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BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
OF SCIENCE 


REPORT 


OF THE 


NINETY-FIFTH MEETING 


(NINETY-SEVENTH YEAR) 


LEEDS-—1327 
AUGUST 31-SEPTEMBER 7 


LONDON 


OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 


1927 


il 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 
PRLGHES AND (COUNCIL, 1927-28/.:<).. syrle-e stevarsos elk Der. wate tele afeletederes Vv 
BPPPSMEOURRICEERS: UuWMDS) MOT o heh ysis dhs aleleus s cictereyeeoess ps oseysmesto.aatels vii 
SECTIONS AND SECTIONAL Orricers, LrEps, 1927...............-0-- vii 
AnnuaL Meetincs: PrLacrs anp DaTrsEs, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES, 
Recrrets, Sums Parp ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC 
PEEPOSUSE (Sal POAT) ccc jave.s.6 «esis cicls siete ciel seis sacs eee 5 scale ese x 
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE (1926-27) .... xiv 
GENERAL MEETINGS, PusLtic LECTURES, ETC., AT LEEDS............. XViil 
ner EE NATTA RIC OES: fo: aera, ane! oe l8Wiaiai ec. okel/oloyiebegetebers (She! aPT tone leial eupiisiar'e,s Sener’ xx 
GENERAL TREASURER’S AccouNT (1926-27) .......... Herc. oee mere oks Xxi 
PMSMARGH COMMITTERS (1927-28) .. 2. 2 cn cic cml cess eelelece ae Xxvi 
RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (LEEDS MEETING)............. XXxi 
Tue PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS : 
Darwin’s Theory of Man’s Descent as it stands to-day. By Prof. Sir 
PATHE HUD HEU. Sorts c-<,s-cctote tere ee iceletetetetete rie ine ease o's 1 


SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES : 


A.—The Outstanding Problems of Relativity. By Prof. E. T. 
POU ArTrN IVAN MH, FR Sauehs Sas cheletatah. ele boycier che ichsithakevere a elths, 1a Sisters fe 16 


B.—Co-ordination Compounds. By Dr. N. V. Srpewicx, F.R.S. .. 27 
C.—The Tertiary Plutonic Centres of Britain. By Dr. Herserr H. 


TROP AGUA IDA MASH inn rato or oreres 20 cca RRO UID aNS aT = 43 
D.—The Ancient History of Sponges and Animals. By Dr. G. P. 

STEIN) clap woe Gone OCs GREECIO OS. Jp Cw UUItho Dana aetna 6 58 
E.—Some Problems of Polar Geography. By Dr. R. N. RupMosE 

PESUROVIN fete teeacte ol aie sais aree nic' vie,‘e'e) okaitisleca/eie:eYonsis.'s\oinle¥ai rai ele.» 75 
F.—Rationalisation of Industry. By Prof. D. H. Maccrecor .. 98 


CONTENTS, 
G.—Invention as a Link in Scientific and Economic Progress. By 
Prof. Sir James B. HENDERSON ............0000-eeeeeee 120 
H.—The Englishman of the Future. By Prof. F. G. Parsons .... 138 


I.—The Development of Human Physiology. By Dr. C. G. Dovexas, 
CM GROSS. fos oc. nates oSinieteceettins tt Riana eee. eee 155 


J —Mental Unity and Mental Dissociation. By Dr. Wm11amM Brown = 167 
K.—Some Aspects of the Present-day Investigation of Protophyta. 


By Prot. Ws Sie RUTS CE so c1erais vie tolerances oe) oe iene 176 
L.—The Broadening of the Outlook in Education. By the Ducrsss 
of Ammons Babe Me Pe sa oo's+ apace cis/arenc «mittee torneo 191 


M.—Agriculture and National Education. By C. G. T. Morison .. 202 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENOB, ETC. .........e cee ce cece eeeee 215 
SECTIONAL) (MRANGACTIONS <.\ccccte cle exc icis ein 06. bra jel ale eeu lta le eye 2 Oe 314 
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES .......... 419 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 430 


TNGD ES «cscs tore Dea oe ere eee SRS: dios hs ao SeISges ore een ea 437 


et 


Hritish Association for the Adbancement 
of Science. 


OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1927-28. 


PATRON. 
HIS MAJESTY THE KING. 


PRESIDENT. 
Prof. Sir AntHur Kuriry, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENT ELECT FOR THE GLASGOW MEETING. 
Prof. Sir Witt1am H. Bragg, K.B.E., D.Se., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mayor or 
Lrrps (Alderman Huex Lupton). 

His Grace the Lorp ARCHBISHOP OF 


York (Most Rev. Cosmo G. Lane, 
P.C., G.C.V.0., D.D.). 


The CHANCELLOR OF LEEDS UNIVERSITY | 


(His Grace the Duxz or DrvonsuHireE, 
K.G., P.C., G.C.M.G., G.C.V.O.). 


The Lorp-LizuTENANT OF THE County | 


OF THE West RIDING OF YORKSHIRE 
(Rt. Hon. the Earn or Harewoop, 
G.C.V.O.). 

Viscount LasceiLes, K.G., D.S.0. 

The Lorp BisHor or Ripon (Rt. Rev. 
E. A. Burrovass, D.D.). 

The Rt. Hon. Lorp AIREDALE. 

The Pro-CHANCELLOR or LEEDS UNI- 
versity (Col. C. H. Tretiey, D.S.O., 
T.D., M.A.). 

The Vicr-CHANCELLOR OF LEEDS UNI- 
versity (J. B. Barrxts, O.B.E., M.A., 
D.Phil., LL.D.). 

The CHAIRMAN OF THE LEEDS EDUCATION 
Committe (Alderman LEsLIz OWEN). 


THE LEEDS MEETING. 

The CHAIRMAN oF THE West RipING 
Epvucation Commirter (Sir Prrcy 
Jackson, LL.D.). 

The Hon. Sir Gervast Beckett, Bart., 
yi lee 

The Hon. Rupert BECKETT. 

Col. Sir E. A. Brornerton, Bart., LL.D. 

Sir Brrketey Moyninan,  Bart., 
K.C.M.G., C.B., F.R.C.S. 

Sir CHartes Witson, LL.D., M.P. 

Sir Epwin ArreEy. 

The Vicar or Lerps (Rev.W. THompson 
Extiort, M.A.). 

The Bisnor or Lzerps (Rt. Rev. J. R. 
CowGILL). 

The PRESIDENT OF THE FREE CHURCH 
Councit (Rev G. Hunt). 

The CuizFr Rassi or Leeps (Rev. Dr. J. 
ABELSON). 

Alderman G, RATCLIFFE. 

Alderman CHARLES LUPTON. 

Alderman J. Arnott. 

Sir ALFRED F’. YaRRow, Bart., F.R.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE GLASGOW MEETING. 


The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Provost oF 
Guascow (Mr. Davin Mason, O.B.E.). 

His Grace the Duxkr or Monrrosg, | 
C.V.O., C.B. 

The Rt. Hon. the Eart or Home. 

The Rt. Hon. the Eart or Guascow, 
D.S.O. 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp BiytTuswoop, 
K.C.V.0O., D.L. 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp BELHAVEN AND 
STANTON. 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp InveRNaIRN. 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Weir, LL.D. 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mactay, LL.D. | 


The Rt. Hon. Sir Jonn Giimovr, Bart., 
D.S.0O., M.P. 

Sir Donatp MacauistsEr, Bart., K.C.B., 
LL.D., D.L. 

Sir Jonn MaxweE.t Strea~inc-MaxweELL, 
Bart., D.L., LL.D. 

Sir James BE tt, Bart., C.B., D.L., LL.D. 

Sir D. M. Stevenson, Bart., D.L., LL.D. 

Sir Arcuipatp McInnes SHaw, C.B., 
D.L., LL.D. 

Sir MartrHew W. Montcomery, D.L., 
LL.D. 


| Prof. F. O. Bowmr, LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 


vi OFFICERS AND COUNCIL. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
E. H. Grirritus, Sc.D., D.Se., LL.D., F.R.S. 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 
Prof. J. L. Myrss, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.S.A., | F. E. Surru, C.B., C.B.E., D.Sc., F.B.S. 
F.B.A. 


SECRETARY. 
O. J. R. Howarrtn, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


Prof. J. H. Asoworta, F.R.S. Sir T. Hotuanp, K.C.S.L., F.R.S. 
Rt. Hon. Lorp BuepIstoz, K.B.E. Col. Sir H. G. Lyons, F.R.S. 
Prof. A. L. Bowery. Dr. C. S. Myzrs, F.R.S. 

Prof. E. G. Coxsr, F.R.S. Prof. T. P. Nunn. 

Prof. W. Dausy, F.R.S. Prof. A. O. RANKINE. 

Dr. H. H. Dart, Sec. R.S. C. Tate Recan, F.R.S. 

E. N. FAuualze. | Prof. A. C. Sewarb, F.R.S. 

Sir J. S. Fier, K.B.E., F.B.S. Dr. F. C. SHRUBSALL. 

Sir Henry Fowter, K.B.E. | Dr. N. V. Srpeawick, F.R.S. 

Sir R. A. GreGorY. Dr. G. C. Sureson, C.B., F.R.S. 
C. T. Heycock, F.R.S. | Prof. A. SMITHELLS, C. M. G., F.R.S. 
Prof. J. P. Hit, F.R.S. ' | Prof. T. B. Woop, C.B.E., F.R.S. 


A. R. Hryks, C.B.E., F.R.S. 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 

The Trustees, past Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the 
President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present 
General Treasurers and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and 
the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries for the Annual Meetings immediately 
past and ensuing. 

TRUSTEES (PERMANENT). 
ase ok s A. MacManon, D.Sc., LL.D., | Sir ARtHuR Evans, M.A., LL.D., F.B.S., 


F.S.A 
cae Sir Coarztes A. Parsons, O.M., K.C. B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.B.S. 


PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 
Rt. Hon. the Esrt or Batrour, O.M.,' Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, O.M., K.C.B., 


F.R.S. | ERS. 
Sir E. Ray Lanxgester, K.C.B., F.R.S. | Prof. Sir C. S. SHereineton, O.M., 
Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., F.R.S. | G.B.E., F.R.S. 
Sir E. Saarpny-Scaaremr, F.R.S. | Sir Ernest Ruruerrorp, O.M., Pres. B.S. 
Sir Ottver Lopes, F.R.S. | Major-Gen. Sir Davin Bruce, K.C.B., 
Sir ARTHUR ScHusTER, F.R.S. F.R.S. 
Sir ArtHour Evans, F.R.S. | Prof. Horace Lampe, F.R.S. 


H.R.H. The Prince or Watss, K.G., D.C.L., F.R.S. 


PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


Sir E. Saarprey-ScHarer, F.R.S. Major P. A. MacManon, F.R.S. 
Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S. Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. 
Dr. J. G. Garson. 


HON. AUDITORS. 
Prof. A. BowLey. | Prof. A. W. KirKaLpy. 


Vil 


LOCAL OFFICERS 
FOR THE LEEDS MEETING. 


LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES. 
James Granam, Ph.D., Director of Education | Prof. A. Gmtiean, D.Sc. 


LOCAL HON. TREASURER. 
James MitcHeE.LL, City Treasurer. 


ASSISTANT LOCAL HON. SECRETARY. 
J. D. Grirrita Daviess, M.A. 


EDITOR, GENERAL HANDBOOK. 
C. B. Fawcett, B.Litt., D.Sc. 


EDITOR, EXCURSIONS HANDBOOK. 
H. E. Wroot. 


SECTIONAL OFFICERS. 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 
President.—Prof. KE. T. Wurrraker, F.R.S. 
Vice-Presidents.—Dr. J. R. Arrsy ; Prof. 8. BropretsKy ; Prof. A. F owLrr, F.R.S. 
Prof. W. P. Mizne; Prof. R. Wuippineton, F.R.S. 
Recorder.—Prof. A. M. TYNDALL. 
Secretaries.—Capt. F, ENtwistLe; Prof. E. H. Nevirte; W. M. H. Greaves. 
Local Secretary.—J. Ewes. 
B.—CHEMISTRY. 
President.—Dr. N. V. Stpa@wick, F.R.S. 
Vice-Presidents—Dr. S. H. C. Briaas; Prof. J. B. Conen, F.R.S.; Prof. R. W. 
Waytriaw Gray; Prof. J. F. Taores, C.B.E., F.R.S. 
Recorder.—Prof. C. S. Grsson. 
Secretary.—Dr. E. K. RipEAu. 
Local Secretary.—H. 8. Parterson. 


C.—GEOLOGY. 

President.—Dr. Hersert H. THomas, F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Sir T. W. Epa@rwortn Davin, K.B.E., C.M.G., F.R.S.; Prof. 
A. GittigAN; E. HawkrswortH; Prof. P. F. Kenpatr, F.R.S.; Sir F. G. 
Oaitviz, C.B.; W. Parsons; Prof. 8S. H. Reynoxps. 

Recorder.—Prof. W. T. Gorpon. 

Secretaries.—I. S. Douste; Dr. A. K. WELLS. 

Local Secretary.—H. C. Vursry. 


D.—ZOOLOGY., 
President.—-Dr. G. P. BrppEr. 
Vice-Presidents.—H. CrowtHer; Prof. W. Garstana; Prof. J. Granam Kerr, 
F.R.S.; J. W. Taytor. 
Recorder.—Prof. F. BALrour Brownr. 
Secretary.—Dr. G. Lestin Purser. 
Local Secretary.—E. PErctvat. 


at OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1927. 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


President.— Dr. R. N. RupMose Brown. 

Vice-Presidents.—Lt.-Col. E. Krrson Cuark ; Dr. VAUGHAN CornisH; F, DEBENHAM ; 
Dr. C. B. Fawcert; J. McFartane; Dr. Marion Newsicrx; Rt. Hon. W. 
OrmsBy-Gore, P.C., M.P. 

Recorder.—W. H. BarKer. 

Secretary.-R. H. Kinvic. 

Local Secretary.—A. V. WILLIAMSON. 


F.—ECONOMICS. 


President.—Prof. D. H. Macarecor. 

Vice-Presidents——Hon. Rupert Beckett; Grorrrey Evxts; Prof. T. E. Grecory ; 
Prof. J. Harry Jones; Sir Josrad Sramp, G.B.E. 

Recorder.—R. B. FORRESTER. 

Secretaries.—_K. G. Fmngeton; A. RADFORD. 

Local Secretary.—C. V. Dawe. 


G.—ENGINEERING. 

President.—Prof. Sir J. B. HENDERSON. 

Vice-Presidents—J. H. Barker; T. F. Bratme; ALEXANDER CAMPBELL; Prof. 
W. T. Davin; Sir W. Extis, G.B.E.; Alderman Hueu Lupron ; Sir J. SNELL, 
G.B.E.; Major F. L. Watson. 

Recorder.—Prof. F. C. Lia. 

Secretaries.—Prof. G. Cook; J. S. WILson. 

Local Secretary.—Huexu R. Lupron. 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


President.—Prof. F. G. Parsons. 

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. J. Frrure; Prof. J. K. Jamtrson; H. B. McoCatr; 
Dr. D. Ranpatt McIver. 

Recorder.—K. N. FALLatze. 

Secretaries—L. H. DupLtry Buxton; Miss R. M. Fremrina. 

Local Secretary.—Prof. H. A. ORMEROD. 


I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


President.—Dr. C. G. Doveras, C.M.G., F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. J. S. Hanpane, F.R.S.; Prof. J. B. Luarnes, F.R.S.; Prof. 
H. §. Rapsrr,.C.B.E.; Prof. H. E. Roar. 

Recorder.—Dr. M. H. MacKerru. 

Secretary.—Prof. B. A. McSwiney. 

Local Secretary.—A. WorMma.t. 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


President.—Dr. W. Brown. 

Vice-Presidents.—F. C. BartLett; Dr. J. Drever; Dr. Lt. WyNN Jones; Miss 
L. A. LowE; Dr. C. 8S. Myers, F.R.S.; Prof. T. H. Pear; Dr. W. H. Maxwety 
TELLING ; Prof. GopFREY THOMSON. 

Recorder.—Dr. SHEPHERD Dawson. 

Secretaries —R. J. BARTLETT; Dr. May Co.utns. 

Local Secretary. A. J. Monawan. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1927. - 


K.—BOTANY. 

President.—Prof. F. E. Frirsca. 

Vice-Presidents—Prof. V. H. Buacxman, F.R.S.; Prof. F. O. Bowsr, F.R.S.; Dr. 
T, F. Carer; Sir Perer Cirurrersuck, C.1.E., C.B.E. (Sub-section of Forestry) ; 
Prof. J. H. Prrestuny; Dr. H. W. T. Wacer, F.R.S. 

Recorder.—Prof. J. McLean THOMPSON. 

Secretaries.—Prof. W. Rozinson; Prof. A. W. BortHwick (Sub-section of Forestry). 

Local Secretary.—Miss L. I. Scorr. 


L.—EDUCATION. 
President.—The Ducusss or Atuor, D.B.E., M.P. 
Vice-Presidents—Miss A. Fumminc; Dr. J. Granam; J. H. Hatiam; Prof. J. 
Srrone, C.B.E. 
Recorder.—G. D. DUNKERLEY. 
_Secretaries.—H. M. Icery; E. R. THomas. 
Local Secretary.—Miss E. M. BuackBuRN. 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 
President.—C. G. T. Mortson. 
Vice-Presidents—Dr. C. Crowtapr; Major J. W. Dent; Major Fawkes; Sir 
Dantet Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S.; Prof. R. 8. SeToN. 
Recorder.—Dr. G. Scort ROBERTSON. 
Secretary.—Dr. B. A. KEEN. 
Local Secretary.W. A. MILLARD. 


Hon. Secretary for Exhibit of Scientific Instruments, &c.—H. 8. PATTERSON. 


| 1851, July 2... 


ANNUAL MEETINGS. 


Date of Meeting 


‘1831, Sept. 27. 
1832, June 19 
1833, June 25, 
1834, Sept. 8 

1835, Aug. 10 
1836, Aug. 22 
1837, Sept. 11 
1838, Aug. 10 
1839, Aug. 26 
1840, Sept. 17 
1841, July 20 ...... 
1842, June 23, 
1843, Aug. 17. 
1844, Sept. 26 
1845, June 19 
1846, Sept. 10 
1847, June 23 
1848, Aug. 9 

1849, Sept. 12 
1850, July 21 , 


1852, Sept.1 . 
1853, Sept. 3 

1854, Sept. 20 
1855, Sept. 12 
1856, Aug. 6 

1857, Aug. 26 ...... 
1858, Sept. 22 
1859, Sept. 14 
1860, June 27 ...... 
1861,Sept.4 . 
1862, Oct. 1 
1863, Aug. 
1864, Sept. 
1865, Sept. 
1866, Aug. 
1867, Sept. 
1868, Aug. 
1869, Aug. 
1870, Sept. 
1871, Aug. 
1872, Aug. 
1873, Sept. 
1874, Aug. 
1875, Aug. 
1876, Sept. 
1877, Aug. 
1875, Aug. 
1879, Aug. 
1880, Aug. 
1881, Aug. 
1882, Aug. 
1883, Sept. 
1884, Aug. 
1885, Sept. 
1886, Sept. 
1887, Aug. 
1888, Sept. 
1889, Sept. 
1890, Sept. 
1891, Aug. 
1892, Aug. 
1893, Sept. 
1894, Aug. 
1895, Sept. 
1895, Sept. 
1897, Aug. 
1898, Sept. 
1899, Sept. 


26... 
ee 


TABLE OF 


* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. 


~ Old Life New Life 

Where held Presidents Metinara’ etc boRs 
Wiel o resceaucdbscuccssn’ Viscount Milton, D. 0. ie 1 eS ey _ — 
Oxford ..... ..| The Rey. W. Buckland, F RAS ere = | — 
.| Cambridge ..| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, E.R.S. . — _ 
Edinburgh ..| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S. ... — — 
| Dublin ..... .| The Rey. Provost Lloyd, LL.D., F.R.S. _ — 
Bristol ... .| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.... — = 
Liverpool ............... | The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... — = 
Newcastle-on-Tyne...| The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S,, — ) — 
Birmingham ......... The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R. S| — | —_— 
Glasgow........ .| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S. _ _ 
Plymouth .. ..| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S. ......... 169 / 65 
..| Manchester .| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S. ... 303 | 169 
«| Corky 2. .., The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .. .. 109 | 28 
Work eetrvsss .. The Rey. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R. 226 | 2.150 
Cambridge ..... ... Sir John F, W. Herschel, Bart., F. R. 8. 313 36 
Southampton ..| Sir Roderick I,.Murchison,Bart.,F.R.S. 241 10 
Oxford) S25. ..| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., FRS. 314 / 18 
Swansea........ ..| TheMarquis ofNorthampton, Pres.R.8. 149 3 
Birmingham ..| The Rey. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. 227 12 
: Edinburgh ..| Sir David Brewster, K.H., F. R. Rima 235 | 9 
..| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S. 172 8 
.| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. . 164 | 10 
..| William Hopkins, F. R. S... 141 | 13 
.| The Earl of Harrowby, FRS. é4 238 | 23 
..| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. 7 194 33 
.| Prof.0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S... 182 | 14 
..| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S. 236 | 15 
a3 .| Richard Owen, M.D., D. OL. , FR 3. 222 / 42 
Aberdeen ..| H.R.H. The Prince Consort oe 184 | 27 
Oxford ..... .| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S. ... 286 | 21 
Manchester ..| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....... 321 1 a3 
| Cambridge .. ..| The Rev. Professor Willis, M.A.,F. 8. 239 | 15 
| Newcastle-on-' .| SirWilliam G. Armstrong,O.B., F. 203 | 36 
(Bathe yer. s accxccenvuvesens Sir Oharles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F. 287 40 
Birmingham.. .| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., ivy ., FR 292 44 
Nottingham... ..| William R. Grove, Q.' Ole F.R.S. . 207 | 31 
| Dundee ........ .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.O0.B. VF. R 167 | 25 
Norwich ..| Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ... 196 / 18 
Exeter’ (25. ..| Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., 204 21 
Liverpool ..... .| Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL. 314 39 
Edinburgh ... Prof. Sir W. Thomson, Tare D.. Fy 246 28 
| Brighton ..... .| Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. 245 36 
.. Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.: S.. 212 27 
.| Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S. . 162 13 
Sir John Hawkshaw, Fr. R.S. 239 36 
... Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F. RS... y 221 35 
Plymouth .| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. 173 19 
Dublin .. ..| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S. 201 18 
Sheffield... ... Prof. G. J. Allman, M. D., F. 184 16 
Swansea.. . A. O. Ramsay, LL. De F.R.S. 144 11 
Mork) 5.2; Sir John Lubbock, Bart. . FL 272 28 
Southamp "Dr. O. W. Siemens, F.R.S. ....... 178 17 
| Southport ..... ..| Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., F.R. 203 60 
Montreal .. .. Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. ... 235 20 
Aberdeen .. . Sir Lyon Playfair, K.O.B., F.R. 225 18 
Birmingham P Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F. 314 25 
Manchester ....... Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F. 428 86 
-| [322.5 se era ee Sir F. J. Bramwell, Ly tS PS ace 266 36 
Neweastle-on-Tyne,,, Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B., F.RS. 277 20 
| Leeds . ...| Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S, 259 21 
| Cardiff a .| Dr. W. Huggins, F. R. s. ae 189 24 
| Edinburg’ seveeeee. Sit A. Geikie, LL.D., F. RS. .. a 280 14 
Nottingham ... ... Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, ERS. 201 17 
Oxford .... . The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G..F.R.8. 327 21 
Ipswich .. Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F.R.S, 214 13 
Liverpool .... Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R. Soe. .| 330 31 
Toronto .... ..., Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.R.S. . 120 8 
Bristol .. . Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S. .............-8 A 281 19 
DOvert Sees. Miceeiez Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.R.S..... 296 20 


+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only. 


[ Continued on p. xii. 


ANNUAL MEETINGS, xi 


ANNUAL MEETINGS. 


| Sums paid 
New | Asso- | Seawe ce on account 
Annual | Annual | Giates Ladies |Foreigners| Total | for of Grants Year 
Members | Members | | | ‘Tickets for Scientific 
| | Purposes 
_ —_ _— = — 353 _ _ 1831 
_ _ _ — _ _— — — 1832 
_ _— _ _— _ 900 —_— — 1833 
_ _— _— _ — 1298 —_— £20 0 0 1834 
— — — =_ — — _— 167 0 0 1835 
_ _ _ _ —_ | 1850 _— 435 0 0 1836 
_ _— _— = _— 1840 — 922 12 6 1837 
— — — | 1100* — 2400 — 932 2 2 1838 
_— _— _ = 34 1438 —_— 1595 11 0 1839 
_— _ _ — 40 1353 — 154616 4 1840 
46 317 _— 60* _— 891 — 1235 10 11 1841 
75 376 33t 331* 28 1315 — 1449 17 8 1842 
71 185 _— 160 — | — | —_ 1565 10 2 1843 | 
45 190 | 9+ 260 — ; — | = 98112 8 1844 | 
94 22 407 172 35 | 1079 — 831 9 9 1845 
65 39 270 196 36 . 857 _ 685 16 0 1846 
197 40 495 203 53 | 1320 — 208 5 4 1847 
54 25 376 197 15 819 |£707 0 0 275 1 8 1848 
93 33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0 15919 6 1843 
128 42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 0 1850 
61 47 244 141 37 | 710 620 0 0 39 Si aF 1851 
63 60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 0 304 6 7 1852 
56 57 367 236 6 876 903 0 0 205 0 0 1853 
121 121 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0| 38019 7 1854 
142 101 1094 543 26 2133 2311 0 0 480 16 4 1855 
104 48 412 346 9 1115 1098 0 0 73413 9 1856 
156 120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857 
111 91 710 509 13 1698 1931 0 0 61818 2 1858 
125 179 1206 821 22 2564 2782 0 0 684 11 1 1859 
177 59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 0 76619 6 1860 
184 125 1589 791 15 3138 3944 0 0| 1111 5 10 1861 
150 57 433 242 25 1161 1089 0 0/1293 16 6 1862 
154 209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 O | 1608 3 10 1863 
182 103 1119 1058 13 2802 2965 0 0| 128915 8 1864 
215 149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0} 1591 7 10 1865 
218 105 960 771 11 2303 2469 0 0/| 175013 4 1866 
193 118 1163 771 a 2444 2613 0 0| 1739 4 0 1867 
. 226 117 720 682 45} 2004 2042 0 0| 1940 0 0 1868 
229 107 678 600 17 1856 1931 0 0O| 1622 0 0 1869 
303 195 1103 910 14 2878 3096 0 0O| 1572 0 0 1870 
311 127 976 754 21 2463 2575 0 0| 1472 2 6 1871 
280 80 937 912 43 2533 2649 0 0| 1285 0 0 1872 
237 99 796 601 igt 1983 2120 0 0/| 1685 0 0 1873 
232 85 817 630 12 1951 1979 0 0} 115116 0 1874 
307 93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0 960 0 0 1875 
331 185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 0; 1092 4 2 1876 
Lb 238 59 446 283 11 1229 1268 0 0| 1128 9 7 1877 
290 93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 0 72516 6 1878 
1 239 74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 0 | 1080 11 11 1879 
q 171 41 389 147 12 915 s99 0 0 is i a fear 1880 
313 176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 0/| 476 8 1 1881 
253 79 516 189 21 1253 1286 0 0| 1126 111 1882 
330 323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 0 | 1083 38 3 1883 
317 219 826 74 26 & 60 H.§ 1777 1855 0 0| 1173 4 0 1884 
' 332 122 1053 447 | 6 2203 2256 0 0/| 1385 0 0 1885 
428 179 1067 429 11 2453 2532 0 0 995 0 6 1886 
510 244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 0O| 118618 0 1887 
399 100 639 509 12 1984 2107 0 0/1511 0 5 1888 
412 113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 0 0| 1417 011 1889 
4 368 92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 0 789 16 8 1890 
341 152 672 107_—| 35 1497 1664 0 0} 102910 0 1891 
: 413 141 733 439 | 50 2070 2007 0 0 864 10 0 1892 
- 328 57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 0 907 15 6 1893 
435 69 941 451 | 77 2321 2175 0 0 583 15 6 1894 
290 3] 493 261 | 22 1324 1236 0 0} 97715 5 1895 
383 139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 0 0| 1104 6 1 1896 
286 125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 0/| 105910 8 1897 
327 96 1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 0/1212 0 0 1898 
324 68 548 120 27 1403 1328 0 O | 143014 2 1899 
{ Including Ladies. § Fellows ofthe American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting, 
[ Continued on p. xiii. 
! 


xu ANNUAL MEETINGS, 


Table of 
_ Date of Meeting | Where held Presidents 1 —— | coe 
pe | fies 
1900, Sept. 5 | Bradford ..,........... | Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S..... 267 13 
1901, Sept. 11....... Glasgow... ....| Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec.R.S. ... 310 37 
1902, Sept. 10 Belfast ... s0s| Prof. J. Dewar, bE:D., BRS. occas 243 21 
1903, Sept. 9 ......, Southport ... . Sir Norman Lockyer, K. S B., F.R. 250 21 
1904, Aug. 17....... Cambridge...... .| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R. 419 32 
' 1905, Aug. 15...... South Africa Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D. *: 5. 115 / 40 
1906, Aug.1 ......) York ...... Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S. ct ay 10 
1907, July 31 Leicester .| Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F.R.S. ......... 276 / 19 
1908, Sept. 2 ...... Dublin ..,... .| Dr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S. ict gah” “ae 
1909, Aug. 25,..... Winnipeg .. Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, FERS. al 117 13 
1910, Aug. 31 ....... Sheffleld..... .| Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.RS. ......| 293 26 
1911, Aug. 30....... Portsmouth ‘| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.0.B,,F.R.S. | 284 21 
1912, Sept. 4 Dundee ......... .| Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S......... al “SS See 
| 1913, Sept.10...... Birmingham .| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. 376 40 | 
1914, July-Sept.... Australia ...... .| Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. 172 is» | 
1915, Sept. 7 .. Manchester .. ..... .| Prof, A. Schuster, F.R.S. .. A 242 | 19 
1916, Sept.5 ....... Newcastle-on-Tyne... | 164 ma 
1917 (No Meeting) | Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S. ......... aie) == yet 
1918 | (No Meeting) ......... = = 
1919, Sept.9 ...... | Bournemouth Hon. Sir O. Parsons, K.O.B., F.R.S.... 235 47 
| 
1920, Aug. 24 Carat: 3... eR siesas.o | Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S. 288 ll 
1921, Sept.7 ....... Edinburgh .| Sir T. E. Thorpe, O.B., F.R. S.. 336 ] 9 
1922, Sept.6 ...... ETL Wises. ‘Sir: (0,2 Sherrington, G. B.E., : j 
gees eS Cee ene 228 13 
1923, Sept. 12 Liverpool .., ...........) Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. ......... 326 12 
1924, Aug. 6 ..,...| Toronto ........ .| Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S “4 119 7 
; 1925, Aug. 26....... Southampton Prof. Horace Lamb, ERS. pe 280 8 
1926, Aug. 4 ...... Oxfordic, 3,628 oa. H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K. Gs 
FBS. Ssticc ccocaaseeeeeeer oarepces Sat san 358 9 
| 1997, Aug. 31......| Leeds... cscisssessaes Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S, i oe 


* Including 848 Members of the South African Association. 

* Including 137 Members of the American Association. 

* Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see 
Report, 1914, p.686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of 
L’ Association Francaise at Le Havre. 

* Including Students’ Tickets, 10s. 

* Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge. 


ANNUAL MEETINGS. 


XIli 
Annual Meetings—(continued). 

| Sums paid 

Old New ee / | | ee on account 
Annual Annual © Shee Ladies Foreigners Total 3 f sc of Grants | Year 

Members | Members | ng a ts for Scientific 

bee Purposes 

297 45 | 801 482 9 1915 £1801 0 £1072 100 1900 
374 131 | 794 246 20 1912 2046 0! 920 9 11 1901 
3l4 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 | 947 0 O 1902 
319 90 | 688 365 21 | 1754 1762 0 | 845 13 2 1903 
449 113 | 1338 317 121 2789 2650 0 | 8871811 | 1904 
937* 411 430 181 16 2130 2422 0/928 2 2 | 1905 
356 93 817 352 22 1972 1811 0 | 882 0 9 | 1906 
339 61 | 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 | 757 12 10 1907 
465 112 { 1166 222 14 2297 2317 0 |115718 8 1908 
290? 162 | 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 1014 9 9 1909 
379 57 563 123 8 1449 1439 0 | 963.17 0 1910 
349 61 414 81 31 124L | 1176 0| 922 0 0 1911 
368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 | 845 7 6 1912 
480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0; 97817 1 1913 
139 4160° 539° —_— 21 5044° 4873 0 |1861 16 4° 1914 
287 116 | §28* 141 8 1441 1406 0/1569 2 8 1915 
250 | 76 | 251* 73 _ 826 821 0 | 985 18 10 1916 
_ — a — -— —- | — 677 17 2 1917 
= ) = | = — — oe a = | 326 13 3 | 1918 
254 / 102 688* 153 3 1482 | 1736 0 | 410 0 0 | 1919 

| 

| Annual Members | | 

Old ‘Transfer- *| 

— Ts | came eepdent| vies | | 

Members| Meeting | yreeting Tickets | ™ | 

Report only | 
136 192 571 42 120 20 138) | 1272 10 (1251 12° 108 1920 
133 410 1394 121 343 22 2768 | 259915; 518 110 | 1921 
90 | 294 757 89 235° 24 1730 1689 5 {772 0 7 1922 

} Compli- | 

mentary. 
123 380 1434 163 550 3087 3296 2735 15 | 777 18 =6° 1923 
37 | 520 1866 41 89 139 2818 3165 19°°1197 5 9 1924 
97 264 878 62 119 | 74 | 1782 1630 4 {1231 ou | (925 
| ! | 

101 453 2338 169 | 225 69 3722 3542 0/917 1 6 1926 
84 | 334 1487 82 | 264 161 2670 2414 5 76110 0 1927 


© Including grants from the Caird Fund in this and subsequent years. 
7 Including Foreign Guests, Exhibitioners, and others. 
* The Bournemouth Fund for Research, initiated by Sir O. Parsons, enabled grants on account of 
scientific purposes to be maintained. 
* Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years 
to 1926. 
2» Subscriptions paid in Oanada were $5 for Meeting only and others pro rata; there was some 
gain on exchange. 


REPORT OF. THE COUNCIL, 1926>2% 


I. The Council in November last took the earliest opportunity of 
acknowledging the deep obligation of the Association to Sir Alfred Yarrow 
in the following terms :— 

That the Council places upon record its profound gratitude to Sir 
Alfred Yarrow for his munificent gift of £10,000 to the funds of the 
Association for general purposes; that the Council welcomes the wise 
condition made by Sir Alfred Yarrow that the gift should be expended 
as to both capital and interest within twenty years, and resolves that 
effect shall be given thereto. 

II. The Council places upon record its grateful memory of the late 
Prof. A. W. Scott, of Lampeter, a regular attendant at the meetings 
of the Association for many years, who by his will devised the sum of 
£250 to the funds of the Association. 

Among other supporters and former office-bearers, the Council has 
had to deplore the loss by death of Sir William Ashley, Prof. A. W. 
Crossley, Prof. F. W. Gamble, Sir George Greenhill, Dr. E. Sidney 
Hartland, Sir John Scott Keltie, Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, Mr. J. J. Lister, 
Mr. Edwin Ransom (who became a life member in 1868), Sir William 
Ridgeway, Prof. E. H. Starling, Sir William Tilden, Gen. Sir Charles 
Warren, and the Rev. P. H. Wicksteed. 

III. Prof. Sir William Bragg, F.R.S., has been unanimously 
nominated by the Council to fill the office of President of the Association 
for the year 1928-29 (Glasgow Meeting). 

IV. Representatives of the Association have been appointed as 
follows :— 

International Congress of Plant Sciences . Prof. A. W. Hill and 
Dr. A. B. Rendle. 
Deutsche Naturforscher, Diisseldorf Meeting Dr. J. G. Garson. 
American Association for the Advancement 
of Science . Prof. J. L. Myres. 
Royal Sanitary Institute, Hastings Meeting . Mr. T. 8S. Dymond, Mayor 


of Hastings. 
Royal Microscopical Society, Liverpool 


Meeting : : . Prof. J. McLean Thompson. 
American Philosophical Society, second 

Centenary . ; . Prof. A. N. Whitehead. 
Lister Centenary . . Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer. 
University College, London, Centenary . Prof. Sir A. Keith. 


V. Resolutions referred by the General Committee at the Oxford 
Meeting to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, 
were dealt with as follows :— 

(a) The Council requested Dr. J. R. Airey to consider whether, in the 
event of the Association’s undertaking to republish the reports of the 
Mathematical Tables Committee in collected form, it would be advantageous 
to include tables published by other institutions by arrangement with 
such institutions. This matter is expected to come up for further con- 
sideration at the Leeds Meeting (Resolution of Section A). 

(b) The Council has had under discussion with the Board of Trade the 
question of the duty required by H.M. Customs on the introduction of 
cinematograph films into this country for scientific purposes and not 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1926-27. a 


intended for commercial uses. The matter was referred to the Lords 
Commissioners of H.M. Treasury, from whom a reply was received that 
‘having regard to the impracticability of framing a statutory exemption 
which would be free from grave difficulties of definition and administra- 
tion,’ they were unable ‘to submit to Parliament proposals of the nature 
desired by the Association.’ (Resolutions of Sections D and H and the 
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies.) 


(ec) The Council received from Lord Clinton and Dr. T. F. Chipp the 
fullest assistance in investigating the disastrous effects which follow the 
destruction of hill slopes in tropical hill-regions, and a statement drawn 
up by Lord Chnton was forwarded to H.M. Secretary of State for the 
Colonies for communication to the Colonial authorities concerned. The 
statement was also ordered to be printed in the Report of the Council, 
and is as follows (Resolution of Section K) :— 


Owing to strict limitation in the programme the only aspect of this question 
which it was possible to consider at the Meeting at Oxford was the destruction of 
forest on hill slopes. 

Reports, articles in the local Press of countries, periodicals and statements of 
eye-witnesses all bear witness to the continued prevalence of this practice and emphasise 
the consequent loss sustained by many of our tropical Colonies. 

The destruction of these hillside forests is due to several causes: the natives 
destroying the forest by fire in the annual burning preceding their hunting; the 
native agriculturalist destroying the forest in the course of his shifting cultivation ; 
the farmer encouraging young pasture grass for his cattle; or over-grazing old 
pastures; or again the agriculturalist, practising a more intensive system of 
agriculture, who replaces the forest by permanent crops such as rubber, coffee or tea. 

Whatever be the cause, the ultimate result is the same. Impoverishment of the 
soil is effected by destruction of organic matter by fire. The torrential rains soon 
leach the exposed soil surface and very quickly remove it entirely to the valleys 
below. The bare exposed rocks heated by the sun tend to disperse the rain clouds 
and the daily temperature variation becomes extreme. The hillside is freely exposed 
to the action of every wind with the consequent desiccation of the atmosphere. The 
rain water rushes destructively down the slopes almost as soon as it falls, scouring 
the mountain sides, cutting into neighbouring farms and depositing broad beds of 
silt in the lower part of its course. Such impoverished hillsides soon become barren 
and the headwaters of the rivers become seriously affected. In the low-lying ground 
the silt brought down chokes the ordinary river channel so that the water spreads 
over the valleys, causing inundations both periodic and permanent, with the destruction 


of lowland vegetation, crops and even towns. 


Where plantations replace the forest the process is more gradual, but without 
protective measures the soil is continuously removed from the clean-weeded ground 
and the roots of the trees freely exposed so that the crop becomes stunted and 
valueless. 

All this tends to the impoverishment of a country, the gradual drying up of the 
highlands and the conversion of the lowlands into swamps, the spoliation of agriculture 
with the failure of the population to find land on which to support itself, for the 
hillsides become unstable or more frequently barren rocky slopes. 

Afforestation as a remedy is a big problem and in country of this nature requires 
the advice of expert foresters, and a long period must elapse before its effects can be 


realised. Intensive agriculturalists, as in Ceylon, when the terrain permits, resort 


at great expense to terracing, generally with the aid of cover crops. 

The argument it is now desired to emphasise is that every effort should be made 
to prevent such destruction rather than wait till destruction has taken place and 
then try to remedy the error. Prevention entails preliminary reconnaissance and 
the scheduling of areas likely to prove dangerous, where, in the interests of the 
country, it is not expedient that the natural vegetation shall be removed. 

, CLINTON, 
Chairman of the Forestry Sub-section, 
British Association. 


XVi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1926-27. 


(d) In order to give effect to the Resolution of Sections L and M, 
asking that public attention be drawn to the need for preparation for 
overseas life in schools, etc., the Council took measures to bring to the 
notice of appropriate Government authorities and educational associations 
the reports of the Overseas Training Committee and of the discussion on 
overseas training at the Oxford Meeting. 


(e) The Council received from Sir John Flett a statement on the value 
of records of temporarily open geological sections, and circulated it to the 
Corresponding Societies. (Resolution of the Conference of Delegates of 
Corresponding Societies.) 

VI. The Council has to report that the claims for remission of income 
tax by the two societies taken as test cases,’ viz., the Geologists’ Associa- 
tion and the Midland Counties Institution of Engineers, have been rejected 
by the Special Commissioners for Income Tax. The cases are in preparation 
for presentation in the High Court. 

VII. As previously reported (1925-26, x), the Council, in co-operation 
with the British Science Guild, caused a Conference, representative of 
learned societies and scientific institutions in London, to be called to 
consider the desirability and possibility of establishing a Science 
News Service for the Press. The matter has been further under considera- 
tion, and a report, presented to the Conference by a committee thereof, 
was published in the Journal of the British Science Guild, July, 1927. 
The Council, however, after full inquiry, has decided not to take any 
further action toward the establishment of such a service. 


VIII. The Council appointed a committee to consider and report upon 
the advisability of approaching the British Science Guild with a view to 
establishing closer relations. Having received the report of this com- 
mittee, the Council resolved to ‘invite the co-operation of the British 
Science Guild in considering whether, having regard to the close 
community of scientific interests between the Association and the Guild, 
their objects would, as the Council believe, be more fully attained by 
means of a working union between the two societies; and if so, by what 
means such union would best be given effect.’ The Guild proposed a 
joint committee to consider this resolution, and the Council appointed 
thereto Lord Bledisloe, Dr. C. S. Myers, Prof. T. P. Nunn, and Prof. A. 
Smithells, together with the General Secretaries. The Council has 
received a report from this joint committee, and will report further in 
due course to the General Committee. 

IX. The Council has received reports from the General Treasurer 
throughout the year. His accounts have been audited and are presented 
to the General Committee. The Council made the following grants to 
research committees from the Caird Fund :— 

Naples Table ... £100 Seismology ... £100 


and a donation of £25 towards the expenses of the Royal Anthropological 
Institute’s expedition to the Abyssinian frontier. 
X. The Corresponding Societies Committee has been nominated as 
follows: the President of the Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. 
1 See Report of the Council, 1925-26, xii. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1926-27. xvii 


Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Treasurer, the General Secretaries, 
_ Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir R. A. Gregory, Sir D. Prain, Sir J. Russell, 
Mr. Mark Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney. 

XI. The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are: Sir W. H. 
Beveridge, Prof. C. H. Desch, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. A. W. Porter, 
Sir J. Russell. 

The Council nominates the following new members: Dr. N. V. 
_ Sidewick, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Prof. T. B. Wood; leaving two vacancies 
to be filled by the General Committee without nomination by the Council. 


The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :— 
Prof. J. H. Ashworth. Sir T. H. Holland. 
Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe. Sir H. G. Lyons. 
Prof. A. L. Bowley. Dr. C. 8. Myers. 
Prof. E. G. Coker. Prof. T. P. Nunn. 
Prof. W. Dalby. Prof. A. O. Rankine. 
Dr. H. H. Dale. Prof. A. C. Seward. 
* Mr. E. N. Fallaize. Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. 
3 Sir J. S. Flett. Dr. N. V. Sidgwick. 
Sir R. A. Gregory. | Dr. G. C. Simpson. 
u Mr. C. T. Heycock. Prof. A. Smithells. 
Prof. J. P. Hill. | Prof. T. B. Wood. 


Mr. A. R. Hinks. 
XII. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as 
follows :— 

General Treasurer, Dr. KE. H. Griffiths. 

General Secretaries, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. F. E. Smith. 

The Council during its present session has been unhappily deprived 
of the presence of Dr. E. H. Griffiths, General Treasurer, at its meetings 
_ owing to ill-health, though he has fortunately been able to retain his 
office at the request of the Council, from which he has received an 
expression of its sympathy and an assurance of its deep sense of the value 
of his services. 

XIII. The following have been admitted as members of the General 
Committee: Dr. F. A. E. Crew, Prof. David Ellis, Prof. A. D. Peacock, 
Mr. F. W. Shurlock, Dr. A. B. Walkom, Dr. W. Wardlaw. 

XIV. The Council having received the instructions of the General 
Committee to make the necessary inquiries relating to the invitation from 
South Africa for the year 1929, the General Secretaries have been in 
correspondence with the South African Association for the Advancement 
of Science. They had also an opportunity, kindly arranyed by Lord 
Bledisloe, of meeting General Hertzog, the Prime Minister of the Union 
of South Africa, and of discussing with him the prospects of, and arrange- 
ments for, a meeting in South Africa. The General Secretaries have 
further collected particulars as to dates, duration and extent of the 
journey, costs of transport and maintenance, etc., and a separate report 
upon these will be furnished to the General Committee at the Leeds 
Meeting. The Council has approved in principle the acceptance of the 
invitation and recommends the General Committee accordingly. 

XV. The Council has received with satisfaction intimations of the 
intention of the city and university of Bristol to invite the Association to 
meet there in 1930, and of the city of Leicester to invite the Association 
to meet there in 1932. 


1927 b 


XVill 


GENERAL MEETINGS, ETC., IN LEEDS. 


The Inaugural General Meeting was held on Wednesday, August 31, 
1927, at 8.30 p.m., in the Majestic Theatre. In the absence in Canada 
of H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., F.R.S., the retiring President, the 
chair was taken at the outset by Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S. After the Lord 
Mayor of Leeds and the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Leeds had 
welcomed the Association, Sir Oliver Lodge read the message which 
follows from the retiring President :— 


A Messace rrom H.R.H. Tue Prince or Wates, K.G., F.R.S., on 
Laying Down THE PRESIDENCY OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


My year of office as President of the British Association has come to an 
end, and I can only express my regret to the members of the Association, 
and to our hosts the City and University of Leeds, that I am unable to 
attend personally in order to take my leave. 

At Oxford last year I ventured in my address to lay before the 
meeting a view of the relations between Science and the State. I felt 
subsequently some justification for having chosen this topic, when I 
observed in the proceedings of the Imperial and Colonial Conferences 
of the past year the extraordinary emphasis laid upon the value of scien- 
tific research in relation to imperial development. Both conferences set 
up special committees on research, and we cannot but believe and rejoice 
that the foundations of an imperial scientific service are being firmly 
laid. The Prime Minister of Australia indicated ‘the application of 
science both to our primary and secondary industries’ as ‘the most 
important thing for Empire trade’; more recently our ex-president, the 
Earl of Balfour, invited the attention of the House of Lords to ‘ the enor- 
mous value of the work given by men of science, with the most lavish 
generosity,’ to the study of problems of the common welfare. 

Such events as these place it beyond doubt that one of the main objects 
of the British Association itself is in process of achievement namely, 
that of ‘ obtaining more general attention for the objects of science.’ 
The Association, the so-called parliament of science, is one of the chief 
instruments to that end, and I trust that the public support will continue, 
in increasing measure, to be accorded to its work. Its powers, I am 
happy to say, have been very materially strengthened, during my own 
term of office, through the splendid generosity of Sir Alfred Yarrow, in 
making a gift of £10,000 for the general purposes of the Association, to be 
expended, in accordance with his wise provision, in the course of twenty 
years. I gladly take this opportunity of publicly repeating the thanks 
of the Association to Sir Alfred Yarrow. 

In resigning the chair to Sir Arthur Keith, I can whole-heartedly 
congratulate the Association on its choice of my successor. His name 
stands very high in the science of man’s origin and early biological history. 
I have reason to believe that when anyone in this country digs up a bone 
his first instinct (subject to the intervention of the police) is to send it to 
Sir Arthur Keith. You are to hear from him an address on Darwinism 
as it stands to-day—a subject of perennial interest, and more than once 
one of warm controversy at our own meetings. The occasion of the 


GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c. xix 


Presidential Address does not (I am thankful to say) lend itself to con- 
troversy, but the warmth I am sure you will supply in your welcome to 
Sir Arthur Keith, and, meeting as you are in Leeds, that warmth will be 
increased by the traditional quality of Yorkshire hospitality. 

(Signed) Epwarp P., President. 


Prof. Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S., then assumed the Presidency of the 
Association, and delivered an Address (for which see page 1) on ‘ Darwin’s 
Theory of Man’s Descent as it stands to-day.’ A vote of thanks was 
proposed by Prof. Sir William Boyd-Dawkins, F.R.S., and the President, 
in his reply, uttered a plea for funds to ensure the preservation of Darwin’s 
residence at Downe. He was able to announce to the General Committee 
at its final meeting (September 6) that this provision had been obtained 
through the munificence of Mr. George Buckston Browne. 

On Thursday evening, September 1, a reception was given by the Lord 
Mayor and Lady Mayoress of Leeds, which was honoured by the presence 
of H.R.H. The Princess Mary, Viscountess Lascelles. On Tuesday 
evening, September 6, a reception was given in the University by the 
Pro-Chancellor and Mrs. Tetley and the Vice-Chancellor and Mrs. Baillie. 

An exhibition of scientific instruments was arranged in the Town Hall 
during the meeting, and demonstrations of noctovision and television 
were given by Mr. J. C. Baird in the Education Department, and of 
educational broadcasting by the British Broadcasting Corporation. 


EveninG Discourses. 


Prof. R. A. Millikan: ‘Cosmic Rays.’ 8 p.m., September 2, Albert 
Hall. 

Dr. F. A. E. Crew: ‘ The Germplasm and its Architecture.’ 8 p.m., 
September 5, Albert Hall. 


Citizens’ LECTURES. 


Dr. Macgregor Skene: ‘ By-products of Plant Activity.’ 8 p.m., 
September 2, Philosophical Hall. 

Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.: ‘Energy.’ 8 p.m., September 6, Albert 
Hall. 

LECTURES TO YOUNG PEOPLE. 

Mr. F. Kingdon Ward: ‘ Plant Hunting on the Roof of the World.’ 
3 p.m., September 2, Albert Hall. 

Dr. C. Tierney: ‘Nature’s Secrets.’ 10.30 a.m., September 5, 
Majestic Theatre. 

ConcLUDING GENERAL MEETING. 


The Concluding General Meeting was held in the Albert Hall on 
Wednesday, September 7, at 12 noon, when the following resolutions were 
adopted with acclamation :— 

__ That the British Association desires most warmly to thank the 

Citizens and Corporation of the City of Leeds, through the Right 

Honourable the Lord Mayor, for the City’s generous hospitality on the 

occasion of the Meeting of the Association in 1927. The Association 

deeply appreciates the unrestricted facilities afforded to its members to 

acquaint themselves with the manifold economic industrial and other 
b2 


xx GENERAL MEETINGS, PUBLIC LECTURES, &c. 


scientific interests of the City and locality, and is grateful for the use of 
the many fine buildings placed at its disposal for its Meeting. Especially 
does the Association acknowledge the powerful aid of the City’s Education 
Department and its able staff, on whose unremitting labour so much of 
the successful organisation of the Meeting has depended. 

That the British Association most gratefully acknowledges the 
generous co-operation and hospitality of the University of Leeds, through 
its Vice-Chancellor, on the occasion of the Meeting in 1927. The Associa- 
tion fully recognises that the unremitting work of many members of the 
University staff, the ample accommodation afforded by the University 
buildings, and the generous reception of the members of the Association, 
have contributed in large measure to the success of a very notable 
Meeting. 

A vote of thanks was accorded to the General Officers of the Association 
on the motion of Sir Henry Fowler, K.B.E. 


EXTERNAL LECTURES. 


Public Lectures were given in connection with the Leeds Meeting as 
follow :— 
To Adults. 
. Dr. G. H. Miles. . . Industrial Psychology. 
. Prof. 0. H.'T. Rishbeth Aspects of Life and Economics 
in Northern China. 


Guiseley . . Sept. 
Brighouse  . Sept. 


Pontefract . Sept. . Prof. P. F. Kendall . . Geology and Coal Resources 
of the Pontefract District. 
Otley . . . Sept. . Prof. J. L.Myres . . . The Place of Women in 


Simple Societies. 


Harrogate . Sept.2|_ Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton f{ China: the Land and the 


lor) for) Org bo bo bo Noe 


Wakefield . Sept. | People. 

Castleford . Sept. . Prof. H. J. Fleure . . The Evolution of Human 
Races and their Societies. 

Batley . . Sept. . Mr. F. Kingdon Ward. . Plant Hunting on the Roof of 
the World. 

Huddersfield . Sept. 


. Mr. H.J.E. Peake . . The Beginningsof Civilisation. 
To Young People. i 


aed ‘lea Sept.1 . Mr.W.W. Jervis . . . Travels in Higher Latitudes. 

Shipl a ith Ee : | . Prof. W. Garstang . . The Songs of the Birds. 

Pontefract . Sept.2 . Prof. F. Balfour Browne . Domestic Affairs of Cater- 
pillars. 

Harrogate . Sept.2 . Dr.C.J. Patten . . . The Language of Birds: its 
Mechanism and Interpreta- 
tion. 

Batley . . Sept.2 . Miss R.M.Fleming . . Old Time Tales. 

Wakefield . Sept.6 . Prof. B. H. Bentley .-. Flowers: their Message to 
the Young. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION EXHIBITIONS. 


These were awarded on the general lines of previous years, but repre- 
sentatives from Oxford and Cambridge were included for the first time. 


It is hoped that the scheme may now be regarded as permanently 
established. 


- BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
Li, OF SCIENCE. 


-GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 


7 ‘s JULY 1, 1926, To JUNE 30, 1927. 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. 


XXil 
Balance Sheet, 
Corresponding 
Figures LIABILITIES. 
June 30, 2 Sa Rae £ Bie 
uaa a To Capital Accounts— 
“oh SE | General Fund— 
As at June 30,1926 . : : =) LOSS oe 
John Perry Guest Fund . $75 0 0 
Less Grant to Prof.Michotte 10 0 0 65 0 0 
10,575 15 2 10,640 15 2 
As per contra 
(Subject to Depreciation in Value of 
Investments) 
», Caird Fund— 
3 As percontra . 5 ‘ f 9,582 16 3 
9,582 16 (Subject to Depreciation in Value of 
Investments) 
,, Caird Fund Revenue Account— 
Balance as at July 1, 1926. 470 410 
Add Excess of Income over Expenditure 
for year . 164 11 
470 4 10 63416 6 
52 3 11 |, Caird Gift, Radio-Activity Investigation . 52 3 11 
no Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift for Enquiry into Prime 
Movers, 1931— 
£50 Consols now oe to #186 ok 11d., 
65 16 0 as per contra . 5 69 3 3 
19,000 0 0) 4 Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift 10,000 0 0 
= 5, sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gift . 10,000 0 0 
75 0 O| 5, John Perry Guest Fund . _ 
», Life Compositions— 
As at July 1,1926 . 933 12 2 
Add Received during year 19>" 0570 
933 12 2 1,128 12 2 
450 0 O », Legacy—F. W. Backhouse — 
;, Toronto University Presentation Fund 182 18 10 
Add Dividends a 8 15s 
191 13 10 
Less Awards given 12 
182 18 10 182 1,4 
>», Lncome and Brenda Account-—— 
Balance as at July 1, 1926. . 4,544 18 6 
Add Legacy—F. Ww. Backhouse, now in- 
vested in 34 per cent. Conversion Stock 450 0 0 
Add Excess of Income over Expenditure 
4,544 18 6 for the year. : ° . 1,032 2 10 
———— 6,027 1 4 
36,933 5 8 £48,317 9 11 


I have examined the foregoing Accounts with the Books and Vouchers and certify the same 


Approved, 


ra W. KIRKALDY, } Auditors. 


oO. 
July 12, 1997. 


RANKINHE, 


June 30, 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. 


Xxill 


Corresponding 
Figures 
June 30, 
1926. 
£ Grid. 


10,575 15 2 


9,582 16 3 


470 410 
62 3 11 


65 16 0 


meee? 


; 182 18 10 


4,544 18 6 


Fo088 OMe 
t be correct. 


1927. 
ASSETS. 
£ 
By ee on Capital Accounts—General 
£4,651 10s. 5d. Consolidated 24 percent. oe 
at cost . 3,942 3 
£3,600 India 3 per cent. Stock at cost. - 3,522 2 
£879 14s. 9d. £43 Great Indian Peninsula 
Railway ‘B’ Annuity at cost . 827 15 


£52 12s. 7d. War Stock (Post Office Issue) at cost 6405 
£834 16s. 6d. 44 percent. Conversion Loanatcost 835 12 


£1,400 War Stock 5 per cent. 1929/47 at cost 1,393 16 1 


John Perry Guest Fund— 
£96 National Savings Cae £74 8 0 


d. 


12 Less Sale of ditto . Sse 70 
£84 £62 15 0 
— ——_— 62 15 0 
10,638 10 2 
£7,880 18s. 8d. Value at date, £7,931 19s. tid: 
Balance Uninvested. Cash at Bank . es) 
» Caird Fund— 
£2,627 Os. 10d. India 3} per cent. Stock at cost 2,400 13 3 
£2,100 London Midland and Scottish Railway 
Consolidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock 
at cost . 2,190 4 3 
£2,500 Canada isn per cent. 1930/50 ‘Regis- 
tered Stock at cost . 2,397 1 6 
£2,000 Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per 
cent. Preference Stock at cost . 2,594 17 3 
£7,045 6s. 1d. Value at date, £7,116 15s. 10d. 
> Caird ‘Fund Revenue Account— 
Cash at Bank e 
» Caird Gift— 
Cash at Bank . : 
» Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift— 
£132 12 9 Self-Accumulating Consolidated 
Stock as per last Balance Sheet 65 16 0 
dd Accumulations to June 
6 2 2 30, 1927 E - ; Bee cs 
£138 14 11 
Value at date, £75 5s. 4d. 
», sir Charles Parsons’ Gift— 
£10,300 4% per cent. Conversion Loan a 
£9,888. Value at date, £9,888 
Ai telby Alfred Yarrow’s Gift— 
£10.000 5 per cent. War Loan (£50 Bees) 
1929/47 
Sine at date, £10, 087 108. Od. 
,, John Perry Guest Fund . a 
» Life Compositions— 
£1,733 10s. 7d. Local Loans at cost. 0250-00 
Value at date, £1, ek a se 
Cash at Bank . - A 312 2 
,, Legacy—T.W. Backhouse 
», Toronto University Presentation Fund— 
£175 5 per cent. War Stock at cost . 7 173 11 4 
Value at date, re es Td. 
Cash at Bank . i 5 : 310 U 
», Revenue Account— —_——————_ 
£2,098 1s. 9d. Consolidated 2} per cent. 
Stock at cost - 1,200 0 0 
£4,338 6s. 2d. Conversion 3h per cent. ‘Stock 
at cost . Peer ae) 
Value at date, £4, 429 18s. id. 
Sundry Debtors : 2 é 197 3 10 
Cash at Bank . - a 3 “ « LWET Gi 2S. 
Cash in Hand . c : : : : i Vi ea 


10.640 15 2 


69s) 


10,000 0 0 


10,169 7 0 


Ss) 


1,128 12 2 


eet Bal 


5,857 14 4 


£48,317 9 11 


I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers and the Investments. 


W. B. KEEN, 


Chartered Accountant. 


Xxiv GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. 
Income and 
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 
Poe ens 
igures 
June 30, EXPENDITURE. 
1926. 
£ s. d. C48. ds £ s. da. 
25 13 2) To Heat, Light and Power . : 5 : i 20 16 84 
a go J ss Stationery 2 : j $ : 63 18 6 
te O30 » Rent:. ue 
140 12 7 s, Postages A 180 211 
pe 15. 8 >» Jravelling Expenses 149 011 
36 12 9| ,, Exhibitioners 4 30 10 6 
187 3 4 », General Expenses . 205 2 94 
584 2 10 652 12 3 
1,184 19 2 », Salaries and Wages 3 5 : 3 Paps bee tay a hy a) 
(0 1 et!) », Pension Contribution . : 3 q : Tom Ole 
WaG6. fs) 5 », Printing, Binding, ete. . E j : . 1,566« 8 6 
es 3,548 17 8 
3,310 19 5 
» Grants to Research Committees— 
Quaternary Peat Committee S02 Oe0 
Macedonia Committee 5 2 C 40 0 0 
Growth of Children Committee : é 3 25) uh D 
Plymouth Committee c : : ‘ Bey eet) 
Derbyshire Caves Committee u f ; 25, 0 0 
Bronze Implements Committee . ; 5 90 0 0 
EKgyptian Peasants Committee . s - 20: 10t70 
Marine Algee Committee 5 3 5 45 0 0 
Vasoligation Committee 10 0 0O 
Sex Ratio Committee 10 0 O 
Zoological Record Committee 50 0 O 
Pigment in Insecta Committee 15° 20) 30 
Tilumination of Plants Commaaeee 2 40% °0. *O 
Triplets Committee . 5 q 20 0 0 
Earth Pressures Committee 5 : 10 0 9 
Dolgarrog Committee é c bye es iia) 
Medullary Centres Committee Ps 5 20 0 O 
Geography Teaching Committee . é - 5) 40h 0 
African Geography Committee : 210 O 
Vocational Tests Committee 14 0 O 
LOI 6 56110 0 
», Balance, being Excess of Income over sabenai 
1,327 2 & ture for the year 3 5 F 1,032 2 10 
4,808 13 7 £5,142 10 6 
ee ee a 
Caird 
EXPENDITURE. 
& s. d@. S: od £ 8. d. 
To Grants Paid— 
Seismology Committee : > js 100 0 0 
Naples Tables Committee . . - = 100 0 0 
546 10 O 200 0 0O 
;, Balance, being Excess of Income over pea 
ture for the year : = 164 11 8 
546 10 O £364 11 8 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT. 


xXxXV 
Expenditure Account 
June 30, 1927. 
Corresponding 
igures 
June 30, INCOME. 
1926 
mate, da. 8. a. Secs, a 
249 O O| By Annual Members (Including £63 10s., 1927/28) 168 10 0 
» Annual sae ale Members (Including £357, 

1,806 0 O 1927/28) . 1,669 15 0 
» Annual 1 aol with Report (Including £195, 

732 0 O 1927/28) . F 6 468 0 0 
» Transferable Tickets (Including £6 Bai, 

148 15 O 1927/28 L653 15 0 

92 10 O » Students’ Tickets ‘(Including £15, 1927/28) 91 0 0 

(Total Tickets issued in Advance for the Leeds 
Meeting, £636 15s.) 

