features.

Now, if growth was taking place particularly in the anterior region of
the skull, and was often especially growth in length, this means that
additions were being made most of all along the coronal suture which
goes across the head near the vertex, and we may inquire why this was so.
One reason seems to be that the temporal muscles, functioning stronf^lv
when the jaws were used for tugging at flesh food, were obviously of verv
great importance to the men of the late Palaeolithic Age, as they had beeii
to earlier man and to his animal ancestors. In other words, a persistent
ancient feature frequently exercised a marked influence on a new growth.
In several cases the two sides of the skull-roof were pulled down, or the
median line was ridged up, and this is found frequently associated with
a deep temporal hollow, and markedly outstanding brow-ridges remain
as a natural consequence. These are not new features but, rather, per-
sistent old ones. In other cases the front part of the roof is less gabled,

1- Deperet, Arcelin, and Mayet. ' Decouvertes d'hommes fossiles d'age aurignacien
et le gisemeiit prehistorique de Solutre,' La Nature, 2587 (1923) and 2654 (1926),

190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and the brows are then usually less outstanding as elements distinct from
the brain-case. In other cases again the temporal muscles seem to exercise
still less influence on the skull, and growth is not so predominantly a growth
along the coronal suture ; here the head is less narrow, the brow-ridges
are generally weaker, and, especially in women who have little growth of
brow-ridges, the forehead may even bulge forward to some extent above
the brows.

Lest too much importance be attached to the influence of the temporal
muscles upon the skull-form attained as growth proceeded, it is well to
remember that the face was still strongly developed in most early examples
of modern man, and that to balance this the head must project backwards
a good deal ; therefore growth in length would be marked in those forms
which had a weighty development forwards. This occurred in most cases,
whether the skull was very narrow and high or less narrow and lower.
This growth in length leading to backward projection resulted, as has been
said, chiefly from growth of the front part.

In trying to understand the variations in form of early Neanthropic
men's skulls as essentially growth-differences, it is well to remember that
the man of Neanderthal type from La Chapelle aux Saints had a cranial
index in the neighbourhood of 80 if the brow-ridges be excluded in taking
the length. The relation of breadth to length in the Piltdown skull was
about 79 per cent., and most of the apes are brachycephalic (apart from
the brow-ridges), though H. A. Harris has recently shown that some
gorillas are dolichocephalic*

It is thus possible to think that, with the growth changes involved when
there evolved men of the types found in Aurignacian and Solutrean times
in Europe, some individuals responded with little change of cranial index
and became what are often called mesaticephals or sub-brachycephals.
Others responded with a lesser or greater degree of growth in relative
length, not in absolute length be it noted. The skulls with very low
cranial index and great height so characteristic for the Solutrean, and to
some extent for the Aurignacian phase of culture, are thus held to be an
early specialisation among men of modern type, and this view is contra-
distinguished from that which has been suggested from time to time,
and which supposes that dolichocephaly was the one primitive condition
in men of modern type, and that brachycephaly somehow evolved from it.

When the types of living men are studied, it becomes evident that the
heads which have a very low index have a distribution which includes the
following features : —

(a) Many of their locations are peripheral, as though they had been
pushed out to the very edges.

(b) Some of their peripheral locations, and many of those which are
not peripheral, are in regions of difficulty which are typically
refuges of old types.

It is unreservedly recognised that this does not account for all the
facts. There are, for example, types — e.g. in S.E. Australia — with low
indices and heavy brow-ridges, but the head there is generally low, not
high, as would be anticipated from what has been urged here. I think

* ' Endocranial Form of Gorilla Skulls,' Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthr., 1926, p. 167.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 191

this point could be met by more minute speculation as to evolution of
types ; they may be a very early variant. It is also proper to add that
in N.W. India there are large numbers of men with very high heads of
very low index, and that area is neither peripheral nor a region of difficulty.
This problem needs to be thought out in its prehistoric setting, but I do
not think it, as yet, invalidates the view here sketched out.

It is still far too early to build on the suggestion, but one may use as
a preliminary sketch the idea of the evolution of very long-headed early
modern men somewhere on the great plains from Cap Verde to Persia, and
of their spread to the great plains north of the Euxine, as well as to
S.W. Europe. If, at the same time, one thinks of types with less
lengthened heads, for example in the highlands of Asia Minor and on the
southern flank of the Cap Verde-Persia area, one has a picture which will
be of use till a better can be made. That the early home of modern man
was a broad zone, with local differences in types of people, can hardly be
doubted.

Before proceeding to a rapid survey of some living groups of mankind
w^e must note a few more features of early modern man, features in which
he seems to contrast with his predecessors.

Ceremonial burials became frequent, and in a few cases group-burials
also indicate increased group-life, and artistic expression found special
development in the carving of statuettes, emphasising especially the fact
of maternity. There is also clear indication of liberation of initiative
within the group, in that implements took on more varied forms for various
purposes and in various localities ; and, in handling quantities of them,
one cannot but feel that men were more accustomed than heretofore
to throwing away an old implement and taking a new one. There can
be little doubt that with the growth of social life went an increase of
parental interests, with the probable accompaniment of prolongation of
infancy, and, very probably with this, of prolongation of the whole life
cycle. Increased possibilities of education would seem to have been
opened up, and would in their turn not only help to lengthen the adolescent
phase, but could also contribute to the refinement of the hand and the
completion of acquisition of the erect posture.

V. — Some Possible Survivors of Early Types of Modern Man—
the Pigmies and Others.

Had we the whole pageant of evolution before us we should expect to
find that early stages of the evolutionary changes noticed above survived
here and there, especially in out-of-the-way places or unfavourable situa-
tions. We should expect to notice amongst them degenerative as well as
primitive features, and probably evidences of infantilism. Near the base
of the vertebrate genealogical tree cluster such forms as Amphioxus,
Appendicularia, Tunicates, &c., each with a medley of primitive,
degenerative, and infantile features. Similarly near the base of the
Molluscan genealogical tree occur Chsetoderma, Neomenia, and Chiton.

Looking at certain groups of living men with these analogies in mind,
and thinking of their present distribution in relation to the supposed
home of the earliest men of modern type, we are led to interpret some

192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

characters as survivals of early stages of the evolution of modern mani
from ancient man. These characters may be accompanied by indications-
of infantilism and perhaps of special adaptations.

The Andamanese, Semang, Aeta and Tapiro all live around the south-
easterly fringe of Asia, in a region where land-connections must have been
far more extensive when the coastline was near the present 100-fathom
line. They are all very short, with small heads of moderate relative
length, i.e. there is every ground for thinking that among them the growth
in length noted for a number of early types of modern man has not taken
place. Their noses are flat and broad, again an early feature, but this is-
less marked in the Tapiro. The skin is very dark and the hair is set in
close spirals. It seems almost necessary to think that some of these
types have left their mark on the population of various parts of India.
Papua has other pigmy and short peoples besides the Tapiro, people who'
have spirally curved hair and are moderate-headed, some even very long-
headed. In the Semang the ratio arm/leg is said to be unusually high.

The Akka and other pigmies of equatorial Africa are again small and
small-headed, the relative head-length being again only moderate, so that
the cephalic index is 77-81, but lower in some groups. In these people
pigmentation is less than it usually is in Africa, and downy hair occurs in
notable development, especially on the legs ; these points suggest partial
infantilism, especially as the very short stature is due rather to extremely
short legs than to smallness of the trunk-length. The absence of the
very dark colouring otherwise so general in Africa has been supposed ta
be due to forest life, and this environmental influence may have played!
an important part in the evolution of the pigmy.

The Bushmen of S. W. Africa are a little taller than the above ; their-
body is poor in hair, though the hairs are in close spirals, and among them.
Fritsch''^ finds down-hairs (lanugo) here and there. The head, according
to Broom," has small measurements, but the relative length is greater
than the above, so the cephalic index on the skull ranges down from 78 tO'
about 72 ; the head is low in the crown. Are these survivors of a stage
in the lengthening process, or are they due to a cross between two types ?'
It has sometimes been supposed that the low stature of the Bushmen is
a result of poor feeding. The skin-colouring is not very dark. The
nose is very broad and flat, the brow-ridges are not marked, but the cheek-
bones stand out.

The Tasmanians, now just extinct, were of moderate height. The
head form ranged from brachycephaly to well-marked dolichocejihaly..
One skull, for example, is 205 mm. in length and has a cranial index of
72.2. The basi-bregmatic height of the skull is not great, but its average
value is only 5 mm. less than that of the breadth, and only 75 per cent,
of the skulls known from Tasmania have the height less than the breadth.
The colour of the Tasmanians was very dark, their hair was in close-
spirals and was fairly abundant, their nose was very broad and fiat.
Their brow-ridges, in contradistinction to those of the peoples mentioned

i' Fritsch, G. ' Das Haupthaar,' 1912 ; ' Die menschliche Haupthaaranlage/
1915.

!■* Broom, R. ' Craniology of Yellow-skinned Races of South Africa,' Journ.
Boy. Anihr. Inst., liii., 1923.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 193

before, are strongly marked. On the whole the Tasmanians seem to have
descended from early types of modern man in whom the process of
skull-lengthening, inferred above, had proceeded some distance.

VI. — Some African Features.

Before going any farther, attention must be drawn to the curious
problem of the hair, which in all these types is in close spiral curves.
Now, ape- hair is wavy, with roots stretching down into the deeper layers
of the skin, and Sarasin*^ and Junod have recently claimed that it is only
at about the time of birth that the hair of a negro child becomes spirally
curved. Fritsch has shown that the slighter, or downy, hairs of the
Bushman have a fairly straight course up from the roots, and that the
spirally curved hairs develop that curve just above the root, often with
a fairly sharp angle between the root and the beginning of the curve.
For the moment it seems probable that these slighter hairs are part of
the downy-hair covering already mentioned, but it would not be safe to
assume that they are the modified survivors of ape-hair ; they may be.
In any case it would seem that among some early representatives of
modern man, if not earlier still, a specialisation of hair-growth occurred
and produced the ' spiral ' types of hair among those groups which were
on the south side of the presumed early home of modern man. That
specialisation has fixed itself racially, in the end, at an early stage of growth.
Factors of equatorial climate probably contributed to this result, for by
this change the hairs were concentrated nearer the surface and the blood
could thus be brought near the surface, and possibilities of cooling could
be increased. This condition is a step towards that which obtains in
various degrees among African peoples, in which the blood-vessels of the
skin are abundantly developed. It is worth noting that the Aurignacian
statuette called the ' Venus of Willendorf ' is sculptured to suggest woolly
head-hair, while the ' Sorcerer ' of Lourdes is drawn to show wavy hair.

Next, we may think of the cases in which the lengthening of the head
argued in an early paragraph has taken place fairly clearly and com-
pletely ; but for the moment we shall consider only those of the southern
lands of the Old World, those who may have drifted southwards from the
early home of modern man. Certain Hottentots and Koranas measured
by Broom'" are distinctly taller than the peoples discussed above, their
heads are often quite long, absolutely as well as relatively, and their
cranial indices range from 64.2 to 72.3 on the skull. The brow-ridges
are often very strong, and some men have more face-hair than is usual
in Africa ; the hair is spirally curved, as usual. Some are tall and strongly
built. The height of the skull is usually as great as, or greater than, the
width, so in this feature again they illustrate what I have supposed
occurred in some types of early modern man. The ancient S. African
Boskop" skull differs from these in some ways, just as the Cro Magnon

'•' Sarasin, F. ' Sur le changement de la chevelure chez les enfants des
Melanesiens, et des negres Africains,' L'Anthropologie, 1925.

'^ Broom, op. cit.

" Pycraft, W. P. 'On the Calvaria found at Boskop,' Journ. Roy. Anihr. Inst.,
1923.

1926 O

194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

skull difiers from those of Predmost and Combe Capelle ; its height is
much less than its breadth.

Thus it is seen that from Africa (south of the Sahara) we can match,
mutatis mutandis, the known early Aurignacian types of Europe, allowing
that the best matching of the Grimaldi type on the whole would be with
some of the true negroid types to be mentioned next. Among the negroids
we find a general indication of long-headedness as a basic character ;
high-headedness is also widespread, and both features are sometimes
developed to extremes. The close-spiral hair arising from curved roots
near the surface of the skin, the great development of blood-vessels in
the skin, the poverty of body-hair and the utilisation of the sebaceous
secretion for keeping the skin surface supple and alive, so that non-con-
ducting layers do not accumulate much, the variable but dark colouring,
the flat broad nose (in many but not all cases), the thick everted lips are
all well-known characters. Some are presumed here to be inheritances
from early types of modern man, retained in some cases because infantilism
seems to be apt to occur ; in others, such as that of the broad flat nose,
because the features are of value to promote cooling. Others may be
specialisations, including perhaps the close-spiral hair, the great develop-
ment of skin blood-vessels, the everted lips, the thin supple epidermis
without many dry dead layers, all of which would promote cooling. The
Bushman ^* in the desert has a fair thickness of dry skin, and has not the
great development of skin blood-vessels seen in some other African types.

It is interesting to note the general dark colouring of the presumed
survivors of early man in the southerly lands of the Old World, with the
exception of the African forest pigmies and the Bushmen. It may be
that the pigment formerly supplying the hairs remained in the skin as
the hair diminished in quantity, especially in view of the fact that a
certain amount of pigment is a valuable protection against the too great
influence of the shorter visible (blue end of spectrum) rays of the sun.'"
The ultra-violet rays are mostly filtered out by the horny layers of the
epidermis. One should remember that deposited pigment is probably
also waste matter laid aside where it can do but little harm, and that
pigment of the surface above blood-vessels is a widespread feature in
Vertebrates, Arthropods, Molluscs, &c. It was obviously especially
types with broad flat noses, prominent mouths, and feeble brow-ridges
and spirally curved hair that spread southwards in Africa, but a brow-
ridged type also went that same way.

Vn. — South-eastward Drifts of Early Types of Modern Man, as
Represented in Present-day Populations.

The supposed southward drift into Africa south of the Sahara was a
drift affecting chiefly the people of the southerly belt of the zone early
modern man is held to have occupied. What may be called the south-
easterly drift would be a drift of somewhat different character, a drift
from the eastern end of the zone and a drift thus affecting not only the
people of the southerly belt but also those of the belt farther north. Thus

1'' Fritsch, G., op. cit.

13 Hill, L. ' The Science of Ventilation ' {vide supra), pt. 1, pp. 122-3, 1919.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 195

there drifted in this direction not only the little peoples with small
non-lengthened heads, who reached various points around S.E. Asia, as
already mentioned, but also other types. The Tasmanians, for example,
also showing spirally curved hair, have heads to some extent lengthened,
and the brows are well marked. The Australian natives, with their very
long heads and strong brow-ridges, broad flat noses and prominent mouths,
are in some ways comparable with the Koranas of S. Africa,^" but have wavy
hair growing from fairly straight roots. The height of the head is often
small in S.E. Australia, but is great in N. Australia. Their resemblance
to the Vedda of Ceylon is universally recognised.

In Papua and Melanesia, on the other hand, though many of the same
skull- and face-characters are present, the hair is in spirals. Nevertheless,
it is to be noted that, whereas the African hair is said by Sarasin and
Junod to change in character about the time of birth, they claim that
the change in Papua and Melanesia comes when the child is from two to
four or five years old. In Melanesia it would appear that there is, as one
would expect, much admixture.

As has been indicated, then, the south-easterly drift of the older
varieties of modern man seems to be a more varied one than that into
inter-tropical Africa, and this is apparently due to the fact that it is a
drift from the eastern end of all belts of the zone of occupation of early
modern man as well as to complexities of physical geography. One cannot
but suppose that the earliest drift in this direction was of people with
dark skins, spirally curved hair and non-lengthened heads, but that there
followed people with more lengthened heads (Tasmanians in one direction
and Melanesians in another, though the two groups are not at all closely
related). Subsequently there would seem to have followed people with
the fully lengthened head, but with wavy hair, people, however, retaining
dark skin. These early drifts have obviously intertwined, as one would
expect from the relative narrowness and the great length of the belt through
which they moved.

To understand these drifts a little more closely one may move the
coastline of S.E. Asia to about the present 100-fathom line, thus adding
Ceylon to India, as well as Sumatra, Java, Bali and Borneo to the Malay
Peninsula and Cambodia. Palawan would then become a peninsula
stretching north-eastwards from Borneo, and almost making contact with
the Philippines, which again would almost attain contact with N.E. Borneo
on the other side of the Sulu Sea. Farther east, Papua would be united
to N. Australia, and only narrow straits between N. Australia and Timor,
between Timor and an enlarged Lombok-Flores-Ombaya, and between
this enlarged island and Bali, would separate the land masses of this
region.

Vni. — North-westward and North-eastward Drifts of Early Types of
Modern Man, as Indicated in Present-day Populations.

Hyperdolichocephalic people occur here and there in the European
quadrant of the Old World, in Ireland, Wales, Norway, the Dordogne,
Tras-os-Montes in N. Portugal, in Sardinia, in the south-east Carpathian
region, and in N. Africa. The appropriate type of skull is a noteworthy

^^ Broom, op. cit.

o 2

196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

feature in Kurgan burials in S. Russia. Sometimes, as in N. Africa and
in Wales and France, at" least, the people concerned suggest likeness to
the Grimaldi type. In other cases the resemblance is rather to the
Moravian group or the Combe Capelle skull.

Rodd^^ has claimed that the Libyans include people who show the
features of the Cro Magnon tjrpe. Telesforo de Aranzadi^'" makes similar
claims for Biscayan Spain, and Collignon made them also for the
Dordogne.^^ The survival of the Cro Magnon type is perhaps hardly
established, but it seems probable.

We may thus form the idea that a basic element in the population of
the European quadrant is a very old mixture of early types of modern
man, with subsequent inter-breeding and modifications. In addition to
this basic element there are immigrants of other types from outside.

V/hen the ice sheets were retreating finally the way northward between
the Elburz Mountains and the Hindu Kush was probably beginning to be
opened up, though doubtless the ice sheets on the Pamirs and adjacent
ranges were still mighty, and the highland plateau of Mongolia, and
much more the mountains of Thibet, were certainly still almost un-
inhabitable. Doubtless, therefore, men spreading in this direction were
from the first possessed of characteristics protecting them from bitter
cold.

Men with very long, high heads who appear to bo linked at least distantly
with the early types mentioned in a previous section have reached America
by north-eastward drift, at first avoiding the great highland mass of
Central Asia.

Some living near or on the ice sheet would seem in the end, probably
long after this period, to have reached the Arctic tundra, and to have
suited their mode of life to its environment. It is as survivors of such
people that I interpret the Greenland and Baffin's Land Eskimo, without
in any way suggesting that they go back to high antiquity in these
particular regions. Others reached the American pine forest, and long-
headed, high-headed types are known from skulls in the eastern States of
North America. Others are scattered here and there in North America,
in the extremity of the peninsula of Lower California, for example, also
in a few spots in Mexico. In South America" there are both skulls of some
antiquity and living people with these head characters on the plateau of
Central and East Brazil, and old skulls in Colombia as well, while analogous
features existed among some peoples of the extreme south. Hrdlicka
has advanced arguments for racial resemblances throughout the ancient
native population of America, and we would look upon these extreme
long-heads as the first and most peripheral wave of a series generally
becoming broader-headed with each succeeding wave.

The Ainu of N. Japan and Sakhalin and some ancient crania from
Japan seem another wave of early types surviving in what is in a sense

21 Rodd, F. ' The Origin of the Tuareg,' Qeogr. Joiirn., 1926.

22 de Aranzadi, in a letter to Dr. Haddon, 1918.

23 Mem. Soc. Anthr. Paris, t. 1, No. 3, 1894 (Dordogne).

24 Rivet, P., ' La Race de Lagoa Santa,' Bull. Mem. Soc. Anthr., 1909. Hrdlicka.
A., ' Early Man in South America,' Amer. Bureau Ethnol., lii., 1912 ; ' Origin and
Antiquity of the American Indian,' 1925. Vemeau, R., ' Crdnes d'Indiens de la
Colombie,' U Anthr., xxxiv., 1924.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 197

an ultimate corner, but among them apparently the specially long-heads
are not in the majority. None the less, long-headedness with high-
headedness is a feature here. The Ainu also stand out in contrast to
most other peoples of East and North Asia in having very hairy bodies.
Extreme hairiness may be looked upon as a protective scheme alternative
to the development of the very dry skin with very few hairs, characteristic
of Mongolia, &c.

Looking generally at the early spread of man northward in Asia, we
note that yellow-brown or brown or red-brown skin is a widespread
feature. It is partly a maintenance of early pigmentation, partly, perhaps,
an adaptation of that pigment to conditions of snow-glare and sunlight
in a cold climate along lines which are being made the subject of physical
investigation. The skins are usually well provided with dry epidermal
layers, as would be natural in such climates. For the most part, hair-
reduction has been carried to an extreme, and such hair as remains grows
in firm pores in such a way as to fill the pore very completely. Sweat-
glands also are not over-numerous, and, in consequence of this, skin garments
can be worn without undue discomfort for a long time. A skin of this
kind has a low irritability, an important fact in relation to the equability
of temperament and relatively low sensibility to pain that is characteristic
of many of the peoples who have spread north-eastwards in Asia ; needless
to say, modifying factors affecting the temperament in other ways could
be discussed. A moderate nose and strong cheek-bones may be supposed
to be a general ancient feature of these peoples, but this matter will be
discussed later. The diet generally includes a good deal of fat, thus
encouraging production of heat that balances the high cooling power of
the environment. Some of the broader-headed spreads in the directions
indicated have reached regions with warmer seasons, and have adopted
very different diets, especially as the type of skin just discussed does not
make easy the dispersion of internal heat.

Some broad-heads spreading northwards in Asia took the river-bank
ways, such as that of the Yenisei, and, arriving on the tundra, ultimately
found the westward route via North Kussia to Scandinavia possible as
the ice sheet of the latter diminished. This last spread must have been
relatively late.

In concluding this brief review of early spreads of man and of their
probable effects on present-day populations, it is well to refer to the
interesting new light that is beginning to be shed on racial problems by
the study of blood groups.'^^ The results are fragmentary and still lack
correlations, but it already seems that, in some extreme peripheral regions,
such as Australia, America, Iceland, and, to some extent, N.W. Europe,
the proportions of persons with Groups III or IV of the usual blood- classifi-
cation scheme are very low indeed. It is as though a large element of the
blood of these peripheral peoples was inherited with little alteration from
a phase before certain specialisations occurred in the composition of the
blood.

2» Snyder, L. H. ' Human Blood Groups,' Am. Journ. Phys. Anthr., 1926.

198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

IX. — Post-glacial Changes and Food Production.

According to de Geer, sinking of land in North- West Europe contri-
buted to rapid retreat of ice sheets aboiit 6000 B.C., and the belt of the
Atlantic westerlies shifted northward to its present position. The Central
Asiatic ice sheets would thus be diminished through reduction of precipita-
tion in consequence of this shift. For some millenia the Central Asiatic
ice continued to yield enough water to keep moist certain areas that are
now arid. Farther south the Mediterranean region and especially Mesopo-
tamia were acquiring their well-known alternation of a cool rainy with a
dry warm season. Mesopotamia doubtless long retained a good deal of
moisture from melting of mountain-ice, especially as there was occasional
slight regrowth of ice, as in the ' Gschnitz ' period of the glaciologists.
This, however, was followed by marked subsidence of land in N.W. Europe,
giving the mild conditions of the ' Littorina Sea ' in the Baltic area, and
presumably considerable heat farther south {e.g. in Mesopotamia).

The change of climate in N.W. Europe brought pine forest to replace
the earlier steppe, and this was a serious crisis for the animal and human
inhabitants. A pine forest is generally unfriendly to men who depend
on collecting for their own needs, and the old culture seems to have
decayed, leaving fragmented groups near the shores living on shell-fish, &c.
Some patches free of forest because of loess soil or porous rock seem to
have retained a hunting population, but the general condition seems to
have been one of poverty and stagnation, though Kossinna thinks the
south Baltic shores saw an advance of culture which most other students
ascribe to awakening influences from the south-east at a later date. The
oak forest succeeded the pine, and might have brought better opportunities
had there been indigenous food-plants in W. or N.W. Europe. As it was,
however, what may be called epipalseolithic conditions continued for long
ages in the west.

The probable early home of grain was in some part of the Fertile Crescent
around the north end of the Arabian Desert, and food production was
already undertaken there, e.g. at Susa, about or before 5000 B.C. A
culture complex, which included cultivation of wheat and barley, the art
of stone-grinding, that gave rise to the wedge and a mastery over work
in wood, the hafting of tools, pottery, the beginnings of domestication of
animals (possibly mainly for milk), the dawn of metallurgy and other arts,
seems to have arisen in the Fertile Crescent ; and the Nile area may have
contributed to, as well as been helped by, this. Evidence is as yet frag-
mentary, but there are indications of the spread of elements of this culture
complex during the fourth millennium B.C. to W. Europe, probably via
Hungary.'^" The lake-dwellings of Switzerland seem to be a result of
this. A spread of early Danubian culture to Belgium is held by several
to have brought agriculture to W. Europe. There is, however, no need
to picture the awakening West as copying exactly from old and distant
civilisations. One will be nearer the truth if one thinks of the incoming
of a germinating influence. The mastery of a wood technique, food

26 See further discussion in ' The Corridors of Time,' H. J. E. Peake and H. J.
Pleure (iu the press) ; also Childe, V. G., ' Dawn of European Civilisation,' 1925 ;
Hoemes-Menghin, op. cit.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 199

production, and the art of the pottery all contributed to home-making, to
the provision of soft food for infants and to the enhancement of parental
opportunities. Thus began the development of our agricultural civilisa-
tion of W. and N.W. Europe with its more and more settled life and its
improving equipment. It is in relation to these changes that one may-
picture the continuation of a progressive diminution of the jaws and the
brow-ridges, but one must remember the long persistence of ancient
characters in the north-west, where they are foimd frequently enough
among the skeletons from graves of the period of transition from stone to
metal. Menghin is inclined to think that there was a direct inheritance
from the old loess hunters of Hungary and Moravia to the later agricultural
peasantry of that region.

X. — Brachycephalic Types.

We have seen that the Palaeolithic flesh-hunters without pots or pans
must often have pulled at flesh- food half raw with their jaws, and their
temporal muscles had to remain strong and firm, giving a head growth
towards the long and high form. But among the mountains and forested
valleys there may well have remained people among whom the lengthening
of the skull may have been less marked (c/. Sect. IV), peoples for
whom roots and seeds and berries were more important, and who, as
Prof. Thomson and Mr. Buxton would put it, used their chewing (masseter)
muscles far more.

Among such people the general human tendency to reduction of brow-
ridges would find freer scope, and the general head-growth could express
itself more freely by increase of both diameters. I am thus inclined
to venture the hypothesis that broad-headedness is not so much an
evolution from long-headedness as a separate evolution from a medium-
broad condition of very early modern man as already suggested (Sect. IV).
A further hypothesis is that this line of evolution, i.e. increase of space
for the fore-brain without much relative lengthening, even possibly with
relative broadening, occurred somewhere in the mountain zone of the Old
"World, and most probably in Asia Minor or the W. Persian area or near
by. Why is this region suggested ?

Among the highlands of S.W. Asia, Anatolia and Armenia have long
been the home of one of the most remarkable developments of broad-
headedness, with specialisations not shared to any extent by the Carpatho-
Alpine or by the Irano-Pamirian broad-heads. The two groups are like
one another in several ways, and it may be suggested that they are survivals
of a stage of the development of broad-headed types which has been passed
and left behind by the people of the Tauro- Armenian region. If this be
so, on the principle of wave-spreads from an evolutionary centre which
Clark Wissler'" has so well expounded for cultural anthropology, one may
risk the suggestion that the broad-headed type of modern man had his
first home not far from Asia Minor.

So far, the only suggestion about physical character of these people
has been that, among men using the masseter muscles to a greater extent

27 Wissler, Clark. ' Man and Culture,' 1923 ; ' The Relation of Man to Environ-
ment in Aboriginal America,' 1925.

200 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

than the temporals, the skull would be freer to expand along both diameters
instead of almost exclusively in length. More chewing and less tearing
and pulling would less definitely pull the jaws lengthwise. More power
for chewing would be gained by growth in length of the ascending ramus
of the jaw, and this added growth is a feature of most broad-headed tjrpes.
Increase of power of the masseters above a certain amount can be secured
probably only by increased width of the malar bones, and thus by increased
width of the face. If the face and jaws tend towards width rather than
length the same tendency is likely to show itself in the head. After men
had attained the upright posture a strong forward projection of the face
would have to be balanced by a backward projection of the head ; on
the other hand, a reduction of such a forward projection would allow the
reduction of the backward projection. On the whole, then, with the
changes indicated, it is possible to think that men among whom chewing
was far more important than tearing and pulling with the jaws, might find
their normal head-growth leading rather to an increase than to a
decrease of relative cranial breadth. Broad-headed people spread very
early into Europe, and their skulls are known from Ofnet and Mugem.
Some of the Ofnet skulls show a frontal region which suggests dolicho-
cephaly, while the parietal region demonstrates brachycephaly ; this is
a natural feature in skulls of early date if we remember the restrictions
operating in early times on frontal growth in breadth.

There has been no attempt to argue that emphasis on chewing rather
than on tearing and pulling by the jaws has led to a change from
dolichocephaly to brachycephaly. The suggestion has rather been that
modern types of men may well have started medium-headed with indices
not very different from those of ancient man (the frontal torus of
Neanderthal types not being counted with the skull for purposes of
measurement). On this has been built up the idea that growth would
express itself in form changes which would on the whole tend towards
growth in length in some cases and more towards growth in breadth in
others.

The skulls of early modern men, in which the growth in length is fully
seen, rarely have a cranial index of more than 72, and this gives, for them,
an index not above 73-4 on the living head. Specimens with indices below
these respective limits form a much better-marked group than those
below the ' 75 ' limit of dolichocephaly often quoted and used.

Skulls with indices 72 or so to 77.5 (say 73.5-79 on the living head)
are a more heterogeneous group, including perhaps survivors of early
types with increase of fore-brain space but only relatively slight increase
of relative length. They probably also include cases in which there has
been an evolution from long-headedness of the extremer type, thanks to
the reduction of restraining influences of the temporal muscles during
the period of growth.

No sharp divisions in a continuous series, such as that of skull forms,
can be really satisfactory, but 72 aud 77.5 on the skull or 73.5 and 79
on the living head would be more useful than the limits generally
chosen.

Another factor seems to have operated in the evolution of the broader-
headed types. The nasal chambers, as Thomson has pointed out, are

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 201

often large in broad-headed men.'"' In the broad-headed people of Asia
Minor this largeness is emphasised in unique fashion. They have grown
forwards and give the remarkable Hittite noses of the ancient reliefs and
of the modern population. This suggests the accentuation of the median
plane in more or less frontal growth, and this tendency is carried to an
extreme in some peoples of Asia Minor and the Illyrian region with very
high, small-crowned heads as well as very strong noses.

On the other hand, among the later spreads of broad-headed man to
the high plateau of the Tarim, Mongolia and Tibet, we find a flattening in
and deepening of the malar, giving extra strength and directness to the
masseter muscles ; and with this the nasal bones are naturally inclined
to remain flat, so the space for the nasal chambers lies well in towards
the brain instead of projecting far forwards. This gives an increased
tendency to frontal breadth of the skull, resulting in the well-known
rounded-head form characteristic of some peoples of this region.
Here it should be noticed, first, that many people, especially towards the
north side of the plateaux of Central Asia, do not show this flattening,
but rather have prominent noses ; they may well be drifts from the
Pamirs or Anatolia. The broad heads of the high plateaux are generally
brown or yellow-brown in skin colour ; this is to be correlated first with
the retention of an ancestral brown tinge by people who remain exposed
to marked glare of sun and snow, and second with the thickening of
the dry superficial layers of the skin and the sinking of the blood-vessels
into the deeper layers of the dermis, both protective devices in a region
where the cold anti-cyclone of winter is so highly developed. Those who
are interested in correlations with activities of endocrine glands will note
that dryness of skin and flatness of face (' Mongolism ') have been said to
be associated in the West with unusual lowness of pituitary secretion.
Excess of pituitary, on the other hand, produces acromegaly, including
over-development of the mouth, brow-ridges, &c., and it can be corrected
to a remarkable extent by giving doses of thyroid extract. Our know-
ledge of the endocrines is still in its infancy, but it seems likely that the
proper balance of these secretions is one prime need for normal growth,
and that balance seems to be somewhat different in different regions. It
would seem, at the moment, that the influence of pituitary relatively to
thyroid is greater in tropical Africa than it is in inner Asia, i.e. in a warm,
rather moist, than in a cold, dry climate.

To sum up as regards broad-headed men, I think the type originated
somewhere in the S.W. Asiatic mountain-country and that broad-
headedness spread both north-westward as the moimtain regions of Europe
cleared themselves of glaciers, and north-eastward as Turkestan, &c.,
became more habitable. On the one hand, I think that the development
of broad-headedness, with accentuation of the median plane, has gone
much farther in Illyria and Anatolia than among the broad-headed people
who have spread, whether to the Alpo-Carpathian region on the north-
west or to Turkestan, the Pamirs, and Gobi on the north-east. On the
other hand, I think that some of the broad-heads entering the region of

2« Thomson, A., Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst., xxxiii., 1903 ; also Proc. XVII Internal.
Med. Congress, 1913. Thomson, A., and Buxton, L. H. D., ' Man's Nasal Index,'
Journ. Roy. Anthr. Inst., 1923.

202 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the high plateaux of Asia have undergone a further course of evolution
in features affecting skin, cheek-bones, nose and skull. May we not look
upon the very variable extra fold of the upper eyelid as a more or less
mechanical adaptation closely linked with the flattening of the malars ?
Once it had begun, it might well be developed farther by use and conse-
quent growth in the individual, as it is of value as a protection against glare.

Before leaving this part of the subject it may be permissible to add
a few words concerning ' Mongolism ' in Western Europe. It occurs
sporadically in the Celtic fringe of Britain and France, as Beddoe noticed,
and there was little that he did not notice ! It may conceivably be there
because of some extension into those areas of people from North Europe
in early times ; the influence of Arctic cultures on the West in epipalseolithic
times is now generally acknowledged. But it may also be correlated with
some alteration of endocrine balance occurring among inbred populations,
for such populations are very apt to show such disturbances of balance as
we infer from the distribution of goitre, cretinism, &c.

If ' Mongolism ' in the West is associated with disturbance of what
may be called a regional balance of development usually obtaining there,
and is thus sometimes, but not by any means always, associated there
with mental peculiarity or defect, this is no ground for arguments such as
have been rather frivolously advanced about fancied inferiority of Mongol
types generally. The regional balance of development may well be
different in Eastern Asia.

To return to our broad-heads of the high plateaux of Central Asia,
with their dry yellow-brown skin, almost hairless bodies, and in some
cases flattened malars and non-prominent noses, the idea is suggested
that these high plateaux, for reasons some of which have been indicated,
became a region of evolution along the lines mentioned, and became such,
probably, relatively late in the spread of mankind. Around this region,
as the general hypothesis would lead us to expect, we usually find less
broad-headedness, whether we look north-east or east or south-east, though
south-eastwards there are, it is said, more broad-heads than in other
directions. Towards the east, that is, in North China, the brown pigment
of the skin becomes much less pronounced, but the skin remains dry and
to some extent yellowish, while south of latitude 30° with the stronger
insolation the brown pigment remains, though there is apparently less
extension in this direction of the tendency to flattening of the malars.
Towards the north there are traces of long-heads, as has already been
said, in the Arctic north-east ; but the Arctic north-west, towards Europe,
must long have remained peculiarly forbidding, and the spreads in this
direction are of broad-headed types with most of the accessory features,
including the facial flattening. Under conditions of Arctic glare the
pigment is, naturally, retained, and the dryness and hairlessness of the
skin are also characteristic. Beyond the north-east, in America, are
broad-heads, especially, as one would expect, on the American highlands
and on the Pacific side.

These few indications concerning the great zone of the broad-heads and
its fringes, must suffice in a sketch of this length, and we turn from them
to a review of the long-heads of the north-western quadrant and of certain
other regions.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 203

XI The European Quadrant of the Old World.