OO) » Donations — 

62 12 4 », interest on Deposits 10° 3 8 
681 12 11 », sale of Publications F Bel b36 
167 O », Advertisement Revenue 463 6 11 
157 13 10 », Income Tax recovered . 181 13 0 
24 210 », Unexpended Balance of Grants retumed. 27 12 11 

— », Liverpool Exhibitioners. f 3.3 4 
s,s Dividends— 
£135 0 0) Consols . 4 : a 7) 4035) 10° 0 
86 8 9@ | India 3 per cent. 86 8 0 
26 9 0) Great Indian Peninsula ‘ B’ Annuity. 611 6 
30 1 2) 44 per font. Conversion Loan . : Oral 2 
870 16 0 | Ditto, Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift. 2 Ue 
564 11 8 | 3% per cent. Conversion Loan “ (iC iets en] 
30 7 1/1 Local Loans . - 43 7 3 
68 12 6 | War Stock i fs 58 12 6 
—- Ditto, Sir A. Yarrow’s Gift ; - 400 0 0 
meee oo | 792) 8 6 1,224 5 2 
4,808 13 7 £5,142 10 6 
Fund. 
INCOME. 
£ 8. op esi de £& s. ad 
By Dividends— 
£73 11 0| India 3% percent. . r 5 a Tome 20 
70 0 O | Canada 34 per cent. Omer 0 
London Midland and Scottish Railway Con- 
6613 6 | | * solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock . 67 0 
| Southern Railway selma! 5 per pene 
72 2 G6" Preference Stock . 80 0 ~ 
S259 12 0 = {220° 15, 0 
71 8 8 | By Income Tax recovered 7316 8 
By Balance, being neres of Expenditure’ over Income 
“ao 9 ¢ for year — 
4 
. ete bee 
546 10 O £364 11 8 
a are ee 


: 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc. 


APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN 
LEEDS, 1927. 


Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected 
with researches are indicated in heavy type. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


Seismological Investigations.—Prof. H. H. Turner (Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw 
(Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison, 
Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J. 
Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H.M. Macdonald, Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell, 
Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Rev. J. P. Rowland, 8.J., Prof. R. A. 
Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker, Mr. F. J. W. 
Whipple. £100 (Caird Fund grant). 


Tides.—Prof. H. Lamb (Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson (Secretary), Dr. G. R.- 
Goldsbrough, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. J. Proudman, Prof. G. I. Taylor, Prof. 
D’Arcy W. Thompson, Commander H. D. Warburg. 


Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological. 
—Sir E. Rutherford (Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter (Secretary), Mr. Alfred 
Egerton. £5. 


Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Prof. J. W. Nicholson (Chairman), Dr. J. RB. 
Airey (Secretary), Mr. T. W. Chaundy, Dr. A. T. Doodson, Prof. L. N. G. Filon, 
Mr. R. A. Fisher, Dr. J. Henderson, and Profs. E. W. Hobson, Altred Lodge, 
A. E. H. Love, and H. M. Macdonald. 


Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Sir Napier Shaw (Cea, Mr. C. J. P. 
Cave (Secretary), Prof. S. Chapman, Mr. J. 8. Dines, Mr. L. H. G. Dines, Mr. 
W. H. Dines, Dr. G. M. Dobson, Commr. L. G. Garbett, nee Tr, Glazebrock, 
Col. E. Gold, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Dr. H. Knox-Shaw, Sir J. Larmor, Mr. R. G. K. 
Lempfert, Prof. F. A. Lindemann, Dr. W. Makower, Mr. J. Patterson, Sir J. E. 
Petavel, Dr. L. F. Richardson, Sir A. Schuster, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Sir G. T. 
Walker, Mr. F. J. W. Whipple, Prof. H. H. Turner. £70. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. 


Colloid Chemistry and its Industrial Applications.—Prof. F. G. Donnan (Chairman), 
Dr. W. Clayton (Secretary), Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Dr. E. K. 
Rideal. 


Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds.—Prof. I. M. 
Heilbron (Chairman), Prof. E. C. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart. £10. 


The Chemistry of Vitamins.—Sir F. G. Hopkins (Chairman), Prof. J. C. Drummond 
(Secretary), Prof. G. Barger, Prof. A. Harden, Sir J. C. Irvine, Prof. J. W. McBain, 
Prof. Lash Miller, Dr. S. Zilva. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


The Old Red Sandstone Rocks of Kiltorcan, Ireland.—Mr. W. B. Wright (Chairman), 
Prof. T. Johnson (Secretary), Dr. W. A. Bell, Dr. J. W. Evans, Prof. W. H. Lang, 
Sir A. Smith Woodward. £10. 


To excavate Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.—Prof. 
W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Mr. W. S. Bisat, 
Prof. W. 8S. Boulton, Mr, E. 8. Cobbola, Mr. EK. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, 
Prof. E. J. Garwood, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. V. C. Illing, Prof. O. T. Jones, 
Prof. J. E. Marr, Dr. T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. A. E. Trueman. £30. 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES. XXVl 


The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo- 
logical Interest.—Prof. E. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. 8S. H. Reynolds (Secre- 
tary), Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. A. 8. Reid, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. R. Welch. 


To investigate the Quaternary Peats of the British Isles.—Prof. P. F. Kendall (Chair- 
man), Mr. L. H. Tonks (Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Miss Chandler, Prof. 
H. J. Fleure, Dr. E. Greenly, Prof. J. W. Gregory, Prof. G. Hickling, Mr. J. de W. 
Hinch, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mrs. Reid, Dr. K. 8S. Sandford, Mr. T. Sheppard, 
Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. A. W. Stelfox, Mr. C. B. Travis, Dr. A. E. Trueman, Mr. 
W. B. Wright. £90. 


To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary Rocks of the London Area, To 
tabulate and preserve records of new excavations in that area.—Prof. W. T. 
Gordon (Chairman), Dr. 8S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), Miss M. C. Crosfield, Prof. 
H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling. £10. 


To consider the opening up of Critical Sections in the Mesozoic Rocks of Yorkshire.— 
Prof. P. F. Kendall (Chairman), Mr. M. Odling (Secretary), Prof. H. L. Hawkins, 
Mr. F. Petch, Dr. Spath, Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. H. C. Versey. 


To assemble information regarding the Distribution of Cleavage in North and Central 
Wales.—Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Chairman), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell and Mr. 
W. H. Wilcockson (Secretaries), Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. I. 8. Double, Dr. Gertrude 
Elles, Prof. O. T. Jones, Dr. E. Greenly, Mr. W. B. R. King, Prof. W. J. Pugh, 
Dr. Bernard Smith Dr. A. K. Wells, Dr. L. J. Wills. 


SECTIONS C, D, E, K.—GEOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, BOTANY. 


To organize an expedition to investigate the Biology, Geology, and Geography of the 
Australian Great Barrier Reef.—Rt. Hon. Sir M. Nathan (Chairman), Prof. J. 
Stanley Gardiner and Mr. F. A. Potts (Secretaries), Sir Edgeworth David, Prof. 
W. T. Gordon, Prof. A. C. Seward, and Dr. Herbert H. Thomas (from Section C) ; 
Mr. E. Heron Allen, Dr. E. J. Allen, Prof. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. G. P. Bidder, 
Dr. W. T. Calman, Sir Sidney Harmer, Dr. C. M. Yonge {from Section D); Dr. 
R. N. Rudmose Brown, Sir G. Lenox Conyngham, Mr. F, Debenham, Admiral 
Douglas, Mr. A. R. Hinks (from Section #); Prof. F. E. Fritsch, Dr. Margery 
Knight, Prof. A. C. Seward (from Section K). 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. 


To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces 
of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. E. 8. Goodrich (Chairman), 
Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. O. Bower, Sir W. B. 
Hardy, Sir 8S. F. Harmer, Prof. S. J. Hickson, Prof. W. C. McIntosh. £100 
(Caird Fund grant). 


Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A. 
Bather (Secretary), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. T. Calman, Dr. P. Chalmers 
Mitchell, Mr. W. L. Sclater. £1. 


To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine 
Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Chairman and Secretary), Prof. 
W.. J. Dakin, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Prof.§8.J. Hickson. £35. 


To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for 
the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir 8. Harmer 
(Chairman), Dr. W. T. Calman (Secretary), Prof. E. 8. Goodrich, Prof. D. M. 8. 
Watson. £50. 


On the Influence of the Sex Physiology of the Parents on the Sex-Ratio of the Offspring. 
—Prof. W. J. Dakin (Chairman), Mrs. Bisbee (Secretary), Prof. Carr-Saunders, 
Miss E.C. Herdman. £10. 


To report on the Pre-Linnean Zoological Collections and Specimens still extant in 
Great Britain, with a view to their safe custody.—Prof. E. 8. Goodrich (Chairman), 
Dr. R. T. Gunther (Secreiary). 


To draw up recommendations for the taking and presentation of Biologica] Measure- 
ments, and to bring such before persons or bodies concerned.—Prof. J. S. Huxley 
(Chairman), Dr. R. A. Fisher (Secretary). 


Pia RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 


Investigations on Pigment in the Insecta.—Prof. W. Garstang (Chairman), Dr. J. W. 
Heslop Harrison (Secretary), Prof. E. B. Poulton, Prof. A. D. Peacock. £15, 


Experimental investigation of the effects of Vasoligation, Cryptorchidism, Grafting, 
ete., on the Seminal Tubules and Interstitial Tissue of the Testes in Mammals. 
—Dr. F. A. E. Crew (Chairman), Mr. J. T. Cunningham (Secretary), Prof. J. 8. 
Huxley. £10. 


To consider the position of Animal Biology in the School Curriculum and matters 
relating thereto.—Prof. R. D. Laurie (Chairman and Secretary), Mr. H. W. 
Ballance, Dr. Kathleen E. Carpenter, Prof. W. J. Dakin, Mr. O. H. Latter, Prof. 
E. W. MacBride, Miss M. McNicol, Miss A. J. Prothero. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


To consider the advisability of making a Provisional Population Map of the British 
Isles, and to make recommendations as to the method of construction and 
reproduction.—Mr. H. O. Beckit (Chairman), Mr. J. Cossar (Secretary), Mr. J. 
Bartholomew, Mr. F. Debenham, Dr. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. R. H. 
Kinvig, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Prof. 0. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby, Lt.-Col. 
H.S. L. Winterbotham. £25. 


To inquire into the present state of Geographical Knowledge of Tropical Africa, and 
to make recommendations for furtherance and development.—Sir Charles Lucas 
(Chairman), Mr. A. G. Ogilvie (Secretary), Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. J. McFarlane, 
Prof. P. M. Roxby. £10. 


SECTIONS E, L.—GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION. 


To formulate suggestions for a Syllabus for the Teaching of Geography both to Matricu- 
lation Standard and in Advanced Courses; to report upon the present position 
of the geographical training of teachers, and to make recommendations thereon ; 
and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee 
of Section E, upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of 
Education (including Scotland) affecting the position of Geography in Training 
Colleges and Secondary Schools.—Prof. T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Mr. W. H. 
Barker (Secretary), Mr. L. Brooks, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, 
Mr. J. McFarlane, Sir H. J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. Marion Newbigin, 
Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Mr. A. Stevens, and Prof. J. F. Unstead (from Section EZ); Mr. 
D. Berridge, Mr. C. F. Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss O. Wright 
(from Section L). £38. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


To investigate certain aspects of Taxation in relation to the Distribution of Wealth.— 
Sir Josiah Stamp (Chairman), Mr. BR. B. Forrester (Secretary), Prof. E. Cannan, 
Prof. H. Clay, Mr. W. H. Coates, Miss L. Grier, Prof. H. M. Hallsworth, Prof. 
J. G. Smith, Mr. J. Wedgwood, Sir A. Yarrow. £20. 


SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. 


Earth Pressures.—Mr. Wentworth Sheilds (Chairman), Dr. J. S. Owens (Secretary), 
Prof. G. Cook, Mr. T. E. N. Fargher, Prof. F. C. Lea, Mr. R. V. Southwell, Dr. 
R. E. Stradling, Dr. W. N. Thomas, Mr. E. G. Walker, Mr. J. 8. Wilson. £10. 


Electrical Terms and Definitions.—Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson (Chairman), Prof. F. G. 
Baily and Prof. G. W. O. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Dr. W. H. Eccles, 
Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Prof. E. W. Marchant, Dr. F. E. Smith, Prof. L. R. 
Wilberforce, with Dr. A. Russell and Mr. C. C. Wharton. 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY., - 


To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chazr- 
man), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour, 
Prof. T. H. Bryce, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, Dr. Cyril Fox, Mr. G. A. Garfitt. £100. 


a 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES. xxix 


To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles.— 
Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. H. Balfour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr. 
O. G. S. Crawford, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, 
Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. 

To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.—Prof. J. LL. Myres (Chairman), Mr. S. 
Casson (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. M. Thompson. £50. 


To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments.—Mr. 
G. A. Garfitt (Chairman), Mr. K. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. O. G. 8. Crawford, 
Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. C. Fox, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L. 
Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Rev. Canon Quine. 


The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro- 
pological Interest.—Mr. E. Torday (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), 
Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof. J. L. Myres. 


To report on the probable sources of the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians.— 
Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, 
Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. Gordon Childe, Prof. C. H. Desch, Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, Prof. 8. Langdon, Mr. E. Mackay, Sir Flinders Petrie, Mr. C. Leonard 
Woolley. 

To conduct Archexological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.— 
(Chairman), Prot. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A. 
Evans, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. 


To investigate the Culture of the Peasant Population of Modern Egypt.—Prof. J. L. 
Myres (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, 
Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Capt. Hilton Simpson, Prof. H. J. Rose. £100 (contingent). 


The Investigation of a hill fort site at Llanmelin, near Caerwent.—Dr. Willoughby 
Gardner (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Prof. H. J. Fleure, 
Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Prof. H. J. Rose, Dr. R. Mortimer Wheeler. 


To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent’s Cavern.— 
Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Dr. R. V. Favell, Mr. 
G. A. Garfitt, Prof. W. J. Sollas, Mr. Mark L. Sykes. 


To conduct Anthropological investigations in some Oxfordshire villages.—Mr. H. J. E. 
Peake (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 
Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. F. G. Parsons. £15. 


To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Paleolithic 
Implements to Glacial Deposits.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N. 
Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. M. Burkitt, Prof. 
P. F. Kendall, Prof. J. F. Marr. 

To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the explora- 
tion of Caves in the Derbyshire district.—Sir W. Boyd Dawkins (Chairman), 
Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. 
M. Burkitt, Mr. E. N. Fallaize, Dr. R. V. Favell, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Miss D. A. E. 
Garrod, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Dr. L. S. Palmer, Prof. F. G. 
Parsons, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. £50. 

To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering Differences 
due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women.—Sir 
A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, 
Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. 


To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archeological Bibliography, with 
power to co-operate with other bodies.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. 
Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. O. G. S. Crawford, 
Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Dr. D. Randall-MaclIver,. 
Mr. T. Sheppard. 

To report on the progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present century.— 
Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, 
Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman. 


To investigate certain Physical Characters and the Family Histories of Triplet Children. 
es ee Shrubsall (Chairman), Dr. R. A. Fisher (Secretary), Miss R. M. Fleming, 
r. A. Low. 


XXX RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 


To conduct explorations on Early Neolithic Sites in Holderness.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake 
(Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. M. Burkitt, Dr. R. V. 
Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Prof. H. Ormerod, Dr. L. 8. 
Palmer. 


To investigate the antiquity and cultural relations of the Ancient Copper Workings 
in the Katanga and Northern Rhodesia.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E.N. 
Fallaize and Mr. G. A. Wainwright (Secretaries), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, 
Dr. Randall-MacIver. 


To arrange for the publication of a new edition of ‘ Notes and Queries on Anthro- 
pology.’—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mrs, 
Robert Aitken, Mr. H. Balfour, Capt. T. A. Joyce, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mrs. Seligman, 
Prof. C. G. Seligman. 


To consider the lines of Investigation which might be undertaken in Archeological and 
Anthropological Research in South Africa prior to and in view of the meeting of 
the Association in that Dominion in 1929.—Sir H. Miers (Chairman), Dr. D. 
Randall-MaclIver (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Prof. J. L. Myres. 


To co-operate with Dr. Klercker’s archeological laboratory in Scania in research.— 
Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. E. K. Tratman. 


SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


The Investigation of the Medullary Centres.—Prof. C. Lovatt Evans (Chairman), 
Dr. J. M. Duncan Scott (Secretary), Dr. H. H. Dale. £17. 


Colour Vision, with particular reference to the classification of Colour-blindness.— 
Sir C. 8S. Sherrington (Chairman), Prof. H. FE. Roaf (Secretary), Prof. E. N.daC. 
Andrade, Dr. Mary Collins, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, Prof. H. Hartridge. 


Ductless Glands, with particular reference to the effect of autacoid activities on 
vasomotor reflexes.—Prof. J. Mellanby (Chairman), Prof. Swale Vincent 
(Secretary), Prof. B. A. MeSwiney. £30. 


SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


Vocational Tests.—Dr. C. 8. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C. 
Burt, Mr. F. M. Earle, Dr. Ll. Wynn Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof. C. Spearman. 
£14. 


The place of Psychology in the Medical Curriculum.—Dr. W. Brown (Chairman), 
Dr. R.D. Gillespie (Secretary), Dr. C. H. Bond, Prof. E. P. Cathcart, Dr. H. Devine, 
Dr. J. A. Hadfield, Dr. Bernard Hart, Dr. D. K. Henderson, Dr. J. R. Lord, 
Dr. C. 8. Myers, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof. G. M. Robertson, Dr. T. A. Ross. 


SECTION K.—BOTANY. 


‘The effect of Ultra-violet Light on Plants.—Prof. W. Neilsen Jones (Chairman), Dr. 
E. M. Delf (Secretary), Prof. V. H. Blackman. £60. 


‘To consider further the advisability of instituting a Diploma in Biology for Students in 
Training Colleges.—Prof. F. O. Bower (Chairman), Dr. Ethel N. M. Thomas 
(Secretary), Prof. R. D. Laurie, Prof. S. Mangham, Miss A. Moodie, Mr. J. L. Sager, 
Miss E. H. Stevenson, Prof. J. Lloyd Williams. 


‘To assist in the Publication by Mr. W. B. Turrill of ‘The Phytogeography of the 
Balkan Peninsula.’—Prof. A. G. Tansley (Chairman), Mr. W. B. Turrill (Secretary), 
Dr. A. B. Rendle, Dr. E. J. Salisbury. £50. 


‘The Chemical Analysis of Upland Bog Waters.—Prof. J. H. Priestley (Chairman), Mr. 
A. Malins Smith (Secretary), Dr. B. M. Griffiths, Dr. E. K. Rideal. £25. 

‘The Status of a series of naturally occurring British Rose-hybrids.—Prof. J. W. 
Heslop Harrison (Chairman), Dr. Kathleen B. Blackburn (Secretary), Miss A. J. 
Davey. £10. 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES—RESOLUTIONS, &c. Seas 


To co-operate with other bodies in furthering the Preservation of Rare Plants in 
Britain.—Dr. A. W. Hill (Chairman), Dr. H. Hamshaw Thomas (Secretary), Dr. 
G. Claridge Druce, Mr. W. O. Howarth, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Prof. A. G. Tansley, 
Dr. T. W. Woodhead. 


Transplant Experiments.—Dr. A. W. Hill (Chairman), Mr. W. B. Turrill (Secretary), 
Prof. F. W. Oliver, Dr. E, J. Salisbury, Prof. A. G. Tansley. £25. 


SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 


To consider the Educational Training of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools for over- 
seas life.—Sir J. Russell (Chairman), Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Major A. G. 
Church, Mr. H. W. Cousins, Dr. J. Vargas Eyre, Mr. G. H. Garrad, Rev. Dr. 
H. B. Gray, Sir R. A. Gregory, Mr. O. H. Latter, Miss E. H. McLean, Miss Rita 
Oldham, Mr. G. W. Olive, Miss Gladys Pott, Mr. A. A. Somerville, Dr. G. K. 
Sutherland, Mrs. Gordon Wilson. £10. 


The bearing on School Work of recent views on formal training.—Dr. C. W. Kimmins 
(Chairman), Mr. H. E. M. Icely (Secretary), Prof. R. L. Archer, Prof. Cyril Burt, 
Prof. F. A. Cavenagh, Miss E. R. Conway, Sir Richard Gregory, Prof. G. 
Thomson. 


Science in School Certificate Examinations: To enquire into the nature and scope 
of the science syllabuses prescribed or accepted by examining authorities in 
England for the First and Second School Certificate Examinations, and to make 
recommendations relating to them; particularly in regard to their relation to 
Matriculation and other University Entrance Examinations and their suitability 
as essential subjects of instruction in a rightly balanced scheme of education 
designed to create an intelligent interest in the realm of nature and in scientific 
aspects of everyday life.—Sir Richard Gregory (Chairman), Mr. H. W. Cousins and 
Mr. G. D. Dunkerley (Secretaries), Mr. C. E. Browne, Mr. D. Berridge, Dr. Lilian 
Clarke, Mr. G. F. Daniell, Dr. J. Wickham Murray, Dr. T. P. Nunn, Prof. A. 
Smithells, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Dr. H. W. T. Wager, Mrs. U. Gordon Wilson. 
£10. 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


Corresponding Societies Committee——The President of the Association (Chairman 
ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), the General Secretaries, the General 
Treasurer, Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir David Prain, Sir John 
Russell, Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney ; with authority to co-opt representa- 
tives of Scientific Societies in the locality of the Annual Meeting. 


RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS. 


Tue following Resolutions and Recommendations were referred to the 
Council by the General Committee at Oxford for consideration, and, if 
desirable, for action (except where specified as approved for action) :— 


From Section A. 


The Committee of Section A reaffirms its recommendation of last year with 
reference to the collection of the Mathematical Tables published by the Association 
and their republication in collected form, but adds also its opinion that it would be 
highly desirable to include in the volume other tables at present published individually 
in various journals. It is recommended that the selection of the tables be left to the 
Committee dealing with Mathematical Tables. 


Seat RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS. 
From Section E. 


The Sectional Committee strongly recommends the Council to urge upon the 
Ordnance Survey the desirability of the early preparation and publication of the 
survey of the St. Kilda group of islands now practically completed. (Supplemented 
by Sections C, D, H, K.) 


From Section EF. 


The Sectional Committee recommends to Council that the attention of the Scottish 
Board of Education be drawn to the Report of the Committee on Geography Teaching 
with a view to the improvement, if possible, of the status of geography in Scottish 
schools. 


From Section E. 


In the opinion of the Sectional Committee, it is desirable that a Committee of 
the British Association be formed for the study of coral reefs in the Pacific. 

The Committee therefore supports the recommendation of Section D relative to 
the Australian Great Barrier Reef Expedition (1928) and hopes that work of a 
geographical character may be included in the expedition’s programme. 


From Section H. 


That the Council be authorised to expend an amount of the Association’s funds 
as may be requisite upon such investigations in South African archeology as may seem 
desirable in view of the South African meeting. 


From Section H. 


That the Council be authorised to publish a new edition of ‘ Notes and Queries 
in Anthropology,’ the cost being defrayed from the proceeds of the sales of the last 
edition which have been or will be received from the Treasurer of the Royal 
Anthropological Institute, together with such further sums from the Association’s 
funds as may be required. 


From Section K. 


It is requested that Section K be granted permission to adopt a similar organisa- 
tion to that of Section A, and to form a separate department to be devoted to the 
discussion of forestry subjects. (Approved for action.) 


From Section K. 


That the low percentage of productive forest area in Britain is a matter of grave 
concern, and in the national interest it is urged that afforestation and reafforestation 
should be largely expedited. It is further urged that encouragement and financial 
support should be given to the development of silvicultural research and education, 
as well as to the Empire Forestry Association and other societies participating in the 
advance of the industry. 


From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies. 


Preservation of British wild flowers and plants :— 


1. That it is desirable that information should be obtained as to the number of 
Local Government areas in the United Kingdom and the Irish Free State in which 
by-laws relating to the destruction of wild flowers and plants at present exist; as 
to the terms of such by-laws; and as to the prosecutions which have taken place 
thereunder. 

2. That it is desirable to approach educational and other public bodies with a view 
to securing their co-operation in the protection of wild flowers and forest or woodland 
trees from fire or other damage. 


“ON MHA 
a» ) ~ . ~ 
ri\s 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


DARWIN’S THEORY OF MAN’S DESCENT 
AS IT STANDS TO-DAY. 


BY 


Pror. Sir ARTHUR KEITH, M.D., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


My Lorp Mayor, Mr. Vicr-CHANCELLOR, LADIES AND GENTLEMEN, 

My first duty as your President, and it is a very pleasant one, is to 
send the following message in your name to H.R.H. The Prince of 
Wales :— 


Your Royat HIGHNEss, 


The British Association for the Advancement of Science, now 
assembled in Leeds to begin another session, cannot allow your year 
of office to terminate without offering to you sincere and humble 
congratulations on the happy results which have attended your 
Presidency. A year ago, in the historic city of Oxford, you did 
British Science the signal honour of coming among us as our President ; 
the meeting you then inaugurated set a standard which future 
gatherings will strive to emulate. The inspiring message you then 
addressed to us, and through us to men of science in every part of 
the Empire, has already borne fruit. We are within sight of a closer 
union, for which the Association itself has always striven, between 
men of science overseas and their colleagues at home, in their 
endeavour to solve problems of Imperial concern. It is too soon as 
yet to assess the value of the harvest of science planted under your 
egis, for the best vintages of science mature slowly, but of this we 
are certain: the interest Your Royal Highness has taken in the 
work of this Association will prove a permanent source of encourage- 
ment for all who work for the betterment of life through increase of 
knowledge. To-night we proudly add your Presidential banner to 
those of the great men of science who have presided over this 
Association since its inception at York ninety-six years ago. 


1927 B 


24 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


In olden times men kept their calendars by naming each year according 
to its outstanding event. I have no doubt that in future times the 
Subject of ‘historian of this Association, when he comes to distinguish 
Address. the Presidential year which opened so auspiciously in Oxford 
twelve months ago, will be moved to revert to this ancient custom and 
name it the Prince’s YEAR. And I am under no misapprehension as to 
what will happen when our historian comes to the term which I have now 
the honour of inaugurating at Leeds; he will immediately relapse to the 
normal system of numerical notation. Nor will our historian fail to note, 
should he be moved to contrast the Meeting at Oxford with that which 
now begins at Leeds, that some mischievous sprite seems to have tampered 
with the affairs of this Association. For how otherwise could he explain 
the fortune which fell to ancient Oxford, the home of History? To her 
lot fell a brilliant discourse on the application of science to the betterment 
of human lives, while Leeds, a city whose life’s blood depends on the 
successful application of Science to Industry, had to endure, as best she 
could, a discourse on a theme of ancient history. For the subject of my 
address is Man’s remote history. Fifty-six years have come and gone 
since Charles Darwin wrote a history of Man’s Descent. How does his 
work stand the test of time? This is the question I propose to discuss 
with you to-night in the brief hour at my disposal. 

In tracing the course of events which led up to our present conception 
of Man’s origin, no place could serve as a historical starting-point so well 

__. as Leeds. In this city was fired the first verbal shot of that 

Bee gen long and bitter strife which ended in the overthrow of those 
rest igh who defended the Biblical account of Man’s creation and in a 
victory for Darwin. On September 24, 1858—sixty-nine 

years ago—the British Association assembled in this city Just as we do 
to-night ; Sir Richard Owen, the first anatomist of his age, stood where 
I now stand. He had prepared a long address, four times the length of 
the one I propose to read, and surveyed, as he was well qualified to do, 
the whole realm of Science; but only those parts which concern Man’s 
origin require our attention now. He cited evidence which suggested a 
much earlier date for the appearance of man on earth than was sanctioned 
by Biblical records, but poured scorn on the idea that man was merely a 
transmuted ape. He declared to the assembled Association that the 
differences between man and ape were so great that it was necessary, in 
his opinion, to assign mankind to an altogether separate Order in the 


OO 


Owen’s 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 


Animal Kingdom. As this statement fell from the President’s lips there 
was at least one man in the audience whose spirit of opposition was 
roused—Thomas Henry Huxley—Owen’s young and rising antagonist. 

I have picked out Huxley from the audience because it is necessary, 
for the development of my theme, that we should give him our attention 
Owen and foramoment. We know what Huxley’s feelings were towards 
Huxley. Owen at the date of the Leeds Meeting. Six months before, 
he had told his sister that ‘ an internecine feud rages between Owen and 
myself,’ and on the eve of his departure for Leeds he wrote to Hooker : 
“The interesting question arises: shall I have a row with the great O. 
there?’ Iam glad to say the Leeds Meeting passed off amicably, but it 
settled in Huxley’s mind what the ‘ row’ was to be about when it came. 
It was to concern Man’s rightful position in the scale of living things. 

Two years later, in 1860, when this Association met in Oxford, Owen 
gave Huxley the opportunity he desired. In the course of a discussion 

Owen repeated the statement made at Leeds as to Man’s 
a in Separate position, claiming that the human brain had certain 
~ bose structural features never seen in the brain of anthropoid 

apes. Huxley’s reply was a brief and emphatic denial with 
a promise to produce evidence in due course—which was faithfully kept. 
This opening passage at arms between our protagonists was followed 
two days later by that spectacular fight—the most memorable in the 
history of our Association—in which the Bishop of Oxford, the repre- 
sentative of Owen and of Orthodoxy, left his scalp in Huxley’s hands. 
To make his victory decisive and abiding, Huxley published, early in 
1863, ‘ The Evidences of Man’s Place in Nature,’ a book which has a very 
direct bearing on the subject of my discourse. It settled for all time that 
Man’s rightful position is among the Primates, and that as we anatomists 
weigh evidence, his nearest living kin are the anthropoid apes. 

My aim is to make clear to you the foundations on which rest our 
present-day conception of Man’s origin. The address delivered by my 
predecessor from this chair at the Leeds Meeting of 1858 has 
Opinion of given me the opportunity of placing Huxley’s fundamental 
nem. conception of Man’s nature in a historical setting. I must 
now turn to another issue which Sir Richard Owen merely touched upon 


_but which is of supreme interest to us now. He spent the summer in 


London, just as I have done, writing his address for Leeds and keeping 
an eye on what was happening at scientific meetings. In his case some- 
B2 


4, THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


thing really interesting happened. Sir Charles Lyell and Sir Joseph 
Hooker left with the Linnean Society what appeared to be an ordinary 
roll of manuscript, but what in reality was a parcel charged with high 
explosives, prepared by two very innocent-looking men—Alfred Russel 
Wallace and Charles Darwin. As a matter of honesty it must be admitted 
that these two men were well aware of the deadly nature of its contents, 
and knew that if an explosion occurred, Man himself, the crown of creation, 
could not escape its destructive effects. Owen examined the contents of 
the parcel and came to the conclusion that they were not dangerous ; 
at least, he manifested no sign of alarm in his Presidential Address. He 
dismissed both Wallace and Darwin, particularly Darwin, in the briefest 
of paragraphs, at the same time citing passages from his own work to 
prove that the conception of Natural Selection as an evolutionary force 
was one which he had already recognised. 

As I address these words to you I cannot help marvelling over the 
difference between our outlook to-day and that of the audience which Sir 
The Trans. ichard Owen had to face in this city sixty-nine years ago. 
formation of The vast assemblage which confronted him was convinced, 
a deeaige almost without a dissentient, that Man had appeared on earth 
Origin. by a special act of creation; whereas the audience which I 
have now the honour of addressing, and that larger congregation which 
the wonders of wireless bring within the reach of my voice, if not con- 
vinced Darwinists are yet prepared to believe, when full proofs are 
forthcoming, that Man began his career as a humble primate animal, and 
has reached his present estate by the action and reaction of biological 
forces which have been and are ever at work within his body and brain. 

This transformation of outlook on Man’s origin is one of the marvels 
of the nineteenth century, and to see how it was effected we must turn 
Harnins our attention for a little while to the village of Downe, in the 
Generalship. Kentish uplands, and note what Charles Darwin was doing 
on the very day that Sir Richard Owen was delivering his address here in 
Leeds. He sat in his study struggling with the first chapter of a new book ; 
but no one foresaw, Owen least of all, that the publication of the 
completed book, The Origin of Species, fifteen months later (1859), was to 
effect a sweeping revolution in our way of looking at living things and to 
initiate a new period in human thought—the Darwinian Period—in which 
we still are. Without knowing it, Darwin was a consummate general. 
He did not launch his first campaign until he had spent twenty-two 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 


years in stocking his arsenal with ample stores of tested and assorted fact. 
Having won territory with The Origin of Species, he immediately set to 
work to consolidate his gains by the publication in 1868 of another book, 
The Variation of Animals and Plants under Domestication—a great and 
valuable treasury of biological observation. Having thus established an 
advanced base, he moved forwards on his final objective—the problem 
of Human Beginnings—by the publication of The Descent of Man (1871), 
and that citadel capitulated to him. To make victory doubly certain 
he issued in the following year—1872—The Expression of the Emotions in 
Man and Animals. Many a soldier of truth had attempted this citadel 
before Darwin’s day, but they failed because they had neither his general- 
ship nor his artillery. 

Will Darwin’s victory endure for all time? Before attempting to 
answer this question, let us look at what kind of book The Descent of Man 
Hiktory 38 is. It is a book of history—the history of Man, written in a 
written new way—the way discovered by Charles Darwin. Permit 
by Darwin. ne to illustrate the Darwinian way of writing history. If 

a history of the modern bicycle had to be written in the orthodox way, 

then we should search dated records until every stage was found which 

linked the two-wheeled hobby-horse, bestrode by tall-hatted fashionable 
men at the beginning of the nineteenth century, to the modern ‘jeopardy ’ 
which now flashes past us in country lanes. But suppose there were no 
dated records—only a jumble of antiquated machines stored in the 


cellar of amuseum. We should, in this case, have to adopt Darwin’s way of 

writing history. By an exact and systematic comparison of one machine 

with another we could infer the relationship of one to another and tell 

the order of their appearance, but as to the date at which each type 

appeared and the length of time it remained in fashion, we could say 
very little. It was by adopting this circumstantial method that Darwin 
succeeded in writing the history of Man. He gathered historical docu- 
ments from the body and behaviour of Man and compared them with 
observations made on the body and behaviour of every animal which 
showed the least resemblance to Man. He studied all that was known 
in his day of Man’s embryological history and noted resemblances and 
differences in the corresponding histories of other animals. He took into 
consideration the manner in which the living tissues of Man react to disease, 
to drugs, and to environment; he had to account for the existence of 
diverse races of mankind. By a logical analysis of his facts Darwin 
reconstructed and wrote a history of Man. 


6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


Fifty-six years have come and gone since that history was written ; 
an enormous body of new evidence has poured in upon us. We are now 
able to fill in many pages which Darwin had perforce to leave 
Pca tis blank, and we have found it necessary to alter details in his 
become narrative, but the fundamentals of Darwin’s outline of Man’s 
Impregnable. ___ L ; a 
History remain unshaken. Nay, so strong has his position 
become that I am convinced that it never can be shaken. 

Why do I say so confidently that Darwin’s position has become 
impregnable? It is because of what has happened since his death in 
The Evidence 1882. Since then we have succeeded in tracing Man by means 
of Fossil of his fossil remains and by his stone implements backwards 
Remains. “in time to the very beginning of that period of the earth’s 
history to which the name Pleistocene is given. We thus reach a point 
in history which is distant from us at least 200,000 years, perhaps three 
times that amount. Nay, we have gone farther, and traced him into the 
older and longer period which preceded the Pleistocene—the Pliocene. It 
was in strata laid down by a stream in Java during the latter part of the 
Pliocene period that Dr. Eugene Dubois found, ten years after Darwin’s 
death, the fossil remains of that remarkable representative of primitive 
humanity to which he gave the name Pithecanthropus, or Ape-man ; from 
Pliocene deposits of Hast Anglia Mr. Reid Moir has recovered rude stone 
implements. If Darwin was right, then as we trace Man backwards in 
the scale of time he should become more bestial in form—nearer to the 
ape. That is what we have found. But if we regard Pithecanthropus 
with his small and simple yet human brain as a fair representative of 
the men of the Pliocene period, then evolution must have proceeded 
at an unexpectedly rapid rate to culminate to-day in the higher races 
of Mankind. 

The evidence of Man’s evolution from an ape-like being, obtained 
from a study of fossil remains, is definite and irrefutable, but the process 
; has been infinitely more complex than was suspected in 
eee has Darwin’s time. Our older and discarded conception of Man’s 
Siig transformation was depicted in that well-known diagram 

which showed a single file of skeletons, the gibbon at one end 
and Man at the other. In our original simplicity we expected, as we traced 
Man backwards in time, that we should encounter a graded series of fossil 
forms—a series which would carry him ina straight line towards an anthro- 


poid ancestor. Weshould never have made this initial mistake if we had 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. + 7 


remembered that the guide to the world of the past is the world of the 
present. In our time Man is represented not by one but by many and 
diverse races—black, brown, yellow, and white; some of these are 
rapidly expanding, others are as rapidly disappearing. Our searches 
have shown that in remote times the world was peopled, sparsely it is 
true, with races showing even a greater diversity than those of to-day, 
and that already the same process of replacement was at work. To 
unravel Man’s pedigree, we have to thread our way, not along the links 
of a chain, but through the meshes of a complicated network. 

We made another mistake. Seeing that in our search for Man’s 
ancestry we expected to reach an age when the beings we should have to 

deal with would be simian rather than human, we ought to 
a ead have marked the conditions which prevail amongst living 
i oo anthropoid apes. We ought to have been prepared to find, 

as we approached a distant point in the geological horizon, 
that the forms encountered would be as widely different as are the gorilla, 
chimpanzee and orang, and confined, as these great anthropoids now are, 
to limited parts of the earth’s surface. That is what we are now realising ; 
as we go backwards in time we discover that mankind becomes broken up, 
not into separate races as in the world of to-day, but into numerous and 
separate species. When we go into a still more remote past they become 
so unlike that we have to regard them not as belonging to separate species 
but different genera. It is amongst this welter of extinct fossil forms 
which strew the ancient world that we have to trace the zigzag line of 
- Man’s descent. Do you wonder we sometimes falter and follow false 
clues ? 

We committed a still further blunder when we set out on the search 
for Man’s ancestry : indeed, some of us are still making it. We expected that 
Discordant  Man’s evolution would pursue not only an orderly file of stages 
Evolution. but that every part of his body—skull, brain, jaws, teeth, skin, 
body, arms, and legs—would at each stage become a little less ape-like, 
a little more Man-like. Our searches have shown us that Man’s evolution 
has not proceeded in this orderly manner. In some extinct races, while 
one part of the body has moved forwards another part has lagged 
behind. Let me illustrate this point because it is important. We now 
know that, as Darwin sat in his study at Downe, there lay hidden at 
Piltdown, in Sussex, not thirty miles distant from him, sealed up in a bed 
of gravel, a fossil human skull and jaw. In 1912, thirty years after Darwin’s 


8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


death, Mr. Charles Dawson discovered this skull and my friend Sir Arthur 
Smith Woodward described it, and rightly recognised that skull and jaw 
were parts of the same individual, and that this individual had lived, as 
was determined by geological and other evidence, in the opening phase of 
the Pleistocene period. We may confidently presume that this individual 
was representative of the people who inhabited England at this remote 
date. The skull, although deeply mineralised and thick-walled, might 
well have been the rude forerunner of a modern skull, but the lower jaw 
was so ape-like that some experts denied that it went with the human 
fossil skull at all, and supposed it to be the lower jaw of some extinct 
kind of chimpanzee. This mistake would never have been made if those 
concerned had studied the comparative anatomy of anthropoid apes. 
Such a study would have prepared them to meet with the discordances 
of evolution. The same irregularity in the progression of parts is evident 
in the anatomy of Pithecanthropus, the oldest and most primitive form of 
humanity so far discovered. The thigh-bone might easily be that of modern 
man, the skull-cap that of an ape, but the brain within that cap, as we 
now know, had passed well beyond an anthropoid status. If merely a 
lower jaw had been found at Piltdown an ancient Englishman would have 
been wrongly labelled ‘ Higher anthropoid ape’; if only the thigh-bone 
of Pithecanthropus had come to light in Java, then an ancient Javanese, 
almost deserving the title of anthropoid, would have passed muster as a 
man. 
Such examples illustrate the difficulties and dangers which beset the 
task of unravelling Man’s ancestry. There are other difficulties; there 
_ still remain great blanks in the geological record of Man’s 
Zs atts evolution. As our search proceeds these blanks will be filled 
Semele in, but in the meantime let us note their nature and their 
extent. By the discovery of fossil remains we have followed 
Man backwards to the close of the Pliocene—a period which endured at 
least for a quarter of a million years, but we have not yet succeeded in 
tracing him through this period. It is true that we have found fossil 
teeth in Pliocene deposits which may be those of an ape-like man or of a 
man-like ape; until we find other parts of their bodies we cannot decide. 
When we pass into the still older Miocene period—one which was certainly 
twice as long as the Pliocene—we are in the heyday of anthropoid 
history. Thanks to the labours of Dr. Guy E. Pilgrim, of the Indian 
Geological Survey, we know already of a dozen different kinds of 


: 
: 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 


great anthropoids which lived in Himalayan jungles during middle 
and later Miocene times; we know of at least three other kinds of 
great anthropoids which lived in the contemporary jungles of 
Europe. Unfortunately we have found as yet only the most resistant 
parts of their bodies—teeth and fragments of jaw. Do some of these 
fragments represent a human ancestor? We cannot decide until a lucky 
chance brings to light a limb-bone or a piece of skull, but no one can 
compare the teeth of these Miocene anthropoids with those of primitive 
man, as has been done so thoroughly by Prof. William K. Gregory, and 
escape the conviction that in the dentitions of the extinct anthropoids of 
the Miocene jungles we have the ancestral forms of human teeth. 

It is useless to go to strata still older than the Miocene in search of 
Man’s emergence; in such strata we have found only fossil traces of 
Date of Man’s ©Merging anthropoids. All the evidence now at our disposal 
Emergence. supports the conclusion that Man has arisen, as Lamarck 
and Darwin suspected, from an anthropoid ape not higher in the zoological 
scale than a chimpanzee, and that the date at which human and anthropoid 
lines of descent began to diverge lies near the beginning of the Miocene 
period. On our modest scale of reckoning, that gives Man the respectable 
antiquity of about one million years. 

Our geological search, which I have summarised all too briefly, has 
not produced so far the final and conclusive evidence of Man’s anthropoid 
Peonts of our origin; we have not found as yet the human imago emerging 
Anthropoid from its anthropoid encasement. Why, then, do modern 
saat anthropologists share the conviction that there has been an 
anthropoid stage in our ancestry? They are no more blind than you are 
to the degree of difference which separates Man and ape in structure, in 
appearance and in behaviour. I must touch on the sources of this con- 
viction only in a passing manner. Early in the present century Prof. 
G. H. F. Nuttall, of Cambridge University, discovered a trustworthy and 
exact method of determining the affinity of one species of animal to another 
by comparing the reactions of their blood. He found that the blood of Man 
and that of the great anthropoid apes gave almost the same reaction. 
Bacteriologists find that the living anthropoid body possesses almost the 
same susceptibilities to infections, and manifests the same reactions, as 
does the body of Man. So alike are the brains of Man and anthropoid 
in their structural organisation that surgeons and physiologists. transfer 
experimental observations from the one to the other. When the human 


10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


embryo establishes itself in the womb it throws out structures of a most 
complex nature to effect a connection with the maternal body. We 
now know that exactly the same elaborate processes occur in the 
anthropoid womb and in no other. We find the same vestigial structures 
—the same ‘evolutionary post-marks’—in the bodies of Man and 
anthropoid. The anthropoid mother fondles, nurses and suckles her 
young in the human manner. This is but a tithe of the striking and 
intimate points in which Man resembles the anthropoid ape. In what 
other way can such a myriad of coincidences be explained except by 
presuming a common ancestry for both ? 

The crucial chapters in Darwin’s Descent of Man are those in which he 
seeks to give a historical account of the rise of Man’s brain and of the 
The varied functions which that organ subserves. How do these 
Evolution of chapters stand to-day? Darwin was not a professional 
Man’s Brain.» atomist and therefore accepted Huxley’s statement that 
there was no structure in the human brain that was not already present 
in that of the anthropoid. In Huxley’s opinion the human brain was 
but a richly annotated edition of the simpler and older anthropoid book, 
and that this edition, in turn, was but the expanded issue of the still older 
original primate publication. Since this statement was made thousands 
of anatomists and physiologists have studied and compared the brain of 
Man and ape; only a few months ago Prof. G. Elliot Smith summarised 
the result of this intensive enquiry as follows: ‘ No structure found in the 
brain of an ape is lacking in the human brain, and, on the other hand, the 
human brain reveals no formation of any sort that is not present in the 
brain of the gorilla or chimpanzee. . . . The only distinctive feature of 
the human brain is a quantitative one.’ The difference is only quanti- 
tative but its importance cannot be exaggerated. In the anthropoid 
brain are to be recognised all those parts which have become so 
enormous in the human brain. It is the expansion of just those parts 
which have given Man his powers of feeling, understanding, acting, 
speaking and learning. 

Darwin himself approached this problem not as an anatomist but as 
a psychologist, and after many years of painstaking and exact observation, 
The Evidence Succeeded in convincing himself that, immeasurable as are 
of Psychology. the differences between the mentality of Man and ape, they 
are of degree, not of kind. Prolonged researches made by modern psycho- 
logists have but verified and extended Darwin’s conclusions. No matter 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. sg 


what line of evidence we select to follow—evidence gathered by 
anatomists, by embryologists, by physiologists, or by psychologists—we 
reach the conviction that Man’s brain has been evolved from that of an 
anthropoid ape and that in the process no new structure has been intro- 
duced and no new or strange faculty interpolated. 

In these days our knowledge of the elaborate architecture and 
delicate machinery of the human brain makes rapid progress, but I should 
Unexplained mislead if I suggested that finality is in sight. Far from it ; 
Problems. our enquiries are but begun. There is so much we do not 
yet understand. Will the day ever come when we can explain why the 
brain of man has made such great progress while that of his cousin 
the gorilla has fallen so far behind? Can we explain why inherited 
ability falls to one family and not to another, or why, in the matter 
of cerebral endowment, one race of mankind has fared so much 
better than another? We have as yet no explanation to offer, but 
an observation made twenty years ago by one on whom Nature has 
showered great gifts—a former President of this Association and the 
doyen of British zoologists—Sir E. Ray Lankester—deserves quotation in 
this connection: ‘ The leading feature in the development and separation 
of Man from other animals is undoubtedly the relative enormous size of 
the brain in Man and the corresponding increase in its activities and 
capacity. It is a striking fact that it was not in the ancestors of Man 
alone that this increase in the size of the brain took place at this same 
period—the Miocene. Other great mammals of the early Tertiary period 
were in the same case.’ When primates made their first appearance 
in geological records, they were, one and all, small-brained. We have to 
recognise that the tendency to increase of brain, which culminated in the 
production of the human organ, was not confined to Man’s ancestry but 
appeared in diverse branches of the Mammalian stock at a corresponding 
period of the earth’s history. 

I have spoken of Darwin as a historian. To describe events and to 
give the order of their occurrence is the easier part of a historian’s task ; 
his real difficulties begin when he seeks to interpret the 
recpua happenings of history, to detect the causes which produced 
ee intion them, and explain why one event follows as a direct sequel to 

another. Up to this point we have been considering only the 
materials for Man’s history, and placing them, so far as our scanty informa- 
tion allows, in the order of their sequence, but now we have to seek out the 


12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


biological processes and controlling influences which have shaped the 
evolutionary histories of Man and ape. The evolution of new types of 
Man or of ape is one thing, and the evolution of new types of motor cars 
is another, yet for the purposes of clear thinking it will repay us to use 
the one example to illustrate the other. In the evolution of motor 
vehicles Darwin’s law of Selection has prevailed; there has been severe 
competition and the types which have answered best to the needs and 
tastes of the public have survived. The public has selected on two 
grounds—first for utility, thus illustrating Darwin’s law of Natural 
Selection, and secondly because of appearance’s sake; for, as most people 
know, a new car has to satisfy not only the utilitarian demands of its 
prospective master but also the esthetic tastes of its prospective 
mistress, therein illustrating Darwin’s second law—the law of Sexual 
Selection. That selection, both utilitarian and esthetic, is producing an 
effect on modern races of mankind and in surviving kinds of ape, as 
Darwin supposed, cannot well be questioned. In recent centuries the 
inter-racial competition amongst men for the arable lands of the world 
is keener than in any known period of human history. 

The public has selected its favoured types of car, but it has had no 
direct hand in designing and producing modifications and improvements 
The which have appeared year after year. To understand how 
Production such modifications are produced the enquirer must enter a 
ane factory and not only watch artisans shaping and fitting parts 
together but also visit the designer’s office. In this way an enquirer will 
obtain a glimpse of the machinery concerned in the evolution of motor 
cars. If we are to understand the machinery which underlies the 
evolution of Man and of ape, we have to enter the ‘ factories ° where 
they are produced—look within the womb and see the ovum being 
transformed into an embryo, the embryo into a fcetus, and the foetus 
into a babe. After birth we may note infancy passing into childhood, 
childhood into adolescence, adolescence into maturity, and maturity into 
old age. Merely to register the stages of change is not enough ; to under- 
stand the controlling machinery we have to search out and uncover the 
processes which are at work within developing and growing things and 
the influences which co-ordinate and control all the processes of develop- 
ment and of growth. When we have discovered the machinery of 
development and of growth we shall also know the machinery of Evolution, 
for they are the same. 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 


If the simile I have used would sound strange in Darwin’s ear, could he 
hear it, the underlying meaning would be familiar to him. Over and 


over again he declared that he did not know how ‘ variations ’ 
Machine and 
Animal 


Evolution known, for in his time hormones were undreamt of and 
contrasted. 


were produced, favourable or otherwise; nor could he have 


experimental embryology scarcely born. With these recent 
discoveries new vistas opened up for students of Evolution. The moment 
we begin to work out the simile I have used and compare the evolutionary 
machinery in a motor factory with that which regulates the development 
of an embryo within the womb, we realise how different the two processes 
are. Let us imagine for a moment what changes would be necessary 
were we to introduce ‘embryological processes’ into a car factory. 
We have to conceive a workshop teeming with clustering swarms of 
microscopic artisans, mere specks of living matter. In one end of this. 
factory we find swarms busy with cylinders, and as we pass along we note 
that every part of a car isin process of manufacture, each part being 
the business of a particular brigade of microscopic workmen. There is 
no apprenticeship in this factory, every employee is born, just as a hive- 
bee is, with his skill already fully developed. -No plans or patterns are 
supplied ; every workman has the needed design in his head from birth. 
There is neither manager, overseer, nor foreman to direct and co-ordinate 
the activities of the vast artisan armies. And yet if parts are to fit when 
assembled, if pinions are to mesh and engines run smoothly, there must 
be some method of co-ordination. It has to be a method plastic enough 
to permit difficulties to be overcome when such are encountered and to 
permit the introduction of advantageous modifications when these are 
needed. A modern works manager would be hard put to were he asked 
to devise an automatic system of control for such a factory, yet it is just 
such a system that we are now obtaining glimpses of in the living work- 
shops of Nature. 
I have employed a crude simile to give the lay mind an inkling of 
what happens in that ‘ factory’ where the most complicated of machines 


The are forged—the human body and brain. The fertilised 


Machinery of ovum divides and redivides; one brood of microscopic 


ee pment. living units succeeds another, and as each is produced the 


units group themselves to form the ‘ parts’ of an embryo. Each ‘ part’ 
is a living society; the embryo is a huge congeries of interdependent 
societies. How are their respective needs regulated, their freedoms 


14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


protected, and their manceuvres timed? Experimental embryologists 
have begun to explore and discover the machinery of regulation. We 
know enough to realise that it will take many generations of investigators 
to work over the great and new field which is thus opening up. When 
this is done we shall be in a better position to discuss the cause of * varia- 
tion’ and the machinery of Evolution. 

If we know only a little concerning the system of government which 
prevails in the developing embryo we can claim that the system which 
The Machinery Prevails in the growing body, as it passes from infancy to 
of Growth. maturity, is becoming better known to us every year. The 
influence of the sex glands on the growth of the body has been known since 
ancient times; their removal in youth leads to a transformation in the 
growth of every part of the body, altering at the same time the reactions 
and temperament of the brain. In more recent years medical men have 
observed that characteristic alterations inthe appearance and constitution of 
the human body can be produced by the action of other glands—the pitui- 
tary, thyroid, parathyroid, and adrenals. Under the disorderly action of 
one or other of these glands individuals may, in the course of a few years, 
take on so changed an appearance that the differences between them and 
their fellows become as great as, or even greater than, those which separate 
one race of mankind from another. The physical characters which are _ 
thus altered are just those which mark one race off from another. How 
such effects are produced we did not know until 1904, when the late 
Prof. E. H. Starling, a leader amongst the great physiologists of our time, 
laid bare an ancient and fundamental law in the living animal body—his 
law of hormones. I have pictured the body of a growing child as an 
immense society made up of myriads of microscopic living units, ever 
increasing in numbers. One of the ways—probably the oldest and most 
important way—in which the activities of the communities of the body 
are co-ordinated and regulated is by the postal system discovered by 
Starling, wherein the missives are hormones—chemical substances in 
ultra-microscopic amounts, despatched from one community to another 
in the circulating blood. Clearly the discovery of this ancient and 
intricate system opens up fresh vistas to the student of Man’s evolution. 
How Darwin would have welcomed this discovery! It would have given 
him a rational explanation to so many of his unsolved puzzles, including 
that of ‘ correlated variations.’ Nor can I in this connection forbear to 
mention the name of one who presided so ably over the affairs of this 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15 


Association fifteen years ago—Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer. He was the 
pioneer who opened up this field of investigation and has done more than 
anyone to place our knowledge of the nature and action of the glands of 
internal secretion on a precise basis of experimental observation. With 
such sources of knowledge being ever extended and others of great 
importance, such as the study of Heredity, which have been left 
unmentioned, we are justified in the hope that Man will be able in due 
time not only to write his own history but to explain how and why 
events took the course they did. 

In a brief hour I have attempted to answer a question of momentous 
importance to all of us—What is Man’s origin? Was Darwin right when 
he said that Man, under the action of biological forces which can be observed 
and measured, has been raised from a place amongst anthropoid apes to 
that which he now occupies? The answer is Yes! and in returning 
this verdict I speak but as foreman of the jury—a jury which has 
been empanelled from men who have devoted a lifetime to weighing the 
evidence. To the best of my ability I have avoided, in laying before you 
the evidence on which our verdict was found, the réle of special pleader, 
being content to follow Darwin’s own example—Let the Truth speak for 
itself. 


SECTION A—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


THE OUTSTANDING PROBLEMS 
OF RELA TIVE 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. E. T. WHITTAKER, LL.D., 8c.D., F.RS., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Ir was in January 1914 that Einstein’ made his great departure from the 
Newtonian doctrine of gravitation by abandoning the idea that the 
gravitational potential is scalar. The thirteen eventful years which have 
passed since then have seen the rapid development of the new theory, 
which is called General Relativity, and the confirmation by astronomers 
and astrophysicists of its predictions regarding the bending of light-rays 
by the sun and the displacement of spectral lines. At the same time a 
number of new problems have arisen in connection with it; and perhaps 
the time has now come to review the whole situation and to indicate where 
there is need for further investigation. 

Speaking from this Chair I may perhaps be permitted to recall that 
my first experience of the British Association was as one of the secre- 
taries of Section A nearly thirty years ago ; and that my secretarial duties 
brought me the privilege of an introduction to the distinguished mathe- 
matical physicist, Prof. G. F. FitzGerald of Dublin, who was a regular 
and prominent member of the section until his death in 1901. FitzGerald 
had long held an opinion which he expressed in 1894 in the words ‘ Gravity 
is probably due to a change of structure of the xther, produced by the 
presence of matter.’* Perhaps this is the best description of Einstein’s 
theory that can be given in a single sentence in the language of the older- 
physics : at any rate it indicates the three salient principles, firstly, that 
gravity is not a force acting at a distance, but an effect due to the modifica- 
tion of space (or, as FitzGerald would say, of the «ther) in the immediate 
neighbourhood of the body acted on; secondly, that this modification 
is propagated from point to point of space, being ultimately connected 
in a definite way with the presence of material bodies ; and thirdly, that 
the modification is not necessarily of a scalar character. The mention 
of the zther would be criticised by many people to-day as something out 
of date and explicable only by the circumstance that FitzGerald was 
writing thirty-three years ago; but even this criticism will not be uni- 
versal ; for Wiechert and his followers have actually combined the old 
ether theory with ideas resembling Einstein’s by the hypothesis that 
gravitational potential is an expression of what we may call the specific 
inductive capacity and permeability of the zther, these qualities being 


1 Zeits. f. Math. u. Phys. 63 (1914), p. 215. 
* FitzGerald’s Scientific Writings, p. 313. 


A—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. wy 


affected by the presence of gravitating bodies. Assuming that matter is 
electrical in its nature, it is inferred that matter will be attracted to places 
of greater dielectric constant. It seems possible that something of this 
sort was what FitzGerald had in mind. 

Let us now consider some of the consequences of Einstein’s theory. 
One of the first of them is that when a planet moves round a central 
attracting body in a nearly circular orbit, the perihelion of the orbit 
advances by (approximately) 67v/.2 in each revolution, where v is the 
planet’s velocity and c is the velocity of light. This gives for the motion 
of the perihelion of Mercury almost exactly the amount (42 per century) 
which is found from observation. Another consequence is that light-rays 
which pass near a massive body are deflected, the bending at the sun’s 
limb being 1":75. This was confirmed observationally by the British 
expeditions to the eclipse of May 1919, and still more decisively by the 
Lick Observatory expedition to the Australian eclipse of September 1922: 
the Lick observers found for the shift 1”-720"-11, which differs from 
Einstein’s predicted value by much less than its estimated probable 
error. Yet another result of general relativity is that, by the Principle 
of Equivalence, light which reaches us from a place of different gravita- 
tional potential (such as the sun) must exhibit a kind of Doppler effect. 
This ‘ gravitational shift of the solar spectral lines’ is now generally 
admitted to be confirmed by comparisons of wave-lengths at the centre of 
the sun’s disc with wave-lengths from the arc in vacuo; and in 1925 the 
effect was observed, on a much larger scale, by W.S. Adams in the 
spectrum of the companion of Sirius. 

Besides the effects which have been verified observationally there are 
many consequences of Einstein’s theory which are of interest as opening 
up new fields or presenting new inter-relations of phenomena in astronomy 
and physics. For instance, there is a contribution to the precession of 
the equinoxes which, unlike ordinary precession, does not depend on the 
oblateness of the earth. Again, the bending of the rays of light near a 
gravitating body, which has been observed in the case of the sun and the 
companion of Sirius, may, theoretically at any rate, be so pronounced 
that the ray is permanently captured by the attracting body, and describes 
for ever a track round and round it, which approaches spirally and 
asymptotically to a circle whose centre is at the centre of gravitation. 
Yet another deduction is that an electrified body, or a single electron, 
which is at rest in a varying gravitational field, must emit radiation. 
Indeed, now that a definite connection has been set up between electricity 
and gravitation, the whole of electromagnetic theory must be rewritten. 

As a further illustration of the (as yet) unexplored possibilities of the 
new physics, let us consider the well-known equations for the potential 
of Newtonian gravitation, namely Laplace’s equation 


OV On Vy Ores 
sat T 3y2 T3529 
in space where there is no matter, and Poisson’s equation 
Ae ca) See ch ee 
SAGA GAT ida 


18 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


in space where matter of density p is present. In general relativity, 
when the field is statical, these are replaced by an equation 


3 
AV = iv ( ad a kT, + *) 


ik=1 


where A,V is the Beltrami’s second differential parameter for the form 
ds? = Yaj,z, dx; dx; which specifies the line-element in the three-dimen- 
sional space, T,, is the energy-tensor, and N is the velocity of light at 
the point. This equation reduces to Laplace’s equation in one extreme 
case (when no matter or energy is present at the point) and to Poisson’s 
equation in another extreme case (when the energy is entirely in the 
form of ordinary matter), but it offers an infinite variety of possibilities 
intermediate between the two, in which energy is present but not in the 
form of ordinary matter. It is possible that this equation, which evidently 
suggests an approach to the new wave-mechanics, may play as important 
a part in the microphysics and astrophysics of the future as the equations 
of Laplace and Poisson have played in the ordinary physics of the 
past. 

Let us take another consequence of the new theory. Consider the 
field due to a single gravitating particle. Take any plane through the 
particle, and in this plane draw the family of concentric circles, whose 
centre is at the particle. The length of the circumference of these circles 
will, of course, diminish as we take circles nearer to the centre: and at 
one place we shall have a circle whose circumfetence is of length 


4n6M/c* 


where 8 is the Newtonian constant of attraction, M is the mass of 
the particle in grams, and ¢ is the velocity of light in empty space. When 
we arrive at this circle we find that the element of length directed radially 
towards the centre is infinite: that is to say, the space within the circle 
is impenetrable. Every gravitating particle has a ring-fence around it, 
within which no other body can approach. 

It will be noticed that in all that I have said I have used the ordinary 
language of three-dimensional physical space, and have avoided mention 
of that four-dimensional world of space-time which looms so largely in 
most expositions of relativity. The reason is that I have been speaking 
only of phenomena belonging to the statical class, 7.e. those for which the 
field does not vary with the time: and for such phenomena, as Levi-Civita 
showed in a famous paper on the Rendiconte dei Lincet of 1917, the four- 
dimensional problem can be reduced to a three-dimensional one of the same 
kind as physicists have been accustomed to deal with. It may be consoling 
to those who distrust their own powers of doing research in four dimensions 
to know that in general relativity there are enough important unsolved 
problems of the statical type, for which capacity in three dimensions is 
sufficient, to keep all the investigators of the world busy for at least 
another generation. 

It is interesting to see how these new three-dimensional problems 
differ from those of the older Physics. Taking as an example a small 


— 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 19 


particle moving in a statical field in general relativity, we find that the 
motion is determined by Lagrangian differential equations 


d (/8L\_ 8L 
dt Ge shen ae Re rts 2.2) 

just as in the classical dynamics: but Lis not now a simple difference of 
terms of the ‘ kinetic energy’ and ‘ potential energy’ types. It shows 
the sound instinct of the creators of the old dynamics that they almost 
always studied the equations without making the assumption that L 
consists of terms of kinetic and potential type : and thus their discoveries 
remain perfectly valid in the dynamics of general relativity. 

The fundamental researches of Einstein and Hilbert, with the discovery 
of the field equations of gravitation, were published in 1915. At that 
time German scientific journals did not reach this country regularly, and 
British physicists and mathematicians were mostly occupied in one way 
or another with duties arising out of the Great War ; so that comparatively 
little notice was taken of the new theory on this side of the North Sea 
during the first year or two of its existence, and indeed it was not until 
the end of the War that most of us had any opportunity of studying it. 
In Germany, however, it was quickly realised that general relativity was one 
of the most profound and far-reaching contributions that had ever been 
made to science. Its successful prediction of new phenomena of a most 
unexpected kind was an event of the first importance, but still more 
significant was its complete subversion of the foundations of physics and 
reconstruction of the whole subject on a new basis. From time immemorial 
the physicist and the pure mathematician had worked on a certain agree- 
ment as to the shares which they were respectively to take in the study of 
nature. The mathematician was to come first and analyse the properties 
of space and time, building up the primary science of geometry ; then, 
when the stage had thus been prepared, the physicist was to come along 
with the dramatis personee—material bodies, magnets, electric charges, 
light, and so forth—and the play was to begin. But in Einstein’s revolu- 
tionary conception, the characters created the stage as they walked about 
on it: geometry was no longer antecedent to physics, but indissolubly 
fused with it into a single discipline. The properties of space, in general 
relativity, depend on the material bodies that are present; Euclidean 
geometry is deposed from its old position of priority, and from acceptance 
as a valid representation of space ; indeed its whole spirit is declared to 
be alien to that of modern physics, for it attempts to set up relations 
between points which are at a finite distance apart, and thus is essentially 
an action-at-a-distance theory ; and in the new world no direct relations 
exist at all except between elements that are contiguous to each other. 

The scheme of general relativity, as put forward by Einstein in 1915, 
met with some criticism as regards the unsatisfactory position occupied 
in it by electrical phenomena. While gravitation was completely fused 
with metric, so that the notion of a mechanical force on ponderable bodies 
due to gravitational attraction was completely abolished, the notion of a 
mechanical force acting on electrified or magnetised bodies placed in an 
electric or magnetic field still persisted as in the old physics. This seemed 


C2 


20 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


to be an imperfection, and it was felt that sooner or later everything, 
including electro-magnetism, would be re-interpreted and represented in 
some way as consequences of the pure geometry of space and time. In 
1918 Weyl proposed to effect this by rebuilding geometry once more 
on a new foundation, which we must now examine. 

Weyl fixed attention in the first place on the ‘light-cone,’ or aggregate 
of directions issuing from a world-point P, in which light-signals can go 
out from it. The light-cone separates those world-points which can be 
affected by happenings at P, from those points whose happenings can 
affect P ; it, so to speak, separates past from future, and therefore lies at 
the basis of physics. Now the light-cone is represented by the equation 
ds?=0, where ds is the element of proper time, and Weyl argued that 
this equation, rather than the quantity ds® itself, must be taken as the 
starting-point of the subject; in other words, it is the ratios of the ten co- 
efficients J», in ds’, and not the actual values of these coefficients, which 
are to be taken as determined by our most fundamental physical ex- 
periences. Following up this principle, he devised a geometry more 
general than the Riemannian geometry which had been adopted by 
Einstein : instead of being specified, like the Riemannian geometry, by a 
single quadratic differential form 


Ds Inq Uy ILq 
Pp, 

it is specified by a quadratic differential form 
Ps Inq IL Itq 
p.4 


and a linear differential form X@,da, together. The coefficients gy, 
p 


of the quadratic form can be interpreted, as in Einstein’s theory, as the 
potentials of gravitation, while the four coefficients @, of the linear form 
can be interpreted as the scalar-potential and the three components af the 
vector-potential in Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. Thus Weyl sue- 
ceeded in exhibiting both gravitation and electricity as effects of the 
metric of the world. 

The enlargement of geometrical ideas thus achieved was soon followed 
by still wider extensions of the same character, due to Eddington, Schou- 
ten, Wirtinger, and others. From the point of view of the geometer, 
they constituted striking and valuable advances in his subject, and they 
seemed to offer an attractive prospect to the physicist of combining the 
whole of our knowledge of the material universe into a single unified 
theory. The working out of the various possible alternative schemes for 
identifying these more general geometries with physics has been the chief 
occupation of relativists during the last nine years. Many ingenious 
proposals and adaptations have been published, and more than one author 
has triumphantly announced that at last the problem has been solved. 
But I do not think that any of the theories can be regarded as satisfactory, 
and within the last year or two a note of doubt has been perceptible ; 
were we after all on the right track? At last Hinstein himself* has made 


3 Math Ann. 97 (1926), p. 99. 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 21 


up his mind and renounced the whole movement. The present position, 
then, is that the years 1918-1926 have been spent chiefly in researches 
which, while they have contributed greatly to the progress of geometry, 
have been on altogether wrong lines so far as physics is concerned, and we 
have now to go back to the pre-1918 position and make a fresh start, with 
the definite conviction that the geometry of space-time is Riemannian. 
Granting then this fundamental understanding, we have now to in- 
quire into the axiomatics of the theory. This part of the subject has 
received less attention in our country than elsewhere, perhaps because 
of the more or less accidental circumstance that the most prominent and 
distinguished exponents of relativity in England happened to be men 


_ whose work lay in the field of physics and astronomy rather than in mathe- 


matics, and who were not specially interested in questions of logic and 
rigour. It is, however, evidently of the highest importance that we should 
know exactly what assumptions must be made in order to deduce our 
equations, especially since the subject is still in a rather fluid condition, 
and there is a possibility of effecting some substantial improvement in it 
by a partial reconstruction of the foundations. 

What we want to do, then, is to set forth the axiomatics of general 
relativity in the same form as we have been accustomed to give to the 
axiomatics of any other kind of geometry—that is, to enunciate the 
primitive or undefined concepts, then the definitions, the axioms, and 
the existence-theorems, and lastly the deductions. In the course of the 
work we must prove that the axioms are compatible with each other, and 
that no one of them is superfluous. 

The usual way of introducing relativity is to talk about measuring- 
rods and clocks. This is, I think, a very natural and proper way of 
introducing the doctrine known as ‘ special relativity,’ which grew out of 
FitzGerald’s hypothesis of the contraction of moving bodies, and was 
first clearly stated by Poincaré in 1904, and further developed by Einstein 
in 1905. But general relativity, which came ten years later, is a very 
different theory. In general relativity there are no such things as rigid 
bodies—that is, bodies for which the mutual distance of every pair of 
particles remains unaltered when the body moves in the gravitational 
field. That being so, it seems desirable to avoid everything akin to a 
rigid body—such, for example, as measuring-rods or clocks—when we 
are laying down the axioms of the subject. The axioms should obviously 
deal only with the simplest constituents of the universe. Now if one of 
my clocks or watches goes wrong, I do not venture to try to mend it 
myself, but take it to a professional clockmaker, and even he is not always 
wholly successful, which seems to me to indicate that a clock is not one 
of the simplest constituents of the universe. Some of the expounders of 
relativity have recognised the existence of this difficulty, and have tried 
to turn it by giving up the ordinary material clock with its elaborate 
mechanism, and putting forward in its place what they call an atomic 


clock; by which they mean a single atom in a gas, emitting light of 


definite frequency. Unfortunately the atom is apparently quite as compli- 
cated in its working as a material clock, perhaps more so, and is less 
understood ; and the statement that the frequency is the same under all 


conditions, whatever is happening to the atom, is (whether true or not) 


22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


a highly complex assumption which could scarcely be used in an axiomatic 
treatment of the subject until it has been dissected into a considerable 
number of elementary axioms, some of them perhaps of a disputable 
character. 

It seems to me that we should abandon measuring-rods and accurate 
clocks altogether, and begin with something more primitive. Let us then 
take any system of reference for events—a network of points to each of 
which three numbers are assigned—which can serve as spatial co-ordinates, 
and a number indicating the succession of events at each point to serve 
as a temporal co-ordinate. Let us now refer to this co-ordinate system, 
the paths which are traced by infinitesimal particles moving freely in 
the gravitational field. Then it is one of the fundamental assumptions 
of the theory that these paths are the geodesics belonging to a certain 
quadratic differential form 


po Inq Wy Adg. 
p,d 


The truth or falsity of this assumption may, in theory at any rate, be 
tested by observation, since if the paths are geodesics they must satisfy 
certain purely geometrical conditions, and whether they do or not is a 
question to be settled by experience. 

Granting for the present that the paths do satisfy these conditions, 
let us inquire if a knowledge of the paths or geodesics is sufficient to 
enable us to determine the quadratic form. The answer to this is in the 
negative, as may easily be seen if we consider for,a moment the non- 
Euclidean geometry defined by a Cayley-Klein metric in three-dimensional 
space. In the Cayley-Klein geometry the geodesics are the straight lines 
of the space; but a knowledge of this fact is not sufficient to determine 
the metric, since the Absolute may be any arbitrary quadric surface. 

In order to determine the quadratic form in general relativity we must 
then be furnished with some information besides the knowledge of the 
paths of material particles. It is sufficient, as Levi-Civita has remarked, 
that we should be given the null geodesics, 7.e. the geodesics along which 
the quadratic form vanishes. In the Cayley-Klein geometry these are 
the tangents to the Absolute; in general relativity they are simply the 
tracks of rays of light. 

So from our knowledge of the paths of material particles and the 
tracks of rays of light we can construct the quadratic form 


2 Ina dx, dt, 


pd 
and then we are ready for the next great axiom, namely Einstein’s 


Principle of Covariance, that ‘the laws of nature must be represented 
by equations which are covariantive for the quadratic form 


bs Ipq Uy dx, 
Dd 


with respect to all point-transformations of co-ordinates.’ 
The theory is now fairly launched and I need not describe its axiomatic 
development further. The point I wish specially to make is that in the 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 23 


above treatment there has been no mention either of length or of time : 
neither measuring-rod nor clock has been introduced in any way. We 
have left open the question whether the quadratic form does or does not 
represent anything which can be given directly by measuring-rods and 
clocks. For my own part I incline to think that the notions of length of 
material bodies, and time of clocks, are really rather complex notions 
which do not normally occur in the early chapters of axiomatic physics. 
The results of the ether-drift experiments of D. C. Miller at Mount 
Wilson in 1925, if confirmed, would seem to indicate that the geometry 
which is based on rigid measuring-rods is actually different from the 
geometry which is based on geodesics and light-rays. 

The actual laws of nature are most naturally derived, it seems to me, 
from the Minimum Principle enunciated in 1915 by Hilbert, that ‘all 
physical happenings (gravitational, electrical, &c.) in the Universe are 
determined by a scalar world-function § being, in fact, such as to annul 
the variation of the integral 


| Hf H da, dx, da, da,.’ 


This principle is the grand culmination of the movement begun 2000 
years ago by Hero of Alexandria with his discovery that reflected light 
meets the mirror at a point such that the total path between the source 
of light and the eye is the shortest possible. In the seventeenth century 
Hero’s theorem was generalised by Fermat into his ‘ Principle of Least 
Time’ that ‘ Nature always acts by the shortest course,’ which suffices 
for the solution of all problems in geometrical optics. A hundred years 
later this was further extended by Maupertuis, Euler, and Lagrange, into 
a general principle of ‘ Least Action’ of dynamical systems, and in 1834 
Hamilton formulated his famous Principle which was found to be capable 
of reducing all the known laws of nature—gravitational, dynamical, and 
electrical—to a representation as minimum-problems. 

Hilbert’s minimum principle in general relativity is a direct application 
of Hamilton’s principle, in which the contribution made by gravitation 
is the integral of the Riemann scalar curvature. Thus gravitation acts 
so as to make the total amount of the curvature of space-time a minimum : 
or as we may say, gravitation simply represents a continual effort of the 
unwerse to straighten itself out. This is general relativity in a single 
sentence. 

I have already explained that the curvature of space-time at any 
point at any instant depends on the physical events that are taking place 
there : in statical systems, where we can consider space of three dimensions 
separately from time, the mean curvature (7.e. the sum of the three 
principal curvatures) of the space at any point is proportional to the 
energy-density at the point. Since, then, the curvature of space is wholly 
governed by physical phenomena, the suggestion presents itself that the 
metric of space-time may be determined wholly by the masses and energy 
present in the universe, so that space-time cannot exist at all except in 
so far as it is due to the existence of matter. This doctrine, which is 
substantially due to Mach, was adopted in 1917 by Einstein, and has led 
to some interesting developments. The point at issue may be illustrated 


2A SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


by the following concrete problem : if all matter were annihilated except 
one particle which is to be used as a test-body, would this particle have 
inertia or not ? The view of Mach and Einstein is that it would not; and 
in support of this view it may be urged that, according to the deductions 
of general relativity, the inertia of a body is increased when it is in the 
neighbourhood ‘of other large masses; it seems needless, therefore, to 
postulate other sources of inertia, and simplest to suppose that all inertia 
is due to the presence of other masses. When we confront this hypothesis 
with the facts of observation, however, it seems clear that the masses of 
whose existence we know—the solar systems, stars, and nebulee—are 
insufficient to confer on terrestrial bodies the inertia which they actually 
possess ; and therefore if Mach’s principle were adopted, it would be 
necessary to postulate the existence of enormous quantities of matter in 
the universe which have not been detected by astronomical observation, 
and which are called into being simply in order to account for inertia in 
other bodies. This is, after all, no better than regarding some part of 
inertia as intrinsic. 

Under the influence of Mach’s doctrine, Hinstein made an important 
modification of the field-equations of gravitation. He now objected to 
his original equations of 1915 on the ground that they possessed a solution 
even when the universe was supposed void of matter, and he added a 
term—the ‘ cosmological term’ as it is called—with the idea of making 
such a solution impossible. After a time it was found that the new term 
did not do what it had been intended to do, for the modified field-equations 
still possessed a solution—the celebrated ‘ De Sitter World ——even when 
no matter was present; but the De Sitter World was found to be so 
excellent an addition to the theory that it was adopted permanently, and 
with it of course the cosmological term in the field-equations ; so that 
this term has been retained for exactly the opposite reason to that for 
which it was originally introduced. 

The ‘ De Sitter World’ is simply the universe as it would be if all minor 
irregularities were smoothed out: just as when we say that the earth is a 
spheroid, we mean that the earth would be a spheroid if all mountains were 
levelled and valleys filled up. In the case of the De Sitter universe the 
levelling is a more formidable operation, since we have to smooth out the 
earth, the sun, and all the heavenly bodies, and reduce the world to a 
complete uniformity. But after all, only a very small fraction of the cosmos 
is occupied by material bodies; and it is interesting to inquire what 
space-time as a whole is like when we simply ignore them. 

The answer is, as we should expect, that it is a manifold of constant 
curvature. This means that it is isotropic (7.e. the Riemann curvature is 
the same for all orientations at the same point), and is also homogeneous. 
As a matter of fact, there is a well-known theorem that any manifold 
which is isotropic in this sense is necessarily also homogeneous, so that 
the two properties are connected. A manifold of constant curvature is 
a projective manifold, 7.e. ordinary projective geometry is valid in it 
when we regard geodesics as straight lines; and it is possible to move 
about in it any system of points, discrete or continuous, rigidly, 7.e. so 
that the mutual distances are unaltered. t 

The simplest example of a manifold of constant curvature is the 


A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 25 


surface of a sphere in ordinary three-dimensional Euclidean space ; and 
the easiest way of constructing a model of the De Sitter World is to take 
a pseudo-Euclidean manifold of five dimensions in which the line-element 
is specified by the equation 


— ds? = du? + dy? + d2 — dv? + dv? 


and in this manifold to consider the four-dimensional pseudosphere whose 
equation is 
x+y? + 22 — y+ y? = R?. 


The pseudospherical world thus defined has a constant Riemannian 
measure of curvature — ‘/R®. 

The De Sitter World may be regarded from a slightly different stand- 
point as having a Cayley-Klein metric, governed by an Absolute whose 
equation in four-dimensional homogeneous co-ordinates is 


e+yte—v?+e=O 


where w is time. Hyperplanes which do not intersect the Absolute are 
spatial, so spatial measurements are elliptic, 7.e. the three-dimensional 
world of space has the same kind of geometry as the surface of a sphere, 
differing from it only in being three-dimensional instead of two-dimen- 
sional. In such a geometry there is a natural unit of length, namely the 
length of the complete straight line, just as on the surface of a sphere 
there is a natural unit of length, namely the length of a complete great 
circle. 

We are thus brought to the question of the dimensions of the universe : 
what is the length of the complete straight line, the circuit of all space ? 
The answer must be furnished by astrophysical observations, interpreted 
by a proposition which belongs to the theory of De Sitter’s world, namely 
that the lines of the spectrum of a very distant star should be systematically 
displaced ; the amount of displacement is proportional to the ratio of 
the distance of the star from the observer to the constant radius of curva- 
ture R of the universe. In attempting to obtain the value of R from this 
formula we meet with many difliculties: the effect is entangled with the 
ordinary Doppler effect due to the radial velocity of the star; it could 
in any case only be of appreciable magnitude with the most distant 
objects; and there is the most serious difference of opinion among 
astronomers as to what the distance of these objects really is. Within 
the last twelve months the distance of the spiral nebula M 33 Trianguli 


has been estimated by Dr. Hubble of the Mount Wilson Observatory at 
_ 857,000 light-years, and by Dr. Perrine, the Director of the Cordoba 


Observatory, at only 30,000 light-years ; and there is a similar uncertainty 
of many thousands per cent. in regard to all other very remote objects. 
Under these circumstances we hesitate to assign a definite length for the 
radius of curvature of the universe ; but it is millions of light-years, though 
probably not greater than about a hundred millions. The curvature of 
space at any particular place due to the general curvature of the universe 
is therefore quite small compared to the curvature which may be imposed 
on it locally by the presence of energy. By a strong magnetic field we 
can produce a curvature with a radius of only 100 light-years, and of 


26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


course in the presence of matter the curvature is far stronger still. So 
the universe is like the earth, on which the local curvature of hills and 
valleys is far greater than the general curvature of the terrestrial globe. 

In concluding these remarks I ought perhaps to apologise for having 
said nothing about the relation of general relativity to the new wave- 
mechanics. My excuse must be that, at the request of the Secretary of the 
British Association, this address was sent to the printer many weeks 
before the meeting; and the wave-mechanics is developing so rapidly 
that, as one eminent worker has declared, anything printed is ¢pso facto 
out of date. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. 


CO-ORDINATION COMPOUNDS. 


ADDRESS BY 
N. V. SIDGWICK, 0O.B.E., 8c.D., F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Wuen the British Association last met in Leeds, thirty-seven years ago, 
the attention of Section B was largely devoted to the discussion of 
ionisation, and at a joint meeting with Section A the new theory of 
Arrhenius was defended by van ’*t Hoff and Ostwald against the attacks 
of such conservative die-hards as 8. U. Pickering and Prof. H. E. 
Armstrong. That meeting may be taken as marking the recognition in 
this country of the distinction between ionised and non-ionised linkages. 
It seems appropriate therefore that I should devote this address to the 
discussion of a third species or sub-species of atomic linkage, that of 
co-ordination. 

The theory of co-ordination is indeed by no means new: it is only a 
few years younger than that of electrolytic dissociation ; but its inter- 
pretation, and especially the establishment of its relation to the older 
theory of structural chemistry, have only become possible through the 
advance made in our knowledge of atomic structure in the last few years ; 
and there are still many points in which its bearing on questions of general 
chemistry is not yet fully realised. 

Werner’s Theory of Co-ordination, which was first put forward in 
1891, the year after our last meeting at Leeds, origmated in an attempt 
to explain the structure of certain compounds formed by apparently 
saturated molecules with one another. A large number of such com- 
pounds, often very stable, had been observed, but they were commonly 
disregarded by chemists, or were shelved under the convenient name of 
molecular compounds ; and such attempts as had been made to formulate 
them on the lines of structural chemistry had been conspicuously 
unsuccessful. The most marked peculiarities of these compounds were 
three. In the first place their structure appeared to be quite independent 
of the ordinary rules of valency, according to which the numerical value 
of the valency of an atom element was primarily determined by the 
group in the periodic table to which it belonged, first rising and then 
falling by single units as we go from one group to the next. In these 
compounds the structure was rather determined by the tendency of four 
or six atoms or groups to arrange themselves round a central atom. 
Secondly, in these complexes, a univalent atom or group of atoms such 
as chlorine or NO, could be replaced by a whole apparently saturated 
molecule such as water or ammonia without affecting the stability of the 
complex. Thirdly, such replacement was always accompanied by a 


28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


remarkable change in the ionisation of the molecule. Thus, platinic 
chloride PtCl, combines with six molecules of ammonia forming a com- 
pound Pt(NH,),Cl,, in which all four chlorine atoms are ionised. As 
the ammonia molecules are removed one by one, the chlorine atoms 
appear to take their places in the non-ionised part of the molecule, until 
we reach Pt(NH,),Cl,, which is not ionised at all, and is not a salt: 
every replacement diminishes the positive charge on the platinum -com- 
plex by one. Jf more ammonia molecules are replaced by chlorine atoms, 
the ionisation occurs again, but now the complex has acquired a negative 
charge, so that we finally reach the well-known ‘ double salt’ K,PtCl,. 

To explain these phenomena, Werner proposed a theory of molecular 
structure founded on entirely new principles: that it was determined by 
the tendency of atoms, irrespective of the periodic groups to which they 
belonged, to attach to themselves a definite number (usually six, sometimes 
four, and less often other numbers) of other atoms or groups, which 
might either be univalent radicals or whole molecules capable of independent 
existence. These groups, together with the central atom, formed the 
‘co-ordination complex,’ and the groups were said to occupy the ‘ first 
sphere’ of combination of the central atom; the molecule might also 
contain other atoms or groups occupying a ‘second sphere,’ which were 
less firmly attached, and did not count as part of the co-ordination com- 
plex. or example, in the hexammine of platinic chloride [Pt(NH,),]Cl,, 
the ammonia molecules were regarded as occupying the first sphere of 
the platinum and satisfying its co-ordination number 6, while the chlorine 
atoms occupied the second sphere. Experimentally the groups in the 
second sphere were distinguished by the fact that they were ionised in 
water, while those forming part of the co-ordination complex were not. 
Werner produced a great mass of evidence in support of these views ; 
the chemical public in general did not, however, pay much attention to 
them until in 1911 Werner was able to show that certain compounds of 
chromium and other elements which, on his theory, should have asymmetric 
molecules could actually be resolved into their optically active forms. It 
then became evident that the theory must at least contain a large element 
of truth. 

Thus, some fifteen years ago, Werner had been able to demonstrate 
that his theory accounted for the structure of a large number of (mainly 
inorganic) compounds, with which the ordinary structural theory was not 
able to deal. He himself applied the theory to organic compounds as 
well: he regarded it as a general theory of molecular constitution, and 
sought to show that the structural theory failed even in dealing with 
organic compounds. But this must be admitted to be the weakest 
part of his argument: he was not really able to prove that the structural 
theory was inadequate in the sphere of its greatest triumphs, that of 
organic chemistry. 

An impartial critic writing at this time (say, in 1913) might have 
summed up the position thus: The theory of structural chemistry gives 
a satisfactory account of the molecular constitution of nearly all organic 
and a certain number of inorganic compounds, but it is unable to deal 
with a large number of substances of the latter class. The theory of 
co-ordination, which proceeds on wholly different lines, is able to explain 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 29 


the structure of those compounds with which the former theory breaks 
down: it can account for their composition, their properties, their 
isomerism, and even their stereoisomerism. There thus appear to be 
two different modes of chemical combination, each holding within its own 
sphere, but neither applicable to the whole of chemistry. This was 
obviously a most unsatisfactory position, and one which could only be 
temporary. It was clear that the true theory of molecular structure 
when it was discovered must be one which would apply to all compounds, 
both organic and inorganic, and that the two rival theories, that of 
structural chemistry and that of co-ordination, must ultimately prove 
to be two partial aspects of the same general phenomenon. 

The final solution of the problem was scarcely to be expected until a 
more definite idea had been reached of the physical mechanism of atomic 
linkage, and this could only be attained when more was known of the 
structure of the atom. The discovery by Sir Joseph Thomson and others 
of the electron as a universal constituent of all forms of matter had 
suggested that it was in this that the mechanism of valency was to be 
sought; but a further development of our knowledge of the electronic 
arrangement was necessary before it could be applied in detail to answer 
the questions asked by the chemist. This development was reached, in 
the years from 1911 onwards, mainly through the work of Rutherford, 
Bohr, and Moseley. Through their researches we learnt that the atom 
consists of a positive nucleus surrounded by groups of electrons, and that 
each successive element in the periodic table contains one more unit of 
positive charge on its nucleus than the one before it, and one more 
planetary electron: the atomic number being at once the ordinal number 
of the element in the periodic table, the number of units of positive 
charge on the nucleus, and the number of surrounding electrons. The 
conceptions of the nuclear atom and of atomic number may be said to 
give us the empirical formula of the atom. The next stage, the deter- 
mination of the structural formula, of the way in which the surrounding . 
atoms are arranged, although it is not yet complete, has been so far 
developed by means of the Bohr theory and its subsequent modifications, 
that we are now in a position to apply the physical results to the solution 
of the purely chemical problems of valency and molecular structure. 

It is evident that the cause of chemical combination is the striving 
of atoms to attain more stable arrangements of their planetary electrons 
by some kind of redistribution. The inert gases, since they do not enter 
into chemical combination, must already possess an arrangement too 
stable to be capable of improvement; their atomic numbers therefore 
give us the sizes of a series of completed or stable groups, and it may be 
expected that when other atoms combine to form a molecule, they thereby 
attain these numbers of electrons, or something like them. 

The application of these ideas in detail to the explanation of valency 
was primarily due to Kossel and G. N. Lewis, who published their views 
almost simultaneously in 1916. Kossel dealt with ionised links, and 
showed that their structure could be explained by supposing that they 
were due to the migration of one or more electrons from an atom which 
had a few more than a stable (inert gas) number, to another which had 
a few less ; hence the valency in ionised compounds was usually equal to 


30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


the number of places by which an element was removed from an inert 
gas, and was positive if it came after the inert gas, and negative if it 
came before. The more difficult problem of the non-ionised link, such 
as we find in elementary chlorine or hydrogen, or in methane, was 
explained by Lewis by the assumption that it is possible for two atoms, 
each of which is a few electrons short of a stable number, to share electrons 
in such a way that each counts as part of the constitution of each atom, 
thus forming a link which is not merely due to electrostatic attraction, 
and so cannot be ionised. 

These views of the two fundamental kinds of linkage—ionised and 
non-ionised, polar and non-polar, or, as Langmuir has conveniently 
called them, electrovalent and covalent—that one is due to the trans- 
ference and the other to the sharing of electrons between two atoms, have 
been confirmed by all subsequent discoveries, and may be taken to be 
generally accepted. The atomic models on which both Kossel and Lewis 
founded their theories have indeed been shown to be impossible. These 
authors supposed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus were at 
rest, and Lewis in particular assigned to them definite positions in his 
famous cube, which was subsequently developed in so much detail by 
Langmuir. We now know that any such static hypothesis is untenable ; 
it involves the assumption of a variety of otherwise unknown forces, and 
it is incapable of explaining many of the properties of atoms, especially 
their spectra ; whereas all these are accounted for by a dynamic model, 
in which the electrons move in orbits round the nucleus much as the 
planets move round the sun. But the conceptions of the transference 
and the sharing of electrons can equally well be applied to the dynamic 
model of Bohr. 

So far the mechanism of valency at which we have arrived is that of 
structural chemistry rather than that of co-ordination. The numerical 
value of the valency of an atom appears equal to the excess or defect of 

_its electrons as compared with the stable number of an inert gas. If it 
has, say, two electrons in excess, loosely attached and forming an imperfect 
group, it can lose them and become a divalent cation, or it can share them 
and so form two covalent links; if it has two electrons less than the 
stable number it can take up two from another atom or atoms and become 
a divalent anion, or it can share two electrons belonging to other atoms 
and become di-covalent ; if the excess or defect is two, the valency, of 
whichever kind, is two also. The next element, with an excess or defect 
of one, will have a valency of one. We thus arrive at the relation between 
the valency of an element and its group in the periodic table which was 
originally pointed out by Mendeléeff. In fact the majority of the structural 
formulae of organic chemistry can be translated into electronic formulae 
by the simple process of writing two dots (for two shared electrons) in 
place of a line. It is important to notice the reason for the two dots— 
for Lewis’s assumption that two shared electrons are necessary for every 
covalency. The most familiar property of valency, which has been recog- 
nised from the earliest times, is that if one atom combines with another 
it not only uses up one of its own units of combining power, but one of 
those of the other atom as well. Where the link is ionised, the reason 
of this is obvious: the electron which one atom loses must be taken up 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 3] 


by the other. But the same must hold with covalency also. If the 
covalent link consisted of a single shared electron, this would not be true. 
If the atom A could form a covalent link with B merely by sharing one 
of its own electrons with B, this would use up one of the units of B, since 
it would increase B’s electrons by one; but it would not affect the com- 
bining power of A. For example, hydrogen (1) is one electron short of 
the stable helium number 2; carbon (6) is 4 short of the stable neon 
number 10. If in methane CH, each hydrogen atom is attached to the 
carbon by a single shared electron, then if this electron is derived from 
the hydrogen it will satisfy the carbon, but will leave the hydrogen still 
one electron short; if it is derived from the carbon, it will leave the 
carbon four electrons short of the stable number. In either case the 
resulting molecule would be unsaturated, whereas it is in fact saturated. 
It was to meet this difficulty that Lewis assumed that the covalent link 
consisted of two shared electrons, one derived from each of the two linked 
atoms. On this hypothesis the carbon in methane shares one of its four 
valency electrons with each of the four hydrogen atoms, thus increasing 
the number of each hydrogen to two, and at the same time each hydrogen 
shares its own electron with the carbon, thus satisfying the carbon. 

We have therefore got an electronic mechanism which will account 
for the two recognised forms of valency, the ionised and the non-ionised. 
If these are really the only two forms of linkage which can exist in a 
molecule, it must be possible to extend them so as to account for co- 
ordination. This is in fact surprisingly simple, and the solution was 
foreshadowed by Lewis in his paper of 1916. It is clear that the link 
which attaches one of the groups of a co-ordination complex to the central 
atom is of the non-polar type. It is an essential point in Werner’s theory 
that such links are not ionised ; this is how they are distinguished from 
the links to atoms in the ‘second sphere.’ Thus in the compound 
[Pt(NH3),Cl,]Cl, the two chlorine atoms outside the bracket enclosing 
the co-ordination complex are ionised, while those inside are not. The 
same conclusion is supported by the fact that the arrangement of the 
groups in the co-ordination complex round the central atom can give 
rise to optical activity ; for this, as we know from organic chemistry, is 
only possible with groups which are attached by covalent links, that is, 
by directed forces. We must therefore look for an explanation of co- 

ordination in the formation of covalencies, that is, of links formed of 
pairs of shared electrons. But they must arise in some way different 
_ from that which we have hitherto assumed, since their numerical relations 
are different ; their number is not related to the periodic group of the 
_ central atom, and aiso they can be formed with atoms (such as the nitrogen 
in ammonia or the oxygen in water) which have already completed a 
stable number of electrons. Now in the normal covalency formation 
described above it was assumed that one of the two shared electrons of a 
link came from each of the two atoms concerned. It is obviously possible 
that both might be derived from one of them; and the recognition of 
this possibility is all that is required to provide an electronic mechanism 
for co-ordination. By means of this extension of the idea of covalency 
formation we can explain all the peculiarities of co-ordination compounds, 
of which, as we have seen, the most important are the power of further 


32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


combination shown by apparently saturated molecules such as water 
and ammonia, the attainment of a valency limit (the co-ordination number) 
independent of the periodic group to which the atom belongs, and the 
peculiar change of electrovalency which accompanies the replacement of 
a univalent radical such as chlorine by a whole molecule such as ammonia. 
We may consider these in turn. In nitrogen there are five valency elec- 
trons ; by combination with three hydrogen atoms this number is increased 
to eight, giving a molecule of ammonia, in which the octet of the nitrogen 
is complete and the atom is so far saturated. But, though complete, the: 
octet is not fully utilised: six of its members are shared with the three 
hydrogen atoms, but the other two are unshared, and so can form a fourth 
link if another atom can be found which will share them without sharing 
some of its own electrons with the nitrogen in return. This may happen 
in a variety of ways. A hydrogen ion, consisting of a single proton with 
no attendant electron, is capable of taking up two electrons, and, as we 
all know, if a hydrogen ion meets an ammonia molecule it combines with 
it to form an ammonium ion 


H H 
H:N + [H]* == fsa 
H H 


The nitrogen has now shared all its eight valency electrons, two with 
each of the four hydrogen atoms; but since the ammonia molecule is 
electrically neutral, while the hydrogen ion is positively charged, the 
resulting NH, molecule is also positively charged. Again, boron has 
three valency electrons; it can share one of them with each of three 
chlorine atoms (thus completing the octets of the chlorines), and at the 
same time take a share in one of the electrons belonging to each of the 
chlorines. This gives boron trichloride BCl,, in which the boron has 
increased its valency group from three to six. The boron cannot combine 
with a fourth chlorine atom, because, although its own octet is not complete, 
it has no more unshared valency electrons to offer for a covalent link. 
But if it meets an ammonia molecule it can share the unshared pair of 
electrons of the nitrogen, and so form a co-ordinate link :— 


Cl H Cl H 
C1: B a :N:H = Cl:B:N:H 
Cl H Cl H 


In this way each of the two atoms assumes a covalency (or, if we prefer 
to call it so, a co-ordination number) of four. 

The conditions for the formation of a co-ordinate link thus are that 
we should have one atom which has a pair of unshared valency electrons 
to offer, and another which has room for one or more pairs of electrons 
in its valency group. It is convenient to have a symbol and a nomen- 
clature to express this process, and I have therefore suggested that, while 
the ordinary covalent link is represented by a line A—B, the co-ordinate 
link should be written as an arrow A~B, pointing away from the atom 
which contributes the two electrons of the link; also we may call the 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 33 


atom which lends the electrons (A) the donor, and that which receives 
them (B) the acceptor. 

We have now to apply these ideas to the compounds on which Werner 
based his theory. Any simple cation—that is, an atom stripped of its 
valency electrons—can act as an acceptor. It can build up a valency 
group by sharing electrons belonging to other atoms, that is, by forming 
co-ordinate links. Thus the chromic ion [Cr]*** contains a stable core 
of twenty-one electrons and has no valency group; the stability of this 
arrangement is proved by the stability of the chromic salts. This ion 
can then form a series of co-ordinate links with molecules of ammonia, 
by sharing the ‘lone pair’ of electrons of the nitrogen atom. Since the 
stable size of the valency group for such an ion is 12, six molecules of 
ammonia will be taken up, and in this way the hexammine [Cr(NH3),|Cl, 
is produced. We have thus accounted for the power which certain 
complete molecules possess of combining further through co-ordination. 

The next point is to explain the peculiar change of electrovalency 
which accompanies the replacement of an ammonia molecule by, say, a 
chlorine atom. It is natural that if an ammonia molecule is removed, 
this should be replaced by another covalently linked atom, because that 
is required to maintain the valency group of 12. When the ammonia is 
removed it takes away with it the two shared electrons which it originally 
contributed ; the chlorine atom which replaces it supplies one electron 
to be shared by the chromium, but the chromium is called upon to supply 
the other electron for the link. Thus the chromium is one electron short 
of its stable number, and must take up an electron from elsewhere to make 
up the deficiency. In other words, the replacement of the ammonia by | 
chlorine will reduce the positive charge on the ion by one unit, giving 
instead of [Cr(NH,),]* ** the ion [Cr(NH,);Cl]* *, or the salt [Cr(NH,);C1]Cl,. 
The same change will occur for every replacement of a whole molecule in 
the complex by a univalent radical. Thus the very peculiar change of 
electrovalency which Werner established is a necessary result of the 
electronic mechanism underlying the linkage. The third important 
characteristic of the co-ordination compounds is the co-ordination number 
itself. As we have seen, the most remarkable point about these com- 
pounds is that the relation observed in ordinary structural chemistry 
between the valency of an element and its group in the periodic table 
disappears. Instead of finding that the valency—the number of links 
which an atom can form—increases from one in the first group to four in 
the fourth, and then falls (in the simpler compounds at any rate) to one 
in the seventh, we find that the co-ordination number is independent of 
the periodic group, and is usually either six or four. But this again 
follows necessarily from the theory. So long as the valency is expressed 
by ionisation, or by normal covalencies to which each atom contributes 
one electron, it must be limited either by the number of electrons which 
the atom has to offer or by the number for which it has room in its valency 
group; it will therefore be determined by the distance of the atom in 
question from the nearest inert gas, or, in other words, by the group in 
the periodic table to which it belongs. In its saturated compounds the 
atom will usually be left either with an imperfect valency group (like 
the boron in boron trichloride) or with one which is incompletely shared, 


1927 D 


34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


like the nitrogen in ammonia. Where co-ordination occurs this limitation 
is removed; the atom can give or take as many electrons as may be 
necessary, and in the fully co-ordinated atom it will have a fully shared 
valency group. Its maximum co-ordination valency, or co-ordination 
number, is therefore half the number of electrons in its maximum valency 
roup. 

: Th this way the conception of the co-ordinate link as being a covalency, 
that is, a link of two shared electrons, differing from the ordinary covalency 
only in this, that the two electrons both come from one of the linked atoms 
instead of one from each, provides the mechanism required to explain the 
existence and the properties of the co-ordination compounds of Werner. 
This conclusion removes the apparent contradiction between organic and 
inorganic compounds ; it refers the structure of molecules of both classes 
to the same physical principles, and exhibits the original co-ordination 
theory of Werner and the older structural theory as two aspects of the 
same general process. It further removes two objections which might 
have been urged against the co-ordination theory as it was originally 
proposed. The first of these is that it seemed to assign a unique position 
to one or two of the atoms in a molecule, which were regarded as ‘ co- 
ordination centres’ in some way governing the structure of the whole. 
‘This is obviously an incorrect view of the molecule, in which every atom 
is in a sense as important as every other. We can now see that this is in 
fact the case, and that the nitrogen in an ammine, for example, is just 
as much a centre of co-ordination as the metal. The second point is that 
the distinction which Werner made between principal and subsidiary 
valencies, which was always unsatisfactory, now disappears. It originated 
in a desire to retain the valencies of the structural theory, while recog- 
nising the formation of more links than the structural theory would 
permit. It has long been clear that there was no ground for maintaining 
the existence of this distinction within the co-ordination complex. The 
electronic theory shows that the difference between a normal and a 
co-ordinate covalency is in their method of formation; when they have 
been formed both alike consist of two shared electrons. 

The further application of these ideas to those compounds with which 
Werner’s name is most closely connected is an inquiry of great interest, 
but I do not propose to pursue it here. I would rather consider some 
more general questions. We have been led, in seeking an explanation 
of the structure of co-ordination compounds, to the conception of a third 
form of atomic linkage in addition to the recognised forms of electro- 
valencies and covalencies; or, as we should rather say, we have found 
that a covalency can arise in a second way. This new method is peculiar 
in that it allows of the combination of apparently saturated atoms or 
molecules with one another, and it is therefore the condition which makes 
the association of liquids possible. Links of this type are not confined to 
inorganic compounds, but are widely spread in organic chemistry, as 
Werner himself showed. Co-ordination is thus of great importance 
throughout the whole of chemistry. Now that we understand the physical 
mechanism which underlies it, we may hope to arrive at some idea of 
its characteristic properties, and it will be well to consider what new 
light these throw on various problems of chemistry in general. 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 35 


We have already seen that the formation of a co-ordinate link involves 
the presence of one atom which can act as a donor and another which can 
act as an acceptor. The donor must have a pair of unshared valency 
electrons. The acceptor must have fewer valency electrons than it is 
capable of holding. This raises the question of the maximum size of the 
valency group. If we maintain the original octet theory, that the valency 
group cannot exceed 8, and at the same time hold that every covalency 
involves two shared electrons, it follows that the maximum covalency 
cannot exceed 4. The existence of stable compounds such as sulphur 
hexafluoride shows that this conclusion is false, and hence that one or 
other of the two assumptions must be abandoned. Some chemists main- 
tain the octet limit, and explain the existence of atoms with a covalency 
greater than four by assuming the possibility of a covalent link formed of 
a single shared electron: they suppose, for example, that in sulphur 
hexafluoride the sulphur has eight shared electrons, and that two of the 
fluorine atoms are attached by two electrons each, and the other four by 
one each. This view seems to me to be untenable. There must be some 
relation between the mechanism of a link and its behaviour; if not, it 
is of little use to discuss the mechanism. Links of single electrons 
undoubtedly occur in a limited number of compounds of hydrogen, such 
as [H,]* and the hydrides of boron (B,H,, &c.) ; but, as we should expect, 
they are always very unstable. I cannot believe that a substance like 
sulphur hexafluoride, which is one of the most stable of known com- 
pounds, and can be heated to a red heat with sodium without 
decomposition, can contain four such links. I should therefore abandon 
the limit of 8 for the valency group (as G. N. Lewis has now done), 
and adhere to the view that in all but a few unstable compounds every 
covalency involves two shared electrons. On these principles the 
maximum size of the valency group is twice the covalency or co-ordination 
maximum. An examination of the structures of known compounds 
gives strong reason to believe that there is a direct and simple relation 
between the maximum covalency (co-ordination number) of an atom and 
its position in the periodic table, and that this depends not on the periodic 
group but on the period in which it occurs, so that the co-ordination 
classification runs horizontally, while the normal valency values, as we 
all know, run vertically. It would take too long to discuss the evidence 
for this statement, but I may give the conclusions. The maximum 
covalency of hydrogen is 2: that of elements in the first short period 
(lithium to fluorine) is 4: that of elements in the second short period 
(sodium to chlorine) and the first long period (potassium to bromine) is 
6: and that of the later elements is 8. The maximum number of electrons 
in the valency group is, of course, twice as great, being 4, 8, 12, and 16, 
respectively. No physical reason for these facts can as yet be given, but 
a certain relation can be traced between the numbers and those in the 
grouplets of the Bohr theory as modified by Stoner and Main Smith. 

The next question is the difference in properties which is to he expected 
between the normal and co-ordinate covalencies. These are essentially 
of two kinds. In the first place the co-ordinate links are in general less 
stable. The stability of a link depends on the work required to break it, 
or, in other words, on the difference of energy content between the original 


D2 


36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


molecule and the products of the rupture of the link. Hence, the more 
unstable these products are, the more difficult it is to break the link. The 
rupture of a normal covalency leads to the production of two univalent 


radicals 
Ane 


that is, of two highly unstable products. But a co-ordinate link can break 
by the return of the two shared electrons to the atom to which they 


originally belonged 
P z A:B ——- > A-+:B 


and one at least of the products is now a molecule capable of independent 
existence. Thus, the products of the rupture of a co-ordinate link are, as 
a rule, more stable than those formed by breaking a normal covalency, 
and the co-ordinate link is therefore less stable. This difference is 
particularly marked in rings containing co-ordinate links, those which 
Prof. Morgan has called chelate rings: these are far more sensitive to 
strain, owing to the weakness of the co-ordinate link, than the ordinary 
rings of organic chémistry ; while the latter are known of every size from 
three to eighteen members, chelate rings almost invariably contain 
either six or five ; a few 4-rings are known and one or two T- and 8-rings; 
but none with less than four or more than eight members. This 
explanation of the difference in strength between normal and co-ordinate 
links is of considerable importance; the fact is beyond dispute, and if 
we are to maintain that the mechanism of both forms of linkage is the 
same, consisting in the sharing of two electrons, we must be able to give 
a reason for this difference in stability. 

The second point of difference is that while the normal covalency in- 
volves no considerable disturbance of the electrostatic equilibrium in the 
molecule, this is not true of the co-ordinate link. In the normal link 
between two atoms, each atom shares one electron with the other atom. 
If the electrons were shared equally between the two, there would be no 
electrostatic disturbance at all. We do not know enough about the 
dynamics of the sharing of electrons to say how nearly this is true, but 
the properties of ordinary covalent compounds indicate that it is not far 
from the truth, and that the shared electron usually divides its time 
more or less equally between the two atoms which share it. But when a 
co-ordinate link is formed between two originally neutral atoms, one of 
them loses and the other gains a share in two electrons. Hence, the 
acceptor must receive a negative charge from the link and the donor a 
positive charge. This fact is expressed by some chemists, such as Prof. 


iis 
Lowry, by writing the link A—B instead of A>B. A molecule contain- 
ing such a link is therefore an electrical dipole. This electrostatic 
disturbance will have two chief results: it will increase the dielectric 
constant of the substance, and it will increase the attraction of the 
molecules for one another, and therefore diminish the volatility. That 
this does actually occur we have plenty of evidence; I may give a few 
examples, selected from non-associated substances, in order to avoid 
the complications which association might produce. While the value 
of the dielectric constant for hydrocarbons is about 2-3, for ethers about 4, 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 37 
and for esters about 7 (all these being free from co-ordinate links), it is 
greatly increased by the introduction of a nitro-group 

O 
n7 - 
Rw 


which contains this link, and is for nitromethane 39 and for nitro- 
benzene 36. The effect on the boiling point is seen by comparing the 
alkyl nitrites R—O—N=O with the isomeric nitro-compounds 


R — x7 : 

“=O 

the latter boil from 50° to 100° higher than the former. Many other 
examples might be quoted. 

These examples suggest the consideration of associated liquids. As 
long as we were at liberty to invent new kinds of subsidiary valencies, the 
existence of association caused no trouble. But now that we claim to 
have discovered the mechanism of atomic combination, we must identify 
the link between the molecules of an associated substance with one or 
other of the forms of link that we have recognised, and it is evident that 
the co-ordinate link is the form required. We ought therefore to be 
able to find in every associated substance a donor and an acceptor atom. 
Such atoms are always found to be present: in the most familiar class of 
associated compounds, those containing hydroxyl groups, the oxygen 
atom of this group, with its two pairs of unshared valency electrons, is the 
donor, and the hydrogen atom, being able as we have seen to increase its 
valency group from two to four, is the acceptor. We thus* get the 
possibility of an indefinite degree of polymerisation :— 


H R ye 
R-O>H—O>H—O- &c. 


That the association does depend on the two atoms of the hydroxyl group 
is shown by the fact that if we replace either the oxygen by sulphur 
or the hydrogen by an alkyl group the association disappears: neither 
the mercaptans nor the ethers are associated. Associated substances 
possess the properties which we have seen to accompany the co-ordinate 
link, the high dielectric constant and the low volatility. The latter 
property is commonly taken to be sufliciently explained by the rise of 
molecular weight which the association produces, but unless this is much 
greater than we have any reason to suppose, it will not account for the 
whole effect. For example, the ethers boil about 60° lower than the 
corresponding thio-ethers; hydrogen sulphide boils at —61°, and so 
unimolecular H,O should boil about — 120°. If the real formula of water 
is H,O, (and it is very improbable that its average polymerisation is even 
as great as this at 100°), its true molecular weight is not 18 but 54. This 
will account for a rise in the boiling point, but not for so large a rise as 
is actually found. Hydrogen selenide (mol. wt. 81-2) boils at — 42°, 
and butane (mol. wt. 58) at +1°. Evidently the polymerised molecules 


38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


themselves are much less volatile than corresponds to their molecular 
weights, as we should expect from the presence of the co-ordinate link. 
The high values of the dielectric constant (water, formamide, and hydrogen 
peroxide about 80, methyl alcohol 35, ethyl alcohol 27) are further evidence 
of co-ordination. This reference to the dielectric constant raises a point 
which is worth mentioning, although I cannot discuss it in detail here. 
In some modern developments of the theory of organic reactions great 
stress is laid on the dipole moment of such groups as hydroxyl. The 
values of these moments are calculated from the dielectric constants of 
the hydroxylic compounds, and are assumed to apply to the single 
unassociated molecules. Now since we have seen that the association 
itself must increase the dielectric constant owing to the co-ordination of 
the molecules with one another, it is by no means certain that values so 
obtained hold good for the unpolymerised hydroxyl group. It is, if course, 
quite possible that the same conditions which make the hydroxyl group 
so ready to polymerise also give it a high dipole moment even in the 
simple molecule ; but the rise in the dielectric constant which the associa- 
tion itself must produce is a factor which must be taken into account, 
especially as it is one which will vary with the temperature. 

This view that association is due to co-ordination throws light on the 
behaviour of a group of substances whose position was hitherto rather 
puzzling. There are many substances such as sulphur dioxide, ethers, and 
amines which behave in many ways like associated liquids, and yet when 
they are directly tested are found not to be associated ; they are volatile, 
and give simple values of the molecular weight in the pure state and in 
non-associated solvents. It has long been a problem how such substances 
should be classified. It is now clear that they contain only one of the 
two elements necessary to co-ordination: they have donor atoms (oxygen 
or nitrogen) but no acceptor atoms (the acceptor properties of hydrogen 
attached to nitrogen are for some reason very weak). They are thus 
incapable of polymerisation, and in the presence of non-associated liquids 
they behave as normal non-associated substances. But in the presence 
of a substance capable of association, and so containing acceptor as well 
as donor atoms, they behave as associated substances. 

These considerations emphasise a very important and far-reaching 
characteristic of the co-ordinate link, its one-sided nature. The two 
atoms taking part in it perform quite different functions ; and in deter- 
mining the structure of a co-ordination compound it is essential to show 
which of the two co-ordinated atoms is the donor and which the acceptor. 
This distinguishes the electronic view of co-ordination from the subsidiary 
valency theory of Werner and his school; there was no apparent reason 
why two atoms which could form subsidiary valencies with a third atom 
should not also form them with one another. We can see now that such 
a linkage is impossible: there must be the necessary opposition in 
character between the two atoms before co-ordination can take place. 
It is true that Werner himself was saved by his almost uncanny insight 
into molecular structure from falling into this error, but there was nothing 
in his theory to save him from it, and not all his followers had as true an 
intuition as he had himself. The recognition of this distinction, to which 
the electronic interpretation directly leads, is a definite advance. 


B.—CHEMISTRY., 39 


Among the more important developments of the theory of co-ordination 
which must be expected in the near future, its systematic application to 
organic chemistry must take a high place, for it is by the study of organic 
compounds that we really can examine in minute detail the influence of 
structure on properties. The very existence of organic chemistry—the 
fact that the compounds of carbon form a group at least as numerous 
and important as all other chemical compounds together—can only be 
fully explained by reference to the theory of co-ordination. Werner 
pointed out long ago that the unique position of carbon was due to the 
fact that its valency and its co-ordination number were identical. This 
we should now express by saying that as it has four valency electrons it 
can obtain a fully shared octet by normal covalency formation and without 
the production of co-ordinate links. But this is not all. Since carbon 
is in the first short period of the table, this octet is incapable of further 
expansion. Hence the ordinary saturated quadrivalent carbon atom is 
incapable of acting either as an acceptor or as a donor, and for this 
reason it is peculiarly well protected from the attack of other atoms. 
This is undoubtedly the chief cause of the remarkable sluggishness 
(Tragheit, as Victor Meyer called it) so characteristic of carbon, a dis- 
inclination to react which gives comparative stability to a large number 
of thermodynamically unstable compounds. That this explanation is 
sound may be seen by comparing the behaviour of the halides of carbon 
with that of the halides of neighbouring elements. Most non-metallic 
halides are readily hydrolysed by water, and-we may assume that the 
hydrolysis is preceded by a combination (through the formation of 
co-ordinate links) of the water with the halide. In boron trichloride, for 
example, the incomplete octet of the boron completes itself by sharing a 
pair of electrons from the oxygen of the water, forming the compound 


cl 
Yo-Boa , 
Hi Na 


analogous to the ammonia compound discussed above. A hydrogen and 
a chlorine atom then separate as hydrochloric acid, leaving a hydroxyl 
group attached to the boron, and by the repetition of this process 
the hydrolysis to boric acid is completed. The same reaction occurs 
with silicon tetrachloride, because, although the silicon has already a 
complete octet, it can expand this to a group of 12, since it is in the 
second period. With nitrogen the position is not quite the same. In 
the trichloride NCI, the octet of the nitrogen is complete, and it is incapable 
of expansion ; but it is not fully shared, and contains a lone pair of elec- 
trons. Hence, though it cannot be an acceptor, it can be a donor. It 
forms a co-ordinate link not with the oxygen but with the hydrogen of 
the water, giving 


Cl Cl 
NZ : 
cl“ ‘\H-O-H 


The chlorine then reacts with the hydroxyl, forming hypochlorous acid, 
while the hydrogen remains attached to the nitrogen the ultimate product 
; 


40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


being ammonia. The truth of this hypothesis of intermediate co-ordina- 
tion with the water is strongly supported by the fact that it explains the 
unusual production of hypochlorous acid from chlorine attached to 
trivalent nitrogen. ; 

But carbon tetrachloride cannot react in either of these ways. It 
has a complete octet, and cannot increase it, and the octet is fully shared, 
so that it cannot act as a donor. It therefore does not react at all. The 
remarkable inactivity of carbon tetrachloride has long been regarded as 
an unexplained anomaly, but we can now see that it is a necessary conse- 
quence of the theory of co-ordination. If we want to find a similarly 
inactive halide of an element in a later period, where a valency group of 
12 is possible, we must obviously choose one in which this group of 12 is 
fully shared and also is incapable of further expansion. Examples of 
this are the hexafluorides of sulphur and selenium, whose inactivity is 
as remarkable as that of their carbon analogue. Tellurium hexafluoride 
on the other hand is hydrolysed by water, since its valency group of 12 
can expand to 16, and the tellurium can therefore (like silicon in the 
tetrahalide) act as an acceptor. 

Now the carbon atoms in an ordinary saturated organic compound all 
resemble that in the tetrahalide in having fully shared valency groups of 
the maximum size. They are therefore incapable of the most obvious 
form of reactivity, which begins by co-ordination with a reagent molecule : 
if they are to react at all, it must be through some other atom in the 
molecule. It is a significant fact that one of the most elementary rules 
of organic chemistry is that a carbon atom united only to other carbon 
atoms or to hydrogen or the halogens is very slow to react, but that the 
introduction of a single oxygen atom into the molecule facilitates reaction. 
The comparison of the paraffins with the ethers or alcohols, of the ethers 
with the esters and the esters with the acid anhydrides, or of the alkyl 
halides with the acyl halides, illustrates the effect which an oxygen atom 
may have on the stability of a molecule. It seems natural to relate this 
effect to the strong donor properties which oxygen exhibits, and to suppose, 
for example, that the rapid hydrolysis of an acyl halide is due to the 
formation through the oxygen of a compound 


as 
Nel 


in which the hydrogen of the water is brought into close proximity with 
the chlorine, while the relative inactivity of an alkyl halide is the result 
of its inability to form such a compound. 

I make these suggestions (which might easily be extended) because 
it seems to me that in the intensive modern study of the influence of 
structure on the reactivity of organic compounds this side of the question 
has been too much neglected. Great attention has been devoted to the 
consideration of the effect of other atoms in the molecule on the strength 
of a particular linkage. A new mechanism and a new terminology—or 
perhaps more than one—have been invented to account for the results. 
This mechanism is described in terms of physical concepts, and although 
it appears to me that the properties which are assigned to these concepts 
need considerable modification before they can be accepted by the 


R—C 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 41 


physicist, there is no doubt that this mechanism enables its inventors to 
correlate a large number of important generalisations, so that some real 
truth must underlie it, although we may at present be in some doubt as 
to what that truth exactly is. But I think these chemists have tended 
to rely too much on supposed modifications of the linkages within the 
molecule, and have not sufficiently considered the possibility of the forma- 
tion of co-ordination compounds with the reagents employed, such as 
those which I have suggested above. The effect of one atom in a molecule 
in hastening the replacement of another may not be due merely to a 
weakening of the attachment of the latter, but may be caused by the 
formation of a co-ordinate link through the former, or this may promote 
co-ordination through some other atom in the molecule. We know now 
that even in purely ‘ organic ’ compounds—quite apart from those organo- 
metallic compounds which the old-fashioned organic chemist regarded 
with so much distaste—co-ordination is of frequent occurrence. In the 
particular form of the production of chelate rings, that is, in the form of 
co-ordination between two atoms of the same molecule, it has been shown 
to occur in @-diketones and -ketoesters, in many ortho-substituted 
phenols, and in «-keto-oximes, and to be responsible for much of the 
chemical as well as the physical peculiarities of these substances ; and in 
the more general form of association or ‘ molecular compound ’ formation 
its occurrence is widespread. Formerly the production of such compounds 
was ascribed to some inferior and rather contemptible form of valency, 
possibly to a force acting not between atoms at all, but between whole 
molecules, and so the influence of their formation on what were regarded 
as the reactions of genuine valencies was naturally taken little into account. 
But we now realise that they owe their existence to the production of 
-¢o-ordinate links, and that the co-ordinate link is in essence the same as 
a normal covalency. The co-ordinated hydrogen, for example, as in 


H 
a oUtetoe 
0 Se 


is attached to each of the two oxygen atoms by means of two shared 
electrons. The link on one side is just as genuine as that on the other, 
although, owing to the difference in the states of the two oxygen atoms, 
one of them may separate more easily. It therefore seems probable that 
the formation of such a link may often be a preliminary stage to the 
complete transference of the hydrogen from one point of attachment to 
another, and that the possibility of its formation may be a necessary 
condition of reaction. We have further to recognise another way in which 
reaction may be promoted by co-ordination, which is illustrated by the 
example I gave of the hydrolysis of an acid chloride. The formation of a 
co-ordination compound between two molecules may bring two atoms 
into proximity with one another, and so favour their reaction. In 
developing this possibility we have to consider the stereochemical relations. 
The study of chelate rings has shown us what forms of ring are most 
stable ; owing to the weakness of the co-ordinate link which they contain 
such rings afford, as I have already pointed out, a more delicate test of 
strain than the ordinary rings of organic chemistry. Thus we find that 
a chelate ring of six atoms, including double links, is formed with peculiar 


42 ’ SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


ease. From this we may conclude that when a chain of atoms is formed 
by co-ordination which includes one or two double links, the sixth atom 
-of this chain will be able to approach the first very closely, and so may 
be expected to react with it. In these and other ways the consideration 
of possible intermediate co-ordination products may provide the clue to 
many organic reactions. 

If this line of thought is to be pursued, there is a preliminary question 
which requires investigation. We have seen that two conditions are 
essential to the formation of a co-ordinate link, the presence of an atom 
with an unshared pair of valency electrons (the donor), and of another 
(the acceptor), which can add two electrons to its valency group. But 
these conditions, though necessary, are not sufficient. They are both 
fulfilled in most organic molecules other than those of hydrocarbons. The 
normal hydrogen atom has only two electrons, and it can hold four: 
every halogen atom, every oxygen atom, every trivalent nitrogen atom 
has an unshared pair of valency electrons ; and yet halides, ethers, and 
amines are not as a rule associated. For co-ordination to take place it 
is necessary not only that such atoms should be present, but also that 
they should be so linked that they are able to exercise their donor or 
acceptor properties. Hydrogen, for example, is a powerful acceptor 
when it is joined to oxygen or fluorine ; it is a weak acceptor when it is 
joined to nitrogen; it is practically not an acceptor at all when it is 
combined with carbon or one of the heavier halogens. We cannot at 
present explain these differences in behaviour, but it is quite easy to show 
that they exist. In the same way the donor properties of oxygen are 
very largely influenced by its state of combination. If the influence of 
co-ordination on reactivity in organic compounds is to be studied in 
detail, the first necessity is a knowledge of the factors which promote 
co-ordination itself, and this can only be attained by a careful examination 
of the facts from this point of view; a thorough investigation of the 
influence of substitution on the tendency of molecules of a particular 
type to associate with themselves, or to form addition compounds with 
other substances, would no doubt throw much light on the question. 
It would be particularly interesting to know what is the effect on activity, 
both in donors and in acceptors, of the peculiar tendencies to reaction 
which the modern organic chemist represents by positive and negative 
signs. 

I have tried in these remarks to emphasise the fact that the modern 
electronic interpretation of the theory of co-ordination has a value far 
outside the range of those compounds which the theory was originally 
devised to explain. There is too great a tendency even now to regard 
the question of co-ordination as one which is of interest only in connection 
with a highly special group of substances which the ordinary chemist 
rarely meets, whereas in truth the study of this question has given us a 
wider and a truer conception of the nature of the processes by which 
molecules are built up. The determination of the factors which influence 
chemical reaction is perhaps the most important of the fundamental 
problems of chemistry, and it is essential that the factor of co-ordination, 
with the new possibilities of reaction-mechanism which it opens up, should 
be recognised and investigated. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


THE TERTIARY PLUTONIC CENTRES 
OF BRITAIN. 


BY 
HERBERT H. THOMAS, Sc.D., F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


In presenting to you the subject of the Tertiary Plutonic centres of 
Britain, I do so with some diffidence, for of late years so much has been 
written concerning them and so much work has been done on related 
subjects that, of necessity, a great deal of what I am going to bring to 
your notice will not be new to you. I cannot pretend that Iam armed with 
an array of fresh facts and observations, nor do I propose to follow the 
fashion and propound some new theory relating to petrogenesis. All I 
desire to do, and feel capable of doing, is to stress the importance of certain 
features displayed by the igneous rocks of these centres, feeling that 
they are not merely matters of local interest but are such as must influence 
fundamentally any conception of igneous intrusion and the explanation 
of the variability of rock-types and rock-composition. 

The great Brito-Icelandic Province of Tertiary igneous activity, as you 
are well aware, stretches over a known area of some hundreds of thousand 
square miles, and so far as its major development is concerned, reaches 
from north-east Ireland, through the Inner Hebrides to the Farée Islands, 
Iceland and beyond. Although broken up by the sea into more or less 
isolated areas that represent but a fraction of their original extent, these 
areas are sufficiently large and of sufficient relief to offer unparalleled 
opportunities for detailed study, both as regards the lateral and vertical 
distribution, and mutual relations of their component rock-masses. 

In the early days the lava-field received the greater share of attention, 
and it was not till the later decades of the last century that the importance 
of the major intrusive bodies was either suspected or realised. 

It is not necessary to delve into the early history of petrographical 
work connected with this region, but sufficient to pay tribute to the 
astute observations of such pioneers as Pennant, Ami Boué, Jameson and 
Macculloch, and to acknowledge the great debt that we owe to Judd and 
Archibald Geikie who, although often holding divergent views, together 
laid the sure foundations on which the whole fabric of subsequent work 
has been erected. 

The definite establishment of the Tertiary age of the igneous rocks as 
a whole, the conception of a great petrographical province, and the 
proof that the lavas of the great field were of the plateau-type due to 
fissure-eruptions, constituted the first real advance in our knowledge. 

What I may refer to, however, as the intensive study of the Tertiary 


44 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


igneous rocks of Britain, made possible by the progress of petrographical 
methods and ideas, commenced when Dr. Harker undertook in 1895 the 
detailed mapping of the Island of Skye—work that led up to the pro- 
duction of the most complete account of any extensive and complicated 
region of igneous rocks which up till then had been presented to the 
scientific public. Later he extended his researches into Rum and the 
Small Isles of Inverness, where problems of a similar nature confronted 
him, and which he elucidated with the same skill and perseverance. Since 
that time the Geological Survey undertook and completed the investiga- 
tion of what is probably the most complex, but at the same time most 
illuminating, plutonic centre in the Tertiary province, namely, the Island 
of Mull. Here many of the discoveries of Dr. Harker in Skye and else- 
where received ample confirmation, but, as might be expected from a 
region of greater size and complexity, many features that were obscure or 
unrepresented in the previously described region were made clear and 
established as matters of general importance. 

A complete account of this region, prepared largely by Mr. E. B. 
Bailey, has now appeared and is probably familiar to most of you. No 
memoir, however good, can do Mull justice, and no student, even with the 
aid of map and memoir, can fully appreciate all that Mull has to teach 
without a study of the actual exposures. The companion centre of 
Ardnamurchan, although of smaller extent, is equally important because, 
in addition to reproducing many of the salient features of Mull, it supple- 
ments as well as confirms many of the deductions framed on work done 
in the larger area. Mr. Richey was mainly responsible for the survey of 
Ardnamurchan, and although references to the progress of the work have 
been made from time to time, the complete account of this centre has 
yet to appear. Iam glad to be able to say, however, that the publication 
of the memoir on this interesting area will not long be delayed. 

In other districts, the petrography of the Island of Arran, with its 
two centres, has been made the subject of revision by Dr. Tyrrell of 
Glasgow, who is now preparing an official memoir and explanation of the 
map. The Mourne Mountains in Ireland have received attention at the 
hands of Mr. Richey, and his account of the granite masses has been 
communicated to the Geological Society. Still farther afield, Dr. Hawkes, 
following on the work of Thoroddsen, has undertaken an investigation of 
the plutonic centres of south-éastern Iceland, the results of which we 
await with interest, while others have studied the remnants of the great 
Tertiary lava-field in even higher latitudes. 