In the Mediterranean basin, it has been suggested, we have from
Aurignacian times onwards extreme long-heads, together with perhaps
modified or unmodified survivors of the long- but not very narrow-headed
type illustrated at Cro Magnon. It is quite possible that these ancient
peoples were brownish skinned, and that the Grimaldi element was an
important one, for, though we have only the two specimens from Grimaldi
and possibly a woman from Mugem as ancient examples, there are
numerous traces of an analogous type in present-day populations. The
Predmost-Combe Capelle group may also have been important, but was
apparently more characteristic farther north, in spite of GiufErida
Ruggeri's wish to associate it with Ethiopia. The low long-head from
Mechta el Arbi may represent another element. In the western
Mediterranean basin, with climatic improvement and beginnings of
food production and settlement, it would seem that a balance of develop-
ment was reached giving a head long, but not so long nor with such
strong pressure of temporal muscles as some of those of early times, with
olive or pale complexion and moderate nose and face. Maturity comes
earlier, apparently, with settled life in this climate than farther north, or
it may be that the girls marry early. With this early maturity may be
associated diminution of brow development, also correlated with
decrease of temporal muscles, and relative slimness of build. In the
desert of Arabia, with its sun-glare and its sharp night-air, we find more
skin-colour and more prominent noses. In North Africa, betwixt and
between, we have old characters persisting, but with tendencies, on the
whole, in the same direction as in the western Mediterranean, though
more skin-colour is a feature. Thus one may look upon Mediterranean,
Semitic, and so-called Hamitic races as fairly late regional specialisations
among the descendants of a mixed lot of types of early long-headed and
very-long-headed man.

In North-West Europe the Predmost-Combe Capelle group seems to
have been important, along with probable traces of the Cro Magnon group.
The penetration of food-production schemes into this region was apparently
slow, and ancient British and Scandinavian skulls, for example, give
strong indications of the persistence of old characters. With the growth
of settlement and related changes came, it would seem, reduction of the
jaws and their muscles, and this, in a region which encouraged long con-
tinuation of growth, led to the increase of tallness and to the development
of a rather large regularly curved skull, preserving the brow-ridges to
some extent, but developing nose and chin and the sagittal curve generally.
Thus one may look upon the Nordic Race as a fairly late regional specialisa-
tion, probably on the European loess as well as near the Baltic, of the
survivors of late Palteolithic men.

Britain belongs fully neither to the north-west nor to the western
Mediterranean region, and, while it shows types fairly closely linked with
the specialisations of both these regions, it also shows as its most character-
istic element a fair-skinned but rather dark-haired long-head who, however,
has a larger nose and a taller stature than is typical of the west Mediter-
ranean. This fundamental British type is most likely to be a descendant

204 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of early immigrants, who had not as yet fully specialised in either the
Nordic or the Mediterranean direction. It should be noted that this
view in no way denies or controverts the idea of the distinctiveness of
Nordic and Mediterranean races, as has been suggested by one or two
critics.

In both the Mediterranean and the Nordic area, and in the British
too, it is thus suggested that, as the compulsion exercised in early times
by the temporal muscles diminished, the skull became freer to grow in
breadth as well as in length. In the far west and north-west food produc-
tion came late, when, presumably, fairly inbred types had been consoli-
dating and fixing their characters for some time, or, one might also say,
had been approaching a regional balance of development. Fair hair seems
specially characteristic of some Baltic lands, and an analysis of Bryn's ^
catalogues of measurements for parts of Norway leads me to think that
this character penetrated across Scandinavia to the Trondhjem fjord.
His results show that more dark hair persists in Norway than has at times
been supposed ; and the fair-haired types are not by any means always
very long-headed.

Turning now to the Indian side of the region of early modern man, it
would be of the greatest interest could we reconstruct Pleistocene con-
ditions in India. Was the heating of the Deccan then sufficient to give
rise to the summer monsoon, and, if so, was it strong enough to create a
continuous barometric gradient from the equator to the Deccan ? If
so, again, did the trade winds of the southern hemisphere sweep in and
dominate the situation as they now seem to do ? If so, finally, did the
great swirl they set up work in the Indo-Gangetic trough, or rather to the
west, as now ? All these are questions I shall not venture to answer.
Provisionally one may note that we have already spoken of survivors of
early types of modern man in S. India, Ceylon, Malaysia, Australia,
Tasmania, Philippines, Papua, some of them survivors of very early stages
indeed. Without venturing any distance into the Indian race question,
one may say that, broadly, the noses become more prominent as we go from
the south to the north-west, and general profile development and growth
along the sagittal plane is best marked among the north-western peoples,
who spread, one might even say migrated, into India, according to most
accounts, in the early part of the second millennium B.C., with the horse
as a feature of their equipment. These are people among whom there
was obviously, ere they moved far, a great liberation of initiative and a
great call for energy. There are analogous spreads into Mesopotamia,
even probably towards Europe at that time, all with the horse, and in
later phases with the bronze sword, and all apparently of long-headed types
with strong profiles. So the broad-headedness of the modern lowlands of
Western Central Asia may well be in the main a fairly recent feature, and
may be a spread of that character from the adjacent highlands analogous
to a similar spread which appears to have been going on during the last
millennium in Central Europe.

The extension of our Indian long-heads of various grades of profile

29 Bryn, H. ' Tr(J)ndelagens Antropologi,' K. Norske V. S. Skr. 1917, No. 2
(1920); 'M<pTe Fylkes Antropologi,' Vidensk. Skr., 1920; ' Troms Fylkes Antro-
pologi,' Vidensk. Skr., 1921.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 205

development to the East Indies and Polynesia, their inter-mixtures with
earlier types and with migrants from the Chinese side, and the tendency
towards the evolution of types aggregating characters from different
ancestors are too special subjects for treatment in a general outline.

Xn Concluding Considerations.

The intention of this sketch has been to suggest that we are approaching
a stage at which it is possible to outline something of the process of race
development. It bases itself upon the essential conservatism of heredity,
and is in no way in agreement with the opinions of Franz Boas '"' as to
rapid modifiability of type. I feel clear in my own mind that Boas'
figures are quite inadequate to the support of his conclusions, both because
of his use of averages and because of his argument from a single genera-
tion. At the same time I feel that modifications have occurred, and
that we need to have working hypotheses as to the factors calling them
forth and developing them on divergent lines.

It might seem that the thoughts expressed in this address lead direct
to the Lamarckian position in evolutionary theory — changes of use of
muscles, of jaws, and so on, being brought out repeatedly as influencing
the racial resultant. This is a large topic to touch upon at the end of
an address, but I should be sorry to give the impression that I was either
blind to the problems or disposed either to extreme Lamarckism or to pure
anti-Lamarckism. It seems to me that development is a resultant of
the working of hereditary factors of an essentially conservative kind, and
of environmental influences which have undergone modifications through
changes of climate and vegetation and food, as well as through changes
of social habit and infant care and so on. Man, a social animal from the
first, has developed his social sense and social organisation, and with
this has gone change of environmental influences in plastic infancy,
changing in various ways the net outcome of the struggle of factors (and
with it the struggle of the parts) in development.

Are we, then, forced to think of every baby as being moulded from a
very primitive stage to its appropriate modern form solely by repetition
of these environmental influences generation after generation ? I think
not. We could not experiment, even if we dared, for a modern English
baby placed under palaeolithic conditions from birth would probably die,
with its mother, who would have to be treated in the same way for the
sake of such an impossible experiment.

Changes of environmental influences are usually cumulative, for
natural processes are essentially irreversible even if, as in climate, there
is something like a cyclic scheme of change. The cumulative change may
be said to draw out the course of development more and more from its
original path, thus creating a state of internal strain. No two embryos
can possibly be exactly alike, unless they be early stages of identical twins,
and some of the hereditary units may well vary towards, others away from,
a condition which would diminish that internal strain. Those varying
so as to diminish the strain would probably grow best. So we have a
theoretical possibility of variation of the germ, limping after variation

*" Boas, F. ' Changes of bodily form of Descendants of Immigrants,' 1911.

206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of the soma, and in the case of man, whose development is so closely-
linked with varj-ing balances of the influence of endocrine glands, the
limping may be fairly nimble after all.

It seems to me that students of the physiology and morphology of growth
are leading us away from both the more extreme Lamarckian and the
more extreme anti-Lamarckian view towards a view that takes in many
more considerations. The study of growth in children, pre-natally and
post-natally, is a matter of urgent scientific importance, but a matter to
be done patiently, lest, by taking arrays of children of varied types, even
if all English, at various ages, we fall into error, as some have done recently.
Every case, to be of real value, should be that of an individual child
followed year by year. Any method of arrays presupposes a homogeneous
population with one set of general growth tendencies, and such conditions
are unattainable.

This attempt to outline an evolutionary, rather than a taxonomic,
survey of the races of man naturally owes a great debt to Dr. Haddon ;
to W. Z. Eipley, who pioneered in the direction of historical interpretations ;
to Collignon, who saw a long generation ago that there were among us
sur\avors of several ancient types of modern man ; to Prof. Myres, to Prof.
Elliot Smith's studies of human evolution, to many suggestions in the
work of Prof. Sollas and Sir Arthur Keith, Dr. Hrdlicka and Prof. Arthur
Thomson, and also to both Prof. R. B. Dixon and Dr. Griffith Taylor,
with whose stimulating work readers of this address will gather I do not
altogether agree.'"

A doubt persists in my mind as to the assignment of more than a
somewhat limited value to taxonomic treatment of the question. It
seems worth while to think rather of regional gatherings-together of physical
characters.

A special attempt has been made to suggest the part played by the
development of social life in the evolution of human physique, and the
importance of parental care. These factors seem in particular to have
led in certain circumstances to a vast liberation of individual initiative
within our human societies, especially after the development of intercourse
between groups.

We must speedily undertake more and more biological observation
and measurement among ourselves, and we must exercise ever more care
in treatment of our measurements. Averages of cases which are not
properly homologous should not be made lest we mask the biological truth
in mathematical abstractions. If our anthropological work can but go on
becoming more biological, gaining insight into physiology, especially of the
brain and the endocrine organs and their correlations with growth, I venture
to think that Racial Study will develop great practical value for educa-
tion, for the fight against tuberculosis and other diseases, and for race-

=>! Haddon, A. C, especially 'The Races of Man,' 192-1; Myres, J. L., 'Intro-
ductory Section to Cambridge Ancient History,' vol. i., 1923 ; Sollas, W. J., ' Ancient
Hunters,' 1924 ; Keith, Sir A., ' The Antiquity of Man,' 1925 ; Dixon, R. B., ' The
Racial History of Man,' 1923 ; v. Eickstedt, E., ' Gedanken uber die Entwicklung
und Gliederung der Menschheit,' 3Iitt. Anthr. Ges. Wien, 1925 ; Smith, G. Elliot,
op. cit. ; Boule, M., ' Les Hommes Fossiles,' 1923 ; Martin, R., ' Lehrbuch der
Anthropologic,' 1914 ; Taylor, G., oji. cit. ; Ripley, W. Z., ' Races of Europe,' 1899 ;
Hrdli6ka, A., op. cit. ; Thomson, A., op. cit.

H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 207

improvement. Evolutionary Race Biology seems to me to be a hopeful
sphere of work that may bring about a much-needed enrichment of public
opinion on social questions, a diminution of race-arrogance, and a check on
schemes that do not sufficiently allow for the mutual adaptations between
diverse human stocks and diverse environments. I would ask for faith in
the future of such work to bring out its great possibilities for nobler
races with freer personal initiative in societies both more stable and
richer in the things that are not seen.

SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.

FUNCTION AND DESIGN,

ADDRESS BY

PROFESSOR J. B. LEATHES, F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Among natural sciences physiology takes a place which in one respect is
different from that taken by any other. It studies the phenomena of life,
but more particularly the ways in which these phenomena are related to
the maintenance of life. Anatomy and morphology are concerned with
the forms of living organisms and their structure ; biological chemistry,
as distinct from physiology, with the composition of the material in which
the phenomena of life are exhibited. The province of physiology, in
studying the functions of these forms and of this material, is to ascertain
the contributions that they make to the organisation of the living
mechanism, and learn how they minister to the maintenance of its life.
Function implies ministration, structure for physiology implies adaptation
to function, what in a word may be termed design.

Ultimate analysis of the phenomena with which physiology deals leads
to the fundamental distinction between matter in which life is manifested
and matter in which it is not. Life is exhibited only in aqueous systems,
containing unstable, perishable combinations of carbon with hydrogen,
nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorus and oxygen, in the presence of certain
inorganic ions, those which are present in the sea, the native environment
originally of all forms of life ; and the inalienable property that such
matter exhibits when alive, and that matter which is not alive does not,
is that these unstable organic combinations are for ever reforming them-
selves out of simpler combinations that do not exhibit this property, and
do so at a rate which averages at least not less than that at which they
break down. This power of self-reformation, spontaneous regeneration,
operates not only when living organisms, cells or communities of cells are
growing or reproducing their kind ; the very maintenance of living
existence requires by definition that it should persist. In the absence of
water the living process may sometimes apparently be suspended for a
time, as it may be if the surrounding watery medium is immobilised by
cold : it is a question whether this is anything more than a retardation
to a rate of change that is imperceptible by the ordinary methods of
observation, and a question how long such suspended animation is possible
where it is possible at all. It is only where water has the kinetic activity
of the liquid state that spontaneous regeneration of living matter can in
general proceed, and then it must, for when it ceases the unstable material
ceases to live.

Chemical analogies for this power of spontaneous regeneration, if such
exist, can only exist in part ; in the present state of our comprehension

I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 200

of it, certainly, it is hazardous to try to trace them. Tho attempt so
commonly made to trace one between the growth of living matter and the
growth of crystals in a saturated solution, it is safe to say, is in so many
respects on the wrong lines that it is merely misleading. Crystals are
not alive. The molecules that constitute the crystal are set in solid forma-
tion ; so long as the crystal exists they are stable and unchangeable.
These molecules collect on the growing crystal, but they exist ready-made
in the surrounding solution ; they do not come into being by the influence
of the crystal ; tliey are themselves so constituted as to take up a set
position in relation to each other and to those already ranged side by side
in the crystal, as soldiers on the drilling-ground at the word ' fall in ' ; they
are available because the solution is kept saturated by the dissolving of
smaller but similar crystals that for physical reasons are more soluble in
the solution than the larger ones. In contradistinction to this, the mole-
cules that enter into the composition of living matter exhibit the phe-
nomena of life only when permeated with water molecules exercising the
kinetic activity of the liquid state ; they are unstable and perishable ;
the added molecules, some of which even during growth and all of them
at other times, serve but to replace those that perish, do not exist ready-
made ; they come into being only in conformity to the pattern and under
the influence of those already in existence, a pattern that these alone can
use ; and they are formed out of material that is chemically different from
them.

Let us for a moment consider what this spontaneous regeneration
implies. Of the various chemical components of protoplasm, proteins
are generally considered the most important, often the only important,
ones. The elucidation of the chemical principles xipon which the structure
of proteins rests, which took place about the beginning of this century, was,
like the neurone hypothesis of the structure of the nervous system, an
advance the magnitude of which only those perhaps can appreciate who
began the study of physiology well back in an earlier one. For a time it
seemed in each case that the problem was solved and all that was to follow
was simple. Those were great days. The best-known varieties of proteins,
when detached and uprooted from the place where they grew, consist of
chains of about a hundred, sometimes nearly two hundred, links. Each
link is an amino acid coupled by its acid group to the amino group of one
neighbour and by its amino group to the acid group of its other neighbour,
a molecule of water being lost at each linkage. There are not more than
about twenty different amino acids, so that some of them must occur
several times in the chain ; in some kinds of protein one amino acid may
occu]:)y thirty or forty of the hundred places in the chain. In any such
isolated protein it is probable that the order as well as the proportion in
which each amino acid occurs in the molecule is fixed, and it is this specific
order and proportion that accounts for the specific character and properties
of the protein. What could be simpler ? And only yesterday all was so
obscure.

It is not recorded that in the rush of this advance anyone stopped to

reflect what number of formations such a protein might still possibly

have. Supposing it were a chain of only fifty links, a very simple case ;

if all the links were different the number of possible permutations is

1926 P

210 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

denoted by the innocent -looking symbol \50, If, instead of all being
different, one kind of link recurred ten times, the number would be reduced
to [50 / [10. If, in addition, there were four that recurred four times and
ten that recurred twice, it would be further reduced to

\^l\^x{\LYx{il_Y\

It would now consist of a chain of only fifty links, of which there were
only nineteen different kinds, and the number of different arrangements
of its parts would be about 10". Astronomy deals with big figures.
Light, it is said, takes 300,000 years to travel from one end of the Milky

Way to the other ; this distance expressed in Angstrom units, 10,000,000
of which go to a millimetre, would be less than 10*^ So far are we from
knowing the structure of protein molecules. So far are we from knowing
what variations in disposition of the parts in such a molecule may not
occur without our being within a measurable distance of detecting them.
For if the number of possible varieties of a protein whose molecular weight is
known, and known to be exceptionally small, and which contains the several
amino acids in a known proportion, is as great as this, the number that
is possible when that proportion may be changed is practically incalculable,
each change in proportion being capable of a number of new arrangements
that could be calculated, as was done for our hypothetical case.

But in the living cell where these chains are put together each link
must first be fashioned and then forged into the chain- ; unfinished chains
in statu vaseendi must exist which our analytical methods can never
detect. In such unfinished chains the order presumably in which the
amino acids are linked up is observed, but the proportion must be different
from that in the finished product ; for in a chain of nearly a hundred links
a particular amino acid, cystine, for instance, may occur only once.

Now it is possible that the analogy of crystal formation may be applied
to the reproduction of the characteristic order in which the Unkings
occur, and that the parts out of which a new chain is to be formed may be
collected and brought into position alongside of the corresponding parts
of an existing chain by forces that are similar to those that determine the
latticed relations of atoms in a crystal. But something more than this is
required to account for the linking up of these links by the loss of water,
and still more for the fashioning of the links themselves. In plants all
varieties of amino acids come into being as required ; in animals, it is
true, some must be supplied ready-made in the medium in which the
proteins grow ; but even in animals some of them can be formed from
material of a totally different nature.

Wherever this is the case we have to suppose that it is by selective
emphasis of certain otherwise unemphasised but possible arrangements
of atoms or groups of atoms, evidence for the occurrence of which under
similar conditions in the absence of life is generally not obtainable. Specific
catalysed syntheses must co-operate with the forces that merely sort out
and place in proper order the assembled parts, and must fashion for them
Ihe particular links that they need at each step. Specific catalytic agents
playing an important part in cell chemistry are familiar in the enzymes
found in digestive secretions and also locked away within the cells
themselves. There is much to support the idea that such agents act by

I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 211

modifying the chaotic, indeterminate, kinetic agitation of certain kinds
of molecules in their immediate neighbourhood in such a way that the
relative positions in space of groups capable of reacting with one another
tend to become those in which reaction is likely to occur and to occur in
conformity with a certain pattern. The peculiar thing about the chemistry
of living matter is not that the reactions that are characteristic in it are
novel, but that in the rough and tumble of ordinary liquid systems their
occurrence is almost infinitely improbable. Where there is life, circum-
stances exist which make them the rule. Anyone conversant with work
in animal metabolism can supply many illustrations ; for instance, it has
been shown that in a simple solution of the amino acid, alanine traces of
methyl glyoxal occur ; in the animal body there is reason for thinking
the reaction may become practically quantitative. Forces which deter-
mine the relative positions of adjacent foreign molecules and so affect
their behaviour are something to which there is no analogy in the growth
of crystals in a saturated solution.

Moreover, if the forces that determine the reproduction of a certain
order in the arrangement of the parts of a protein are similar to those
that determine the lattice pattern of a crystal, the crystals with which
the comparison is made are solid, and life is manifested only in liquid
aqueous systems. The analogy should rather be with the formation of
licjiiid crystals, a phenomenon that is itself as yet too urifamiliar to shed
common light on the obscurity of spontaneous regeneration. The ordered
disposition of the ultimate components of protoplasmic systems is such
as to leave play, generally but little checked, for the fluid properties of
water, and in some modified degree too of molecules and ions dissolved
in water. Even a solid jelly may include within its protein framework a
hundred times its weight of water in which diffusion is free to take place
almost as if the framework were not there, and protoplasm, with
commonly twenty times as much protein in it as this, more often resembles
a fluid of varying viscosity than a solid gel, which means that the great
protein chains float and drift in the whirlpool of kinetic agitation,
observing, it may be, so far as is possible, certain unstable relations to
their kind, but with no rigid fixity. It is commonly felt that the behaviour
of iinicellular organisms makes the hypothesis necessary that there is an
insoluble surface layer that keeps the watery contents of the cell from
dispersing in the water that surrounds it. Much experimentation, and
no lack of speculation, has not made clear what the nature and structure
of this limiting layer is. It may be that the flexible cohesion at many
alternative points between clinging floating chains of amino acids, the
innermost of which are made fast to the nucleus, may go some way to
maintain the identity of the cell and prevent its contents from scattering.

But in the chemical make-up of protoplasm, proteins, the most abundant
component, are not the only ones that are necessary. Pre-eminent among
the others are the nucleic acids. When we consider what has been learnt
of the behaviour and of the chemical composition of the nuclear chromo-
somes, and that according to Steudel's reckoning the nucleic acids form
'40 per cent, of the solid components of these chromosomes, into which
are packed from the beginning all that pre-ordains, if not our fate and
fortunes, at least our bodily characteristics, down to the colour of our

212 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

eyelashes, it becomes a question whether the virtues of nucleic acids may
not rival those of amino-acid chains in their vital importance. From
Steudel's figures it can be reckoned that there are about half a million
molecules of nucleic acid in a single sperm-cell of the species with vvhicli
he was working.

But in addition to nucleic acids there are also strange compounds
of higher fatty acids containing suspiciously significant groups, identical
in their general character with those found also in nucleic acid, namely,
phosphoric acid, organic bases and sugar ; and besides these there are
the mysterious sterols. All of these are frankly insoluble in water, and
yet have in some part of their composition features that make them not
indifferent to water or even to the molecules and ions that exist in true
solution, in the liquid state, within the cell. The physical condition of
these insoluble substances in the aqueous system of the cell is still little
understood. All that can be said with certainty is that they must modify
its homogeneity even more than the long floating chains of amino acids,
however much these may be linked together one with another. If the
characteristic behaviour of living matter is rightly regarded as due to the
order that it introduces into the movements and spatial relationships of •
foreign molecules in its vicinity, then these insoluble components may
well be expected to play a leading role by forming films and surfaces that
permeate its texture and delimit its parts.

Such an analysis of the chemical meaning of material life viewed in
the light of scientific facts has to be largely an exercise of the imagination,
but it may present itself as an intellectual necessity. If it is right to regard
the power of spontaneous self -regeneration as the distinctive property of
living matter, it is not intellectually possible to be content with a phrase
and dismiss it. A phrase is itself an image, and an image, however
shadowy, has parts and dimensions. Those who feel it an intellectual
necessity to explore unexplored lands cannot procure maps, but that
does not justify their setting out with no forethought or reasoned plans.

The beginning of life, if it is an intellectual necessity to trace this,
would thus appear to have been in the coming together of atoms of certaii\
elements in such a pattern that this power in its simplest form resulted
from its design. Some might call this event fortuitous, others the pre-
dictable outcome of the inherent properties of those elements, the inevitable
operation in the course of time of the laws of chance. Those who call it
fortuitous may go so far as to regard the whole history of life as fortuitous,
and give priority to the concurrence of the atoms over the properties and
functions that are revealed by the concurrence. The others may look on
Life as the fulfilment of the destiny of these elements, and give priority
to the potential properties of matter over the concurrence which was no
more than their epiphany.

If this analysis is approved, and the distinctive property of living
matter, the power of self-regeneration, depends upon the power of limiting
the movements and directing and controlling th e spatial relations of surroun d-
ing molecules so as to modify their chemical behaviour, it is the exercise
of this same power that leads to the formation of substances such as
starch, glycogen and fats ; and in so far as such substances contribute to
the regeneration of the living matter, the power of forming them contributes

I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 213

to its survival. Where energy is necessary for such synthetic rearrange-
ments of adjacent matter — where, that is, the rearrangement involves
coercion of atoms into positions of strain in which they have the potential
energy of position which we call chemical energy — this energy may be
derived from the radiant energy of the sun or from the combination of
oxygen with adjacent organic matter. In the latter case the combination
is again a manifestation of the power of ordering the disposition of sur-
rounding molecules and directing their movements so that they behave
as in other circumstances they would be but little j^rone to do. The
energy so liberated, besides contributing to the formation of new living
matter or of the material to be used in its formation, may serve in other
ways to promote the processes by which life is maintained. It may
accelerate them by imparting increased kinetic activity or rise of tempera-
ture, or may bring about movements that are resisted by external forces,
and so enable the living system to do work.

This is all merely a restatement of the commonplaces of biology,
necessary only as part of the attempt to correlate them physiologically
with the fundamental property of that which is alive to regenerate itself
at the expense of material that is not alive. This faculty implies the
power of introducing order into the chaotic movements of adjacent matter
in conformity with patterns that it possesses. It is a facultv resident in
material that is capable of incalculable variation. The number of permuta-
tions of its parts that are possible without aifecting the results of such
analysis as is practicable defies calculation. Their calculation, were it
possible, would lead to figures that are so large as to mean no more than
the dimensions of the universe. Some of these permutations confer
synthetic powers which others do not. When they appear, are they not
what biologists call, for short, mutations ? But when they appear, if the
retain the power of self-regeneration, and if they minister to its mainten-
ance, they will ipso facto survive. For whatever promotes persistence
of this power must itself survive.

A disposition of matter in molecules or aggregates, unstable and
incalculably variable, that has and retains the power of determining the
disposition of matter not yet so disposed in such a way as to conform to
its own disposition or to patterns which help it to exercise this power,
is all that must be premised for the whole of evolution to follow. Varia-
tions that do not or cease to contribute to the retention of this power do
not survive. The condition of survival is ministration to self-regeneration ;
that is, to the maintenance of life.

Before the days of vertebrates, in pre-Silurian time, an unstable
variation in the disposition of atoms and organic combinations of atoms
occurred in certain types that was mainly protein in character, a protein
to the making of which little short of 200 amino-acid links must contri-
bute. Coupled to this protein, which probably is not the same in all
species of animals in which it is found, is another group containing iron
that is probably always the same. This group is of remarkable nature,
and is closely related to one that occurs in the far older substance
chlorophyll. This complex substance, hajmoglobin, had the power of
attaching to itself two atoms of oxygen for each atom of iron that it
contained in such a way that it could be readily detached and made

214 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

available for effecting oxidations. Such was the service that this variation
rendered that it is safe to say that without it there could be no vertebrate
creation. It is this service that has made it possible for it to survive to
this day, when in the human species alone it is being produced at the
rate of about 10,000 tons a day. The story of the service of chlorophyll
would, of course, be more remarkable than this.

Natural selection applies to the survival of the chemical forms of
living matter as it does to complex living organisms. These forms,
infinitely protean in their variety, survive and persist in so far and so
long as they minister to its self-regeneration. It is the principle of survival
by service. Function alone gives permanence to structure. Structure
without design is a pathological excrescence that has in itself the seeds
of its own destruction. What does not minister to self-regeneration has
no enduring share in life, for self-regeneration is the key to life.

Why is it that what may be termed official physiology takes so little
cognisance of the doctrine of evolution ? These branches of biological
study appear to follow courses so exactly parallel that they never meet.

The doctrine of evolution digs down into the foundations of scientific
philosophy. If a physiologist addressing physiologists ventures to say
anything on this subject of supreme appeal to all biologists it must be in
exaltation of the work of those who have approached it from the morpho-
logical side, and it may be in hopeful anticipation of the ultimate share
in the elucidation of some of its problems to be borne by physiology.

On the part that function plays in the determination of structure it
is to be supposed that physiology will ultimately, at any rate, have some-
thing more to say. May I submit to the consideration of physiologists
certain points in the physiological development of the machinery of the
body where, unless I am mistaken, it is possible to detect the operation of
function in determining the design of the machine ? The properties and
behaviour of cells result from the properties and behaviour of the material
composing them. When a muscle-cell contracts this is, in general terms,
a reversible rearrangement of its parts in response to some alteration in
the distribution of forces within or about it due to a disturbance from
without. Such reversible reaction to adequate disturbance is a property
common in the material of which living cells are composed. In addition
to this reversible type of reaction there are irreversible reactions which
are characteristic of other kinds of cells, and it is what we call connective-
tissue cells that I would ask you to consider. There are several kinds of
connective-tissue cells, but they are alike in that they produce and dis-
charge into their vicinity material of a characteristic composition ; in
some of the commonest this material is chemically collagen, the substance
out of which gelatine can be obtained. In course of time these cells
come to be embedded in the material which they deposit about them-
selves and so form one kind of connective tissue. Cells capable of behaving
in this way are found, however, which have not yet exercised their faculty ;
these fibroblasts are then undifferentiated wandering cells that have found
no abiding-place in the community in which they have their birth. What
it is that makes them settle down and start producing the material in
which they come to be embedded has never yet been determined. But
the most striking structures to which they give rise are the tendons and

I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 21.'5

'aponeuroses that make the muscles fast to the bones, and tlic ligaments
that bind the bones to one another. The material that they deposit is
composed of inextensible fibres that lie, in the case of tendons at any rate,
so exactly and exclusively in the line of the resultant of the tension set
up in the muscle to which they attach themselves, that it is difficult to
believe that the disturbance which starts them producing their character-
istic secretion is anything else than the pull exerted on them by the muscle-
fibres to which they are attached ; the recurring external disturbances
that produce reversible states of tension in the muscle, indirectly producing
in them an irreversible reaction, which consists in the discharge of material
that by its inextensibility can transmit the tension along the line of the
force that provokes its deposition. In their simplest form cells of this
kind deposit the. wavy fibres in areolar tissue which, when straightened
out under the action of a displacing force, set a limit by their inextensibility
to the dislocation of the part first affected, and so distribute. the action of
the displacing force over surrounding areas. It is interesting to note that
the origin of cells of this kind has been traced to the mesothelium cells
that line tissue spaces and serous cavities, the clefts that make the gliding
displacements of parts over one another possible. The deposition of
fibrous material seems here, as in the tendons and ligaments, to be the
result of reaction to the recurring disturbances set up by displacements,
such, for instance, as those of the lungs, the alimentary tract, the heart
and pidsating vessels, and the deposition occurs in the line of strains set
up by the displacing forces. The service rendered by this behaviour of
the cells is that the fibres which they deposit, in virtue of their inextensi-
bility, limit the extent of displacement at any one point by distributing
it to surrounding parts.

The other component of areolar tissue, the elastic fibres, is similarly
produced by other cells. These fibres take a straight course between their
attachments; displacements in the line of their deposition are rendered
possible by their stretching, and are recovered from by their elasticity.

The contribution made by such cells to the fabric of the body appears
to result from the recurring operation of disturbances, to which they
react by depositing fibres along the lines of disturbance.

More striking are the properties of cells upon which the formation of
the skeleton depends. The cells that make bone not only secrete fibrous
collagen, they also encrust the fibres with insoluble lime-salts, and it has
long been subject of comment that the rigid bone that results always
comes to lie in the line of prevailing strains and stresses. The analysis of
the structure, for instance, of the head and neck of the human femiir,
by Wolff and others who have followed him, shows how strictly this is
true. Calculations prove that no particle of bone lies anywhere but where
the strains dictate. We can predict with certainty, it seems, that it will
be found that bone-cells are composed of material that in reacting to
physical forces directs, in constant relation to the line of action of those
forces, the de})osition of the substances which make up this connective
tissue. Bone can only arise where strains and stresses set up this reaction,
and the greater the strain or stress the denser the deposit. When a bone
is fractured many bone-cells are dislodged, and, in the abundance of nutri-
ment that ruptured vessels supply, these cells, released from their

216 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

imprisonment, multiply. At first the force of gravity and the twitching
of muscles acting on the soft semi-fluid tissues between the broken ends
of the bone supply stimuli that are indeterminate in direction, and such
reaction as occurs results only in the formation of loosely ordered
calcareous fibres ; but even this soft callus gives some degree of rigidity,
sufficient to restrict the strains gradually to more and more clearly defined
lines along which in proportion a stronger reaction can take place. Once
it is established that bone corpuscles react to strain and stress by dis-
charging collagen, the intimate spatial disposition of which, as well as of
the lime-salts with which it comes to be encrusted, is determined by the
directing forces to which it is expoeed, and once it is recognised that
the law of spontaneous regeneration requires that this reaction will
persist in proportion to the prevalence of these forces, not only must the
gradual replacement of callus by appropriate permanent bone necessarily
follow, bone in which no particle persists except it be in the line of
constantly recurring stress and strain, but it will also necessarily follow
that the position of every spicule of bone in the skeleton, cancellous or
compact, is the expression of a physiological reaction to the forces of
gravity and muscular tension. The evolution of the machinery of the
connective tissues seems to be not entirely the result of natural selection
and the survival of individuals in which this machinery chanced to be of
appropriate design. The appearance in early vertebrates of the material
that is characteristic of the bone corpuscle seems to have ensured that
skeletons would take a shape determined by the direction of the forces
to which these corpuscles were exposed, and that the formation of this
skeleton is as much a reaction to recurring stimuli as are the reflexes,
composite movements, and postures characteristic for the species.

This conception of the way in which the vertebrate connective tissues
take their shape transfers a large share of the development of the bodily
form back into the nervous system, in which the machinery is stored that
directs and determines the habitual movements and postures that in reac-
tion to external disturbances are specific. A physiological account of the
evolution of the nervous system, one certainly that is based on the chemical
constitution and chemical behaviour of its component parts, must seem
almost infinitely remote from practical investigation. But the work of
Paylov has made one thing clear, that by a physiological reaction in it
machinery may come into existence which did not exist before. The
repeated occurrence of a disturbance at times that are uniformly related
to the normal operation of existing machinery results in the acquirement
of a new reaction which must require machinery that is new. It is rendered
probable, if not proved, that this new machinery is situated in what may
be called the growing point of the central nervous system, the cortex of
the cerebral hemispheres, the part where all is not cut and dry, where
cells retain more of the properties of the developing neuroblasts, the
properties that enable them to grow out through the embryonic tissues
along courses that make it certain that the maturing organism will behave
in a manner true to type. In the formation of a conditioned reflex two
events are made to occur in the cerebral cortex at times which are uni-
formly related to one another ; one of these events, from the constitution
of the nervous system, necessarily results in a certain activity of some

1.— PHYSIOLOGV. 217

muscle or gland, the other has been hitherto in no way related to such a
result ; after many repetitions of the association of these events it is
found that that one which previously had never resulted in this particular
activity, comes to have this result as certainly as the other.

The sight and smell of food in any hungry animal results in the secretion
of saliva because the cells to which the effect of these visual and olfactory
stimuli is referred are anatomically connected with cells that set the
salivary gland in action ; the cells on which some particular sound takes
effect are not anatomically connected with them, and this particular sound
Las therefore no effect upon them. But with the establishment of the
conditioned reflex the anatomical connection comes into existence. As a
result of a functional reaction of nerve-cells to disturbances in other nerve-
cells with which they were not previously anatomically connecteil, a
structure appears which is indistinguishable so long as it lasts from the
structures that constitute any other reflex arc. The conditions that
determine its persistence or effacement have been, and are being, studied
as thoroughly as were those which allow it to appear. The outcome of
these studies must be of incalculable importance in evolutional physiology.
They are being watched with the keenest interest doubtless by all
biologists, but more especially by those who believe that physiology has
to take a much bigger part in the solution of some of the fundamental
difficulties of biological science than it has been able to take in the jmst.

But if and when it is possible to trace the origin of structures to
functional reactions of cells, and to reactions that depend upon the
chemical properties of the cell substance ; and if and when this is possible
not only in the connective tissues, but also in the nervous system, the
functions of which have so controlling an influence on the operation of
every part of the body ; until it becomes clear that the results of changes
in such influence reappear in succeeding generations, the study of functions
can have no bearing upon the ultimate problem of biology, the evolutional
history of life upon the earth. Pavlov communicated to the last Inter-
national Congress of Physiology in 1923 some results of experiments that
he had done upon this subject which, when confirmed, would electrify the
atmosphere. Conditioned reflexes that are established only after many —
eighty or a hundred — repetitions of the associated stimulus, in each suc-
ceeding generation require fewer and fewer rej)etitions, and in the fourth
may be established after only four. In April of this year he wrote to say
that owing to other work he had not been able to give the necessary time
to confirmation of these results. We are content to wait.