When Dr. Harker commenced his work in Skye the magnitude of the 
lava-field was fully appreciated, and in addition it was well known that 
breaking through this field were strictly localised intrusive masses of 
considerable extent. Till then, however, none of these plutonic areas 
had been studied in detail, the form and mutual relations of their com- 
ponent rock-masses were but imperfectly understood, and only the 
dominant rock-types had received serious attention. Now, practically 
every one of the Tertiary centres has come under review in recent years. 
Each has yielded its quota of new facts, and we have reached a stage at 
which generalization is both possible and legitimate. 

The plateau lavas which rest directly upon a platform of denuded 


C.—_ GEOLOGY. 45 


Mesozoic and older rocks, as was shown by Geikie, and has been borne 
out by all subsequent observations, have emanated from a series of 
fissures formed by uniformly directed tensional forces acting in the 
earth’s crust. Individual flows had no great thickness compared with 
their great lateral extent, they were more or less unaccompanied by any 
explosive action, and there was consequently little in the way of 
associated pyroclastic deposits. They were erupted on a land-surface 
and collectively made a covering that amounted to many thousands of 
feet in thickness. Even now, after ages of denudation, thicknesses of 
3,000 feet can be measured. 

They are the earliest and greatest expression of Tertiary igneous 
activity and as such first claim our attention in view of their bearing on 
later events. The similarity of type, widespread distribution, and great 
aggregate thickness of the plateau lavas lead directly to the supposition 
that beneath this north-west province lay an enormous intercrustal 
reservoir filled with a basic magma that differed not at all in composition 
from that of the lavas erupted at the surface. Further, this reservoir 
must have been situated at such a depth that its minimum temperature 
during the eruptive period was above the freezing point of any mineral 
constituent of the magma. For all normal silicate magmas, differen- 
tiation without crystallization is sufficiently improbable to enable us to 
dismiss the separation of immiscible liquid fractions from our considera- 
tions. Thus it would appear that the uniform composition of the lavas, 
the general absence of phenocrysts of intratelluric character and the 
scarcity of cognate xenoliths may be taken as indications that erystalliza- 
tion and consequent differentiation had not proceeded to any extent, and 
that great depth and related elevated temperature were the restraining 
factors. 

It does not concern us particularly what produced the tensional stress 
in the crust with its accompanying fractures. It is sufficient to realise 
that such a state of tension undoubtedly existed and that consequent 
crustal weakness allowed large portions of the region to founder. The 
causes have recently been discussed by Dr. J. W. Evans, who attributes 
them to isostatic adjustment between the north-western continental area 
and the Atlantic deeps. 

The foundering of the crust either as a whole, or more likely in restricted 
but ever changing areas, produced the uprise of magma in the fissures and 
the general outpouring of the plateau lavas ; and we may assume that the 
end of this eruptive period coincided with temporarily restored equilibrium, 
The next phase appears to me to be the local subsidence of the roof of the 
deep-seated magma-basin. These local subsidences must have been more 
pronounced than the general settling that was responsible for the extra- 
vasation of the plateau lavas, and the magma, instead of merely rising up 
more or less restricted fissures, ascended to take the place of the locally 
subsiding crustal masses. The reason for this assumption is that within 
the primary magma-basin differentiation was restrained by depth and 
elevated temperature. Further, the initial temperature would not be 
reduced to any extent by the outpouring of the lavas. Therefore, for 
differentiation to take place, portions of the original magma would have 
to oceupy reservoirs of a local character situated in a zone of the earth’s 


46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


crust where the temperature gradients would permit the cooling of the 
magma below the crystallization point of some or all of its constituents. 
The origin of localised centres of highly differentiated intrusive rocks, such 
as those with which we have to deal, appears to me to be inseparable 
from the idea of pronounced local subsidences. 

The first expression of local activity, asin Skye, Mulland Ardnamurchan, 
usually takes the form of vent-agglomerates, or explosion-breccias, which 
are the result of the explosive shattering and brecciation of the country- 
rock—most frequently the plateau lavas. The magma responsible for the 
formation of these agglomerates is invariably of acid composition, and 
it may have actually broken through, producing a true vent, or merely 
effected intense shattering of its roof. These agglomerate-masses or vents 
were presumably formed by the action of the highest liquid portion of a 
more or less completely differentiated magma that filled a local reservoir. 
If the magma prior to differentiation had ascended to within a reasonable 
distance from the surface, as differentiation progressed the pressure due 
to accumulation of gases in the acid differentiate would increase, and cause 
it to break through and shatter the remaining portion of the crust. The 
first intimation of its presence would be the formation of agglomerates, 
followed or accompanied by the outpouring of acid igneous material of 
rhyolitic or trachytic composition. Such appears to have been the manner 
of formation of the Kilchrist vent in Skye, which breaks abruptly through 
the adjacent strata and has almost vertical sides with a roughly cylin- 
drical form. Vent-breccia or agglomerate plays a very significant and 
conspicuous part in the geology of central Mull, and its distribution 
clearly outlines the two important calderas of that region. Although 
explosive action on the part of an acid magma was repeated at several 
periods in the history of Mull, such was one of the earliest, if not the 
earliest, manifestations of central activity. In Ardnamurchan, in the 
neighbourhood of Ben Hiant, and conforming to the outline of the 
plutonic centre, large accumulations of vent-agglomerate break through 
the older strata and are associated with rocks of trachytic character and 
composition. 

It appears to be fairly certain that the intrusive centres of Skye, Mull, 
Ardnamurchan and probably central Arran were marked out by the 
explosive breaking through of a magma of acid composition. In Mull 
there is evidence of the strongest kind that magma continued, under 
repeated subsidence, to be erupted with the temporary establishment of 
a volcano of Hawaiian type. 

From this point onwards in each centre we enter a period during which 
all the major plutonic masses were intruded, and I should now like to 
offer some generalizations on the forms they have adopted. A glance at 
the published geological maps of Skye and more particularly of Mull will 
at once reveal the fact that the major intrusions have circular, annular, 
or crescentic form around some central point. A review of all the Tertiary 
plutonic masses of Britain, as well as those of south-east Iceland, brings 
out the fact that laccolitic intrusions are the exception. By laccolitic I 
mean intrusions that have definitely forced up and displaced pre-existing 
rocks to make room for themselves, or occupy domed regions, and have a 
well-defined base. Most of the Tertiary plutonic masses appear to have 


C.—GEOLOGY, 47 


no recognisable bases but seem to extend indefinitely downwards so far 
as the accessible portions of the crust are concerned. Similarly in Iceland 
Dr. Hawkes finds that the true laccolitic form of intrusion is seldom met 
with. This is in accordance with the generally accepted view that lacco- 
lites are associated with mountain-building movements, whereas every- 
thing points to the intercrustal stresses in the Tertiary province having 
been of a tensional character. 

The main plutonic masses of Mull have been shown by the Survey to 
be due to the rise of magma up ring-shaped or arcuate fissures caused by 
the general subsidence of a central area. Such fissures are, as might be 
expected, either vertical or steeply inclined in an outward direction. They 
thus tend to bound either a cylinder or a steep angled cone. 

Subsidence of a conical block or cylindrical mass of crustal material 
into a magma-reservoir would naturally cause a welling up of molten 
matter into the fissure that bounds the subsiding mass. If the fissure 
reached the surface a cauldron-subsidence similar to that of Glencoe 
would probably be established, and eruptions of central type would ensue. 
If, however, the ring-fracture, instead of reaching the surface was completed 
by a truncating cross-fracture beneath the surface, the magma would 
not only ascend along the sides of the subsiding mass but would insinuate 
itself in the form of a sheet between the top of the sinking mass and the 
relatively stable crust. The thickness of this practically horizontal sheet 
would depend upon the amount of subsidence of the block beneath, while 
the thickness of the cylindrical part of the intrusion would be determined 
by the inclination of the ring-fracture to the vertical together with the 
amount of central subsidence. Repeated subsidence that would allow 
fresh influxes of magma in the widening fissures, or the formation of fresh 
fractures of a similar kind, would give rise laterally to a succession of ring 
or arcuate intrusions arranged about a common vertical and generally 
central axis. 

To such intrusions the term ring-dyke has been applied, but it will be 
seen that in their most complete form, that is to say when the steep 
ring-like portions of the intrusion are connected transversely, they present 
points of similarity to stocks. In fact, in this case, the difference appears 
to be one of degree rather than of kind, for it is quite probable that 
many stocks, if sufficiently denuded, would reveal a ring-dyke structure in 
depth. 

Subsidence with the quiet welling up of magma from beneath gives 
rise to intrusions that have one great distinguishing feature from those 
which are due to the forcible injection of magma, or which occupy regions 
affected by mountain-building forces. They will not disturb to any extent 
the rocks into which they are intruded but will simply replace a definite 
block of the pre-existing crust, and at the same time transgress without 
serious modification all pre-existing structures. Such were found to be 
features presented by the ring-intrusions of Mull. 

A further point of interest is that within the same area of general 
subsidence the centre of actual subsidence may, and does, shift its position, 
so that an earlier series of ring-dykes may be intersected by another 
series of later date, of which the axis is not coincident with the first but 
removed some distancefromit. In Mull thesuccessive centres of subsidence 


48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


responsible for the two suites of rmg-dykes are separated from each other 
by a distance of about two miles. The earlier centre lies to the south-east 
and the later centre to the north-west, situated in the neighbourhood of 
Loch Ba. 

It was not till the mapping of Mull had progressed towards completion 
that it was recognised how characteristic and prevalent was the ring-dyke 
type of intrusion, but Dr. Harker’s description and mapping of central 
Skye made it quite clear that rig-dykes were there represented, more 
particularly in the region of the Red Hills. His description of the compo- 
site nature of the main granophyre, its vertical western margin, its arcuate 
inclusions of older plutonic rocks, and on the eastern side its relation to 
the older sedimentary rocks, are in perfect agreement with those of the 
ring-dykes of Mull. He emphasises the steeply inclined or vertical 
boundaries and the almost flat or slightly domed roof so characteristic 
of this type of intrusion. 

Since the detailed study of Skye and Rum three additional plutonic 
centres have come under review, namely Ardnamurchan, the Mourne 
Mountains and Arran. 

Mull must always be regarded as the type area of ring-dyke intrusion, 
especially as it possesses in the Loch Ba felsite, one of the intrusions around 
the later centre, the most perfect example yet met with. The neighbouring 
centre of Ardnamurchan, however, offers most striking instances of ring- 
dykes, and being less complex than Mull or Skye the relations of the rock- 
bodies to each other and their forms are readily understood and appreciated. 
The forthcoming memoir on this district should prove an interesting sequel 
to those on Skye and Mull. 

Mr. Richey, who spent many years mapping the peninsula, has estab- 
lished at least two suites of ring-dykes, one intersecting the other and with 
centres of subsidence situated more than a mile apart. A third, but less 
obvious centre, is the earliest, and, from the agglomerates which appear 
to be related to it, marked the initiation of the Ardnamurchan centre as 
a whole. It is the latest series of intrusions, ranging from eucrite to 
monzonite, that most clearly exhibits the typical features of ring-dyke 
injection. The steep junctions, the intercalation and metamorphism 
of older rock between successive intrusions, the sharp transgression and 
disregard of pre-existing structures, and the welding of intrusive junctions 
with a general absence of structures due to chilling, are all features that 
we have come to recognise as peculiar to ring-dykes. No roofs are now 
preserved, denudation having been very severe, but it is practically certain 
that several of the ring-dykes were connected across the area of subsidence 
by transverse continuations. 

Carrying his work farther afield, Mr. Richey has lately demonstrated 
that in the Tertiary granites of the Mourne Mountains we have a very 
clear case of ring-dyke intrusion due to central subsidence. He has found 
that the Mourne granite, instead of being one simple intrusion, com- 
prises four successive intrusions, one within the other, the outermost 
being the oldest and the innermost the most recent. Further, that these 
intrusions were effected without any disturbance of the strike or dip of 
the neighbouring Lower Paleozoic rocks, a fact which shows that the 
magma did not force apart the rocks into which it was intruded, but 


C.—GEOLOGY. 49 


merely replaced, bulk for bulk, a mass of solid crust which had foundered 
and has completely disappeared. Although not perfectly symmetrical, the 
relations of the successive intrusions to each other, and to the country- 
rock, are typically those of ring-dykes. The granites show to perfection 
their roofs as well as their bounding sides, and demonstrate how the 
vertical or steeply inclined walls turn abruptly into a slightly domed roof. 
In this respect the intrusions closely resemble the granophyres of Beinn 
a Ghraig and Knock in Mull, which have replaced a great mass of lavas 
and minor intrusions without disturbing the arrangement of the adjoining 
country-rock. Mr. Richey states that no floor can be detected to the 
Mourne intrusions. He postulates that overhead piecemeal stoping has 
played no part in allowing the rise of magma, and that the space occupied 
by the various granites has probably been provided by a subterranean 
cauldon-subsidence of the pre-existing rocks. 

In 1900 Gunn discovered a large oval area, about four miles im 
diameter, in central Arran, which consisted of fragmental rocks in close 
association with numerous igneous masses, and which he described as a 
voleanic vent. Dr. Tyrrell, as the result of recent work in the island, 
clearly recognises in this vent a ring-complex, which, though less perfectly 
preserved than those of Mull, Ardnamurchan and Skye, he considers to 
have had an equally long and complicated history. The main complex 
is outlined by masses of explosion-breccia, of which the formation was 
concomitant with the intrusion, and possible eruption, of an acid magma 
that ascended an arcuate fissure bordering the vent. It probably occupies 
the position of, or intersects, an older complex, for gabbros and other basic 
plutonics of older date are cut by it and also enter into the composition of 
the explosion-breccias. 

It is interesting to find within the region of the complex isolated 
masses of plateau basalt preserved from denudation. Their presence 
points to two facts: firstly, that before the initiation of the central area, 
plateau basalts had been erupted as in other districts; and secondly, 
that their preservation can only be accounted for by assuming subsidence 
of central type. 

In the north of Arran a granite mass, some eight miles in diameter, 
occupies an almost circular area outlined by Dalradian schists. This 
mass also is regarded as being of Tertiary age, although definite proof is 
lacking. Its relation to the surrounding sedimentary rocks and its 
general likeness to the granites of the Mourne Mountains and of the central 
complex of Arran are certainly strong evidence for its intrusion in Tertiary 
times. 

Although a feature usually associated with laccolitic intrusions, it 
has been proved in Mull and elsewhere that individual ring-dyke or stock- 
like masses may arch their roofs when they develop an excess of pressure— 
either hydrostatic or due to dissolved gases. This arching, as in the 
Mournes, is usually quite gentle; but if carried to a greater height than 
usual, Mr. Bailey considers that the centrifugal forces acting within the 
unconsolidated magma in the higher portions of a cylindrical intrusion 
will exert an outward pressure on the containing walls. The relief of 
this pressure, he argues, would be accomplished by the arcuate folding 
or wrinkling up of the surrounding strata, and be accompanied by a 

1927 EB 


50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


lateral spread of the magma and depression of its roof. This theory was 
put forward by Mr. Bailey to explain the pronounced overfolding of the 
margin of the north Arran granite previously referred to, but it appears 
to be equally applicable to the arcuate folding that surrounds the south- 
eastern caldera of Mull. The folding in the latter instance was presumably 
caused by early intrusion of granophyre (Glas Bheinn granophyre) guided, 
as has been suggested, by the peripheral ring-fracture that bounded the 
area of central subsidence. 

Dr. Daly, writing two years ago on the relation of mountain building 
to igneous action, commented upon this very case, and suggested that the 
arcuate folding was possibly due to the centrifugal sliding of large fragments 
of a complex dome which had become unstable because of its high elevation 
and the weakening of the interior by magmatic injection. The difference 
between the views of Dr. Daly and Mr. Bailey is that the former would 
make the folding subsequent to the formation of the dome, while Mr. 
Bailey would regard the doming and folding as practically contempo- 
raneous phenomena dependent upon the intrusion of the igneous mass. 

Iceland, although affording good examples of ring-fractures, has not 
so far been credited with ring-dyke intrusions. In the plutonic regions 
of the south-east all but one of the intrusions examined by Dr. Hawkes 
are stocks, which, like the ring-dykes of Britain, have been intruded in 
tensionally stressed regions. Of these the granophyre stock of Slaufradal 
is one of the most beautiful examples of its kind. It is elliptical in outline, 
has steeply inclined walls and an almost flat roof. It is exposed to a 
depth of more than two thousand feet, and the almost horizontal plateau 
basalts that constitute its walls and roof are absolutely undisturbed. 
Such a form of intrusion is that which I consider the earliest member 
of a ring-dyke complex is most likely to assume. 

The one exception, in Iceland, to the perfect replacement of country- 
rock without disturbance of the surrounding strata is the plutonic mass 
of Faskrudsfjord. In this case Dr. Hawkes informs me the basalts are 
tilted into an almost vertical position against the intruding granophyre, 
and there are other signs of forcible disturbance of the country-rock. 

As a generalization, however, we may state that the ring-dyke, or stock, 
with its circular walls and flat or gently domed roof, is the type of intrusion 
that specially characterises the plutonic centres of the Tertiary province. 
It should certainly be borne in mind when studying the form of intrusions 
that a simulation of laccolitic intrusion can be produced, as we have 
seen, by the lateral spread of magma in the upper portion of a domed 
intrusion of ring-dyke type. 

One of the most important discoveries of Dr. Harker in Skye was his 
detection of a great group of basic sheet-like intrusions that were inclined 
inwards towards a definite centre. He demonstrated that their distribu- 
tion and their regular inclination towards the centre of the great gabbro 
intrusion of the Cuillins proved them to be a local group connected 
with the gabbro-centre, though much younger than the plutonic rocks 
themselves. 

When Mull and Ardnamurchan were surveyed it was found that inclined 
sheets, or cone-sheets as they have been synonymously called by the 
Survey, played even a more important part than they did in Skye. 


C.—GEOLOGY. 51 


In these last-named regions they exist as the usual sheet-like intrusions, 
directed towards the apex of an inverted cone which is situated deep down 
in the plutonic centre. They constitute a very definite and important 
stage in the igneous history of the respective regions. Although of great 
thickness, they exhibit a marked constancy of type, but have been intruded 
at more than one period. 

The most interesting feature connected with their distribution in Mull 
is that each successive centre of subsidence has its own suite of cone- 
sheets, a fact that even more than their central inclination seems to connect 

_ them with the respective ring-dyke centres. The same is true in the 
ease of Ardnamurchan, for here also each of the two centres has its related 
cone-sheets. 

Cone-sheet intrusion, therefore, is definitely connected with the 
establishment of a local magma reservoir beneath an area of central 
subsidence. It is a phenomenon that can be repeated on several occasions 
during the formation of a ring-dyke complex, but it generally comes to 
an end before the last plutonic members of the complex have established 
themselves. In Mull the Loch Ba ring-dyke is later than all the cone- 
sheets, and in Ardnamurchan the inner and later members of the complex 
appear to be quite free from such intrusions. 

The relation of cone-sheet to ring-dyke intrusion has been discussed 
theoretically by Mr. Anderson, who attributes the conical fracturing and 
the subsequent injection of magma to the development of excess pressure 
in the upper portion of a cylindrical or parabolic magma-reservoir. He 
proves that in the event of an increase of pressure in the magma-basin 
the crust above would have superimposed upon it a system of tensions 
acting across surfaces which near the basin are roughly conical. At 
the same time a system of upward pressures would act across surfaces that 
were parallel to the roof of the magma-basin. The effect of such forces 
would be the opening of conical fissures followed by the uprise of magma 
from the reservoir beneath. 

Expressed in other words, the production of cone-sheets may be 
described as the result of an effort on the part of a deep-seated magma 
to raise its roof by fracture rather than by flexure. The uplift of a roof 
by such means is purely differential, but in the aggregate the uplift, as 
gauged by the cone-sheets, must be very considerable. In Mull the 
combined thickness of the cone-sheets reaches several thousands of feet, 
and Mr. Bailey considers that the central elevation which they denote 
is quite comparable to the doming of the roof of the Arran granite. 

A highly characteristic feature of certain of the plutonic centres, such 
as Mull, Arran, and the Mourne Mountains, is the occurrence of swarms of 
basic dykes. These dykes, which show a definite orientation, are crowded 
together in the region of the plutonic intrusions but extend far beyond the 
limits of the areas of local subsidence. It is clear, therefore, that their 
intrusion was influenced but not wholly controlled by these centres. The 
‘Mull swarm has a width of some 8 miles and is over 100 miles in length. 
Such dyke-swarms, related to older plutonic intrusions, are well known in 
e regions of the Ettive and Ben Nevis granites. 

_ In the Tertiary province intrusion of the dyke-swarms extended over a 
considerable period, but was determined by a renewal, possibly in a less 


E 2 


52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


acute form, of the great tensional stresses that preceded and accompanied 
the extrusion of the plateau-lavas. 

The crowding together of the dykes in a region of central subsi- 
dence can only be explained by assuming that such regions fractured more 
readily and were possibly subjected to greater tensile stresses than the 
country on either side. Further, this intense fracturing could only occur 
if the tensional stresses were acting on a relatively thin crust and tangential 
to the upper surface of a reservoir filled with liquid or plastic material. 
We are, therefore, led to the conclusion that the dyke-swarms must be 
due to a general rise of the primary basalt-magma, and that this rise was 
accentuated in the regions of central subsidence. The magnitude of the 
tensional stretch in these regions can be gauged by noting the aggregate 
thickness of dykes in a given distance. In Mull it was found to be about 
one mile in twenty-four, while in Arran the stretch is even greater and 
amounts to as much as one mile in eight or ten. 

I have only touched upon a few features of the dominant and most 
interesting types of Tertiary intrusions, but before leaving this part of the 
subject I would like to refer to the mutual relations of some of these bodies - 
to each other and to the rocks into which they have been intruded. 

In unravelling the structure of an igneous complex two essentials con- 
front us: firstly, the proof that any rock-body is a unit and not composite, 
and secondly, its absolute or relative age. In the case of most intrusions 
we apply the criteria of chilled margins and contact metamorphism, but 
this necessitates a relatively low temperature for the rocks into which 
the intrusion penetrated. With the ring-dyke complexes, however, the 
intrusions, other than the dykes, sills and cone-sheets, are of considerable 
magnitude and fairly deep-seated ; while as regards time they followed 
closely upon each other. ‘Thus, frequently, the cooling effect of an earlier 
intrusion upon one of later date is not well marked. 

In Mull, and also in Ardnamurchan, it is not usual for the ring-dykes, 
especially those of more basic composition, to show markedly the ordinary 
effects of rapid chilling at their margins. Instead, there is usually some 
slight assimilation of the country-rock and formation of narrow transitional 
belts between contiguous intrusions. 

Extreme cases of the interaction of an intruded magma with an igneous 
rock of related but different composition have been described by Dr. Harker, 
first from Carrock Fell and later from Skye and elsewhere. To rocks due 
to such a process he gave the now well-established name of hybrids, and 
he called the process of interaction hybridization. 

When the rocks have interacted or hybridized at their contact with 
each other it is not always easy to discover whether we are dealing with 
a single intrusion locally differentiated, or with an intrusion of composite 
nature; for the results of partial differentiation and the effects of 
hybridization have much in common. It is, however, in such cases that 
what the officers of the Geological Survey have termed screens come to 
our assis tance. 

A sc reen is a narrow mass of country-rock separating two neighbouring 
steeply bounded intrusions, and older than either of them. Such masses 
separating ring-dykes will have curved outcrops, and are the logical sequel 
to the a rcuate fissuring of the walls of a centrally subsiding area. 


0.— GEOLOGY. 58 

They may be formed of portions of older ring-dykes or other intrusive 
masses, lavas, or pre-Tertiary sediments. They usually show a fairly 
high state of metamorphism for they have come under metamorphosing 
influences from both sides. Igneous rocks in screens generally show 
recrystallization and granulitization, while sediments have usually been 
hornfelsed in a manner dependent on their respective original composition. 

Such masses locally interpolated between two intrusions that elsewhere 
have reacted with each other at their junction, will at once free us from 
doubt : firstly, as to the separate nature of the intrusions, and secondly, as 
to their relative ages. 

In Mull, screens were found to be of the utmost value in determining 
the relations of the intrusive rock masses to each other, and the same 
has proved to be the case to a like degree in the ring-dyke complex of 
Ardnamurchan. 

Turning now to a consideration of the composition and origin of the 
major intrusions, the fact that impresses us most is the remarkable and 
more or less constant association of widely divergent rock types. All 
through the Tertiary province of Britain and Iceland gabbros and grano- 
phyres or granites are the dominant plutonic intrusions, and may be said 
to characterise the province as a whole. There can be no question that 
these types are more or less extreme differentiation products of a common 
magma, and this magma we may reasonably infer was that which supplied 
the plateau basalts. Except in the case of certain cone-sheets, dykes and 
other minor intrusions, this magma in an unmodified state is unrepresented 
amongst the Tertiary intrusions. All the plutonics, as well as the majority 
of the cone-sheets and sills, are products of a magma that must have 
substantially changed its composition. In other words, almost every rock 
type, excepting those specially mentioned, is a product of differentiation. 
This fact leads us to the unavoidable conclusion that differentiation had 
at any rate commenced in the local intercrustal reservoirs beneath the 
plutonic centres before any intrusion into the upper part of the crust was 
effected. 

The gabbros and granophyres often occur, either alone or together, 
without any rocks of intermediate composition, but these latter are 
occasionally well represented, as in Mull and Ardnamurchan, by minor 
intrusions such as sills and cone-sheets and occasional larger masses. Taken 
as a whole the rocks of intermediate composition are of considerable bulk, 
and therefore their corresponding magma should be given an honourable 
place in any scheme of differentiation. As to the manner in which 
differentiation was effected, we are convinced that the differentiation of a 
normal magma cannot be accomplished by any process that does not 
depend primarily upon the separation from it of solid crystalline phases. 
Recent work both in the field and in the laboratory demonstrates that 
there is no necessity to call to our aid such theories as those of dual magmas, 
immiscible liquid fractions, or magmatic assimilation to account for the 
differences of composition displayed by the major intrusions. 

In all the Tertiary centres the plutonic masses show but the feeblest 
attempt at differentiation in place, and thus it is clear, with one notable 
exception, that such variation of rock type as is met with was determined 
before the respective magmas came to occupy their present positions. 


54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


Now, the course of differentiation of a complex silicate melt, as suggested 
by the relative freezing points of the various constituents, would be the 
separation by crystallization of the more basic constituents from a residuum 
that became progressively more acid as crystallization proceeded towards 
complete solidification. If by any chance, as some have held, crystalliza- 
tion of early phases in the upper portions of a magma reservoir led to a 
settling and remelting of these constituents in the lower and hotter regions, 
it is conceivable that an exaggerated diffusion-column might be produced, 
with denser basic material below, and lighter acid material above. The 
effect, however, of a crustal mass subsiding into such a differentiated but 
wholly fluid magma would be to produce intrusions of a progressively basic 
character. The upper acid portion would be intruded first, and the more 
basic subsequently ; also, it may be inferred that none of these intrusions 
would be true to type, but that they would exhibit excessive variation 
on solidification. 

Such conditions would give rise to an igneous cycle that, so far as the 
plutonic rocks are concerned, is exactly the reverse of what is encountered 
in nature. In all the Tertiary plutonic centres it has been clearly estab- 
lished that the order of intrusion of the plutonic rocks is invariably 
from basic, or even ultra-basic, to acid. 

If we agree that differentiation is due to the separation and settling of 
crystals and culminates in complete solidification, any intrusion drawn 
from a basin other than the residual liquid fraction of the period must be 
consequent upon remelting. I agree with Dr. Harker in regarding the 
process of remelting of the already differentiated magma as the only means 
whereby the basic to acid order of intrusion could be induced or maintained. 

It would appear that a local intercrustal reservoir established as an 
upward extension of the primary magma, to take the place of a centrally 
subsided crustal mass, became more or less completely differentiated before 
it madeits presence felt at higher crustallevels. The fact that the explosion 
breccias which heralded the plutonic intrusions are associated with an acid 
magma, or rather an acid differentiate of a basic magma, shows that 
differentiation within the basin had almost run its course. 

It will, however, be readily understood that, without remelting, pressure 
produced by a crustal block subsiding into a magma reservoir could only 
cause to be exuded such a portion of the differentiated magma as still 
retained its fluid state, and in no case could this fluid be as basic as the 
original magma. That an acid differentiate may collect in a liquid form 
in the upper portion of a magma column or reservoir when the rest is solid 
has been argued by Bowen, and it is certainly probable that many acid 
intrusions originated in this way without the intervention of remelting. 
In this connection we may cite the case of the quartz-dolerite magma, 
itself a product of differentiation. 

The quartz-gabbros and quartz-dolerites form some of the ring-dykes 
and late basic cone-sheets of Mull, and some of the older ring-dykes and 
most of the cone-sheets of Ardnamurchan. These rocks were derived 
from a magma which as crystallization progressed clearly gave rise to an 
acid differentiate. This acid partial magma was of strikingly different com- 
position from the early crystalline phases, and its temperature of complete 
consolidation was evidently far below that at which the larger and earlier 


C.— GEOLOGY. 55 


individuals had practically ceased to grow. It represents the original 
basalt magma almost depleted as regards lime and magnesia, but retaining 
abundant alkalies and dissolved water. It evidently retained its fluidity 
over a fair range of temperature and would thus be capable of separation 
under gravity or any externally applied stress. This process of the 
migration of the acid differentiate can be studied in the Carboniferous 
quartz-dolerites of the Lothians, and we assume that it has taken place 
under the action of gravity in the quartz-gabbro ring-dyke of Glen More 
in Mull. 

It would appear, therefore, that stresses produced by subsidence acting 
upon a partially differentiated magma of this character could bring about 
the separation of the fluid acid differentiate and cause intrusions of 
granophyre or allied rocks. 

The separation of an acid differentiate that exists in the interstices of 
an almost solid magma, by external stress, has repeatedly been used by 
Dr. Bowen to account for the close association of widely divergent rock- 
types. He considers that an external pressure applied to a magma that 
had become about 80 per cent. solid by the formation of a mesh-work of 
erystals could break down this mesh-structure. The interstitial liquid 
would then feel the pressure which would be transmitted hydrostatically 
to all parts, and if continued would produce a separation and intrusion of 
the acid differentiate in a comparatively pure state. Such action is 
supported by the frequently bent and broken state of felspars and early 
formed augites of the quartz-dolerites. 

Although the magmatic sequence, in Ardnamurchan, is from basic to 
acid, like that of other centres, the ring-dykes almost invariably have 
margins of varying width which are more acid than the bulk of the rock 
forming the particular intrusions. In these less basic margins we 
certainly see, not the result of differentiation in place, but the effects of 
the injection and partial chilling of a magma that was followed immediately 
by one of somewhat more basic composition. Such a condition of things 
might conceivably be brought about by the subsidence of a crustal mass 
into a basin filled with partially differentiated magma. The first portion 
to be intruded would be that richer in the acid differentiates, while as 
subsidence continued there would be an uprise of the more basic and less 
differentiated magma that represented the bulk of that contained in the 
upper part of the reservoir. Such a process appears to me to be the 
explanation of the quartz-dolerite margins to the Ardnamurchan gabbros 
and eucrites, and the felsitic margin to the tonalitic ring-dyke of the 
central complex. 

The alkaline rocks call for passing notice on account of the varied and 
sometimes fanciful suggestions put forward to explain their origin. In the 
Tertiary province they form a very insignificant group so far as bulk is 
concerned, but are important on account of their unusual composition. 
In the plateau-lavas certain segregation veins that represent a late phase 
in the consolidation are of definitely alkaline character. They prove that 
the differentiation of the plateau basalt magma, even under superficial 
pressure and rapidly falling temperature, is capable of producing rocks of 
alkaline character. Dr. Bowen on theoretical grounds concludes that the 
_ alkali-rocks can, and do, originate from the same primitive magma as the 


56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


calcic rocks, and that the separation was the result of differentiation under 
stress. In this he is supported by a great number of petrologists, and 
so far as the evidence of the Tertiary province is concerned, no other 
explanation appears possible. 

If we consider the course differentiation has followed to produce the 
various rock-types met with amongst the Tertiary plutonic rocks we find 
that it depends chiefly on three factors which are, the separation of olivine 
and lime felspar and the production of a quartz-rich and alkaline residuum. 

The formation of a magma supersaturated as regards silica from one of 
basaltic composition was for long regarded as improbable. Now, however, 
on theoretical and experimental grounds there appears no difficulty in 
developing quartz from a hydrous basic magma. Whatever the explana- 
tion, however, no one studying the intrusive rocks of Mull and Ardna- 
murchan in the field could for a moment doubt the consanguinity of the 
abundantly represented quartz-gabbros and quartz-dolerites and their more 
basic associates the normal gabbros, eucrites and peridotites. 

It appears that the differentiation of the plateau basalt magma has 
been responsible for the production of two magma-types, which as differen- 
tiation progressed converged in the direction of increasing acidity and 
alkalinity. The representative rock-members of each magma are linked 
together by common compositional characters that are certainly of genetic 
significance. 

Tn Skye, Mull and Ardnamurchan we find that the basic majorintrusions 
constitute a group of rocks that on a chemical basis of comparison are richer 
in alumina, lime and magnesia than corresponding members of the normal 
magma series. These more basic rocks suggest that their origin lay in a 
basaltic magma enriched by the addition of the constituents of lime-felspar 
and olivine, either singly or together. It follows that the magma supplying 
the enrichments will be correspondingly poorer in olivine and the basic 
plagioclases, and proportionately richer in alkali-felspar and quartz. 

The differentiation characteristic of the normal magma series is the 
rapid fall in the percentage of lime, magnesia and iron, with a more or less 
constant percentage of alumina, and a rise in alkalies, more especially of 
potash. Such variations point to the continued separation of non- 
aluminous ferromagnesian minerals as being the dominant factor in the 
differentiation. The general increase in the alkalies and the relative 
concentration of potash is undoubtedly due merely to the separation of 
soda-lime felspar. Such a differentiated magma would account for the 
non-porphyritic central types of lava in Mull, the intermediate and sub-acid 
intrusive rocks, and the great group of granites, granophyres and felsites. 
All these rocks can be derived from the plateau-basalt magma by the 
normal process of the crystallization and abstraction of one or more solid 
phases, and the separation may be produced either by the gravitational 
settling of the crystals, or the removal of the liquid residuum as the result 
of stress. 

The other magma-type is responsible for the gabbros and related 
rock-types. It appears to be a magma of plateau basalt composition 
enriched by the addition of olivine and lime-felspar. Its character, as 
reflected in the gabbros of Skye, Mull and Ardnamurchan, and carried on 
into the tonalites and monzonites of the last-named centre, is the generally 


C.—GEOLOGY. 57 


high percentages of alumina, lime and magnesia when compared with the 
plateau basalt and rocks of the other series with similar percentages of 
silica. Thus, for instance, the normal quartz-dolerite magma, represented 
in Mull and Ardnamurchan by innumerable sheet-like intrusions, and by 
the great mass of Ben Hiant, has a similar silica percentage to the magma 
represented by the quartz-gabbros of these regions. The quartz-gabbro 
magma, however, is richer in lime and alumina, a fact that indicates a 
concentration of lime-felspar greater than that encountered in the plateau- 
basalt and its normal derivatives. 

One other point. There are still petrologists who see in the variation 
of igneous rocks the results of wholesale contamination of a magma by 
the assimilation of country rock. But, whatever the evidence elsewhere, 
in the Tertiary province the idea of serious modification of a magma by 
such means receives no support. 

The chemical and mineralogical characters of all the major intrusive 
bodies are quite normal and are just such as would be presented by 
straightforward differentiates. A study of the margins of intrusive masses 
shows that the effects of interaction and assimilation are quite local, of 
relatively insignificant extent, and where encountered are distinguished by 
characters that are unrepresented in normal igneous rocks. Even where 
interaction between a magma and its retaining walls can be presumed, as 
in the case of the magma that supplied the xenolithic sills of south-west 
Mull, the extent of interaction was very limited. It would appear that a 
narrow reaction zone was established and that-the early precipitation of 
insoluble phases in this zone protected the country rock from further 
attack. The magma as a whole remained unmodified, and the reaction 
zone presented quite abnormal chemical and mineralogical characteristics. 

If assimilation was going to be operative on a large scale the place to 
‘ook for it would be in the deep-seated basin of the primary magma, where 
elevated temperatures and the unsaturated state of the magma as regards 


_ silica would be in its favour. The greatest argument, therefore, against 


serious magmatic modification by assimilation is furnished by the repeated 
appearance of the plateau basalt magma throughout the Tertiary province 
in an unmodified form at widely separated periods—first as the plateau- 
lavas, then as cone-sheets and sills, and lastly as basic-dykes. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. 


THE ANCIENT HISTORY OF SPONGES 
AND ANIMALS. 


ADDRESS BY 


G. P. BIDDER, Sc.D., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Amone animals, man alone knows of a past and hopes for a future. Our 
life is still delightful, because still we do not know what will happen an 
hour from now ; but as the intellectual development of man has increased, 
so has he lengthened his conscious past. 

The Cambrian, as the lowest of our fossiliferous rocks, used to be con- 
sidered the limit of life. With masterly insight Darwin concluded, on 
purely evolutionary grounds, that living things were on the earth for 
as long a time before the Cambrian epoch as they have been since. Huxley 
and Poulton—two great names in our history—showed that such a time °* 
must be measured by the hundred million of years. They maintained, 
against the full strength of Section A, the power of biology and geology 
to prove the important physical fact, that for hundreds of millions of years 
the world had been cool enough for habitation. . 

The past has lengthened now for mathematicians ; they have enriched 
us with the time-scale of radio-activity, and proved Darwin, Huxley and 
Poulton to have been right. They show that the ocean has existed for 
more than 1000 million years at a habitable temperature, and promise us 
the great boon of a date for every geological formation. We may 
gather from Jeffreys! and Holmes? that the constants for the time-scale of 
the age of rocks are rapidly approaching certainty, but that the constants 
of the lunar theory and the knowledge of geophysics and palaeogeography 
are not yet sufficiently ascertained to determine the height of tides in the 
sea five hundred or a thousand million years ago. 


I wish to draw your attention to the great denudation just before the 
Cambrian, and to biological indications that it was produced by a period 
of gigantic tides, on such a cataclysmic scale as gravely to interrupt the 
sequence of evolution. 

Beneath the Cambrian in Scotland is the Torridonian sandstone, in 
which Geikie® describes some two miles thick of peacefully bedded sand- 
stones, with shales and sea-beaches, deposited over an old land-surface of 


1 “The Karth.’ Cambridge, 1924, University Press. 

2 *The Age of the Earth.’ London, 1927, Ernest Benn. (Price 6d., and worth 
a guinea !) 

3 Text-book of Geology. Vol. ii, pp. 877, 891, 892. London, 1903, Macmillan. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 59 


hill and valley. But he gives a powerful picture of the tremendous water- 
erosion which followed this quiet period. Everywhere the top of the 
Torridonian is eroded; in one place a channel has been cut 4000 feet deep 
and miles wide. It is cut down to the Lewisian gneiss underneath, and it 
seems from Geikie’s description that the total depth of erosion was probably 
10,000 feet. 

I will ask you to consider Zoological evidence that the denuding torrents 
of this period were succeeded by terribly strong currents in the Cambrian 
Sea, still powerful in the Ordovician, only returning to tranquillity with 
the advent of the Devonian. 

In the Silurian we have no signs of the loafing, carp-like fish which so 
characterise the Devonian. The Silurian fauna, outside some deep- 
water creatures, with one group of very powerfully swimming fish, consists 
largely of animals specially adapted to hold on for their lives in a terrible 
current. Trilobites have centipede claws to clutch with, and a low, flat 
body shaped like a mud-shoal in a stream, or like Major Segrave’s racing- 
car. The ostracoderm fishes, instead of claws, have to trust to the weight 
of their massive bones to press them in the mud; they are armoured to 
resist the battering of the stones driven by the tide; they are shaped, 
like the trilobites, in stream-lines, so that the resistance offered to the 
current is the least possible, and the resultant pressure holds down flatly 
and firmly the similar forms of fish, trilobite, motor-car or mud-bank. 
The fish Cephalaspis is so like the trilobites Paradoaides and Olenellus that 
Gaskell claimed they proved the descent of vertebrates from crustaceans. 
The resemblance is the convergence of very diverse animals, shaped to 
resist destruction from the same 10-knot current. Each is armoured, with 
a flat stream-line carapace and eyes as far out of the mud as is possible ; 
in each the parabolic crescent of the carapace is prolonged in two lateral 
spines, which not only carry back a stream-line revetment around the 
mobile body, but also are driven splaying into the sand, if the animal is 
pushed back by the current, and anchor it like the flukes of a grapnel. 
The four-spined Cambrian trilobite Crepicephalus anchors more securely 
than those of the Silurian ; it was moored fore and aft, having two earwig- 
like spines at the end of the abdomen.* The armoured fish Pterichthys 
has a flipper on either side, which, as he is pressed backwards through the 
mud, will spread out to a click at right angles, like the barbs of a harpoon. 
Tf a trilobite be forced from his hold, he coils into a ball and rolls, so as to 
take glancing blows only. This chance of life, if driven from moorings, 
seems to be taken by some spherical shells such as the brachiopod Rhyn- 
 conella, and by the extraordinary armoured sponge, Ischadites. The fish- 
lamprey Palaeospondylus held on by a sucker to a smoothed rock, the 
crinoids were thickly plated and rooted to the bottom, polyzoa and corals 
were massive. Before the Caledonian upheaval and the Devonian period, 
we see a world of mud, clattering stones, and torrential currents. 

I suggest also that the absence of terrestrial life shows that the Torri- 
donian continents had been smoothed so flat that the Cambrian tides 
swept over all surfaces except those of recent upheaval. There must have 


40. D. Walcott: ‘Cambrian Geology and Palaeontology,’ iii. Pls, 29-34. 
Washington, 1916. Smithsonian Institution. Many Cambrian trilobites have posterior 
spines of various morphology. 


60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


been miles and miles of foreshore, exposed between tides, where fishes, 
cut off in the mud, gasped air, until the water came over their gills again, 
and the undertow carried them back into the depths. But in fossili- 
ferous times until the Devonian, there was little dry land; and there were 
no undisturbed shallow marshes, where water animals and plants could 
learn to do without water. 


We said ‘in fossiliferous times.’ It is not fitting for one who is not a 
geologist to do more than touch very lightly on the problems of the Pre- 
Cambrian. But connected with them is an interesting consideration to 
which I would draw the attention of fellow-biologists. If we follow the 
American geologists’ in attributing organic origin to the graphites of the 
Grenville series at the base of the Laurentian—which are stated by Dawson 
to contain as much carbon as the whole American coal-measures, and with 
which we may class the graphite schists described by Geikie® under the 
Scottish Lewisian, and the seven feet of so-called ‘ anthracite’ found in 
Finland by Sederholm’ in the Jatulian, at least three miles under the 
Cambrian—I do not see how we can avoid the conclusion that there was 
vegetation growing in or about quiet landlocked waters, for many thousands 
of years, as long before the Cambrian as the Cambrian was before us. 
Among palaeontologists the view prevails that it is in such still landlocked 
waters that rapid evolution has always taken place. It seems impossible 
not to believe that a terrestrial flora, and a terrestrial fauna, must have 
been evolved in those favourable times and the long ages which followed, 
to be swept to destruction in the deluge that denuded ‘the Torridonian. 
If so, we see in the succession of Cambrian and Ordovician fossils—the 
‘marine period’ of the Palaeozoic, as Marr ® designates it—the development 
for a second time of a littoral from a deep-sea fauna ; which fits closely with 
Walcott’s conclusions on the Cambrian. And in the Silurian and 
Devonian we see the evolution of a terrestrial flora and fauna for the 
second time. 

If all the Pre-Cambrian lands were swept by fierce and terrible torrents, 
marine organisms might nevertheless survive in the deep abysses of the 
sea, to recolonise later the still-vexed Cambrian shores. It is also con- 
ceivable that exceptional organisms might survive in the tranquil abysses 
of the high air, or on the occasional mountain-tops; and the fancy has 
struck me that such isolated survivors from the ancient sub-aerial popula- 
tion may conceivably be recognised in the progenitor of the Ordovician 
winged insects, and in the ancestor to Hugh Miller’s conifer of the Old 
Red Sandstone.!° 

Leaving the geologists and botanists to settle for us the truth or error 


> C. Schuchert, Pirsson and Schuchert’s Text-book, vol. ii, p. 545. New York, 1920. 

S A. Geikie, l.c. p. 890. 7 Nature, 1908, p. 266. 

® ‘Principles of Stratigraphical Geology,’ p. 149. Cambridge, 1905, University Press. 

® He believes that before the Cambrian there was an era, ‘of unknown marine 
sedimentation between the adjustment of pelagic life to littoral conditions and the 
appearance of the Lower Cambrian fauna.’ Quoted by Schuchert, l.c. p. 570. 

10 Compare D. H. Scott, 1924: ‘Extinct Plants,’ p. 181. London, Macmillan. 

In America the denudation before the Cambrian marks the ‘ third Great Erosion 
Interval.’ The Grenville coal was before all these; Grabau (p. 203) puts Jatulian 
between the second and third. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 6] 


of the premisses,!! the argument does not seem without philosophic 
interest :—that if the 7-foot graphite bed in Finland be of organic origin, 
there may be a class or classes of terrestrial animals or plants which have 
breathed air two or three times as long as those which left the sea in the 
Devonian. 


The Laurentian coal, if coal it be, must mark the climax of a long 
evolution in the seas of the still earlier Pre-Laurentian, and in that part 
of our history must come the primary advance which Church has rightly 
taught us to regard as the greatest step in evolution, the evolution of the 
flagellates. Church claims that, since protoplasm appeared, we may 
fairly estimate half the time elapsed as being required for the evolution of 
the flagellate." If Dr. Church measures his time in years, the geological 
record seems difficult to fit ; for the chaetopods, molluscs, crustacea and 
echinoderms of the Cambrian are clearly very old phyla. But the single 
step in evolution is not a year but a generation, and there may well have 
been as many generations of our ancestors before they became flagellates 
as there have been since we have been multicellular. If we have 
been ‘higher animals,’ averaging ten generations a year, for 1000 million 
years, then some 10,000 million generations may have brought us from 
jelly-fish to men. But 1000 generations a year would be a very moderate 
number for flagellates and pre-flagellates,” so that 10 or 20 million years 
would give them as many steps in evolution, to make a flagellate from 
nothing, as it has taken us to build up a flagellate into that highest of all 
living creatures, a member of the British Association (Section D). 

We are still lacking a satisfactory account of the early ocean in which 
those fateful 20 million or 200 million years were passed, and in which life 
began. I must relegate toa printed Appendix some arithmetical criticism 
which I have ventured to make on Professor Joly’s theory of the sea. 
Resulting from that arithmetical discussion, I suggest as a working 
hypothesis for biologists that, since the Pre-Cambrian, there have been no 
variations in the mean salinity of the ocean so great as the difference 
between the salinity in the Mediterranean and in the North Sea. 

The first ocean was more or less saline : it was also soaked with carbon- 
dioxide. In the air there was no oxygen, but nitrogen, much water- 
vapour, and carbon-dioxide in large quantities. Life is the history of 
high carbon compounds, in which every atom of carbon has been in a 
molecule of carbonic-acid gas. Volcanoes and springs have always been 


1 Prof. A. C. Pickering (Geol. Mag. 1xi, 1924, p. 31) supposes the moon to have 
left the earth 700 million years ago. If we shorten this to 600 million it would account 
for the cataclysm, and from the ratio given by Jeffreys (/.c. p. 229) it would be 30 million 
years before the tides dropped to double their present height. But I am informed. 
that the mathematical theory of the earth’s period of oscillation makes a geological 
date for the moon’s birth highly improbable. It seems from the maps conceivable 
that in Torridonian times the tide might have swept right round the Northern 
Hemisphere. 

12 A. H. Church, 1919: ‘The building of an autotrophic Flagellate,’ p. 4 (citing 
Naegeli and Minchin). Oxford University Press. 

18 In the highly developed ciliate, Paramecium, Woodruff recorded 600 generations 
a year, but in bacteria Brefeld found two generations occur in an hour. Gray found 
34 minutes to a generation in the trout’s segmenting egg (1927, Brit. Journ. Exp. 
Biol., iv. p. 315). 


62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


pouring into the air CO, from the bowels of the earth, coal-plants and cal- 
careous animals have buried in solid form the carbon from many thousand 
times the quantity of CO, which we have now in the atmosphere ; it is 
therefore probable that the alkalinity of the sea, and the dissolved 
calcium, have varied considerably from epoch to epoch. If all the surface 
of the globe were one continuous meadow, evenly producing a ton of hay 
an acre annually, I make out that in twenty-five years it would have 
fixed as much carbon-dioxide as there is in the atmosphere, and in 15,000 
years it would produce as much free oxygen as we have in the world to-day. 
We see, therefore, that the advent of photo-synthetic protein in the ocean 
must itself have changed the physiology of the world very considerably, 
and that the change in conditions, after a million years’ duration of the 
lowest form of life, rendered the world capable of supporting organisms 
which would have been impossible at the beginning of that age, and 
conceivably rendered it incapable of supporting ever again the first 
forms of life. 

Of the possible genesis of the first form of life we heard from Dr. Allen 
at Hull. To-day let us take up the tale, in the warm Pre-Laurentian 
sea, with little fragments of protein lying in the sunlit waters. Each 
fragment is continuously receiving energy—whether from the sun, accord- 
ing to Professor Baly’s theory of activation, or from some other electro- 
magnetic source—and with that energy is building up the molecules of 
the surrounding solution into molecules of protein, so that the fragment 
grows. 

The supply of energy is continuous, and the supply of solution is con- 
tinuous, yet growth of the fragment of protein cannot be continuous, 
because number is discontinuous. A growing fragment contains 100 
molecules of protein, presently it will contain 101, then 102. It may bea 
thousandth of a second, it may be an hour between the moment of attain- 
ing 100 and the moment of attaining 101 molecules, but with a constant 
supply of energy it will be closely the same interval after acquiring the 
101st molecule and before the 102nd is added. Let us suppose that the 
interval has been 10 seconds. What will be happening during the next 
ten seconds before the molecules number 103 ? ; 

The continuous supply of energy must in some form be stored in the 
102 molecules until its total is adequate to compel the combination of the 
water, carbon, nitrogen, sulphur and the rest of it into the new 103rd 
molecule of protein. This stored energy is then spent in forming the 
combination, and for another 10 seconds the 103 molecules accumulate 
gradually a sufficient supply to force the combination of a 104th molecule. 
We cannot suppose that the molecules can store energy except by a change 
of atomic or electronic arrangement, nor that such change fails to affect 
their molecular volume. Expansion of molecular volume means storage 
of energy which is released on contraction ; we may feel sure that even if 
the main storage of energy be in some other form, it will at least be accom- 
panied by expansion in volume and surface. When energy is given up to 
form the new molecule, all the old ones will return to their original volume, 
and if their expansion was by more than one-hundredth of their volume, 
the whole fragment will contract. 


A slow expansion while energy is being accumulated, a rapid but 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 63 


smaller contraction when the new molecule is formed, so these fragments 
of protein pulsate steadily through the day. So they continue through 
the ages, while protein enters into new combinations, and the aggregate 
of protein molecules is replaced by a unit of protoplasm, still keeping the 
rhythm of saving up energy and making-a-molecule, saving up energy and 
making-a-molecule. 

Now protoplasm in most organisms which we can study becomes 
altered at the surface which is in contact with water, by a change which is 
conveniently called ‘ gelation,’ the protoplasm at the surface losing most 
of its fluidity and changing in other properties. In certain circumstances, 
such as increased salinity of the water, the internal fluid protoplasm will 
burst out through this gelated surface in fine threads, which either gelate 
in their turn or change into strings of drops. 

I venture to suggest that the great evolution of the flagellate, which 
Church pointed out to us, accomplished in some ten thousand or hundred 
thousand million generations, was the formation of a permanent filament 
of protoplasm of which one side was more gelated than the other side, so 
that one longitudinal strip of the cylindrical outer surface is more elastic 
and therefore less easily extensible than the opposite strip. Let us sup- 
pose the gradual accumulation of energy causing, as before, a gradual 
increase in volume of the protoplasm; then the more easily extensible 
surface will swell, and therefore lengthen, and the filament will gradual! 
bend. When the quantum of energy is reached which suffices for forma- 
tion of a new molecule, every old molecule will suddenly lose its surplus 
energy and return to its old molecular volume, the distended surface will 
return to its old dimensions and the filament will straighten. 

I have spent an appreciable part of my life watching the flagella on the 
living collar-cells of Calcareous sponges—Grantia, Sycon, Leucandra, and 
Clathrina. Their movement is nearly confined to one plane and is asym- 
metrical, being almost always with a faster beat to one side than to the 
other. There is a pause, a stroke and a counterstroke. Mr. James 
Gray pointed out to me that if the counterstroke be elastic, as I supposed, 
it should always take the same time, as compared with the varying time 
of the active contraction. This I found to be the case. At about 
- 24 double vibrations to the second, the stroke and counterstroke are of 
equal duration; at higher frequencies the stroke is the shorter, as in 
a schoolmaster’s cane; at lower frequencies the stroke is the longer, as ina 
fisherman’s trout-rod. The broad features of the phenomena are therefore 
consistent with the hypothesis that the counterstroke is an elastic 
rebound.!4 

The apparent improbability of a lowly organised cylindrical cell, with 
an axial straight flagellum, having one longitudinal strip of the surface 
of that flagellum different from all the rest of that surface, disappears 
when we recognise that one longitudinal strip has a different history from 
all the rest of the surface. A collar-cell in a sponge is usually surrounded 
on all sides by six other collar-cells, of which one is its twin sister. Like 
all flagellates, including metazoan spermatozoa, collar-cells divide longi- 
tudinally. The details of this division were worked out very beautifully 


14 See Appendix B. 


64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


by Miss Robertson and the late Professor Minchin”; and they showed 
that the little bead at the base of the flagellum, known as the blepharo- 
plast, is the first thing in the cell to divide, and forms two daughter ble- 
pharoplasts which take the part of centrosomes and induce the division 
of the nucleus into two daughter-nuclei, followed by the division of the 
cell into two daughter-cells. In each of these daughter-cells the new 
blepharoplast grows a new flagellum. It will be seen that the part of the 
blepharoplast which was last in contact with its sister is, as it were, a 
healed wound, and the strip of flagellum which grows from this has there- 
fore a different parentage from that which grows from the opposite surface 
of the blepharoplast, which is an intact part of the parent surface. 

There is no nervous system in sponges, and no sign of nervous control 
of the flagella, either from the individual cell or from the community. 
The direction and timing of their beat is wholly uncorrelated, and though 
the frequency of two neighbouring cells generally approximates to equality 
it is not exactly the same. The frequency varies when the temperature 
and soluble contents of the water vary. Except in certain cases where a 
wandering ovum (Grantia) or pore-cell (Clathrina) is laid over a collar-cell, 
T have never seen a flagellum motionless in a cell which was not moribund.!* 
I believe the motion to be ceaseless, unconscious, and uncontrolled, a direct 
function of the chemical and physical environment. 

What has this to do with the history of animals? Our ancestors were 
flagellates, or lower than flagellates, for as many generations as they have 
been anything else, for perhaps five or fifty times as many generations as 
they have been vertebrates, at least two hundred times as many generations 
as they have been mammals, and our ancestors were flagellates for at least 
five thousand times as many generations as they have been men. All 
those flagellate ancestors of ours passed their whole active lives in this 
continual rhythm of accumulating energy and building, accumulating 
energy and building, twenty or more to the second through the whole of 
their short lives. Do you believe we have forgotten that rhythm? I 
believe that all through our growth, from infancy to prime, we added our 
molecules to every unit of protoplasm, rhythmically, as our flagellate 
ancestors did. And when we have passed our prime, our units keep their 
rhythmic reconstruction ; only now, because we are land-animals and must 
not grow any bigger for fear that our limbs should snap, the rhythm or the 
chemical change is readjusted, so as only each beat to add as many mole- 
cules as we use up between the beats. But the adjustment is not perfect, 
so that when we have done growing, our protein units do not keep abso- 
lutely constant—they lose a little each beat on the balance of gain and 
expenditure.17 So that as we grow older our muscles shrink, and our 
nerves shrink, and our cartilages shrink, and our brain shrinks, 
and we become what other people call ‘senile’; and at length we die— 
a thing which none of our twelve thousand million flagellate ancestors 
ever did. 

Incidentally, I believe that to that same metabolic rhythm, inherited 


1 Q.J.M.S. 1910, vol. 55, p. 611 ; 1912, vol. 57, p. 129. 

16Cf. J. Gray, 1926: P.R.S., B, xcix, p. 398, and G. H. Parker, 1910: Journ. Exp. 
Zool. viii, p. 795 (or 31); and cf. Journ. Linn. Soc. 1921, vol. xxxiv, p. 317. 

17 Proc. Linn. Soc. 1925, p. 17; 1926, p. 19. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 65 


from the flagellates, we owe our sense of time; so that our appreciation of 
dancing, poetry, and music shows that we are still flagellates at heart. 


How was the transition from flagellate to multicellar organism effected ? 
And what advantage did it bring? We have seen that a flagellum beats 
continuously and that a flagellate divides longitudinally. We must now 
turn our attention to a third cardinal characteristic—that flagellates exude 
on their exterior a watery jelly which is sticky.” 

It seems at first sight a trifling detail of natural history to mention 
that flagellates exude a transparent mucilaginous substance which coats 
them, thinly if they swim, and thickly if they stay still for it to accumulate. 
Yet to this one property is due, not only their first aggregation into multi- 
cellular masses, but the possibility of all the physiological developments 
in plants, sponges, and metazoa, of which up to the present day those 
masses have shown themselves capable. Church said that in the primitive 
unit of protoplasm the peripheral deposit of waste carbohydrate is a 
necessary condition of its metabolism, but culminates in the production 
of the timber-tree. I would add, that it culminates also in the production 
of the mammal. 

That an adhesive surface will enable flagellates to cohere is obvious ; 
this, with the repeated longitudinal fission of the cells, produces first the 
temporary cohesion of rapidly dividing monads, which are the product 
of the encysted flagellate, and are gametes—exactly comparable with those 
of the sperm-tassels of Lumbricus ; where the asexually produced genera- 
tion of the earth-worm is a flagellate, dividing longitudinally, and ad- 
hering to its brethren, so as to resemble a piece of floating columnar ciliated 
epithelium. In the earth-worm’s spermatozoa, as in most flagellates, 
the coherence is only temporary and the ultimate product of the longi- 
tudinal division is a free-swimming gamete. But in many flagellates— 
in members of almost every group of flagellates—as a method of distribu- 
tion the original products of division never separate, and with repeated 
longitudinal fission the swimming sheet of cells becomes larger and larger, 
and therefore swims faster. Almost always, however, it becomes convex 
on the flagellate side—possibly because there the continuity of the water- 
jelly surface is broken by the moving bases of the flagella—but there is 
clearly no a priori reason to expect surface tensions to be equal in the 
dissimilar flagellate and non-flagellate surfaces. The phenomena show 
that the surface tension of the flagellate surface is the less, so that it 
becomes increasingly convex, until the growing sheet of cells is bent 
round into a hollow sphere, such as we admire in Volvox, Synerypta, 
Uroglenopsis, &c. : 

Thus the properties of longitudinal fission and gelatinous exudation 
give rise in all flagellate groups to a secondary characteristic of the flagellates, 
their tendency to form hollow spheres bounded by a single layer of cells. 


- 18 Church, l.c. p. 8, considers that because the supply of CO, is disproportionally 
large compared with that of the other ingredients of protein, there is a general excessive 
synthesis of CHOH compounds, followed by their elimination on the periphery of the 
cell as mucilage or ‘ wall’ deposits. See E. Bresslau, 1924, ‘Neues iiber Tektin’ : 
Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Ges., E.V. xxix, p. 91. He finds the slime on Colpidiwm to be 
mucin ; see also Bresslau, 1924, Senckenbergischen Naturf. Ges. p. 49, and G. Lapage, 
1925, Q.J.M.S.; also see Q.J.M.S. 1895, p. 22, and p. 14, Fig. (a). 


1927 F 


66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


These spheres we may perhaps call ‘hilospheres,’”” because of the hilum or 
scar left at the point of ultimate closure, leaving the name ‘ blastospheres ’ 
for spheres produced by the secondary process of holoblastic segmentation 
in three Cartesian planes, which has been adopted by the metazoan zygote. 
This, like so much of the phenomena of embryology, must be regarded 
not as a repetition of history, but as a direct method of obtaining a result 
previously reached by a longer process. It is interesting that the zygote, 
both of the Calcaronean sponges and of the Ctenophora, clings to primitive 
flagellate longitudinal division up to the 8-cell stage, producing a crown 
or ring of cells strongly reminiscent of the 8-celled crown of the flagellate 
Stephanosphaera or of the 16-celled Cyclonexis or Gonium. 

When a hilosphere has been closed, the mucilaginous secretion on the 
inner surface of the cells which bound it can no longer be washed away, 
and the interior cavity becomes filled with jelly. In sponges, the com- 
paratively uniform diameter of the adult flagellate chambers in a given 
sponge indicates that they cease to grow when the hydraulic pressure 
of the water within them is equal to the static pressure in the interior 
of a bubble, which is of the diameter of the chamber and has the surface 
tension of its surface. That is, a collar-cell only divides longitudinally 
when it is pressed upon by its neighbours on either side, dividing against 
this lateral pressure. It is possible that a similar response determines 
the diameter of a closed hilosphere ; inside it there is not only the pressure 
at which the jelly is secreted, but unless the cellular envelope be 
impervious there will also be osmotic pressure due to the jelly not being 
isotonic with the external sea-water. In the plasma of the frog’s blood the 
osmotic pressure is about 3 cm.of water for each 1 per cent. of proteins”? ; 
in the flagellate chambers of sponges I have published a calculation de- 
ducing the surface-tension of ‘35 C.G.S. units.” This, in a hilosphere or 
blastosphere 60 in diameter, would be balanced by an internal pressure 
of 1*2 mm. of water. Therefore a percentage of “04 per cent. protein 
in the central cavity would produce equilibrium, the cells of the 
spherical wall would neither be pressed against each other nor dragged 
apart, and on the above hypothesis the growth of the hilosphere 
would cease. ; 

it is interesting to note that, apart from any such hypothesis, if at any 
stage the cells of a blastosphere or hilosphere proceed to feed on the fluid 
in the segmentation-cavity and to withdraw proteins, carbohydrates, 
or salts, the osmotic pressure will be lowered. If the central fluid be made 
hypotonic as compared with sea-water” then the internal osmotic pressure 
will be negative, and if the wall of the blastosphere be permeable to water 
it will be invaginated. If from the central cavity the cells of a blasto- 
sphere abstract soluble substances the blastosphere must be invaginated. 


ee word will not bear philological analysis ; but it is convenient in length and 
sound, 

20 C. Lovatt Evans, 1925: ‘ Recent Advances in Physiology,’ p. 148. London, 
Churchill. [See also Adair, 1925, P.R.S., B. 98.] 

1 @.J.M.S. 1923, Ixvii, p. 306. 

* At a recent meeting of the Challenger Society observations were quoted 
showing that the urine and pseudo-cartilage of the sun-fish is each lighter than sea- 
ea I regret that at the moment of going to press the references are not 
to hand. 


. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 67 


This is obviously more likely to take place where certain definitely digestive 
cells have been segregated in the wall of the blastosphere, as in the ontology 
of a metazoon. 

With the completion of a closed cellular envelope externally flagellate 
and internally filled with jelly, we have now the possibility of any true 
sponge (excluding the hexactinellids) and of any metazoon. We scarcely 
note the mucilaginous exudation in free flagellates except when they 
cling together, though we observe it in the fixed forms as the investing 
jelly of the palmellar stage, or as the gelatinous ‘ houses’ of choanoflagel- 
lates and others. But, enclosed in a hilosphere, it has now the potenti- 
alities of the intercellular jelly of the sponge parenchym, of the structureless 
lamella of the hydroid or the jelly of the medusa disc, of the semi-fluid 
which fills the segmentation-cavity in every larva and embryo. With 
slight modification it has become in us the jelly of our cartilage and the 
plasma of our blood. 

The late Dr. Strangeways and others, who have cultivated tissues in 
vitro, have shown that living tissue, from almost any source except highly 
differentiated epithelium, when placed in a nutrient medium, will proliferate 
feathery cells into the medium until a network is formed of nucleate 
masses of protoplasm stretching fine processes into the delicate threads 
which join them.” That form of proliferation into a nutrient medium 
must have been inherent in the flagellate ancestors of true sponges and 
of metazoa. But we get a cobweb growth of similar form into sea-water 
in the flagellate Dendromonas,“ and in the hexactinellid sponges, as 
described by Ijima.” We have no idea of the conditions which determine 
coalescence or independence,” but the ‘ buffy coat’ of human blood, 
which is a measure of the agglutination of the red corpuscles, may be 
increased a hundredfold by some change in the constitution of the plasma, 
the nature of which is still the subject of surmise.” In true sponges, 
coelenterates, and trochospheres, we find the surface toward the water 
preserving the firm outline of an epithelium, while the surface toward 
the internal nutrient medium, as in laboratory preparations, proliferates 
into the segmentation-cavity feathering cells—named by the Hertwigs 
mesenchyme—to form the tissues of the organism. Thisis well shown in 
Baitsell’s drawings of the segmentation-cavity in the chick embryo.” 

The exudation from the cell-surface, which our cartilage and ganglion 
cells have inherited from the flagellates, is the foundation of metazoan 
physiology and of metazoan morphology. 


We must still ask, with what advantage did sponges and Metazoa 
arise in the Flagellate Sea of the early Pre-Cambrian ? Among the photo- 
synthetic monads we know that there were some which learnt the canni- 


*% H.g. T. S. P. Strangeways, 1924: ‘ Tissue Culture in Relation to Growth and 
Differentiation.” Cambridge, Heffer. 

*4 Pascher, 1914: Siisswasserflora, Jena, Fischer; i. p. 95. 

® «Studies on the Hexactinellida,’ Tokyo : Jour. Sci. Coll. xv, pl. 5, and passim. 

26 J. Gray (1926: Brit. Journ. Exp. Biol. iii, p. 167, quoting Galtsoff, 1925) has 
results allowing the deduction that coherence was only possible while the sea 
retained a certain acidity or after it had reached a certain salinity. 

27 C, Lovatt Evans, l.c. p. 8. 28 G. A. Baitsell: Q.J.I2.S. 1925, lxix, p. 571. 


F2 


68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


balistic habit of supplementing their own synthetic products by engulfing 
the spores of their neighbours or their fragmentary mortal remains. Some 
carried cannibalism so far as to give up altogether the colouring matter 
which in sunlight made carbohydrates out of their environment, living 
instead on carbohydrates and proteins formed by productive contem- 
poraries. 

These seceders formed many specialised groups, of which the choano- 
flagellates, like many of the much higher ciliates, adopted the policy of 
fixing themselves to the ground by their blunt ends, so that the flagellum 
made a current carrying the desired spores, which passed over the stick 
body. For this function they changed the tractellar action of the flagellum 
(still preserved in sponge larvae) into a pulsellar action®—a change 
which may be effected merely by lengthening the flagellum. Also, by 
means of the well-known transparent collar, they masked the part of 
the flagellum nearest the cell, where the motion is purely lateral and 
only drives the food away from the adhesive surface without assisting 
the current. 

Where two choanoflagellates, side by side, drove their currents in the 
same direction, each reinforced the other and each cell obtained more food 
than when working alone.?° Consequently choanoflagellates began to 
form colonies of various types. One, the Proterospongia of Saville Kent, 
has been hailed by all as marking a stage towards the evolution of sponges; 
but from this flat gelatinous crust it is very difficult to imagine the 
advantageous steps which led to an Olynthus supplied by intracellular 
pores ; I would conceive the ancestor as a saucer-shaped Proterospongia. 
colony fixed by a narrow base. I propose the name of Porifera vera for 
the sponges descended from this form, and, like it, having collar-cells 
based on interstitial jelly that contains other cells and is sheathed by 
other cells from the water. Such sponges, calcareous, horny, and tetracti- 
nellid, are contrasted with the Porifera nuda, the Hexactinellida, in which 
the collar-cells and most other cells are connected with each other by 
protoplasmic threads, but lie otherwise naked in the water. Hexacti- 
nellida must be descended independently from some colonial choano- 
flagellate like a Codonosiga, whose branches developed the faculty of 
anastomosis ; and they are of a lower grade altogether than the true sponges. 
Living in the permanent currents of abyssal depths, they have not found 
necessary the hydraulic mechanism for a powerful outflow, which is found 
in every other group of sponges *!; their hydraulic organisation is limited 
to a separation of the effluent from the afferent channels, but they have 
developed the secretion of cubic opal, on the skeleton crystals of which the 
network of their naked cells is extended across the current.. They re- 
produce by ciliate gemmules: Ijima finds no gametes, but we are at: 
liberty to imagine that the free-swimming gemmule may possibly produce 
them, as in Volvow and other flagellates. 

Among the monaxon members of Dendy’s Tetraxonida many sponges, 
of the general appearance of Porifera vera, have spicules which show, 
by asymmetry about three planes at right angles to each other, that they 

*9 Geoffrey Lapage, 1925: Q.J.M.S. lxix, pp. 477, 495. 


© Q,J.M.S. 1923, Ixvii, p. 298. 
31 bid. p. 312. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 69 


are of the cubic opal.” I propose to call these Orthogonida, with the four 
orders Clavulida, Awinellida (*), Desmacidonida and Renierida. 

In biology a new secretion seems one of the most difficult things to be 
produced in evolution, so that biochemists tabulate long series of allied 
respiratory pigments and chlorophyll derivatives : we inherit our visual 
purple from so far back that we still denominate as ‘light’ the limited 
range of vibrations which the sea transmitted to our flagellate ancestors,”* 
and prove our descent from them by considering water perfectly trans- 
parent. Therefore it seems most probable that opal crystallising on the 
cubic system was only evolved once. 

This principle indicates that the Orthogonida are probably descendants 
of Porifera nuda, and there is some evidence that in histology and re- 
production they retain some resemblances to the Hexactinellida.*4 I 
suggest that they are descended (probably the four orders independently) 
from hexactinellids which found themselves in waters where the permanent 
current was inadequate. Thus they found it necessary to develop a 
hydraulic engine generally similar to that developed, probably inde- 
pendently of each other, by each of the three orders of the Porifera 
vera,°° 

It is agreed by all that the main groups of sponges were developed 
before the Cambrian. And since Porifera nuda and Porifera vera arose 
from differing forms of Choanoflagellate colony, we may suppose that in 
the Flagellate Sea we had.at least these two strains of sponges, and possibly 
the four main forms of skeleton; though possibly the slime of Halisarca 
and the horny sponges, and the three forms of crystallising secretion, may 
have only been developed for defence, when Metazoa arose and began to 
feed on sponges. 


For of metazoan animals in the Flagellate Sea there were none. All 
the choanoflagellates, all the sponges, and all the intermediate ancestors 
were microphagous, that is, evolved to supply their component monads 
with food in the form of minute particles, such as spores, very small pro- 
tista, and minute fragments of decayed protista. So they fed in the 
Flagellate Ocean of the early Pre-Cambrian age, and so they feed to-day. 


22 Of, Nature, 1925, vol. exv, p. 299; and G. C. J. Vosmaer, 1886: Bronn’s ‘ Porifera,’ 
p.473. The chelae of Merlia and Melonanchora have each three planes of symmetry 
at right angles to each other. The spicules of Reniera and Chalina are absolutely 
symmetrical end for end, as are the birotulae of Zphydatia. This is extremely unlikely 
in spicules formed of tetraxon opal, where one end corresponds to bases of tetrahedra, 
and the other to their apices. 

33 Church, l.c. p. 6. 

34 H. V. Wilson, 1891: Journ. Morph. Boston, v. p. 511 (Hsperella) ; and 1894, ix. 
p. 277. Kirkpatrick, 1911: Q.J.M.S. lvi, pl. xxxii. (Merlia normani—note collar- 
cells); J. Cotte, 1903: Théses présentées & la Faculté des Sciences de Paris, Lille ; 
p- 428, ‘chez les Clionides une disposition rappelant la structure trabéculaire des 
Ove *; Topsent (on the flagellate chambers of Cliona), Arch. Zool. Exp. 

a8. 

35 As to the relationship to each other of the Porifera vera, I have published remarks 
on the similarity of the outer cells of horny sponges with those of Calcarea (P.R.S. vol. 
52, p. 134), Dendy and Row have noted the resemblance between the canal system 
and collar-cells of Oscarella and those of a calcareous sponge (Leucettusa, P.Z.S. 1913, 
id and I may add that the collar-cells of Oscarella and Clathrina are strangely 
alike. 


70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


Grant named the group Porifera®® from the pores of their external surface, 
through which all water enters to the collar-cells. We know now that in 
most sponges these pores represent only the most exterior of two, three or 
more filters, interposed to prevent access of larger bodies than those which 
the collar-cells ingest. There is no sponge into which the sponge current 
can carry a body larger than a frog’s blood-corpuscle, and in most the 
entrance pores of the flagellate chambers will not admit a particle of 
one-third of this diameter. 

Stomached animals are formed with a cavity into which many cells 
pour a secretion, which thus digests up to fragmentation portions of organic 
matter too large to be ingested by any single cell. In the early Flagellate 
Ocean there were no particles of organic matter too large to be digested by 
a single cell, and therefore stomached animals did not arise until they had 
multicellularalgae and sponges on which tofeed. Thespongesare therefore the 
more ancient group, and have had little need for change, except for defence 
against animals. Few of the changes which have taken place in mollusc, 
crustacean, or vertebrate, affect their life; except as the abundant repro- 
ductive products of the Metazoa provide more food for the Porifera. The 
secondarily assumed microphagous habits of Lamellibranchs and Tunicates 
do not prevent the sponges, with their longer history, from flourishing on 
an oyster-farm and damaging the oysters. When we watch the currents 
of a sponge, or under the microscope watch its collar-cells feeding, we are 
seeing, unchanged, what took place in the seas of the Pre-Cambrian more 
than 1000 million years ago, when the inhabitants of the ocean were 
flagellates, low algae, and sponges. , 

How did animals come? Embryologists tell us of the blastula— 
a common form of motile spore-bearer among flagellates, never, so far as 
I know, observed to feed except by photosynthesis. They tell us of a 
gastrula, but the laws of viscous motion make it clear that the free-swim- 
ming gastrulae we observe as larvae could never earn their own living, 
since the stream-lines would carry every particle of food outside the cone 
of dead water which is dragged behind the gastrula mouth. Creeping 
planulae or gastrulae might pick things up, but as a predatory organism 
a free-swimming planula would seem a most ineffective and unarmed 
buccaneer,?” and it is not surprising that in nature no such creature has 
ever been known as an adult, and no planula or gastrula larva has ever 
been recorded to have taken into its endoderm a single particle of food. 

In the embryology of sponges I am convinced that the blastula, gas- 
trula and planula have no historical significance, other than the fact that 
flagellates are in the habit of distributing themselves by flagellate aggre- 
gates, often of the blastosphere form. For the rest, the amphiblastula of 
Sycon and the planula of Axinella are merely convenient ways of arranging 
in the motile aggregate the segregated elements of the future tissues. The 
embryology of animals is held by those who study it to be more significant 


86 Grant called them first Porophora (1825, Edin. Phil. Journ.), then Poriphera (‘Out- 
lines of Comparative Anatomy,’ 1835, p. 5), and Porifera in 1855, Todd’s Cyclopaedia, 
fide Vosmaer (Bronn, p. 52). Hogg objected (1839, p. 399 footnote) that he had used 
the word Porifera first in 1827 for an order of corals (Cellepora, &c.). 

37 So also E. W. MacBride: ‘Text-book of Embryology,’ p. 99. London, 1914, 
Macmillan. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 71 


than this ; if so, in view of the fact that Enterozoa arose later than sponges, 
it might seem easiest to guess that Enterozoa arose from Porifera vera, 
and that the blastopore which persists as an anus in Echinoderms re- 
capitulates the osculum of a Sycon. This does not oppose the view that 
the keyhole blastopore of molluscs or Peripatus may recapitulate the 
siphonoglyphs of a coral®*; but I suggest that if there be recapitulation 
in the gastrule, it is recapitulation of a comparatively high stage of 
development (as Sedgwick supposed), and that the cavity into which 
the blastopore opens is in either case a cavity which was lined with the 
embryologically outer layer of the ancestor recapitulated. Gill-slits, the 
posterior position of the blastopore, enteric diverticula, the calcareous 
spicules of Echinoderms and the embryology of the Ctenophora*® offer 
great temptations, but I will not waste more of your time on the easy 
elaboration of the hypothesis that Metazoa, or some of them, are descended 
from sponges. 

When Metazoa arose, the world contained Protista, Sponges and 
Algae. It seems more easy to imagine the evolutionary steps which would 
convert a Sycon into an Enterozoon than those which would build one 
up out of unicellular Protozoa, or convert into a beast of prey the green 
and innocent Volvox. That must be decided by those who study the 
Metazoa and their embryology. Asa student of sponges I entirely reject 
the view that there is any common ancestor, above the flagellate monad, 
from which the two branches of Parazoa and Metazoa have diverged. If 
the hypothesis be acceptable that Parazoa_ were parents to Metazoa, 
the word ‘animals’ may still be used phylogenetically to include alike 
the Enterozoa and the sponges from which they sprang. If those who 
study Metazoa reject this hypothesis, the MicropHaGa must be recognised 
as constituting a third kingdom of multicellular organisms, specialised 
for the intracellular digestion of living organisms under 5y. in diameter. 


APPENDIX A. 
Salinity of the Ocean. 


Joly has given his opinion, as a chemist, that the original boiling and 
superheated ocean only dissolved from the magma one-ninth the percentage 
of chlorides which our ocean now possesses. Professor Joly assumes that, 
ever since that primeval ocean, sodium brought down by the rivers has 
been steadily accumulating in the sea and progressively increasing its 
salinity. This assumption the man in the street may criticise. 

About half the sodium in the rivers comes from sedimentary rocks: 
where did the sedimentary rocks get it from, if not from the sea under 
which they were formed ? When a portion of the ocean is landlocked and 
evaporated, as began 5000 years ago over the Caspian plains, the distilled 


88 Adam Sedgwick : On the origin of segmented animals and the relation of the 
mouth and arms to the mouth of the Coelenterata : in Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. vol. v, 
1884. The historian may care to know that Sedgwick gave this theory to us in his 
lectures in the Michaelmas term of 1882, I think two months before he read his paper 
on Peripatus at the Royal Society. 

89 Besides the segmentation of the ovum in Berée, Idyia, &c., see Morteusen’s account 
of Tjalfjellia, 1912, quoted by MacBride, Enc. Brit. vol. 30, p. 973. 


Ue SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


water is returned to the ocean, but the whole of the salt it contained is with- 
held in the land, as we see in the New York salt-wells, or the shores of 
the Dead Sea. Landlocked seas have provided a great volume of our sedi- 
mentary rocks ; but, even when formed on a sinking continental shelf, a 
sandstone would take down from the ocean enough sea-water in its inter- 
stices to leave it with ‘25 per cent. of sodium when the water was evaporated. 
If wecall the sodium in the sea and in the land above sea-level the ‘available’ 
sodium, of this quantity 82 per cent. is in the sea, about 84 per cent. has been 
in the sea and is now in sedimentary rocks, and only about 10 per cent. is in 
igneous rocks above sea-level, and has presumably never been in the sea. 
Geologists tell us that we are at the climax of a period of maximum elevation; 
therefore much salt has been imprisoned in the land and the present 
salinity of the sea must be a minimum. If we take the extreme hypothesis 
that, at the next period of maximum denudation, a quantity equal to 
one-sixth of the mass of the present land will be denuded without com- 
pensation, and all its sodium dissolved in the sea, it would only increase 
the specific gravity of sea-water from 1-026 to 1:027. If it be true 
that in 1500 million years igneous rocks have supplied eight-ninths of 
the salt of the ocean, a mass equal to all the igneous rocks now above 
sea-level must on the average have been erupted and dissolved every 
200 million years, which is about the age of the Permian. Yet most of 
our volcanic rocks are far older than the Permian. 

From Murray’s calculations (1888, Scott. Geog. Mag. iv, 1, fide Mill, 1892, ‘ Physio- 
graphy, p. 191) the volume of the ocean is 14 times that of the volume of the 
land above sea-level. Taking the specific gravity of the land as 2-6 times that of 
the ocean, the mass of the land in tons is therefore =, that of the ocean. Holmes 
(l.c. p. 37) estimates ‘igneous and other crystalline rocks’ as roughly forming a 
quarter of the land. From descriptions of Canadian and Scandinavian geology one 
would guess that half of these are sedimentary, but to give Professor Joly the largest 


figure possible, we will assume that a quarter of the mass of the land is volcanic. 
Taking Holmes’s figures for the percentage of sodium, we find therefore :— 


Sodium Sodium. 
Mass (taking expressed as expressed as 
mass of the per cent. of per cent. of 
ocean as Percent. the ocean’s the ocean’s 
unity). sodium. mass. sodium. 
Sea ; : : 1-00 1-08 1:08 100 
Volcanic Rocks : 046 2-85 131 12 
Sedimentary Rocks . -139 ‘81 113 104 


Therefore to provide eight-ninths of the sodium in the sea would require 7} times the 
mass of volcanic rocks now above sea-level. Also a sixth of the whole existing land would 
yield 3-8 per cent. of the sodium now in the sea; and, supposing that the sodium 
yielded were accompanied by its proportional chlorine (on which see Jeffreys, l.c. p. 71), 
magnesium, lime salts, &c., since the existing sea of sp. gr. 1:026 contains 
3-4 per cent. of salts, these would be increased to 3-53, and the specific gravity to 
141-0270. 

As to included sea-water, we may take from Molesworth’s Engineering ‘ Pocket- 
Book ’ (1917, p. 99) the interstices of pounded sandstone or of gravel as 34 per cent. 
of the total volume. Therefore in a cubic metre of this the sandstone would weigh 
1500 kilogrammes, and the sea-water 350 kilogrammes, containing 3-8 kilogrammes 
of sodium, which would amount to -25 per cent. of the weight of the consolidated 
rock when the water had evaporated from the warm lower strata. 

[Schuchert, in his 1924 edition, p. 133, calculates that igneous rocks sufficient to 
supply the salt of the ocean would cover all continents to the height of one or two 
miles. Possibly four-fifths of its salt reached the ocean in Pre-Palaeozoic erosion.] 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 73 


APPENDIX B. 


Some Numerical Data of Flagellar Motion. 

In the active flagellum of Grantia compressa the longitudinal extension 
of the convex side as compared with the concave side must be in the ratio 
10 ¢o9 produce the observed radius of curvature (about 3-5y,)*°. Assuming 
the length of the concave side constant, this would mean an average 
extension approximately in the ratio +3. If this were the passive result 
of an increase in volume, as in the elementary theory suggested in the 
text, and if the diametral expansions were in the same ratio, then the 
indicated increase in volume would be in the ratio §. 

But it was pointed out to me by a biologist at Plymouth, working on 
spermatozoa, that their right-handedness of motion indicates that the 
molecules of the flagellum are orientated with length parallel to its axis. 
It seems possible, therefore, that the unstable molecular strain which 
causes the flexion may be accompanied by an addition only to length of 
the molecules. It is impossible to assert definitely that a change of 
width from -4u. to -44u would be recognisable in the retinal image, but my 
own belief is that in a slowly moving flagellum such a change in width 
would have an appreciable optic effect, and that in the flagella which 
I watched there was no increase in width of 10 per cent. ; though as to 
5 per cent. one would have no strong opinion, and as to 2 per cent. none 
at all. 

It will be noted that the diameter of the flagellum can only contain 
some 40 to 80 protein molecules, and that of the flagellum of a minute 
flagellate cannot contain more than a quarter of this number, so that the 
true theory of flagellar movement must be simple. 

The conception of one meridian of the flagellar skin being importantly 
more or less extensible than the rest was suggested to me by Sir W. B. 
Hardy ; but he has no responsibility for the treatment of his suggestion. 

The wave of contraction generally passes up the flagellum of Grantia 
with a velocity of 25y * 5p per second, but was observed with velocity 
over 100p s. I concluded from other data that it is probably 200 to 
500s. in healthy life, and that about 25y s.is a minimum, so that if this 
cannot be attained, transmission does not take place. I computed the 
work done on the water per double stroke to be of the order of 1x 10-”” 
C.G.8. units, with 5 vibrations per second. Healthy frequency (Q.J.M.S. 
1895, p. 17) is probably nearer 20 vibrations per second. 


40 Internal radius. 


74 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


APPENDIX C. 


PROPOSED CLASSIFICATION OF SPONGES AND SUGGESTED GENEALOGY. 


Choanoflagellata 


Proterospongia 
MICROPHAGA 


Porifera nuda Porifera vera 


(Hexactinellida) 

Orthogonida 
Ceratosa Tetraxonida 8.8. 
(with (with Oscarella 
Halisarca) | and with Donatia) 

Clavulida Calcarea 
(with Hymeniacidon) 
Desmacidonjida 
Axinellida ? Renierida 


(with Spongillidae 
and Chalinidae ; 
without Hali- 
chondria) 
ENTEROZOA 


Orthogonida are defined ;—Sponges resembling Porifera vera in hydraulic system, 
but having spicules formed of opal crystallising obscurely on the cubic 
system. Macroscleres of monaxon facies. . 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


SOME PROBLEMS OF POLAR 
GEOGRAPHY. 


ADDRESS BY 
R. N. RUDMOSE BROWN, D.Sc., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Since the last meeting of the British Association at Leeds, thirty-seven 
years ago, the whole meaning of geography has changed. The purely 
empirical stages of the collection of data have largely given way to the 
higher stages of interpretation and explanation, and these in their turn 
have called for re-examination of the facts by the use of more accurate 
methods. An even greater change is the important place which geography 
has won in education. Nothing could be more striking than this advance 
in a generation or two unless it was the former neglect of the subject ; 
one might say the entire omission of any geographical teaching in any 
grade of education—an almost incredible ‘defect in the training of youth 
at a period of rapid imperial growth and consolidation. The battle is 
not yet won, but even if some of the universities of this country, which 
move but slowly, do not give geography the place it merits, it has at 
least a foothold in all. Geographical research and serious geographical 
publications have also shown an increase in recent times, though the 
output in this country is far too small. This, however, is neither the 
time nor the place to dwell on the educational side of geography. I 
recall these developments only because the present year has seen the 
passing of one who will always be associated with geographical work 
during the last half-century, and especially the rise of geography to a 
place of importance in the universities and the scientific world. Sir John 
Scott Keltie was one of the pioneers of geographical education, and as 
editor of the Geographical Journal and for many years recorder and 
secretary of Section E took a leading part in the advancement of explora- 
tion and the spread of sound geographical knowledge and research. The 
present position of geography in this country is largely a monument to 
his untiring labour, enthusiasm and tact. 

Geographical thought of to-day shows a growing tendency to lay 
more stress on the human interests of the subject than it did of old. So 
far as this leads to a broadening of the outlook in what was formerly 
known as economic geography, with its somewhat narrow standards of 
the bourse and market-place, the development is all to the good. The 
humanising of the subject has done much to rob it of aridity and, by 
widening its scope, to bring it into close touch with other aspects of the 
study of man, It is a good thing for the growth of knowledge when 
barriers between allied subjects break down on a ground common to 


76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, 


both. These trends in human and social geography are to be welcomed, 
but at the same time there is a tendency to forget that our geography 
must be founded on a knowledge of the surface features of the earth. 
The physical factors must be thoroughly understood if the superstructure 
of human and social geography is to have a sure foundation. This 
foundation can be best laid in personal experience of earth, air and water. 
In other words, travel is an essential part of the training of the geographer 
if his work is to have any reality. The complexity of geographical values 
can never be gauged by any mere statistical presentment of the facts. 
The experience of the world that is necessary to the equipment of the 
geographer must be gained not merely by travel in densely populated 
lands, where the modern applications of science do so much to protect 
man from actual contact with the factors of climate, the influence of 
land forms and the effect of biological distributions, but of travel by sea 
and in empty lands and of practical experience in exploring the natural 
phenomena and occurrences, of real contact with the raw materials of 
geography, in order to learn the elements of the science at first hand. The 
scientific no less than the humanistic aspects of geography must be learnt 
by personal observation. The geographer who depends solely on maps 
will never understand his subject or be a source of inspiration to others. 
The best map is a poor substitute for reality. A year of personal 
experience of nature is worth the whole of a university course as a 
foundation of geographical study. 

In selecting for the subject of my address some of the problems of polar 
geography I have been moved by a twofold reason. First, these problems 
come near to my interests by personal experiences, and I think that in 
a comparative lull in polar exploration in this country it is well to take 
stock of the problems that still await solution, and secondly, I feel that 
modern geographical thought, with its stress on the humanistic side, is 

- tending to overlook the polar regions in spite of their wide geographical 
interest. They offer an incomparable field of observation for all sides of 
pure geography. From the many problems I can select only a few of 
importance. 


The Tasks of Exploration. 


To turn first to the Antarctic, there are certain fundamental problems 
in physical geography—problems of the nature of those which in other 
continents were solved several centuries ago. The broad features of the 
map of Antarctica are not built on ascertained fact so much as on intelligent 
guesswork, 

The existence of an Antarctic continent is still based on circumstantial 
evidence, and until more than some 5000 miles of its coastline, or only 
about 35 per cent. of the total length, are known, direct evidence of 
Antarctica will be lacking. It is not a little remarkable that all the 
exploration of the twentieth century has merely modified the probable 
outline of that continent as it was predicted by Sir John Murray in 1886. 
He had little but the reports of Ross, d’Urville, Wilkes, a few sealers 
and the Challenger to go on, and, mainly on circumstantial evidence, he 
built his Antarctic continent. The one considerable change in that map 
has been the curtailment of the Weddell Sea and the removal of its 


E.— GEOGRAPHY. rid 


southern extremity some four degrees north of Murray’s position in lat. 82°S. 
But that southward prolongation of the Weddell Sea and Atlantic 
Ocean at the expense of Antarctica was based solely on Ross’s mistaken 
sounding of 4000 fathoms, no bottom, in lat. 68°48’S., long. 12°20’W. 

Most of the Antarctic ‘lands,’ and certainly nearly all those that may 
be classed as key positions to the coastline of Antarctica, date from last 
century, some of them from a hundred years ago. Coats Land, Wilhelm 
Land and Oates Land are among the few exceptions. Enderby Land, 
the one certain or nearly certain land in over 3000 miles of hypothetical 
coastline, has never been seen or seriously searched for since Biscoe found 
it in 1831. It should be the base of an expedition that is prepared to 
work westwards. Heavy ice congestion so far found by all vessels that 
have tried to push south between Enderby Land and Coats Land, suggests 
that this stretch of coastline will have to be put in by sledge journeys 
along the edge of the ice cap. The western shores of the Weddell Sea are 
another ice-girt region which no ship has been able to penetrate, a region 
of dangerous ice pressure. Here, too, the advance must be by land 
journey, but it should be relatively simple, since accessible bases are 
known in Oscar Land and adjoining parts of Graham Land. Lastly, 
there is the great gap south of the Pacific between Charcot and Edward 
Lands, which leaves ample scope for an attack from both ends. A minor 
problem in the outline of Antarctica for an expedition based on Edward. 
Land is the determination of the eastern side of the Ross Sea and the 
elucidation of Amundsen’s sighting of land to the south of Edward Land, 
the appearance of land which he called Carmen Land. 

But even more important than the discovery of the ‘ missing ’ stretches 
of the Antarctic coastline—a mere matter of descriptive geography—is. 
the explanation of the structure of the continent and its former con- 
nections with other lands of the Southern Hemisphere. The problem is 
made more difficult of solution by the immense covering of ice that 
completely hides the underlying rock in most parts. Detailed exploration 
has so far concentrated on the two more accessible coasts of Antarctica, 
those of Graham and Victoria Lands. In fact, one might reasonably argue 
that there has been too great a concentration of interest on those coasts, 
on the part of well-found expeditions, to the neglect of unknown or little- 
known areas more difficult of access but promising more striking 
discoveries. That has been due, no doubt, to the one, Graham Land 
with its islands, projecting northward into open sea and lying near civilised 
lands, and the other, Victoria Land, offering the most promising point of 
departure for sledge journeys to the Pole. However, now that the South 
Pole has been reached, the temptation to focus effort on the best available 
base for that undertaking has gone, and the explorer’s energy of the 
future is more likely to be expended in directions more profitable to the 
advancement of knowledge. 

Graham Land, for we discard the awkward title of West Antarctica, 
and Victoria Land, or more strictly South Victoria Land, are both regions 
of lofty mountain ranges, but apparently of contrasted structure and 
diverse origin. The ranges of Graham Land, often called the Antarctic 
Andes, in stratigraphy and structure as well as in their eruptive rocks, 
bear so close a resemblance to the Cordilleras of South America that there 


78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


can be no reasonable doubt that they were at one time connected and are 
in fact disunited parts of the same foldings. Nor does it appear doubtful, 
any longer, that the line of former continuity can be traced by a submerged 
ridge on which stand relics of the chain: in the South Orkneys, the 
volcanic South Sandwich Group and South Georgia, extending in a great 
are between Trinity Land and Tierra del Fuego and sweeping well to the 
east of Drake Strait. There is no doubt of this line of connection, but 
we are still uncertain if South Georgia, and even more so, if the Falklands 
are really fragments of the arc or relics of a lost South Atlantic Land. 

The Antarctic Andes, or Southern Antilles, have been traced 
south-eastward but lost sight of at Alexander Island and Charcot Land, 
which in all probability are parts of the same formation. The great 
problem of the Antarctic is what happens to other ranges. On the 
opposite, or New Zealand, side of the Antarctic the great fault ranges of 
Victoria Land show little if any resemblance in structure and origin with 
the Antarctic Andes. A great horst capped with horizontal layers of sand- 
stone, probably of Permo-Carboniferous age, is associated with much 
evidence of volcanic activity, and seems to rise from a great peneplain of 
crystalline rocks which underlie the whole of that side of the Antarctic 
ice-sheet. 

The structure of the Victoria Land edge of the Ross Sea is reminiscent 
of Tasmania and eastern Australia, and the suggestion of former continuity 
across the Southern Ocean receives further support from our knowledge 
of submarine relief between Antarctica and Australia, Se the work 
of the Aurora Expedition. 

The relationships between Antarctica and South Africa are still very 
obscure since the African quadrant of the Antarctic, both by land and by 
sea, remains one of the least explored parts. It will prove a fruitful area 
for an expedition to tackle. 

It is unnecessary to enter into the details of the arguments in 
geomorphology bearing on the relationships of the two contrasted sides of 
Antarctica. I have recently expounded these at greater length elsewhere. 

Only further exploration can solve the mystery. We must go and 
see if we want to know. But it may be of interest to state the possible 
solutions. 

One suggestion is that the horst of Victoria Land is continuous 
with the Antarctic Andes. Certainly the direction of the Maud 
Mountains to the south of the Ross Sea supports this view, and evidence 
of great faults bounding the Andes may show that those ranges after all 
are not entirely different in nature from the ranges of Victoria Land. A 
second suggestion is that the Antarctic Andes reappear in the Ross Sea 
in the old crystalline rocks of King Edward Land—which as yet are but 
little known—and that these were once continuous with the folds of New 
Zealand. If this be true, the ranges of Victoria Land and the Maud 
Mountains probably swing across to Coats Land and may cause those 
vague shadowy shapes that a few of us who have seen Coats Land believe 
to exist in its far interior. Nothing is known at first hand of the structure 
of Coats Land, but rock fragments dredged in the Weddell Sea, and 
presumably derived from Coats Land, suggest a closer relation with 
Victoria than with Graham Land. 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 79 


In any case, it looks probable that our knowledge of Antarctica con- 
firms the growing belief that the Pacific basin is girdled by a ring of fold 
mountains marking the course of a system of geosynclines. The remains 
of the borderlands of this Pacific geosyncline may possibly be found in 
small islands in that mysterious ice-bound region to the north of Kdward 
Land which no ship has been able to penetrate. 

In the face of these great problems in exploration, it seems trivial to 
speak of the minor ones that await solution in the south. Reference, 
however, may be made to the desirability of measuring an arc of meridian 
ina high southern altitude. F. Debenham has pointed out how Victoria 
Land lends itself to this task.1 I have not time to dwell on the problems 
of meteorological exploration and can only point out that much has yet 
to be done in explaining the peculiar Antarctic blizzards which rank 
among the fiercest winds on the face of the globe. G. C. Simpson has 
given an explanation of these in the Ross Sea, but are the blizzards of 
Wilkes and Coats Lands, which occur under different topographical 
conditions, amenable to the same explanation, or has W. H. Hobbs 
found the solution in his theory of strophic winds associated with glacial 
anticyclones, a theory which he applies also to Greenland where he is at 
present investigating it ? 

Recent observations in North-East Land, Spitsbergen, confirm the 
association of this general air circulation with a dome of ice-covered land, 
but, as Sir Napier Shaw, L. C. W. Bonacina and others have pointed out, 
we require another term than anticyclone for this state of affairs since 
the high pressure is only a shallow surface effect resulting from local 
conditions, and not a true anticyclone developed as the outcome of general 
atmospheric circulation independent of local topography. Even the 
qualification of ‘ glacial’ does not remove a possible confusion of ideas. 
_ The supply of cold air from polar regions towards lower latitudes appears 
to be independent of pressure inasmuch as the winds are katabatic winds 
flowing down the slope of high land. It is orographical relief and not 
pressure which supplies the driving force of the cold air currents of the 
polar front.” 

A further important meteorological problem, with strong geographical 
bearings, is the alimentation of the ice-sheet. We know that it is wasting 
by the calving of icebergs, by surface ablation, and other processes, and 
that it has shrunk considerably since its Pleistocene maximum, but we are 
at a loss to explain satisfactorily how the precipitation in the heart of an 
anticyclone can ever have been sufficient to allow such an ice-sheet to 
grow. There is every reason to believe that during the great Ice Age 
ice-sheets did not develop over the Arctic islands of Canada or over 
most of Siberia. The temperatures were low, but moisture was in- 
sufficient. And yet in the Southern Hemisphere the ice grew in the heart 
of a vast high-pressure area. 


1 British Antarctic Expedition, 1910-13. Report on Maps and Survey, 1923. 

*W. H. Hobbs, The Glacial Anticyclones (1926). A valuable symposium on Arctic 
meteorology is the collection of papers read at the first meeting of the International 
Society for the Exploration of Arctic regions by Airship, published in Petermann’s 
Mitteilungen, Ergdnzungsheft 191 (1927). A chart shows the route of the proposed 

expedition and the location of observing stations. 


80 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


Still another problem is that of oscillation of climate as expressed by 
varying amounts of sea-ice and variations in the intensity of currents. 
R. C. Mossman and others have shown that there is a correlation between 
certain Antarctic records and those from places in the Northern Hemisphere. 
There seems to be every likelihood that before long general weather fore- 
casts of real value will be possible for some months ahead.? At Buenos 
Aires, for example, the high correlation coefficient of +-0°88 is reached 
when the summer rainfall there is correlated with the temperature of the 
South Orkneys for the winter that began three and a half years earlier. 
In fact, statistical correlation indicates that a very cold winter at the 
South Orkneys will be followed after an interval of three and a half years 
by a drought over the Argentine cereal belt; a very mild winter, after 
the same interval of time, by bountiful rains. 

Lastly, there is great need of oceanographical work in high southern 
latitudes. This branch of research has been overlooked by most ex- 
peditions in their hurry to reach their southern bases. Certainly in 
the tempestuous seas of the fifties and sixties of southern latitude it is 
uncomfortable and trying work and exasperating in delays and loss of 
apparatus. The employment of echo-sounding should, however, make it 
both easier and more accurate. 

There has been much careful and intensive work in the Antarctic 
during this century, indeed since the voyage of the Belgica, but it has 
merely touched the fringe of what there is to be done. The recent work of 
the R.S.S. Discovery in the seas to the east of South Georgia should fill 
gaps in existing knowledge of the Southern Ocean,’ but details are not 
yet available.* : 

Antarctic expeditions are costly, far more costly than expeditions to 
the Arctic. It is unlikely that an impoverished Europe will be able to 
find the necessary funds for years to come. We must look with hope 
towards the great new nations of the Southern Hemisphere, some of whom 
have already shown a marked interest in the Antarctic. It will be a sad 
day when man is so free from curiosity about this earth that the last 
mysteries of its surface are not probed because the task demands 
enthusiasm and money. 

No pioneer problems of equal magnitude await the explorer in north 
polar regions. There is small likelihood that any new land of importance 
remains to be discovered. There is certainly no ‘polar continent.’ 
However, there are gaps to be filled. Nicholas Land, found by the 
Russians to the north of the Taimir peninsula in 1913, has still to be 
investigated. Its full extent and its relation to other Arctic islands are 
unknown. North-west of it the Arctic Ocean has never been penetrated 
except by the drifting St. Anna in 1912-14. We hope that Russian 
investigators of the coast of Siberia will include Nicholas Land within 
their scope of work.® 


3*Southern Hemisphere Seasonal Correlations,’ R. C. Mossman. Symons 
Meteorological Mag., 48, 1913; and ‘The Climate and Meteorology of the Antarctic and 
sub-Antarctic Regions,’ R. C. Mossman, Jour. Scot. Met. Soc. 1918, pp. 18-29. 

4‘ Discovery ’ Expedition. First Annual Report, H.M.S.O., 1927. 

5 For the latest map of the Russian Arctic coasts, see ‘The Russian Hydrographical 
Expedition to the Arctic,’ N. A. Trausche, Geog. Review (New York), No. 3, 1925. 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 81 


The Beaufort Sea to the north of Alaska and to the west of the 
Canadian Arctic Archipelago, across which Amundsen, Ellsworth and 
Nobile made their daring flight in 1926, has never been penetrated. Its 
exploration is required in the interests of Arctic oceanography, and the 
mystery of Peary’s Crocker Land should be finally solved. Tidal observa- 
tions of the Maud Expedition off the Siberian coast have been shown by 
H. U. Sverdrup to negative the probability of extensive land to the north 
of Bering Strait and Alaska. Yet the five hours’ retardation of the tidal 
wave in reaching Point Barrow, Alaska, from the north, compared with its 
time of arrival at the De Long Islands, north-east of the New Siberian 
Islands, indicates the possibility of small islands in the Beaufort-Sea or 
more probably merely the existence of shallow water.® 

In addition to Crocker Land, several elusive lands have been reported 
in the Arctic Ocean, and from time to time have found their way on to 
maps, in most cases only to disappear when confirmation of their existence 
’ was not forthcoming. Experience has shown that visibility plays strange 
tricks on the observer in polar regions. A snow-covered land may 
merge completely in the background of sea-ice and grey sky or an un- 
suspected local fog bank may blot it out at a few miles’ distance. No 
polar land can be said to be disproved until its site has actually been 
sailed over. And even then one may ask, Was the reputed site a true 
one? Its position may have been guessed from a single long-distance sight, 
and guessed perhaps on a basis of faulty observations. The drift of Fram 
and the voyages of Taimir, Vaigach and Maud may be held to have dis- 
posed of Sannikov’s Land to the north of the New Siberian Islands. 
Keenan Land to the north of Alaska has also gone. There is little 
probability of Andrejev’s Land being a reality, but no ship has yet 
penetrated the area of sea where it was reported to lie (1763) to the west 
of Wrangel Island, in about the meridian of 170° W., between lat. 72° and 
73° N. There between the tracks, on the south of Taimir and Vargach 
and on the north of Jeannette and Maud, occurs a region of heavy impene- 
trable pack. Kellett’s Plover Land, a degree or two north of Herald 
Island, north-north-west of Bering Strait, was removed from the map as 
a result of several later voyages of vessels that sailed over its reputed site 
and saw no land. But a shadow of doubt has fallen on these corrections 
since, in 1914 from the high eastern end of Wrangel Island, the appearance 
of land was noted on several days away in the east-north-east beyond 
Herald Island in an area of the sea where the water on the continental 
shelf is known to be very shallow. This appearance was given the name 
of Borden Land and may, if it really exists, be the long-lost Plover Land. 
Inaccuracies in latitude and longitude are easily made in hasty observations 
in high latitudes.” 

An even more alluring mystery can be solved only by the exploration 
of that part of the Arctic Ocean between Spitsbergen and Franz Josef 
Land from lat. 80° to 84° N. There is no record of a ship traversing it, and 


8° The Tides on the North Siberian Shelf.’ H. U. Sverdrup, Journal Wash. Acad. 
Sciences, 16, pp. 529-540, 1926. 

7* Plover Land and Borden Land,’ V. Stefansson, Geog. Review (New York), 
April 1921. It may be noted that Keenan Land is the only one of these doubtful 
lands that Stieler retains in his most recent Nordpolar map. 


1927 G 


82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


there is more than one report of high land seen to the north-east of the 
Spitsbergen group. This, if it exists, is not Giles Land, which is farther south 
and relatively low, butit may be an outlying island of the Franz Josef group.® 
There are, however, other problems of great interest in the north. The 
extent and bottom features of the Arctic basin are still little known, and 
only in a few places has the width of the remarkable continental shelf 
been defined. North of Alaska, the New Siberian Islands, and Spitsbergen, 
the edge has been charted and with less certainty north of Ellesmere 
Island and the Franz Josef group. In other parts it is still vague. When 
evidence is scanty it may seem rash to speculate on the origin of the 
Arctic Ocean, but there are many features about the Arctic basin which 
suggest that it is not comparable with the basins of the Atlantic and 
Pacific, and that it is possibly a relatively new feature of the earth’s 
crust. On the other hand, the discovery in Hast Greenland of extensive 
series of Palaeozoic rocks seems to dispose of the idea of a former Arctic 
continent of great extent. 

Another problem of importance and far-reaching influence is the 
mysterious fluctuation in the extent of Arctic sea-ice. The fluctuations 
appear to be cyclic rather than progressive, but so far defy satisfactory 
explanation. C. E. P. Brooks has recently pointed out the influence of 
the amount of ice in the Labrador and Kast Greenland currents on pressure 
distribution and-consequent amount of precipitation in the British Isles.® 
Here at least is one direct link between the Arctic and the most important 
factor in our climate. But until we know more about Arctic climatic 
conditions and the distribution of ice in the Arctic basin, we are not likely 
to find the cause of these fluctuations. 

Facts ‘so far available point to a rotary surface movement with over- 
flows from an overcharged Arctic basin, by the Greenland Sea and other 
less important outlets. This movement may account for the tendency 
of ice-bound vessels in the Arctic basin to take a peripheral drift, as the 
Fram, Jeannette, Karluk and Maud. It may also explain the relatively 
smooth and unrafted ice reported from the vicinity of the Pole. Again, 
the heavy ice to the north of Greenland, which proved so baffling to the 
Nares expedition that it received the title of palaeocrystic ice, may be due 
simply to the heaping and rafting against the land of the pack that has 
been swept past the overflow of the East Greenland current. It cannot, 
however, be said that this circulation is proved. Far more observations 
are required. 

Fluctuations in the amount of ice in the overflow currents may well 
be due to variations in the strength of these currents. These variations 
may be associated with departures from the normal in the amount of 


8 Giles Land (also Gillies Land or Island), discovered in 1707, was re-discovered 
by J. Kjeldsen in 1876 and explored by A. G. Nathorst in 1898. It lies in about 
lat. 80° N., due east of Spitsbergen. This is where Giles himself placed it. 

9 See the annual report on The State of Ice in the Arctic Seas, published by the 
Danish Meteorological Office from all available records. It is necessarily incomplete 
and leaves great areas untouched, especially the seas north of Asia and the Beaufort 
Sea where observations are most needed. C. KE. P. Brooks, ‘ Pressure distribution 
associated with seasons in the British Isles,’ Quart. Jour. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., 52, 
1926; W. Weise, ‘ Polareis und atmosphirische Schwankungen,’ Geogr. Ann., 6, 
p- 273, Stockholm, 1924. 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 83 


water poured into the Arctic basin from the great Siberian and American 
rivers, which in its turn depends on causes far removed from Arctic 
regions. The complexity of the problem is almost baffling, but even 
before the chain of cause and effect is traced, useful work could be done 
in looking for correlations, 


Methods of Exploration. 


Every age has seen a change in the methods employed in polar 
exploration, and it may be of interest to review the resources of the 
explorer in the light of modern knowledge. In the early days of Arctic 
exploration, attempts concentrated on the hope of finding an open sea 
route to the north. Hence the lines of attack were by the two gulfs of 
warmth due to the northward flowing waters of the North Atlantic drift, 
Hudson Bay with Davis Strait and, particularly, the Greenland Sea. By 
the early part of the nineteenth century the hopelessness of advance by 
that means was realised, and not long after the prospect of an open-water 
route across polar regions in a lower latitude faded. Then came the 
period of probing the unknown north from a land base in a high latitude 
from which sledge journeys could take their start. Eventually the North 
Pole was achieved by this means long after Nansen, throwing aside all 
accepted canons of polar travel, had found a new and daring method. 
Instead of avoiding besetment he courted it: instead of battling with the 
floes he made use of their drift. 

Meantime, the age of steel prompted a new method of attacking ice. 
The ice-breaker was tried away back in 1899, when the Yermack made an 
experimental voyage to the north-west of Spitsbergen. On more serious 
exploration the Russians used ice-breakers on the Arctic coast of Siberia 
in the years immediately before the Great War. But though an ice- 
breaker can deal with ice several feet in thickness, it cannot dispose of 
that ice; if the pack is close the ice-breaker will sooner or later become 
beset and helpless and at the mercy of pressure due to wind and current. 
Even a powerful ice-breaker could be crushed by such enormous pressure. 
Only a ship that rises is safe. For keeping harbours open and smashing 
new ice, the modern ice-breaker is valuable, but it has no place in serious 
polar exploration. 

The polar pack-ice is still the most formidable obstacle that the 
explorer has to face. It may provide a laborious but uncertain road for 
sledging, but because of its drift before current and wind, it is always 
dangerous to vessels except those built on lines that defy crushing. Such 
a ship can drift in safety with the moving pack, but seldom can retain its 
freedom of action. Man to-day is little better able to penetrate heavy 
pack than he was three hundred years ago. The ice-infested seas are 
still barred to commerce and the only advance that has been made is in 
a knowledge of the position and drift of the ice, so that navigation of the 
edge of the pack is relatively safe. 

And now another method of advance has been tried. The baffling 
pack-ice can be avoided by progress through the air. Air transit in the 
Arctic is not new; as long ago as 1897, S. Andrée made a hazardous and fatal 
attempt, but in those days the aeronaut could do no more than drift, and 
Andrée unfortunately drifted to destruction. In recent years the aero- 


G2 


84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


plane has appeared in the Arctic, and Amundsen and Nobile have used 
the airship. It was inevitable that aviation should be tried in high 
latitudes, if for no other reason than its spectacular daring, but so far its 
success has not been marked. That, however, does not necessarily imply 
that aviation is never to be a serious help in polar exploration. Amundsen’s 
flight in the Norge gave a probable confirmation of what had already been 
deduced from indirect evidence. He found no land where none was 
expected. He saw nothing but ice-covered sea. Moreover, a rapid 
flight over snow-covered land, even if the eye could distinguish that 
surface from ice-covered sea, would tell little of importance. Byrd’s 
flight to the Pole and back was of even less value to exploration, for on 
his track there was no possibility of land. The kind of exploration that is 
now required entails patient observation and accurate measurement. A 
quick-moving machine cannot help in this, and there is always the prob- 
ability of mist to hamper the value and imperil the success of aviation 
in the polar summer. Amundsen himself admits that owing to ‘a tre- 
mendous sea of fog, in some places of extraordinary density’ in the Beaufort 
Sea, he may have passed over islands of low altitude without seeing them. 
So that on the only part of its course where land can possibly exist, the 
flight of the Norge has left us where we were, and the field is clear for 
the next explorer. 

Even for reconnaissance the aeroplane has doubtful value. So much 
depends on ground organisation which never can be perfect in polar 
regions, and there is the even greater difficulty of satisfactory landing- 
places. On the long flight of the Norge from Spitsbergen to Alaska, not 
a single landing-place was seen, at least not one suitable to the eyes of 
those who had experience of polar ice. Pack-ice rarely offers the requisite 
surface, and certainly cannot be relied on to do so, while among drift-ice 
the necessary expanse of open water is seldom available for a hydroplane. 
The use of a lead may prove fatal by the ice closing in on the machine. 
In his first attempt on the North Pole in 1925, Amundsen very nearly 
lost his machines and the lives of his expedition by landing in a pool of 
water. As it was, he had to abandon one machine, and it was only by 
his skill and determination that he retrieved from disaster what was a 
complete fiasco so far as scientific exploration was concerned. 

It should, however, be noted that G. H. Wilkins, from his flying 
experience north of Alaska, maintains that landing-places on pack-ice 
are numerous. He certainly made safe landings on two occasions 
without much difficulty. 

For the transport of stores, equipment and collections, the aeroplane 
has little value because its use introduces an element of grave uncertainty 
into the work of the expedition. The explorer must be prepared for the 
journey on foot or by boat if his aeroplane fails him. He must carry 
the necessary equipment, or he is incurring a foolhardy risk. And in 
that case, why take the aeroplane at all ? 

In one respect, however, the aeroplane can be successfully used in polar 
water, that is in aerial survey of difficult country that lies within reach 
of a base accessible by sea transport and provided with a good landing- 
place. The value of aerial surveys has been proved in many parts of the 
world. The survey of the Irawadi delta in a few weeks instead of the 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 85 


two or three years that ground work would have entailed, is a case in 
point. And J. M. Wordie has instanced the eastern edge of Greenland 
as a country where the aerial surveyor could rapidly make a map of the 
most rugged and untraversable country. The investigation of the move- 
ment of pack-ice in Hudson Strait, undertaken this year by the Canadian 
Government, is another instance of the value of the aeroplane in Arctic 
work.?° 

In the Antarctic, where I have pointed out the pioneer explorer still 
has ample scope, long-distance flights may be of some value. The ice- 
cap offers the prospect of better landing than the pack-ice. Yet in view 
of its great expanse there is even less chance of retreating on foot after a 
forced descent. The Argentine aviators, A. Pauly and Zanni, propose to 
fly across Antarctica from Graham Land on the Weddell Sea to Victoria 
Land or the Barrier edge on the Ross Sea next December. Their success 
depends largely on the efficiency of their machine. A forced landing will 
probably mean their total disappearance, but a successful flight will 
certainly give some broad results of value, although tantalisingly vague 
and inconclusive, as to the structure of Antarctica. An American flying 
expedition to the Ross Sea has also been announced. 

Probably some reliable form of mechanical traction for sledges would 
be more serviceable than aviation in serious exploration. Dogs are 
useful for traction to men who are accustomed to manage them, but 
their area of action is limited by the amount of food that they require. 
Man-haulage gives longer range, but is terribly destructive of human 
energy. Machine-drawn sledges would require fuel, but the carriage of 
light fuel would not seriously impede their radius of use. The whole 
problem of mechanical transport really turns on its reliability. So far its 
use has been a failure. But we live in an age of rapidly increasing 
mechanical skill. Yet, is it ever safe to put absolute trust in a machine ? 

There must be risk in all exploration, but can one ever reduce the risk 
of the motor-sledge breaking down to reasonable limits? The wear and 
tear is tremendous, far greater than in a motor gliding smoothly through 
the air. On a short journey a breakdown would be merely a nuisance, 
on a long journey, far from the base, it might well be fatal. In short, 
while a man knows his own capacity he can never have an equal faith in 
the capacity of the machine. The use of motor-sledges is bound to come 
and they will be very useful, but undoubtedly they will introduce an 
element of uncertainty in the journey. They will increase the chance 
of success as well as the risk of failure. 

Quite apart from means of transport, polar exploration has undergone 
changes in recent years. Equipment is better than it was of old, food is 
better preserved, more varied and more in accordance with human 
requirements. But the greatest change has come in the passing of the 
fear of the Arctic. Men who know the polar regions are no longer 
frightened of the cold and darkness and no longer shun the food resources 
of polar lands and seas. The terror that the Arctic inspired was a legacy 
of mediaeval superstition; the outcome, like all superstitions, of 


__/0 Few men have flown in the Arctic. Some of the most valuable fruits of experience 
will be found in G. Binney’s With Seaplane and Sledge in the Arctic (1925), and 
R. Amundsen’s My Polar Flight (1925) and The First Flight across the Polar Sea (1927). 


86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


ignorance. Before Europeans had ever experienced a polar night, they 
thought that it must be fatal. The old whalers in Spitsbergen could 
conceive of no greater horror than to stay there during the winter. There 
is a tale that an attempt to found a winter settlement, to guard the whaling 
stores, failed because the settlers, who could be obtained only by releasing 
convicts, begged, on seeing Spitsbergen, to be allowed to return to gaol and 
even execution rather than stay and endure the unknown horrors of an 
Arctic night. The legacy of fear is still part of Europe’s regard for polar 
regions, but the explorer has conquered it and he knows well that it 
requires no particular courage to face the polar climate. Fifty years ago 
expeditions dug themselves into winter quarters and stagnated half the 
year. Nares considered it cruelty to ask his men to sledge before April. 
But now winter is regarded by the explorer, as by the Eskimo, as a useful 
period for sledging. The snow and ice have better surfaces and the 
temperatures are not uncomfortably high. 

Even more striking is the lightness of the modern explorer’s equipment 
compared with the heavy load of old. In ‘living off the land’ and 
travelling lightly and quickly without supporting parties and depots of 
stores, John Rae set an example seventy years ago which was later 
followed by Nansen, Isachsen, Stefansson and others. On a purely meat 
diet man can maintain his health and vigour for weeks and months. If 
he can so break with his habits as to give up tea, coffee, sugar, bread and 
tobacco, his equipment in many of the more favoured parts of the Arctic 
can be reduced to personal clothing, sleeping-sack, rifle and ammunition. 
But the practice cannot everywhere be adopted. Even its most ardent 
advocate, Stefansson, had to abandon it at times and in certain gameless 
areas. The Arctic is not friendly everywhere : it can be very unfriendly, 
and it is rash to generalise from the most favoured regions. 

The Antarctic may be termed invariably hostile except for its penguin 
rookeries tenanted for only a few weeks a year. Once the ship is left in 
the Antarctic, a provisioned base is absolutely essential. Journeys 
without stores would in all probability prove fatal. Antarctic travel 
must be mainly over the land-ice which is wholly devoid of any living 
thing. The sea-ice, in the lack of land-locked channels and _ basins, 
seldom affords a road for the traveller. Not only is it very rough, piled 
and rafted, but it drifts even in midwinter. Seals are seldom accessible 
to the Antarctic sledge traveller, for comparatively rarely can he descend 
from the ice cap to the sea-ice owing to the steep ice-clifis. 

Even in the Arctic it must be remembered that living off the land 
demands the sacrifice to hunting of much time that could be more 
profitably employed by a party of scientific men. While if hunters are 
specially attached to the expedition, in addition to the scientific staff, 
there is the liability, even certainty, of a large party exhausting the 
game in any one locality and requiring to move on in search of food. 
Such contingencies would be detrimental to the real aims of the expedition. 
Without neglecting the valuable resources of sea and land, it will seldom 
be wise for an exploring party to dispense wholly or even largely with 
transported stores, however great the temptation may be to lighten the 
load and thus widen the area of activity. In a forced march of retreat, 
however, ability to find food and confidence in its value are important. 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 87 


A greater terror than the danger of lack of food in polar exploration 
used to be the prospect of scurvy. That has practically gone. Scurvy 
used to be considered inevitable sooner or later. No expedition entirely 
escaped it, and nearly all lost men and power of work through its ravages. 
Much of the bad reputation which the Arctic gained in the past must be 
attributed to scurvy. And its prevalence on the Franklin expedition—it 
was really attributable for its total loss—and on the Franklin search 
expeditions gave a grim aspect to polar travel which it has not yet lost in 
popular opinion. There is no excuse for the occurrence of scurvy on an 
Arctic expedition to-day, although there may still be risk of it on a journey 
over the Antarctic continent, but its total disappearance from the 
casualties the explorer has to face can be a matter now of only a few years. 
The advance of physiological science will no doubt result in scurvy being 
classed with the rare or extinct diseases. 

Thus, as knowledge grows, the power of the explorer increases, and 
the old-time hardships that we read of seem curious fantasies or epics of 
heroic men battling blindly with ignorance. 

When Europe came to realise that there were no commercial sea 
routes across the Arctic Ocean, a new motive, other than commercial 
gain, fortunately inspired polar endeavour or it might have ceased 
altogether. That aim was found largely in the attainment of the Pole. 
The actual attainment was of no scientific importance, but it was ot 
value as an ultimate objective and the lure of the Pole led men onwards 
into the unknown, and thus it served science in its day. 

Once the Poles were gained, that lure vanished. There is to-day as 
much need as there ever was for the penetration of the Antarctic 
continent along a score of meridians or of the passage towards the North 
Pole by more than one route across the Arctic Ocean. But the feat has 
been accomplished and so the aim no longer fires the popular imagination. 
It fails to serve as a bait to secure the necessary financial backing for a 
well-found polar expedition. It may be regrettable, but it is certainly 
true, at least in this country, that an expedition with purely scientific 
aims and no sensational journey or feat in its programme must appeal 
in vain for funds. These are seldom forthcoming for the advancement of 
pure knowledge. Scott and Shackleton fully realised this in putting 
their Antarctic plans before the public. Bruce, on the other hand, 
deploring the necessity, refused to accept it. And after all, high endeavour 
in the strenuous field of polar exploration has a value of its own, even if 
that value be not scientific. It is, however, unfortunate that in recent 
years more than one expedition has been successful in raising funds, and 
others have attempted to do so, for programmes that were little else than 
spectacular and bore the smallest prospect of useful work. This is to be 
deplored because it diverts funds from earnest work and sometimes even 
brings discredit on polar exploration. Every serious worker in polar 
research must regret the entry into the field, from time to time, of men who 
have few qualifications for the task and see in it merely an opening for 
spectacular notoriety, or a measure of financial gain by means of dramatic 
cinematograph films and newspaper articles. 

I have tried to show that even if pioneer journeys have not ended, 
exploration is entering on a new phase, that of fixed stations of at least 


88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


a year’s duration and preferably longer, where detailed researches in 
meteorology, biology, and other branches of science can be pursued. 
Many years ago Denmark led the way with such a station at Disko in 
Greenland. Norway has at least one permanent meteorological station 
in Spitsbergen, but the only permanent station in the Antarctic regions 
is the Argentine Observatory at the South Orkneys, founded in 1903 by 
W. S. Bruce, unless we look upon the temporary marine laboratory of 
the Falkland Islands Government at South Georgia as an Antarctic 
station. There is room for more, and it is to be hoped that some day 
there will be at least an oceanographical laboratory in that Arctic land, 
only a few days’ sail from our shores, western Spitsbergen. 

Meanwhile, we welcome the stimulus to real polar research afforded 
by the Polar Research Institute at Cambridge and the new interest in 
polar exploration evinced by the recent successful Cambridge expedition 
to East Greenland, and no less valuable Oxford expedition in North-East 
Land two years earlier. Such expeditions fill in details that were over- 
looked in the age of pioneer journeys when the scientific problems 
awaiting solution were not formulated. They can in one season accom- 
plish as much as the older expeditions did in a year. We may look for 
useful work from the Cambridge expedition now engaged in the survey 
of the little-known Edge Island, Spitsbergen. Nor must we forget that 
for some years now the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in their patrols 
between their far-flung Arctic posts have been quietly conducting useful 
explorations. The excellent work of the Danes in Greenland should also 
be noted and especially the exhaustive work on the Eskimo which 
K. Rasmussen has extended westward to Bering Strait. Norway also is 
filling in the details omitted by earlier explorers in Spitsbergen and 
publishing a series of valuable monographs on that country. 


Settlement of Polar Lands. 


During recent years territorial claims have been made to all parts of 
Arctic regions that were not formerly subject to sovereignty, and even 
in the Antarctic great dependencies have appeared. This is an expression 
of the growing belief that polar regions are not merely desert wastes but 
have some economic resources of value to man. 

Fur and oil first brought Arctic regions into the areas of commerce. 
The advance by sea, as with the explorer searching for a sea route to the 
East, was naturally by the two gulfs of warmth into Davis Strait and the 
Barents Sea. The most approachable Arctic lands were first exploited 
and first devastated by hunter and trapper. Thus Greenland and 
Spitsbergen have suffered first. The land approaches were naturally 
where continental land projects farthest north, Canada and Siberia. 
Those routes led to a later advance of the trapper, but to as ruthless an 
exploitation when once it began. Hunting cannot last: it is rapidly 
failing. Modern weapons are too effective, and already the Eskimo are 
suffering after a brief period of prosperity. But since the market for furs 
will continue and even grow, and since the best furs will always be 
Arctic winter skins, the demand must be met by breeding fur animals. 
Climate exercises a rigorous control on the commercial value of the 


ja oe 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 89 


furs, a control from which there is no escape. Under wise game laws 
the Arctic lands and seas may produce a steady crop of furs, but the new 
form of exploitation will be rather an aspect of stock-raising than of 
hunting. Even the hunting of sea mammals will suffer eclipse as the 
civilisation of machines advances. The whaler has now deserted most 
Arctic seas, the sealers are fewer and the walrus hunter has nearly 
exterminated his prey. The addition of motor power to sloops has 
enabled the Arctic hunter to extend his area of operations by penetrating 
the pack farther than sail would admit. Arctic animal life has suffered 
as a result, as for instance the inroads on Spitsbergen reindeer in their 
relatively safe sanctuaries on the north and east. 

Of all Arctic animals, at least of those that have a commercial value 
at present, the polar bear will endure longest, not because he is least desired, 
but because he is a sea mammal who lives in the inner fastnesses of the 
polar pack and can be hunted only on its fringes. 

Exhaustion of game leads to a decrease in the number of hunters. 
So far as this decrease concerns temporary hunters from the south, it may 
lead to a slow revival in resources; but as regards the permanent 
inhabitants of Arctic America, the Eskimo, it has serious effects. Their 
standard of living is reduced, want appears, and their culture and their 
race languish. A century ago the Eskimo had struck a balance between 
numbers and resources. They were perfectly attuned to their environ- 
ment even if their area of settlement oscillated a little on the confines 
where game was liable to fail as numbers increased. Then the introduction 
by Europeans of more effective weapons upset the balance. So nicely 
adjusted was their equilibrium that the looting of iron from McClure’s 
abandoned ship, Jnvestigator, was probably the cause of the virtual 
extermination of musk-ox on Banks Island and its consequent abandon- 
ment by the Eskimo. The exhaustion of game brought the Alaskan 
Eskimo to the verge of starvation a few years ago, and if the United 
States Government had not intervened, might have wiped out that 
branch of the race. 