In the great question whether characteristics developed in the life of
an individual have any influence on descendants, experimental evidence
must come slowly. In what is called parallel induction a step has been
taken which is probably of greater importance than is generally conceded.
External influences that affect the bodily characteristics of an organism
affect also the germ-plasm in such a way that these characteristics appear
in the first, and even, in a less degree, in the second generation, born after
the external influences have ceased to operate. While such experiments
furnish evidence only of a temporary change in the properties of the
germ-plasm, one that may be put down to the lodgment in it of uuassimi-
lated foreign matter that is gradually eliminated, the fact that the eternal

218 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

germ- plasm has been shown to be subject to temporal influences must not
be belittled. A true mutation is not eternal. Our descendants may be
able to dispense with haemoglobin. Whether the hereditary melanism
that in certain moths, it is said, can be induced by food infected with
manganese is something more than such parallel induction, I hope there
may be some present who can say.

Physiological inquiry is a stream that has many sources ; its waters
gather from quarters far removed from one another. A marvellous meeting
took place in the early years of this century when the forgotten experi-
ments of Mendel came to the surface again, and found corroboration in
the cytological studies that from about the same time had pursued their
slow, obstructed way above-ground in the endeavour to elucidate the
changes in the nucleus of maturing germ-cells. In a resting germ-cell the
chromosomes form an even number, characteristic for the species ; they
consist of half that number of pairs of homologues, one of each pair
descended from the paternal element in the last zygosis, the other from
the maternal. At one of the cell divisions by which the germ-cell gives
rise to the mature gamete, with half the characteristic number of chromo-
somes, there occurs a segregation of the two members of each pair so
that they pass into different gametes ; the exact cytological equivalent
of Mendelian segregation of allelomorphic pairs of characters. To-day
the study of genetics and of the ' topographical anatomy of the chromo-
somes,' with its " groupings ' and ' crossings over,' seems to call out for
chemical assistance. It may be that in the lifetime of some of us those
confluent streams of thought and experiment are to be joined by yet
another that rises in the vast, remote, and, as it must appear to some,
muddy swamps of physiological chemistry ; and it then, forgetting its
' foiled, circuitous wanderings,' will form with them a ' majestic river,
brimming and bright and large."

SECTION J.— PSYCHOLOGY.

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF OUR
PENAL SYSTEM.

ADDRESS BY

JAMES DREVER, D.Phil.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

A WELL-KNOWN American authority on the treatment of young offenders
quotes with approval the words of the girl who said to her judge : ' You
and your officers are here to do your duty, and I suppose you are going
to send me away, but before I go I want to tell you one thing — you don't
at all understand me.' The analogy of the patient and the surgeon is
not quite a fair one, but it is sufficiently close to allow us to use it for
illustrative purposes. Think how intolerable the situation would be if
the patient could with equal justice say to the surgeon : ' I know you have
decided to perform a serious operation on me, but before you administer
the anaesthetic I should like to say that you do not in the least understand
my case.'

There is very real pathos in the girl's words to her judge ; but it is not
on the pathos of the situation that I would wish to lay stress, but on a
common-sense view of the facts. Society, through its accredited repre-
sentatives, acting under its recognised and established laws, is compelled
to take action of the gravest import, affecting directly one individual
member of society, and possibly affecting many other individuals in-
directly, and this, in plain terms, without any clear and exact knowledge,
either of what is being done, or of why it is being done.

No matter how deeply an individual has sinned, his sins do not free
us from responsibility for our treatment of him, and for the consequences
of that treatment on him and on other people. And we certainly do not
divest ourselves of the responsibility by closing our eyes to the results of
our action with respect to him. These are almost truisms, but like many
other truisms affecting conduct, while we do not hesitate to do lip-service
to their truth, we frequently ignore them in our practice. These con-
siderations appear sufficiently weighty to justify an examination of certain
aspects of our penal system from a psychological point of view. In fact
they impose such an examination upon the psychologist as an imperative
duty, demanded of him both as an individual member of society, who shares
the responsibility of society for the results produced by its penal system,
and as a psychologist, who, from his calling, is presumably better able
than most to trace and evaluate these results. It is because I believe that

220 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

iu this direction lies one of the greatest services the psychologist can
render to the community that I have chosen as the subject of my presi-
dential address ' Psychological Aspects of our Penal System.'

The root-idea in punishment as ordinarily understood is the infliction
of some kind of disagreeableness, pain, or loss on an individual, because he
has been guilty of some misdeed. There are thus two aspects — on the
one hand the infliction of hurt, on the other hand the relation of this to
some wrongdoing or crime. Originally any end to be gained by such
infliction was scarcely conscious, if it existed at all — any end, that is to
say, beyond the satisfaction of the anger evoked by the misdeed itself.
The psychological source is to be found in the anger caused by the wrong.
From this primitive source to the modern conception the evolution of
theories of punishment, conscious or unconscious, may be said to have
passed through four stages or phases. These may be designated the
vindictive, the retributive, the protective or deterrent, and the reformatory
or curative.

Let us consider the psychology of this process of evolution. To begin
with, an individual who has suffered injury by the wrongdoing of another
responds to the injury with the emotion and impulse of anger. This is
satisfied by the infliction of some hurt on the wrongdoer. At the simplest
and crudest stage of development — the stage where we have to deal with
the mere instinctive impulse of the brute or the savage — the hurt inflicted
on the wrongdoer may have no direct relation, either in kind or in degree,
to the injury done, but only to the intensity of the anger evoked. Of
course this is not really punishment in any strict sense. Nevertheless it
is unquestionably the psychological origin, and it therefore marks the
first stage in the evolution of what became punishment in the strict sense.
This is the vindictive stage or phase. In so far as punishment at any time
reveals the same emotion and impulse it represents this primitive vindictive
stage.

Even in a very primitive social life, however, some crude notion of
justice must very early act as a determining influence on the hurt that
may be inflicted on another for some injury done. We are not at present
concerned in the tracing of the psychological processes by which this
notion of justice comes into being. It is only necessary to put ourselves
in the j)lace of the impartial onlooker to understand the psychology of
these processes. So far as some notion of justice is a conscious determinant
of the hurt inflicted on the wrongdoer by the injured individual, this hurt
takes on the character of retribution, and punishment as such comes into
being. This phase or stage in the evolution of punishment is the retri-
butive phase or stage.

Another factor must have made its influence felt in a rudimentary
way at a comparatively early stage. The notion of punishment must
have involved a looking forward as well as backward, in the shape at least
of a dim feeling that similar actions to that which has incurred it must be
prevented in the future. There can be little doubt, that is to say, that
at a comparatively early stage primitive society must have felt vaguely
that punishment had a protective function, since by means of punishment
of a culprit the individual and society were protecting themselves against
the repetition of an injurious act.

J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 221

The general line of evolution of our modern penal systems is thus
clear. First of all we have purely vindictive action on the part of the
injured individual. Then there is some sort of legalising — if we may use
that word — of retributive action on the part of the injured, so long as this
retributive action does not go beyond the limits of ' justice,' this being
regulated by social law. Finally, recognising that punishment has a
protective function as far as social life is concerned, society itself
takes over the infliction of punishment, and a penal system is
inaugurated. This stage or phase is the protective or deterrent stage
or phase.

To leave the matter thus, however, would be to obscure important
aspects and phases of the actual course of events, and could not fail to
produce a misleading impression of the facts. Stages in social evolution
are never clear-cut. Thus the development of the retributive view of
punishment by no means involved the discontinuance in practice of
vindictive punishment. Still less did the realisation of protection as the
primary social function of punishment alter the practice which had been
founded on the older and more primitive conceptions. Practice lagged a
long way behind theory in this, as in so many other cases. The psycho-
logical explanation of the actual facts would appear to be that the crude
emotion of anger remained the driving force behind punishment, though
it was cloaked and obscured by other motives, and by various forms of
rationalisation. After all, the reaction of anger is a natural reaction to
an act which society agrees in reprobating. One leading authority on
criminal law has, indeed, placed on record his conviction that it is ' highly
desirable that criminals should be hated, that the punishments inflicted
upon them should be so contrived as to give expression to that hatred,
and to justify it so far as the public provision of means for expressing
and gratifying a healthy natural sentiment can justify and encourage it.'
I am afraid the learned author's thoughts have become somewhat mixed
up in the latter portion of this statement. It sounds as if his rationalisa-
tion were not very satisfactory, even to himself. However that may be,
it is certain that the realisation by society in theory that the function of
punishment from the point of view of society was primarily protective
did not prevent an almost religious sanction continuing to be attached
to the lex talionis — ' an eye for an eye.' This remained, in fact, an assump-
tion at the base of all penal systems which no one seriously challenged.
And it is equally certain that the protective function of punishment was
frequently made the excuse, as in the writer just quoted, for continuing
the practice of vindictive punishment — ' for deterrent purposes ' was the
usual rationalisation — even when it was quite evident that the psycho-
logical situation thus produced was often quite inimical to the ends sought.
One need only instance the brutalising influence of capital punishment on
society at large, and its inevitable tendency to increase the frequency of
the crime of murder, during the period when it was the punishment also
for less serious crimes, to show the kind of psychological situation which
was created. Curiously enough the humaner — and, indeed, saner — attitude
and practice of modern times in civilised countries were due far less to
recognition of the fact that vindictive punishment for deterrent purposes
was frequently an entire failure, than to the fact that the infliction of

222 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

pain and suSering on human beings became objectionable to the general
sense of society.

The phase or stage of evolution at which we have now arrived is
characterised, on the one hand, by the discontinuance, or the radical
limitation, of what v/as virtually the primitive vindictive punishment in
disguise, and, on the other hand, by the recognition of social punishments
as possibly possessing a reformatory or curative function. We may speak,
therefore, of the present phase or stage as the reformatory phase or stage
in the evolution of social punishment. The actual situation, however, is
somewhat complex. Practically punishment still rests, in law and in
popular thought, on the retributive basis — the lex talionis. Theoretically
it is recognised that from the point of view of society punishment is pro-
tective, and this is its primary function, and also, I believe, that society
is not directly concerned with the retributive aspect of punishment as
such, but only indirectly because of the deterrent effect of retributive
punishment. Moreover — and this is the mark of the phase of evolution
at which we have arrived — it is realised that, as far as the individual is
concerned, social punishment may be made reformatory, and that the
reformatory function of punishment is worth keeping in view, if only
because reformation of the individual means protection of society against
the repetition of the injury as far as that individual is concerned, always
provided that the attempt to reform the criminal does not involve the
sacrifice of the primary aim.

Though there is thus some conflict between the popular and practical
view of punishment as protective and retributive and the theoretical view
of punishment as protective and reformatory, practice is tending gradually
towards conformity with theory. This is as it should be, since the theo-
retical view represents the view of the vast majority of those who have
given serious consideration to the problems of social punishment. In
what follows I am going to assume that there is general agreement with
respect to three points : (1) that the punishments inflicted by society
ought to be based on the protective and reformatory functions of punish-
ment, but of these the protective is primary and fundamental ; (2) that
the retributive view of punishment is really a relic of an older theory of
punishment that has rightly been set aside, though as a secondary
determinant of the kind and degree of punishment the old lex talionis may
still have to be reckoned with ; and (3) that the reformatory view of
punishment represents an ideal which a civilised community should
always keep in mind, provided the true relation of the reformatory function
to the protective is not forgotten.

The psychological problems of social punishment fall into two groups :
on the one hand those involved in the effects of punishment on the indi-
vidual who is punished, and on the other hand those connected with the
effects of punishment on the community itself. Of course there is a
repercussion on society of the effects on the individual, so that the problems
of punishment are ultimately in every case social problems. Nevertheless
we shall find it convenient to consider the two groups of problems separately
in the meantime.

Consider, first, the problems arising in connection with the effects of
punishment on the individual who is punished. So long as the retributive

J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 223

aspect of punishment is placed in the foreground, the only psychological
problems of serious import are those involved in the question of the
responsibility of the offender. This question of responsibilitj^ is one over
which medical and legal minds have long been at loggerheads. The source
of this age-old controversy between lawyer and medical man lies primarily
in the fact that the two use the word ' responsibility ' in entirely different
senses. For the lawyer ' responsibility ' is purely a legal term, and the
question of responsibility is to be determined on the basis of evidence
germane to its legal meaning. For the medical man ' responsibility ' is
an ethical term, and the question of responsibility therefore raises much
wider issues. As the controversy develops it becomes more and more
entangled, owing to the fact that the lawyer insists on discussing psycho-
pathology and medicine, which he is not competent to discuss, and the
medical man insists on discussing ethics, which, however competent he
may be to discuss such topics, has little relevancy to the problem whether
an individual is to be regarded as legally ' responsible.'

It is by no means easy to define clearly what we mean by ' responsi-
bility,' even in the legal sense. The legal position would appear to be, in
the words of the leading authority on criminal law already quoted : ' No
act is a crime if the person who does it is at the time when it is done pre-
vented either by defective mental power or by any disease affecting his
mind (a) from knowing the nature and quality of his act, or {b) from knowing
that the act is wrong, or (c) from controlling his own conduct, unless the
absence of the power of control has been produced by his own default.
But an act may be a crime if the person who does it is affected by disease,
if such disease does not in fact produce upon his mind one or other of the
effects above mentioned in reference to that act.' I need not in a gathering
of psychologists point out the extreme difficulty of the psychological
problems involved in that definition, more especially in so far as the
question of control is raised. I do not believe, however, that responsibility
in this sense is a practical issue at all in connection with any penal system.
At least it does not arise in the form in which it is usually raised, nor at
the point at which it is usually raised, in a practical consideration of the
problems of punishment as affecting the individual who has infringed
social laws. It is a question wliich we inherit from an antiquated and
outworn theory of punishment. So far as real, urgent, and soluble psycho-
logical problems are involved, these arise at an entirely difierent point
and in an entirely different connection, as we shall see presently.

It is when we emphasise the protective and particularly the reformatory
aspects of punishment that the vital psychological problems emerge. So
far as we base our practice in social punishments upon these two functions,
it is not too much to say that our whole practice must be guided primarily
by the outcome of psychological inquiry. The two functions are not in
conflict. We may aim at the protection of society by the reform of the
delinquent. Treatment which is successful in eliminating a particular
tendency to delinquency in an individual will ipso facto protect the com-
munity against the repetition of this delinquency by the same individual.
Of course it will not necessarily protect society against the same form of
delinquency in another individual. That is why we have to consider
punishment, rather than reformation pure and simple, and that is why

224 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

tte silly and sickly sentimentality which regards the wrongdoer as a
suffering victim rather than a criminal will always fail to appeal to anyone,
no matter how soft-hearted, who regards the whole situation frankly and
sanely. It is obvious also that the failure of reformatory measures must
not be taken to imply the failure of society to protect itself. Other
measures must be available, which are merely protective, and not at all^
or only indirectly, reformatory. On the other hand, it is clear that reforma-
tion is, as a rule, the more economical way to secure protection for the
community, provided there is reasonable hope of success, and so long as
we restrict our attention to the individual delinquent. The reform of the
delinquent is doubly a social gain. From being a minus quantity with
respect to social efficiency he becomes a plus quantity. This point is
especially important in the case of the juvenile delinquent.

So far as we are to aim at the protection of society by the reform of
the delinquent, the punishment of the delinquent necessarily becomes an
individual question, since we are concerned with the operation of motives,
and that is always an individual matter. Punishment exerts its influence
through disagreeableness, or the fear of disagreeableness. The question
whether we can ever reform an individual by means of punishment may
possibly be an arguable question. But it is only an arguable question if
we interpret ' reform ' to mean more than is intended when we speak of
the reformatory aspect of punishment. A misdemeanour is the outcome
of a certain external situation meeting with certain inner conditions in the
wrongdoer, certain conditions, I mean, in his nature or mind. On a
strict scientific reading of the facts we may assume that under all the
circumstances of the moment the only kind of behaviour possible was the
kind of behaviour that took place. That is to say, we may admit that the
delinquent, being what he was, in the circumstances then present, could not
have acted otherwise than he did. This may seem a very damning
admission, as far as the action of the a.uthority which punishes is concerned,
if the ethical question of the moral responsibility of the criminal is to be
raised as a practical issue. As I have already said, however, I do not
believe that the question of responsibility in any sense, legal or ethical,
arises as a practical issue at this point at all, or in this connection. What
punishment does, to put the matter in its simplest terms, is so to change
the inner conditions, and therefore the inner nature, that in circumstances
similar to those present on the previous occasion the misdemeanour is no
longer possible, a new kind of behaviour being now the necessary outcome
of all the conditions present. This is a reformatory effect in a practical,
if not in an academic sense.

The function normally performed by unpleasantness encountered in
the activity of any living organism is to guide the activity so that un-
pleasantness may in future be avoided. The fear of unpleasantness again
checks the immediacy of impulse, and so allows time for a new kind of
behaviour to be substituted for the old kind which led to unpleasantness —
the beginnings in the case of the human being, it is worth noting, of self-
control. But it is only low down the scale of organic life that the
phenomena are to be seen in their simplicity. As we pass up the scale the
inner conditions which determine behaviour become more and more
complex, and the actual results of any impleasantness or fear become more

J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 225

and more difi&cult to foretell. With the human being the complexity ot
the inner situation has become enormous. The web of impulse and
motive is so intricately and so subtly interwoven that the introduction of
a new impulse and motive may come to have a result wholly unforeseen
and entirely different from the result intended.

Hence, however simple the general psychological theory of punish-
ment may be, the practical difficulties of punishment in the concrete,
when its aim is the reformation of the delinquent, are very formidable.
One source of practical difficulty is the actual, and possibly innate,
differences between individuals, which make them respond in an entirely
dift'erent way to the same external situation. What is intensely dis-
agreeable to one individual may not seriously inconvenience another, and
may be positively pleasant to a third. Hence a punishment that is
effective with one individual may be quite ineffective with another.
There are even differences in the same individual at different times, so that
a punishment effective at one time may be quite ineffective at another,
even with the same individual. A second source of practical difficulty is
the fact that the effect produced by punishment has a very different
duration for dift'erent individuals. One extreme is illustrated by many
defective delinquents.

The most important source of practical difficulty, however, is
frequently our almost complete ignorance of the inner conditions which
issue in any particular misdemeanour. This necessarily involves
ignorance of the effect which our punishment is likely to produce. As
far as the reformatory aspect of punishment is concerned, this is a very
serious matter. We have to deal with an individual, and we must know
the facts of that individual case. Any psychologist who has had
experience of conflict cases among juvenile delinquents can easily find
illustrations from his experience. The usual form of misdemeanour that
occurs is stealing, and frequently irrational and apparently motiveless
stealing. Thus money, jewellery, and all kinds of things may be stolen
and given away, or even thrown away. Until the inner conditions are
understood and the causes of the trouble removed, no kind of treatment
seems to be of any avail. Or sometimes, where punishment is apparently
successful in eliminating the tendency to one particular kind of mis-
demeanour, there is a criminal outbreak in a totally different direction,
the result of the punishment itself, which more than counterbalances any
apparent success.

A typical conflict case is described by Healy. This was a girl of ten,
who for two years previous to coming under his notice had been addicted
to stealing. She stole from her parents, from neighbours, and from school.
Threats, whippings, expulsion from school were all of no avail. There was
no improvement when the child was given money to spend. In all other
respects her physical and mental condition appeared to be quite normal.
There was no hereditary taint that could be traced. Her school- work was
above the average. She liked games, and excelled in them. Apart from
the stealing, in fact, she presented a complete picture of normality. Only
after careful and prolonged inquiry did the real cause of the stealing come
to light. This was found to be an emotional conflict which had no direct
connection with stealing, but which nevertheless resulted in the stealing

1926 a

226 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

as a ' compromise formation.' According to the girl's own account of the
stealing, when she thought of certain ' bad things,' stealing was the only
way in which she seemed to be able to escape from her thoughts. One
form of misconduct was thus, as it were, substituted for another, that
form which was repressed being the real source of the trouble. The
futility of punishment of practically any kind in a case such as this is
obvious. Punishment would in all probability only aggravate the evil.
Yet when the source of the trouble was known, this case of delinquency
could be, and was, dealt with successfully.

Cases of this kind tend to make one speak and think of treatment
rather than punishment. It might be asked whether this is not the point
of view from which all cases should be approached, not as a matter of
ethics, but as a matter of practical expediency, punishment being merely
a particular method of treatment. The proposition is arguable, but only
so long as we confine attention to the individual delinquent, and that is
only one side of the picture, as we shall see presently. Personally, I do
not think the point of view will matter very much so long as we keep firmly
in mind the essential fact that the action taken, whether we call it treat-
ment or punishment, is primarily action taken by society for its own
protection, the reform of the criminal being a means adopted to this end.
There is undoubtedly a class of offender in whose case treatment, rather
than punishment, is the appropriate notion and procedure. Other cases
occur with fair frequency in which punishment as ordinarily understood
is quite ineffective as regards the reform of the individual. The case of
serious mental defect may be instanced. The facts are such that we
find the old problems of responsibility, so far as they were practical
problems at all, cropping up in a new guise, and in new surroundings. It
may be possible to determine beforehand, without waiting for the event,
whether punishment will be effective for reform, and if so what kind of
punishment, or whether the case is one demanding treatment, and not
punishment at all, and if so what kind of treatment. The problems now,
however, are neither legal nor ethical problems, but purely psychological
problems.

The suggestion that in some cases punishment, as ordinarily understood,
may be quite ineffective leads us on to the consideration of the measures
society takes, and must take, for its own protection in certain instances.
The most important method of protection that society utilises is the
restraint of the offender in some appropriate institution — as far as the
idea of punishment is concerned, some sort of prison. The restraint or
imprisonment may be merely temporary, or it may be permanent. In
the first case it is clear that the reformatory aspect of punishment ought
to be still kept in view, so far as the psychological situation is taken into
account. If it is not, it does not require much foresight to prophesy
somewhat lamentable results. In particular, if the criminal is returned
to social life, not only with his tendency to the original form of misdeed
unaffected, but with other anti-social tendencies developed by his prison
life, or by circumstances arising out of his prison life, our only possible
verdict is that society is playing the fool. On the other hand, when the
restraint is permanent, while reformatory measures must not be entirely
excluded as intrinsically hopeless m every case, it is clear that the whole

J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 227

psychological situation and outlook are different. The prisoner will
never be returned to civil life. For the protection of society he must be
kept in restraint permanently. But he is a human being, and the moral
sense of society will demand that he be treated as such, not merely
negatively by the avoidance of inhuman conditions, but positively by the
provision of such amelioration of his lot as is possible without sacrificing
essential principles.

Everyone is agreed, I think, as regards these general matters. There
will also be general agreement that the stigma of prison life means in
itself the very serious modification of the psychological situation in the
case of every individual who incurs it, so serious that no psychologist can
regard short-term prison sentences with anything but dismay. It must
be recognised that it is with respect to prison treatment especially that
society, in protecting itself, or attempting to do so, runs the risk of
making matters worse instead of better, and the gravest practical problems
arise with regard to this type of punishment. Much has been done in
recent years to remove acknowledged evils and defects of our prison system.
Much may still be done. Nevertheless, I personally, and, I imagine, most
psychologists, would look upon any further advance in the directions
hitherto pursued with serious misgivings as to psychological results, until
we have first attacked more fundamental problems, and reviewed our
whole penal system in the light of the psychological knowledge of to-day.

Let me try to indicate where, in my opinion, the crux of the whole
matter lies. I think all will agree that the very first essential is that we
should have the requisite knowledge and understanding of the psychological
situation with which we are faced, and the psychological effects likely to
be produced by the action taken. Society has to decide whether an
individual delinquent is to be punished in this way or that way, whether
he cannot be reformed but must be placed under restraint for life, or can
be reformed during temporary restraint by appropriate treatment, or can
be reformed without undergoing prison life, and in each case what can
and ought to be aimed at. No general theories concerning the causation
of crime, no systems of penal philosophy, not even the best intentions in
the world, can take the place of a thorough knowledge and understanding
•of the individual case. This is precisely where our whole penal system is
at present most defective. Moreover, the defect is one that can be remedied
without serious difl&calty in the present state of development of modern
science, medical and psychological, but no opportunity is afforded. The
first and essential step towards the further reform of our penal system
lies in affording this opportunity. This could be done by instituting a
■clinical examination, medical and psychological, of every delinquent
before sentence is jjassed, and by taking advantage wherever possible of
modern psychological knowledge. The psychological clinic is at present
practically non-existent in this country. It is high time this state of
matters was remedied. School and law-court both demand its institution.
That is the first step. When we have taken that step, we shall be able to
take further steps in penal reform, with the advantage of acting with
adequate knowledge of what can be done and what we are really doing in
each particular case. Until that step is taken, every other change we
introduce by way of reform has a hit-or-miss character, which cannot fail

228 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

to be profoundly disturbing to any thoughtful student of social develop-
ment.

But it may be objected that we are in danger of losing sight of the
fact that the topic under discussion is punishment, not simply the reforma-
tion of the criminal. A few minutes ago the suggestion was made that
in certain cases at least it might be more appropriate to speak of treatment
than of punishment, the suggestion involving the view that delinquency
ought to be looked on as the outcome of something not unlike disease.
However that may be, I do not think there is any warrant for excluding
either the idea or the fact of punishment, provided we look to the future,
and not simply to the past, in our conception of punishment. The action
taken against an individual in the form of punishment must involve some
disagreeableness or deprivation, and the reason for the punishment is
some past act of the individual. But its purpose is the prevention of
similar acts in the future. The fact that hitherto we have been discussing
the individual aspect only has tended somewhat to obscure this deterrent
function, and the consideration of this function will lead us over to the
discussion of the social aspect.

The deterrent function of punishment has played no inconsiderable
part in the discussion of penal measures at all times. The severity of
past penal systems has been largely due — almost entirely so far as it has.
had a rational basis at all — to the attempt to deter others from similar
offences to those for which punishment is inflicted on an ofiender. It is
unquestionably the case that many a misdeed is prevented by the fact
that the individual who is tempted knows that he will inevitably pay the
penalty, and it is also a well-known fact that where, through the
inefficiency of the police or other cause, punishment is easily evaded,
crime shows a corresponding increase. The justification of a deliberate-
use of punishment for deterrent purposes must rest on considerations
which are other than purely psychological. Whatever justification is
attempted must satisfy the moral sense of the particular society. That
is, however, a side-issue so far as our present discussion is concerned. The
deterrent effect of punishment as a fact is the main point that concerns-
the psychologist, and his business as a psychologist is to analyse and
explam this fact.

It cannot be lightly assumed, however, that the deterrent effect of
punishment depends merely on fear of the disagreeableness or suflering^
which the punishment in itself involves. The penal system is an expres-
sion, however imperfect, of the sentiments of society with respect to-
certain acts — sentiments of hatred in varying degrees. It is not the
result of a purely intellectual review of the social results and bearing of
these acts. Apart, therefore, from the punishment by law decreed and
legally inflicted, the criminal act is inhibited, so far as the normal socialised
individual is concerned, by this sentiment in himself and in his fellows,,
how developed we cannot at present stop to consider, but resting ultimately
on the primitive anger evoked by injury. ' The sentence of the law,' to
quote again the legal authority already quoted, ' is to the moral sentiment
of the public in relation to any offence what a seal is to hot wax. It
converts into a permanent final judgment what might otherwise be a.
transient sentiment.' Fear of the punishment as such, fear of the social

J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 229

disapprobation dependent on the evoking of the moral sentiment of which
the punishment is a concrete and tangible embodiment, recoil from the
act because of the existence in the individual who is tempted of the moral
sentiment in question in however feeble, attenuated, and fragmentary a
form — all these are motives holding back an individual member of society
from wrongdoing. The legal punishment exercises its deterrent influence
because it, as it were, embodies and presents all of them in unmistakable
and arresting fashion. The relative force of the different motives will
vary with individuals. But until we can rely on the last of these motives
being of itself sufficiently powerful to restrain every individual member
of society from the breach of social laws — which would seem to involve
a radical change both in the existing social structure and in human
nature — the social necessity of some kind of penal system, in the strict
sense, must remain.

Arguing on the basis of the deterrent influence of punishment, several
writers have defended punishments which can only be described as
vindictive. This has been due in part to the belief that the deterrent
effect depended solely on fear, and in part to inability to distinguish
between hatred of an offence and hatred of the offender. After the sound
and generally acceptable statement of the relation between penal law
and the moral sentiments of the community, just quoted, the same legal
authority goes on to say : ' The criminal law thus proceeds upon the
principle that it is morally right to hate criminals, and it confirms and
justifies that sentiment by inflicting upon criminals punishments which
express it.' This is a frank enough expression of the vindictive theory
of punishment. We are here concerned neither with the ethics nor with
the religion of the view thus expressed. It is certain that, psychologically,
hatred of a sin need not involve hatred of the sinner. It is also certain
that the writer in this passage is speaking of the emotions of anger and
revenge, and not of any moral sentiment at all.

I do not wish, however, to develop that line of thought at present.
Enough has already been said about vindictive punishment. I would
rather in conclusion revert to the varjang motives upon which the deterrent
influence of punishment depends. Two points in particular demand notice.
In the first place we cannot assume that penal law and moral sentiment
will always be in harmony, and so reinforce one another. There may,
in fact, be acute conflict between the two, as far as a considerable minority
of the members of a community are concerned. In certain cases also
they may be, so to speak, indifferent to one another. In either case the
psychological situation is very radically modified, and the problems of
punishment may in practice become very difficult.

In the second place the influence of the different motives may, as we
have seen, vary with the individual. If that be so, two consequences
would appear to follow. On the one hand — and this refers more particu-
larly to the adult criminal — our penal system must be such as to appeal
with sufficient cogency to all the motives, as far as the criminally disposed
individual is concerned. On the other hand — and now we have in mind
chiefly the juvenile delinquent — it is of capital importance that we should
recognise as early as possible in their criminal career those individuals who,
either by nature or circumstances, or both, are tending towards abnor-

230 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

mality in their reactions to social claims and social penalties. This brings
us back to the crux of the whole situation. Means must be provided by
which a knowledge of the individual case may be made available, before
the decision is taken as to how any offender is to be treated. The tempera-
mentally defective individual may be born, the habitual criminal is largely
made. It ought at least to be possible to prevent the making of criminals.
Again the glaring defect of our penal system stands revealed. No pro-
vision whatever is made for the diagnosis of incipient criminality. It is
not merely a case of locking the door after the horse is stolen ; it is a
case of providing neither lock nor door.

SECTION K.— BOTANY.

1860-1894-1926.

ADDRESS BY

PROFESSOR F. 0. BOWER, Sc.D., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

' The future of Biology lies not in generalisation but in closer and
closer analysis.' — Bateson (Birkbeck Lecture, 1924).

Death sudden and wholly unforeseen has stepped between this Section
and the President of its choice. Professor Bateson had presided over the
whole Association at its meeting in Australia, and partly on that account
he had been specially selected for the chair of this Section in Oxford.
From him we might have expected a broad outlook upon biological
science. His address would have been instinct with wide experience in
both of the branches of living things, the interests of which interweave
in enthralling and often most perplexing ways. We should have heard
a fearless statement of his mature views. Something constructive would
certainly have justified the congratulations with which some of us had
already welcomed his nomination. A great figure has been taken from
the arena of biological science. A career still full of the promise of further
achievement has closed prematurely.

This is not the time or the place for any comprehensive obituary of
Bateson ; nor would I divert your attention from those already before
you, written by more competent hands. I will only allude briefly to
four leading events in his scientific career. He felt in early life the lack of
facts bearing on variation, and sought to extend their area in his great work
' Materials for the Study of Variation,' published in 1894. This was the
year when the Association last met in Oxford. I do not remember that
its contents came into the discussions in Section D, though the book
centred upon the vital question of continuity and discontinuity. The
second event was the publication in 1902 of ' Mendel's Principles of
Heredity,' in which, though essentially a controversial statement, Bateson
perceived latent in the rediscovered writings an expanding vista of
advance. ' Each conception of life (he says) in which heredity bears
a part must change before the coming rush of facts.' In a third stage of
his work Bateson expanded this theme into a fuller statement under the
same title, and it was published in 1909. Passing from this period of
high hopes to the fourth phase of 1924, we see in his Address at the Birkbeck
Centenary a chastened attitude. He there remarks : ' We must frankly
admit that modern discoveries have given little aid with the problem of
adaptation,' and that, much as Mendelian analysis has done, ' it has
not given us the origin of species.' But that analysis having ' led to
the discovery of transferable characters, we now know upon what to

232 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

concentrate. . . . Henceforth the study of evolution is in the hands of
the cytologist acting in conjunction with the experimental breeder. Every
appeal (he says) must ultimately be to the mechanics of cell-division.
The cell is a vortex of chemical and molecular change. . . . The study of
these vortices is biology, and the place at which we must look for our
answer is cell-division.' I would ask you to mark that last word. It is
cell-division, not nuclear division ; and earlier in his address we find the
pregnant sentences : ' As to what the rest of the cell is doing, apart
from the chromosomes, we know little. Perhaps the true specific charac-
ters belong to the cytoplasm, but these are only idle speculations.' Such
extracts from Bateson's latest public pronouncement may suggest to you
what the Section has lost by his death. They show the mind still elastic
and perceptive : still both constructive and critical.

Any address that follows such a tragedy of disappointment as the
Section has suffered can only fall short of what we had hoped to hear.
Instead of attempting to fill the broad biological rdle that naturally fell
to Bateson, I propose to centre my remarks upon three dates when the
Association has met in Oxford, viz. 1860, 1894, and 1926. It happens
that these dates mark approximately periods of transition in the progress
of biological science, and particularly in Botany,

1860.

I need not remind you of the fact that the meeting in Oxford of 1860,
the year after the publication of the ' Origin of Species,' witnessed the
clash between the new view and the oj^positi .n it was certain to arouse.
The story has been often told of the aggressive attack and the crushing
retort. But it is not sufficiently recognised that, though Huxley bore the
first brunt of the fight, a large part in the contest was taken by Hooker.
The meeting closed after he had spoken, and in his own words he was
' congratulated and thanked by the blackest coats and the whitest stocks
in Oxford.'

Two generations have passed since the Oxford meeting of 1860 : and
still the ' Origin of Species ' holds its place as a great philosophical pro-
nouncement. As the methods of research passed into greater detail,
the area of fact has been extended through the labours of an ever-growing
army of inquirers, and naturally divergences of view have arisen. Some
authors appear to demand that for all time the '' Origin ' must cover every
new aspect of biological inquiry, or else the whole theory crumbles. That
is to demand a prophetic vision for its author. We need not for the
moment follow these or other criticisms, but rather recognise that the
theory rested essentially on facts of heritable variation, without defining
their magnitude, limitations, or origin ; and that it explained a means
of their summation so as to produce progressive morphological results.
As an index of current opinion on the validity of Darwin's theory as a
whole, I would draw your attention to three British works on evolution,
all published within the last two years. In 1924 Dr. Scott concludes his
volume on ' Extinct Plants and Problems of Evolution ' with the judicious
sentence : ' I may venture ... to maintain that a consideration of all the
evidence ... is on the whole favourable to the old, truly Darwinian concep-
tion of an orderly and gradual evolution without sudden and inexplicable

K.— BOTANY. 233

leaps, an evolution in harmony with the uniformitarian principles estab-
iished by LyelL' But he remarks that he does not favour any exaggerated
ideas such as the so-called ' omnipotence of natural selection.'