The resources of the Arctic are not, however, limited to hunting, even 
if we include with hunting the breeding of fur-bearing animals. Outside 
Greenland, with its ice-sheet covering 94 per cent. of the island, a com- 
paratively small area of Arctic lands at present bears permanent ice. 
The Canadian Arctic islands are free except small ice-sheets in the east, 
in parts of Ellesmere and Baffin Islands ; the Eurasian Islands have more, 
though there are large free areas in Spitsbergen and the south island of 
Novaya Zemlya, while the whole of the mainland areas of Siberia, Alaska, 
and Canada, which can by any stretch of meaning be called Arctic, are 
free from permanent ice. Beyond the northern limit of trees there may 
be said, at a rough estimate, to be about 5,000,000 square miles of ice-free 
land, or considerably more than the total area of the United States. 
Most of this is covered with some kind of tundra. The mainland and some 
of the island areas have a close covering which in favoured places may 
attain a luxuriance and vigour of growth which has little relation to 


_ latitude and contradicts all preconceived notions of Arctic productivity. 
_ Thus western Ellesmere Island and north-western Greenland are noted for 
_ their vegetation. In other places the plant covering is open, and on 


90 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


some of the islands there are areas which are practically desert and bear 
only a few mosses, lichens, and scattered plants. 

These tundras are the natural grazing grounds of caribou, reindeer, and 
musk-ox. The musk-ox go farthest north, being found even in Ellesmere 
Island and northern and eastern Greenland, and they are confined to 
the American Arctic. Neither animal—for of the three caribou and 
reindeer are essentially the same—leaves the Arctic in winter. They are 
natives of the north and do not suffer from the winter cold and light 
snow. Their only enemy besides man is the Arctic wolf. It preys 
successfully on the reindeer and is less likely to attack the musk-ox, 
which not only can fight the wolf with its sharp horns but finds safety in 
numbers. The wolf seldom cares to attack a herd. 

Musk-ox and reindeer are complementary to one another in their food 
requirements. The reindeer prefers grass and willow shoots in summer 
and the lichens known as reindeer and Iceland moss in winter, while the 
musk-ox eats grass and shoots at all seasons. Now grass and shoots are 
more abundant than lichens on the Arctic tundras, so that the number of 
reindeer are limited by the winter feed, while much grass remains surplus 
and could be utilised by musk-ox. The relatively restricted area of the 
musk-ox to-day in Arctic Canada is solely due to the ease with which it is 
hunted. Now that it is protected by law, there is no reason why its 
range should not increase considerably. 

The reindeer has been domesticated from early times in the Old 
World, even if we cannot be sure that the reindeer of Stone Age man in 
Europe were tamed and not merely wild flocks. The prosperity and very 
existence of most peoples of the Old World tundras from Lapland to 
Bering Strait to-day depend on the reindeer. Lapp, Zirian, Samoyede, 
Ostyak, Tungus, Chukchee, and Koryak are all reindeer breeders to a 
greater or less degree, and the reindeer provides them with meat, milk, 
clothing, and leather. They alone are the prosperous tribes, and their 
prosperity, as is the way of prosperity, causes them to look down on the 
hunting and fishing tribes such as the Yuchagir, Kamchadals, and some 
Samoyedes, who have a hard struggle to survive. Yet it should be noted 
that even among the Chukchee, who are the most successful reindeer 
breeders in Siberia, the reindeer is only partially domesticated, and the 
herds often run wild owing to the interbreeding with wild deer. The 
herds of the Koryaks also frequently revert to the wild state. 

In the New World, including Greenland, the caribou has never been 
domesticated. The Eskimo are chiefly dependent on sea mammals and 
fish. Sea mammals yield a greater supply of oil, their only source of fuel 
and light, than caribou and musk-ox. To the Eskimo, land animals are 
a secondary consideration, valuable in the summer nomadism as offering 
a change of food and variety of occupation, but rarely now the staple of 
their existence. Even the Caribou Eskimo, inland dwellers to the west of 
Hudson Bay, have never tamed the reindeer, but exist by hunting the 
wild herds. 

In his well-known efforts to dispel the prevalent misconception about 


11 The Canadian Government now offer £6 per pelt for wolves destroyed in the 
North-West Territories. The skins find a ready market. In 1926 about a thousand 
wolves were thus accounted for. 


K.—GEOGRAPHY. 91 


the Arctic, V. Stefansson has drawn a glowing picture of the future of 
the Arctic prairies.” His statements have met with some criticism, not 
invariably by men who know the Arctic. It may be well to examine 
his arguments in some detail, since this matter touches the future of the 
Arctic and its possible contribution to the material welfare of man. 

Experiments in reindeer breeding in Alaska were begun in 1891 with 
the introduction of a small herd of sixteen deer from Siberia. Next year 
167 more were introduced. This was an attempt by the United States 
Government to give a new means of livelihood to the Alaskan Eskimo, 
who were in dire straits because game was exhausted. The experiment 
was entirely successful. The herds have been doubling themselves every 
three years, and the 1,280 deer introduced before 1902 have now increased 
to about 500,000. The United States Department of Agriculture calculate 
that the grazing grounds of Alaska can support over three million reindeer 
at a low estimate. At present the deer are a small variety, but it is hoped 
to increase their size by interbreeding with wild caribou. This, however, 
must be done carefully lest the herds become unmanageable. 

There can be no doubt of the success of the experiment in Alaska, and 
the forecast of an Alaskan production for the market, in less than twenty 
years, of over a million carcases of reindeer a year is probably no exaggera- 
tion. ‘This is the equivalent of nearly three million sheep, and so would 
be no small accession to the meat resources of the United States. 

It has been suggested that the Alaskan success shows what can be 
done in Arctic Canada, the Barren Lands and islands, and possibly also in 
_ parts of Greenland. Undoubtedly there are wide grazing grounds that 
are now practically unoccupied, but it is easy to exaggerate their 
potentiality. Estimates of productivity based on the number of species 
of plants here and there or per square yard have little value. Many of the 
plants are of no use to grazing animals and others are rare. It must never 
be forgotten that most Arctic plants grow slowly and have poor means of 
reproduction, so that Arctic prairies can easily suffer from over-grazing. 
One reason for the wandering of the caribou and musk-ox is their liability to 
exhaust any but the richest grazing grounds to such an extent that a year 
or two, or even more, are required for their recovery. 

Siberian reindeer in a wild state commonly migrate southward to the 
forest edge in winter and even on the rich pastures of Lapland nomadism 
is essential. The Lapps know well that the sites of the winter villages 
must be frequently changed in order to ensure enough lichen for the 
herds. Intensive pasturage on confined areas is impossible. 

Six years ago the Hudson’s Bay Company acquired from the Canadian 
Government a lease of 100,000 square miles of tundra in southern Baffin 
Tsland and imported five hundred reindeer from Norway to Amadjuak on 
Hudson Strait. All the deer perished. Yet the failure of the experiment 
must not be used as an argument against the possibility of reindeer 
breeding in Arctic Canada. Siberian reindeer, for there are many varieties. 
of the reindeer, would probably have suited the conditions better than the 
tamer and richer-feeding Norwegian variety. And furthermore Baffin 
Island, as its small ice-fields bear witness, has a greater precipitation than 


12 V, Stefansson, The Northward Course of Empire (1922); The Friendly Arctic 
(1921) ; ‘Polar Pastures,’ he Forum, Jan. 1926, and other articles. 


92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


most reindeer lands and a humid climate seldom suits reindeer. The 
failure to acclimatise reindeer in the Orkneys and the Scottish highlands, 
many years ago, was attributed, no doubt rightly, to the dampness of the 
climate, for the food supply was entirely adequate. Lastly, the wolves 
of Baffin Island made serious inroads on the new flocks quite unprepared 
to defend themselves from this unknown enemy. ‘The wolf is a far more 
serious enemy than man to the reindeer and more effective in reducing 
numbers. 

There is no reason to suppose that the domestication of reindeer, 
starting with Siberian stock and gradually introducing the American 
caribou, will be anything but successful in most parts of the Canadian 
tundra, in the rich pasture lands of western Greenland, and the more 
restricted areas of Spitsbergen. All these regions have supported vast 
numbers of reindeer in the past, and should do so again if excessive 
hunting is curbed, wise game laws instituted, and the wolf exterminated, 
as Canada is endeavouring to do. Already the killing of reindeer in 
Spitsbergen is totally prohibited until 1934, the first enactment of Norway’s 
rule in her Arctic possession.13 

Alaska is said to have pasturage for 4,000,000 reindeer. Basing his 
estimate on this figure, Stefansson calculates that the Arctic tundras as 
a whole are capable of supporting about 100,000,000 reindeer and perhaps 
five times as many musk-ox. This is probably an over-sanguine estimate, 
for it must be remembered that the Alaskan herds are mainly in the more 
fertile valleys of the south and south-west, which have few, if any, equals 
in fertility in the tundras farther north; but even if we reduce the 
numbers considerably, say by as much as 50 per cent., there remains a 
possible food production from the waste Arctic lands equivalent to some 
1,000,000,000 sheep, or more than ten times the total number of sheep 
that Australia now supports. 

This would, of course, take many years to accomplish, and naturally 
will not occur until the temperate lands of the world are more fully 
occupied than at present. But gradually as world population multiplies 
and food production has to be increased, the lands that are not fit for 
cereal growth will command attention by their possibilities for pasturage. 
It is a geographical axiom that the herder must always give way to the 
tiller of the soil with his more intensive occupation. With the extension 
of dry farming, there seems little likelihood of any considerable areas of 
temperate lands in the long run being left to pastoral pursuits. But the 
Arctic tundras are entirely unsuited for agriculture by unfitness of soil 
and shortness of summer for ripening the grain. Their advantage as 
pasture land is that the farmer can never displace the herdsman. As the 
world’s supply of beef decreases, the supply of venison and musk-ox flesh 
will come more into demand. 

A further important aspect of Arctic pasturage has been suggested in 
the supply of leather and wool. The musk-ox wool has been shown to have 
the qualities of merino and to be softer than cashmere, but it is unlikely 
that it will be possible to shear flocks that have to resist the rigours of a 


. Norwegian proposals for game laws are published in Naturfredning i Norge, 
Arsberetning, 1926 (Oslo, 1926). See also Scottish Geog. Mag., May 1926. 


ee —=_ 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 93 


long Arctic winter or the pestilential irritation of the mosquito in 
summer. 

The reindeer industry in Alaska is largely in the hands of Eskimo. 
It was started to maintain them and 70 per cent. of the flocks now belong 
to Eskimo. In Siberia, where the reindeer are for native use only, there 
being no export of meat as from Alaska, all the herds are owned and 
managed by natives. In Arctic Canada, when the industry grows, no 
doubt Eskimo and Indians will be largely employed to tend the flocks, 
but the slaughter of the beasts, the preparation of the meat and its 
export, as well as the transport arrangements, will no doubt be in the 
hands of Americans, Canadians, and Europeans. Eskimo and white will 
meet even more than they do to-day. 

The experience of the past, in every quarter of the globe, of the fate 
of hunting peoples in contact with more highly organised races gives room 
for legitimate doubt as to the ultimate survival, still less the increase, of 
the different peoples of the tundra. The clash of widely divergent cultures, 
to say nothing of the introduction of new diseases, almost invariably has 
meant the extinction of the more primitive people. 

The same will probably occur in the Arctic. The latest reports from 
the North-West Territories of Canada do not hold out much hope for 
Eskimo survival. The Eskimo are depending more and more on the 
police and trading post for supplies and help. Only the remoter tribes 
seem to preserve their strength and independence. The Hudson’s Bay 
Company and the Canadian Government, through the Mounted Police, 
are doing all they can for the Eskimo in sheltering him from the evil 
effects of civilisation. Yet the fact is admitted by the police themselves 
that the sturdiest and most attractive Eskimo are those who are not in 
contact with outposts of the white man’s civilisation.14 

Siberian natives in their greater isolation will no doubt last longer, but 
they also show signs of failing. 

Up to the present the tide of human migration has flowed and ebbed 
on Arctic shores and has been mainly a seasonal movement, marked even 
in the permanent residents by a great degree of nomadism. But eventually 
the tide of white settlement will definitely set northward, even to the 
Arctic seas, and in its flood destroy the present inhabitants. 

It is no more presumptuous to forecast a scattered population of 
reindeer and musk-ox farmers in the ‘ barren lands’ of Arctic Canada, 
the tundras of Siberia, and even in Greenland and Spitsbergen too, a 
hundred years hence than it was a hundred years ago to suggest sheep 
farmers in the plains of Australia or wheat fields in the Peace Valley of 
Canada. Every land beyond the frontiers of settlement has been a 
“never-never land’ to unadventurous and unimaginative folk living in 
sheltered homes. But in most cases the prediction has been falsified. 

Prejudice and antipathy, which loom so strong at present, can be 
ignored: when the Arctic calls for population and offers inducement in 
the form of material gain, all difficulties of that kind will vanish, just as 
the old-time horror of the tropics disappeared as knowledge grew and 
prospects of gain loomed through the heat. The only question that 


14See Report of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, 1926, and K. Rasmussen, 
Across Arctic America (1927). 


94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


remains unanswered is the adaptability of peoples of European descent 
to life in the Arctic climate. At present there is little evidence on which 
to base satisfactory conclusions, for nearly all migration in historic times 
has been either within the temperate zone or from temperate to tropical. 
There are few instances of migrations from temperate to polar or even 
from warmer to cooler climates. 

The problem is one of considerable importance in the future of human 
settlement for two reasons. First, because there is no real evidence that 
the white races are suited for the tropics; that is to say, for permanent 
racial transference as apart from visits. All the evidence that is conclusive 
points the other way and suggests that only by a slow process of natural 
selection can the white races ever find a sure footing in the tropics. 
Long before that is achieved, the coloured races will have effectively 
occupied the warm lands.1° This means that the white races must turn, 
as in effect they have been turning for several centuries, polewards in 
their search for new homes. Secondly, the possibility of polar settlements 
affects, as I have tried to show, the future food production of vast areas 
which at present enter little into the economic life of the crowded popula- 
tions of food-importing communities. 

There are plenty of isolated cases to illustrate the healthiness of polar 
climates and how a man can thrive in the Arctic for a year or several 
years. But it is unsafe to found faith in polar colonisation on such cases. 
First, they are almost entirely cases of men, and secondly, of men in the 
prime of youth and of strong physique and mentality at the outset. 
Witness the trappers of the Hudson’s Bay Company, the fur traders of 
Siberia, or the adventurers in the Klondyke and Yukon goldfields. It 
has even been argued that because a negro accompanied Peary to the 
Pole there is no reason why peoples of the tropics should not colonise the 
Arctic ! 

Successful colonisation entails not merely the maintenance of health 
and vigour during a shorter or longer stay in the new environment. It 
demands that race transference can take place and that the transferred 
population can thrive with undiminished fertility from generation to 
generation without the infusion of new blood from the mother country. 
From this point of view the health and energy of women and children 
is the important consideration. 

The Danes in Greenland are the nearest modern approach to this state 
of affairs, but though the Danish families thrive during their stay in the 
North they do not regard Greenland as a permanent home: they are 
exiles counting the years until they canreturn to Denmark. At certain 
of the large mining camps in Spitsbergen there are Norwegian families of 
several years’ uninterrupted residence with bright, healthy children born 
and reared in the Far North. 

There are, unfortunately, no data bearing on climatic energy in polar 
regions such as E. Huntington has collected for the United States and some 


15 From this statement it does not of course follow that all regions within the 
tropics are necessarily uncolonisable by whites, since altitude may in certain places 
compensate for the ill effects of a tropical climate. Nor does it follow that a few 
exceptional families may not now and then persist in the tropics for a generation or 
two, though such instances generally involve the introduction of fresh blood. 


————————————————————— SO ee 


E.— GEOGRAPHY. 95 


other countries. But if his conclusions are true, that a low mean daily 
temperature is more conducive to high mental energy than a high or even 
moderate one, then we can be sure that the Arctic colonists will not at 
least suffer intellectual degeneration. On the other hand, those of us 
who have experienced the extraordinary physical energy which is one of 
the joys of life in polar climates must be a little sceptical of Huntington’s 
further conclusion that a mean daily temperature of about 64° is the 
optimum for physical activity. That figure would appear to be too high, 
but of course it represents a value that is extraordinarily difficult to 
measure. 

The only example of real Arctic colonisation that exists is that of the 
old Norse colonies in south-western Greenland founded in the tenth 
century. At their height the two colonies must have contained between 
2000 and 3000 people, men, women, and children, scattered in about 
280 farms, where they kept cattle, goats, sheep, and horses, perhaps 
raised a few poor crops of little account, and hunted bears, reindeer, and 
seals. There is no need to recall the history of these settlements, how 
trade with Europe gradually ceased and how the Norsemen had entirely 
disappeared when late in the sixteenth century communications with 
Greenland were reopened. 

Recent Danish researches at Herjolfsnes, near Cape Farewell, have 
discredited the old belief that the colonies disappeared either by Eskimo 
extermination or by fusion with the Eskimo races.1® It now seems clear, 
at least as regards Oesterbygd, that the Norse race maintained its racial 
purity and did not ‘go native.’ The general reluctance of the Nordic 
races to mix with widely divergent stock was as noticeable then as it has 
been in later centuries. Examination of skeletons in the churchyard of 
Herjolfsnes reveals the interesting facts that while clothes and ornaments, 
in graves of the fifteenth century, show little trace of Eskimo influence, 
the skeletons all show signs of rickets or other malformations and stunted 
growth, but no sign of racial mixture with the Eskimo. There is also a 
very high proportion of remains of infants and young people. Evidently, 
therefore, the Norse colonies, at least Oesterbygd, perished by exhaustion. 
Even if the climate were changing for the worst during the existence of 
these colonies—and such a change is by no means proved—there is no 
reason to suppose that the habitual meat diet failed. The cessation of 
communications with Europe cannot have affected the diet of the colonists 
to any great extent. The King’s Mirror, describing conditions when the 
colonies were prosperous, notes that most of the settlers did not know 
what bread was. And what else could they get from Europe to vary their 


meat diet ? 


The conclusion is, therefore, that the Norse colonists in Greenland 
died out for want of new blood, or, in other words, that they were not 


acclimatised to their Arctic home. From this it might be argued that 


even the Nordics can never colonise the Arctic. Certainly no other race 
from temperate climates is likely to try, since the Nordics alone show that 
distaste for gregariousness and that capacity for enduring solitude which 


16 See papers by P. Norlund, F. C. C. Hansen, and F. Jonsson in Meddelelser om 
Crénland, LXVII (1924), and by D. Brunn, ditto, LVII (1918). 


96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


are essential qualities for the task. We may even grant them a greater 
measure of physical enterprise and love of wandering than other people. 

The Greenland experiment is not, however, a sure criterion of Nordic 
unsuitability for the Arctic. The pastoral settlement, which is suggested, 
will be a slow colonisation, in which natural selection will have some say. 
Those suited will remain, others will move away or perish. But the 
colonists will not be cut off from the world: they will be in close touch 
with it. New blood will continually flow in their veins, so that the 
unchecked course of natural selection which operated in the old isolated 
Norse colonies and killed out the more nervous and imaginative type, a 
type that is least adapted to the Arctic, will not have free play. There 
is no reason why the race should become impoverished by the elimination 
of its most progressive element. Even though a diet solely of meat has 
proved wholesome enough in the case of Eskimo and some explorers, 
it will not be necessary for the Arctic colonists to subsist on it entirely : 
transport facilities will bring every variety of food to their doors. 
If the Norsemen suffered from insufficiency of certain ingredients in 
their diet, a similar fate will not be the lot of the colonists of the future. 
It they died out by lack of new blood and continual inbreeding, the 
Arctic settlers of the future will be able to avoid that disaster. 

Such is the legitimate forecast, as I see it, of the outer rim of the Arctic 
of the future with its prosperous, though scattered, colonists of pastoral 
interests, and its fur farms here and there supplying high-priced Arctic 
furs in limited numbers. But the settlement must wait until the pressure 
of population or the world’s resources is even greater than it is to-day. 
The remoter parts, those without rich tundra and the ice-covered seas. 
and lands must remain deserts, visited only by roving hunters and 
occasional explorers. In short, I see a shrinking of the Arctic wildernesses, 
but never their disappearance. I cannot take as glowing a view of Arctic 
settlement as Stefansson can, or visualise the same attraction to popula- 
tion which he forecasts, and I am sceptical of the value of Arctic lands as 
stations on the air routes of the future. But even if he has overstated 
his case, his long-sighted views have done something to dispel current. 
misconceptions and reduce the area of polar wastes. 

Of the possibilities of Arctic mining, little need be said. The subject 
is not purely a geographical one. Where minerals of value occur they 
will sooner or later be mined, like the cryolite of Greenland, the copper 
of Arctic Canada, and the coal and gypsum of Spitsbergen. Geographical 
considerations undoubtedly affect the issue, but in the main it is an 
economic problem. Difficulties of climate can nearly always be overcome, 
and transport can generally be arranged if the mineral will pay the cost. 
As coal increases in price, as it promises to do, the Spitsbergen coal mines 
will pay well, and if gypsum finds new uses and higher values, the vast 
deposits of Spitsbergen will be mined on a great scale. Similar con- 
siderations apply to Arctic copper. But the Arctic lands as a whole, so 
far as we know, are not rich in mineral wealth. The only one that will 
eventually have a large mining population is Spitsbergen, and there 
manufactures may develop in relation to the gypsum and metallic ores. 

The Antarctic has no human problems comparable with those of the 
Arctic. It is true that whaling has recently invaded the Antarctic, with 


x——eeeEeEeEE———ee 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 97 


the vessels in the Ross Sea, not to mention the sub-Antarctic whaling in 
South Georgian and Falkland waters. But this can be little more than 
a passing phase. Already some species of whales show signs of depletion 
of numbers, and unless whaling is so rigorously shackled by regulations 
as to make it of little profit compared with risk it entails, the industry 
must kill itself in a few years’ time. For the rest there is nothing of value 
in commerce in the Antarctic: certainly nothing that it can possibly pay 
to exploit. The stories of future Antarctic coal mines can be dismissed 
as a dream without any solid foundation. It is fortunate. And those of 
us who care for the wild waste spaces of the world are glad to think of the 
Antarctic as free from invasion by our modern civilisation with its 
insistence on hurry and noise. We are glad to remember the lonely 
places of the world and their matchless beauty, content to know that to 
others they will bring the same fascination they did to us in years gone by. 


1927 H 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


RATIONALISATION OF INDUSTRY. 


ADDRESS BY 
Pror. D. H. MACGREGOR, 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


I. 


A very remarkable change took place after the war in the expression of 
both public and economic opinion in respect of what may generally be 
described as the problem of industrial Jeadership. In the former period 
the growth of great concentration of control over production was regarded 
with distrust, and as a thing which had to be carefully watched in the 
interests of the community. While it was admitted that the old theory 
of competition was not working without disadvantages, it was believed 
that all over, these were less than the disadvantages which might result 
from anything monopolistic. It was considered that the anti-Trust 
legislation of the United States and other countries was a serious and wise 
attempt to deal with a public danger. The theory of business profit was 
connected with the fact that risk was paid for, and had therefore to be 
taken; that enterprise essentially involved this risk-taking function of 
the producer; that the best risk-takers would win in the competitive 
struggle, and that it was in the general interest that the worst should be 
eliminated. Because of Joint Stock, the units of enterprise became 
larger and more powerful, and this by itself tended to make competition 
more intense ; so much so that it became usual to apply military terms 
to the relations of producers, to speak of “the war of competition ’ that 
was fought between the ‘ captains of industry.’ But there was no settled 
opinion that, alongside of the growth of Joint Stock, there had not grown 
up conditions which qualified the risks of competition ; transport widened 
the market, there was a great organisation of market intelligence, big 
concerns knew more about each other, and in many ways they co-operated 
more fully than would have been possible if they had remained more 
numerous and less powerful. There was a recurrence before public 
Commissions and inquiries of all sorts, of the producers’ view that 
competition had become anarchic, chaotic, excessive, unregulated, or 
destructive. But this kind of complaint did not translate itself in all 
countries into the obvious methods of remedy by combination. It was 
always said that British producers remained comparatively individualistic 
in their attitude, meaning that they were unconvinced by the arguments 
used elsewhere. The American combination movement was often 
explained by the special effect which her high tariffs had in over-capitalising 
protected industries, and causing on that ground an excessive competition 
that need not have happened. Again, it could not be said that, given 


eS 


F¥.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 99 


private enterprise and the risks it implied, there was such a tendency to 
bankruptcy as to show an irrational position. Over the period 1903 to 
1912, for instance, the statistics of liquidations of Joimt Stock Companies 


in England were on the average as follows :— 
Capital involved 


Companies on Paid-up Capital New in liquidations 
the Register. (1000s). Companies. Liquidations. (1000’s). 
40,101 1,862,107 5,028 1,860 54,531 


This was an average rate of liquidation of 4 per cent. of companies, 
involving 3 per cent. of the capital. It is not an unqualified record of 
competitive results, because no country was without some extent of 
combination. But it is the record of prevalently competitive conditions, 
including those which obtained under partial forms of combination. 

Public and economic opinion had come by stages to tolerate, approve, 
and recommend labour combination. But the conditions are different, 
because an individual workman is not related to others, as one business 
concern is to its competitors. Labour is necessarily employed in groups. 
In any case, Trade Unions applied to only one factor of production, but 
combination of businesses applied to the whole product as it came on the 
market. 

Thus, on the whole, the combination movement was a ‘ problem.’ 
Books were written under such titles as ‘ The Trust Problem,’ ‘ Wealth 
against Commonwealth,’ ‘Frenzied Finance,’ * Trusts and the State,’ 
“The New Feudalism,’ and so forth. To call a certain result a “ problem ’ 
does not mean that it must be stopped, but it implies doubt, refusing to 
certify the results as rational and inevitable. The United States in 
particular legislated to break up combines of a certain degree, and to 
impede their methods of working. 


Il. 


The post-war tendency is to change this attitude. The alteration in 
point of view is very remarkable. Anyone can see this who reads the 
documents submitted on the subject to the World Economic Conference. 
One writer confidently states that the right thing to do now is ‘ to form as 
many international agreements of producers as possible.’ But these 
international agreements presuppose national combines which are parties 
to them ; and if world economy requires the combine formed by agreement 
(the Cartel), then a fortiori of the national economy. 

This change of attitude has been urged both on public opinion and on 
producers under very high auspices. The Reports of the Reconstruction 
Committees on British Industries after the War are unanimous in asking 
for a change of the public attitude toward producers’ combinations. The 
Report of the Balfour Committee on Efficiency puts questions of com- 
bination in the forefront. It is not easy to appreciate this without 
considering the future to which such an impulse may lead, in respect of 
our attitude toward organisation. There are three large conceptions that 
are related to each other—competition, combination, and public 
administration. A change equal to that which has taken place in 
reference to the first two of these would carry us far from the second 
toward the third. Public industrial administration, in its broad features, 

H2 


100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


is as much distrusted now by prevalent opinion as the Trust Movement 
used to be, but no more. It is well to keep this in mind in dealing with 
the recent evolution of opinion. 

The change is due to a few separate causes. The war enforced a good 
deal of co-operation, since the Government had to deal with producers 
as a group in their industries. In some industries it led to constructions 
which the market could not afterwards carry at their capacity, and 
combination is a method of regulating excess of capacity. In some 
cases Governments have, because of special national interests, been a 
party to the formation of large combines. All this influences opinion. 
But most important of all, as the Geneva documents show, has been the 
reaction upon national ideas of the international industrial proposals. 
The formation of the International Steel Agreement was a powerful 
influence in this direction. There were two special reasons for this—its 
semi-official support by the political governments involved, and, above all, 
the fact that it could be presented as a form of pacification between 
Germany and some of her former enemies, especially France. If this 
could be done once, it could be done again. There had formerly been 
international agreements, it is true, but they were not so sure of their 
welcome as they might be after all that was written of the Steel Cartel. 
Their claims became more confident, and this meant that combines within 
each country were also placed in a more favourable position than before. 

The leadership came from Germany, and for that reason we have now 
the ponderous name of ‘rationalisation’ to describe methods which 
depend upon this policy. This word may be used of such results of large- 
scale production as standardisation, and it is also used of the more broadly 
applied system of scientific management. This paper is not concerned 
with these aspects of the idea. It is obvious that internal business 
administration should be scientific, and it is entirely for the heads of 
businesses to discover the right technical methods; the ‘ planning’ of 
work seems to an outsider to be something which ought always to happen, 
and it is remarkable that this general conception should still be taken as 
noteworthy. Standardisation of final products seems, from the public 
point of view, less completely rational than simplification of processes. 
But, from such bases, ‘ rationalisation ’ has been built up so as to imply 
the right organisation of an industry considered as a type of government, 
the producers being so related as to enable such policies to be applied as 
works specialisation, non-destructive elimination of the weak, and the 
control over the entrance of new establishments. Now this in turn 
implies some degree of monopolistic control. And it appears to be 
historically the case that, when the leaders of German industry found 
themselves after the war and the Treaty of Versailles in conditions con- 
fused by inflation and the loss of the sources of supply in the Rhine 
Provinces, they sought to justify the great combines which were formed 
by a title which would give them the strongest commendation. Pre-war 
Germany did not like Trusts or Concerns. For a time at least, strong 
personal leadership seemed necessary after the war. And the conception 
of ‘ rationalisation ’ which was adopted and urged, as the highest form of 
what was scientific in business management, had a successful flotation, 
and has crept into the terminology of organisation of industries. 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 101 


The World Economic Conference did not give to these claims the 
endorsement which they hoped to obtain. We get only the conclusion 


that combines may be good or bad according to the motives and outlook 


of those who direct them. This means that, as economists, we have to 
return, without any prejudice from names and titles, to the study of a 
stage of evolution, taken as actual. The change in public opinion must 
no doubt also be taken as a fact. But this is a thing which may at one 
time swing toward the producer, at another toward the consumer, 
according to the conditions of the economic conjuncture. At present 
the difficulties of the producer are more prominent than usual. On the 
other hand, in the immediate post-war boom, we had the Committee on 
Trusts, the Profiteering Act and its Committees, and a different attitude 
toward what had not yet come to be called rationalisation. From any 
long point of view, a perplexing problem is offered, because if on one hand 
it is held that industrial joint stock competition is becoming irrational in 
intensity, and will be destructive of itself as one industry after another 
reaches an advanced stage of capitalist organisation—on the other hand, 
monopolist tendency is also unstable in face of public criticism. Hence 
some dread, and others hope for, more attention to the third method, that 


_ of public control, applied at any rate in some large instances. 


—————— ee ee”S—rti“<( i i‘ ‘étC;C;: 


III. 


But it is stil! possible that, besides the insecurities and instabilities 
of competition, and the dangers of monopolist influence, there may be 
another idea according to which private enterprise may work out its 
future. This is the idea of leadership. It was the view of the Balfour 
Committee that, if industry was to be adequately responsive to changing 
conditions, and was to develop co-operation amid competition, it would 
specially need ‘ the exercise of the highest qualities of imaginative leader- 
ship.’ If we compare industry with the other great systems of 
administration—political, military, and ecclesiastical—it is evident that 
the latter exist as systems because leadership has a definite place within 
them. They are organised under this form. In industry the fact is 
tending to obtain more consideration, but the question is of its formal 
recognition and status. Policy means leadership, and leadership means 
control; to control anything well, it is necessary to control a large part 
of it ; and industry is so far from being, as regards conceptions of organisa- 
tion, in pari materia with other organised forms of activity, that definite 
leadership has to overcome objections of a quite unique kind. This is 
because of a fundamental difference between industry and the public 
services, in respect of their immediate aims, and of their relation to the 
idea of responsibility. It will later be seen how this affects arguments 
relating to industrial control, and to the creation within industry of any 
sort of employees’ franchise—an idea brought over from politics, on the 
implied assumption that politics is the type of democratic and responsible 
control. Meanwhile it is necessary to show how evolution has created 
the leadership in industry which seeks to confirm its position by com- 
bination, but whose ‘sanctions’ create the industrial problem referred 
to above. 


102 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


An analysis was made of the data furnished to the manufacturing Census 
of the United States in 1919, which showed that, even in that country 
of large enterprises, the home of the Trusts, most businesses still operate 
single establishments. Grouping of establishments under one control, 
extending from groups of two to groups of over a hundred establishments, 
accounted for only about 7} per cent. of all the establishments operating. 
The large groups which make possible a strong personal leadership in 
industry must therefore account for a very small percentage of all the 
producers. The persistence of the producer of small or moderate size is 
still a marked feature of modern industrial organisation. The following 
analysis of the facts may be taken as a basis of the present position. It 
refers to manufacturing industry, exclusive of what are called ‘ hand and 
neighbourhood (or local) ’ industries, such as the village blacksmith. No 
establishment is included which did not have a product worth 5000 
dollars in a year. The basis of this comparison from 1909 to 1923 is the 
number of persons employed per establishment. 


Establishments Wage-earners Sco eie 

wai per cent. i per cent. (1000's). 
Establishment. | j993 | 3914 | 1909 | 1923 | 1914 | 1909 | 1923 1909 
6-3 44-6 | 42-7 | 3958 25 | 271 471875 68:9 
6—20 27:8 | 305 | 329 6-9] 87] 971546 56-9 
21—100 191 | 191 | 19:9 | 19:3 | 222 | 9341376 34-5 
101—500 71 | 66 6-4 | 33:01 34-7'| 3421139 11-0 
501—1000 9| -73 ee oS ee Cos Oo ee 
1000 and over sr epene 29 | 24.2 | 182] 153] 10 +5 

| 196-3 173-0 


In this distribution the number of the smallest establishments in 1923 
is inflated by the change in prices, which would bring within the range 
of the Census a large number which would otherwise have been below the 
5000-dollar limit. Allowing for this, the persistence of establishments of 
moderate size is notable. 

The average size of establishment in that country, when allowance is 
made for changes in classification, has increased since 1899 as follows :— 


Wage-earners per Est. 
Establishments. 
1899. | 1914. 1923. 
All 22-7 =| = 255 ~ 
Over 5000-dollar product — 38:6 44-7 
Index 100 112:3 1303 | 


the figure for 1923 being, in view of the classification and of prices, too 
small. 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 1038 


When account is taken of contribution to the national product, the 
data for 1923 show the following result (subject to gross product being a 
comparative index of net product) :— 


| | | | 

Value of Product Establish-| Wage- | Product | 
(1000 dollars). ee) eens per cent. | 
per cent. | per cent. | ah 

|——_—_—_ 

5—20 31-6 | BED AS 1G 
21—100 iP ceG.e | 8-2 57 | 
101—500 | 214. 19-6 15-7 | 
501—1000 4-9 12-9 TET 5} 
over 1000 ae eG ee 


This last table shows in the most striking way the degree of leadership 
which has been obtained by the small number of large establishments. 
And so far as it is large establishments which enter into combinations, 
their influence over policy and prices is increased. 

More detailed examination of particular industries shows that it is 
not only in the great industries that this result holds good. No relation 
exists between size of industry, expressed in persons employed, and scale 
of production, or concentration of power. Some quite small industries 
stand high on the list by both these tests. 

Germany is more typical of older countries where family businesses 
have played a larger part than in America. In Germany also, the Cartel 
system was, until the war, the usual way of obtaining control, and it tended, 
as compared with the Trusts, to maintain the smaller establishments. 
The following gives a pre-war comparison, from which the very small 
establishments are eliminated :— 


Per cent. of Per cent. of 
Establish : 2 
Establishments stablishments Employees | 
paElaying U.S.A. Germany. U.S.A. Germany. 
1914. 1907. 1914. 1907. 
ire. | 

6—50 755 | 87-1 20-0 | 35-2 
51—100 10-8 | 6:7 11:8 15°4 
101—500 11-4 5:6 35°7 32:8 
500+ 2:0 6 32°5 16°6 


For France, the general form of the table at the Census of 1921 is 
similar. As regards this country, the only data available are those of the 
capitalisation of Joint Stock Companies. Over the period 1919 to 1925, 
of all companies registered, only 2-6 per cent. had a capitalisation of over 
£200,000, while over 67 per cent. were capitalised below £10,000. 

In the conditions which these results show, the largest producers 
inevitably feel themselves drawn together in order to create an administra- 
tion for their industry. Evolution has given them a possible leadership 
which they desire to confirm. The large fringe of smaller producers is 
felt to be an obstacle to this purpose. The position of the large producers 
gives them an oversight over the market the confirmation of which means 
the organisation of the industry against inroads and uncertainties, overlap 


104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, 


and weak selling, and it is this further organisation which is presented as 
industrial rationalisation. Hence the terminology which is applied to the 
excesses, or destructiveness, or anarchy, of modern industrial competition. 
As a matter of industrial psychology, the desire to be at the head of 
wide-reaching organisations may have just the same motives as the desire 
for control in other spheres. It comes up against the same problem of 
exceptions which political, military, or ecclesiastical organisation wishes 
to incorporate in a system. It may indeed be said that, upon the 
possibility of creating in industry, and reconciling with public opinion, 
spheres of influence which will make industrial leadership as attractive as 
political or any other form of leadership, depends the supply to industry 
of the highest organising ability. There are recent cases in which, when 
such a sphere in industry was open, it has been preferred to political 
office. As compared with the services just mentioned, industry had, 
however, to evolve into a condition of large and influential units of 
enterprise, in order that any further step might appear possible. The 
data quoted above show how this position has been reached. 


IV. 


In the problem of industrial organisation there is involved an element 
which does not belong to the other great types of organisation. In the 
latter, the desire for efficient unity of control, strengthened by personal 
aspirations for great influence and authority, is not complicated by the 
special industrial fact that the resources involved are personal and subject 
to the risk of loss. It is in all the cases regarded as of national importance 
that resources should not be wasted or lost, and the desire for rationalisation 
appeals to this conception of general economy, but industry is unlike other 
administrations as regards the origin of resources, and the incidence of 
liability. It is necessary, therefore, to consider to what extent the 
evolution just described affects this liability, as distinct from the pure 
impulse to higher organisation; that is to say, what is the place of 
mitigation of risk, as compared with that of leadership itself, in the move- 
ment for combination. 

Leadership may be got either by fighting it out, the ‘method of 
bankruptcy,’ or by some method of absorption in one organisation. It is 
one of the claims of the combination method that, whether by Trusts or 
Cartels, the latter is adopted, so that the fringe of smaller businesses is more 
humanely or rationally dealt with than under the former method. On the 
other hand, the maintenance of over-investment in this way is often the 
basis of criticism of modern combines, because somehow it must be a 
charge on the community through prices, so that it is asserted that it is 
not the rational way of creating system. 

And on the other hand, leadership may be maintained by steps taken 
to prevent or impede the entrance of new enterprises into the field. 
Development is desired from within, so far as possible through the dis- 
cretion of one governing body. It is held that this also is the rational 
procedure, by which industries will become systems of administration, and, 
as will be shown later, impediments on independent new enterprises have 
sometimes been imposed with legal authority. 


Ee 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 105 


It is Joint Stock which has made possible the evolution of the great 
concerns, and which has also made them powerful competitors, so that, it 
is said, an ever intenser incidence of risk is a fundamental cause of the 
combination method. But Joint Stock has also itself modified the risk 
element. 

So long as an industry was in the hands of a large number of producers 
who were individual in the sense of finding their own capital, the com- 
petitive struggle, which destroyed a business, ruined individuals. There 
are modern instances of interference with this competitive result for this 
very reason, when an industry was still of that grade; for example, the 
remarkable scheme devised for the Greek currant trade, and known as 
the ‘Retention.’ As the ruin of individual small cultivators would 
otherwise have been the result, the Government organised a system of 
maintenance. But when the units of enterprise are Joint Stock Com- 
panies, liquidation does not imply ruin in the same way, because Joint 
Stock brought with it the method of distributed investment. In the case 
of failure, some people lose part of their capital; perhaps because some 
other investment of their own has been unusually successful. The 
ramifications of interests can now become very great, and the question, 
what method of creating industrial control is most rational, has to take 
account of this, in conjunction with the fact that profit involves a risk 
premium, and that these are the understood conditions of investment. 
By the fact of distribution of investment, the industrial risks of capital 
are to be contrasted with those of labour, since wage-earners as a rule can 
work for only one business at a time. 

The same considerations apply to the entrance of new competition. 
Enterprises entering the field are not now individuals staking everything 
on little-known chances, but may be directed by and largely composed of 
individuals who are in that same field already, and who know a good deal 
of its conditions. 

In a second degree, these modifications of personal risk appear, through 
the practice, also rendered possible by Joint Stock, of company investment. 
While the individual may distribute his direct investment, his risks are 
spread again by the system of mutual company holdings, a company in 
which he invests having done this further spreading for him. 

While, therefore, the direction of an independent business does and 
must consider its shareholders as if they had no other investment interests, 
the intensity of risk in its final incidence is not fully represented by 
Directors’ statements. What applies to shareholders, also applies to 
Directors as such. The ‘spread’ of Directors’ interests is a very remark- 
able fact. 

As distinct, therefore, from the pure desire to rationalise, that is, to 
organise industry in a systematic way under some kind of unified control, 
it is not easy to assign its right place to the ‘ revulsion against risk,’ on 
which also the desire for combination has rested its case. 

It is always necessary to distinguish between risks which a combination 


_ may have been formed to overcome, and such as it may have created by 


its own policy. In many notable cases the alleged struggle against 
competitive risks was not so much ‘rationalising’ as ‘de-un- 


_ rationalising.’ 


106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


V. 


The foregoing considerations show that there is something to be said 
for capitalist evolution in the alleviation of risks ; so that we cannot easily 
separate the risk element from the simple purpose of leadership and wide 
control. This desire for more extensive control is a feature merely of 
active enterprise and ambition; it has counterparts outside of industry. 
But as distinguished from, for instance, the tendency of public Departments 
to expand when they can, the mixture of risk with ambition is a special 
industrial fact. 

The same is true, in a less degree, when the risks in question arise out 
of bargaining, not out of competition. Great industrial influence may 
be gained by the control of enterprises on different levels of production, 
which were not therefore formerly competitive. This comes into being 
as the last stage of the bargaining process, which is made closer by 
long contracts, exclusive contracts, and agreements for exclusive trade. 
Finally, the bargainers combine. There is something to be said historically 
for the view that such combinations have been formed defensively, if it is 
thought that horizontal combination on one level is exacting too high a 
price from producers on another level. Thus horizontal combination 
leads to vertical, and the former becomes split by the engagements of its 
members to deliver their supplies, not to the market, but exclusively to 
some further producers. The latter do not get their supplies by this 
method ‘at cost,’ but they get them free of the special combination 
profits on the earlier products. Thus a steelworks may buy up a coal 
mine in order not to pay the profits of a coal combine. These are incidents 
of industrial friction. But the permanent or rational aspects of this 
policy are again not purely industrial; they are more generally adminis- 
trative, while having this industrial application. It is natural for any 
great administration to consider the continuity of its relations with any 
supply on which it depends. Thus when a public Department takes over 
the service of education, it does not rely on the market to find a supply of 
teachers properly adapted to its requirements; it sets about securing 
them by its own arrangements. Analogies can be drawn also from 
ecclesiastical and military administrations. It is in fact difficult in many 
cases to say what is a single process, and how far unity of supervision must 
extend. Apart therefore from temporary or accidental causes, many 
administrations have to extend backwards or forwards from their main 
purpose, and in industry this is called vertical integration. In some 
industries the technical advantages are more obvious than in others ; 
they appear to be greatest in the iron and steel trade. But broad con- 
siderations of administrative supervision may lead to its application in 
any case. 

This form of combination, like the former one, may be undertaken for 
the simple purpose of leadership. But it creates this position only when 
the main administration is itself already so large as to give that position ; 
and it does not by itself create monopolistic influence. When it is 
mixed with a large degree of horizontal control, it approximates to the 
third great type of aggregated interests—the Concern. 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 107 


VI. 


Industry cannot be looked at only as a type of government, because 
of its special relation to risks ; but some of its modern developments are 
to be explained in large measure by reference to administrative ideas not 
peculiar to industry, and especially to the motive for extended leadership 
and influence. When we consider the ‘ Concerns,’ we come to the case 
where technical economic reasons are least easy to assign. These have not 
the definite continuity of the other forms of control. They are of the 
nature of industrial aggregates or blocks. The interests which are thus 
grouped come within the control of one or a few single personalities who, 
because of the diversified nature of their influence, are rather magnates 
than leaders. Thus in the period of the German concerns we had the 
Stinnes, Thyssen, Kloeckner, Haniel, and Stumm groups; and if, for 
instance, we examine the Stinnes group, we find that it includes iron and 
steel, special steel products, coal, electrical products, shipbuilding, 
shipping, chemicals, cables, aluminium, copper, automobiles, mineral oil, 
margarine, newspapers, fisheries, and hotels, and this is not a complete 
list. These interests are obtained largely by the method of holdings of 
shares, and the interests of one group may, within the same large enter- 
prise, touch those of another, the ramifications being so numerous that it 
becomes difficult to say where one set of interests begins and another ends. 
The Concerns appeared in Germany in a time of great unsettlement, and 
their explanation—the sudden limitation of her resources by the Treaty, 
and the struggle to control what was left—is not a-reason going back to 
economic considerations to the same degree as in the case of the other 
types. They do not appear to contribute to the solution of an economic 
problem, or to create a force of leadership for any permanent purpose 
of direction, and they cut across the lines of economic grouping. The 
Stinnes Concern broke down by complexity, and it appears that the 
remainder are being shaken out into parts which will adhere to one or 
other of the main lines of economic grouping and control. But grouping 
of this kind, on a lesser scale, is likely to continue, since it represents 
partly a type of ambition which is satisfied by variety of industrial 
interests, and partly the fundamental similarity of industrial finance, 
whatever kind of thing it is that is financed. It appears, from an official 
return, that 65 per cent. of the capital of companies in Germany in 1926 
was in Concerns. 

VII. 


If we look at the picture which is being drawn by these forms of 
grouping taken together, it is something of this nature. On different 
levels, combination takes place by agreements or consolidations, that is, 
Trusts or Cartels in the usual sense. Though the aim of Cartels is to 
prevent the elimination by failure of smaller or weaker producers, in fact 
they tend to create consolidations, because they allow stronger businesses 
to buy up weaker ones, and thus to obtain their share of the allotted 
output. As Cartellisation extends, on each level there come to be pre- 
dominant interests, and decided leadership. But cutting vertically 
across this are the combinations which terminate on a product in the 
higher stages, these combinations having considerable shares in the output 


108 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES, 


of lower products ia a succession of stages. Of these lower products they 
use what they require for their own finishing processes, and put the rest 
on the market at Cartel prices. A strong vertical combination may have 
leading influence as regards both its final and its lower products. And 
dispersed in a less systematic way over the whole field are the holdings 
which any large business has obtained in enterprises not closely related 
to any main purpose. All these interconnections, made possible by the 
flexibility of the Joint Stock system, and disturbing to the theory of 
economic competition and prices, suggest a few broad conclusions. 

First, the capacity of either management or direction is more difficult 
to limit than that of technical industrial equipment. How broad, or deep, 
an area of enterprise can be singly managed is a question to which all this 
development is the only answer. And a fortiori of direction. Examina- 
tion of our own ‘Directory of Directors’ shows how widely this 
consultative responsibility can be extended, before teaching the limit of 
its capacity. One prominent personality has thirty-two directorships, 
thirteen of which are Chairman’s positions, and three managing director- 
ships; some of the enterprises involved are among the largest of their 
kind ; the range covers coal, railways, telegraphs, tea, asbestos, assurance, 
shipping, banking, general merchandise, canals. There are many cases 
where over a dozen of such important positions are singly held. These 
great extensions of control are to be related to the impulse to use the 
powers of management and direction at full capacity. On the other 
hand, a public Department, with much greater routine, is supposed to be 
one man’s job. 

Second, the authority of business leaders will increase with the 
magnitude of their engagements. An example of this was the hurried 
endorsement of the proposals for international agreements between large 
interests, on the repeated plea that we must not be ‘afraid of big 
business.’ This became, with marked rapidity, the right thing to say, 
and almost official sanction was given to recent conferences of business 
leaders simply because the interests represented, and the plans considered, 
were on the largest scale. With authority of this kind it will become 
increasingly difficult to argue, or to contend against its claims that a 
measure of monopolistic power may be essential to a scheme of 
rationalisation. Industry being a field of more special knowledge than 
politics, the difficulty is greater of applying criticism to leadership ; that 
leadership itself is more concerned with working out the administrative 
methods of higher control than with the question of its democratic position. 
“I do not consider,’ said one of the organisers of international industrial 
agreements, “whether I may make these agreements ; I go on and make 
them.’ The relation of the community to this authority appears in the 
end to be determined by the expectation that scale of responsibility, and 
the labour of organisation required for these great industrial structures, 
will tend to make leadership, in the words of the Balfour Committee, 
‘imaginative,’ and therefore considerate. It was in this expectation that 
the recent Committee on Selling Agencies in the coal trade reconciled the 
dilemma that what was necessary for high organisation would create the 
possibility of monopoly. And so Liefmann says: ‘ When one considers 
what efforts have been made in many industries to obtain combination, 


— 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 109 


to find its most purposeful form, to bring in the outsiders, to settle the 
differences ; when he sees what time and trouble are applied, how many 
conferences held and rules drafted ; and when he considers the earlier 
conditions where such common negotiation, making the inner details of 
management a matter of conference and publicity, would have been 
impossible, then he sees how the whole economic structure has changed, 
and how much the Cartels have revolutionised the whole basis of manage- 
ment and enterprise.’ ‘The sense of interdependence becomes stronger 
than the thought of economic opposition.’ This defines the difference 
between magnates and leaders, and the rationalisation of authority. 

Third, there will be the fact of mere complexity, whether modified or 
not by publicity. Industrial government permits of this in a degree not 
reached in the other great fields of administration, political, religious, and 
military. Its extent is shown, for instance, in the recent official German 
analysis of the cross-relations obtaining within and between the Trusts, 
Concerns, and Cartelled enterprises. This maze of interconnections may 
become itself a matter of distrust and prejudice from the side of the 
community, especially but not exclusively in its international aspects. 
This prejudice showed itself at the outbreak of war in a well-known case, 
described as an ‘ octopus’ of private interests; or in the name, a ‘ King 
of rats,’ applied to a control which has indefinitely extended underground 
accesses in all directions. Even if industrial finance is flexible enough 
not to feel anything unmanageable in this, the community, on occasions 
when such complexities are made public, is alarmed and disturbed, as if a 
march were being stolen on its market alternative, or Joint Stock practice 
going beyond the spirit of the law. Sheer complexity of relationships 
might be one of the influences causing opinion to move as far beyond the 
sanction of combination as it has recently moved toward it. Democracy 
likes at any rate to think that it understands how it is governed. 


VII. 


With the growth of industrial leadership a change takes place in the 
relation of price determination to the dynamics of production. The change 
is one of emphasis, that is to say, of the degree to which prices are 
approximated to a cost of production. Under a strictly competitive 
economy, there are producers who are just able to come through the 
fluctuations of prices with an ordinary rate of profit, and these producers 
are marginal. There is an amount of production, not always in the 
hands of the same producers, which is extra-marginal, and of course 
another amount which is intra-marginal. The general conditions of 
supply and demand determine the price level about which the fluctuations 
take place, and therefore determine which producers are marginal. The 
extent to which extra-marginal, or high-cost, producers influence price 
depends on trade practice ; it is less, the more production is ‘ to order,’ 


and they can keep their position only by working at lower than ordinary 


profit. In other words, prices are not usually determined by the costs 
of the highest-cost product, but the profit on that product is determined 
by the range through which prices have fluctuated over a period; and 
high-cost product has constantly to move to a lower-cost production, or 
go out of the market. This was shown by the price-fixing proceedings 


110 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


which took place during the war, and has been explained by those engaged 
in these proceedings, especially in the United States. It was there found 
that about 10 per cent. of the product was extra-marginal, and prices were 
therefore fixed so as to cover 90 per cent. of the output. The equilibrium 
was not easy to define, but it depended chiefly on the output, and the 
elasticity of the output, of intra-marginal producers. It may be said 
generally that business administration was exercised on the problem of 
costs in relation to prices, which were the ruling fact, and which decided 
how much of the capacity of output was within, on, or over the line of 
profitable production. It was always a mistake to argue, under these 
conditions, that there was a body of marginal producers who determined 
the price. So far as any producers did this, it was the largest, who were 
probably intra-marginal. All producers were, however, affected by the 
knowledge that, though expansions of their own output were possible and 
would be profitable if prices were affected by that alone, other producers 
would be competitively induced to do likewise, and so output was con- 
trolled by a sense of the market, which is a difficult thing to relate exactly 
to prices. 

It is an aspect of ‘ rationalised ’ industry, on the other hand, that the 
price can be more properly regarded as the instrument of an industrial 
administration. It separates itself somewhat from relation to any 
particular cost, and takes priority over the output, the latter being 
adjusted so as to render a certain price policy possible. The leaders of a 
great combine act under the conception of an industrial development 
' which is frequently defined as the adaptation of the whole output to the 
possibility of certain prices. This is seen in the details of the price policy 
of Cartels, where a margin exists between base prices and the ‘ accounting ’ 
prices at which the output is taken over from the members ; and also in 
the use of ‘ guiding’ prices in other cases. This instrumental use of 
prices is the result of the greater supervision which has been made possible 
by combination, and it causes the management to resemble an administra- 
tion in which the methods of development are more capable of a general 
decision. If one looks at such great combines as exist in the tobacco or 
chemical industries, with their high degree of internal organisation and 
their external agreements, the management of the price will be a com- 
promise between the interests of consumers, those of the standing capital, 
the provision of reserves for development, and contingencies. An 
assignable cost of production is less easy to set off against that price. In 
a sense, this means monopolistic influence ; but monopolistic policy would 
be something else, the administrative idea of price policy being worked 
with a larger factor of compromise. It may be described as the ‘ Safety 
first ’ policy in industry. The defence of ‘rationalisation’ is just this 
difference between administrative and monopolistic prices, or at least the 
claim that there is such a difference. 

In this administration strategic factors will always be involved, 
because industrial administrations will never be free from reference to 
competitive possibilities. The evolution of combines has shown that one 
limit has specially to be kept in view—the point of what may be called 
‘own production.’ This is reached well short of monopoly prices. It 
depends on the parallel growth of combines on different levels of production, 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. Ae | 


each of which may use its resources to expand vertically, a development 
which is not always desired, but which has its point of preference to market 
dependence. 

The administrative use of prices may also extend beyond the con- 
sideration of what will maintain and develop productive capacity in a 
particular industry. It has been claimed that strongly led combines 
may adjust their prices so as to assist the stability of industrial development 
as a whole. Thus a combine might, on a rising market, so advance its 
prices as to render expansion more difficult, and therefore so as to damp 
down that expansion. There are very few cases in which it can be said 
that industrial combines have applied this idea. It has been considered 
that this policy is applicable mainly from the side of the banks which, it is 
suggested, should move the price of loans quickly and strongly enough to 
deter speculative inflations of business, and reduce fluctuations. To keep 
other things more steady than they might otherwise have been, one 
thing, the price of money, would thus be less steady than otherwise. This 
policy is not inapplicable to industries which are as fundamental as 
banking—for instance, to the coal industry, on whose supplies expansion 
depends as vitally. It is, however, unlikely that any industry will have 
the same degree of combination for this purpose which the great banks 
have; and the relation of such a policy to their own costs is more com- 
plicated than it is in the case of money. Where price administration has 
been applied for this purpose, it has been in the form of price-stability, as 
in the case of the German Coal Cartel. It is natural that this simple 
method should be applied, and anyone can fix a price, especially near the 
top of a boom, as was done in that case. It is, however, price adjustment 
that is required, a more difficult proceeding, and not expectable in respect 
of industrial administrations beyond the necessities of their own internal 
stability. 

IX. 

The idea of a rational administration, in its relation to the ‘ com- 
petitive war ’ and to the monopoly ‘ problem,’ may be otherwise illustrated. 
Liefmann, a great defender of rationalisation by Cartels, states that ‘a 
Cartel without monopolist purpose is nothing at all.’ It is to him a matter 
of definition that some common administration is to be possible. This is 
the reaction which he describes from the overdone system of individualism, 
in which the consumer was tertius gaudens at a concealed social cost. But 
it will be remembered that Cournot derived the competitive position from 
that of monopoly, by multiplying the monopolists. Historically, as well 
as analytically, it is conceivable that we might have worked downward 
from monopolies, instead of upwards from competition, in order to obtain 
the position now called rational administration. We might equally 
explain the facts on the ground that the monopoly motive is fundamental, 
and that it expresses itself wherever or so far as competition does not 
impede it ; or on the ground that competition is fundamental, and always 
tends to break down or circumvent monopolist tendencies. From the 
former point of view, the more competition is unrestricted the less is the 
influence of organisation; working down from monopoly, as a unified 
organisation, competition appears as the limiting case, when all the parts 
fly apart and act independently. The latter standpoint gives monopoly 


112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


as the limiting case, and therefore monopolistic tendency as a description 
of less complete organisation. The conditions now sought for under the 
name of rational control are between these limits of pre-assumption, and 
may therefore be regarded as a departure from whichever end of the 
scale is pre-assumed as ‘ natural,’ in the direction of the other ‘ extreme.’ 
Those whose ideal is the completest regulation of an industry as a whole 
regard therefore the looser structure of the Cartel as not so completely 
rational as the Trust, as a lower organisation; while the still persistent 
preference for competitive conditions regards the Trust as monopoly and 
the Cartel as monopolist tendency. Comparing the method of Cournot 
with that of Ricardo, the ‘letting down’ of organisation with the 
“building up’ of monopoly, the idea of ‘dissolution’ with that of 
‘restriction,’ we see ‘ rationalisation ’ as the endeavour to find the range 
between these limiting concepts of purposive leadership or industrial 
administration. Otherwise stated, there are restrictions on organisation 
as well as on production. Dismissal of the rationalising argument on the 
ground that it is ‘ another word for restriction ’ means that we are arguing 
under one of the pre-assumptions, that which has historically had precedence 
since Adam Smith. The farther from Scylla, the nearer to Charybdis, and 
vice versa. The middle way is open to both dangers, and to the fears of 
those who have become specialists in rock or whirlpool navigation. 


X. 


Reference may be made here to two recent contributions to the 
problem of extension of control, which in different ways place it in 
relation to the pre-assumption of independent competitive working. 

It has been shown by Dr. Thorp! that there is a great variety in methods 
of industrial grouping, and that the “ power combines’ indicate only the 
last stages of measures taken in a smaller degree to strengthen independent 
positions. He shows that most businesses are operated by a single 
establishment, only 7-4 per cent. of all establishments being in ‘ groups,’ 
though this means a very much larger proportion of the output. Besides 
those groups which he calls uniform, in which the grouped establishments 
are of the same kind, and are ‘ horizontal,’ and the vertical groups to which 
reference has been made above, he finds that producers defend themselves, 
on a small scale as well as on a large, by other forms of extension of 
control. There is grouping of convergent processes, when the same 
business makes complementary or auxiliary products—what may be called 
‘ lateral integration ’—so avoiding the risk that one product may be affected 
on the market by misfit to products used in connection with it; e.g. 
bedsteads and mattresses may be grouped for production. And there is 
divergent grouping when different products are made under one direction, 
because of a fundamental common material or process; e.g. because of 
common process, wire and hempen ropes are sometimes produced together. 
These four types of grouping show themselves in most cases on a small 
scale, and are the origins of what, in the largest cases, is called the 
“rationalisation? movement. In over 60 per cent. of all the groups 
examined, there were not more than two establishments ; in 4-5 per cent. 


1 The Integration of Industrial Operation (Washington, 1924). 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 113 


of groups there were more than ten. The ‘span’ of these groups—the 
extreme distance between their establishments in the same country—may 
also be an indication of the Machtfrage involved ; it was over five hundred 
miles in 17 per cent. of all the groups. Thus the desire for extended control 
arises out of small cases, as a ‘ rational ’ device on various grounds, though 
its theory and title have been examined only in its largest extensions. 
An attempt has been made by Dr. Saitzew, of Zurich, to place the 
‘rational’ development in a true perspective as regards both motive and 
structure, in a recent paper.2_ He uses the method of co-ordinates, placing 
along three axes points defining differences of motive, instrument, and 
direction, of grouping. Thus the motive may be pure monopoly, or 


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rational control, or avoidance of risk, or secret influence ; the instrument 
may be contract, fusion, or holding company; the direction may be 
vertical, horizontal, or a mixture of these. It is thus possible to place 
in relation to each other the chief types of structure, and to classify on 
lines different from those of Dr. Thorp. Part of this classification is 
shown in the diagram, the instruments of Contract, Fusion, and Holdings 
being placed on the X-axis; the directions Horizontal or Vertical on the 
Z-axis ; and the motives, Monopoly, Rationalisation, Avoidance of Risk, 
Secrecy, and so forth, on the Y-axis. On the monopoly level of motive 
there are Trusts (T, and T,) and Cartels (CA); on that of rationalisation 
there are the ‘organised association’ (Arbeitsgemeinschaft, AG), the 
“great undertaking’ (GU), and one type of Concern (CO,). It is an 


2 Horizontal und Vertikal im Wandel der letzten Jahrzehnte (Jena, 1927). 
1927 I 


114 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


exercise in ingenuity to fill in other types. The combination HC, H, RI, 
gives the Investment Trust (IT) ; the secrecy motive 8 yields one of the 
‘Kings of rats’ (R). There are various other forms of Concern. Dr. 
Saitzew has by this means done something to rationalise the argument 
itself. His method indicates the range of organisations, which is neither 
all ‘ monopolist’ nor all ‘ rational.’ 


XI. 


In the policy of rational industrial administration, as it is usually 
presented, restriction is involved, on the ground of the attempt to adapt 
production to a proper rate, to overcome duplication, overlap, or 
speculation, and to give control through leadership. There are some 
important cases where this policy is carried out under public auspices, and 
these involve an admission of necessary organised action, to which private 
enterprise on similar lines may appeal for a general sanction. Instances 
are the Brazilian plan for the valorisation of coffee, that is, the adjustment 
of sales under the instrumental use of prices ; the British rubber scheme ; 
the Greek ‘ Retention’ in the currant trade ; and the German control of 
potash. The last two of these may be specially noticed, as important 
cases of the refusal to let competition work itself out, but with some 
difference in the fundamental conditions. 

The Greek Retention arose out of the fact that the currant crop is of 
vital importance in the export trade, and is grown by small producers. 
When the French vineyards were ravaged by the phylloxera after 1879, 
Greece supplied the deficiency, so that the currant was described as the 
‘saviour ’ of the wine industry. There was a great extension of plantation 
in Greece, the peasants being advanced loans by the State, and great 
prosperity till about 1890. Then France, having repaired her vineyards, 
killed the trade with heavy duties. There was so little elasticity in the 
‘pudding’ demand of England, that prices fell ruinously and did not 
cover freights. The peasants were faced with ruin, and the Government 
with revolution in the Morea. It was therefore decreed that a percentage 
of the crop was not to be exported but retained at home, and this per- 
centage had risen to 35 before the war. At first the Government, after- 
wards a Privileged Company, received this ‘ Retention,’ to be disposed 
of at home by finding some new use for it, as currants are not consumed in 
Greece itself. The complicated arrangements would require a long state- 
ment, but they amounted to ‘home dumping’ on industries which 
extracted alcohol, or on the Greek wine trade, at prices far below the export 
prices. Heavy taxes were laid on new plantations, and funds were raised 
by the Company to compensate cultivators of plantations given up. All 
this was done against the opposition of those who contended that the 
whole idea was wrong, and that natural laws should work themselves out. 
The Privileged Company, getting 35 per cent. of the crop for nothing, was 
so successful that it was bought up in 1924, and the problem is still 
unsettled. But it shows the following features. The control was con- 
sidered specially necessary, because the units of enterprise were individual 
peasants faced with ruin. The organisation yielded, for a long time at 
least, a solution, because organised effort was able to create conditions 
which would not otherwise have been possible. The new competitor 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 115 


was restrained by taxes, and the elimination of surplus production was 
obtained by financial measures of compensation. The last three of these 
belong to the claim of private enterprise for rational solution of the 
problem of production. 

The significance of the Potash Cartel is different in so far as the members 
were not individuals faced with ruin by competition, but companies. 
But it shows, under Government sanction, the working of the ideas of 
rationalisation in a very marked way. There had been a Cartel since 1879, 
but investment in this industry increased very rapidly, perhaps because 
of the Cartel, but also because of the agricultural demand. A great 
speculative period, the ‘ Kali fever,’ broke out in 1898, the Prussian fiscus 
itself bought (according to Liefmann) an important works in 1906 for 
fifteen times the paid-up capital, and under such conditions there was 
immense over-capitalisation and excessive investment. In this, as in the 
Greek case, many persons advanced the view that the natural economic 
solution would in the end be the best ; and in 1910 the larger producers, 
suffering from reduced quotas in the Cartel and consequent high prices, 
broke away and sold ahead to America at half the current prices. The 
Government considered the position dangerous to German agricultural 
interests. In 1910 a law was passed under which total production, quotas, 
exports, exchange of quotas, and prices were regulated. This law did not 
establish a compulsory syndicate, or create a monopoly, but in effect it 
made adherence to the Cartel necessary. The important rationalising 
feature was that new competition could not arisé except on disadvantageous 
terms, the output of such works being by the law subject to special 
limitation for a number of years. In 1919, as the result of war conditions, 
the number of producers had increased to 200 (having been 68 in 1910) ; 
and the prospects ‘were so serious that compulsion was applied by a 
new law of 1919. All producers were now compelled to join the Syndicate, 
which became the executive organ of the Federal Potash Council, with 
which, and its organs, final supervision lay as to prices and policy. 

The special application of rationalisation under these auspices is in 
respect of closing down, and of the growth within the Cartel of the largest 
interests. Closing down could take place voluntarily or compulsorily. It 
was decreed in 1921 that owners who declared by a date in 1923 (later 
extended to 1925) their willingness to close down and keep closed till 1953, 
were to retain their quotas; that is, they would receive their proportion 
of profits exactly as if they had delivered their supplies. Compulsory 
closing down is based on ‘ proved permanent uneconomical working,’ the 
compensation being similar, but on reduced quotas. At the end of 1925, 
out of 224 shafts in existence, 118 had: been definitely closed till 1953; 
71 were at work, and 35 held in reserve. The shafts closed down 
represented 441 of the 1,000 quotas of the Syndicate. Within the 
Syndicate, combination by exchangeable quotas, a main method of 
rationalisation under Cartels, has given a dominating position to two 
large groups. 

_It is unnecessary to’ comment further than to say that to carry on 
prices 44 per cent. of idle capacity is a proposition only possible because 
of Germany’s virtual monopoly of this product. The case against 
“Ricardian rationalisation’ was not a strong one. But it will be seen 

Do 


a 


116 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


that a sanction is provided by such strong instances as these for the 
proceedings which define as rationalisation the inclusion in a new private 
enterprise of the whole fringe of excess capacity, plus the endeavour to 
counteract this diseconomy by the further rationalisation of grouped 
interests under strong leadership. 


XII. 


It was pointed out earlier in this paper that the whole question was 
thrust on public notice by the recent argument on the international 
extension of grouped control, bringing strongly into prominence the 
influence of industrial leaders in their own countries. They had obtained 
a leadership which enabled them to speak for their own nations in these 
arrangements. This authority, derived also from the impressive magnitude 
of the international plans, imposed on public opinion nearly everywhere 
an attitude of assent, so that in a sense these leaders * got away with it’ 
in their claims for rationalisation by Big Business. But whatever may 
be thought of the system of grouping and leadership on a national basis 
would not necessarily apply internationally. A community may accept 
the evolution of competition into a type of industrial administration, 
relying always on the foreign market for limitation of monopolistic policy. 
When this guarantee is endangered, it may go back on its assent to 
national combination under purely private leadership. 

For example, it is a usual form of international agreement to ‘ respect 
home markets,’ and this in effect creates prohibitions on trade which are 
greater than the ¢onsidered fiscal policy of the country was prepared to 
allow. It is argued that tarifis thus become ‘ superfluous,’ a designing 
expression which can scarcely have deceived the distinguished writers who 
have used it. The suggestion to rationalise international production by 
giving to private interests a treaty power overriding that of the Govern- 
ments concerned, compels us to consider in what form such international 
relations are compatible with any system of domestic combination. 

There is, of course, a wide extension of what may be called ‘ direct 
international capitalism,’ through the creation of foreign branches and 
shareholdings. These do not create the problem just referred to, which 
only arises out of agreements to restrict output or markets, and so 
endangers locally the conditions of the consumer. 

A distinction may be introduced here between two types of agreement 
with the aim of rationalisation. There are those which are called ‘ agree- 
ments for conditions,’ and those which are more directly restrictive of 
volume of output and sale. Examples of the former are given by 
agreements on length of credits, or for standardisation of types, or against 
rebates on price. But perhaps the most notable instance is that 
rationalisation of the conditions of competition which is known in the 
United States as a ‘trade practice submittal.’ If there is any practice 
which may be considered unfair—as in the case where various wares were 
marked ‘Sheffield steel’ though produced anywhere—the firms in the 
industry may be called together to a voluntary conference by the Federal 
Trade Commission, and an expression of opinion obtained, which practi- 
cally establishes a law-merchant for the industry. This is an agreement 
on conditions of trading, with no other limitation on competition, and 


— se 


¥.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 1 a hy 


there may be scope for international agreements of this nature to which 
no exception could be taken. Thus an agreement against dumping 
might be negotiated, to overcome the ‘ falsification of the market ’ and the 
instabilities which dumping creates ; or an agreement for the exchange of 
patents, or for the organisation of trade information. 

It would seem that acceptance of the claims of combines to rationalise 
within national limits would be easier if on the international level inter- 
combine agreements were of this type of ‘Cartels of Conditions.’ 
Otherwise, instead of international agreements leading a fortiori to the 
justification of national combines, they are likely to diminish the consent 
to, or increase the legal supervision over, them. The chief instability of 
the present position lies not in the formation of international agreements 
of the recent type, for these have existed for over twenty-five years, but 
in the realisation in the last few years of possible undemocratic extensions 
of industrial authority and leadership. 


XIII. 


So far, the ideas of rationalisation and leadership in industry have 
taken account only of relations between producers, as the heads of 
organised units of enterprise. But the membership of an industry includes 
the great body of workers who are subject to this leadership, and it 
remains to show the bearings of the argument for ‘ rationalisation ’ upon 
them. 

As a defence of the Cartel system in this respect, it has been argued 
by Liefmann that the dangers of ‘instrumental’ price policy to the 
position of wage-earners as consumers are continually being lessened by 
the growing participation of labour in prices, through its own combination. 
It has an increasing producers’ interest. Or otherwise, the same argument 
has been put by one great industrial leader, who states that there is 
practically no pure consumers’ interest except that of the rentiers, and these 
are not to be too seriously considered against plans for a more rational 
organisation of industry. It is, however, too summary to dismiss the 
labour question involved in this way. Even if we consider labour under 
the broad general name of producers, it is obvious that there is a degree 
of restriction which will affect them all without compensation, there being 
fewer goods for the whole wage-bill to buy. And if we allow for the 
diversity of kinds of producers, it is also evident that Group A may 
penalise Group B, and vice versa, and that it will be difficult to follow the 
incidence of various group restrictions, though easy to show that there 
may be a great spread of injurious reaction. The post-war wage position 
in this country is largely due to such reactions between groups. A general 
defence in these terms of the restrictive aspect of rationalisation policy is 
open to Yves-Guyot’s pertinent question—‘ Qui restreindra la restriction ?’ 
Against the debit of producers’ restriction, it is not a set-off to credit 
labour combination, since the right way of distributing the product, 
and the right rate of production, are independent questions. So far as 
rationalisation implies restriction, it has to commend itself to the working- 


class community for reasons against which existing rights of bargaining 
are not offset or debited. 


118 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


The aspect of rationalisation in which labour is interested as a further 
advance is that of control. By this is meant the sharing of administrative 
industrial control by labour as such. There are various methods by which 
shareholding may be extended to employees, but in the cases where such 
holdings give a share in administrative control they imply that the 
labour qualification is not itself adequate, and that employees must 
qualify as capitalists. Copartnership schemes have their own place in 
schemes of industrial progress; but the question is different, how far on 
the basis of work alone it is rational to distribute shares in control. 

The existence of organised wage-bargaining is not a solution of this 
question, because it relates mainly to the terms on which labour is sold or 
delivered. The terms of delivery—that is, the conditions of work—are 
pushed up to a margin called by Mr. Goodrich the ‘ frontier of control ’ ; 
but this, while it compels the management to make some internal arrange- 
ments concerning employment, is at its utmost rather to be compared 
with terms of sale and delivery of products between their consumer and 
producers, the sellers not thereby entering into the buyers’ administration 
of their own concerns. This has nowhere been more clearly put than in 
the first clause of the Engineers’ Agreement, which stated that ‘the 
employers shall not interfere with the proper functions of the Trade 
Unions, and the Trade Unions shall not interfere with the employers in 
the management of their business.’ This was called the ‘ General 
Principles of Employment.’ It implied two administrations, related as 
buyer and seller of a service. 

The difficulty of overcoming this dualism withm the individual 
business is that of obtaining any equation between units of labour and 
capital. The idea of a franchise implies a basis of qualification, and in 
this case a rule for equating a certain amount of labour of a certain grade 
to a certain holding of capital. This is the point taken by the exponents 
of the New Zealand Companies Empowering Act of 1924. By that Act 
it is possible to issue ‘ Labour shares,’ entitling the holders to full voting 
powers, but Companies have themselves to decide what is the right dis- 
tribution of these shares in relation to those of the holders of capital. It 
is very difficult to see a basis of general application. 

It should be poimted out, however, that the idea of control by some 
kind of industrial franchise is one carried over from politics to industry, 
and that industry is not alone in not having hitherto applied it. Such 
other fields of administration as the Army and the historic Churches do 
not proceed on this method either. The conditions are not regarded as 
being such as to place these spheres in pari materia with polities as to 
their fundamental principles of control. Many criticisms of industrial 
structure in this respect come from sources where authority is a much 
more marked feature of administration than it is in industry. 

Difficulties of this kind arise mainly when the question is of a share 
in the control of individual businesses. A solution within that sphere 
may be found in time along the path first broken by the New Zealand 
Act. Meanwhile, however, the process of industrial grouping for the 
purposes of technical rationalisation does itself tend to make possible a 
degree of rationalisation as labour understands it. For it creates units 
of enterprise which are on the same scale as labour organisation, that is, 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 119 


which extend over a large part of an industry. Trade Unions have been 
suspicious of attachments of labour to capitalist government within 
individual businesses, but these objections, it may be suggested, would 
not be so serious against the representation of organised labour on the 
government of great combines. The fact that scale of working corresponded 
to size of organisation on both hands, besides removing the labour objections 
to sectionalism, might also shift the problem of qualification from an 
individual to a mass basis, the participation in control being that of 
representatives, and settled on some broader view of rights of government. 
Tt is a feature of the most organised syndicates in Germany that this 
participation in the general control has been obtained for labour 
representatives. The horizontal combines, rather than the Concerns, are 
obviously the most favourable sphere in which to proceed for this purpose. 
It is to be admitted that the problem of qualification, while simplified, is 
not solved. For purposes of bargaining the rule is equal representation, 
whatever the relative importance of the parties. For purposes of govern- 
ment, in this field, relative importance must count. Great combines 
render a solution more possible, and also more urgent. Some great 
fundamental industry, combined either voluntarily or, as in Germany, by 
law, might develop a solution by the method of trial and amendment. 

Finally, rationalisation by industrial grouping and leadership may 
enable a further step to be taken in respect of industrial peace. Our 
present resources for this purpose, on a voluntary basis, are very complete ; 
but if there is a gap, it is in respect of a method of assuring continuance of 
work while negotiations proceed. The coal subsidy was of this nature on 
an unusual scale. In respect of wage disputes in fundamental industries, 
it seems to be a possible addition to our methods that, when negotiations 
have narrowed the issue to its smallest difference, and there is yet no 
agreement, the disaster of stoppage might be averted if the Trade Union 
could be enabled, pending an arbitration, to advance to its members the 
whole or a part of the difference in question, subject to guarantee of being 
refunded as much of its claim as the award sustained. This might be 
called the method of ‘ continuation pay.’ It would always be less than 
strike pay, since the latter is about two-fifths of wages, while the difference 
in dispute would not often be as much as half of that. The Union would 
therefore suffer less even if the award went entirely against it. There is 
some approximation to this method in the occasional practice of ante- 
dating awards, but the community is not thereby cleared from the loss 
ofastoppage. Ifa step of a new kind can be taken, it is by way of making 
‘continuation pay ’ a practicable thing. Now the higher organisation of 
industry does contribute to its practicability, since it enables a more 
complete guarantee to be offered from the side of employers. It may 
therefore contribute to a ‘rationalisation’ in industrial relationships 
which would be of great benefit to the community, the more so if some 
working solution of representative control had been also applied. On this 
note these considerations of the bearings of the new tendency may be 
concluded. 


SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. 


INVENTION AS A LINK IN SCIENTIFIC 
AND ECONOMIC PROGRESS. 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. SIR JAMES B. HENDERSON, D.Sc., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Introduction. 


I DESIRE in the first place to thank the Engineering Section of the British 
Association for the great honour they have done me in nominating me as 
their President. Situated as I have been for many years as Professor of 
Applied Mechanics at the Royal Naval College, Greenwich, engaged in 
Naval Research work of a confidential type and lecturing upon confidential 
matters, then more recently acting as Adviser to the Admiralty, it has 
been very difficult for me to take as great a part as I would have liked in 
many of the proceedings of the Engineering Technical Societies to which 
I belong, because the line of demarcation between confidential and non- 
confidential matters is very indistinct, and anyone dealing constantly and 
indiscriminately with confidential topics and problems as part of his 
ordinary everyday life, particularly as a teacher, may very easily overlook 
in public the position of this line. To such a man safety lies in silence. 

The British Association, by the width of its scope, the diversified 
nature of the papers read at its meetings and the broad line of treatment 
of the subjects dealt with, has provided me with an opportunity for con- 
tact with problems in many branches of science and an opportunity which 
I have greatly valued to meet scientific colleagues in a social or technical 
manner. I appreciate very deeply the kindly feeling which has suggested 
my term of office as President in spite of the fact that I have had little or 
no training for such an office, a defect which makes it necessary for me 
to rely upon the indulgence of the Section to overlook my shortcomings. 
To my good friend Professor Lee, the Recorder, I am greatly indebted 
for valuable assistance and guidance. 

It is a matter of particular personal pleasure that my term of office 
should occur at the Leeds Meeting, and more especially that it should be 
associated with the buildings of Leeds University, because it is just 33 
years ago since I first entered these buildings, which were then the 
Yorkshire College of the Victoria University, as assistant to Professor 
William Stroud in the Department of Physics and Electrical Engineering. 
I had finished my graduate Engineering course at Glasgow University 
two years before, had spent one year doing research work with Lord 
Kelvin and another year in Berlin University under Helmholtz, Planck, 
and the coterie of distinguished physicists at the Physical Institute at 


G.—ENGINEERING. 121 


that time, where I had absorbed the congenial atmosphere of a research 
school and had hoped to spend the rest of my days in such surroundings. 

The sudden change to a modern University like Leeds, where every 
day and every hour of time of both students and staff were determined 
by rigid programme, was a great shock at the time, but I now realise that 
it was an excellent training and I shall always be grateful for the kindness 
which I received from Professor Stroud and the wonderful example which 
he set of conscientious devotion to duty and sacrifice of many of his 
scientific ambitions for the good of his students. I have thus many 
pleasant recollections of the four years I spent in these buildings and of 
the many friendships I formed here. 


Invention as a Link in Scientific and Economic Progress. 


Invention and Discovery are so closely allied that they are often con- 
fused. In our common speech the two terms are frequently used as 
synonymous, and if one seeks an exact line of demarcation between them 
one finds it difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish one from the other 
in any but the most general terms. Both involve an increase in knowledge 
which may be great or slight, and may have an immediate effect or may 
take a lifetime or more to consolidate. Both involve scientific imagina- 
tion. Each may be only a happy idea, the inspiration of a moment or 
in some cases an accident, but the testing of the idea and its final enuncia- 
tion as a physical truth or as a finished invention may occupy many years. 
Newton is reputed to have discovered the theory of gravitation on seeing 
an apple fall from a tree, but assuming that to have been the birth of the 
idea we know that the completion of his discovery and the proof of the 
universal law of gravitation took the best part of his lifetime and involved 
the invention of new branches of mathematics to complete the proofs. 
The record of Newton’s work has been so ably revised during the past 
year by Sir Oliver Lodge, Professor Turner, Sir Frank Dyson and others, 
in connection with the Newton Bi-Centenary Celebrations, that these 
matters must be fresh in the memory of all. 

Were I asked to distinguish between discovery and invention I would 
say, in very general terms, that the dividing line is the same as between 
theory and practice, between the abstract and the concrete. Discovery 
is essentially an increase in man’s knowledge of nature and its complexities, 
and is therefore intangible. It may be a discovery of a new principle, a 
new element, a newand hitherto unknown quality or characteristic of a 
known substance, and so on, but the discovery, per se, has no regard to 
any particular practical application of the new knowledge. Invention, 
on the other hand, has its sphere in the practical application of knowledge, 
and the knowledge used may be new or may be as old as the hills. It 
may be, and it is often the case, that invention involves other discoveries 
which may be complementary to the original discovery and form its 
completion, or may be entirely unrelated to it and form the nucleus of a 
new branch of study. It is possibly this fact, that the difficulties en- 
countered in developing an invention often lead to new discoveries, which 
makes it so difficult to separate discovery from invention. I think, 
however, that this distinction in general terms is sound, that discovery 
is mental while invention is material, and while it is true that in the large 


122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


majority of cases an invention is in its origin a mental conception, it is a 
conception of something material and practical, while a discovery begins 
and ends in the realm of the mind. 

Discovery and invention are important links in the chain of progress 
but neither marks the end of the chain. The discovery has to be proved 
or the invention has to be reduced to practice. This brings in a third 
link, finance. The Einstein Theory, for instance, could never have been 
tested and established without the assistance of capital to finance the 
extensive eclipse observations which converted it from a pure mental 
conception to a working theory. The assistance of capital in the develop- 
ment of great inventions of recent years is a necessity too well known to 
need description. 

Here then we have a series of operations. First comes the funda- 
mental discovery laying bare one more of nature’s secrets ; then invention 
turning the discovery to practical use; and lastly, the hand of finance 
to help dreams to come true. The first is a matter of genius or inspiration 
coupled necessarily with deep study. The second needs skill in the arts 
and crafts and generally a high degree of patience and courage to weather 
the disappointments and setbacks which we are too prone to call failures. 
The last, though it may be allied with technical knowledge, requires most 
of all the commercial instinct to sense to-day the needs of to-morrow, 
coupled with faith in the invention and the inventor and courage to see 
the task through to the end. We are often told that the financial world 
of to-day worships above all things a fat and speedy dividend, but when 
one thinks for a moment of the amount of capital that must have been 
spent, often fruitlessly, in financing the discoveries and inventions of the 
past and realises at the same time the number of other channels open to 
finance in its own immediate sphere, offering possibly greater certainty 
and speedier returns, it is surprising, not that it is so difficult to obtain 
finance for a pure scientific invention, but rather that it is possible to find 
it at all. It says something for man’s imagination that finance with its 
many other opportunities is willing, even to a limited extent, to place 
its resources at the disposal of scientific progress in the courageous belief 
that it is casting its bread on the waters of knowledge and that in good 
season it will return. 

When one seeks to study the history of some of the great inventions, 
one begins to realise how exceedingly complex they are, despite their 
outward appearance of simplicity. As an example, take wireless telegraphy 
and telephony. No single person deserves the credit for its discovery 
and invention. Maxwell, Hertz, Lodge, Crookes, Branly, Marconi, 
Jackson, Fleming, de Forest, Fessenden and many others have contri- 
buted their share to its development, but the basis of wireless communi- 
cation did not necessarily begin with Maxwell. What was it caused 
him to conceive the idea of the electro-magnetic theory of light ? Most 
probably he was trying to explain, like many others, the experimental 
fact that the ratio between the electro-magnetic and electrostatic units 
was the velocity of light, and having conceived a possible explanation 
he proceeded to work it out and test it, and the electro-magnetic theory 
was the result. The original idea may have been a lightning flash of 
inspiration, but the complete mathematical theory was the work of years, 


G.—ENGINEERING, 128 


Hertz was the first to produce apparatus for transmitting and receiving 
wireless waves, and this apparatus was improved by Branly, Lodge and 
many others, but for further progress finance was needed. The first 
steps to make a wireless telegraphic installation were taken in Italy by 
Marconi and in Great Britain by the Admiralty experiments carried out 
by Admiral Sir Henry Jackson, who was then a Captain. In this kind of 
competition money counts for much, and in the development of an in- 
vention having a commercial as well as a service aspect a commercial firm 
with good financial backing will always have a great advantage over a 
Government Department with a strictly limited Budget allowance for 
research. It says much, therefore, for the scientific direction of the 
Admiralty of that time that the Admiralty are to-day numbered among 
the pioneers of this great invention. 

I have taken wireless as a typical illustration. To the man in the 
street it represents simply an invention, a single invention and an ap- 
parently simple one represented by a small wooden box with a knob to 
turn. But to the scientific historian who tries to decipher all that the 
little box represents in human thought and effort, it presents an appearance 
of amazing complexity in which the discoveries and inventions of some of 
the finest brains of two centuries are inextricably blended. The proverbial 
tree of knowledge is a good simile. It grows incessantly but imperceptibly, 
sending forth new shoots which in turn become branches and subdivide 
in their turn. Growth is not confined to the shoots, however, and a con- 
tinuous process of consolidation and expansion is taking place in the 
trunk and root and branches. The sprouting of a new shoot is a new dis- 
covery and the consolidation work behind it and upon which it is based 
is invention. 


Invention as a Historical Science. 


Invention being generally concerned with the application of physical 
forces in the service of man may at first sight appear to be a branch of 
physical science pure and simple. It is, however, actually concerned less 
with the scientific principles of physics than with the human element, 
with limitations which that element imposes, with peculiar conditions 
under which the forces of nature have to be applied and with the unknown 
elements in physical science. It belongs, therefore, if treated as a science, 
by itself, rather to that group of sciences which are concerned with 
humanity and nature at large, the so-called Historical Sciences. Economic 
Science, a typical historical science, is studied by thousands as a science, 
yet it has no fundamental physical principles like the conservation of 
energy on which to build its superstructure, because its working material 
is the human element which has not so far been reduced to any funda- 
mental basic principles worthy of the name of laws. It is in what Lord 
Kelvin would have called the Natural History stage of its development, 
during which observations are made and correlated, to be followed by the 
Natural Philosophy stage when the fundamental principles are discovered 
which explain the observed facts and cast upon the scientist the mantle 
of the prophet. 

A historical science which is studied at great length in the Staff Colleges 
of the Armies and Navies of the world is the Science of War. It has no 


124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


fundamental scientific physical principles as basis but is founded simply 
upon deductions made from a close study of warfare from all times. 
Wars are analysed, tactics and strategy studied with the view to learning 
from the history of centuries of war useful lessons to guide the soldiers of 
to-day and to safeguard them against repetition of the mistakes which 
have caused the disasters of the past. 

The science of invention is a curious blend of the exact sciences, like 
mathematics, physics and chemistry, with a historical science. It is in 
many respects similar to the science of war, the war being against the 
complexity of nature, man’s ignorance of that complexity and the 
inefficiency and insufficiency of the human intellect itself. Whether 
Nature be regarded as a cantankerous old dame ever ready to take ad- 
vantage of a false step, neglecting no opportunity to obstruct, and resenting 
every attempt to reduce her movements to law and order, or whether she 
be regarded as a kindly old lady in the middle of a sun-lit lawn, calling 
softly ‘Come and find me’ to a crowd of eager, blindfold children, the 
fact remains that she and man are age-old opponents in a contest from 
which there can be no discharge to the end of time. Yet if we compare 
this contest with the wars of man with his fellow-man, what a difference 
we find. Napoleon said he learned the art of war from a study of the lives 
of the Great Captains, but in the greater war with nature if we consult 
the books that have been written round the lives of its Great Captains 
we find only human documents in which the searcher after knowledge, to 
help him to carry the fight a little further, finds little help beyond an 
example of high courage. The technical difficulties are seldom recorded 
and the new searcher has generally to start afresh and reconnoitre his way 
across the old battle-ground of centuries. The fault sometimes lies with 
the chronicler but too often with the lack of records which the Captain 
might have left but failed to leave. In fact here we have a startling 
lesson from the science of war, for is it not drummed into every budding 
soldier till it becomes second nature when he attains command, that one 
of his first duties in the field which must never be neglected is to maintain 
communication and pass on all information that may come his way, 
whether it be useful to him or not. The lesson has two sides. The soldier 
knows that he may become a casualty at any moment and the information 
which he gleans may be of vital importance to enable someone else to 
carry on in his stead, also that information which may appear unimportant 
to him may prove to be the key to the movements of the enemy elsewhere 
of which he is in entire ignorance. 

Any invention starts with a scheme which, on paper, promises to be 
successful if the fundamental assumptions or information on which the 
scheme is based are correct. Just as a general draws up his scheme of 
attack based upon certain assumptions or information regarding the 
enemy’s disposition, numbers and probable future movements, so the 
inventor lays his plans to curb and control nature by a scheme based upon 
assumptions as to her behaviour. When the general finds that the enemy 
is stronger than he thought, or that he has shifted his ground and is turning 
his flank, or generally that the enemy is not playing the game which he 
had been expected to play and which had been provided for, he has to 
modify his scheme and proceed on new lines, so also the inventor has 


oa 


G.—ENGINEERING. 125 


frequently to change his plans on discovering that Dame Nature is not 
quite so simple as he had believed and is seemingly getting the upper hand 
and laughing at his efforts to control her. So the fight goes on from day 
to day, from year to year, and there are very few great inventions which 
are brought to a successful issue without departing in some respect or 
another from the original scheme and without the expenditure of many 
years of effort and large sums of money. The records of the various 
attacks and their results in the series or chain of manceuvres which are 
finally crowned with success are rarely written, and in the much larger 
proportion of long engagements which are finally abandoned as failures 
no record of any kind is published and most valuable information is lost 
for ever. 

Contrast this with military or naval wars in which records of every 
little move are faithfully kept and are studied by the historian, who draws 
from them lessons for future generations of soldiers. 

The history of the nineteenth century and the enormous economic and 
political progress made in it might be summed up in the word ‘ Invention.’ 
As was pointed out so clearly in Sir John Snell’s Presidential Address to 
Section G of the British Association at the Oxford Meeting, economic pro- 
gress can be best measured by the amount of horse-power used per head 
of the population, and since every successful new invention increases this. 
amount both in the manufacture of the gear itself and by the power it may 
control, it is very evident that economic progress is closely allied with 
invention. The invention of the steam engine, the spinning jenny, the 
power loom, the steam ship, the power printing press, the dynamo, the 
electric lamp, the steam turbine, the electric telegraph and wireless 
telegraphy, not forgetting the chemical industries, form the economic 
history of last century, yet no one, so far as I am aware, has studied the 
development of any of these inventions with the view of learning therefrom 
and recording lessons which can be passed on to posterity. 

Of the hundreds of inventions which have been abandoned as failures, 
or of possibly revolutionary inventions left incomplete simply from lack 
of capital or lack of courage, no record is available to those who come after 
and who might carry them on to success. Has every inventor for all time 
to start from scratch ? The same difficulties crop up time after time in 
the development of inventions, yet every new inventor has to tackle the 
difficulties de novo, and fortunes are wasted in the process. Development 
of an invention is always costly, even when guided by all the experience 
obtainable from allied inventions ; how much more costly it is when not 
so guided the history of the failures would most surely show. In most 
inventions there comes a time when the inevitable question arises * Shall 
we cut our loss or risk further expenditure ?’ If the decision is to cut the 
loss, the invention, which is possibly a sound one and of great value, is 
pronounced to be a failure and the result may be the loss of an industry to 
the country or a delay in its introduction for many years. Science will 
prevail in the long run, but the cost of the trials both in time and money 
could probably be greatly curtailed if records of similar ventures in the 
past were available. Inventors would gain much if they could be trained 
in, and benefit by, the experience of their predecessors in the same field, 
while masters of industry, with records of that experience before them, 


126 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


would be better able to appreciate the difficulties of the inventor and to 
co-operate fully with him. 

No one would dream of putting a general in command of an army who 
had not previously studied the art of war either in Staff College or in the 
field, nor would they put an engineer to construct a bridge unless he had 
some experience in bridge-building; yet in the development of an invention 
some seem to think that no previous experience is necessary and the work 
is frequently left to the inventor himself, who may have no knowledge of 
the practical or commercial side of development, or it may be given to 
someone who has no previous experience of similar development but who 
is supposed to be a good practical man, though devoid of scientific know- 
ledge of the principles to be followed. 

In the development of inventions no general rules can be laid down 
because inventions take so many different forms, and the expert in de- 
veloping inventions, say, in the chemical industry, would not offer an 
opinion on the development of inventions in complicated mechanism. 
Why is it that chemical reactions which work well in the laboratory on 
the small scale in vessels of glass or platinum so frequently go wrong 
when tried on a larger scale in works in vessels of porcelain or the baser 
metals? The expert in developing inventions in the chemical industry 
has had much experience in overcoming these difficulties, but little of 
that valuable experience has been published. 

In every industry one finds that the experience thus gained in develop- 
ing the inventions of the industry is guarded as a most valuable secret. 
The result is that this knowledge is not recorded and often dies with the 
individuals who possess it. Future workers even in the same industry 
have to pass through the same or similar experience to regain the lost 
knowledge and the whole condition is economically unsound. The expense 
to the nation which it entails must be enormous. It retards progress, 
it adds greatly to the time and expense of developing other inventions, 
and it brings invention into disrepute because so many firms have lost 
money in trying to develop inventions which have had to be abandoned 
simply through inexperience. 

The value of experience in any particular line of invention is that 
it puts the owner of the experience in the position, when called upon to 
express an opinion on a new invention, to form an estimate of the type 
of difficulties likely to be encountered and the time and expense likely to 
be required to surmount them. The novice always underestimates both 
the difficulties and the cost of development, and many failures are due 
solely to this underestimation, while the man who has once been bitten 
tends to overestimate them and to suspect difficulties where there are 
none, with the result that the development of the invention is unnecessarily 
delayed. 

Nursing an Invention. 


So far I have dealt with the sequence of operations of discovery, 
invention, and the financial and technical assistance in development, but 
the process does not stop there. Once an invention has been developed 
and made a commercial article, it merely enters upon a new phase during 
which it requires the most careful attention. It requires nursing. It 
may be sold to users who are free to submit it to any use or misuse they 


G.—ENGINEERING. 127 


like, and even when properly used trouble is sure to arise somewhere and 
it is usually difficult to say whether the fault arises from legitimate use 
or not. This is a most critical financial stage because the invention, if 
put on the market too soon or without full experience of every detail, may 
be killed by financial failure due to faults introduced often by an ill- 
considered change of design at the last minute which may be very expensive 
to rectify. Everyone who has taken a close interest in motoring during 
the last twenty years will remember many mistakes of this kind which 
have retarded progress and have increased the cost of motoring, because 
in the long run the user pays for the mistakes of the industry. 

The type of man required to deal with the problems which arise during 
this nursing period is not necessarily the same as in the period of develop- 
ment. In the latter nature is the only enemy, but in the nursing period 
every user is a potential enemy and has to be treated accordingly. The 
nurse must therefore possess tact and a knowledge of human nature. 
He must, in fact, be a diplomatist, but he must also be able to deal with 
the technical side and accept responsibility where it is called for. 

Every firm, even after it has been turning out its products for years, 
will occasionally turn out one with a serious defect. The prompt recogni- 
tion of that defect, its admission as a defect and its quick replacement 
free of cost to the customer makes a friend of that customer for life. On 
the other hand, failure to recognise the defect, any attempt to throw the 
blame on to the customer and any parsimonious treatment of the remedy 
will make an enemy of that customer, and his friends, which is much 
worse than never having had his custom. 

The financial success of James Watt’s engine was as much due to the 
nursing of Murdoch during this critical period as to Watt’s own efforts 
in inventing and developing it. In fact the history of James Watt’s 
engine is typical of most successful inventions. We have Watt, the 
typical inventor, interested only in his science and living for it, in a happy 
combination with Boulton, its promoter and supporter, and Murdoch, 
the born nurse and improver. Three different types of men all con- 
tributing in different ways to one great advance in civilisation, possibly 
. the greatest single advance in the history of the world. 

Boulton must have been a very patient man to continue for twelve 
years financing the experiments of Watt before the engine began to be 
taken up by colliery owners, and when Murdoch, then a youth of 23, 
joined them in 1777, the work he proceeded to do was of a type for which 
neither Watt nor Boulton would have been suited. Smiles has written 
of Watt ‘He was not the man to fight the selfishness of the Cornish ad- 
venturers. ‘A little more of this hurrying and vexation,” he said, “ will 
knock me up altogether.’ Murdoch, then only 25, went into Cornwall 
and gave himself no rest until he had conquered the defects of the engines 
and put them into thorough working order. He became friendly with 
the Cornish workmen and engineers. Indeed he literally fought his way 
into their affections, for one day some half-dozen of the mining captains 
came into his engine-room at Chace Water and tried to bully him. Mur- 
doch stripped, selected the biggest and set to with his fists. In a few 
minutes Murdoch, victorious, was shaking hands with the lot of them 
and they parted the best of friends. I quote this little incident merely 


128 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


as illustrative of the man and of the times and not as an illustration of 
what is required of a man called upon to nurse an invention in these more 
peaceable days. 


The Inventor and the Promoter. 


Since I have touched on the chief characteristics required in the nurse 
of an invention, it may not be inappropriate to refer also to the character- 
istics of the two other members of the trio. 

In the Ordnance Department of the Admiralty there is a coloured 
cartoon of a man with an emaciated body, an enormous head of the 
encephalitic type, and wearing very concave spectacles, demonstrating 
a precious invention to a Jack Tar, all muscle and little brain, carrying 
an enormous spanner in his hand. Below it is the motto from ‘ Our 
Fathers ’"— 


‘ The optimist inventor should remember if he can, 
‘Tho’ the instrument is perfect, there are limits to the man.’ 


That cartoon is perhaps typical of the attitude of many men towards 
the class of men known as inventors. It is an attitude which is as old as 
invention itself and will persist probably until the end of time. The 
inventor’s point of view, however, is that with the aid of invention there 
are no ‘ limits to the man.’ It is his whole object to eliminate the limita- 
tions of the human element by giving to man the control through relay 
mechanisms of power infinitely greater than his own and with little or no 
expenditure of effort on his own part. The history of the past century 
shows that he is succeeding beyond belief. His success will continue and 
is bound to have a marked effect on the type of man of the future. 

The highest type of inventor is first of all an artist with a vivid imagina- 
tion in certain and possibly limited directions. Like the painter he con- 
ceives a mental picture and the picture grows as he proceeds to develop it. 
Like most artists he is unconventional and as a rule diffident except, 
naturally enough, in his own particular sphere. Unless he possesses also 
the gift of clear exposition he cannot expound his invention and make 
clear to others the mental picture he has created. Such a man has little - 
chance of working out his ideas and making his inventions commercial 
propositions without the assistance of a promoter. 

The promoter is a man of means and imagination who generally knows 
something about inventions or the branch of industry to which the inven- 
tion relates, and is prepared to risk his capital in backing the invention. 
It is only natural that he should back only the inventions for which he 
can himself see a field of usefulness and be chary of those which he con- 
siders comparatively useless or unlikely to provide him with an adequate 
return for his risk. The great promoter is the man of vision who is not 
content to finance minor inventions for improvements in a known industry, 
but launches forth into the blue in support of an invention, unknown and 
untried, like the first steam engine or the first iron ship, and cares nothing 
for the sceptical criticism of the multitude who foretell disaster simply 
because the invention is something beyond their ken. 

Much of the success of the great inventions of history has been due to 

happy combination of inventor and promoter, as in the case of Watt 


G.—ENGINEERING. 129 


and Boulton, and many are the instances where failure has been traceable 
to lack of this same combination. Its absence must, at the very least, 
contribute very largely to delays in development and to the impairing of 
a success which might otherwise have been complete. 


Invention and Industry. 


The history of the twentieth century shows clearly that Invention is 
the heart of Industry, the root of new developments and the source of 
improved methods of production which have led to cheaper costs and 
a wider scope in every industry. It has also been the cause of some of the 
greatest social upheavals and strife. Innumerable strikes have arisen 
from it, and if there is one lesson in political science more potent than 
_another to be learned from the history of such movements, it is that science 
is always victorious in the end. Progress may be delayed or an industry 
may be lost to a country temporarily or permanently by such strife, but 
the steady advance of the world’s progress through the science of invention 
is certain. One country may lose, but the world will gain in the end. It 
is only a question of time, and if the leaders of industry, both masters and 
men, would only recognise this fundamental truth how much faster progress 
would be. 

It must not be imagined, however, that every invention can or, from 
the commercial point of view, should be introduced into an industry the 
moment it is made. Quite apart from the time necessarily spent in 
developing and perfecting the invention, for which purpose many industries 
have now instituted research departments of incalculable value, it is some- 
times found that the occasion is inappropriate or that the time is not ripe 
for the change involved. The introduction of a new invention or of a new 
design may involve many complicated questions of policy or finance, 
because the change may have to be accompanied by heavy sacrifice in 
other directions, possibly affecting other industries or the public at large. 
_ There may have to be heavy scrapping of spare parts, tools and plant. 
There may also be considerable loss to the customers of the industry 
through depreciation of the products of the industry already in use, for 
nothing depreciates a firm’s production more rapidly than the introduction 
of a new and superior model. Manufacturers have therefore, on some 
occasions, to collect and husband their inventions and improvements after 
testing their merits and keep them in reserve for a more opportune occasion. 
The opportunity may occur very suddenly. It may arise through a sudden 
whimsical change in fashion which no one can explain, or from some other 
cause which it has been impossible to anticipate, and if a manufacturer 
has no policy of improvement all worked out and ready to apply he is 
faced with the awkward alternative of falling behind the times by making 
no change at all, or of risking his market by adopting some new model 
which he has not had sufficient time to test thoroughly. The former policy 
is almost always disastrous and the latter is often worse. Numerous 
illustrations of both these courses and their results could be cited from any 
industry. There inevitably comes to every industry a time when radical 
change is demanded, and the firm which is best prepared for the change 
reaps the reward of its foresight. 

Industry when viewed in its international aspect determines the lives 

1927 e 


130 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


of nations. The nation which organises its industry most efficiently, 
which hampers it least and stimulates it most by legislation, or absence 
of legislation, and by its scientific foresight, is the nation which will prosper 
most. Since invention is the heart of industry, the enquirer naturally 
asks: Is this country doing its best to stimulate invention as a means to 
foster industry ? Are the leaders of industry fully alive to the position 
which invention plays in industrial progress? Have our legislators ever 
paused to think that their function is only called for because of the progress 
which has been made by scientific invention, and that without such pro- 
gress they would be unnecessary ; also that in the past legislation has done 
much to retard progress? A study of the fundamental scientific causes 
of progress would form a useful addition to the education of legislators. 


Invention as a Link between Exact Sciences. 


It is sometimes stated that the Physics of to-day become the Engineer- 
ing of to-morrow. This is a natural development, since the engineer is 
more concerned than the physicist with the practical application of physical 
discoveries. But the converse is frequently true, for many physical dis- 
coveries and inventions arise in difficulties encountered by the engineer. The 
science of practical hydrodynamics is a case in point. The mathematical 
science of hydrodynamics has been of little service to the engineer in the 
practical problems of the propulsion of ships, in the complex phenomena 
of vortex motion associated with the flow of water and steam through 
turbines, or in problems of aerodynamics, with the result that the engineer 
has had to develop an empirical science of hydrodynamics to supply his 
immediate needs. A huge mass of experimental results in screw pro- 
pulsion, in aerodynamics and in hydraulics has thus been accumulated 
and is now awaiting some discovery or discoveries in mathematics or 
physics to correlate it all. If vortices could only be dealt with like potatoes 
or any other form of merchandise, each a complicated physical system in 
itself but capable of being considered as a unit differing only in mass or in 
its energy contents, a forward step might be made. The Lanchester- 
Prandtl theory of lift and drift of aeroplanes is a first step in a particular 
case of the general problem. Such a discovery, when made, will be bound 
to lead to further advances and improvements on the engineering side of 
the subject. 

Most discoveries in Physics arise from some experimental fact dis- 
covered more or less accidentally. The discovery of Réntgen rays was 
accidental, and the enormous strides which have been made in our know- 
ledge of the atom by J. J. Thomson, Rutherford, Bragg, Born and many 
other physicists during the last thirty years have resulted from Réntgen’s 
discovery combined with another great discovery in pure thermodynamics, 
Planck’s Quantum Theory, which also arose from an accidental discovery 
made in the course of experiment. The Reichsanstalt in Berlin had 
published a family of curves representing the distribution of energy in the 
spectrum of a hot black body. Professor Wien by trial and error obtained 
an equation to the family, and the form of this equation was suggestive. 
Planck in trying to develop this equation from the laws of thermodynamics 
found that he could only do so by assuming that energy is not indefinitely 
divisible, and he coined the term ‘ Quantum’ to represent the fundamental 


beara 


G.--ENGINEERING. 131 


unit. These two discoveries of Réntgen and Planck form the starting- 
point of that most important branch of modern Physics which has increased 
our knowledge of the constitution of matter, a science which is just 
beginning to find its field of application in engineering practice, as in the 
thermionic valve and the modern power transformers on the same lines. 
From these and other applications great advances are still to be expected. 

In reviewing the discoveries in Physics which have had most effect in 
developing new industries and thus calling forth new inventions, one is 
struck by the great results in this respect which have arisen from applica- 
tion of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, first stated by Carnot in 1824. 
Carnot described his ideal heat engine and showed that the efficiency of 
this engine is independent of the working substance used. Looking back 
upon the history of the science of thermodynamics of the last century it is 
unfortunate that no one seems to have employed this statement of Carnot’s 
as a general text, and developed it to find what information could be derived 
from it by using different working substances and mixtures in order to 
discover something about all the substances used. Had anyone done so, 
progress might have been greatly accelerated. James Thomson was the 
first to use this Second Law to determine the lowering of the freezing-point 
of water due to pressure. His brother, Lord Kelvin, followed with the 
application to the change from liquid to vapour. Helmholtz used the 
voltaic cell as the working substance and determined the temperature 
co-efficient of its electro-motive force. Then followed at long intervals the 
application to chemical changes which have resulted in the modern science 
of thermodynamic chemistry with which the names of Helmholtz, 
Ostwald, Nernst, Van ’t Hoff and Gibbs are so closely associated, and 
upon which the modern industry of chemical engineering is based. It is 
a wonderful development to be able to prophesy that under certain condi-° 
tions a certain chemical reaction will take place, say, that the nitrogen and 
oxygen of the air will combine at certain temperatures and pressures in 
a definite proportion, and that the resultant oxide can be recovered and 
converted to nitrate and used as fertiliser to replace the imported article 
at an economic price. 

The applications of thermodynamic chemistry to explosives enable us 
to calculate the maximum pressure to be obtained by detonating an ex- 
plosive, or to calculate the temperatures and pressures throughout the 
explosion of cordite in a gun from the chemical constituents of the cordite. 
This possibility has gone far to raise internal ballistics from an empirical 
science to a branch of Natural Philosophy. 

The advances which have taken place in the commercial development 
of chemical processes based upon this important new science of thermo- 
chemistry, although already considerable, are only in their infancy, but 
the men with the experience gained in practical development are very few ; 
and as the experiments are generally very lengthy and expensive, the 
development of the industry is necessarily slow. The resultant saving to 
the country, however, will far outweigh the cost. 

Invention forms the natural link between Physics, Chemistry and 
Engineering, and every advance in one or other of these produces a reflex 
action on the other. For instance, a discovery in physics which increases 
accuracy of measurement by providing an indicator more sensitive than 

: K2 


182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


any previously known is soon embodied in an engineering instrument 
carefully designed and manufactured for sale at a price which makes it 
available to every physicist for use in further research. Thus modern 
research in physics and chemistry is carried out with accurate apparatus 
which would be available only at a prohibitive price if it had been made 
for the particular research alone. The assemblage of apparatus used in 
a modern research is sometimes like an engineering installation, and is 
in marked contrast with the cruder, home-made apparatus, designed ad hoc, 
which was common when some of us were students. 

The closer the intercourse between the physicist, the chemist and the 
engineer the greater will be the fertility in invention and the faster the 
economic progress. The physicist working continually in a laboratory 
where everything is specially designed to facilitate accuracy of measure- 
ment and to eliminate disturbance, is apt to forget how artificial his 
working conditions really are, and that before any of his beautiful experi- 
ments can have a practical application in industry a great deal of invention 
is required. As an example of successful invention involving an accurate 
measurement to be made under practical conditions unsuitable to accuracy, 
I may cite the Barr & Stroud Range-finder, which was invented by two 
young professors in this University in the days when it was the Yorkshire 
College. The problem consisted in measuring with great accuracy, say 
to a second of arc, the small angle subtended at a distant target by a short 
fixed base placed at the observer. At the time when this invention was 
made, some forty years ago, the only scientist who normally measured 
angles to seconds of arc was the astronomer with his large telescopes 
mounted on great concrete foundations, with graduated circles from 
three to six feet diameter and microscopes to read the scales. It seemed 
therefore impossible to contemplate the measurement of angles with 
anything like equal accuracy on board a rolling ship and with no expert 
operator. Yet the two inventors, seeing an advertisement in the pages of 
Engineering announcing competitive trials of range-finders to be held by the 
War Office, took this seemingly impossible task in hand. There was little 
time to spare. The first instrument was designed in outline in a week 
and much of the subsequent success is attributable to the sound physical 
principles underlying this design and to the very ingenious design of all 
the constructional details, due to the happy combination of an engineer 
and a physicist both of whom were men of imagination with a flair for 
invention. Their range-finder was constructed in the University buildings 
and, to indicate the amount of time that was available, the final adjust- 
ment of the instrument was made on a star from the railway platform at 
Rugby on the way to the trials at Aldershot. 

During the trials the instrument worked well at first, but after the sun 
came out it commenced to read ‘ as thousands of yards ranges which were 
palpably a few hundred’ and the inventors discovered that their beautiful 
angle measurer was also a thermometer and a sunshine recorder combined. 
They were not surprised to have it rejected, and they might actually have 
abandoned it entirely if they had not been asked by the Admiralty some 
time later to submit an instrument for naval use. Then followed ten 
years of most patient struggle against physical and engineering difficulties, 
not to mention financial difficulties, for the inventors acted as their own 


G.—ENGINEERING. 133 


promoters and the financial side of the business must have taxed their 
resources to the utmost. But at last they succeeded and their range- 
finder is now the standard instrument in our Army and Navy and in other 
countries as well, and has been the foundation of one of our best firms of 
scientific instrument makers in the country. As student or as assistant 
I had the honour to serve under both Professor Barr and Professor Stroud, 
both of them great teachers, versatile inventors and most lovable men, and 
I am happy to be able to pay this small tribute to them and to their great 
achievement. 

It is unfortunate for Leeds that the transference of Professor Barr to 
Glasgow in the early stages of this invention should have deprived Leeds 
of a new industry, and also robbed her later of Professor Stroud as well. 
Leeds also seems to have been unlucky in regard to at least one other 
inventor, for Sir Charles Parsons started his life’s work in Messrs. Kitson’s 
in Leeds and developed while there his epicycloidal rotary engine, the 
precursor of the steam turbine which has done so much for British industry 
in general and for the mercantile marine and navies of the world. I 
feel sure, however, that Leeds will join with this Association, and with 
this section in particular, in rejoicing that Sir Charles’s great work has 
recently earned for him, as he so rightly deserves, the highest honour 
that this country can confer on a scientist, the Order of Merit. 

I feel sure that the early history of Sir Charles Parsons’ work on the 
rotary engine and on the steam turbine would form a valuable addition 
to the scientific history of invention, but it has never been written and is 
passed over in a few lines in the introduction to Mr. Richardson’s excellent 
treatise on the Parsons’ Turbine. From the little that is written, however, 
it is easy to see that Sir Charles’s task was no easy one. 


The Difficulties of Invention and their Remedy. 


I wish it to be understood that where I have used the word ‘ invention ’ 
I am dealing with the great inventions, and not with the thousand and one 
minor and comparatively unimportant, though useful, inventions which 
flood the Patent Office every year. The latter are generally simple affairs, 
a minor improvement in a known mechanism or a new way of performing 
an old simple function. I do not wish to belittle these minor inventions 
in any way. They serve their purpose in our everyday lives, and all are 
traceable more or less directly to some major invention of the past, but 
the distinction which I wish to draw is that in very few cases is their 
manufacture or development a matter of difficulty. I am therefore 
dealing solely with the big inventions and their development, and it is 
to the question of the obstacles that are too often encountered in their 
development that I wish to draw particular attention. This question of 
difficulty is as old as the history of invention itself, and many of the 
obstacles have required new discovery or fresh invention to surmount them. 
I wish now to examine the question of how to eliminate or at least minimise 
these difficulties that obstruct the inventor and so retard the march of 
progress. 

The first way that suggests itself to me is by means of education. Our 
educational policy in schools on the scientific side deals with physical 
laws as facts, and the teacher generally deals only with phenomena with 


134 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


which he can afford to be dogmatic and ignores the enormously greater 
range of phenomena about which science knows little or nothing. This 
system inevitably breeds in the student and in the general public the 
impression that nature acts according to certain definite laws and that 
there is nothing about these laws which is not known to science. In 
actual fact the more the scientist knows about these laws the more he is 
impressed with his ignorance and the failure of science to fathom the 
complexity of nature. Much of the misunderstanding of invention and 
its difficulties is due to this method of teaching and will endure so long 
as that method is maintained. If it were possible to teach physical 
and chemical science historically much could be done to counteract this 
injurious effect. 

The experimental laboratory tends to modify the dogmatic teaching 
of the schools because the student there finds out for himself how ex- 
ceedingly difficult it is to prove experimentally some of the simplest of 
the physical facts which he learned in the lecture room, and he thus gains 
a first-hand knowledge of the order of accuracy of physical measurements 
and of the difficulty in attaining it. Science taught historically would 
be infinitely more interesting and instructive, but time is the great ob- 
stacle. In a recent leader in the Times the teaching of the history of 
science was advocated as a subject for general culture, and comment was 
also made on similar recommendations emanating from an American 
writer. Such a study would introduce a better understanding of the 
science of invention among those who have not given particular attention 
to it, and the inventor might come to be regarded ds a necessary and 
valuable cog in the wheel of industrial progress and not, as he is too often 
regarded, as a freak. After all, the inventor is simply trying to make 
things simpler and easier and safer for his fellow-men, and he is succeeding 
beyond belief. Surely that object is worthy of recognition and encourage- 
ment. 

A second possible remedy to encourage invention and minimise its 
difficulties is by means of legislation. I hesitate to enlarge on this point 
because the question of patents is a controversial one among scientists, 
and between inventors and the outside public, but it seems to me anoma- 
lous that a man who makes an epoch-making invention which is going 
to revolutionise an industry and add millions to the wealth of the nation 
receives exactly the same degree of protection for his invention as the 
man who invents a new kind of shirt button. In the first case the in- 
vention will take years to develop and may cost thousands of pounds in 
the process, and by the time it reaches the productive stage the patent 
may have expired. In the case of the shirt button, a term which I use 
figuratively, there are no difficulties to overcome, practically no expense, 
no loss of time and a clear sixteen years’ trade monopoly. I know that 
a patent is granted only for a new method of manufacture which has to 
be described in the patent specification so that any one skilled in the art 
may put it into practice at once. In simple inventions which form the 
subjects of the great majority of patents this is actually the case, but 
there are undoubtedly cases where what appears to the inventor to be a 
practical scheme and was honestly described by him as such, proves sub- 
sequently to be difficult to put into effect on account of technical diffi- 


G.—ENGINEERING. 135 


culties which he had not foreseen, and the remedy for which may not be 
patentable. Such obstacles and their remedy cannot be recorded in the 
patent because they have not been encountered when the specification 
is written. If it be argued that the inventor should not apply for a patent 
until the practical application of the invention has been achieved, then 
the inventor argues in reply that by delaying his application he is incurring 
the risk of having someone else forestall him, by fair means or foul, and 
so lose his trade monopoly. Under our present system a period of nine 
months is allowed between filing the provisional and complete specifica- 
tions, which period, while ample in the case of most inventions, is inade- 
quate for full investigation of the really great inventions, and it is to this 
difference between major and minor inventions that I wish to draw 
attention. 

In America it is possible for an applicant for a patent, by filing periodical 
amendments of his specification, to keep the application pending in the 
Patent Office for a number of years, during which he can be developing 
the invention and adding to the specification any further explanations 
which may be called for in the light of the experience gained. Then when 
the patent is eventually issued it runs for seventeen years from the date 
of issue, whereas a British patent dates from the date of application. 
In addition to this, an American patentee, on any question of priority of 
invention, is allowed to produce any evidence that may be available to 
show conception of the invention up to not more than two years anterior 
to the date of his original application. In this way an American inventor 
can spend several useful years perfecting his invention before his patent 
is granted, while the British inventor has often to watch the most useful 
years of his patent being eaten up in unproductive development. I 
admit that the American system has drawbacks from the point of view of 
an industry, but it has certain undoubted advantages, and I suggest that 
our system does not meet the needs of great inventions, between which 
and the ordinary minor inventions there ought in my opinion to be some 
discrimination. Merely as a suggestion, I see a possible solution in an 
extension of our present system of granting Patents of Addition, that is 
a patent for an improvement on a prior patented invention, the Patent 
of Addition being granted during the lifetime of the original patent and 
running coterminously. If a Patent of Addition could be granted to an 
inventor in approved cases on production of evidence of genuine diffi- 
culties encountered and successfully overcome, these difficulties and their 
remedy to be fully described in the patent for the guidance of the industry, 
and if this Patent of Addition could be made valid for a definite term of 
years, one of the main fears of a patentee would be overcome. 

It will be noticed that in this last suggestion I have stipulated that 
the specification of a Patent of Addition such as I suggest should contain 
not only a description of the finished invention but of all the difficulties 
encountered in its production and the steps taken to surmount them. In 
fact, it is mainly for this reason that I make the suggestion at all. Iam 
trying to devise a means to prevent future inventors and industry from 
being handicapped in a way that has been all too common in the past. 
I have already touched on what must be the large volume of valuable 
scientific information that has been lost through lack of records of past 


136 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


difficulties. Patent specifications are in many cases the sole record of 
inventions, yet in the cases of the type I have mentioned they tell us 
nothing of the difficulties, simply because the specification is written 
before the difficulties are encountered. I therefore suggest that if any 
additional protection be given to a patentee in virtue of work done in 
converting his invention into a practical mechanism in face of unsuspected 
obstacles, the grant should be absolutely conditional on his placing on 
public record for the guidance of others a complete history of his efforts 
so that no one may have to contend with the same troubles again. 

I have one more suggestion to offer in closing, a suggestion which 
touches this Association and kindred bodies more intimately. On this 
question of assisting future inventors by increasing the store of knowledge 
at their disposal, I see a possible sphere of usefulness for this Association 
and kindred institutions by encouraging the great inventors of to-day to 
place on record and publish through the medium of the Association or 
institution an account, even a brief one, of the main historical features 
of their inventions. If considerations of patents or of personal diffidence 
make it undesirable to publish these records at the time they are written, 
that need not impede the scheme, as publication could be made subse- 
quently at a more convenient time or, say, after the inventor’s death. 
The main thing is to have some authentic record from the inventor or 
discoverer himself recording the origin, growth and development of his 
idea, the. difficulties that beset him and the manner in which they were 
overcome. Nor doI think we should stop there. In my opinion too much 
attention has been paid in the past to success and too little to honest 
failure. It is one of our human frailties to look with something of contempt 
on the man who has failed to reach his goal, but this is not the attitude of 
the great minds, nor should it be the attitude of modern science. On 
one occasion Lord Kelvin was shown a report by a professor on a research 
carried out by a research scholar, in which the professor had made some 
rather contemptuous remarks on the results attained because these results 
were mainly negative. Kelvin was highly indignant. All he looked 
to was the fact that the young scholar had done his best on a subject 
which merited investigation and in face of undoubted difficulties, and it 
amazed him that any scientist should speak slightingly of the results, 
simply because they were negative, when the real thing of value was the 
earnest and diligent search after truth. 

If therefore my suggestion be adopted by this Association, would it not 
be in the best interests of science to remember the failures as well as the 
successes, and to encourage all serious workers in important fields of re- 
search to furnish in the common cause a record of their work, even when 
their aim has not been achieved, giving a faithful account of all the diffi- 
culties and all the efforts made to surmount them? Who knows but that 
many of the so-called failures of yesterday may only be waiting for other 
hands to-day to carry them on to a greater success than the world has yet 
known? Left to themselves they will lie in oblivion, yet, for all we know, 
two of them may fit together and provide the answer to one more of the 
riddles of the universe. 

Knowledge forms the working tools of Science, and my proposal is in 
no way aimed at giving the scientific workers of to-morrow an easy task. 


G.—ENGINEERING. 137 


They will probably have a far more difficult task than ours, but I do not 
think it fair to condemn them to spend part of their time in a preliminary 
and possibly fruitless search for tools which we have forged and hidden. 
, * As one lamp lights another, nor grows less,’ Science of to-day will 
partly fail in its clear duty if it fails to pass on to to-morrow any of the 
knowledge which it has been privileged to acquire, or if it forgets that it is 
for to-morrow, rather than to-day, to assess the true value of to-day’s 
success and failure. 


ie 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


THE ENGLISHMAN OF THE FUTURE. 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. F. G. PARSONS, F.R.CS., F.S.A., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


You will believe me when I tell you that, after hearing the honour which 
you had done me in making me the president of your section, I thought 
long and anxiously upon the subject which I should choose for my presi- 
dential address, and upon how best I might hope to gain and to hold the 
interest of a very varied audience, while contributing at the same time 
my slender share to the advancement of our knowledge. 

It was quite clear to me that I must choose the physical. side of 
Anthropology, since on that side lay most of my experience and all my 
training. Indeed, on thinking the matter over, I began to see that, 
granting my claim to be an authority at all, I could only hope to be one 
upon the various races which have helped to make the modern English- 
man. And thus my choice slowly narrowed itself until I almost feared 
that I could do nothing more than repeat the time-honoured though 
somewhat threadbare process of weighing our ancestors in the balance 
and in many ways finding them wanting; for, though I should greatly 
like to have dealt with some local subject, in well-deserved honour to the 
place in which we are meeting, my want of first-hand knowledge stood in 
the way, and I found that I could do little or nothing which could not 
be better done by the local antiquaries and ethnologists. 

As I thought over the matter, however, it was borne in upon me, little 
by little, that some of the characteristics of the Englishman of to-day 
do not seem to be hereditary at all, and that in some things we, in our 
development, are not following any Mendelian laws; nor are we harking 
back to Long Barrow, Bronze Age, Celtic or Saxon types, but that 
gradually we are building up a new kind of man, differing in certain ways 
from all of these. 

And yet, if I choose for the title of my address ‘ The Englishman of 
the Future,’ you must not expect me to come before you as a prophet, 
foretelling that which shall surely come to pass, but rather as a watchman 
on the wall, who, thinking that he sees dim signs of things stirring, would 
report them to you and talk over with you what they foreshadow, if 
nothing happens to stop them meanwhile. 

Perhaps, however, it will be well for me if I drop my metaphors before 
they get me into trouble, and take up my story, which I will make as 
simple and straightforward as I may. 

I must remind you that, during the last fifty years—long before Sir 
William Arbuthnot Lane and the Daily Mail began their health campaign— 
there has been a steady and rational interest in Hygiene, particularly in 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 139 


relation to the care of the young. It has been said, and I think truly, 
that this awakening took place in the old Crimean days, when our loss of 
men through disease, due to want of hygienic knowledge, was so appalling. 
I call this interest rational because teachings were no longer accepted as 
dogmas, but were tried, and their effect carefully watched. In other 
words, the upper and middle classes were beginning to observe and to 
think for themselves, with the result that one outstanding belief after 
another went by the board, and children of succeeding generations were 
brought up and trained a little differently and, as I think the result 
shows, a little more wisely than were those of the generation which went 
before. 

It may be objected that this study of child welfare has been going on 
throughout the ages, and is by no means limited to the last half-century 
or a little more; but the point which I wish to make is that rational 
knowledge, based upon experiment and observation, could only have spread 
after medical men themselves began to learn scientific facts and to teach 
them to those who were able and willing to understand them. 

It is in this way that, each year, the younger generation is brought up 
a little more sanely than its forerunner ; and each year, too, the healthier 
influences push their way a little lower into the social scale. Now we have 
reached a stage in which the poorest child of the slums may be, and often 
is, watched over by the child welfare and almoners’ departments of our 
great hospitals long before it is born, and, if its parents be not too stupid, 
may, throughout its young life, enjoy very nearly the same healthy 
surroundings and quite as much skilled medical advice as its richer 
brethren, save that we cannot yet give it the amount of air it needs in which 
to sleep healthily, or free it from the results of the ignorant and thought- 
less cruelty of uneducated parents. Another generation or two must 
pass and these things also will cease to be. It is grievous to think that 
the hardest task of all is to give these poorer children their proper share of 
pure night air, that deadly terror of our forefathers. So long as slum 
areas and overcrowding last it is hard to see how this may be done, though 
the chemists of the future, when they are not too busy with poison gas, 
may be able to solve this problem too. 

Now if all, or even part of this, be true; if for the last half-century 
children have been better and more sanely cared for, there must surely 
be something to show for it—something which our eyes may see at a 
glance, or at least the beginnings of which we may show by contrasted 
records, indices and tabulations. That there is indeed much to show is 
clear enough to anyone who has walked the streets of London or of any 
of our great cities for half a century with openeyes. How seldom nowadays 
do we see the poor little half-starved bodies, so common thirty years ago, 
shivering, coatless and bootless, in the depth of the winter; their 
miserable little limbs maimed by rickets, their ears streaming with matter 
from middle-ear disease, and their eyelids red with ophthalmia. We 
know, thank God, that these are fast becoming things of the past ; indeed 
the modern niedical student thinks himself lucky if he sees a single case 
of rickets, about which his text-book has so much to say. 