In the present year Professor Graham Kerr, in his volume on ' Evolu-
tion,' also adopts a distinctly Darwinian position, but with greater stress
laid upon the potency of natural selection ; this might be expected from
•one who spent same of his most impressionable years in the wild surround-
ings of the Gran Chaco. He speaks from experience of the effect of selec-
tion as being ' in actual fact enormous,' and he holds that the attempts
that have been made to minimise its importance are to a great extent
fallacious. He sees in the recognition of Mendelian inheritance that the
natural-selection theory has been greatly fortified since Darwin's day.
Variability, upon which the theory depends, he regards as an expression
of that instability which constitutes one of the inherent and most character-
istic features of living substance, and he states that such variation has to
be accepted as a basic fact. He further regards as an added strength
to the Darwinian theory ' the recognition that a particular variation is
the outward expression of a tendeiicy to vary in that particular direction,
and that as a consequence the selection of variations in a particular direc-
tion involves a necessary intensifying of the tendency towards that
particular variation, and in turn the encouragement of evolutionary pro-
gress along a definite directed line.' These expressions are in general
accord with the doctrine of Weismann that acquired characters, or, as
Graham Kerr terms them, ' impressed ' characters, are not themselves
inherited. It is not for a botanist to interfere with the arguments of
zoologists on this question, as applied in their own science. There are,
however, zoologists who strongly maintain their belief in such inheritance,
a position upheld by Professor MacBride in the volume on ' Evolution '
published last year by Messrs. Blackie, which is the third of the works above
mentioned.

In that same volume I took the opportunity of stating that the question
of the origin of heritable characters, or mutations as they are called, is
still quite an open one for plants. But it was maintained that a wide
latitude of time is a real factor in the problem. This was already recog-
nised by Hofmeister, who on the last page of his ' AUgemeine Morphologic '
said : ' It appears to me probable that only gradually, in the course of
many years' development, the influential effects on outer form appeared
and became hereditary.' Thus Hofmeister contemplated a slow inherit-
ance of acquired or impressed characters in plants. To anyone who notes
how directly susceptible individual plants are to external conditions, and
how greatly these affect their individual form, it would seem improbable
that there should be any sharp line of demarcation between the individual
and the racial life, or that what affects every individual plant so pro-
foundly should never affect the race. In my essay in Messrs. Blackie's
volume on ' Evolution ' I advanced comparative evidence, which commends
itself to my own mind as a raorphologist, indicating that the boundary
between fluctuating variations and heritable mutations is not absolute :
in fact that in plants, given latitude of time, variations related causally
with external circumstance, and not merely initiated at random, are
liable to be transmitted to the offspring. There is no need to repeat the

234 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

argument here,, for it was submitted to the Section at Southampton. It
may be remarked that this is in direct opposition to the doctrine which
Weismaun laid down with special reference to the animal kingdom. But
what may be applicable for one kingdom of living things does not neces-
sarily apply for the other. The evolution of animals and plants has.
certainly been homoplastic in all its later stages. Our minds should be
perfectly free to follow the facts of our own science to their legitimate
conclusions. These indicate to me that heritable variations in plants
have been promoted or actually determined in their direction, or their
number, or their quality, in some way by external conditions. But these-
need not necessarily have worked within restricted time-limits of present
experiment ; for the wide latitude of geological time has been available-
for evolution to proceed. Hence negative results of the experiments of
a few years need not be held as overruling the conclusions drawn from
comparison of nearly allied forms.'

Before we leave this historical aspect of evolution a moral may b&
drawn from the lives of its four protagonists of 1860. Darwin, Wallace,.
Hooker, and Huxley were all equipped for the battle from the armoury
of personal experience in the great world. The theory of evolution was
born and bred of foreign travel, and upon foreign travel quite as much as.
upon quiet work at home its future still depends. We should not for a
moment minimise the great developments of laboratory study and of
breeding experiment in recent years that bear upon its progress. But it
is not thence alone that the fullest achievement can be anticipated. The
cytologist and the breeder, just as much as the abstract theorist, should
know Nature face to face, not merely through a glass darkly. To those-
who believe in the close relation between environment and variation,
which is to me the very core of evolution, this seems essential to any well-
balanced view. The open forest, the sea-coast, steppe, and mountain-side
should be regarded as the natural complement to the laboratory and
the breeding-station. No one, morphologist or physiologist, should hold
himself equipped for research or fully qualified to teach unless he have at
least some experience of travel through wild Nature. This can best be
acquired in the tropics. But what do we find ?

In 1886 a committee of this Association was appointed to assist the
visits of botanists to Ceylon for study. Several well-known botanists
availed themselves of its aid ; but after a few years the scheme flickered
out through inanition. In 1909 I visited the Cinchona Station in Jamaica,
and again a scheme for continued use of the station by British botanists
was initiated ; but it has since died out for want of consistent support.
Why did these efforts fail ? We may set these failures down to under-
valuation of the importance of foreign, and particularly of tropical, study ;
and the lack of full perception that open Nature is the greatest laboratory
of all. Our future Botany seems in danger of becoming myopic by reason
of study being concentrated at too short focus. To correct this, young
aspirants should travel early, as free-lances, hazarding the fortune of the
wild, as Darwin and his fellows did.

1 Gates, in his volume on the ' Mutation Factor in Evolution ' (1915), draws to
a close ■« ith -words that may well be quoted here. ' It would appear (he says) that
something within the organism is responsible for such unswerving progress in a given
direction as appears to be repeated over and over again in the palaeontological record.'

K.— BOTANY. 235

Homoplasy.

I have already alluded to the tempestuous meeting of 1860 in Oxford.
Shortly after it an undergraduate came up to Christ Church who, before
he was of standing to take his M.A. degree, had himself made a real contri-
bution to the philosophy of evolution. It was Ray Lankester, who in
1870 published a short paper ' On the use of the term Homology in Modern
Zoology, and the distinction between Homogenetic and Homoplastic
Agreements.' ' Its author was only twenty-three years of age, and its
date barely a decade after the publication of the ' Origin.' This short paper
went far to clear up the vague ideas surrounding the term ' homology '
in the minds of early evolutionists. Lankester introduced the idea of
* homogeny,' substituting in a more strict sense the word ' homogen ' for
' homologue.' He also suggested, to avoid confusion, the use of another
new term, viz. ' homoplasy.' He defined homogeny as simply the in-
heritance of a common part, while homoplasy depends upon the common
action of evoking causes or of a moulding environment upon homogeneous
parts, or upon parts which for other reasons offer a likeness of material to
begin with.

This definition was at once adopted in the morphological study of
animals, but Lankester did not himself apply it at the time to the
morphology of plants. In point of fact the conception of homoplasy and
the use of this clarifying term made its way but slowly into botanical
literature. There is reason to believe that we are as yet only beginning
to recognise in the evolution of the plastic plant-body how far-reaching
has been the influence of homoplasy, not only upon external form, but
also in the internal evolution of tissues. As to external form, a wide recog-
nition of the results of homoplasy is now generally accepted for land-
living plants, and in particular in respect of the origin of foliar appendages ;
for instance, the leaves in Bryophytes and Vascular Plants are held as
homoplastic, not as homogenetic ; similarly with the leaves of Bryophytes,
and possibly also of Pteridophytes, ivter se. On the other hand, we may
find among the larger Brown Algae indications of the difierentiation of a
supporting organ and lateral appendages from a common branch-system,
that can only have been homoplastic with an origin of like parts in certain
Red Algae. Such conclusions, drawn from the Algae themselves as well
as from the Archegoniatae, have the natural effect of raising distrust of
wide comparisons between any seaweed and any land-plant in respect of
foliar differentiation. Comparisons of this nature cannot be held accept-
able as mere guesses, by loose reference between one class and another.
They would have to be based on the recognition of compact sequences
within reasonably close circles of affinity before they could carry con-
viction.

Similarly in the morphology of the internal tissue-tracts, we are already
familiar with certain examples of homoplasy ; for instance, that of
secondary thickening. No one would now hold, with the school of
Brongniart, that all plants with cambial activity are akin. But it is only
in later years that we have come to realise the far-reaching results of
homoplasy in the region of primary vascular morphology. MeduUation,

'^Ann. and Mag. of Nat. Hist., vol. vi, p. 34.

236 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

solenostely, polycycly, and dictyostely have all arisen in more than one
phyletic sequence, while the fluted form of the stele, or of the xylem-tract
that it contains (which gives a stellate transverse section), is now recognised
as a conformation meeting the demands that follow from increasing size,
rather than as an indication of community of racial origin. These are
examples of the effect of internal homoplasy. We are only now beginning
to realise how far-reaching have been its results in plants as we see them.
On the other hand, such realisation when well assured cannot fail to react
upon our estimates of affinity of the organisms in which homoplasy appears.
It may be going too far to trace all such results as consequences of the
meeting of 1860 ; but the initiative was certainly given by Lankester in
the years that followed.

1894.

Passing from the stormy period of 1860, when the whole outlook of
biological science was being transformed by the advent of evolution, to
1894, we see that the atmosphere had cleared. One result was that the
evidence of descent tended to become too definite in the minds of some
enthusiasts, and there was even a disposition to argue deductively from
the accepted position, a tendency that is much too prevalent to-day. I
feel bound to refer critically to my own contribution to that meeting,
which was the statement of a Theory of the Strobilus. Thirty years have
materially extended the field of established fact. Though certain parts
of that theory relating to sterilisation may still hold, in view of new and
material facts any close comparison between a vascular strobilus as a
whole and a bryophytic sporogonial head must fall. In particular, the
suggestions of progressive septation and eruption of appendicular organs
cannot now be upheld as accounting for the origin of a compact strobilus.
The theory was stated tentatively, as a working hypothesis, and time
has shown that the hypothesis does not accord with facts now known.

The outstanding feature of the Oxford meeting of 1894 was Stras-
burger's generalisation on the Periodic Eeduction of Chromosomes. This
shed a new light on the vexed question of alternation which, based on the
brilliant results of Hofmeister, by this time held the field not only as an
objective fact but as an evolutionary problem. The effect of Strasburger's
communication was to establish the chromosome-cycle as general for
plants that show sexuality. It provoked comparison with a similar cycle
in animals. The recognition of both cycles took its origin in the discovery
by van Beneden in 1883 that in sexual fusion the number of chromosomes
is the same in both of the conjugating nuclei. Later observers have
confirmed this in a multitude of instances, and disclosed the correlative
reduction, or meiosis. The existence of a nuclear cycle alike in animals
and in plants cannot, however, be held as establishing any homogenetic
unity of the two kingdoms. Comparison of the simpler forms of each
indicates that the divergence of the kingdoms, if they ever had a common
origin, was very early indeed, and probably antedated sexuality in either.
Such similarities as they show in propagative detail, and particularly in
the nuclear cycle, would be homoplastic, not homogenetic. If this be
so for the two kingdoms of living things, may it not be equally true for
the several phyla of plants that show sexuality ; for we are not justified
in assuming that sexuality arose but once in plants ?

K.— BOTANY. 237

Historically this generalisation of Strasburger fell like a bomb-shell
into the midst of the old controversy between the rival theories of alterna-
tion, styled in the words of Celakovsky ' homologous ' and ' antithetic'
But it must be remembered that at the moment there was no complete
demonstration of a cytological alternation in any one Alga, though the
facts soon followed for Fuciis [Strasburger (1897), and Farmer and
Williams (1898)] ; and for Dictyota (Lloyd- Williams, 1897-8). We need
not recite again the arguments fro and con of that old discussion. It
soon lost its intensity in face of the obvious deficiency of crucial facts,
which alone could lead to some final conclusion. Loose comparisons
between organisms not closely allied are but the long-range artillery of
morphology. Comparisons between organisms closely related are its
small-arms. The discussions of the 'nineties of last century on alternation
were all engagements at long range, which could not be decisive without the
use of close comparison. As the necessary facts were not then in our hands,
those premature engagements might be held as drawn ; and it was open
to both parties still to entertain their own opinions. Meanwhile it may
interest us as spectators to note the relation that exists between homoplasy
as defined by Lankester in 1870, and those intimate questions that arise
from Strasburger's paper to this Section in 1894. The cytological facts
acquired since the latter date tend to confirm the normal constancy of a
nuclear cycle. Their effect has been to accentuate more than before
the inconstancy of the somatic developments related to it. Like the
fabulous genie let loose from its bottle, the conception of a nuclear cycle
in plants that show sexuality, disclosed in 1894 by Strasburger, dominates
ever more and more the morphological field.

Before discussing the relation of somatic development to that cycle,
it will be well to revise the terminology. The word ' homologous ' has a
double significance, as shown by Lankester. If it be used to include
examples of ' homoplasy ' the whole field is open for what has been styled
antithetic alternation, in which the two generations were presumed to be
homoplastic. If in the sense of ' homogeny,' then it would be necessary
to prove the relation of the somata throughout descent to the nuclear
cycle. On the other hand, the term ' antithetic,' while it accentuates
the difference between the two somatic phases, is not explicit, in that it
dut s not describe the method believed to have been involved in their origin.
It would be well to drop these old terms, which are neither exact nor
explicit, and to support a more general use of the words ' interpolation
theory ' in place of ' antithetic ' and ' transformation theory ' in place of
' homologous.' These words accord better with current views, and are
explicit.

1926.

From the time that the periodic reduction of chromosomes was recog-
nised as general in organisms showing sexuality, the nuclear cycle has
formed a natural foundation for the comparison of the life-histories of
plants. The normal cycle may be figured to the mind as a closed circular
thread with two knots upon it, syngamy and reduction. Between those knots
beads may be strung, one, or more than one, or none. These represent
somatic developments, which are normally diploid between syngamy and
reduction, haploid between reduction and a fresh act of syngamy. They

238 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

follow in alternate succession in any normal cycle, but either may be
repeated indefinitely by vegetative propagation. Certain questions arise
with regard to the evolution of these somata as we see them. The first
is, how far are the diploid and haploid somata of the same cycle comparable
one with another ? The reply will turn upon the constancy of the events
of syngamy and reduction throughout descent. If they were constant,
then it appears a necessary consequence that the alternating diploid and
haploid somata must have been distinct throughout their history ; and
any similarity which they may show, as in Dictyota or Polysiphonia, would
be homoplastic. It would, indeed, appear natural that they should be
alike in Algee, since they are parts of the same organic life and live under
identical circumstances. It has, however, been suggested that reduction
may not be a fixed but a movable event in the individual life : liable to
be deferred or carried over to a later phase, in which case a diploid genera-
tion might arise by transformation from an already existent haploid
phase. The monospores of the Nemalionales have been cited as possibly
convertible in other Red Seaweeds into tetraspores, by some sudden
deferring of the act of reduction. I am not aware that this has been
advanced by close comparison beyond the position of tentative sugges-
tion, though the existence of a diploid gametophyte and of a haploid
sporophyte in certain abnormal ferns would indicate the possibility of
the suggestion being true. Pending the advance of a closely reasoned
argument it is best to keep an open mind." Meanwhile the weight of
facts hitherto known from plants at large may be held to support the
stability of the events of syngamy and reduction during normal descent.
The two generations of the same life-cycle would, in the absence of a
carry-over of reduction, be homoplastic, not homogenetic.

It is, however, round a second question that divergent views as to
alternation chiefly centre. How far are the diploid and haploid somata
in the cycles of different types of organism comparable one with another ?
This is, in fact, the old problem of Pringsheim and Celakovsky. It applies
to all plants where somata alternate, but a special interest attaches to
the case of Land-living plants ; in particular, we shall trace the origin of
the dominant sporophyte of a Land Flora, and inquire whether it originated
by transformation of diploid developments such as are seen in certain Algae,
or by formation de novo through interfolation ? A clear statement of
the former hypothetical alternative was made by Scott in 1911, viz.
' that the Fern with its stem and leaves corresponds to the Seaweed in
which stem and leaf are not differentiated, the whole plant being a thallus.'
' On this theory the sexual prothallus and the asexual plant are both alike
derived from a thallus, and may once have been perfectly similar to each
other.' In alluding to leafy Liverworts and some of the higher Seaweeds
as illustrations, he then remarked that ' these are only analogies, it is

■^ Even if such a carry-over of reduction were proved to occur in certain Algje,
I do not see that this would disprove interpolation in other organisms. We have
been too apt to assume that all alternation arose in the same way — either by inter-
polation or by transformation. Among the infinite possibilities of Organic Nature
I see little justification for assuming this. The evolutionary problem has been to
impose the amplification of a vegetative system upon a nuclear cycle. I see no
reason to exclude its solution in a multiplicity of ways. (Cf. .1. Buder, 'Zur Frage des
Generationswechsels im Pfianzenreiche,' Ber. a. d. Bot. Oesellach., 1916, p. 659.)

K.— BOTANY. 239

true.' But after reference to the fossil evidence, as it then was, he con-
■cluded that it is more probable that the higher Cryptogams came direct
.from plants of the nature of Algae than from Bryophyta or any plants at
.all like them ; he added, however, that ' this view is pure hypothesi.s.'
It must, of course, be remembered that these quotations from Dr. Scott's
* Evolution of Plants ' (p. 225) were of pre-Ehynie date. A luminous
.statement of his later views was contained in his address to Section K in
Edinburgh in 1921, which will be in the memory of you all.

Church, in his vivacious essay on ' Thalassiophyta ' (1919), went much
further than this guarded and scientific statement by Scott of 1911. By
■' deduction from types still existent in the sea ' he assumes ' Algae of the
transmigration ' as a bridge between the vegetation of land and sea. His
transmigrant Algae ' appear, in fact, to have been more highly organised
than any single algal type at present known to exist in the sea,' and ' to
jhave combined the best features, as factors of the highest grade of pro-
.gression, of the known great conventional series of marine phytobenthon,
-and yet to have belonged to none of them.' He boldly fills the gap that
puzzles us all by hypothetical organisms that no one has seen, and which
he expressly tells us we shall never see {I.e., p. 88). If the discussions of
the 'nineties were inconclusive engagements at long range, what is this ?
It is certainly not that closer analysis advocated by Bateson.

An alternative to such an effort of imagination may be found in the
-examination of organisms that really exist, or are known to have existed,
illuminated by the conception of homoplasy, or, as it is often called,
parallel-development. The comparisons should be based upon the
recurrent fact of the chromosome-cycle, since this underlies the ontogeny
•of all plants that show sexuality. Somatic development in sexually
produced organisms is seen to be in some measure independent of the
•successive events in the chromosome-cycle. The somata may be uni-
•cellular, existing only as potential gamete or zygote respectively ; they
need' not necessarily be alike in themselves, nor need they appear at the
.same points in the cycle. For instance, it is found that the pennate
Diatoms have diploid vegetative cells, while in the centric Diatoms they
are haploid, this latter state being shared by the vegetative cells of the
Desmideae and Zygnemese. That a soma should appear at the same
ipoint in the cycle of two or more organisms does not necessarily prove
that they have had the same phyletic history. The full proof that they
■did can only follow from the observation of sequences of close relationship,
Tvhich should indicate the successive steps to have been the same if a true
homogeny exists. We are, in fact, thrown back upon close comparative
•observation for tracing truly homogenetic sequences of somatic develop-
jnent, rather than upon the mere position of a given soma in the cycle,
■or the recognition of its diploid or haploid state. Until such evidence is
available it will be best to hold it as possible that the origin of any somata
•compared has been homoplastic.

Some such view as this was clearly in the mind of Professor Oltmanns
dn 1923 {Morph. und Biol, der Algen, vol. iii, p. 143). Speaking with the
fullest knowledge of the cytologically distinct alternation as it appears in
the Algae, he says : ' When we affirm that an alternation of a gametophyte
;and a sporophyte is seen in the more highly developed Algae, that is not

240 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

the equivalent of saying that all the forms cited betray an affinity to the
Archegoniatse. Just as sexuality may be held to have arisen repeatedly
and independently in various groups of the lower organisms, so may the
various higher families have carried out independently the establishment
of two generations. Where a second generation is present we may assume
that it was independently interpolated, and has developed from small
beginnings such as we see in (Edogonium or Sphceroplea, &c.' If this be
admitted for various families of the Algse, it may be contemplated the
more readily for the Archegoniatse, which are more distinct in their
characters from the Algse than these are among themselves.

No one has yet made out a closely reasoned case for the descent of the
Axchegoniatae from the Green, the Brown, or the Red Algas. The old-
view that they originated from the Green Algae has never recovered from
the blow delivered by Dr. Allen, when he showed that the reduction in
ColeochcBte takes place in the first divisions of the zygote, and that the
presumed primitive sporophyte is really haploid, and not cytologically a.
sporophyte at all. It is a perfectly tenable position to hold that the
Archegoniatee sprang directly from none of these groups, as we know
them. In the absence of definite comparative evidence the field appears
to be open to an origin of alternation in the Archegoniatse by interpolation
of a sporophyte de novo, developed not in water but in relation to a land-
habit. Against such an origin of a sporophyte there is in some minds a
strange, and to me an inexplicable, preconception. Many years ago-
Professor Von Goebel drew attention to a curious leaning among:
morphologists towards reduction-series. It appears as a prevalent
psychological phenomenon that men are more prone to admit down-grade
sequences than those that are up-grade. But it is clear that in evolution
at large there must have been a credit-balance of upward development
as a whole, otherwise no multicellular organisms could exist at all. Each
morphologist no doubt strikes his own financial balance at the end of the
year, and notes justly whether or not his credits meet his debits. * Why
should he not carry forward the same accurate balance of amplification
against reduction into his morphology ? But we find him cheerfully
accepting evidence of the practical elimination of the gametophyte in
Seed-plants, and contemplating a similar elimination in the Brown Sea-
weeds, thus making drafts upon his morphological account. When, how-
ever, an origin by interpolation of the sporophyte is suggested to him, he
regards this morphological asset with something more than suspicion.
He will overdraw his morphological balance more willingly than he will
pay in assets to his morphological credit.

Here it may be well to consider what rational explanation is now possible
for the origin of a diploid generation. The old biological idea that the
alternation arose in relation to amphibious life will not suffice, since
alternation is seen to exist in fully aquatic Algae. Nevertheless, the
amphibial life may have been one of the circumstances that have modified
the development, and guided it into the special channel seen in Arche-
goniate Plants. Svedelius, however, suggests a more general reason for
the somatic development of a diploid sporophyte which deserves the
most careful attention (' Binige Bemerkungen ueber Genera tionswechsel
und Reduktionstheilung,' 1921). Instead of laying weight upon

K.— BOTANY. 241

meiosis as reconstituting the daughter-nuclei, he suggests that the
greatest importance of the reduction-division lies rather in its making
nevf combinations of chromosomes possible. He points to the difference
between only one reduction in each cycle, as in the simplest organisms,
and many, as in those that have achieved a higher development ; and he
concludes that the origin of a large diploid sporophyte is thus an advan-
tageous biological organisation, since it secures many reduction-divisions,
and consequently niimerous new combinations. This hypothesis has the
advantage of giving a general explanation of the origin of a diploid
sporophyte, independently of any special circumstances of life under which
it came into being.

Devonian Fossils and a Land Flora.

We may here leave aside any detailed study of alternation in the
Thallophytes, though it is full of interest, and the investigation of it rich
in promise ; particularly that of the Brown Seaweeds, as last year's
proceedings of the Section have shown. This year we may concentrate
on the Land Flora, and inquire how recent discoveries may have affected
our outlook on it. Notwithstanding that the years since 1894 have been
marked by discoveries of the first rank, I see no reason to alter my belief
in an interpolated sporophyte in the Archegoniatse, except in respect of
the primary causality ; nor do I relinquish the view that the two genera-
tions are homoplastic and not homogenetic. Indeed, the new evidence
appears to me to strengthen rather than to oppose the position previously
stated. I see no need materially to modify the biological reasoning which
T offered in 1890 in explanation of the formal difference in Land-plants
between the alternating generations, nor the recognition of the stabilising
influence of the amphibious life upon them. But the new discoveries
have altered the aspect in certain particulars, and in nothing more than
in the relations of the Bryophyta to the rest.

The most impressive event of recent times in the sphere of morphology
has certainly been the recognition and constitution of a new class of
vascular plants. The disclosure of the fossils of the Rhynie Chert, of
early Devonian age, is not only notable as introducing in unusual detail
a type of vegetation barely hinted at before, but also because those early
land-plants present material of the highest importance for comparison.
The new class of the Psilophytales was founded to receive them, together
with the old Devonian fossil Psilophyton, and some others ; while their
relation to the li^^ng Psilotacese is recognised. These rootless plants
together present a new facet upon the problem as to the origin of members
in vascular plants, though they do not wholly resolve it. Apart, however,
from such conclusions as the new facts may suggest, they introduce a
tonic effect into morphology. Something positive is actually seen, and
of very early existence, as a set-off against reasoning from data so often
isolated and insufficient, or even purely imaginary. For a balanced
statement on land-vegetation viewed in the light of the newly acquired
facts one cannot do better than refer to Chapter VI of Dr. Scott's book on
' Extinct Plants and Problems of Evolution,' 1924. Discussing the
relation of the Bryophytes to other Archegoniatae, he remarks how Kidston
and Lang had pointed out that the three phyla, Pteridophyta, Bryophyta,
1920 R

242 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

and Algse, are undoubtedly brought nearer together by the Rhynie dis-
coveries ; and I may be pardoned for re-quoting from him a passage of
my own (^.c, p. 205) : ' Long ago it was remarked that the widest gap in
the sequence of plants was that between the Bryophytes and the Pterido-
phytes. It is within this gap that the newly discovered fossils take their
natural place, acting as synthetic links, and drawing together more closely
the whole sequence of land-living, sporangium-bearing plants.' Under
the influence of these and other late discoveries the Bryophyta are coming
into their own. Not only has the problematical Sporogonites been
described by Halle from the Devonian rocks, but undoubted Liverworts
of the Carboniferous Period have been disclosed by the refined methods
of Walton. These events coincide with the advent of the Psilophy tales,
the most sporogonium-like of all vascular sporophytes. It seems there
may be a natural place for Anthoceros at last, as Campbell tells us.

The effect of the establishment of the Rhyniaceous type on the com-
parison of the parts of the sporophyte is important ; in particular the
question of the origin of the root and leaf may be canvassed afresh. We
see a class of early rootless, land-living sporophytes, sharing this feature
with the Psilotales, and we may reasonably hold them to represent a
primitive type. On the other hand, we see in all Pteridophyte embryos
which have a suspensor that the root, often late in appearance, is a lateral
appendage on the embryonic spindle. Moreover, the root arises as an
exogenous growth in Phylloglossum, and in certain species of ZycoyotiiMm, as
do also the enigmatical rhizophores of Selaginella. Provisionally, then, we
may conclude that the root is a late addition to the plant-body in descent,
and that it was in the first instance some form of exogenous branch at the
base of the primitive sporophyte, such as is seen in the Psilotacese and in
Asteroxylon.

Much greater interest and more consecutive reasoning centres on the
question of the foliar developments of vascular sporophytes. Studies on
' Leaf -Architecture ' and passages dealing with that subject in my book
on Ferns, vol. i, have shown that, by inductive comparison based on an
analysis of plants now living, we may arrive at a theoretical origin of
leaves of the Fern-type from a dichotomously branching system ; and
already in 1884, long before the discovery of the Psilophytales, this con-
ception had been tentatively extended to include the axis as well, though
the material facts such as we now possess were not then in evidence. It
was also concluded from comparison of living plants that the sporangia
were originally distal on the branches. Thus the Psilophytales supplied
m actual fact a sub-aerial type already contemplated as a result of inductive
argument. If this origin of a Fern-shoot by sympodial development from
a dichotomous branch system, such as that of the Rhynie fossils, be true,
there would be no need to draw upon supposititious ' Algae of the trans-
migration ' to explain the origin of leaves of the Fern-type, for sub-aerial
plants would be seen to have originated such leaves for themselves. Any
similarities between Algae and Ferns in respect of foliar appendages would
appear only as interesting facts of homoplasy.

This does not, however, exhaust thejquestion of foliar origin. Such
plants as Thursophyton and Asteroxylon, as well as the living Psilotaceae,
present features which suggest a second type of foliar appendage. Lignier

K,— BOTANY. 243

has long ago designated these as ' phylloides,' while his ' cauloides '
correspond to the leaves of ferns. I do not propose here to discuss this
difficult question. The present purpose is fully served by showing that
induction from the facts of land-living plants alone will now give a
reasonable history of the origin of leaves of the Filicinean type, without
any need to refer to some transmigrant Alga to explain it. Why should
we assume any limit to the capacity of Organic Nature to originate new
members 1 Or to do this in more than one way, and in more than one
phyletic line ? At the back of the theory of Transmigration is the
assumption that she cannot, or probably would not, do this. But a wide
comparison of things now living before our eyes, or that have lived,
shows that she can, and that she has done it repeatedly.

Palseobotanical discovery has been greatly advanced within the
period under review. The features of the vegetation of Mesozoic time are
becoming clearer than ever before under the hands of Professor Seward.
The Carboniferous Flora has been richly presented to us by Williamson,
Scott, Oliver, and Kidston in Britain, and by Continental workers such as
Eenault, Zeiller, Bertrand, Nathorst, and Solms-Laubach. We are now
able to substitute something positive in place of vague surmisings. Not
only do the new facts illuminate our knowledge of plants now living, but
they also apply a check upon theories as to their origin. Latterly a vision is
becoming ever more and more real of a Devonian flora, revealed by
Kidston and Lang at home, and by other workers in Scandinavia, in
Germany, and in America. Given more extended collecting, an improving
technique, and the fortune of finding more material as well preserved as
that at Rhynie, who knows biit what the coming decades may see the land
of the Devonian period clothed before our eyes by a flora no less stimulating
and even more suggestive than that of the coal 1 But though Devonian
lands are the earliest yet known to have supported a sub-aerial flora, the
highly advanced structure of such a fossil as Palccopitys Milleri suggests
that we are still far from visualising the actual beginnings of Land
Vegetation. Moreover, the mixture in the Rhynie Chert of Algal types
with vascular land-plants presents at the moment a problem as perplexing
as it is ecologically strange. It is always difficult to estimate justly the
times in which we live ; but we may well believe that the future historian
of botany will note the present period as one specially marked by
successful study of the floras of past ages, and by the increasing cogency
of their comparison with the vegetation of the present day.

The ' Annals of Botany ' as an Historical Document.

Perhaps too much of your time has been claimed for morphological
questions, which are closely related to the dates of the three meetings
of the Association here in Oxford. The brief space that remains may be
devoted to a more general survey of the period which these dates cover.
In this we could not do better than to take as an index the pages of the
'Annals of Botany,' for the existence of which we owe a deep debt to the
Oxford Press. In 1860 there was no organised laboratory teaching of
Botany in any University in Britain ; and as yet there was no journal of
the nature of the ' Annals.' But the revival of close observational study in
Botany under Huxley and Thiselton Dyer at South Kensington in the early

244 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

'seventies, recorded last year by various writers in the ' New Phytologist, '
was beginning to take effect in 1881, when the British Association met in
York. There the outstanding feature was the address of Hooker on
Geographical Distribution. This and the papers by Bayley Balfour on
Socotra and by Baker on Madagascar were all that really mattered
botanically, and almost all the contributions were systematic or regional
in subject. The revival of the laboratories had not yet fructified. At
this time all the work that was done in laboratories was called ' physiology,'
as distinct from systematic botany, which was conducted on dry specimens
in the herbarium. In 1887, six years after the York meeting, the ' Annals
of Botany ' was founded through the activity of Sir Isaac Bayley Balfour,
and a small committee of guarantors whose personal security induced the
Clarendon Press to make the venture. From the start that journal has
paid its way. The forty stately volumes form a record, between the
pages of which you may read the history of botanical progress in Britain,
and in some degree also in the United States, for American botanists have
always been with us in its pages. In the first issues of the 'Annals,'
morphology and systematic botany preponderated, and from the pro-
ceedings of the meeting of the Association in Oxford in 1894 we see that
this was still so. That meeting witnessed a crisis in the affairs of botany
in Britain. A newly established Section I of Physiology assumed that
the functional activities of plants would be swept, together with those of
animals, into its hands. Up to this time Section D had been the
undivided section of Biology. An irregular cleavage of interests was
set up by this claim, for the zoologists were mostly willing to give up
their physiology, but the botanists were not. Their refusal to accept
divorce of form from function contributed to, or at least coincided with,
the foundation of a separate Section K of Botany, and has dictated the
policy of British Botany ever since.

As we pass from 1894 to the current period we perceive a marked
shifting of the interest of botanists from the study of form to that of the
intimate constitution and functional activity of plants. Whole fields of
colloidal chemistry and physics, of quantitative physiology, of cytology
and genetics, of ecology, of fungology and bacteriology, have been opened
up. The present century has been specially marked by the extension of
opportunities for physiological research, by better equipment of depart-
ments in the universities, and by the foundation of independent
establishments carrying on experimental inquiry in its broadest applica-
tion. This is rapidly bringing the science into closer relation with
Imperial and social aims. It is needless to specify, but the effect of it all
is plainly written in the pages of the ' Annals.' Experimental results have
gradually taken the preponderant place over description and comparison,
as is amply shown in the last January number. ' For better, for worse,'
the pendulum has definitely swung over from the extreme systematic
position of half a century ago, through a phase of prevalent morphology
(or perhaps we should better say of organography), to an extreme
physiological position at the present time. Some of you may even have
felt that this address is in itself an anachronism, in that it has not touched
upon the moving physiological questions of the day. While I may claim
none the less to sympathise with physiological aspirations, I do not

K.— BOTANY. 245

assent to any ultra-physiological aspect of botany that would degrade or
minimise the comparative study of form. ' Medio tutissimus ibis ' is
still a true maxim. The laboratory physiologist, dealing with the things
of the moment, cannot safely detach himself from the things of the past
as recorded in heritable form. He should not allow himself to be
immersed in statistics and neglect history. The pendulum has gone full
swing, within a period of about half a century ; but we may confidently
anticipate a return towards some middle position.

SECTION L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.

ADDRESS BY

SIR THOMAS H. HOLLAND, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

In the other Sections of the Associatiou the Chair is reached normally
after an apprenticeship and prolonged service in the ranks. This Section,
devoted to Educational Science, has shown on the contrary a spirit of
enterprise by recruiting as presidents some, at any rate, whose views on
education must necessarily be a matter of nervous speculation on the
part of the Sectional Committee.

From this I assume that those who are responsible for the development
of this Section — all of them experienced in the art of education — are still
searching for what the petrologists call a mineralising agent — some ideas
which will facilitate the regular crystallisation of their observational data
into an organised and orthodox science.

More than half of my distinguished jDredecessors have never professed
an acquaintance with the forms of natural and physical science that
occupy the attention of the other Sections ; but the scientific method —
the development of ' organised common sense ' — is not limited to the
data of what is popularly known as science : it equally follows the training
of the classical scholar. So our aim is not the study of scientific education
so much as the discovery of principles applicable to all forms of education.
Nevertheless, for each of us in turn our experiences in testing methods of
teaching must necessarily be limited to a single and relatively narrow
branch of culture.

The teaching of science to students who have passed on to university
classes has been my only experience of practical education, and the only
generalisations that appear to me to be justified from a limited experience
in this field are necessarily, in the first instance, applicable only to a
sphere of short radius. I will confine myself to three such generalisations,
and leave you to judge whether any part of them offers contributions of
practical value to the art of training the younger generation to fulfil their
duties as healthy and happy citizens.

In the first place I wish to submit for your consideration the results
of our experience at South Kensington in practising the so-called ' tandem
system,' and this is suggested because a colleague bred in other ways has
described it as fundamentally rotten. Secondly, I should like to explore
the possibility of introducing into scientific education some form of
humanism which might neutralise the criticisms justifiably offered by
classical students. Thirdly, I feel that the plea for the teaching of general

L.— EDUCATION. 247

science, which was eloquently expressed by 8ir Uichard Gregory at Hull
iu 1922, has not yet received the practical appreciation in schools that
it deserves.

With your permission I will give the results of my observations as
judicially as possible ; for, in spite of my limited experience in practical
teaching, I do not feel inclined to be dogmatic.

Someone has given the appropriate name ' tandem system ' to a
form of curriculum in which the students are limited to one main subject,
and one subject only, at a time. As an essential characteristic of this
system the examination, which is final so far as the course is concerned,
is taken immediately at the end of the course and before the next subject
is taken up.

So far as I know, there is only one institution of university rank in this
country in which this kind of curriculum is observed with any approach
to rigidity, and that is the Imperial College at South Kensington, where
it is still followed in the Royal College of Science and Royal School of
Mines. The introduction of the system there is generally attributed to
the late Professor Huxley ; at any rate, the supposed virtues of the system
were recognised and enforced during his tenure of oiiice as Dean of the
two joint colleges.

In the normal course for the diploma during Huxley's time, the student
devoted his first half -session entirely to Chemistry, Part I ; that is approxi-
mately the Pass standard of the ordinary B.Sc. He had one lecture each
morning, spent the rest of the day in the laboratory, and in February took
what was for that ' part ' his final examination. During the second half-
session the student was similarly confined to Physics, taking his final for
Part I in June.

The second year was similarly taken in two halves, and then the
student specialised in his main subject for the third year ; but even in
his third year Parts II and III, being distinct branches, were taken sepa-
rately, with a final examination for the part at the end of each half-year.
Thus, after the entrance examination or matriculation, the student took
four main subjects of Pass standard, one of which was Part I of the
third-year subject of a more specialised or Honours standard.

The only departure from this simple life was due to attendance for
any necessary repairs and improvements required in Mathematics above
that taken at the entrance examination. It was indeed a simple life,
summed up in the approximately accurate formula — ' One lecture each
day ; one subject one term.'

It is not necessary to trace the evolutionary history of the model
commonly adopted for the ordinary university curriculum. The structure
of any such course is in all essential respects similar to that of the ordinary
secondary-school curriculum in requiring the consumption of two, three,
or more subjects simultaneously. The graded ' forms ' at school are
continued under another terminology in the university — matriculation,
intermediate, and degree final, or other local equivalents. The top of the
school column and the lower grades at the university overlap one another
in standard, and to various extents are interchangeable.

It will be sufficient to take as a fairly representative sample the
regulations at any of the younger or so-called provincial universities. At

248 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Manchester, for example, students who have matriculated are examined
for the ordinary' degree uf B.Sc. iu two parts — ^namely, the Intermediate
and the Final. To sit for the Intermediate examination, candidates must
attend a course of study at the University extending over at least one
academic year in three of six defined science subjects, and must pass in
either the three subjects at the same examination, or two subjects at one
and the third at a subsequent examination. For the Final examination
for the ordinary B.Sc, candidates must take two subjects, which are more
specialised than at the Intermediate stage.

Training in all the subjects prescribed is spread over at least one
academic year at each stage, and the examinations in all are held in one
bunch at the end of the year or two years.

As the result of this system, students attend on the same day three and
sometimes more lectures on distinct subjects, in different departments,
and under separate professors ; they may put in two or three hours of
laboratory work in two unrelated branches each day.

This is the commonly recognised imiversity system of training for
the Science first degree in this country : it is assumed to be a suitable
system, and those of us who have been compelled to spend some years in
administration, requiring a rapid transfer of thought and action from oni
question to another of a^quite unlike nature, realise that, for the develop
ment of mental fitness, the compound diet provided each day at both
schools and universities has some strengthening qualities. But one rarely
finds on inquiry among university teachers any real consciousness that
the system is the product of a definite design or attempt to put into
practice any recognised principles of education. University authorities
assume, however, that to pass an examination in two or more subjects at
the same time requires more mental nimbleness than when, as in tht
tandem system, the final examinations are taken at the end of each course
in one subject only. This may be a simple guide for universities that have
a strong external side and are thus driven to regard examinations as their
only test. But the passing of examinations is not the only or, indeed, the
ideal object of the university.

During the last four years, since returning from an intensive form of
complex, semi-political administration to the more uniform atmosphere of
academic life, in which barometric pressures are less liable to sudden
variation, I have made a point of soliciting from experienced university
teachers an estimate of the relative merits, as educational methods, of
the commonly followed compound system on the one hand and of the
so-called tandem system on the other as practised at South Kensington.
My impressions have been gathered from witnesses who have followed
approximately similar courses of training themselves ; for most of the
professors at South Kensington had been through the older universities
and thus were themselves brought up on a mixed diet. Some of my
colleagues confess to a clear recollection of coming to South Kensington
with a definite prejudice against our system ; but there is not one among
them now who would give up the tandem system for that which is the
commonly accepted practice elsewhere in this country.

The question was forced upon us recently in our attempt to persuada
the University of London to accept our training and examinations for

L.— EDUCATION. 249

their degree ; and it was in these circumstances tiiat 1 found, to my sur-
prise as a newcomer, that in the Imperial College a very definite conviction
had been formed in favour of the tandem system, a conviction so strong
in some instances that certain of our professors would prefer the handicap
of an independent set of degree examinations for their students rather
than revert to the ' mixed ' system.

I assume that for particular students both systems have their advan-
tages, but in all forms of educational practice we are forced by limitations
of time and staff to adopt systems that are most applicable to large groups,
and one must remember that all of our students at South Kensington
come from the same schools that feed other colleges, and all follow the
' mixed ' method of training ; the question that I am trying to answer
is — Which for the average student of university standard is the better form
of education ?

The difficulties of changing over from one system to another
are practically insuperable in any large college or university : it would
necessitate the closing of the college for some three years, and then starting
afresh with a clean slate. To advocate a general change-over seems out
of the range of practical politics ; but the merits of the two systems are
nevertheless worth consideration for better than academic reasons ; for
one notices that, even within a single Honours school, the mixed system
is adopted in most institutions, sometimes deliberately and in accordance
with an assumed theory of education, sometimes merely because the
' mixed ' diet is taken for granted as the right thing for normally minded
students.

It is not possible now to adopt the tandem system as a whole in any
long-established college working on the other more usual lines, but it is
possible within most dei^artments to adopt it for subjects which have grown
so enormously in recent years that Honours schools in science have now to
be subdivided. For example, in Geology the various subdivisions can be
gathered into two groups — the petrological and the palseontological
groups. Either group can be taken separately, and consequently, in an
Honours course of two years after the Intermediate, students of the
second and third year standard may be trained together, taking the
petrological branch in one year and the palseontological branch in the
next, instead of both branches simultaneously in two separate classes
for second-year and third-year students respectively.

If there are merits in the tandem system the question is thus worth
consideration for at least departmental use in most colleges and universities.
It is not sufficient for those of us who favour the tandem system to assert
that the other has merely grown without conscious guidance, and that
vested interests and a complicated time-table now prevent reform. Among
those whom I consulted during our recent discussion with the London
University I found some experienced teachers who thought, and were
honest enough to say, that Huxley took the wrong turning when he
impressed his ideas on the old School of Mines and later College of Science.

With these opinions held generally outside and the contrary opinion
held unanimously by our professors inside, there is obviously some justifica-
tion for attempting an estimate of the relative merits of the two systems
as alternative methods of treating the average student.

250 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Since my time as a student at South Kensington, when Huxley was
still Dean of the college, science has grown not by accretion but by multipli-
cation. Our professors still adhere to the tandem principle, although one
detects in the time-tables a slight yielding to the demands of the more
complex life ; but an extension of the course from three to four years
in most of the ' schools ' has helped still to preserve the simplicity of the
student's night thoughts.

Candidates for the diploma and degree in Biology, for example, in
their second year are compelled to take home with them twice a week
an afternoon lecture on Biochemistry or Organic Chemistry as well as the
morning lecture on Geology. Those who intend to specialise similarly in
Geology for their finals are compelled during the first half of their second
year every Friday to absorb a lecture on Zoology as well as one on
Botany, and even after they enter the Geology Department finally for
their third and fourth years, they have to attend more than one lecture
a day, although always on some recognised branch of Geology itself.

Advocates of the tandem system claim that a student who has evening
revision work to do is liable, when following more than one subject at a
time, to give his extramural thoughts and study only to his favourite
subject, and to trust to subsequent cramming for the others before his
final exartdnatious. They claim that a student should sleep only on one
subject, preferably on one lecture only, in order that his subconscious
cerebration may be effective in classifying data and in discovering
principles for himself. An accessory advantage in a science department
is the complete relief of some of the teaching sta'ff from lectures and
demonstrations for definite and fairly large sections of the academic
session. This freedom from daily interruption facilitates research work
by the staff, especially where extensive laboratory accommodation is
necessary for their operations.

As I have said, an essential feature of the system is that the final
examination in each subject or well-defined Part should be held at the
end of the period of training in that branch. To undertake the teaching
in tandem order and then to hold the examinations at the end of the full
year, or, as in the Honours schools, at the end of two years, defeats the
real object of the system ; for an examination impending in June on a
course which ended in February distracts the student's mind from the
subject taken between February and June. It is not the first subject
which suffers by delay, but the second : the student suffers, not from want
of memory-freshness regarding the subject in which his training ended
last year, but by the disturbing influence of an examination menace which
prevents his simple concentration on the later lectures and laboratory work.

It is not easy to equate the merits of these two systems, and it is
impossible for one who has been brought up on the tandem system to
avoid bias. For a subsequent career in which scientific research forms a
major interest it seems fair to assume that the tandem system has a dis-
tinct advantage ; for a post-graduate career in business or administration,
when many unrelated questions have to be handled daily and with
promptness, one cannot help feeling that mental mobility is increased, or
at any rate more rigidly tested, by the composite system of training and
examination.

L.— EDUCATION. 251

There are three main stages in the educational career of the average
student — the primary or preparatory school, in which it seems desirable
especially to arouse the interest of the boy ; the secondary school, in which
discipline might form the dominating note ; and the university, in which
more individuality is permissible, and the student should be given an oppor-
tunity of being more contemplative as specialisation approaches. It
seems to me that if a student is expected to form his own ideas and to
work out for himself the meaning of facts, his mental operations should
not be disturbed by the rapid intake of unrelated groups of data. It is
difficult for a housewife to put a room straight if the furniture is all put in
before the carpet is laid ; nor can picture-hanging and paper-hanging be
carried on simultaneously.

Critics of the tandem system say, on superficial consideration, that if
a student be examined in a subject finally and for good at the end of his
first college term, he must necessarily forget the subject soon after and
almost completely before the end of his third year. That is not in
accordance with my observation. It is difficult, however, to obtain
strictly comparative data on this jjoint ; for all observations are neces-
sarily made on different students who would differ in any event ; but my
residual impression, as the result of the oral examination of candidates
before Committees of Selection for appointments, is that the man who has
been trained by the tandem system retains a clearer and cleaner recol-
lection of his subjects than those who have been trained by the composite
system. Whatever be the end in view — whether administration, business,
or the academic life — it is important precisely to know what one knows
and what one does not know.

There are special virtues in many systems of education : we have not
yet discovered any that is universally applicable to the exclusion of others ;
and so with these two alternatives, which have been hitherto the main
difficulty in fitting the Imperial College into the London University
complex, each has its own merits. The institution of Honours schools
is in itself a partial recognition of the tandem system, but we carry the
principle much further at South Kensington by adopting it at an earlier
stage and even in the Honours stage itself by subdivision of the final
subject ; and especially by holding examinations after each Part, instead
of in a group of subjects at the end of the training.

When anyone engaged in practical education presses attention on a
feature that he thinks to be too much neglected by others, it is not unusual
to hear his principles spoken of as fads, which merely shows how far we
have yet to travel before we can regard education as an organised science.
This much is said to anticipate the label that some would use for my
second point — the value of humanism in science teaching.

Under the tyranny of terminology our classical friends have usurped
the * humanities.' But they sometimes forget, through their specialisa-
tion in the purely rhetorical aspects of classical literature, that what
gave rise to the Renaissance was the discovery of the long-buried wisdom,
especially of the Greeks — -their art, their religion, and their science.
The revolt of the intellect from previous formalism and theological
bondage resulted in more than the revival of literature and art, more
than the religious freedom which gave us the Reformation : it aroused

252 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

curiosity regardiug natural laws — what we now call the spirit of research,
because the word curiosity is more widely occupied. The invention of the
mariner's compass, and the exploratory spirit which accompanied it, led
to the discovery of the Americas, South Africa, India and the Far East.
The invention of gunpowder and that of paper and printing were the
technological offspring of classical literature, strange as this may seem to
us who see the wide gap between the modern classical school and the
technical institute.

Some of the scientific developments which followed the classical
Renaissance had possibly independent origins, but they were mainly the
product of intellectual activities quickened by the rediscovery of biiried
philosophies. What would otherwise have been but slow combustion
developed, because of the classics, with the speed of an explosion. Greek
literature acted on mediaeval scholasticism like nitric acid on combustible
cellulose : cotton was converted into gun-cotton.

Thereafter followed the usual life-history of every organism : classical
learning went through a phase of vigorous youth, vitalising the world
with new energy and new ideas, till it reached the stage of adolescence
and, with it, specialisation. With specialisation the study of the classics
tended to become narrowed to its linguistic, grammatical, and purely
rhetoric aspects : its main object became obscured and stricken with a
formalism and even pedantry.

In the same way there is a danger, if not a noticeable tendency, in
our study, and therefore teaching, of science so to produce by specialisa-
tion similar cultural ptomaines and thus to obtain what corresponds to
the devitalised residue of the humanities without humanism.

In a thoughtful paper read in this city before the Congress of Empire
Universities in 1921, Dr. C. H. Desch advocated the adoption of the
historical method in teaching science. Emerson said that ' there is
properly no history, only biography ' ; for history consists of innumerable
biographies. Nothing appeals to a man like humanity ; if we inspire the
student's curiosity regarding the life-histories of our leaders, he wiU find
out for himself the facts and principles of their science and technology.

Everyone here must recollect the time when he passed from the
secondary school to the university ; when he saw and met in real life men
whose names he had heard before as objects of another world. Recalling
the thrills of those days, one can understand why the professor's lecture
was more inspiring than the more directly useful demonstration by a
junior assistant in the laboratory. The professor, who has grown with
his science, more naturally recalls the work of his contemporaries and
immediate predecessors ; and, until he reaches the stage of pure reminis-
cence, inspires his teaching by biography.

The educational balance is not secured by requiring students to attend
a formal course of classics or history as well as of science. That would be
merely to double the offence. Separate courses of history and science form
a mechanical mixture as dead as the chemical constituents of protoplasm.
It is the biographical history of science itself that contains the essential
vitamins of the student's food. An illustration, possibly somewhat
exaggerated, that I used here in 1924 will show what is intended : giving
two separate doses of two unrelated subjects to act as mutual correctives

L.— EDUCATION. 253

18 equivalent to giving a patient a metallic-sodium pill with a snifE of
chlorine gas, when what he really wants is a pinch of common salt. The
two constituents given separately might be fatal, whilst the two in the
form of the compound sodium-chloride make an essential food.

I have so far resisted the temptation to quote definitions of education,
but perhaps at this stage of the Address one may be permitted. Sir
Richard Gregory, in the Address that I have already referred to, defined
education as the ' deliberate adjustment of a growing human being to its
environment.' May I remind our teachers of science and technology
that their students are not wanted only as experts in the laboratory and
workshop ? — they have post-graduate duties to perform as citizens, and
must face relations — competitive relations — with other human beings,
with most of whom they cannot communicate in techm'cal terms alone.
To be appreciated they must understand and be understood by others :
they want the humanities, and the humanities are not the monopoly of
the classical scholar.

My object in referring to the subject of Sir Richard Gregory's Address
is not to revise his remarks or even to supplement them : it would be
impossible for me to do either with advantage ; but it is important that
his advice should not be forgotten or displaced by influences altogether
different from those of the principles which !we 'are 'endeavouring to
discover and use in teaching.

There are such influences at work mouldin^^ the trend of education
without regard to its fundamental essentials. I find that most of those
who enter the Imperial College as scholars have already attained a first-
year standard in Chemistry, Physics, and Mathematics. These subjects
form a considerable section of their school training and are thus used for
purely commercial purposes — namely, the acquisition of scholarships. The
candidates for scholarships seem to dictate to their teachers the educational
principles which they should follow ; and, through economic necessity,
the teachers submit.

At the universities we close the vicious circle, admit the brilliant
scholars to our Honours schools, and so produce a graduate in Chemistry
or Physics who is blind for the rest of his life to what lies before him
out of doors, where he ought to spend much, if not most, of his life. In
the old days, when Sir Richard Gregory and I were together at South
Kensington, a student could not obtain the College full diploma in any
subject, not even in Mathematics and Mechanics, without passing through
Part I Geology. Huxley and his colleagues believed that every man
ought to know something of the history and origin of the features of the
only world on which he will live in human form ; and that without an
acquaintance with those branches of science which are more observational
than experimental no man should be regarded as an educated man.

Geology is now an optional not a compulsory foundation subject at
South Kensington : the Imperial College has yielded to outside influences
and the pressure which has followed the abnormal growth of each science,
with the consequent demand for more time to be given to the final
schools. Possibly, we turn out better Chemists, more specialised
Mathematicians, and more efficient Physicists than we did in the old days ;
but I imagine that we run the risk of producing less valuable citizens who

254 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

are relatively happy only because they are blind to the beauties of the
world around them. One pities the Wrangler as one does a deaf man at
a concert, or a colour-blind man at a flower show.

Nature knowledge now is getting into the position that science
generally occupied in the older classical schools : it is accessible only to
the boy whose bent is too strong for the teacher, and who thus shows an
individuality which tends to mark him down and so confirm his position
as a freak. Possibly I am exaggerating, but it is obvious that scholar-
ships are driving us to premature specialisation. The schools conform to
the universities : each professor in the university pounces on the scholar
and turns him to account as a recruit for his Honours school.

If I do no more than encourage some of you to read Sir Richard
Gregory's Address again, my intrusion into this Section may be partially
justified.

In an Address to the Universities Congress five years ago, Dr. Farnell,
then Vice-Chancellor of Oxford, referred to as ' alarming ' the recent
decline of classical studies and their replacement by science, even at
' Oxford, the stronghold of Hellenism.'

This change-over to science and technology, dictated largely by
utilitarian motives, is even more alarming to the teachers of science,
whose agitation to this end has been embarrassingly successful ; for the
change brings with it a responsibility which was unforeseen in its fullness.
When we remember that our chief public men and our army of adminis-
trators, here and overseas, who have made the British Empire what it is,
have been trained mainly on classics, the duty of replacing them effectively
falls on our teachers of science as a burden that they ought to feel as
serious. That our classical teachers have been successful, even con-
spicuously so, is beyond question. Anyone who has had the privilege of
watching the members of the Indian Civil Service carrying on the
administration of their districts — with sympathy as well as efficiency, not
here and there, but generally ; not under the eye of the Press or of
Parliament, but isolated, alone and unobserved — would seriously seek for
the cause of their efficiency and character ; for nine-tenths of the data
employed in their early education has had no direct application to the
problems that they have now to tackle.

I do not feel inclined to modify the words that I used here in 1924 in
drawing the attention of teachers in engineering institutes to their new
responsibilities — ' Stresses set up by limitations of time and economic
necessities force us, in modern educational institutions, to concentrate
our attention on, and even in some instances to limit it to, professional
and vocational subjects. But it is our duty to see that these stresses do
not exceed the intellectual elastic limits of our students, and so be followed
by mental strains.

' If the older system of classical education justified itself, not by the
outturn of experts in the Greek and Latin languages, but by the develop-
ment of character and capacity for affairs, we have to see to it that science
and technology are also so taught that these essential features are developed,
not inhibited, in the student.'

SECTION M.— AGRICULTURE.

THE RELATION BETWEEN
CULTIVATED AREA AND POPULATION.

ADDRESS BY

SIR DANIEL HALL, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S.,

PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.

Recent considerations of the problem of the capacity of the world to
continue to feed its growing population appear to have begun with the
late Sir William Crookes' address as President of this Association when
he discussed the ultimate curtailment of the wheat supply through
exhaustion of the soil nitrogen. Crookes' views attracted little more
than academic attention at the time (1898), because the great tide
of wheat that was setting in from the newer countries still in the
process of exploitation was barely slackening ; moreover, Crookes had
neglected a factor then imperfectly appreciated — -the fact that land
under any of the conservative systems of farming adopted in the
old settled countries does not become exhausted. The recuperative
effects of the leguminous crops and the assimilation of nitrogen by soil
bacteria like Azotobacter, have maintained unimpaired the fertility of
European soils for perhaps thirty centuries of cultivation. Of course,
reckless exploitation, such as the continuous growth of wheat and maize
without any manuring, will eventually burn out the resources of even the
prairie soils of the Middle West, and there is evidence that some of the
long-cultivated Indian soils are losing fertility if only because dung and
other residues which should go back to the soil are being burnt as fuel or
sold away ; but, generally speaking, a soil will maintain itself indefinitely
at a certain level of production. Latterly in Europe that level has been
raised by the introduction of extraneous fertilisers. In his review Crookes
predicted the development of the synthetic processes of bringing nitrogen
into combination which are to-day rendering that prime element of
fertility so abundant and so cheap. But, though we no longer fear the
exhaustion of soils, of late years certain sociological considerations have
revived interest in the old thesis of Malthus. Over-population and
unemployment have become terrible realities in this and other countries ;
many States are finding themselves under pressure to maintain their
standard of living against the intrusion of neighbouring races propagating
recklessly down to the barest margin of sustenance. Again, various
studies of the course of prices of wheat have led to the conclusion that
before the war the real price was rising continuously, and that this
tendency is manifesting itself again, however much the true sequence of
prices has latterly been obscured by fluctuations of currency. These
considerations led Mr. Keynes to envisage the approach of scarcity : his
attitude is very much a return to Malthus. On the other hand, Sir William

256 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Beveridge, addressing the Economics Section two years ago, dismisses
this fear as regards the world at large : whatever may be the troubles
in Britain, ' the limits of agricultural expansion are indefinitely far.' On
the whole that seems a very safe proposition ; it has been so amply fulfilled
for the last hundred and fifty years — during the greatest expansion of
population the world has ever known — that it would almost seem to be
necessarily true, especially as it can be buttressed by agricultural experi-
ments showing the enormous potentialities of production from the soil.

There is, however, one aspect of the case that appears to have received
insufficient attention : the capacity of agriculture to provide food for the
people depends upon the extent of land available as well as upon the
pitch of cultivation — to what degree can the tuning-up of methods be
made to compensate for a non-expanding acreage ? The first step towards
a more exact consideration of the problem may therefore be an estimate
of the amount of cultivated land that is required to maintain one unit
of population — man, woman, and child.

We may make our estimates by either of two methods — abstract or
actual. The Food (War) Committee of the Royal Society adopted the
figure of 2,618 calories as representing the minimal daily energy require-
ment of one unit of the population, and calculated that the actual United
Kingdom consumption in the five years 1909-1913 amounted to 3,091 calories
per head per day. An average English acre of wheat yielding 32 bushels
will produce food, in the shape of wheat, flour, and pig obtained from the
offals, of a calorie value of about 2| millions. As the average consumption
was about ri3 million calories per head per year, we "arrive at the conclu-
sion that one acre of wheat would support more than two head, the
relationship being more exactly 0-45 acre to feed one unit of population.
But this figure is of no service in our more general consideration. The
yield of wheat of 32 bushels per acre is far above that of the wheat-
producing areas, and is that of only a few selected countries growing but a
limited acreage. It is, again, the produce of land under the plough, and
is consumed in the main as a vegetable product.

The great areas of grassland have a lower output of energy than the
cultivated land, and the conversion of vegetable into animal food, whether
of natural or cultivated fodder crops, is always attended by a great waste
of energy. In the most economic production of pig-meat or milk the
energy recovered is only about one-sixth of that consumed, and this
represents the machine at the top of its efficiency. The longer period of
beef -production results in a recovery as beef of only one-eighteenth of
the energy consumed, and in practice the actual wastage of fodder and
feeding-stuffs doubles or trebles the inevitable losses by conversion.
And just as man is not a vegetarian making the most of the mere sustaining
power of the land, so he does not use the land for food alone, but also for
drink, for wool and fibre and other industrial materials, and for amenities.
You may remember Maitland's argument that in the early mediaeval times
of Domesday Book and the two or three centuries following, about one-
third of the arable land of the country was devoted to beer.

We shall not get far on the theoretical basis, and I have only mentioned
it as indicating the order of the superior limit of the maintaining power
of land.

M.— AGRICULTURE. 257

We must approach the question in a more empirical fashion and
endeavour to ascertain the existing relation between the land in use and
the people fed by it. Taking again the estimates of the Royal Society's
Committee, it concluded that the United Kingdom production of food for
the five pre-war years was 42 per cent, of the food consumed. 46-7 million
acres of cultivated land then produced 42 per cent, of the food consumed
by a mean population of 45*2 millions, which works out to 2'5 acres to eacli
unit of the population. This figure, however, is somewhat misleading, in
that it does not do justice to British agriculture, since our farming is to a
considerable degree concentrated on the more costly elements of diet like
meat or milk rather than upon cereals and sugar. For example, 49 per
cent, of the food production at home, as against only 24 per cent, of the
imported food, consisted of animal products.

Working on a different basis, Sir Thomas Middletou estimated that
100 acres of British land fed forty-five to fifty persons, so that his estimate
is over 2 but less than 2| acres for the maintenance of the unit of
population. Middleton proceeds to estimate that 100 acres in Germanv
fed seventy to seventy-five persons, or TS to 1'5 acres per unit, the
advantage being due on the one hand to a much higher proportion of
arable laud in Germany, and on the other to a dietary in which the energy
was obtained more economically, i.e. from potatoes compared with meat,
and in meat from pork rather than from beef.

The importance of this relation between cultivated area and population
is so great, and the calculations by which it can be ascertained are so
approximate and subject to so many estimates of a speculative kind, that
I may be allowed to set out various results obtained by different methods.

We may begin by comparing population and area of cultivated land for
all European countries except Russia, to which we add the United States,
Canada, Argentine, Australia, and New 2;ealand, as the white countries
which are also the chief exporters of food to Europe. I exclude all
Oriental countries because in them the mass of the population possesses a
different standard of living, and I have excluded the other South American
States and the Union of South Africa and other African colonies because
they all possess a very large ' native ' population and their exports do not
bulk large in the food account of Europe. We must recognise, however,
that the errors in the calculation will be loaded on to one side, because
all the unenumerated countries, Russia and the tropical lands, are to a
greater or less degree exporters and not importers of food. Sugar from
the East and West Indies, rice and similar Oriental cereals, copra and other
edible oils for margarine, are but a few of the agricultural products which
the white population consumes from land outside our immediate purview.
However, with this proviso we find that in the States enumerated there
are 464" 1 million hectares of land under cultivation and a population of
481 -5 million persons, or 2*4 acres per head.

In the United States about 356 million acres are in cultivation : from
this may be deducted as producing exported materials, for cotton 24, for
wheat 16, for maize 2, for meat products 22 million acres, or 65 million
acres in all. Other products are exported but may be regarded as balanced
by imports, so that we find 291 million acres of cultivated land devoted
to supplying a population of approximately 112 millions, or 2-6 acres per
unit of population.

1926 S

258

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

France, we know, is a country that is largely self-supporting ; it has a
population of 39'3 millions and 36'3 million hectares under cultivation.
To this acreage we must add 0"9 million for imported wheat, 0"5 for other
cereals, and I'l for imported meat ; the exports of wine and fruit we
may regard as balanced ofi by other imports. The net result is approxi-
mately 1 hectare, or 2'4 acres, for each head of the population.

A similar calculation applied to Spain, a country in whose economy
neither exports nor imports of food play a large part, gives over 4 culti-
vated acres per unit of population ; but then the so-called ' cultivated '
land includes a considerable proportion of mountain pasture of a very low
order of productivity. On the other hand, Denmark, ^ with the most

Denmark, 1909-13.

1 Summary.

-Population (1911), 2,757,076; cultivated area, 7,957,000 acres
Cattle food units — millions.

Produced .

. 6,648

Consumed vegetable .

. 708

Imported .

. 1,452

Seed

. 202

Export as vegetable.

Animal food

. 7,100

8,100

Allocation of animal food units.

Available. Consumed. Exported.

Horses

Cattle

Pigs .
Sheep
Poultry (eggs) .

1,194

4,134

1,706
250
267

Milk 2,818
Meat 1,316*

1,194

845
780
580
250
84

1,973

536

1,126

183

Deduct for milk-fed

•

7,551
451

7,100

3,733
451

3,282
3,818

7,100

3,818

* Corrected for meat

import, 6,368 tons.

Vegetable produce

Seed

Animal produce

Fooa

imits

[millions).

Consumed.
708
202
3,282

Exported.
90

3,818

4,192
3,908

3,908

1,452 food units were imported.
Net export is thus reduced to
Home consumption .

8,100

2,456 food units = 37 %
.4,192 „ „ =63%

Home production . .6,648

63 per cent, of the home production is thus required for home consumption.
63 per cent, of the acreage 7,957,000=5,012,910 acres.

Population 2,757,076 = 1-82 acres per person.

M.— AGRICULTURE. 259

highly developed agriculture of all countries, shows a production well
above the average. A much closer calculation of production is possible
for Denmark than for other countries— the data are set out in Mr. Harald
Faber's paper before the Statistical Society in 1924. Denmark is a
country exjiorting agricultural produce chiefly in its most costly form as
meat, butter, and eggs, but the means for equating the export against
consumption is supplied in Mr. Faber's paper by the reduction of pro-
duction and imports to food units. Making the necessary corrections for
imports, it would appear that for the years 1909 to 1913 the population of
Denmark was maintained on 63 per cent, of the production of her own
land, or r82 acres per person.

Putting the various estimates together, we arrive at the conclusion
that under the existing conditions of agriculture among the Western
peoples it requires something between 2 and 2| acres of cultivated land
to supply the needs of one unit of population living on the standard of
white peoples.

We may confirm this estimate by a consideration of the growth of
population during the last century. Between 1800 and 1920 the number
of the white peoples increased from about 200 millions to about 700
millions. Data, however, for the land under cultivation in 1920 are very
imperfect, and, again, there was another factor of improved agriculture
which came into play in the first half of the nineteenth century. If we
take 1870 as our jumping-off point, we may estimate the increase in the
white man's numbers up to 1920 as approximately 225 millions. During
the same period the addition to the cultivated lands in Europe, United
States, Canada, Argentine, Australasia, and South Africa, the countries
which have provided the white races with food, has amounted to about
450 million acres. Again we reach a relation between cultivated land
and population of between 2 and 2| acres per head.

This brings me to the central point of my argument, that an increase
of population is in the first instance dependent upon an increase in the
area of cultivated land. The expansion of the white peoples in the last
century was an event unprecedented in the world's history, and was
achieved only because of the vast areas of unoccupied land, chiefly in the
Americas, which suddenly became available for settlement through the
power conferred by the railroad, the steamship, and modern weapons.
It will be noticed that the population of Europe previously had become
comparatively stable, even as it has become approximately stabilised in
France at present — the expansion came with the opening up of the new
lands and in proportion to the amount that could be settled.

Accepting as a basis for further discussion that imder the present
system of agricultiire something more than two acres of new land will
have to be brought under cultivation for each unit of increase in the
population; we may examine if any means exist of modifying this relation-
ship before considering its consequences.

I have already suggested that a vegetarian diet is the more economical
of the resources of the soil, and that meat and all animal products like
milk and eggs are produced with an expenditure of energy which may be
as low as seven but also as high as twenty times the energy available
from them. It is true that to a certain extent the animal will utilise

269

SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

material otherwise of little service to man, like milling offals and low-
grade fodder crops — roots, hay, or straw. None the less, if the maximum
of population supported by a given area of land is the objective,
vegetarianism becomes increasingly necessary, as we see among the
crowded populations of India and China. At the same time, the tillage
of lands now given up to the grazing of animals becomes possible because
of cheapness of labour resulting from a redundant population. Most of
the beef and mutton supply comes 'from land left untilled because of
the costliness of labour relative to products ; the meat may represent a
very low level of production from the land and yet a high cash return
for the labour expended. Hence the apparent paradox of grazing being
general in Middlesex because of the proximity of London. Another item
of waste which would have to be eliminated in case of stern necessity is
the conversion of potential food into alcoholic drink. Great Britain
ferments the equivalent of one and a half million acres of barley. France
devotes 4,000,000 acres, nearly 4|- per cent, of her cultivated area, to vine-
yards. Without going so far as to say that beer or wine possesses no
food value, it is certainly not half of that which could have been grown
from the land thus used for the production of drink. In such matters it
is vain to prophesy, but I cannot help feeling that the race (not
individuals) which cuts out meat and alcohol in order to multiply is
of the permanent slave type destined to function like worker bees in the
ultimate community.

The second question that merits very careful consideration is whether
the current agriculture cannot be intensified so as to bring about a great
increase of production from the existing area of cultivated land. A
cursory examination of the average yields of our chief crops in different
countries shows what an immense potential increase of production is here
open. The average yield of wheat (1921 to 1924) for all the countries
of the world collecting statistics was 13' 2 busliels per acre; the average
yield in Denmark for the same period was 41 '4 bushels per acre, more than
three times as much. Of course the area devoted to wheat in Denmark
is about 200,000 acres in all, or 3 per cent, of her arable land, whereas
the wheat acreage of the world amounts to about 250 million acres. The
mass production of wheat in the world is from countries of low yield ;
more than half is grown in countries in which the average yield is less than
13 bushels per acre.

1924.

Total production
miUion quintals.

Quintals per
hectare.

Bushels
per acre.

Russia ....

Canada ....

United States

India ....

Argentina

Australia

90
71
238
99
52
44

5-4

8-0

10-8

7-8

7-2

10-0

7-9
11-4
15-5
111
10-3
14-3

594 (mean)

909

130

Recorded total

932 (estimated for all countries 1,250).

M.— AGRICULTURE. 261

It is from these countries with the low yield per acre that wheat is
exported and their production determines the world market, with the
consequence that wheat production has been increasing in these and
similar countries while it has been shrinking in the European countries
with a higher yield per acre.

The dominating factor has been cost of labour ; speaking broadly, it
may be said that increased yields per acre are associated with higher
expenditure per bushel for labour, and the great wheat-producing countries
with a low yield per acre are the countries with a correspondingly high
yield per man employed. It may be estimated that in England a man's
labour produces about 960 bushels of wheat, in Australia 1,500 bushels.
A more exact comparison shows that in England the labour cost amounts
to Is. per bushel of wheat, against 8d. in Canada, this with an average
wage rate of 30s. to 36s. a week in England as compared with 60s. in Canada.

All this goes to show that intensification is only to be purchased at
the cost of labour and that in the past extending the cultivated area
has been a cheaper way of getting the wheat required by the world than
by higher farming.

This general statement, however, does not tell the whole story ; par-
ticularly it disguises the intensification of yield that may be obtained
without a commensurate increase of labour. For example, the intro-
duction of more heavily cropping varieties, originated by the skill of the
plant-breeder, may add greatly to the production from a given area
without increasing costs other than those of harvesting and marketing.

One must not, however, expect too much of the plant-breeder. Over
the greater part of the cultivated land of the world the gross amount of
production is limited by external factors such as water supply, temperature,
available fertility of the soil, etc. For example, the plant-breeder seems
to have had little or no power to increase the absolute production of Beta
vulgaris ; from all the forms of sugar-beet or fodder-beet (mangolds) on
a given soil there is much the same yield of dry matter per acre, though in
the well-bred sugar-beets the proportion that is in the useful form of sugar
is greatly enhanced. The wheats and barleys grown in England had long
been subjected to selection and improvement before the scientific methods
of plant-breeding were evolved, and the further steps in improvement are
going to be neither big nor easily won, depending as they do upon altering
what Dr. Beaven has called the migration ratio, whereby the plant will
convert more of the material obtained from the air into useful grain and
leave less as straw. The chief opportunities, in fact, lie in the elimination
of susceptibility to disease or destruction by frost, or general tenderness of
constitution, by which means the range of the high-yielding cereals or
even of cereal growth at all may be enormously extended. Absolute
yielding power is perhaps less in question than productive capacity in
relation to the environment.

The general enhancement of production by processes which induce
improvements of the water supply or the temjierature, as by irrigation
and drainage, soil amelioration, cultivations, etc., suffers from the dis-
advantage of calling for labour, until it may prove far more costly than
the increased produce can repay. Fertilisers appear to offer more promise.
It may be recalled that the general level of production from English land
was raised by nearly 50 per cent, between 1840 and 1870. At the beginning

262 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of the period the average yield of wheat was of the order of 20 bushels per
acre, this being the crop the land was capable of maintaining under a
conservative rotation with no extraneous source of fertility. But between
1840 and 1870 artificial fertilisers were introduced and became a generally
accepted part of British farming, with the result that the yield of wheat
had risen to about 30 bushels per acre, though no other marked change in
the routine of cultivation had been adopted during the period. The
employment of fertilisers still lags far behind the opportunities of employing
them to profit ; from 1870 onwards came the great depression upon
British agriculture consequent on the growing irruption of the cheaply
grown American corn and meat. British agriculture had to shorten sail
and restrict expenditure ; falling prices breed lack of confidence and
even lack of knowledge, for why should a farmer study a science that calls
for expenditure when the safer procedure is to let the land grow a small
crop without cost rather than to buy a big crop at a dangerous price ? At
any rate, our employment of fertilisers continues to be unnecessarily low
even under later conditions of prices, and the revolution that is being
brought about in the production of nitrogenous fertilisers finds our
farmers comparatively disinclined to take advantage of it. The various
processes of bringing atmospheric nitrogen into combination to which
the war gave such a stimulus are now being developed on a vast scale in
all civilised countries, and will result in an almost unlimited increase in
the amount of nitrogenous fertiliser available at low prices compared with
the prices of agricultural produce. Here at least is the opportunity for
another step up in production from our cultivated laiids comparable with
the progress that was made between 1840 and 1870. It is not all plain
sailing; the farmer has to study carefully where an increased supply of the
cheapened nitrogen can be most suitably applied to his land and what
changes in his system of cropping are demanded. The plant-breeders'
art is needed ; on most of our land any great enhancement of growth of
cereals brought about by the use of nitrogenous fertilisers is attended with
the danger of lodging. Few of our cereals possess stiff enough straw to
remain standing on a soil enriched to the degree even that is reasonably
practicable to-day. Thus the more immediate outlet for the new
fertilisers would appear to be the fodder crops which are convertible into
meat and milk.

But in the solution of the main probleni under discussion — the
possibility of intensification of production from the existing farmed land
to meet the needs of a growing population — ^the development of the
synthetic nitrogen fertilisers must play a dominant part. C'rookes'
prophecy is coming true.

I have reserved until the end the question of whether the intensification
is necessary or probable. From previous experience it would appear to
be probable that as long as new land is available the increase in food
supplies will be won less by increased skill and expenditure applied to
existing land than by taking in new land. The recent history of
United States land affords an illustration ; we see little improvement
in farming or increase of yield on the older land — we see even
abandonment of farms in the eastern States ; at the same time we
see continued attempts to win new land by forcing into cultivation
the arid lands and alkali soils which the earlier settlers had rejected.

M.— AGRICULTURE. 263

All over the world it always astonishes the traveller to see on what bad
lands the new settler is now trying to farm. Evidently the good,
easy virgin land is no longer easy to find. It is indeed significant that
in the United States vast irrigation schemes are being carried out, though
they show little signs of paying interest on their construction ; that in
Canada new wheats are being acclaimed because they may extend settle-
ment into regions where killing frosts may be expected in August ; that
' dry farming,' with a crop in alternate years only, has to be resorted to
in Australia and S. Africa. These facts would seem to show that land
is getting short in the world, at any rate the naturally productive laud like
that over which the great expansion of the nineteenth century proceeded.
"Where are we to find the 500 million acres of land such as was added to
the world's farm between 1850 and 1 900 ?

In Europe there are still great areas of forest, swamp, and heath that
might be brought into cultivation, but the process would involve an
expenditure both of initial capital and continuing labour out of proportion
to the returns. Either the prices to be received for produce must rise
greatly or the cultivators must be content with a much lower standard
of remuneration before there is much addition to the European area under
cultivation. In fact, the present tendency is in the other direction — only
Italy, with its great pressure of population increase, is adding to its
farming land and reclaiming wastes. All over the poorer land of Great
Britain abandoned holdings and crofts may be traced, abandoned for
economic reasons alone, because men would no longer live and work so
near to the starvation level. Nothing but the direst need or a new scale
of prices, whereby agriculture becomes relatively the most paying industry,
will ever bring such land back into cultivation. Other European countries
to a less degree show the same tendency at work. Russia was one of the
granaries of Europe, but over a large proportion of that vast territory
production is precarious because of drought on the one hand and cold on
the other. It may be doubted whether there will be any great surplus
for export even when its agriculture has been fully resumed, so rapid had
been the growth of its population to a magnitude which makes the losses
of the last decade insignificant.

In the United States there are still great areas of potential farming
land ; for example, 0. C. Baker (' Economic Geography,' 1925) estimates a
possible increase of the wheat area in the U.S.A. from the present 80,000
to 130,000 square miles. But little of this, however, is the natural
easily farmed land the settler looks for ; the drift of late years of American
farmers to Canada, the efforts to make good the arid lands by dry farming
and irrigation, show that the good land has mostly been taken up. What
remains is land on which capital outlay is required, land on which produc-
tion will always be more costly than on the great fertile plains of the
Middle West. As in Great Britain, the recent tendency in the United
States has been to abandon the cultivation of some of the poorer lands
and let them fall back to grazing. Canada still presents enormous
potentialities for settlement, though the vast areas the map reveals are
severely restricted by increasing aridity towards the west and by cold
northwards ; Baker considers an increase of the wheat area from 25,000
to 120,000 square miles as physically possible. But similarly on most

264 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

of tliis land the wheat will have to be more dearly bought by labour,
fertilisers, aud skill than on the land now being farmed.

The potentialities of South America arc less easy of estimate, but in
this region there is still a great area of rich plain country unsettled, and
it is not too much to expect that another 40 million acres of land are
available for farming under present conditions.

The potentialities of non-tropical Africa and of Australia are small ;
in the latter country the arid zone lies so near to the coast that the
additional area available for normal cultivation is negligible in considering
the world's need of food. The great unknown factor in this survey is
Western Siberia, a natural wheat area, and Manchuria. All that can be
said is that the physical possibilities are great, perhaps as high as 300 million
acres, but no one can guess when that will be realisable, dependent as it
is upon the establishment of a stable and ordered Government. Moreover,
on the flank of these regions hang the vast unsatisfied populations of China
and Japan, ever ready to expand as the means of sustenance permits,
and on this account the expectation of food for the Western peoples from
this area can be but small. It is noteworthy that the far-eastern
countries, so far from contributing to the food supply of the European
peoples, have themselves of late years become competitors for wheat in
the world market to an extent that has had a decisive effect upon
prices.

As potential sources of food there still remain the tropical countries,
in particular Brazil and Central Africa, where abundant rainfalls and
high temperatures render feasible a very high level of production from
the soil. The last fifty years has witnessed remarkable examples of
organised production of tropical crops under western direction and
management. The growth of sugar in Java, Cuba, and Hawaii, of rubber
in Ceylon and the Straits, of tea in Ceylon and Assam, afford examples
of the possibilities of organised agriculture, employing the resources of
science, the labour-saving power of machinery, the criticism of cost book-
keeping, such as can rarely be paralleled in the farming proper of the
temperate regions. The same organisation is being extended to the
coconut, which as margarine is becoming one of the chief edible fats of
the world. Without doubt the tropics present enormous potentialities
of food production for the world, mainly in the direction of oil-seeds and
edible beans. It must, however, long remain uncertain to what extent
the cheap native labour upon which these tropical exploitations are
dependent will continue to be available. It does not appear to be possible
to maintain a white population itself engaged in the cultivation of the
soil in contact with native labour, and Queensland is the only tropical
country where agricultural development is being attempted with white
labour only. The lesson of S. Africa and to some extent of the southern
States of the U.S.A. would seem to be that the white races cannot expand
agriculturally in competition with the black.

The present annual increment in the white population may be estimated
at about five millions. This, taken alone, would necessitate the taking
into cultivation of twelve million acres of new land every year. No
process of the kind is going on ; indeed, for many crops there has been
an actual shrinkage in the acreage since the war. Full records are not
available, but the following table shows the changes in the areas of some
o{ iho main crops : —

M. -AGRICULTURE

265

Changes in Area under Crop. Million hectares.

1909/13

1921

1922

1923

1924

Wheat

107-8

103-5

99-5

104-0

105-6

Rye .

44-3

37-0

40-7

44-6

43-9

Barley

33-3

29-4

27-3

30-9

30-7

Oats .

57-4

551

50-7

53-8

55-8

Maize .

70-6

71-7

730

74-1

(75)

Rice .

47-8

53-0

53-3

51-8

52-8

Potatoes

15-3

14-8

15-3

16-2

16-6

Sugar Beet

2-3

1-7

2-0

2-6

378-8

366-2

361-5

377-4

383-0

The shrinkage is doubtless no more than a temporary matter, the back-
water of the wild fluctuations of prices and values brought about by the
war, but it does not promise well for that continued expansion of the
cultivated area which the still growing population demands. Indeed,
we may detect a new influence at work, the growing disinclination of the
civilised peoples to continue in agriculture because of its small and un-
certain returns as compared with other occupations. It appears to be
a general experience that wherever by the extension of communications
tlie industries or commerce come close to agriculture the latter declines
and begins to lose its best brains, its capital, and its men. The lure of the
cities is proverbial, but the fundamental factor is economic ; unorganised
agriculture cannot pay the wages obtainable in the organised industries.
The decline in the agricultural popidation of Great Britain and the United
States is the most marked, but it is significant that in France, where of
all countries the farmer is most protected and prices have been main-
tained, the peasants are leaving the land for the growing industries, their
places being taken, in the soutli at least, by Italian immigrants.

The flight from the land is manifest equally among the wage-earners
of large-scale agriculture and among the peasants or family farmers in
whose hands resides the greater part of the cultivation, whether in the old
settled countries of Europe or the newer exploitations of America. Again
and again it must be urged that the determining cause is economic ;
for the last half-century, save for the abnormal war-years, farming has
not paid a return on the capital and labour expended comparable with that
obtainable elsewhere. It has been said that even the American farmers
of the Middle West, who ciit prices for all the world, made no profits during
the last half-century except those derived from. the accretion of land
values. And the peasant farmer, who counts neither the capital he
has in the business nor the hours of labour he gives to his land, who in
Europe is held to the land by secular tradition, finds agriculture unattrac-
tive as soon as the growth of industries and the spread of communications
render an escape possible. If not the peasant himself, at least the sons
look for an easier and less exacting mode of life.

At this stage it would be impossible to begin to diagnose the causes of
the comparative unprofitableness of agriculture. Fundamentally it is
due to the weakness of the farmer as a commercial unit ; the smaller the
fanner the more ruthlessly does he compete with his neighbours and
reduce prices to a bare level of sustenance for his long hours of labour.

266 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.

Even the large farmers who can put into practice some of the economies
of an ordered industry are helpless against the large commercial organisa-
tions which pass on their produce to the customers. Always there is the
peasant farmer to cut prices. The position of the imperfectly industrialised
farms may be compared with that of the new factories a century ago : their
processes are not sufficiently developed to enable them to compete with
any certainty of success against the single-handed worker, the power-mill
has not yet beaten the hand-loom.

I cannot, however, jiursue this issue. I return to my original text,
that if we are to continue to feed the growing population of the world on
the present methods a continued expansion of the cultivated area is
required ; new land is called for year after year. I cannot see where
this new land of the necessary quality is to be found in quantities com-
mensurate with the immediate demand. Doubtless the white races will
insist on maintaining their rising standard of living and will apply deliberate
checks to their fertility, a process we already see in action. But the restric-
tion of increase will not take effect all at once even under economic pressure,
and the danger lies in the period preceding the comparative stabilisation.
As it cannot be supposed that the development of the civilised races can be
allowed permanently to be checked by lack of food when food is obtainable,
it follows that resort must be had to the intensification of production from
the area already under cultivation. The means for that intensification
are already in sight, more will be supplied with the advancement of
research. Intensification, however, is in the main attended by a higher
cost of production, and movement in that direction' is likely to be slow
until it is stimulated by a rise of prices. Organisation will have to be
introduced into the industry, and it may be expected that organisation
will take one or other of three forms. The farmer may be left as the
producing unit, but his methods will be strictly controlled and standardised
by the great selling corporations that handle his produce, and these
corporations may be either commercial ventures or co-operative associa-
tions of the farmers themselves. The co-operative venture appears to
imply an even more rigid discipline of the indi\ddual than that imposed
by the capitalist firm. Alternatively the capitalist may venture upon the
direct exploitation of large areas of land and industrialise farming as he
has industrialised other producing businesses. But capital will only be
tempted back to farming, whether for the organisation of the business or
even to enable the individual to take advantage of the possibilities of
intensification, if prices rise to a definitely remunerative level. I hope I
have given reasons for supposing that they must rise, because the surge
in population set up by the unprecedented extension of the cultivated
area last century cannot all at once be checked, whereas the new land
still available is either inadequate in amount or unsuited to cheap pro-
duction by the old methods. How close at hand the jieriod of pressure
may be it is unsafe to prophesy, but it may be agreed that pressure is
sooner or later inevitable and that one of the biggest problems before the
world at present is to prevent the pressure developing suddenly or becoming
unbearable. The intensification of production is the only remedy, and,
again, the only means of rendering intensification practicable is the
continued pursuit of scientific research.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,

Etc.

Seismological Investigations. — Thirty-first Report of Committee
(Prof. H. H. Turner, Chairman ; Mr. J. J. Shaw, Secretary ; Mr.
C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W.
Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. Harold Jeffreys, Prof. H.
Lamb, Sir J. Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald,
Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell, Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. H. C. Plummer.
Mr. W. E. Plummer, Rev. J. P. Rowland, S.J., Prof. R. A. Sampson.
Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker, and Mr. F. J.
W. Whipple). [Draicn up by the Chairman except where otherwise
mentioned. 1

General.

As a sequel to the death of Mrs. Mihie in 1925, as annouticed in the last Report, the
Bum of £1,000 bequeathed to this Committee by John Milne (provided that his widow-
should have the use of it during her lifetime) has been paid to the Chairman of the
Committee, and is at present on deposit at the Westmirster Bank, Oxford. The words
of the Will are as follows : —

' And from and after her death (i.e. Mrs. Tone Milne) my Tnistees shall stand
possessed of my residuary estate and the income thereof upon trust to pay thereout
the sum of £1,000 to the fund created by Matthew H. Gray, of Lessness Park, Abbey
Wood, in the County of Kent, to be used by the Chairman of the Seismological Com-
mittee of the said British Association by the Trustees of that fund for the encourage-
ment of the study of earth physics and its attendant subjects (the said sum to be paid
free of legacy duty and the receipt of the said Chairman or Trustees for the time being
to be a sufficient discharge of such legacy).' ....

The occasion suggested a reconsideration of the Trusteeship of the Gray Fund,
into which the Milne Bequest is by this clause to be paid, and Messrs. Murray, Hutchins
and Co. (the sohcitors to the late Matthew H. Gray) suggested to the Committee that,
to save the trouble and expense connected with the change in Trusteeship when any
member of the Trust dies or retires from it, the Official Trustee of Charitable Funds
should be asked to be Trustee of the Gray Fund. The approval of the Committee for
this course is practically assured, though replies from one or two members of it have
not yet been received.

Dr. Crombie has again generously provided half the salary of Mr. J. 8. Hughes.
The provision of the other half by the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
was terminated in September 1925.

We have again to acknowledge the help of Fordham University, New York, in
sending telegrams on the occasion of important earthquakes, which havemuch facilitated
the identification of epicentres. A notable example is that of the earthquake near
Crete on 192G June 20d. i9h. 46m. 20s. The Oxford film was developed on Sunday
morning, June 27, and the receipt of telegrams from Fordham and West Bromwich
made it possible to telegraph that afternoon an approximate epicentre. A message
from Helwan next morning added considerable precision. The occasion was, un-
fortunately, one where the loss of life and the nature of tlie damage done (e.g. to the
Candia Museum) gave special importance to the earthquake.

In Dr. C. Davison's History of British Earthquakes, noticed in the last Report, the
little town of Comrie is conspicuous as an earthquake centre. An opportunity offered
for visitmg Comrie last August, as mentioned below ; and it was foimd that the earth-
quakes had ceased, rather to the chagrin of the inhabitants. But there were renewed
shocks on February 22 and February 23.

208 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

International.

There is little to report under this head, except that the publication of the Inter
national Scientific Summary has been continued as below.

The serious fall in the value of the franc, in which international subscriptions are
paid, has had a disastrous effect on the funds available for such work as the printing of
the International Summary, which has onlj' been relieved by the intervention of the
Roj-al Society.

The Geodetic and Geophysical Union is to meet at Prague next year (1927),
though as yet nothing has been said about the date ; it seems imperative to reconsider
the whole question of finance.

Instrumental.

(Chiefly from notes by Mr. J. J. Shaw.)

The attempt to get seismological observations made at Christmas Island (Indian

Ocean) has unfortunately proved a complete fiasco. It seems desirable to record

the circumstances briefly. First we give the Report of Mr. H. S. Jones, now

H.M. Astronomer at the Cape Observatory, who kindly took charge of the instrument.

Christmas Island Eclipse Expedition.
Report on Seismograph, June 9, 1923, by H. S. Jones.

' The expedition from the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, to Cliristmas Island for
the observation of the Total Solar Eclipse of September 21, 1922, took with it, at the
suggestion of Prof. H. H. Turner, a Mihie-Shaw seismograph, lent by Mr. J. J. Shaw.
It was hoped that it would be possible to arrange for the seismograph to be left on the
island, and for continuous observations to be carried on by employees of the Christmas
Island Phosphate Company.

' The seismograph was unpacked after the erection of the astrographic telescope,
and it was found that, owing to faulty packing, the clock dial had come adrift and had
smashed up the timing contacts, besides domg other damage. Mr. Shaw was at once
written to for information as to the manner in which the timing gear was intended to
function, but owing to the infrequent mails to Christmas Island it was some months
before a reply was received. With the assistance of one of the Phosphate Company's
engineers the damage was then repaired and the clock put into going order.

' Careful investigation was made as to the most suitable site for the seismograph.
The eclipse camp was at the south-east end of the island, the settlement being on the
north-west side. A site near the settlement was necessary if the seismograph were to
be left on the island. The settlement is on a narrow flat shelf facing the sea, with steep
cUfis behind, and does not provide very suitable sites for the purpose. An attempt
was made in several places to find a place where the pier for the instrument could
be built up from the solid rock, but the depth of soil was in all cases too great.

' Ultimately a site was chosen near the thermometer screen, somewhat sheltered
by a large rock and by coconut palms, so as to reduce as much as possible the tempera-
ture variations. A concrete pier was constructed, extending 2 ft. 6 in. below the surface.
Owing to the shortage of carpenters on the island and the pressure of work for them,
including the erection of a new hospital and two new bungalows, it was not possible
to get a hut erected for the seismograph until earl}' in September. This consisted of a
wooden framework, covered with corrugated iron, with shuttered window and door.
The seismograph was erected and adjusted, a few minor alterations which were found
to be necessary being carried out. The clock was fixed to the side of the pier. Several
trial sheets were secured before the observers left the island, which showed that the
adjustments were satisfactory, although owing to the diurnal variation of temperature
there was a tendency for the traces to run into one another.

'The two chemists in the employ of the Phosphate Company, who are responsible
for the meteorological observations, undertook to carry on the records, changing the
sheets daily and developing them once per week. The construction and adjustment of
the seismograph was explained to both these gentlemen. Written instructions were
left that the sheets should be sent monthly to Prof. Turner, who would be responsible
for the supply of photographic paper after the stock taken with the instrument was
exhausted.

' It may be added that the erection of the seismograph pier and hut is included in
the work done for the Expedition by the Christmas Island Phosphate Company, the
cost of which has been generously given by them as a contribution towards the
expenses of the Expedition. As also the Blue Funnel S.S. Company conveyed the

ON SE18M0L0GICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 269

iustruinents free of charge, there is no charge upon the Seismology Committee in
connection with the erection of the seismograph at Christmas Island.'

As no records were received at Oxford, nor any answers to repeated inquiries
(principally made through Mr. Jones), application was ultimately made, as suggested
by Mr. Jones on March 17, 1925, to the Secretary of the Phosphate Company at the
London office, that the seismograph and clock might be returned to Mr. J. J. Shaw.
They were received by him free of charge, but in a very much damaged condition ;
corrosion had attacked many of the metal parts, and the wooden cases were ruined
by some form of dry rot. The instrument is being thoroughly repaired, and will now
be lent to the Colombo Observatory.

The original Milne-Shaw instrument set up at Bidston, which has been replaced
by another with larger magnification, is to be set up at Oxford as aN.-S. component,
being similar to the E.-W. component already mounted (by the courtesy of Prof.
Lindemann) in the basement of the Clarendon Laboratorj-. It seems now probable
that a basement may bo constructed at the University Observator}"^ itself, to which
this pair of instruments will then be transferred.

The two Milne-Sliaw seismographs sent to Entebbe, Uganda, in 1923, which
were awaiting suitable accommodation, have now been installed in a well-appointed
observatory. The ground floor is used as the office, beneath is the dark room, and
lower still (23 ft. below ground) is the instrument room. This should prove a very
efficient station in a locality where one was much needed. There are a number of
epicentres running down the African continent at which shocks occur which may not
reach more distant observatories.

Seismographs have also been sent to Seiior Scipion Llona, Director of the Seismo.
logical Observatory, Lima; also a second component to Fordham University, New
York ; finally to Prof. N. E. Norlund, Copenhagen, with a view to the establishment
of a station in Greenland, which would be of great importance for the observation of
earthquakes in the Arctic regions.

Bulletins and Tables.

The ' International Seismological Summaries ' for April to December 1921 and
January to September 1922 have been printed and distributed. The number for
October to December 1922 is passed for press, with the exception of an appendix
dealing with some belated observations. There are thus now five years of the Summary,
1918-1922, and the residuals for P and S shov,Ti by the chief earthquakes have been
collected for discussion of the corrections to tables. The general nature of these
corrections has already been anticipated from partial study of the records, but it is
an important question whether we are in a position to make a definitive change,
for it is undesirable to multiply changes. The answer is, on the whole, encouraging ;
the corrections to the P and S tables are clearly shown within about 1 second as far
as A =80^. But beyond that point the correction to S is ambiguous ; it seems that
we are dealing with two phenomena and not one. The second phenomenon is easily
identified as that designated ScPcS by Gutenberg many years ago. It represents
the passage of a ray as S down to the liquid core ; its passage as P through the core,
and again as S on leaving the core. Attention was recently drawn to Gutenberg's
papers by Dr. Harold Jeffreys, and the accord between observation and this particular
part of his theory is very striking. (Other parts have not j'et been compared with
our records.) Accordingly Dr. Jeffreys has written the following paragraphs for this
Report : — ■

The Earth's Central Core.
By Dr. Harold Jeffreys.
The high mean density of the earth, in comparison with that of surface rocks, has
long been held to imply that the earth has a dense metallic core, probably mainly
of iron. From considerations relating to the figure of the earth Wiechert determined
the radius of this core as 0'78a, a being the outer radius, and its density as 8*2. Oldham
in 1906 found that the compressional waves from earthquakes showed a systematic
delay when observed at epicentral distances greater than 103^ or so, and inferred that
within a central region the velocities of these waves were lower than elsewhere.
Subsequent work of the greatest importance by Gutenberg has strongly confirmed
and extended Oldham's result. There is a central core of radius 0-55a, which transmits
P waves with about two-thirds of the velocity they have just outside it, but does not
transmit S waves at all. Several incidental phenomena implied by the existence of

270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

such a core have been confirmed. A distortional wave incident on such a surface
from above would give rise to reflected compressional and distortional waves, and to
a transmitted compressional wave. The former are denoted by Gutenberg as SjP
and S4S. The latter, on emergence, is agam broken up into a compressional and a
distortional wave ; these are called S4P4P and S4P4S (in later work the suffix 4 is
replaced by c). These transmitted waves with change of type are found on the
seismograms at the predicted places and times. So is a wave that emerges after
havmg undergone a reflection at the mside of the region. The waves reflected at the
©utside of the core are so spread out as to have only small amplitudes when they
emerge, but Prof. V. Conrad has found waves that are capable of this interpretation.
The velocity of P waves, as found from near earthquakes, is nearly 7'8 km. /sees.,
which points to a rock of the nature of olivine within a few tens of kilometres of the
surface. Its density would be about 3'4. But at a depth of the order of 1,500 km.
such a rock would be so compressed by the weight of the overlying rock that its
density would be increased by about unity ; the density of the iron core would be
increased still more. Hence Wiechert's numerical results need revision, and it is found
that when the increase of density due to compression is taken into account the boundary
between the rocky shell and the iron core must be almost exactly where Gutenberg
finds the discontinuity of elastic properties to be situated. The failure of the core
to transmit S waves is most naturally attributed to its being fluid. Such a view has
been denied, because it was found by Kelvm that the earth's tidal properties showed
that as a whole it possessed about the rigidity of steel. But seismology now indicates
that the rocky shell has a mean rigidity about twice that of steel, and reopens the
possibility of a fluid core. In an investigation just published the present writer
finds that the tidal data definitely imply a rigidity of the core much lower than that
of the shell ; if both the core and the shell were homogeneous, and the core fluid,
the tidal yielding would be somewhat more than is observed, but allowance for varia-
tion of density witliin the laj^ers would reduce the discrepancy, and it seems very
probable that the core is truly fluid.

Gutenberg's ScPcS.

Of the waves or rays mentioned above by Dr. Jeffreys, the only one which has
received attention up to the present in the discussion of 1918-1922 is that denoted
first S4P4S and then ScPoS. By a curious coincidence this had attracted attention in a
particular earthquake, October 11, 1922, the night before a letter from Dr. Jeffreys
drawmg attention to Gutenberg's work was received. The accord with observation is
so close that the following extract from a note to that earthquake in the International
Summary may be reproduced here : —

Note to 1922 Oct. lid. 14h. 49m. 453.

The readings for S from near A =80° to about A = 110° probably refer to some-
thing preceding the true S. The residuals can be represented by the formula : —

— (A— 80°)x4-6s.

A 0. C, 0-C. A O. C. O-C.

81-4

- 6

94-1

-64

-65

+ 1

81-6

- 8

— 7

— 1

94-4

-62

-66

+ 4

83-3

-24

—15

- 9

950

-68

-69

+ 1

83-6

- 9

-17

+ 8

95-5

-65

—71

+ 6

84-5

-19

-21

+ 2

95-7

-65

-72

+ 7

88-0

-35

-37

+ 2

95-7

-76

-72

— 4

88-4

-31

-39

+ 8

96-5

-76

89-4

-72

-43

-29

-77

-78

+ 1

90-6

-65

-49

-16

97-4

-77

-80

+ 3

90-8

-f48

-50

(+98)

981

-97

-83

-14

91-1

-18

-51

(+33)

98-2

-84

91-2

-52

100-9

-96

91-5

-51

-53

+ 2

103-2

-106

-107

+ 1

91-8

—46

-54

+ 9

103-5

-112

—108

— 4

92-3

-56

-57

+ 1

104-4

-112

92-3

-41

-57

+ 16

104-7

-119

-114

- 5

92-9

—52

-59

+ 7

109-8

-142

-137

— 6

93-9

-64

115-3

+ 75

—162

(+237)

120-8

-98

-188

( + 90)

ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 271

These results had just been tabulated when a letter was received from Dr. Harold
Jeffreys calling attention, in enthusiastic terms, to Prof. Gutenberg's paper Erdbeben-
wellen Vila, in Gott. Nach. 1914, and it was at once seen that the readings tabulated as
S refer to Gutenberg's ray ScPcS; that is, a ray which travels as S until it reaches the
liquid core of the earth, is then transformed into P, and finally emerges as S. Since
the middle part of its path is described with the velocity of P, which is greater than that
of S, it naturally arrives before S. The figures given by Gutenberg compare with the
adopted tables lor S as below : —

A 54 65 70 77 79-5 87°0 94°5 102

ScPcS

1175

1260

1295

1341

1348

1395

1442

1480

1029

1165

1226

1309

1338

1421

1501

1575

ScPcS-S

= + 146

+95

+ 69

+ 32

+ 10

-26

-59

-95

Formula

= + 120

+ 69

+46

+ 14

+ 2

-32

-67

-101

Diff.

+ 26

+26

+ 23

+ 18

+ 8

+ 6

+ 8

+ 6

It will be seen that throughout the range A = 80° to A «= 1 10°, from which thef ormula
(80° — a)x4-6s. was deduced, the difierence between it and the value of ScPcS— S
assigned by Gutenberg is constant at about +7s. It changes a little for values of A
back to 54°, but this only means that the formula for the difference from S is only
approximately linear ; and it is rather remarkable that the approximation should be
80 close. In this region ScPcS follows S, and is not very likely to be recorded.

But the large negative residuals from S were noticed in 1917 in discussing the
observations of 1913 {The Large Earthquakes of 1913, B.A. Seism. Ctee., 1917).

The last reference need not, however, be followed here. The main point is that for
this particular earthquake nearly all the thirty -five observatories between a =80°
and A = 110° which attempt to record S, record ScPcS instead. There are only two
possible exceptions, Bidston (+98s) and Honolulu { + 33s), and of these the latter has
a positive residual not much greater than the — 29s for Barcelona. Since for these
values of A ScPcS precedes S, and S is generally counted as the earhest indication of a
change from P, it is easy to see how the earUer ScPcS is preferred to the real S, provided
it is large enough. [For values of A less than 80° ScPcS follows S according either to
Gutenberg's theory or the above suggested empirical formula ; and that S should then
be preferred is equally natural.]

But it is not always that ScPcS is large enough to be mistaken for S, as can be seen
from the counts of residuals for the principal earthquakes in the five years 1918-1922
now under discussion. It will suffice here to give the counts for every 10 sec. in S and
every 5° of a , and to restrict ourselves to the groups near the maximum.

Nos. of S residuals for the years 1918-1922 :—

s. s. s. s. s. s. s. S. S. 8.

A +30 +20 +10
70° to 75° 13 29 68
75° to 80° 13 41 93
80° to 85° 7 29 106
85° to 90° 5 12 47
90° to 95° 1 3 2

-10
45
92
126
83
12

-20 -30
20 7
12 13
43 15
67 57
15 13

-40 -50 -60

2 1 4

4 7 7

9 6 2

32 12 4

19 20 20

For greater values of A the maximum is shifted so much that we must start afresh.

s. s.
A —40 —50 -
90° to 95° . 20 20
95° to 100°. 6 18
100° to 105° 4 5
105° to 110° 2 3

-60 -

s. s.

-70 -80

8 1

24 13

16 19

2 2

fi S

-90 -100 -

2 1

16 3

19 16

5 12

s. s. s. s.
110 —120 —130 -140

1 1 2
14 3 5
13 10 1

Thus for values of A between 75° and 85° the maximum is definitely near zero ;
there are two large groups enclosing zero, and the fall on either side is rapid. Between
85° and 90° there are five comparable groups near maximum ; from 90° to 95° there
are seven. This is the effect of the double max. for S and ScPcS. But then the S max.

272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

practically drops out, leaving only the ScPcS. This work was done on cards, and it was
easy to remove the cards referring to SoPcS. Those left showed something much later
than S ; but it seems better to say no more until the discussion is complete.

New Stations.

The number of observatories which send readings for inclusion in the Intematioual
Seismological Summary continues to increase. In May 1923 a list of 165 was
published, and in November 1925 a list of forty-six more. Seven more are to be added
to date, making 218 in all. Some of these have dropped out of action, and some send
only rarely, but even after these deductions the list is a long one. Among stations
recently established, a special welcome is due to Sucre in Bolivia (19'0^S., 65-3^ W.),
which collaborates with La Paz (16-5'^ S., 68-1° W.). Many shocks in South America
are too slight to reach many observatories, and a pair of stations not very far apart
is very useful on such occasions. An even closer pair is formed by La Plata (34-9° S.,
57-9<^W.), and Chacarita (34-6° S., 68-5'" W.). Readings from La Plata for the later
months of 1922 were received just in time for inclusion in the number of the Summary
before it was passed for press, and it is hoped that they will henceforward be available ;
but there is still a tendency to delay communication of the information. The
Summary for October-December 1922 is being passed for press at the time of writing
(July 1926), and is thus in arrear by three years and five months ; an interval which
was much larger just after the War, but has been steadily reduced at the rate of about
six months per year. Its limiting value, however, will depend upon the most backward
stations, for it adds greatly to the labour of producing the Summary when information
is received at the last moment. Hence observatories are earnestly requested to send
their readings as soon as possible.

Time Determinations.

Before and during the War the time-determinations at many of the outlying
stations were undoubtedly faulty, which complicated the process of interpreting the
readings. A great improvement in this respect has followed on the introduction of
wireless time-signals, though we in Europe perhaps overestimate the facility of getting
accurate time in this way. For instance, the table of readings for Dehra Dun for 1925
is accompanied by the note : ' The time is expressed in Indian Standard Time, which
is five hours thirty minutes east. It is liable to error as great as thirty seconds.'

If this is the state of things at the headquarters of geodesy in India, there must be
even greater uncertainty at more outlying stations. Moreover, even where wireless
signals are available, so that the seconds may be trusted, the minutes or hours may
go wrong. Indeed, it seems possible that confidence in the seconds has begotten a
little carelessness about the minutes. Perhaps the mistakes are made in applying
the longitude, though in these days of standard time this ought not to upset the
minutes.

Visit to Comrie.

As above mentioned, a visit was paid in August 1925 to Comrie, in Perthshire,
where sixty-eight earthquake shocks were recorded between 1788-1804, and over
300 shocks in the eleven years 1839-49. There followed, however, fifteen blank
years, and only fifteen shocks in the years 18G4-1898, with a couple more in 1020.
The village seems to regret the cessation. As the local guide-book puts it : ' The
district misses the gratuitous advertisement which these shocks gave. Thus it has
been found advisable to bring the merits of the place before the public in ordinary
up-to-date advertising style.'

Interest in earthquakes is, however, still maintained, and has been rewarded since
my visit by a couple of renewed shocks (1926, February 22 and 23). There was,
however, little of importance to be gathered on the spot. The ' earthquake house '
where experiments were made is still in existence, and by the courtesy of the present
owner of the property (Mr. Drummond) I was allowed to see it. There is now no
trace of its former occupation — it might be an ordinary summer-house. Objects
like small ninepins of various cross-sections were set up on the floor ; the observations
consisted in noting which of them fell and what was the direction of fall. Tradition
preserves the memory of a complete fall and scattering of the pins which could be
associated with nothing seismological, and was ultimately traced to a raid by boys.

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 273

A noteworthy remark was made by the driver of Comrie's one bus, who remembered
several earthquakes. According to him the most noticeable feature of these earth-
quakes is the sound, which, once heard, cannot be mistaken. It definitely travels,
at Comrie, from N. or N.W. to E. or S.E. Once he heard an indubitable earthquake
sound and could feel no tremor at aU, but two horses he was tending started violently
and stopped dead, showing that they felt a tremor. ' They would not have stopped
for a noise.'

Finally, I could find no knowledge of any records, which I thought might possibly
have been preserved.

Calculation of Mathematical Tables,— Report of Committee (Prof.
J. W. Nicholson, Chairman ; Dr. J. R. Airey, Secretary ; Dr. D.
Weinch-Nicholson, Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Dr. A. T. Doodson,
Prof. L. N. G. FiLON, Dr. R. A. Fisher, Profs. E. W. Hobson,
Alfred Lodge, A. E. H. Love, and H. M. Macdonald).

The following tables referred to in the last Report have been completed : —

(a) Tables of Fresnel's Integrals. S(x) and C{x) to six places of decimals for the

range of values of x from 0-1 to 20'0 by 0-1 intervals.

(6) Tables of the Confluent Hypergeometric function M(a, y, x) for some thirty

values of the argument x from 0-1 to 8-0, the parameter a ranging from 4-4-0 to — 4-0

and Y having the four values + \ and + |.

(c) Tables of sinh x and cosh x to fifteen places of decimals, similar to those of
sin X and cos x given in previous Reports of the Committee, x from 0-1 to 10-0 by O'l
intervals.

(d) Corrections of Logarithmic and Bessel Function Tables : the corrections of
Thoman's and Degen's Tables of Logarithms were communicated by M. F. J. Duarte,
Geneva.

The publication of the tables of zeros of Lommel-Weber and Neumann functions
is deferred.

For next year's Report it is hoped to submit further tables of the Confluent Hyper-
geometric and other functions.

Fresnel's Integrals, S(x) and C(x).

For small values of the argument x, from 0-1 to 1-5, S(a;) and C{x) were computed
from the ascending series, viz. : —

15.7

. +

x" ^

13.6!

From the tables of Bessel Functions of half odd integral order given to twelve places
of decimals in the 1925 Report, S(a;) and C(a;) were found for integer values of x from
1 to 20 by the relations

S(a;)= J3(«)+ J,(a;)+JT,{rr)+J,,(a;)-f ....

C(x) = Ji(a!)+J,(x)-fJ (a;)+J,,(x) -f . . . .
355-5

1926 T

274

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE. ETC.
Fresnel's Integrals, S(a;) and C(x).

0-0

Six)

C(x)

S(x)

C(x)

OrOOOOOO

0-000000

5-7

0-370576

0-398539 :

0-1

0-008404 :

0-252061

5-8

0-362122

0-412861

0-2

0-023720 :

0-355400

5-9

0-355200 :

0-427825

0-3

0-043422

0-433102 :

6-0

0-349852 :

0-443274

0-4

0-066518 :

0-496612

6-1

0-346105

0-459047

0-5

0-092366

0-550247

6-2

0-343968 :

0-474985

0-6

0-120465 :

0-596157

6-3

0-343438

0-490927

0-7

0-150396

0-635581 :

6-4

0-344493 :

0-506717

0-8

0-181782

0-669309 :

6-5

0-347100

0-522201

0-9

0-214277 :

0-697884 :

6-6

0-351207

0-537232

1-0

0-247558 :

0-721706

6-7

0-356752 :

0-551667 :

0-281317 :

0-741088 :

6-8

0-363659

0-565375

1-2

0-315262

0-756294 :

6-9

0-371839 :

0-578229

1-3

0-349113

0-767555

7-0

0-381194 :

0-590116

1-4

0-382604 :

0-775083

7-1

0-391614 :

0-600932

1-5

0-415483 :

0-779083

7-2

0-402982

0-610585

1-6

0-447511

0-779758 -

7-3

0-415171 :

0-618997

1-7

0-478462 :

0-777310

7-4

0-428051 :

0-626101

1-8

0-508128 :

0-771943

7-5

0-441485 :

0-631845

1-9

0-536316

0-763869

7-6

0-455332 :

0-636190

2-0

0-562849

0-753302

7-7

0-469451 :

0-639111 :

0-587568

0-740465

7-8

0-483698 :

0-640599

2-2

0-610333

0-725582

7-9

0-497931 :

0-640656 :

2-3

0-631022 :

0-708885

8-0

0-512009 :

0-639301

2-4

0-649534 :

0-690607

8-1

0-525795 :

0-636564

2-5

0-665787

0-670986

8-2

0-539157

0-632490

2-6

0-679717 :

0-650259

8-3

0-551966 :

0-627135

2-7

0-691284 :

0-628664

8-4

0-564104

0-620568

2-8

0-700466 :

0-606437

8-5

0-575457

0-612868

2-9

0-707260 :

0-583813

8-6

0-585923 :

0-604124

3-0

0-711685

0-561020

8-7

0-595409

0-594436

0-713776 :

0-538281

: 8-8

0-603831 :

0-583909 :

3-2

0-713591

0-515813

8-9

0-611119:

0-572659

3-3

0-711200

0-493822

9-0

0-617213:

0-560804

3-4

0-706695

0-472505

9-1

0-622066 :

0-548468 :

3-5

0-700180 :

0-452047

9-2

0-625644 :

0-535780

3-6

0-691777

0-432621

: 9-3

0-627925

0-522868

3-7

0-681618

0-414387

9-4

0-628899 :

0-509863

3-8

0-669849 :

0-397488

9-5

0-628573

0-496895

3-9

0-656628

0-382052

: 9-6

0-626962

0-484092

4-0

0-642118 :

0-368193

9-7

0-624096

0-471579

0-626495

0-356004

: 9-8

0-620015 :

0-459477

4-2

0-609935 :

0-345565

9-9

0-614774 :

0-447902 :

4-3

0-592623 :

0-336934

: 10-0

0-608436 :

0-436964

4-4

0-574746

0-330154

: 10-1

0-601074 :

0-426764

4-5

0-556489 :

0-325249

10-2

0-592772 :

0-417396

4-6

0-538040 :

0-322225

10-3

0-583621 :

0-408946

4-7

0-519583 :

0-321070

: 10-4

0-573721

0-401488

4-8

0-501299

0-321756

: 10-5

0-563176

0-395086

4-9

0-483362

0-324239

10-6

0-552097 :

0-389795

5-0

0-465941 :

0-328456

: 10-7

0-540600 :

0-385655 :

0-449197 :

0-334333

10-8

0-528803

0-382698

5-2

0-433280

0-341778

: 10-9

0-516825

0-380941 :

5-3

0-418330 :

0-350690

11-0

0-504786 :

0-380392

5-4

0-404476 :

0-360952

11-1

0-492807 :

0-381044

5-5

0-391833 :

0-372439

11-2

0-481007 :

0-382880 :

5-6

0-380504

0-385015

: 11-3

0-469500 :

0-385872

: 1

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

275

Freanel's Integrals, S(x) anc

C(a;)— contd.

S(x)

C(x)

8{x)

C(x)

11-4

0-458399 :

0-389980

15-8

0-599937

0-493920 :

11-5

0-447810 :

0-395152 :

15-9

0-598519 :

0-484005

11-6

0-437834

0-401329 :

16-0

0-696126 :

0-474310 :

11-7

0-428564 :

0-408441

16-1

0-692788

0-464933 :

11-8

0-420087

0-416408

16-2

0-688543 :

0-455964

11-9

0-412480

0-425144 :

16-3

0-583440 :

0-447489 :

12-0

0-405811

0-434557 :

16-4

0-577536

0-439591

12-1

0-400139

0-444547

16-6

0-670890 :

0-432343 :

12-2

0-395511 :

0-465010

16-6

0-563578 :

0-426815 :

12-3

0-391966 :

0-465838

16-7

0-555674 :

0-420067 :

12-4

0-389530

0-476920 :

16-8

0-647261 :

0-416152

12-5

0-388217

0-488146

16-9

0-538426 :

0-411113

12-6

0-388032 :

0-499401

17-0

0-629269

0-407986 :

12-7

0-388969

0-510574

17-1

0-519853 :

0-405796

12-8

0-391007 :

0-521554 :

17-2

0-510303 :

0'404558 :

12-9

0-394120 :

0-532234 :

17-3

0-500706 :

0-404282

13-0

0-398267 :

0-542510 :

17-4

0-491167

0-404963 :

131

0-403400 :

0-552283 :

17-5

0-481760

0-406590

13-2

0-409460

0-561460

1 17-6

0-472579

0-409140

13-3

0-416379

0-569954

17-7

0-463733 :

0-412583 :

13-4

0-424082 :

0-577685

17-8

0-455300

0-416880

13-5

0-432488

0-584683

17-9

0-447360

0-421983 :

13-6

0-441507

0-690586

18-0

0-439989 :

0-427837

13-7

0-451044 :

0-596638

18-1

0-433269

0-434379 :

13-8

0-461002 :

0-599698 :

18-2

0-427232

0-441541

13-9

0-471279

0-602734

18-3

0-421964 :

0-449247 :

14-0

0-481769 :

0-604721

18-4

0-417504 :

0-457419

14-1

0-492368

0-605647 :

18-5

0-413893

0-465971 :

14-2

0-502968

0-606511 :

18-6

0-411160:

0-474818

14-3

0-513464 :

0-604322 :

18-7

0-409330

0:483869

14-4

0-523754 :

0--602099 :

18:8

0-408414

0-493032 :

14-5

0-533735 :

0-698871

18-9

0-408418

0-502217 :

14-6

0-543312

0-594677

19-0

0-409336 :

0-511332

14-7

0-562390 :

0-589666 :

19-1

0-411156:

0-520286 :

14-8

0-560884 :

0-583593 :

19-2

0-413862

0-628990

14-9

0-568713

0-576826

19-3

0-417395

0-637360

150

0-575803 :

0-569336

19-4

0-421744 :

0-545314

151

0-582089 :

0-561203

19-6

0-426853 :

0-552774 :

15-2

0-587614

0-552511 :

19-6

0-432666 :

0-559670

15-3

0-592029

0-643352 :

19-7

0-439122 :

0-565935

•15-4

0-596595 :

0-633819 :

19-8

0-446153 :

0-571510

15-5

0-598184

0-624010

19-9

0-453687 :

0-576342 :

15-6

0-599775

0-514023

20-0

0-461646

0-580389

15-7

0-600359

0-503960

The tables were completed to nine places by interpolating to tenths of a unit of the
argument, first differences being calculated from the known values of J Ax) and

J_ i(a;). Lommel's tables of S(x) and C{x) appear in various collections of mathematical

tables, although the last digits are unreliable in a considerable number of the entries.
The difficulty in checking these results was due to the absence of adequate tables of
sines and cosines in radian measure. Tables of these functions to fifteen places of
decimals were published in the 1916, 1923 and 1924 Reports of the Committee.

T 2

276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

The Confluent Hypergeometric Function. M (a . y . x).

Attention has been drawn to the importance of this function* in the solution of
differential equations of the second order

where f(x) and 9(2;) are linear, quadratic or other simple functions of x. In
ascending powers oi x,M. {a . y . x) is

, , a ^ , a(«+l) «! , a( a+l) ( a+2) x^ ,
Y Y(T+1)" 2!^y(y+1)(t+2)" 3!
and satisfies the differential equation

x.i^^ + C^-x)f-a.y = 0.
dx^ ax

By changing both dependent and independent variables, it can be shown that
differential equations of the type

g + {px+q) g + {Ix^+mx+n) 2/ =

can be solved in terms of M (a . J . x). The exponential function appears in associa-
tion with this function. Very extensive tablesf of e-r and e-' were published in the
Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. Other differential equations
which can be solved by means of the M functions are set out in the Phil. Mag. paper,
e.g. Petzval's equation :

x^'^+x{p + qx'")'^+{r+sx"'+tx^'»)y = 0.
dx^ dx

Spitzer's equation :

y = X (x y.—ny).
dx^ dx

Laplace's equation^ :

{a,+ b^z)^+{a,+b,x)p^+(ao+box)y =

dx^ V X' dx ^ x x^i

dx^ ^ x' dx
The asymptotic expansion of M (« . y • ^) is
r(Y) / ^^-Ji a(a-Y+l ) , a(a+l)(a-Y+l)(a-Y+2) | ,

r (Y) e. xa- V 1 1 4- (l-a)(Y -«) + (1-a ) (2-a) (y-a) (y-a+l) , 1

r (a) I x ' 2 ! a;2 ^ • /

The six difference relations may be used to extend the tables for other values of a
and Y

a;M(a+l.Y+l-a;) = y [M (ix+1 . y . x) — M{ai.y.x)]

aM(a+l.Y+l-a;) = (a— y) M (a . y+l • ^■) + YM(a.Y.a;)

(a+a;)M(a+I.Y+l.a;) = (a— y) M (a . y+l . a;) + y M (a+1, y . a;)

ay M (a+1 . y . x) = y (a+x) M (a . y . a;)- x(y-a) M (a.y + 1, a;)
aM(a+l.y.a;) = (a;+2a— y) M (a . y . a;)+ (y-a) M (a-1, y . a;)

(y-a)a; M (a . y+l ■ a;) =y (a;+y — 1) M (a . y . a;)+ y (1-y) M (a, y-1 . a;)

* H. A. Webb and J. R. Airey. ' The practical importance of the Confluent
Hypergeometric Function ' : Phil. Mag., vol. 36, July 1918, pp. 129-141.

t J. W. L. Glaisher. Tables of the Exponential Function : Camb. Phil. Trans.,
1883, vol. 13, part 3, pp. 243-272. F. W. Newman. Table of the Descending
Exponential Function : Camb. Phil. Trans., vol. 13, part 3, pp. 145-241.

% Laplace. Theorie analyt. des probabiliies. Livre I, premiere partie.

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 277

For small values of the argument, the series in ascending powers of x were used
in calculating M (1 . J . x) and M ( — ^ . J . a;) to nine places of decimals.

^ ^ ' 3 3-5 3.5.7^

M(-i.^.x) = 1

3.2! 5.3! 7.4!

Since M (0 . ^ . x) = 1 and M (^ . ^ . z) = e'^, the recurrence relations may be
applied at once to construct the rest of the table for these values of x and other values
of the parameters, a and y-

For larger values of x, the asymptotic series were employed, viz. :

\T /I JL \ r — r 1 1.3,1.3.5 1.3.5.7, 1 , ,

^ - ^ ' l2x^(2a;)2 (2a;)» (2a:)* ^- ' ' j ^"'

Both these series begin by converging, but eventually become divergent, and it was
maintained that the approximation to the value of the functions could not be carried
beyond the point where the terms begin to diverge, i.e. the calculation must not be
taken beyond the least term.

' When the argument is at all large, the series at first are rapidly convergent, but
they are ultimately in all cases hypergeometrically divergent. Notwithstanding this
divergence, we may employ the series in numerical calculation, provided we do not
take in the divergent terms.' §

' Series of this kind are, strictly speaking, not convergent at all, for when carried
sufiiciently far, the sum of the series may be made to exceed any assignable quantity.
But, though ultimately divergent, they begin by converging ; and when a certain
point is reached, the terms become very small. Calculations founded on these
series are, therefore, only approximate ; and the degree of approximation cannot be
carried beyond a certain point. If more terms are included, the result is made worse
instead of better. In numerical calculations, therefore, we are to include only the
convergent part.' ||

In the case of M (1 .\ .x), where the signs of the terms are alternately positive and
negative, if a; = v-j-^ and v = n-\-\, it can be shown that the asymptotic series
becomes

1 _. 1.3| 1.3.5 _ , 1.3.5 (2w-l) -. .

2a; (2a;)2 (2a;)'* - (2a;)» ^ '5'^''

where cpi is the ' converging factor.' The first six terms of ^j are

When X is about 10, it is possible to add eight or nine decimal places to the result
obtained when the divergent terms are omitted in the calculation from the asymptotic
series (a).

For the function M ( — i .\ .x), where the signs of the terms in the asymptotic
series are all positive, a 'converging factor' may also be found. If a;=v+A and
v=n+^, the descending power series in (6) is

1 , 1.3 ,1 .3.5 , 1.3.5 (2/t— 1) -, .

2a; "^ (2a;)2 "^ (2a;)-'' "^ (2a;)" ^ "^ 'P'''

§ Stokes. Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. 2, p. 237.

II Rayleigh. Scientific Papers, vol. 1, p. 190. Also Glaisher, Phil. Tninn.
London, vol. 160, pp. 367-387. Borel, Series JDivergentes, p. 3.

278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

i.e. the divergent terms of (6) are represented by the product of epa and the nth term ;
92 is given by the series

e-" 1 +

4 "60"

144 "^ 336/

A- Kb + - - — 4- — _ 1!- 4- _^'_ \ + 1
v*\ 5 360 252 128 3456 7 " " J

where 60 = —0-33333 33333 33

6j= +0-02962 96296 3

62= +0-00282 18695

6g= —0-00188 1246

6^= -0-00071 196

65= +0-00067 84

^6= +0-00047 3

6,= —0-00059

6g= -0-0006

In this case, an improvement may be effected in the approximation to the value
of the function M ( — ^ . ^ . x), when x is comparatively small. Even with the short
table of b„ given above, when x=10-5, twelve places of decimals can be added to the
result where the terms of the asymptotic series beyond the n'^ are neglected. With
more extended tables of 6„, the approximation has been carried to twenty places :
when X has the small value 3-5, to ten places. When a- is a negative integer,
M (a . Y • ^) reduces to a polynomial which is easily evaluated.

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

279

M (a . I . a;)

a=i

a=f

a=l

«=5

1-00000

i +

1-00000

0-1

110617

1-32621

! +

1-56197

1-81307

0-2

1-22140

1-70996

2-26367

2-88772

0-3

1-34986

2-15977

3-13167

4-28499

0-4

1-49182

2-68528

4-19700

6-07789

0-5

1-64872

3-29744

5-49574

8-35352

0-6

1-82212

4-00866

7-06982

11-2155

0-7

2-01375

4-83301

8-96791

14-7869

0-8

2-22554

5-78641

11-2464

19-2132

0-9

2-45960

6-88689

13-9705

24-6669

2-71828

8-15485

17-2158

31-3609

1-2

3-32012

11-2884

25-6313

49-4087

1-4

4-05520

15-4098

37-3619

75-8463

1-6

4-95303

20-8027

53-5588

114-041

1-8

6-04965

27-8284

75-7416

168-606

2-0

7-38906

36-9453

105-910

245-809

2-2

9-02501

48-7351

146-687

354132

2-4

11-0232

63-9344

201-504

505-003

2-6

13-4637

83-4752

274-840

713-765

2-8

16-4446

108-535

372-526

1000-95

3-0

20-0855

140-599

502-138

1393-94

3-5

33-1155

264-924

1037-62

3108-44

4-0

54-5982

491-383

2092-93

6722-85

4-5

90-0171

900-171

4140-79

14186-7

5-0

148-413

1632-54

8063-78

29336-3

5-5

244-692

2936-30

15497-2

59639-6

6-0

403-429

5244-57

29450-3

119496

6-5

665-142 1

9311-98

-r

55428-5

236436

7-0

+ 1096-63 '

+ 16449-5

+ 103449

462706

7-5

+ 1808-04

+ 28928-7

+ 191652

896789

8-0

+2980-96 !

+50676-3

+ 352747

+ 1723192

280

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

M (a . i . x) — cont.

a=-^

.=-1

a=-§

«=-?

0-0

+ 1-00000

+ 0-89830

+ 0-70503

+ 0-52483

+ 0-35717

0-2 1

+ 0-79306

+ 0-42027

+ 0-09866

— 0-17593

0-3

+ 0-68405

+ 0-14593

— 0-27955

— 0-60616

0-4

+ 0-57104

— 0-11777

— 0-61082

— 0-94026

0-5

+ 0-45376

— 0-37060

— 0-89622

— 1-18487

0-6

+ 0-33195

— 0-61230

— 1-13680

- 1-34653

0-7

+ 0-20530

— 0-84264

— 1-33367

- 1-43167

0-8

+ 0-07349

— 1-06133

- 1-48791

— 1-44662

0-9

- 0-06383

— 1-26810

— 1-60066

— 1-39759

1-0

- 0-20702

- 1-46265

— 1-67305

- 1-29070 :

1-2

— 0-51269

— 1-81386

— 1-70143

- 0-92716

1-4

- 0-84712

— 2-11231

— 1-58259

— 0-40261

1-6

- 1-21453

— 2-35506

— 1-32641

+ 0-23822

1-8

- 1-61983

— 2-53887

- 0-94317

+ 0-95249

2-0

- 2-06876

- 2-66015

— 0-44354

+ 1-69933

2-2

- 2-56803

— 2-71489

+ 0-16135

+ 2-43989

2-4

- 312551

— 2-69863

+ 0-85988

+ 3-13740

2-6

- 3-75041

— 2-60642

+ 1-63992

+ 3-75727

2-8

- 4-45358

- 2-43267

+ 2-48875

+ 4-26710

- 5-24774

- 2-17117

+ 3-39301

+ 4-63681

3-5

— 7-73625

— 1-08523

+ 5-80218

+ 4-77248

4-0

— 11-2124

+ 0-73183

+ 8-22631

+ 3-50330

4-5

— 16-1581

+ 3-46583

+ 10-3857

+ 0-57370

5-0

— 23-3084

+ 7-37289

+ 11-9516

— 4-15213

5-5

- 33-7890

+ 12-8099

+ 12-5319

—10-6749

6-0

- 49-3319

+ 20-2790

+ 11-6501

-18-8409

6-5

- 72-6130

+ 30-4942

+ 8-71849

—28-3180

7-0

—107-781

+44-4780

+ 2-99906

—38-5646

7-5

—161-288

+ 63-7081

— 6-45002

-48-7901

8-0

-243-202

+90-3340

-20-8501

-57-9033

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

281

M(a. J.x) — cont.

a=l

a=2

a=3

a=4

1-00000 i

1-00000

1-21388

1-44221

1-68557

1-94455

0-2

1-45786

1-97835

2-56656

3-22784

0-3

1-73572

2-62430

3-68438

4-93621

0-4

2-05174

3-39831

5-08790

7-17427

0-5

2-41069

4-32137

6-83473

10-0683

0-6

2-81790

5-41759

8-99263

13-7704

0-7

3-27935

6-71458

11-6411

18-4628

0-8

3-80175

8-24402

14-8733

24-3640

0-9

4-39256

10-0421

18-7983

31-7346

1-0

5-06016

12-1504

23-5433

40-8851

1-2

6-66425

17-4935

36-1115

66-0710

1-4

8-70287

24-7383

54-0818

103-773

1-6

11-2870

34-4896

79-4831

159-369

1-8

14-5548

47-5309

115-041

240-324

2-0

18-6789

64-8761

164-400

356-937

i 2-2

23-8738

87-8331

232-419

523-348

2-4

30-4068

118-087

325-550

758-877

' 2-6

38-6102

157-802

452-338

1089-81

; 2-8

48-8969

209-757

624-061

1551-77

61-7801

277-510

855-573

2192-87

3-5

109-914

549-072

1839-32

5060-39

4-0

193-640

1064-52

3846-72

11294-2

4-5

338-545

2030-77

7869-18

24538-3

5-0

588-290

3823-38

15808-2

52142-4

5-5

1017-20

7119-91

31276-7

108748

6-0

1761-60

13136-5

61084-6

223211

6-5

3005-76

24045-6

117974

451857

1 7-0

5142-69

43712-4

225633

903710

7-5

8776-41

78987-2

427847

+ 1788182

8-0

+ 14944-4

+ 141971

805125

+ 3504751

282

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

M (a . J . x) — cont.

a=-l

a=-2

a=— 3

a=-4

0-0

+ 1-00000

0-1

+ 0-80000

+ 0-61333

+ 0-43947

+ 0-27788

0-2

+ 0-60000

+ 0-25333

— 0-04427

— 0-29682

0-3

+ 0-40000

— 0-08000

— 0-45440

— 0-73637

0-4

+ 0-20000

— 0-38667

— 0-79413

- 1-05263

0-5

+ 0-00000

- 0-66667

- 1-06667

— 1-25714

0-6

- 0-20000

- 0-92000

- 1-27520

— 1-36105

0-7

- 0-40000

— 1-14667

- 1-42293

- 1-35715

0-8

- 0-60000

- 1-34667

- 1-51307

— 1-30985

0-9

- 0-80000

— 1-52000

— 1-54880

- 1-17522

1-0

- 1-00000

- 1-66667

— 1-53333

- 0-98095

1-2

- 1-40000

— 1-88000

- 1-36160

— 0-45042

1-4

- 1-80000

— 1-98667

- 1-02347

+ 0-21152

1-6

- 2-20000

- 1-98667

— 0-54453

+ 0-94051

1-8

— 2-60000

- 1-88000

+ 0-04960

+ 1-67803

— 3-00000

— 1-66667

+ 0-73333

+ 2-37143

2-2

— 3-40000

- 1-34667

+ 1-48107

+ 2-97388

2-4

- 3-80000

- 0-92000

+ 2-26720

+ 3-44443

2-6

- 4-20000

— 0-38667

+ 3-06613

+ 3-74798

2-8

— 4-60000

+ 0-25333

+ 3-85227

+ 3-85525

3-0

- 5-00000

+ 1-00000

+ 4-60000

+ 3-74286

3-5

- 6-00000

+ 3-33333

+ 613333

+ 2-40000

4-0

- 7-00000

+ 6-33333

+ 6-86667

- 0-52381

4-5

- 8-00000

+ 10-0000

+ 6-40000

- 4-91429

- 9-00000 !

+ 14-3333

+ 4-33333

—10-4286

5-5

-10-0000

+ 19-3333

+ 0-26667

-16-4952

6-0

-11-0000

+ 25-0000

- 6-20000

—22-3143

6-5

-12-0000

+ 31-3333

-15-4667

—26-8571

7-0

— 13'0000 1

+ 38-3333

-27-9333

—28-8667

7-5

-14-0000

+46-0000

-44-0000

-26-8571

8-0

—15-0000

+54-3333

-64-0667

—19-1143

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

283

M (a . f . x)

a=i

«=!

a=f

a=5

0-0

1-00000

O-I

1-03436

1-10517

1-17885

1-26547

0-2

1-07086

1-22140

1-38426

1-56014

0-3

1-10968

1-34986

1-61983

1-92220

0-4

1-15098

1-49182

1-88964

2-35112

0-5

1-19496

1-64872

2-19830

2-85778

0-6

1-24181

1-82212

2-55097

3-45474

0-7

1-29175

2-01375

2-95350

4-15639

0-8

1-34503

2-22554

3-41250

4-97928

0-9

1-40191

2-45960

3-93536

5-94240

1-0

1-46265

2-71828

4-53047

7-06753

1-2

1-59700

3-32012

5-97621

9-90723

1-4

1-75083

4-05520

7-84005

13-7444

1-6

1-92736

4-95303

10-2363

18-9008

1-8

2-13041

6-04965

13-3092

25-7957

2-0

2-36445

7-38906

17-2411

34-9749

2-2

2-63478

9-02501

22-2617

47-1467

2-4

2-94764

11-0232

28-6603

63-2289

2-6

3-31041

13-4637

36-8009

84-4087

2-8

3-73183

16-4446

47-1413

112-218

3-0

4-22221

20-0855

60-2566

148-633

3-5

5-83596

331155

110-385

295-831

4-0

8-22631

54-5982

200-193

578-740

4-5

11-7973

900171

360069

1116-21

5-0

17-1722

148-413

643-124

2127-26

5-5

25-3164

244-692

1141-90

4012-95

6-0

37-7301

403-429

2017-14

7503-78

6-5

56-7504

665-142

3547-42

+ 13923-6

7-0

86-0296

+ 1096-63

6214-25

+ 25661-2

7-5

+ 131-289

+ 1808-04

+ 10848-3

+47009-1

8-0

+201-510

+ 2980-96

+ 18879-4

+ 85652-9

284

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

M (a . f . «) — cont.

-i

= -§

a=-f

-i

0-0

1-00000

0-1

0-96633

0-90100

0-83831

0-77817

0-2

0-93196

0-80404

0-68648

0-57867

0-3

0-89687

0-70913

0-64435

0-40054

0-4

0-86101

0-61632

0-41179

0-24279

0-5

0-82436

0-52562

0-28865

0-10446

0-6

0-78688

0-43708

0-17477

—

0-01539

0-7

0-74853

0-35074

0-07000

—

0-11771

0-8

0-70926

0-26661

0-02581

—

0-20341

0-9

0-66904

0-18475

—

0-11281

—

0-27341

1-0

0-62782

0-10520

—

0-19118

—

0-32862

1-2

0-54216

—

0-04685

—

0-32261

—

0-39818

1-4

0-45185

—

0-18919

—

0-42142

—

0-41907

1-6

0-35642

—

0-32145

—

0-48895

—

0-39805

1-8

0-25529

—

0-44325

—

0-52657

—

0-34169

2-0

0-14785

—

0-55415

—

0-53572

—

0-25634

2-2

0-03338

—

0-65369

—

0-51785

—

0-14813

2-4

0-08893

—

0-74136

—

0-47448

—

0-02300

2-6

—

0-22000

—

0-81660

—

0-40718

0-11337

2-8

—

0-36088

—

0-87883

—

0-31756

0-25552

3-0

—

0-51276

—

0-92736

—

0-20730

0-39821

3-5

—

0-95014

—

0-98392

0-14710

0-72527

4-0

—

1-49302

—

0-93681

0-59038

0-95449

4-5

—

2-18044

—

0-76887

1-09022

1-02566

5-0

—

3-06813

—

0-45788

1-61038

0-89006

5-5

—

4-23626

0-02527

2-10970

0-51163

6-0

—

5-80091

0-71908

2-54092

0-13181

6-5

—

7-93132

1-67505

2-84896

—

1-04691

7-0

—

10-8756

2-96278

2-96883

—

2-22284

7-5

—

14-9998

4-67721

2-82267

—

3-62892

8-0

—

20-8460

6-94901

2-31583

—

5-21156

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

285

M(a.5.«)— cont.

a=l

a=2

a=3

a=4

0-0

+ 1-00000

1-00000

0-1

+ 1-06941

+ 1-14165

1-21679

1-29492

0-2

+ 1-14464

+ 1-30125

1-47052

1-65320

0-3

+ 1-22620

+ 1-48096

1-76680

2-08639

0-4

+ 1-31468

+ 1-68321

2-11198

2-60797

0-5

+ 1-41069

+ 1-91069

2-51336

3-23359

0-6

+ 1-51491

+ 2-16641

2-97920

3-98144

0-7

-f 1^62811

+ 2-45373

3-51894

4-87264

0-8

+ 1-75109

■i- 2-77642

4-14332

5-93166

0-9

+ 1-88475

+ 3-13866

4-86453

7-18682

+ 2-03008

+ 3-54512

5-69644

8-67091

1-2

+ 2-36010

+ 4-51217

7-75750

12-4832

1-4

+ 2-75103

+ 6-72695

10-4798

17-7468

1-6

+ 3-21467

+ 7-25081

14-0605

24-9643

1-8

+ 3-76523

+ 9-16002

18-7527

34-8008

+ 4-41972

+ 11-5493

24-8810

48-1342

2-2

+ 6-19860

+ 14-5362

32-8604

66-1202

2-4

+ 6-12642

+ 18-2666

43-2216

90-2764

2-6

+ 7-23273

+ 22-9215

66-6415

122-591

2-8

+ 8-55302

+ 28-7250

73-9829

165-663

+ 10-1300

+ 35-9550

96-3439

222-882

3-5

+ 15-5592

+ 62-7368

184-321

460-153

+ 24-0800

+ 108-860

347-775

930-933

4-5

+ 37-5051

+ 188-025

648-712

1852-12

+ 58-7290

+ 323-509

1198-48

3633-42

6-6

+ 92-3820

+ 664-792

2196-07

7042-85

6-0

+ 145-883

+ 948-740

3995-68

13510-5

6-5

+ 231-213

+ 1618-45

7225-24

25683-3

7-0

+ 367-264

+2754-98

+ 12994-3

48434-1

7-5

+585-027

+4680-72

+ 23257-3

90689-0

8-0

+933-960

+7939-16

+41447-1

+ 168727

286

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

M (a . § . x) — cont.

a=-l

a=-2

a=-3

a=-4

0-0

+ 1-00000

0-1

+0-93333

+0-86933

+0-80792

+0-74903

0-2

+0-86667

+0-74400

+ 0-63139

+0-52826

0-3

+0-80000

+0-62400

+ 0-46994

+0-33691

0-4

+0-73333

+0-50933

+0-32312

+0-17026

0-5

+0-66667

+0-40000

+0-19048

+0-02963

0-6

+0-60000

+0-29600

+0-07154

—0-08763

0-7

+0-53333

+0-19733

—0-03413

—0-18313

0-8

+0-46667

+ 0-10400

—0-12701

-0-25844

0-9

+0-40000

+0-01600

-0-20754

—0-31506

1-0

+ 0-33333

-0-06667

-0-27619

—0-35450

1-2

+0-20000

-0-21600

-0-37966

-0-38752

1-4

+0-06667

-0-34400

-0-44107

-0-36856

1-6

—0-06667

-0-45067

-O-46408

-0-30801

1-8

-0-20000

-0-53600

-0-45234

-0-21563

2-0

-0-33333

-0-60000

-0-40952 ■

-0-10053

2-2

-0-46667

-0-64267

-0-33928

+0-02885

2-4

-0-60000

-0-66400

-0-24526

+0-16471

2-6

-0-73333

-0-66400

-0-13112

+0-29989

2-8

-0-86667

-0-64267

-0-00053

+0-42789

3-0

-1-00000

-0-60000

+0-14286

+0-54286

3-5

-1-33333

-0-40000

+0-53333

+0-74074

4-0

-1-66667

-0-06667

+0-92381

+0-76296

4-5

-2-00000

+0-40000

+ 1-25714

+0-57143

5-0

-2-33333

+ 1-00000

+ 1-47619

+0-15344

5-5

-2-66667

+ 1-73333

+ 1-52381

-0-47831

6-0

-3-00000

+ 2-60000

+ 1-34286

-1-28571

6-5

-3-33333

+ 3-60000

+0-87619

-2-20529

7-0

-3-66667

+4-73333

+0-06667

-3-14815

7-6

-4-00000

+ 6-00000

-1-14286

-4-00000

8-0

-4-33333

+7-40000

-2-80952

-4-62116

ON CALCULATION OF MA.THEMATICAL TABLES.

287

M(a.-i.

a=J

a=i

a=|

a=l

0-0

+ 1-00000

0-1

+ 0-88414

+ 0-61890

+ 0-30650

- 0-05611

0-2

+ 0-73284

+ 0-04886

— 0-85661

— 2-01170

0-3

+ 0-53994

- 0-75592

— 2-63492

— 6-20692

0-4

+ 0-29836

- 1-84986

- 6-20746

- 10-0698

0-5

+ 0-00000

— 3-29744

— 8-79318

— 17-1467

0-6

- 0-36442

- 5-17482

- 13-6586

- 27-1172

0-7

— 0-80560

- 7-57171

- 20-1268

- 40-8284

0-8

- 1-33532

- 10-5936

— 28-5878

— 59-3290

0-9

- 1-96768

- 14-3641

- 39-5111

— 83-9114

1-0

- 2-71828

— 19-0280

— 53-4596

- 116-161

1-2

- 4-64816

— 31-7403

— 93-2554

— 211-836

1-4

— 7-29936

— 60-4467

- 155-060

— 367-430

1-6

— 10-8967

- 77-4654

- 248-854

— 613-786

1-8

— 15-7291

- 115-911

— 388-681

— 995-563

2-0

- 22-1672

— 169-948

- 593-588

— 1576-82

2-2

— 30-6850

- 245-119

- f90-540

— 2448-72

2-4

- 41-8881

— 348-773

- 1315-99

- 3740-00

2-6

- 56-5477

— 490-619

- 1919-79

— 5631-36

2-8

— 75-6454

- 683-440

— 2769-59

- 8374-90

3-0

- 100-428

— 944-020

— 3956-85

— 12320-5

3-5

- 198-693

— 2053-16

— 9316-48

— 31075-6

4-0

— 382-187

- 4313-25

- 21056-7

— 74839-6

4-5

- 720-137

- 8821-68

— 46088-8

— 173769

5-0

-1335-72

—17661-2

- 98299-0

— 391662

5-5

—2446-92

-34746-3

-205215

— 861250

6-0

-4437-72

-67372-6

-420776

—1864724

288

REPORTS ON THE STATE OP SCIENCE, ETC.

M (a . — J . x) — cont.

a=-k

a=-§

«=-!

a=-J

0-0

+ 1-00000

0-1

+ 1-10517

+ 1-28483

+ 1-42584

+ 1-53080

0-2

+ 1-22140

+ 1-53863

+ 1-70673

+ 1-74620

0-3

+ 1-34986

+ 1-76029

+ 1-84785

+ 1-68012

0-4

+ 1-49182

+ 1-94865

+ 1-85444

+ 1-36578

0-5

+ 1-64872

+ 2-10248

+ 1-73189

+ 0-83567

0-6

+ 1-82212

+ 2-22046

+ 1-48569

+ 0-12153

0-7

+ 2-01375

+ 2-30117

+ 1-12148

- 0-74565

0-8

+ 2-22554

+ 2-34312

+ 0-64500

- 1-73566

0-9

+ 2-45960

+ 2-34471

+ 0-06214

- 2-81904

+ 2-71828

+ 2-30424

- 0-62106

- 3-96716

1-2

+ 3-32012

+ 2-08967

- 2-26361

- 6-34704

1-4

+ 4-05520

+ 1-68326

— 4-23121

— 8-66245

1-6

+ 4-95303

+ 1-06653

- 6-46967

— 10-7142

1-8

+ 6-04965

+ 0-?1826

- 8-92169

— 12-3171

2-0

+ 7-38906

- 0-88598

—11-5266 .

- 13-3007

2-2

+ 9-02501

— 2-27432

-14-2198

- 13-5099

2-4

+ 11-0232

- 3-97925

-16-9327

- 12-8053

2-6

+ 13-4637

— 6-03840

-19-5918

- 11-0642

2-8

+ 16-4446

- 8-49538

-22-1184

— 8-18138

+ 20-0855

- 11-4009

-24-4279

- 4-06981

3-5

+ 33-1155

— 21-0383

—28-6349

+ 11-9804

4-0

+ 54-5982

— 35-1007

-29-2461

+ 36-5644

4-5

+ 90-0171

- 55-4061

-24-2136

+ 69-2576

5-0

+ 148-413

- 84-6710

-10-9422

+ 108-574

6-5

+244-692

—126-987

+ 13-9218

+ 151-772

6-0

+403-429

-188-554

+54-7948

+ 194-596

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

289

M(a.-i.a;)—

cont.

a=l

a=2

a=3

a=4

+ 1-00000

1-00000

+ 1-00000

+ 0-75722

+ 0-46878

0-13167

- 0-25724

0-2

+ 0-41686

- 0-37448

—

1-40111

— 2-69225

0-3

- 004143

- 1-61601

—

3-82664

— 6-78836

0-4

- 0-64139

- 3-36004

—

7-43036

- 13-1698

0-5

1-41069

- 5-73206

—

12-5668

- 22-6351

0-6

— 2-38148

— 8-88258

—

19-6737

— 36-1982

0-7

— 3-59110

— 12-9915

29-2891

— 55-1370

0-8

— 5-08280

— 18-2732

—

42-0706

— 81-0529

0-9

— 6-90660

— 24-9825

—

58-8194

— 115-942

1-0

— 9-12031

- 33-4211

—

80-5076

— 162-278

1-2

- 14-9942

— 56-9785

143-646

- 302-216

1-4

— 23-3680

— 92-6354

—

244064

— 534-628

1-6

— 35-1182

— 145-485

—

399-831

- 909-811

1-8

- 51-3974

- 222-509

—

636-655

— 1501-82

2-0

- 73-7155

- 333-220

—

990-820

- 2418-57

2-2

- 104-045

- 490-511

—

151315

— 3815-89

2-4

- 144-953

- 711-768

—

2274-41

- 5917-02

2-6

- 199-773

- 1020-34

—

3372-50

- 9039-51

2-8

— 272-823

- 1447-46

—

4942-20

— 13632-1

3-0

- 369-680

- 2034-74

—

7168-18

- 20325-4

3-5

— 768-401

- 4611-90

—

17487-1

- 52909-8

— 1548-12

- 10064-3

—

40838-1

- 131192

4-5

— 3045-91

-^ 21322-9

—

92145-5

- 312990

5-0

- 5881-90

- 44115-7

202197

— 723621

5-5

-11188-2

- 89507>3

-433551

—1629779

6-0

-21018-2

-178656

911671

-3590197

192G

290

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

M(a.-i.x)—

cont.

a=-l

a=-2

a=-3

a=-4

+ 1-00000

0-1

+ 1-20000

+ 1-36000

+ 1-48267

+ 1-57056

0-2

+ 1-40000

+ 1-64000

+ 1-74133

+ 1-72363

0-3

+ 1-60000

+ 1-84000

+ 1-79200

+ 1-51936

0-4

+ 1-80000

+ 1-96000

+ 1-65067

+ 1-01536

0-5

+ 2-00000

+ 1-33333

+ 0-26667

0-6

+ 2-20000

+ 1-96000

+ 0-85600

- 0-67424

0-7

+ 2-40000

+ 1-84000

+ 0-23467

- 1-75744

0-8

+ 2-60000

+ 1-64000

— 0-51467

- 2-93557

0-9

+ 2-80000

+ 1-36000

- 1-37600

- 4-16384

+ 3-00000

+ 1-00000

- 2-33333

— 5-40000

1-2

+ 3-40000

+ 0-04000

- 4-47200

— 7-73984

1-4

+ 3-80000

- 1-24000

- 6-80267

- 9-66837

1-6

+ 4-20000

— 2-84000

- 9-19733

- 10-9398

1-8

+ 4-60000

- 4-76000

- 11-5280

- 11-3494

+ 5-00000

- 7-00000

- 13-6667 .

- 10-7333

2-2

+ 5-40000

- 9-56000

— 15-4853

- 8-96864

2-4

+ 5-80000

- 12-4400

— 16-8560

- 5-97344

2-6

+ 6-20000

- 15-6400

— 17-6507

— 1-70677

2-8

+ 6-60000

- 19-1600

— 17-7413

+ 3-83136

+ 7-00000

— 23-0000

- 17-0000

+ 10-6000

3-5

+ 8-00000

— 34-0000

- 10-6667

+ 32-2667

4-0

+ 9-00000

— 47-0000

+ 3-66667

+ 58-6000

4-5

+ 10-0000

- 62-0000

+■ 28-0000

+ 85-6000

5-0

+ 11-0000

— 79-0000

+ 64-3333

+ 107-667

5-5

+ 12-0000

- 98-0000

+ 114-667

+ 117-600

6-0

+ 13-0000

-119-000

+ 181-000

+ 106-600

6-5

+ 14-0000

-142-000

+265-333

+ 64-2667

7-0

+ 15-0000

-167000

+ 369-667

+ 21-4000

7-5

+ 16-0000

-194-000

+496-000

-164-000

8-0

+ 17-0000

-223 000

+ 646-333

-378-733

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

291

M (a . - f

a=4

a=3

«=f

«=5 i

1-00000

1
1-00000

0-1

0-97255

0-93129

0-91086

0-91460

0-2

0-96084

0-95432

1-06854

1-33676

0-3

0-97190

1-12308

1-65007

2-69125

0-4

1-01444

1-50774

2-89639

5-68167

0-5

1-09915

2-19830

5-12936

10-8449

0-6

1-23904

3-30897

8-77241

19-6193

0-7

1-44990

4-98337

14-3759

33-4291

0-8

1-75076

7-40067

22-6475

64-2896

0-9

2-16445

10-7829

34-4895

84-8364

I-O

2-71828

15-4036

51-0433

128-484

1-2

4-38265

29-7748

104-379

273-848

1-4

7-08308

54-1667

198-889

541-824

1-6

11-2929

93-9227

359-366

1014-07

1-8

17-6650

156-758

623-056

1817-73

27-0932

253-691

1045-14

3147-57

2-2

40-7931

400-301

1706-43

5297-88

2-4

60-4070

■f

618-444

2724-03

8708-03

2-6

88-1426

938-548

4266-18

14027-2

2-8

126-953

1402-71

6572-60

22205-7

180-770

2068-81

9982-51

34623-4

3-5

419-462

5210-16

26948-6

99458-2

928-169

12430-2

68581-3

268153

4-5

1980-38

28445-4

166712

688019

4106-10

62976-7

390640

+ 1696181

5-5

8319-53

+ 135722

888177

+4046095

6-0

+ 16540-6

+ 286031

+ 1969136

+9388030

292

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

M(a.-f .«)—

cont.

a=-i

«=-i

«=-§

oc=-5

0-0

1-00000

+ 1-00000

1-00000

+ 1-00000

1-03149

+ 1-10517

1-19083

+ 1-28588

0-2

1-06855

+ 1-22140

1-42655

+ 1-65412

0-3

1-07989

+ 1-34986

1-70192

+ 2-07149

0-4

1-09400

+ 1-49182

2-01147

+ 2-50598

0-5

1-09915

+ 1-64872

2-34955

+ 2-92685

0-6

1-09327

+ 1-82212

2-71030

+ 3-30458

0-7

1-07400

+ 2-01375

3-08763

+ 3-61099

0-8

1-03859

+ 2-22554

3-47521

+ 3-81920

0-9

0-98384

+ 2-45960

3-86643

+ 3-90371

1-0

0-90609

+ 2-71828

4-25444

+ 3-84040

1-2

0-66402

+ 3-32012

4-99185

+ 3-18097

1-4

0-27035

+ 4-05520

5-62625

+ 1-67712

1-6

0-33020

+ 4-95303

6-09067

— 0-81031

1-8

—

1-20993

+ 6-04965

6-31155

— 4-39448

2-0

—

2-46302

+ 7-38906

6-20775

- 9-16102

2-2

—

4-21167

+ 9-02501

5-68935

- 15-1664

2-4

—

6-61391

+ 11-0232

4-65638

- 22-4359

2-6

. —

9-87341

+ 13-4637

2-99718

— 30-9619

2-8

—

14-2520

+ 16-4446

0-58660

— 40-7010

— .

20-0855

+ 20-0855

2-71621

— 51-6719

3-5

—

44-1539

+ 33-1155

15-9738

— 82-7886

4-0

—

90-9969

+ 54-5982

—

39 0038

—116-993

4-5

—

180-034

+ 90-0171

—

76-2011

—148-842

5-0

—

346-297

+ 148-413

-133-824

-170-297

5-5

—

652-512

+ 244-692

-220-925

-169-879

6-0

-1210-29

+403-429

—350-786

-127-607

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

293

M (a . — ij . x) — cont.

a=l

a=2

a=3

a = 4

1-00000

0-1

0-94952

0-91827

0-90949

0-92664

0-2

0-94442

0-99435

118116

1-54013

0-3

1-00829

1-33149

2-09682

3-45449

0-4

1-17104

2-06705

4-04848

7-56042

0-5

1-47023

3-38091

7-66984

15-1149

0-6

1-95259

5-50562

13-3751

27-8644

0-7

2-67585

8-73855

22-4068

48-1374

0-8

3-71082

13-4565

36-8942

79-1224

0-9

5-14396

20-1334

55-4251

124-990

7-08021

29-3609

83-0327

191-218

1-2

12-9954

68-5782

174-495

415-268

1-4

22-8102

109-270

337-063

836-049

1-6

38-4595

193-643

620-130

1590-59

1-8

62-6768

329-687

1093-67

2895-86

99-2874

543-580

1864-67

5089-43

2-2

153-599

873-015

3092-31

8688-94

2-4

232-924

1371-75

5010-81

14478-0

2-6

347-273

2115-87

7961-53

23630-0

2-8

610-269

3212-19

12437-6

37884-3

740-361

4809-85

19146-2

59797-0

3-5

1793-93

125550

63358-3

176815

4-0

4129-32

30967-4

139869

489713

4-5

9138-73

73107-3

349644

+ 1288514

+ 19607-3

+ 166660

840661

+ 3252722

5-5

+41024-5

+369218

+ 1968906

+ 7934763

294

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC

M (a . — § . x) — cont.

a= -1

a= -2

a= -3

"- 1

0-0

+ 1-00000

1-00000

0-1

+ 1-06667

+ 1-14667

1-23733

1-33618

0-2

+ 113333

+ 1-32000

1-53867

1-77084

0-3

+ 1-20000

+ 1-52000

1-88800

2-24640

0-4

+ 1-26667

+ 1-74667

2-26933

2-70951

0-5

+ 1-33333

+ 2-00000

-f

2-66667

3-11111

0-6

+ 1-40000

+ 2-28000

3-06400

3-40640

0-7

+ 1-46667

+ 2-58667

3-44533

3-55484

0-8

+ 1-53333

+ 2-92000

3-79467

3-52018

0-9

+ 1-60000

+ 3-28000

4-09600

3-27040

1-0

+ 1-66667

+ 3-66667

4-33333

2-77778

1-2

+ 1-80000

+ 4-52000

4-55200

0-97440

1-4

+ 1-93333

+ 5-48000

4-32267

—

2-02649

1-6

+ 2-06667

+ 6-54667

3-51733

—

6-29316

1-8

+ 2-20000

+ 7-72000

2-00800

—

11-8256

2-0

+2-33333

+ 9-00000

—

0-33333

—

18-5556

2-2

+2-46667

+ 10-3867

—

3-63467

—

26-3465

2-4

+2-60000

+ 11-8800

—

8-02400

—

34-9936

2-6

+ 2-73333

+ 13-4800

—

13-6293

—

44-2238

2-8

+2-86667

+ 15-1867

—

20-5787

—

53-6958

+ 3-00000

+ 17-0000

—

29-0000

—

63-0000

3-5

+ 3-33333

+ 22-0000

—

57-3333

—

82-2222

4-0

+3-66667

+ 27-6667

—

97-6667

—

87-8889

4-5

+4-00000

+ 34-0000

—

152-000

—

68-0000

5-0

+ 4-33333

+41-0000

—

222-333

7-88889

5-5

+4-66667

+48-6667

—

310-667

109-778

6-0

+5-00000

+57-0000

—

419-000

305-000

6-5

+ 5-33333

+ 66-0000

549-333 '

600-444

7-0

+5-66667

+ 75-6667

703-667

+ 1021-44

7-5

+6-00000

+86-0000

884-000

1 +1596-00

8-0

+ 6-33333

+97-0000

•~~*

1092-33

+2354-78

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

295

Hyperbolic Sines and Cosines, Sinh x and Cosh x.

The exponential and other functions were calculated by Bretschneider* to twenty
places of decimals for the first ten integer values of x. Tables of the first hundred
multiples of e°'' and e~°'' were constructed to the same number of places to find inter-
mediate values of both e' and e~^ : the results were checked by comparing the values
of, say, e"-' obtained from e'-° and e^-". The calculations were carried to eighteen or
more decimals : fifteen places are given in the following tables of sinh x and cosh x.

Sinh X

0-1

0-10016

67500

19844

5-1

82-00790

52766

68114

0-2

0-20133

60025

41094

5-2

90-63336

26553

65209

0-3

0-30452

02934

47143

5-3

100-16590

91904

42387

0-4

0-41075

23258

02816

5-4

110-70094

98116

22237

0-5

0-52109

53054

93747

5-5

122-34392

27463

90962

0-6

0-63665

35821

48241

5-6

135-21135

47812

18073

0-7

0-75858

37018

39534

5-7

149-43202

75008

01381

0-8

0-88810

59821

87623

5-8

165-14826

61774

61639

0-9

1-02651

67257

08175

5-9

182-61736

42102

55004

1-0

M7520

11936

43801

6-0

201-71315

73702

79228

1-33564

74701

24177

222-92776

36073

98723

1-2

1-50946

13554

12173

6-2

246-37350

58313

09979

1-3

1-69838

24372

92616

6-3

272-28503

69105

76002

1-4

1-90430

15014

51534

6-4

300-92168

81574

04441

1-5

2-12927

94550

94817

6-5

332-57006

48025

84432

1-6

2-37556

79532

00230

6-6

367-54691

44369

67674

1-7

2-64563

19338

37233

6-7

406-20229

71278

20220

1-8

2-94217

42880

95680

6-8

448-92308

89376

34926

1-9

3-26816

29115

28317

6-9

496-13685

39097

98414

3-62686

04078

47019

7-0

548-31612

32732

46522

4-02185

67421

57334

7-1

605-98312

46938

26728

2-2

4-45710

61705

35894

7-2

669-71500

89043

04727

2-3

4-93696

18055

45969

7-3

740-14962

60228

86014

2-4

5-46622

92136

76095

7-4

817-99190

93715

82705

2-5

6-05020

44810

39787

7-5

904-02093

06858

46630

2-6

6-69473

22283

93678

7-6

999-09769

73263

42259

2-7

7-40626

31060

66542

7-7

1104-17376

95300

12819

2-8

8-19191

83542

35916

7-8

1220-30078

39447

60049

2-9

9-05956

10746

93327

7-9

1348-64097

87624

84194

10-01787

49274

09902

8-0

1490-47882

57895

50186

3-1

11-07645

10395

24038

8-1

1647-23388

58723

51627

3-2

12-24588

39965

65491

8-2

1820-47501

63393

92375

3-3

13-53787

78766

28324

8-3

2011-93607

26527

41367

3-4

14-96536

33887

18344

8-4

2223-53326

14162

65953

3-5

16-54262

72876

34998

8-5

2457-38431

84153

82682

3-6

18-28545

53606

15348

8-6

2715-82970

36285

93327

3-7

20-21129

04167

98526

8-7

3001-45602

63376

05496

3-8

22-33940

68607

22329

8-8

3317-12192

77724

05032

3-9

24-69110

35970

42185

8-9

3665-98670

13835

33212

4-0

27-28991

71971

27762

! 90

4051-54190

20827

89961

30-16185

74609

80104

' 91

4477-64629

59083

51610

4-2

33-33566

77320

52332

9-2

4948-56447

88522

57025

4-3

36-84311

25702

91798

9-3

5469-00955

83704

76138

4-4

40-71929

56625

32525

9-4

6044-19032

37464

59420

4-5

46-00301

11519

91786

9-5

6679-86337

74050

21194

4-6

49-73713

19030

94588

1 9-6

7382-39074

89242

68062

4-7

54-96903

85875

10902

9-7

8168-80356

83659

68590

4-8

60-75109

38858

42930

9-8

9016-87243

61884

55907

4-9

67-14116

65509

32280

1 9-9

9965-18519

40278

03717

5-0

74-20321

05777

88759

100

11013-23287

47033

93377

* C. A. Bretschneider. Archiv der Math. v. Phya., Band 3, 1843, s. 28-34.

296

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Cosh X

1-00500

41680

55804

5-1

82-01400

20232

33630

0-2

1-02006

67556

19076

5-2

90-63887

92197

85970

0-3

1-04533

85141

28860

5-3

100-17090

07843

49298

0-4

1-08107

23718

38455

5-4

110-70546

63925

64850

0-5

1-12762

59652

06381

5-5

122-34800

95178

29426

0-6

1-18546

52182

42268

5-6

135-21505

26449

34556

0-7

1-25516

90056

30943

5-7

149-43537

34662

58852

0-8

1-33743

49463

04845

5-8

165-15129

37321

97015

0-9

1-43308

63854

48774

5-9

182-52010

36550

73773

1-54308

06348

15244

6-0

201-71563

61224

55894

1-66851

85538

22256

6-1

222-93000

64751

18209

1-2

1-81065

55673

24375

6-2

246-37553

52619

46275

1-3

1-97091

42303

26628

6-3

272-28687

32153

53031

1-4

2-15089

84653

93141

6-4

300-92334

97146

77615

1-5

2-35240

96152

43247

6-5

332-57156

82417

77409

1-6

2-57746

44711

94885

6-6

367-54827

48050

05221

1-7

2-82831

54578

89967

6-7

406-20352

80397

22893

1-8

3-10747

31763

17266

6-8

448-92420

27127

82771

1-9

3-41773

15307

50952

6-9

496-13786

16952

27463

2-0

3-76219

56910

83631

548-31703

51552

12077

4-14431

31704

10316

605-98394

97987

49994

2-2

4-56790

83288

98227

1 ■^•^

669-71575

54901

13103

2-3

503722

06492

68762

7-3

740- 15030

15616

60208

2-4

5-55694

71669

65507

7-4

817-99252

06243

43835

2-5

6-13228

94796

63686

7-5

904-02148

37702

16677

2-6

6-76900

58066

08012

] 7-6

999-09819

77777

75700

2-7

7-47346

86188

06292

7-7

1104-17422

23571

95705

2-8

8-25272

84168

61134

7-8

1220-30119

36797

39029

2-9

9-11458

42947

49734

; 7-9

1348-64134

95060

24653

1006766

19957

77766

8-0

1490-47916

12521

78089

11-12150

02419

17596

1647-23418

94114

89706

3-2

12-28664

62005

43857

8-2

1820-47529

09929

62347

3-3

13-57476

10440

29564

8-3

2011-93632

11695

68475

3-4

14-99873

66586

78670

; 8-^

2223-63348

62835

90132

3-5

16-57282

46710

57316

1 8-5

2457-38452

18837

51693

3-6

18-31277

90830

62640

8-6

2715-82988

77343

86995

3-7

20-23601

39432

68865

8-7

3001-45619

19234

16484

3-8

22-36177

76325

78494

8-8

3317-12207

85054

80127

3-9

24-71134

55084

87989

8-9

3665-98683

77724

59694

27-30823

28360

16487

9-0

4051-54202

54925

94047

30-17843

01363

81865

9-1

4477-64640

75741

60100

4-2

33-35066

33088

72810

9-2

4948-56457

98916

58862

4-3

36-85668

11293

03999

9-3

5469-00964

97947

07616

4-4

40-73157

30024

35593

1 9-4

604419040

64705

24977

4-5

45-01412

01485

30028

' 9-5

6679-86345

22568

51082

4-6

49-74718

37388

39221

9-6

7382-39081

66530

04553

4-7

54-97813

38646

12597

9-7

8158-80362

96494

63643

4-8

60-75932

36328

91950

9-8

9016-87249

16400

55339

4-9

67-14861

31340

03205

9-9

9965-18524

42024

85773

74-20994

85247

87844

10-0

11013-23292

01033

23140

ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES.

297

Corrections of Logarithmic and Other Tables.

Tables of Logarithms to 27 decimals : Fedor Thoman. Paris, 1867.

Pages 42, 51 and 52.
log ^ = 2-346787 486224 656320 623683 088
log 45 = 1-653212 513775 343679 376316 912
log 551 = 73-103680 711122 772280 05

Tables of Logarithms of Factorials : Degen. Copenhagen, 1824.
log 137!= 234-700088 066363 221083 500006

log 185! =

340-615162

028791

001231

20.5096

log 268 ! =

535-962496

022591

207008

492058

log 345! =

727-384095

927392

776589

468706

log 393! =

850-614919

208496

417262

475578

log 397! =

861-003498

218637

078989

486725

Tables of Bessel Functions — Meissel, reprinted in the Treatise on Bessel
Functions, Gray and Mathews, first and second editions.
Jo (0-62) =+0-906184
Jo (1-89) = + 0-287631
Jo (3-07)=— 0-282862
Jo (5-90)= +0-122033
Ji (7-87)= +0-214074

Meissel's Tables of Jo{x) and Ji(a:) to twelve places of decimals were differenced
some years ago and led to the discovery of a small number of errors : the tables of
J,i(p) were checked by the various relations between the trigonometrical and the
Bessel functions.

297124

J^ (5) =+0-391232

360458

648178

264839

J23(6) =+0-

495677

262230

J,o(14) = +0-

16775

399534

354593

Jhi(16)=+0-

152594

322163

933156

298 REPOETS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Photographs of Geological Interest,— Tiventy-second Report of
Committee (Professors tu. J. Garwood, Chairman ; S. H. Reynolds,
Secretary; Mr. G. Bingley, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. A. S. Reid,
Professor W. W. Watts, and Mr. R. Welch).

Since the publication of the previous report (Liverpool, 1923), the Committee has
sufEered severe loss in the death of several of its oldest members, Dr. T. G. Bonney,
Dr. R. Kidston, Sir J. J. H. Teall, and Mr. W. Whitaker.

Since the issue of the previous report the Committee has had presented to it by
Mr. F. W. Reader the great collection of geological negatives made by his brother the
late Mr. T. W. Reader. These photographs were mainly taken on the excursions of the
Geologists' Association, which Mr. T. W. Reader regularly attended for many years.
They form an unique series, and are particularly important in the illustrations they
afiord of the geology of the Home Counties, which have hitherto not been well repre-
sented in the coUoction. A large proportion of the negatives were accompanied by
one or more prints. Time has not yet allowed the whole to be thoroughly dealt with,
but 611 prints from the Reader collection are listed in the present report.

The Committee wish to repeat their very hearty thanks to Mr. F. W. Reader for
his most valuable and important gift.

The task of getting the Reader photographs described, prior to listing, was a very
heavy one, and could not have been accomplished had not the Secretary received
unstinted help from many geologists, including the leaders of the excursions on which
many of the photographs were taken. The Committee are particularly indebted to
Miss M. S. Johnston, who most kindly transcribed on to some hundreds of prints the
information entered in Mr. Reader's own albums, which are now in her possession.

Hearty thanks are tendered to the following for help in the description of the Reader
photographs — Mr. G. Barrow, Dr. B. Pope Bartlett, Mr. C. J. Bayzand, Dr. H. H.
Bemrose, Dr. F. W. Bennett, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. S. S. Buckman, Mr. E. St.
J. Burton, Mr. H. Bury, Miss M. E. J. Chandler, Mr. R. H. Chandler, Mr. E. S. Cobbold,
Prof. A. H. Cox, Prof. A. Morley Davies, Mr. E. H. Davison, Mr. G. E. Dibloy, Mr. E.
E. L. Dixon, Mr. E. W. Handcock, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Mr. R. S. Herries, the Rev.
E. Hill, Mr. J. W. Jackson, Prof. P. F. Kendall, Mr. W. B. R. King, Dr. W. D. Lang,
Mr. A. L. Leach, Mr. H. W. Monckton, Dr. G. M. Part, Mr. R. W. Pocock, Mr. S.
Priest, Mr. L. Richardson, Mr. H. C. Sargent, Mr. C. Davies Sherborn, Dr. R. L.
Sherlock, Mr. LI. Treacher, Mr. J. W. Tutcher, Mr. G. W. Young.

The Committee particularly wish to thank Dr. W. D. Lang for the very large
amount of trouble he has taken in minutely describing, with the aid of lettered sketches,
the photographs illustrating the Dorsetshire Lias. There is nothing in the Committee's
collection to vie with these in artistic completeness.

The total number of photographs listed in the present report is 869.

In most years the collection received from the Isle of Wight would be the most
important of the year. It forms a set of eighty, all photographed and described
by Mr. J. F. Jackson, F.G.S., and was presented in part by Mr. F. Morey and m part
after his lamented death by his sister Miss C. Morey.

The Committee are glad to welcome new contributors in Mr. A. W. Coysh, Mr.
C. S. Garnett, and Mr. G. G. Lewis.

Mr. Tutcher sends a further series of his excellent photographs illustrating the Lias
of Somerset, Mr. E. H. Davison a valuable series from Cornwall, and Mr. P. B.
Roberts an interesting set from Wicklow. Mr. A. L. Leach and the Secretary contribute
photographs from Norfolk. The Committee has acquired, by purchase, some of Mr.
J. H. Savory's remarkable flashlight photographs of the Mendip caves and some of
Mr. Amos's views of the Dover cliffs. Prof. Cox sends copies of photographs illustrating
his papers on the geology of Cader Idris, and the Abereiddj' and Abercastle districts
of Pembrokeshire. These were taken by Mr. N. G. Blackwell.

The negatives of the published series of geological photographs which had been
missing since before the war have fortunately been recovered, and prints and lantern
shdes are obtainable through the Secretary at the following rates : — -

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

29»

1st issue — 22 Bromide Prints, with letterpress, unmounted

„ 22 Lantern Slides

2nd issue — 25 Bromide Prints

» 2o ,,

„ 25 Lantern Slides

3rd issue — 23 Bromide Prints

>> ^^ >>

„ 23 Lantern Slides

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed

mounted on cards

unmounted
mounted on cards

«.

c/.

TWENTY-SECOND LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS.

From September 1, 1923, to May 31, 1926.

List of the geological photographs received and registered by the Secretary of
the Committee since the pubKcation of the last report.

Contributors are asked to afiBx the registered numbers, as given below, to their
negatives, for convenience of future reference. Their own numbers are added in
order to enable them to do so. Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances,
be obtained from the photographer direct. The cost at which copies may be obtained
depends on the size of the print and on local circumstances over which the Committee
have no control.

The Committee do not assume the copjTight of any photograph included in
this list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications for permission to repro-
duce them, should be addressed to the photographers direct.
Copies of photographs should be sent, unmounted, to

Professor S. H. Reyijolds,

The University, Bristol,
accompanied by descriptions written on a form prepared for the purpose, copies,
of which may be obtamed from him.

The size of the photographs is indicated as follows : —

L=Lantern size. l/l=WhoIe plate.

1/4= Quarter- plate. 10/8=10 inches by 8.

l/2=HaL*-nlate. 12/10=12 mches by 10, &c.

E signifies Enlargement.

ACCESSIONS.
England.

Berkshire. — Photographed by the late T. W. Reader a7id presented by

F. W. Reader. 1/4.

Knowl HiU, between Maidenhead

and Twyford
Knowl HiU, between Maidenhead

6311

6312

6313

6314
6315
6316

and Twyford
Knowl HiU, between Maidenhead

and Twyford
Warren Row, near Wargrave
Warren Row, near Wargrave
Uffington . . . .

Clay pit m Reading beds. 1911.
Brickfield in Reading beds. 1911.
Sun-cracked clay (Reading beds). 1911.

6317 Ufl&ngton ....

6318 Faringdon

6319 Faringdon

6320 Little CoxweU, Faringdon .

6321 ( ) Little Coxwell, Faringdon

Reading beds resting on chalk. 1911.

Gault section in briek3'ard S. of station.
1913.

Gault section in brickyard S. of station -
1913.

L. Greensaud, Farmgdon Pit. 1913.

L. Greensand, Faringdon Pit. 1913.

L. Greensand fossils in reUef, WmdmiU
Pit. 1913.

Hard band in L. Greensand sponge-
gravel, WindmiU Pit. 1913.

300

6322
6323
6324
6325

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

Little Coxwell, Faringdon
Little Coxwell, Faringdon
Little Coxwell, Faringdon
Little Coxwell, Faringdon

Sponge gravel, L. Greensand. 1913.

Buckinghamshire.

-Photographed by the late T. W.
sented by F. W. Reader. 1/4.

Reader and pre-

6326

6327

6328

6329
6330
6331
6332

(1) Whiteleaf Hill, near Princes Escarpment of ChUtern Hills. 1912.

Risboro
(3) Whiteleaf Hill, near Princes

Risboro

(5) Near Longdown Farm, Princes
Risboro

(6) Chequers Park

(7) Combe Hill, near Wendover .
Penn Lands brickfield, Hedgerley
Saunders' brickfield, Hedgerley .

Pipe in Chalk filled with clay with flints.

1912.
Beech-trees on clay with flints. 1912.

Combe in Chalk. 1912.
Chalk escarpment. 1912.
Section of Reading beds. 1910.
Implement-bearing gravel overlying
London clay. 1910.

CaMBRIDC4ESHIRE.-

6333 (4) LTpware.

6334 (5) Upware.

6335 (6) Upware.

-Photographed by the late T. W. Reader and presented
by F. W. Reader. 1/4.

S. pit . . . Coralline Oolite.

N. end of S. pit . ' Rag ' beds formed of Thamnastrcea.

Cornwall. — Photographed by the late T.

F. W. Reader.

W. Reader and presented by
1/4.

6336 (6) Land's End .

6337 (5) Land's End .

6338 (4) Land's End .

6339 (1) Land's End .

6340 (2) Land's End .

6341 (3) Land's End and Longships

6342 W. of Clodgy Point .

6343 Zennor ....

6344 Zennor ....

6345 Zennor ....

6346 Luxulyan Valley

6347 Kynance Cove .

6348 Lizard Point from above Housel

Bay

6349 Porth, 1 m. E. of Newquay

Granite cliffs and' stacks.

Well-jointed granite cliSs, joints nearly

vertical.
Well- jointed granite cliffs.
Granite cliffs showing jointing.
Granite cliffs.
Granite cliffs and stacks.
Slate cliffs and stacks and Pliocene

peneplain.
Sea caves in granite cliffs.
Granite cliffs, principal joints inclined at

angle of about 40°.
Granite cliffs, principal joints inclined at

angle of about 35°.
Granite logau stone.
Serpentine cliffs.
Hornblende gneiss cliffs and inlet due to

collapsed sea cave.
Inlet in Devonian slate.

Photographed by E. H. Davison, B.Sc, School of Mines, Camborne.

21 X 31

6350 Tvethosa, St. Stephen's

6351 St. Stephen's .

6352 Tremorebridge, near Lanivet

Sluicing in china-clay pit.

Tvethosa china-clay pit.

Granite porphyry dyke in calc-flmta.

Photographed under the direction of E. H. Davison, B.Sc, School of
Mines, Camborne. Post-card and 1/4.

6353 St. Michael's Mount . . . The island is half slate, half granite.

1922. P.C.

6354 St. Michael's Mount . . . Greisen veins in granite. P.C

ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST.

301

6355 Foreshore, S. side St. Michael's

Mount

6356 Gwithian, cliffs opposite Godrevy

Lighthouse

6357 Gwithian, cliffs opposite Godrevy

Lighthouse

6358 Cliffs at Godrevy, near Gwithian .

6359 North Cliffs, Camborne

6360 Mullion Is., Lizard

6361 Ballswidden, St. Just-in-Pendcen .

6362 Tregargas Qu., St. Stephen's

6363 St. Erth sandpit

6364 Cam Brea, Redruth .

6365 Cam Brea, Redruth .

Greisen bands in granite. 1/4.

Undercutting by the sea. 1922. P.C.

Disturbed lower Palaeozoic slates and grits.

1922. P.C.
Mylor slates folded and overthrust. P.C.
Pliocene platform above slate cliffs.

1922. P.C.

Veryan rocks with spilite and radiolarian

chert. 1922. P.C.
Development of china-clay pit. 1/4.
Quarry in china stone. 1922. P.C.
Pliocene sands and clays. 1922. P.C.
Granite tor, showing aplite veins. 1/4.
Hollows in granite due to rain and wind.

1923. pre.

Derbyshire. — Photographed by the late T. W. Reader and ■presented by

F. W. Reader. 1/4.

6366

6367

6368

6369

6370

6371
6372

6373

6374

6375

6376

6377

6378
6379
6380
6381
6382
6383
6384
6385
6386

6387
6388

6389
6390

6391

6392

l)TideswellDale

4) Knott Low, Miller's Dale

5) Knott Low, Miller's Dale

6) Knott Low, Miller's Dale

7) Knott Low, Miller's Dale

8) Calton Hill, near Miller's Dale

9) Calton Hill, near MiUer's Dale

10) Calton Hill, near Miller'sDale

11) Shothouse spring between
Winster and Grange Mill

12) N. of Grange MOl

13) Via Gellia, Matlock Bath

14) Via Gellia, Matlock Bath

15) Via Gellia, Matlock Bath

16) Via Gellia, Matlock Bath

18) Ible Quarry, off Via GeUia .

19) Ible Quarry, off Via GeUia .
22) Ible Quarr'y, off Via Gellia .

24) Bonsall, near Matlock Bath .

25) Bonsall, near Matlock Bath .

26) Bonsall, near Matlock Bath .

27) Bonsall Qu., near Matlock
Bath

28) Pig of Lead Quarry, Via Gellia
31 ) Pig of Lead Quarry, Via Gellia

) Pig of Lead Quarrv, Via Gellia
33) Pig of Lead Quarry, Via GeUia

35) Pig of Lead Quarry, Via Gellia

1) Cromford, Black Rocks .

Spheroidal weathering of dolerite sill.
1914.

LTpper lava, on bedded tuff on Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1914.

Upper lava, on bedded tuff on Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1914.

LTpper lava, on bedded tuff on Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1914.

Upper lava, on bedded tuff on Carboni-
ferous Limestone. 1914.

Basalt quarry in vent. 1914.

Imperfect columnar structure in basalt
of vent. 1914.

Spring issues at junction between lime-
stone and underlying tuff. 1914.

Hills composed of agglomerate of vent.
1914.

Spring thrown out at top of lower lava.
1914.

Spruig thrown out at top of lower lava.
1914.

Tufa on limestone. 1914.

Dolerite sill. 1914.

Columnar dolerite siU. 1914.

Columnar dolerite sill. 1914.

Sill of columnar dolerite. 1914.

Lower lava. 1914.

Spheroidal weathering of lower lava.

1914.
Spheroidal weathering of dolerite. 1914.
Spheroidal weathering of lower lava.

1914.
Spheroidal weathering of lower lava.

1914.
Millstone Grit crag. 1914.

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.

S02

6393 (2) Cromford, Black Rocks .

6394 (3) Winster ....

6395 (i) Winster ....

6396 (23) Wyedale ....

6397 (24) Harboro' pit, Brassington

6398 (6a) Matlock Bath

6399 (7) Matlock Bath

6400 (8) Matlock Bath

6401 (9) Matlock Bath

6402 (10) Ible ....

6403 (11) Matlock Bridge .

6404 (12) Peep of Day Qu., Litton

6405 (13) Peep of Day Qu., Litton

6406 (14) Monsal Dale Station Quarry.

6407 (15) Monsal Dale Station Quarry .

6408 (16) Darley Dale

6409 (17)TideswellDale .

6410 (18) Ravenstor, Miller's Dale

6411 (5) Alport . . . .

6412 (6) Alport ....

6413 (26) River Dakin, Alport .

6414 (27) Dakin Valley, Alport .

6415 (28) Dakin Valley, Alport .

6416 ( 38 ) Ridgeway Cutting, Ambergate

6417 (30) Ridgew