Bad teeth, adenoids, septic tonsils, and glands in the neck, unfortu- 
nately, are still common enough, but slowly and surely these are being 


140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


conquered, and are bound to be swept away before long; for all this 
improvement is gathering speed as it rolls on, and each year has rather 
more to show than that which went before. 

I have been visiting lately a number of the London County Council 
schools in order to see something of the physical characteristics of the 
rising generation, and I find that, even in the poorest districts, the children 
are, upon the whole, cheerful and fairly healthy, and a wonderful under- 
standing exists between them and their teachers, who as a class are far 
above the pedagogues under whom I sat as a boy ; while in the secondary 
schools, particularly in the healthier districts, such as Plumstead and 
Eltham, the physical beauty and perfect health of the boys and girls 
contrast very favourably with anything that our most expensive public 
schools have to show. It is true that I am speaking from the examination 
of only five thousand out of more than a million London children, and 
may have to modify my opinion as time goes on; but what I have seen 
fills me with hope for the future, and never again shall I grudge any 
taxes which I may be called upon to pay for education, since I realise 
that, under the cloak of education, London at least is doing its utmost to 
change a C3 into an Al population. 

And now, feeling sure that a change is coming over our younger 
generation, let us try to see where it is leading, and whether heredity or 
environment is taking the greater share in guiding it; though we shall 
surely be wrong if we allow either of these great influences to leave our 
minds for a moment. I must be careful not to undertake more than I 
can carry through in my time; and therefore I will only ask you to let 
me say a little about the three physical characteristics of stature, colora- 
tion and head shape, in order to see whether anything may be learnt from 
these. 

I suppose that no one would dare to say what the average height of 
the modern Englishman is, because we have no State-controlled and 
State-aided means of sampling the physical conditions of our population 
in any way. I can tell you at first hand that the men of our labouring 
and agricultural classes in the Chilterns average 5 ft. 6 in., and that the 
mixed classes in a North Kent doctor’s practice are 5 ft. 7 in.; but what 
we do not know is how much the stunted millions in the Midland manu- 
facturing towns, and the mass of unemployed and unemployable humanity 
in the East of London, will pull this down. I suppose that, taking these 
into consideration, the average height of the Englishman to-day is not 
more than 5 ft. 5 in. ; though when we speak of the well-nourished classes 
there is a different tale to tell. I know, for instance, that for the last 
twenty years my students at St. Thomas’s Hospital have averaged 5 ft. 9 in. 
and in no single year have they ever risen as high as 5 ft. 10 in. or dropped 
below 5 ft. 9 in. ; but, steady though their average at this height has been 
for twenty years, I am quite sure that they are taller than were my own 
contemporaries forty years ago, just as those contemporaries, in their 
turn, were probably taller than the originals of Bob Sawyer’s and Ben 
Allen’s fellow-students, who walked the Borough hospitals nearly a century 
ago. 

I think, therefore, that hygiene and better nutrition have done their 
work so far as stature is concerned, and that the class of Englishmen of 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 141 


which our London medical students serve as examples have been brought 
up to, or nearly up to, the limit which their race will reach under the 
most favourable conditions. It may be indeed that the more intensive 
health crusade of the last two or three years may cause a new rise in 
stature which has not yet had time to show itself, but I can see no signs 
of it as yet. It may be, too, that, though environment may have played 
its last card, heredity may not have done so, and that if for any reason 
the individuals with a higher percentage of Nordic traits in their patch- 
work composition are put in a more favourable position to marry and 
beget offspring than those with a large number of Alpine and Mediterranean 
traits, the stature may rise still further. 

I feel sure, however, that there is a certain average height beyond which 
the purest Nordic stock will not rise, and my belief is that this has been 
reached, or nearly reached, already—so far as the higher classes are 
concerned. 

I am taking no account, of course, of whether there is any advantage 
to a nation, or to the world at large, in its citizens reaching a very high 
average stature. Personally I doubt whether, in these modern days of 
machinery, the losses do not outweigh the gains ; for great mental ability 
seldom accompanies great bodily size, nor as a rule are very big and 
muscular men such good lives, from a medical point of view, as their 
more slimly built and wiry fellows. It seems that, while we do well to 
notice and record the increasing size of our upper and middle class men, 
we have no great reason to be proud of it. Be this as it may, there can 
be little doubt that, as all classes come to take an equal share in the 
benefits of Eugenics, the height of the whole community will increase 
until 5 ft. 9 in. is the average height of the poorest as well as of the richest ; 
though in those parts of the country in which the Mediterranean element 
is greatest the stature no doubt will be lowest. 

I have given my reasons for believing that we have learnt how to 
raise our male stature to a point beyond which it will not go, and beyond 
which it is not well that it should go; but what of the women? About 
twenty years ago I measured the height of some 150 students of the School 
of Medicine for Women, and found their average to be 5 ft. 3 in., but after 
ten years their successors had added a fraction over an inch to their 
stature ; while this year I have measured 150 nurses and massage students 
at St. Thomas’s Hospital whose average height was 5 ft. 4-9 in. 

Now these girls belong to the very same class of the community as 
the male medical students; indeed there are brothers and sisters in the 
two groups, and the difference with which they have reacted to altered 
conditions is quite interesting ; for, whereas the boys had reached their 
full average height of 5 ft. 9 in. when first I measured them twenty years 
ago—and their successors, year by year, have never added anything to, 
or lost anything from, this height, up to the present—their sisters have 
gained very nearly 2 inches in the twenty years, and practically have 
reached the height of the average Englishman, whom we dare not estimate 
as measuring more than 5 ft. 5 in. There are no signs, moreover, that 
these healthily nourished girls have reached their maximum, as have 
the boys. 

So far as heredity goes, I know that their Anglo-Saxon forbears 


142 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


showed quite a small difference between the heights of the two sexes, and 
it may be that our Englishwomen of the future may reach an average 
of 5 ft. 6 in. or 5 ft. 7 in. It is unlikely that. the two sexes will ever be 
equal in height, because we know that the stoppage of growth is determined 
by the union of the caps or epiphyses at the ends of the long bones with 
the shafts. We know, too, that this closure of the epiphysial lines, as 
they are called, takes place earlier in women than it doesin men. Other 
things being equal, therefore, woman is handicapped and pays for her 
well-known earlier maturity by a shortening of the time allotted to growth. 
To follow this matter up would lead us into a discussion upon hormones 
and endocrine glands, a discussion which would take us too far afield, 
although I am fully alive to the importance of the subject. 

There is no reason to believe that the union of the epiphysial lines is 
being delayed in modern Englishwomen, though there is good reason for 
thinking that, during the period before they unite, growth is taking place 
more quickly than in former days, since I am told that an increase of 
height at definite ages is taking place in the children in our L.C.C. schools. 

I am not sure that I have made myself quite clear in the matter of 
heredity and environment. Both surely must be taken into account ; 
and there is always the risk that one observer may try to account for 
every change he notices by ascribing it to Mendelian influences, while 
another may see the influence of environment, unchecked by heredity, 
everywhere. In the present subject of stature we have seen environment, 
in the shape of wise feeding and a full supply of fresh air, increasing the 
male height to 5 ft. 9 in. twenty years ago; but at that height the 
hereditary maximum of the Nordic race seems to have been reached, and 
since then no improvements in surroundings have been able to increase 
it. When I say that 5 ft. 9 in. seems the hereditary average maximum 
of the Nordic race I do not mean that our Saxon forefathers were of that 
height ; indeed I know that they only averaged 5 ft.6in. What I mean 
is that 5 ft. 9 in. seems to be the highest possible score for Nordic peoples. 

Now, leaving the question of stature for that of colour, I have two or 
three points—small perhaps in themselves, but not without interest—to 
lay before you. One so often hears that the English people are becoming 
darker that one needs must pay some attention to this point. I was 
especially struck by a statement made by Miss Fleming, a trained observer, 
who said that she could find no series of fair children in the slums of 
Liverpool with which to contrast the dark. Another statement which I 
came across in the daily Press was made by a medical officer, who said 
that most of the London poorer children had dark eyes. Before we 
consider these statements it will be well to agree upon what we are to 
regard as light and dark, and thus make sure that we are speaking the 
same language. Rather more than sixty years ago Dr. Beddoe observed 
and recorded the coloration of a very large number of people in these 
islands; and since a comparison of his results with those we may gain 
to-day is our only chance of solving the question of whether we are 
becoming fairer or darker, it is important to adopt a method of recording 
colour which is comparable with his. Time will not allow me to explain 
the details of Beddoe’s tabulations, which, for my purposes, are needlessly 
complicated, but it is easy from his statistics to find the percentage of the 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 143 


following five shades of hair—Fair, Red, Brown, Dark Brown, and Black— 
and from these to construct an index by taking the percentage of dark 
brown and black hair added together. 

Beddoe also records the percentage of light, dark, and intermediate 
eyes; and to me the simplest index seems to be gained by adding half 
the number of the intermediate eyes to the light and half to the dark, and 
by then taking the new percentage of dark eyes as the index of eye colora- 
tion. This method has the additional advantage of allowing us to use 
Fleure’s records of people in Wales. In most cases it is unwise io use 
the hair or eyes alone, but to combine the two into a general index of 
nigrescence by adding the indices of the hair and eyes together and then 
dividing the sum by two. 

An example will make this clear. I take 158 students from St. 
Thomas’s Hospital and find that their hair and eye colours are as follows :— 


; % 
Fair 18 = Ll-4 
Red 6= 38 
Harr + Brown 87 = 55:0 
Dark 42 = 26-6 : 
Black ae 32 | 298 (Hair Index) 


29-8 
32:6 


62-4 2=31-2 (Index of 
= Nigrescence) 


% 
(Light 88+ 18:5=106-5=67-4 
Eyes / Intermed. 37< 
Dark 33+18-5= 51-5=32-6 (Eye Index) 


158 158 100-0 


I admit that the personal equation of the observer comes into this, as 
into all systems, because it is often so difficult to draw the line between 
brown and dark brown hair; but the difficulty may, to a large extent, 
be overcome by having an intermediate group between the two, into 
which all doubtful cases may go, and these may be divided equally between 
the brown and dark groups before the percentages are worked out. 

Let us take this series of students as a sample of the upper middle- 
class youths in London to-day. Of course they come from all over 
England, but so do all Londoners. I have, however, been very careful 
not to include any traceable foreigners in my list. 

Sixty years ago Beddoe observed the coloration of 500 male Londoners 
of the upper classes, and, according to my system, their Hair Index was 
40:5, Eye Index 31-2; total index, 35°8. 


UprER-CLASS LONDONERS’ COMPARISON. 


Date. Number. | Hair. Eyes. Total. 
1860-70 500 | 405 31-2 35:8 
32-6 31-2 


1920-27 158 | 29-8 


a ie tll 2 he ee ee ee nD 


144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


This comparison is given more as an example of method than as an 
adequate sample of the millions of educated people in London; indeed 
the whole question of coloration opens up so many points of discussion, 
and needs such large numbers to reach any definite conclusions, that 
I must be content, at this stage, simply to give some massed results in 
trying to solve the question whether Londoners, who practically are 
Southern English People, have grown darker or fairer during the last 
sixty years. The following table gives the material which I have :— 


. ApuLT MALEs. 


Hair Index. Eye Index. Nigrescence Index. 
1860 39-7 (2,400) 35-7 (2,400) 37-7 (2,400) 
1927 27-4 (1,485) 33-2 (1,485) 30-3 (1,485) 
ADULT FEMALES. 
1860 42-7 (2,813) 40-7 (2,813) 41-7 (2,818) 
1927 23-9 (1,487) 35:3 (411) 29-6 (949) 
Boys (8 To 16 YEARS OLD). 
1927 8-7 (2,565) 33-1 (2,565) 20-9 (2,565) 
Girts (8 To 16 YEARS OLD). 
1927 11-0 (1,922) 34:3 (1,922) 22-6 (1,922) 


On looking at this table one cannot fail to be struck by the increase 
in fairness, particularly in the hair; but I do not wish to press it too far, 
because there are so many possible sources of error. ' Not only is there 
the possibility that Beddoe and I had a different border-line between 
brown and dark brown hair, but other things, such as the modern habit 
of wearing the hair short, the habit of more frequently washing the head, 
and the disuse to a considerable extent of pomatum and grease, all give 
an appearance of fairness which was wanting sixty years ago. In the 
eye records I place more faith, for both Beddoe and I used an intermediate 
group between the light and dark eyes, a group which I have divided in 
both sets of records equally between the light and the dark. The drop 
in the darkness here is not serious, but I think that it is large enough to 
be significant. 

The children’s records at first seem irrelevant, since I have nothing of 
sixty years ago with which to compare them. Their use is to supplement 
the present-day eye colours of the adults, especially those of the women, 
which are very scanty. It will be noticed that in children of eight to 
sixteen the eye colours have become permanent, though the hair has 
not, and thus their evidence is valuable. These records, which run into 
several thousands, do not give us any reason to think that the Londoner 
is becoming darker, but do give us reason, though it may need discount- 
ing, to believe that he is growing fairer under changing conditions. 

This question of coloration statistics may be of special as well as of 
general interest, for a neurologist lately assured me that quite 50 per cent. 
of his patients had dark eyes, and asked me whether this were above or 
below the general average of the population. The relation of other 
diseases to coloration also has been worked at by Dr. Shrubsall and 
others, but can be valuable only when the normal percentage is known. 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 145 


The last point to which I wish to draw your attention is head shape. 
As you know, the anthropologist usually thinks of skulls in terms of their 
length and breadth, and certainly he has gained a great deal of useful 
information in the past from this cranial index, his so-called sheet-anchor. 
Lately, however, he has felt that something more is needed, and specialists 
in craniology have piled up such a mass of arcs, indices, coefficients, and 
angles that few are able to criticise their fellow-workers, because few are 
able to understand what their fellow-workers are doing. 

Unfortunately we cannot claim that the results have kept pace with 
the growing complexity of the methods, and if we are ever to interest the 
non-specialist, and to induce him to add to our knowledge by using the 
enormous mass of material which comes in his way, we must devise some 
system simple enough to be grasped by any educated person and yet 
more valuable than the mere record of the length and breadth of the head. 

The reason why the cranial or the cephalic index is not enough is that 
it treats the head as if it were a structure of two, instead of three, dimen- 
sions. To use a homely simile, it is like giving the length and breadth of 
a box and then expecting the hearer to grasp what that box is like. 
We have hundreds of thousands of records of the length and breadth of 
heads, but very few of their height. Even when the height is recorded we 
set it down and try to visualise it by comparing it with the length—just 
as we compare the breadth of the skull with its length. 

In other words, we use the length as though it were a constant with 
which we could compare the variable breadth and height, though we 
know that the length may be just as variable as either of the other 
diameters. 

I want to submit to you that, if we use all three dimensions—length, 
breadth, and height—together, a standard will be gained which roughly 
will represent the size of the skull, and with this each dimension may 
be compared, and a proportional index for each established. The most 
accurate method, no doubt, is to take the product of the three dimensions 
and then to extract the cube root and multiply it by three. The result 
of this is a standard by which the length, breadth, and height of the skull 
may be divided, and in this way proportional indices obtained which will 
bear a definite relation to the size of the skull. Unfortunately the process, 
though soon learned, is tiresome and needs a logarithm table, which is 
not always to hand. 

A much simpler, and for all practical purposes an equally valuable 
method of gaining proportional indices is to add together the length, 
breadth, and height of the skull, and then to divide each dimension by the 
sum thus obtained. This gives a series of indices which are, on an average, 
‘006 lower than those which the cube-root system supplies; but in no 
casé does this alter the relative position of any of the series of British 
skulls tabulated in the accompanying list. My colleague, Dr. Mulligan, 
has been kind enough to prepare a second table which shows how nearly 
the results of the two methods correspond. 

Before considering these tables, which I think give a more rational 
and coherent view of British craniology than could be obtained from the 
old cranial index, though I am glad enough to use that too, let us take 
as an example the skull of a Saxon, fately dug up at Bidford-on-Avon. 

1927 L 


146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


Its length is 205 mm., its breadth 149 mm., and its vertical height, from 
the top of the ear passage, 124 mm. 


L. 205 + B. 149 + H. 124 = 478 (L. + B. + H. Standard) 


L. 205 B. 149 H. 124 
Standard 478 Standard 478 Standard 478 — 


In other words, the length is -429, the breadth -312, and the height -259 
of the sum of the three dimensions; and these we may speak of as the 
proportional length, breadth, and height indices. 

Now suppose that we want to contrast this Saxon’s cranium with 
that of a London medical student of to-day, whose head measurements 
are as follows: L. 202, B. 149, H. 140. We must remember, of course, 
that we are dealing now with cephalic, not cranial, measurements, and 
that the soft parts of the scalp have been included; while in the Saxon 
was included the skull alone. 

We must therefore deduct 8 mm. from the length and breadth and 
5-5 mm. from the height to allow for these ; this reduces the measure- 
ments to L. 194, B. 141, H. 134-5. Still another deduction is needed, 
because the height was measured with an auricular height craniometer, 
which fits into the centre of the ear-hole, while the Saxon skull was 
measured from the top of the opening; thus another 6 mm. must 
be deducted from the height of the modern skull to allow for this. Now 
the measurements are comparable, and the two skulls give the following 
results :— 


=-429 ='312 ='259 


L. B. H. 
Anglo-Saxon . 4 205 + 149+ 124 = 478 mm. 
Modern Londoner - 194 + 14] + 128-5 = 463-5 mm, 


It is pretty clear that this parttcular Saxon had a larger head than the 
student, and if we want to see where the gain and loss occurred the actual 
measurements must be reduced to their proper proportions, as follows :— 


| 
| 


Proportional Proportional P Proportional 
Length | Breadth | Height 
' Index. Index. | Index. 
Anglo-Saxon. . | 4290 | -312 | 259} Ss = 1-000 
Modern Londoner 419 +304 °277 | =1-000 
med SS i : a eee Bese hi . 
Londoner . .| —*10 | —8 | +-18 


Now it is seen at a glance that this particular London student has a 
head which is shorter and narrower, but a great deal higher in proportion 
to its size, than that of the particular Saxon with which it was compared. 

In this instance I have reduced the Londoner’s head to a skull in 
order to compare it with that of the Saxon, but of course it would have 
been just as easy to have reversed the process and to have clothed the 
Saxon skull with the necessary allowance for soft parts. This, indeed, 
is what I propose to do in the table of proportional indices which I may 
now lay before you, since the living head measurements are more numerous 
than those made upon skulls. Anyone using this table must please bear 
in mind that all the skulls have had 8 mm. added to their average length 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 147 
1 2 3 | 4 5 | 6 7 8 
Length. | Breadth. | Aur. Ht. : ieee (pee 
B.C. 5000? 
Neolithic 201-7 (53) | 146-9 (128) 123-1 sgl | 728 | 471-7 | 428 -311 261 
(Schuster)} | | 
Neolithic 204:°0 (20) a5°0 (20) | 122: 5 (20) 725 | 4745 | 430 -312 -258 
(Parsons)? 
B.C. 2000? 
Beaker Folk | 192-5 (48) | 157-9 (89) | 126-6(7) | 820! 477-0 / 404 -331 -265 
(Morant)! | | 
Beaker Folk | 188-0 (16) | 156-0 (8) | 122-5 (16) | 830 | 466-5 | -403 -334 -263 
(Parsons)* 
B.C. 600? 
Celtic Iron Age | 195-4 (61) | 149-4(102) No record | 764 | — —. 
(Morant)! | | 
Celtic Iron Age | 194-0 (23) | 144:0(23) Norecord| 742, — | — 
(Wright) : . 
A.D. 500. 
Anglo-Saxons 198-6'(58) | 149-7 (103) 120-4 (17) | 754 | 468- 424 +317 -259 
(Morant)+ 
Anglo-Saxons 204-6 (47) | 151-2 (48) | 121-9(48) | 739 | 477-7 | -428 -317 -255 
(Parsons) 
147H AND 15TH CENTURIES. 
Hythe (Parsons)*| 187-0 (324)) 151-0 (324)| 119-5 (291)} 812 | 457-5 | -409 -330 -261 
Rothwell 194-0 (99) | 150-0 (100)| 120-0 (100) 773 | 464-0 | -418 -323 -259 
(Parsons)? | 
177TH CentuRY (PLAGUE SKULLS). 
Whitechapel 197-1 (137), 148-7 (135), 120-1 (135)! 754 | 465-0 | -423 -319 -258 
(Macdonell)? 
Moorfields 197-2 (44) | 151-0 (46) | 119-3 (46) | 765 | 465-0 | -422 -323 -255 
(Macdonell)4 
Farringdon St. | 196-8 (139) 150-4 (141); 115-5 (76) | 764 | 462-7 | -426 -326 -248 
(Hooke)? 
18TH CENTURY. 
Clare Market 196-0 (30) | 150-0 (30) | 119-5 (30) | 765 | 465-5 | -421 -322 -257 
(Parsons) | 
EaR.ty 19TH CEentTuRY. 
English Soldiers | 195-2 (44) | 147- ot | 121-9 (44) | 753 | 464-1 | -421 -317 -262 
Millbank 
(Parsons) 
20TH CENTURY. 
Royal Engineers | 194-9 (118) 151-1 (118) 125-9 (118) 775 | 471-9 | -413 -320 -267 
(Bennington)$® 
St. Thomas’s 193-0 (150) 150-0 (150) 127-8 (73) | 777 | 470-8 | -410 -319 -271 
Patients 
British Assoen. | 198-1(?) | 155-0(?) | 130-9 (?) 782 | 484-0 | .409 -320 -271 
(‘ Biometrika’ )' | 
St. Thomas’s 196-1 (158) 154-0 (158) 130-9(81) | 785 481-0 | -408 -320 -272 
Students | 
Oxford Under- | 196-1 (959) 152-8 (959) 130-6 (959) 780 | 479-5 | -409 -319 -272 
grads | 
(Schuster)* 
| Brit. Anatomists | 197-7 (27) | 156-3 ce) | 134-0 (27) | 791 | 488-0 | -405 -320 -275 
(Dublin, 1898) | 
Univ. Coll. Staff | 196-4 (25) ae) 135-0 (25) 782 | 484-9 | -405 -317 -278 
(Pearson)? | 
Biometrika, Vol. 18, p. 82. mi fad te Daa Inst. 3 Biometrika, Vol. 3, p. 208. 
“ Biometrika, Vol. 5, p. 92. 5 Biometrika, Vol. 18, p.1. & Biometrika, Vol. 8, p. 131. 


7 Biometrika, Vol. 1, p. 204. 


8 Biometrika, Vol. 8, p. 49. 


148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


and breadth and 5-5 mm. to their auricular height. All those living 
heads or skulls, on the other hand, the auricular height of which has been 
measured by a craniometer or head-spanner which fits into the middle 
of the ear-holes, have had 6 mm. deducted from that height, because at 
the Frankfurt agreement it was decided that the auricular height should 
be taken from the top of the auditory opening. 

Columns 1, 2, and 3, therefore, give the length, breadth, and height 
averages of the heads with the soft parts in position, and the figures in 
parentheses represent the number of heads upon which the averages are 
based. Column 4 is the proportion of the breadth to the length, or the 
cephalic index. Column 5 is the sum of the length, breadth, and auricular 
height, of which the three succeeding columns are fractions; while 
columns 6,7, and 8 show the proportions which the length, breadth, and 
height bear to the sum of the three in column 5. 

The following lists show how little difference there is between an 
index constructed from the length, breadth, and height of the skull and 
one constructed from the cube root of the product of the three measure- 
ments. Whichever index is used the relative positions of the various 
groups of skulls remain unchanged ; and for this reason I do not think 
that the extra time and labour needed in working out the product index 
is repaid in any way. 


Heap LENGTH. 
ee CRANIAL 
pes Sum Product CAPACITY 
ee gr Differ- (from Lee’s 
= Saas Aae. Formula). 

L+B+H/3¥LxXBxH 

| ¢.c. 
Neolithic (Schuster) 3 . | 428 437 009 1,385 
Neolithic (Parsons) : . | 430 | 440 | -010 1,399 
Beaker Folk (Morant) . . | 404 409 | 005 1,445 
Beaker Folk (Parsons) ; 403 | 409 =| -006 1,370 
Anglo-Saxons (Morant) . | 424 | 433 | -009 1,366 
Anglo-Saxons (Parsons* . | 428 438 | -010 1,420 
Hythe . : é ‘ . | 409 416 007 1,307 
Rothwell ; ‘ ‘ . | 418 426 | -008 1,340 
Whitechapel . é : . | 2423 432 | -009 1,348 
Moorfields. 2 : : 422 | 431 | 009 1,357 
Farringdon Street . ; ; 426 435 | -009 1,318 
Clare Market . F ; : 421 | 430 | 009 1,346 
English Soldiers. 3 hoy Ay +429 -008 1,342 
Royal Engineers. ; Pella tile 420 | +007 1,403 
St. Thomas’s Patients . : -410 416 “006 1,402 
British Association . : .| -409 | “416 007 1,486 
St. Thomas’s Students . =| e408: | 413 -005 1,475 
Oxford Students . : <i {ae eae 415 | -006 1,464 
British Anatomists . ; . | 405 | -410 | -005 1,530 
University College Staff . . [PS a0be Y 410 | +005 1,510 

| Average difference -007 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 149 


I | 
| Heap BREADTH. Heap Heicur. 
= / Sum Product Sum | Product | 
Index. Index. Differ- Index. Index. Differ- | 
| B B ence. H H ence. | 
L+B+H)8Y Lx Bx H L+B+HY LxBxH / 
Ve ee esl se - - = 
Neolithic == -311 318 -007 -261 -267 -006 
(Schuster) 
Neolithic f  -dl2 -319 -007 -258 264 -006 
(Parsons) 
Beaker Folk “331 336 005 265 269 004 
(Morant) | 
Beaker Folk | -334 “340 006 263 267 -004 
(Parsons) 
Anglo-Saxons) -317 “326 -009 259 +262 -003 
(Morant) 
Anglo-Saxons) -317 324 007 “255 261 006 
(Parsons) 
| Hythe sees) 336 006 -261 +266 005 
Rothwell . +323 330 007 “250 264 005 
| Whitechapel 319 326 007 258 263 005 
.| Moorfields . | -323 -330 007. «| ~=-255 -261 006 | 
Farringdon 326 333 007 =| = -248 256 “008 
| Street | 
Clare Market | -322 +329 007 +257 -262 005 | 
| English 317 7323 -006 -262 267 005 | 
| Soldiers 
| Royal +320 325 005 267 271 -004 
Engineers | 
British Asso- “320 “325 005 | -271 274 003 
| ciation | 
|St.Thomas’s | -319 323 “004 271 275 004 
Patients 
St.Thomas’s | -320 325 005 272 276 004 
| Students 
Oxford “319 323 004 272 276 -004 
| Students 
| British Ana- +320 324 004 275 278 003 
tomists 
Univ. Coll. “B17 “320 003 278 282 -004 
| Staff sees sat 
Average difference -006 Average difference -005 
| 


150 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


It will be noticed that we are fortunate enough to have two independent 
sets of measurements of the three main stocks which went to the making 
of the Englishman—the Mediterranean, represented by the Long Barrow 
or Neolithic Race; the Alpine, represented by the Beaker Folk ; and the 
Nordic, represented by the Anglo-Saxons. One of each of these three 
sets has been measured by myself, and the other has been measured or 
collected by Mr. Morant, who published them in Biometrika.’ 

Now, although neither the authorities of Biometrika nor I are un- 
qualified admirers of the other’s methods, I firmly believe that we both 
are trying to find out the truth, according to our lights and limitations ; 
and in this case our results, when reduced, as I have reduced them, to 
proportional indices, are so nearly alike that, however much we might 
wish to, neither of us can attack the other with any reasonable chance of 
success. 

If we add the proportional indices of the three stocks together and 
divide them by three, the result is as follows :— 


| Length. | Breadth. | Height. 
Meee ar <, 3th te heed 6c ehh SOOO ars Dele | —1-0000 
Parsons 4205 | -3210 | 2585 | =1-0000 
Moa 3c ae | 4195 +3205 | -2600 | =1-0000 


This result, surely, is as close as two people working upon different 
samples and different numbers of skulls of the same races could be expected 
to reach; and there is every reason to believe that the mean between 
the two sets of results is more likely to be nearer the truth than either 
of them taken separately, and ought roughly to represent what we should 
be likely to find, in the descendants, if equal numbers of Long Barrow 
folk, Beaker folk, and Anglo-Saxons were mixed and allowed to interbreed. 

Let us compare this with the records of the Northamptonshire people 
who lived at Rothwell in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries :— 


| Length | Breadth. | 
Mean of Long Barrow, 
Beaker, and Saxons 4195 +3205 
Rothwell . 3 - | -4180 | +3230 
Hythe. j f | -4090 | 3300 


This shows that if we evolve, as we have done in the first line, the 
kind of skull which a mixture of the three main stocks which we know 
went to the making of the medieval Englishman would produce, we get 
a form which, in its proportional length, breadth, and height, is almost 
identical with that found in the Midlander of the Middle Ages, as shown 
in the second line. 

When, however, the Hythe crania, shown in the third line, are compared 


with these, we see at once that they must have had a different parentage ; 


1 Biometrika, vol. 18, p. 82. 


ANG 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 151 


and what that parentage is becomes plain when they are placed in company 
with the Beaker folk. 


Breadth. | Height. 
wer etlstlikeylats abt | -ruardtrby aihessas Mt nips 
| | 
Hythe . ; : F -4090 +3300 +2610 | =1-0000 | 
Mean of Morant and Par- | | 
sons’ Beaker Folk : -4035 +3325 | +2640 | =1-0000 / 
| | | 


It seems to me as clear as clear can be that these Hythe people, in the 
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, were the result of an incursion and 
settlement of people from the Continent, of the Alpine Race, who had 
been slightly, but only slightly, modified by mixture with the Kentish 
folk.’ 

In the eighteenth century the Londoners who lived in the neighbour- 
hood of Clare Market had skulls the proportional dimensions of which 
differed very little from those at Rothwell :— 


| Length. | Breadth. | Height. 
— | | 
— i a ie eae eS | 259 =1-000 
Clare Market 491 | 322 | 257 =1-000 


Apparently, however, there was a little more of the Nordic and a little 
less of the Alpine element about them. 

In the seventeenth century three series of plague skulls are available 
and were described by Macdonell and Hooke. They are remarkable for 
their low vaults and receding foreheads, and it has been suggested that 
they show that the modern Londoner has reverted to the Early Iron Age 
type, though formerly Pearson regarded them as Long Barrow in their 
characteristics. Unfortunately we know very little of the craniology of 
the Early Iron Age, and I see that Morant cannot find a single record of 
what their auricular height was.’ We must therefore let this suggestion 
stand over until more work has been done upon the head shape of the 
Tron Age. There is one point, however, which I think should be borne 
in mind, especially since the Londoners seem to have gone back to a 
more normal head height in the eighteenth century ; it is that during the 
plague the better class of citizens fled from the city, leaving the dregs of 
the population behind, and it is in these dregs that receding foreheads and 


* Writing in Biometrika (vol. 18, p. 22) Miss Hooke says that the Hythe skulls 
were “in all probability those of Kentish men.’ This I no longer believe, because I 
examined a number of skulls of the same date from the crypt of a disused church at 
Dover and found them quite different from those at Hythe. Again, the same writer 
says that the skulls which I recorded at Hythe were ‘ selected’ from at least double 
the number. This, if it were true, would necessarily make the Hythe records value- 
less ; but it is absolutely untrue, since I examined all the skulls which were available 
at the time, and no selection whatever was made. Since then more skulls have been 
recovered from the stack, but there is no reason to believe that they differ in any 
way from those which I measured. 

3 Biometrika, vol. 18, p. 82. 


152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


low cranial vaults are most likely to be found. I cannot think that it 
is wise to use plague skulls as types of seventeenth-century Londoners 
as a whole. 

Now we come to a new and striking development. It will be noticed 
that, until the eighteenth century, the only skulls which show a pto- 
portional auricular height of over -260 are those belonging to the Alpine 
Race, that is to say the Beaker Folk and the Hythe people. Morant, it 
is true, quotes Schuster’s Long Barrow Folk as having -261, but there 
were only eight of these available, and twenty more gave me an average 
of -258. 

It is therefore fairly clear that in none of the races which have helped 
to make the modern Englishman was the height of the head more than 
-260 of the length, breadth, and height added together, except in the 
Beaker Folk, where it reached at the highest computation -265. 

Bearing this in mind, it is interesting to notice that in the early 
nineteenth century the proportion of the head height of English soldiers 
was ‘262, while in the men of the Royal Engineers, measured by Benington, 
in the early part of the twentieth century it had risen to :267, and in the 
patients at St. Thomas’s Hospital in the present day it is -271. 

These last three examples are of the less well-educated classes, and 
even in these it is remarkable how the proportional height of the head 
has risen well above anything which any of our ancestors can show, even 
were we to claim the Beaker Folk as our main ancestors, which all the 
evidence tells us would be unjustifiable. 

But when we come to measure the educated classes of the community, 
which have enjoyed a greater share of the modern, improved conditions 
of environment, the ane is still more striking, ioe we see the members 
of the British Association with a proportional head height of -271, the 
St. Thomas’s Hospital students with ‘272, the Oxford undergraduates 
with -272, a number of British anatomists who met in Dublin in 1898 with 
-275, and the University College staff with -278. 

Perhaps the point will be brought out more clearly if the means of 
the groups of the proportional head measurements are contrasted. 
Unfortunately I am unable always to take the number of observations. 
into account, since I have never been able to find out how many members 
of the British Association were measured, but I find that where I have 
the numbers it would have made no appreciable difference to the results 
had I used them. 

We may see at the beginning of this list the relative proportions of the 
three chief cranial measurements of the three stocks which took part in 
making the medieval Englishman—the Mediterranean, the Alpine, and 
the Nordic. At Rothwell we have, in the fourteenth century, the result 
of the fusion of these three. In the seventeenth century, according to 
my reading, are the dregs of the populace, with their low cranial vaults, 
left behind to die of plague in London. At Clare Market again in the 
eighteenth century is the low-vaulted, slum population of a great town ; 
while in later years the height of the skull vaults has increased propor- 
tionally with improved conditions of life, until in the richer and more 
intellectual classes, which have enjoyed more of these improved sur- 
roundings, the head height has increased enormously. 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 153 


Proportion to 
the sum of the three. 
en ee 
Length. Breadth. Height. | 
Mean of Schuster and Parsons’ Neolithic : -429 “311 -260 |=1-000 | 
Mean of Morant and Parsons’ Beaker Folk . 404 +332 *264 |=1-000 | 
Mean of Morant and Parsons’ Anglo-Saxons . 426 317 -257 + |=1-000 | 
Fourteenth and Fifteenth Century (Rothwell) -418 323 -259 |=1:000 | 
Mean of Whitechapel, Moorfields and Far- 
ringdon Street, ne aap aptiaal Plague 
Skulls. c : ; 424 +323 "253 |=1-000 | 
Clare Market, eighteenth century : 421 322 *257 |=1-000 | 
English Soldiers (Millbank), eighteenth century 421 317 -262 |=1-000 | 
Poorly educated classes, twentieth century 
(Mean of Benington and Parsons) . “412 320 -268 |=1-000 | 
Highly educated classes, twentieth century | 
(Mean of Pearson, Schuster, and Parsons). | -407 “319 -274 |=1-000 


At one time I looked upon this change as the result of the immigration 
of people of Alpine and Slavic descent from the Continent in the last 
century, but I think so no longer, since I have examined a series of modern, 
short-headed skulls from the Continent and find that these, like our own 
Beaker Folk, always have an average proportional breadth of more than 
“330, while our modern English people show no sign of increasing their 
proportional breadth and greatly exceed the Continental proportional 
height. 

I can see no signs of heredity or harking back to any known ancestry 
in the change which is coming over the English head, but only signs of 
reaction to environment. Is it not reasonable to think that, as the 
improved conditions of life are gradually shared by all classes, this change 
in the head shape will gradually become more general until the Englishman 
of the future is a man with a very differently proportioned head from that 
of any of his ancestors? Please do not think that I wish to decry the 
old cranial index ; it has helped us much in the past, it will help us much 
in the future. All that I would say is that unless we take the proportional 
height into account we shall miss a great deal that we ought to know. 

To sum up this, which I fear is a too lengthy communication, I am 
left with the belief that the Englishman of the future is, if present condi- 
tions persist, making for an average height of 5 ft. 9 in., and the women 
for one of 5 ft. 6 in. or 5 ft. 7 in. 

That our people have reached, and are stationary at, a stage in which 
some 66 per cent. have light eyes and some 34 per cent. dark. 

That there are no signs whatever that the hair colour has darkened 
during the last sixty years, though there are signs, which perhaps need 
discounting, that the hair is lighter than it was sixty years ago. 

That the head shape is showing unmistakable signs of an increase of 
its proportional height, with a decrease of its proportional length, and 
that this increase of proportional height is greater than has been found 
in any of the stocks from which the modern Englishman is derived. It 
therefore cannot be looked upon as a harking back to any ancestral form, 
but must be regarded as an evolutionary process, in harmony with the 


154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


greatly changed conditions of life which have come about during the last 
century. 

After all this suggestion, which a study of the head height presses upon 
us, is one which many have held for a long time. If we accept it I fear 
that many of the sentimental attractions of British Anthropology will 
be lessened, since there will be greater difficulty in determining whether 
the modern Englishman has more Saxon, Neolithic, Alpine, or Iron Age 
blood in his veins ; and we must realise that he is becoming an individual 
who could not be formed by any possible combination of these stocks 
without the aid of external influences. Heredity alone, therefore, will 
not account for the Englishman of the future. 


SECTION I—PHYSIOLOGY. 


THE DEVELOPMENT OF HUMAN 
PHYSIOLOGY. 


ADDRESS BY 
Cc. G. DOUGLAS, C.M.G., M.C., D.M., RRS. 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


In physiology our task is to study the nature of the phenomena which 
characterise normal life, as shown in the individual organism. At the 
outset it would perhaps seem presumption on our part to turn our attention 
to what we must admit to be the most complicated and highly developed 
organism, namely, man, before we have been able to elucidate at least 
the main features of the life-process of more lowly forms ; should we not 
do better to argue from the simple to the complex? Yet I suppose that 
man has always been curious about himself, his functions and existence, 
and nothing is likely in the future to lessen this curiosity. It is no matter 
for wonder, therefore, that the early history of physiology is bound up 
with the development of medicine, and that those whose daily life neces 
sarily brought them into continual association with health and disease, 
and with life and death, should be among the first to turn their attention 
to the investigation of the nature of living processes. 

It is not, however, of the early days of physiology that I propose to 
speak. The progress made in the biological and physical branches of 
natural science has been amazingly rapid in recent years, and I want to 
try to reach some estimate as to the value of human physiology in the 
development of modern physiological thought. 

In the last fifty years we have seen the wide extension of what I may 
term the analytical method of physiological investigation, the attempt to 
differentiate the various components in the complex system which we call 
life, and to study in detail each of these components in turn and to render 
clear the phenomena peculiar to each. The organism is in this method 
treated as a series of systems—we speak, for instance, of the nervous system, 
the circulatory, the respiratory and the excretory systems—which, though 
no doubt but parts of a whole, are yet capable of being treated within 
limits as independent. In pursuing this method we have a perfectly 
definite aim, for we are trying to establish elementary facts about the 
different parts of the body without some knowledge of which we feel, 
and feel rightly, that a general conception of the whole is impossible. No 
one can deny that we have acquired in this way a mass of information 
which is essential to the whole study of physiology, nor is there any reason 
to suppose that the future will witness any diminution either in number 
or importance of the contributions thus made to knowledge. 


156 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


The bulk of this information has been attained by the deliberate and 
careful investigation of animals by experimental methods, and as I am 
going to plead the cause of human physiology may I say at once, lest 
you should misconceive my purpose, that I do not believe that progress 
in physiology and in medical science to the lasting benefit of mankind is 
possible without employing such methods. But, while acknowledging 
the great debt which we already owe to these investigations, and my firm 
conviction that their further prosecution will be fully justified in the 
future, I have to face the question whether the method has not in reality 
some limitations. 

We are bound, I think, to admit frankly that direct observation by 
methods involving operative procedure on the anesthetized animal cannot 
by itself give us the full answer that we require. I have defined physiology 
as the study of the nature of the phenomena which characterize normal 
life, and normal life involves constantly varying activity of all the different 
organs of the body. Under the influence of an anesthetic our subject is 
no longer normal, and we have perforce deliberately to close our eyes to 
that fundamental aspect of life—ceaselessly varying natural activity. We 
are forced to adopt methods of investigation which are essentially highly 
artificial ; the stimuli which we employ are usually coarse, and the changes 
to which we subject the organs gross, compared with the delicate altera- 
tions to which these same organs respond in natural life. But even if we 
admit this, are we to condemn the method? Certainly not, in my opinion, 
provided always that we recognize that there is this risk of abnormality 
and artificiality, and honestly ask ourselves the question—what is the 
precise significance of our results in relation to normal life ? how far do our 
observations really help us to understand the phenomena associated with 
the natural existence of the organism ? We may be accumulating facts ; 
can we translate them ? 

If we are to understand life we must ultimately adopt methods of 
investigation which do not interfere with the normality of the organism 
or its power of self-maintenance ; and clearly, so long as we keep this aim 
before us, we are perfectly justified in making our observations on any 
animal the study of which we think will help to solve our problem. The 
conditions will be satisfied so long as our experimental treatment, whether 
that involves operative procedure or not, does not materially prejudice 
the delicate regulation of bodily functions which is so evident in the 
normal intact animal. Pavlov’s classical researches on the secretion of 
the digestive Juices were principally made on dogs which, though previously 
subjected to operation, were yet capable of exhibiting the normal functions 
and activities of life, and the requisite conditions were therefore just as 
effectively fulfilled as in, for example, the fundamental observations made 
by Rubner on nutrition and energy liberation when absolutely intact 
animals served as subjects. And yet, in spite of such examples, the point 
which I want to emphasize is that in the study of normal physiology man 
is In many instances a far more advantageous subject for investigation 
than are the lower animals. 

It may be urged that, so far as concerns the natural variations in 
activity of everyday life, we may study the lower animals just as profitably 
as man. But can we guarantee that any animal, even though highly 


I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 157 


trained, will provide the particular state of activity that we may require 
at the moment ? Man at least will conform with our requirements, and 
will maintain at request either rest or any degree or type of activity which 
we may desire. What is more, he, though himself the subject of investiga- 
tion, can help us to make our observations, and very often intelligent 
co-operation on the part of the subject may render easy experimental 
procedure which would otherwise be impossible. We gain, too, the 
advantage of learning the subjective impressions of the person on whom 
we are making our experiments. Everyone will admit the importance of 
these impressions when studying the physiology of the sense organs, but 
may they not be of value, too, in the investigation of other functions ¢ 
Indeed they may help us not infrequently to gauge the normality or 
abnormality of the conditions under which we are working. The point 
of view of the mere spectator is, after all, an impersonal one, and if it 
can be amplified and perhaps corrected by reference to the feelings of the 
subject so much the better. The investigation of life is too difficult a 
task to allow us lightly to discard any method which may help us, and 
if we confine our attention to the lower animals we do limit ourselves to 
objective experience and renounce the possibility of assistance from 
subjective impressions. 

Can my assertion that there is a definite advantage in doing experi- 
ments on man be justified by the information that has already been gained 
from investigations on the human subject ? Let me briefly discuss the 
position. 

We know, it is true, not a little about the respiratory exchange of 
animals, but we can fairly claim to know very much more about the oxygen 
consumption, CO, output and energy exchange of man. Data have been 
obtained on man whilst resting, walking, running, pedalling a bicycle, 
rowing, swimming, traversing the snow on ski or the ice on skates, per- 
forming military exercises, hewing coal at the pit face or pursuing other 
industrial occupations, and doing mental work—a fairly representative 
collection of man’s various activities in his daily life. 

Such information is not of mere academic interest ; it has not been 
obtained solely to satisfy our idle curiosity ; it is fundamental to physio- 
logy. We learn from it how greatly the oxygen requirements and the 
energy output vary with changes in occupation—we find that the energy 
output when walking at four miles an hour is five times as great as during 
rest, and that the trained athlete may for a number of minutes maintain 
an oxygen consumption not far short of twenty times the resting value— 
and we begin to realize quantitatively something about the latent possi- 
bilities in the respiration, circulation and other bodily functions which 
must be called upon to adapt themselves from moment to moment to 
meet such widely varying demands. Observations on the general 
metabolism and energy exchange in man have played, too, a conspicuous 
part in the development of our knowledge of the general principles of 
dietetics and of the science of nutrition both of the individual and of the 
nation. 

Research on the intact, or practically intact subject, naturally demands 
methods of investigation of very different character from those direct 
experimental methods which may be employed when full functional 


158 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


integrity is no longer preserved. The history of the development within 
recent years of our ideas about respiration has afforded a striking example 
of the application of such methods. Twenty-two years have elapsed 
since the publication of Haldane’s and Priestley’s classical paper on the 
regulation of the lung ventilation. Up to that time our knowledge about 
the breathing was surprisingly small : we accepted the fact of the apparent 
automaticity of the breathing, and recognised that the respiration adjusted 
itself suitably to changes in bodily activity, but we had no satisfactory 
explanation to offer ; isolated facts were known, but we could not combine 
them into an intelligible whole. Then suddenly light was thrown on the 
whole situation by a series of experimental observations on human subjects 
in full possession of their normal faculties and with their natural powers of 
response to changes in their immediate environment unimpaired. The 
reason for the activity of the respiratory centre in the brain was shown 
to be due in the main to the fact that it was sensitive to the actual concen- 
tration of CO, in the arterial blood which reached it. A trifling rise in 
this concentration above the value shown during quiet breathing at once 
caused hyperpneea, a trifling fall was at once followed by reduction, if 
not complete cessation of the breathing. As the determining factor was 
apparently the concentration of CO, in the arterial blood, a concentration 
set by the composition of the air in the depths of the lungs, it became 
evident that the activity of the respiratory centre was proportional to 
the mass of CO, produced in the body and carried to the lungs, and this 
in turn implied that the quantitative correlation of the ventilation of the 
lungs with the changes of metabolism in the body as a whole was ensured 
by chemical means. From this work, too, we gained our first real insight 
into the amazing delicacy of true chemical correlation within the organism. 

Since that date innumerable contributions have been made to the 
physiology of the breathing, and the bulk of these have been made with 
man as the subject of investigation. We recognize now that the respiratory 
centre is sensitive not to CO, as such but to changes in the hydrogen ion 
concentration of the blood, that lactic acid accumulation as well as increased 
CO, production must be taken into account when studying the hyperpneea 
caused by muscular exertion, and that reduction in the oxygen concentra- 
tion in the arterial blood and alteration in the temperature of the blood 
may play contributory parts. Yet in spite of this, the fundamental con- 
ception of accurate chemical or physico-chemical co-ordination of function 
remains unimpaired: so long as the respiratory centre is sensitive to 
chemical or physical changes which result from alterations in activity of 
the different organs, the quantity of air breathed must be co-ordinated 
with the varying metabolism of the body. 

And when once we have ascertained the quantitative alterations in the 
respiratory exchange which correspond with our varying activity during 
the course of the day, and have grasped the fact that the breathing is 
automatically adjusted in correspondence with the tissue metabolism, 
because the cells of the tissues are so intimately linked with the respiratory 
centre in the brain by the blood stream that the degree of activity of the 
respiratory centre is actually determined by the events in those organs 
whose metabolism happens to vary, we are led on logically to a further 
inquiry. For so delicate an adjustment of the breathing in conformity 


5 « 


I.—PHYSIOLOGY, 159 


with changes in the activity of the tissues would be valueless without an 
equally delicate co-ordination of the circulation, since on this depends 
the transport of gases between the tissues and the lungs; nor would this 
suffice unless the blood were of such a nature as to afford a suitable medium 
for the carriage of oxygen and CO,. 

So far as our knowledge of the properties of the blood itself is concerned 
we can point to a great deal of progress. Naturally enough, the blood of 
many different animals has been investigated, but it has been found that 
the dissociation or absorption curves, which eXpress the relationship 
between the amount of gas held in dissociable combination in the blood 
and the concentration of that gas to which the blood is exposed, differ in 
different species, and indeed in different individuals of the same species, 
and this fact makes it imperative that in physiological work the properties 
of the blood of the individual under consideration at the time should be 
investigated. Correct inferences as regards the properties of human blood 
from which we may deduce the exact part played by the blood in gas 
transport cannot therefore be drawn from studies of the blood of lower 
animals, and in consequence we find that more and more attention is being 
directed to the experimental investigation of the blood of man under 
widely varying conditions, both in health and in disease. 

I suppose that as much attention has been directed by physiologists to 
the circulatory system as to any other branch of physiology, and yet when 
we begin to question ourselves about the true functional regulation of the 
circulation our information still seems to be amazingly hazy and indefinite. 
Direct observations on the anesthetized animal with the assistance of 
recording instruments have established a number of perfectly definite 
facts. We have some notion of the mechanics of the circulatory system ; 
we have ascertained the general course and distribution of the vaso-motor 
nerves; we have found that not only the arteries but even the capillaries 
are capable of active contraction and dilatation; we have identified the 
powerful effect that may be exerted on the larger blood vessels and 
capillaries by the products of the ductless glands and by substances 
produced in the metabolism of the tissues. We have gone farther than this : 
we have by means of artificial methods of stimulation identified various 
vascular reflexes; we have found that the heart when isolated from the 
body can deal with an increase in the rate at which venous blood is supplied 
to it by altering its amplitude of beat without any variation in rate, though 
if its nervous connections are intact an acceleration of the venous return 
causes a reflex increase in the pulse rate, the antithesis of the reflex 
retardation caused by an undue rise of arterial blood pressure. 

But what does all this seemingly exact knowledge amount to? Are 
we not really only showing up the potentialities in the circulatory system ? 
It may be argued that we shall gradually build up the whole as our know- 
ledge of the component parts becomes more complete, but I retort—can 
you build up the whole without a preliminary notion of its characteristic 
qualities? Surely before we attempt an explanation we must know what 
it is that we are trying to explain. The circulation has to supply oxygen 


and foodstuffs to the tissues, it has to remove CO, and other waste products 


from them. Well, what are the claims made on the circulation in everyday 
life? We can answer that question in the case of man from our knowledge 


160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


of the changes in his metabolism under different circumstances. Here 
then are the demands: how does the circulation actually accomplish its 
task; what are the facts of the case ? 

Thirty years ago Zuntz and Hagemann succeeded in making observa- 
tions on the output of blood from the heart in a horse by a method which 
involved operative procedure, though this did not interfere with the 
animal's capacity for drawing a load, and these experiments afforded the 
first reasonably definite information as to the degree of alteration of the 
cardiac output caused by vigorous muscular work. More recently methods 
have been developed for determining the circulation rate in man, and 
with the help of these we are beginning to find out under different conditions 
of natural bodily activity the actual quantitative variations in the amount 
of blood expelled from the heart, the extent of the changes in gas content of 
the venous blood entering the lungs, and the relative parts played by the 
two factors of increase in pulse rate and alteration in the systolic 
discharge at each beat which we have already identified as the potential 
means by which the heart can respond to alteration in the demands 
made upon it. 

This is, however, only the beginning of our task. To ascertain the 
full facts of the regulation of the circulation and its adaptation to the 
varying needs of the body is a more difficult problem than the regulation 
of the breathing. We may know a little about the behaviour of the heart, 
but the heart is, after all, only the pump. We have still got to deal with 
the question of the distribution of the blood to different regions of the 
body. In spite of all the work that has been done in the’past, our ignorance 
on this side of the question is still profound, and the darkness will not be 
dispelled until we know much more about what happens in the normal 
animal. I am not going to assert that human physiology has succeeded 
in this case in giving us a solution where the method of direct experimenta- 
tion on lower animals has proved inadequate. It certainly has not as 
yet, but I do maintain that the knowledge that we have gained from a 
broad study of the whole respiratory function in man has at least empha- 
sized the nature of the problem that confronts us, and has given us some 
conception of the difficulties that we have to face. Suppose we expose 
and stimulate some nerve and find that this leads either directly or reflexly 
to contraction of the blood vessels in some region of the body. All we have 
done is to show up a route along which it is possible for vaso-constrictor 
impulses to travel. We must go much farther than this: we must ascer- 
tain whether such impulses do follow this route during normal life, and if 
so, when; what variation may be exhibited in the frequency or strength of 
the impulses and in the magnitude of the resultant effect; what is the 
natural stimulus which initiates these impulses and causes them to vary 
from time to time, and what this variation may mean to the tissues in the 
area supplied by the blood vessels in question. 

What we have in fact got to find out are the actual quantitative changes 
which occur under natural conditions in the general circulation, and then 
we must try to interpret these in the light not only of our knowledge of 
the potentialities of the circulatory system itself but in relation also to 
the varying activities and demands of the tissues. 

What matters to the tissues of the body is that each and all of them 


I— PHYSIOLOGY. 161 


should at all times be furnished with the right amount of blood to satisfy 
their needs, however much these needs may vary. The general circulation 
rate and the calibre of the blood vessels must be accurately adjusted lest 
in satisfying the needs of some organs others should be starved, and until 
we can express this adjustment in quantitative terms we cannot hope to 
assess correctly the relative importance to be attributed to physico- 
chemical, nervous or hormonal factors in ensuring the necessary co- 
ordination. We devote enough attention in all conscience to the measure- 
ment of blood pressure, and no doubt this has materially aided us to 
appreciate the cruder and more elementary phenomena associated with 
the circulation, but when we look at the question from the point of view 
of the tissues and are brought face to face with the true functional aspect 
of the circulation, blood pressure as such becomes a more or less irrelevant 
detail. The failure lies in the fact that we cannot construe our measurements 
into what is of true functional significance, namely, changes in the rate 
of blood flow. We cannot of course expect an adequate supply of blood 
without an adequate driving force or blood pressure, but the requisite 
force at any moment must depend on the precise setting of the calibre of 
the blood vessels, and in regard to this we must confess that we have 
still got a vast amount to learn. The adaptation and accommodation 
of the circulation to meet the requirements of the body is the real essential 
that we have to study, and it is not until we have gained an insight into 
the quantitative changes of the local and general circulation, and the 
factors on which these depend, in the normal and functionally intact 
animal, that we shall be able to claim to understand the circulation of 
the blood. 

We meet with exactly the same difficulties in the case of the other 
functions of the body when we try to translate potentialities into actuali- 
ties. Take the case of the kidney, for example. Controversy has raged 
for years as to whether the cells in the different regions of the kidney are 
to be regarded as playing an active or a passive réle in the formation of 
urine. Observations on the anesthetized animal or the isolated kidney 
are slowly solving some of the difficulties, but even when we have reached 
agreement on the vexed question as to the degree to which the properties 
of filtration, active re-absorption and specific secretion can be ascribed 
to the kidney epithelium we are only at the beginning of our troubles, 
for we have still to ascertain how these different potentialities may be 
brought into play to account for the normal behaviour of the kidney. 
Observations on man have already done much to show the surprising 
delicacy with which the kidney responds to alterations in the composition 
of the blood, and to throw suspicion on the justice of conclusions based on 
experimental alterations of so gross a character that they could have no 
counterpart in normal life. The kidney is not acting as a simple drain ; 
it is playing a perfectly definite part in helping to maintain the com- 
position of the blood normal, and experiments on human subjects have 
_ thrown into strong relief the interdependence of the kidney and other 
organs in maintaining this normality. 

The physiological regulation of the hydrogen ion concentration of the 
__ blood and tissues, a problem to which so much attention has been directed 

in recent years, affords an instance of the interaction of the organs in 
1927 M 


162 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


promoting the normal working of the body. We cannot restrict ourselves 
here to a consideration only of the physico-chemical properties of the blood 
and tissue fluids, for the initiation of any alteration in the hydrogen ion 
concentration of the blood will at once result in a. change in the activity 
of the respiratory, circulatory and excretory organs, the net effect of which 
will be to render the actual change of hydrogen ion concentration a great 
deal less than would otherwise be the case. Thus we see that the reactions 
provoked in response to changed conditions will tend to preserve the 
functional capacity of the body by limiting the changes in the immediate 
environment of the tissue cells. 

The experimental investigation of man has furnished the clearest 
evidence of co-ordination of organ activity of this type. The reaction 
to muscular work is a case in point, for the increased activity of the respira- 
tion and circulation, by hastening the elimination of CO, from the body, 
helps to keep within reasonable limits the rise of hydrogen ion concentra- 
tion in the blood caused by the passage of greatly increased amounts of 
CO,, and even lactic acid, from the active muscles into the blood stream, 
and at the same time maintains the oxygen supply. The limitation of 
the changes of hydrogen ion concentration in the blood, which is brought 
about by simultaneous changes in the activity of the respiratory centre 
and in the rate of excretion of acid and basic radicals by the kidney, has 
been demonstrated in man when acid or alkali is temporarily withdrawn 
from the body during the secretion of the digestive juices just as clearly 
as when an excess of acid or alkali gains admission to the body owing 
either to alteration of the diet or to the deliberate ingestion of alkalies, 
such as sodium bicarbonate, or substances, such as ammonium chloride, 
which lead to the liberation of acid within the body. There is evidence, 
too, from experiments on man that in the tissues themselves a still narrower 
limitation of changes of hydrogen ion concentration than in the arterial 
blood may be attained by local acceleration or retardation of the circula- 
tion. 

In the influence of training on a man’s capacity for strenuous muscular 
exertion, and in the process of acclimatization to the reduced oxygen 
pressure in the atmosphere at high altitudes—a process to which changes 
in the activity of the respiratory organs and kidneys and in the composition 
of the blood all contribute—we get further examples of the co-ordinated 
accommodation of organ activity to alteration in the conditions of life. 

The more we examine the normal behaviour of the body the more is 
it brought home to us that the maintenance of the natural life and integrity 
of the organism depends on the closest co-ordination of all its different 
parts ; all the organs are interdependent, and can have no real existence 
save as active components of a corporate whole. Life consists of a 
delicate balance of all the different functions, a balance that is being con- 
tinually adjusted so as to ensure the maintenance of the true functional 
capacity of the organism in its struggle for self-preservation in a constantly 
varying environment. As an agent in securing this exquisite co-ordina- 
tion a physico-chemical change in the blood stream may at one moment 
be prominent, at another moment a nervous reflex. Very frequently 
both factors co-operate, the physico-chemical change ensuring perhaps 
strict quantitative co-ordination of activity, the nervous reflex offering 


I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 163 


the advantage of speed and simultaneity of response in parts of the body 
remote from one another. The two factors are not antagonistic ; the one 
is not gradually supplanting the other, but each plays its part in its own 
peculiar sphere. 

When we recognize the exactness of the co-ordination of the different 
functions in normal life we cannot fail to appreciate the relative crudity 
of some of the experimental methods we are forced to use in physiology. 
Methods that interfere with the mutual interdependence of the different 
organs can only give us a partial insight into the problem of life, and if 
we use these methods we must correct the impression that we gain by 
comparison with the true normal. 

In attempting to put before you what appear to me the outstanding 
contributions which we owe to human physiology—the quantitative 
changes of organ activity associated with normal life, the close functional 
linkage of the different organs, and the power of adaptation to altered 
circumstances—I have, as is only natural, dwelt upon those branches of 
physiology with which I personally have been mainly brought in contact. 
But the study of human physiology is by no means limited to these fields, 
and we must not forget that we owe much to work undertaken primarily 
in the cause of clinical medicine, a debt which we can repay in part as we 
develop new methods by which we may investigate the physiology of man. 
Instances of spontaneous derangement of function in man have helped 
very considerably to elucidate the influence of the ductless glands, and 
modern methods of clinical examination have amplified our knowledge 
of the processes of digestion and the movements of the alimentary canal ; 
while the neurologist is widening the field in which we can find scope for 
the application of the fundamental principles of reflex action which, 
based originally on the experimental investigation and analysis of the 
properties of the lower nervous system, have already been extended by 
the physiologist to embrace some at least of the functions of the cerebral 
hemispheres in the intact animal. 

When we review the development of physiological thought in the last 
quarter of a century we cannot close our eyes to the fact that investiga- 
tions on man are becoming of increasing importance, and that the contri- 
bution made by human physiology does not involve mere matters of 
detail. There is something of far more importance than that, for the 
evidence of balanced interaction of the functions of the different organs 
with the preservation of the functional integrity of the whole, which is 
so convincingly brought home to us in experiments on the human subject, 
has made us appreciate that in physiology the organism as such, be it 
man or one of the lower animals, is our unit, and that, whatever methods 
we may employ in our investigations, we must keep that essential fact 
before us. In the problem of what is meant by life we have set ourselves 
the most complicated puzzle in existence. I firmly believe that human 
physiology, limited though our knowledge may as yet be, has already 
given us a vague glimpse of the final picture which we hope to complete, 
and has put us in a better position to fit together the individual fragments, 
the tiny components of the puzzle, which we have been accumulating in 
such profusion in years past. 

The truth is that we cannot confine ourselves exclusively to any one 


M 2 


164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


method in physiological investigation. Unless we deliberately study the 
normal organism in its entirety I do not see how we can gain any adequate 
conception about what is really implied by life, but once we have begun 
to gain that conception we can employ the methods of detailed analysis 
about which I have spoken earlier with hope of real success. There has 
been a tendency of late to differentiate the subject of bio-chemistry from 
physiology, but this distinction, though it may have the merit of 
administrative convenience, can have no real justification if the ultimate 
aim of the physiologist and bio-chemist is, as I suppose, the same, namely, 
the investigation of the nature of living processes. Physiology and bio- 
chemistry in fact merge into one another, and if we call to our aid the re- 
sources of chemistry and physics that need not imply that we are any the 
less physiologists, but we have to be on our guard that we do not by 
imperceptible degrees turn from the path of biology into that of pure 
chemistry and, in so doing, miss the goal that we set out to attain. If an 
example is needed of the application of chemical and physical methods of 
investigation to the normal living organism, I would point to the work that 
has been done on human physiology, for it seems to me that a just claim 
may be made that in that there is represented at least one aspect of true 
chemical physiology. 

I have now tried to show you something of the part that has already 
been played by human physiology in the study of the phenomena 
associated with life, and I want to turn to a different aspect with a view 
to urging a wider extension of the study of this branch of physiology. In 
our enthusiasm for research we are apt to overlook the fact that unless our 
teaching can keep pace with our research the general advance of learning 
must be seriously impeded. Age must give place to youth, and we must 
do our best to hand on to those who will succeed us the knowledge which 
we have inherited and to which we have added in our own generation, so 
that they may be able to go forward from the point where we are obliged 
to leave off. 

I cannot help feeling that our teaching of physiology would be more 
satisfactory if human physiology occupied a more prominent position. 
I am not thinking so much in this connection of advanced teaching, for 
the number of students who take advanced courses is relatively small and 
it is fairly easy to arrange suitable work for limited numbers. The great 
majority of students who take up the study of physiology do so as a 
preliminary to a medical career, and but few of them in the end pass on to 
advanced courses, and it is of the elementary teaching of physiology 
required as a preliminary to the study of clinical medicine, or an antecedent 
to more advanced honours courses, that I wish to speak. 

So far as the theoretical side of physiology is concerned, books enough 
and to spare are available; and if the student is dissatisfied with his text 
book or his teachers he can turn, unless he is appalled at the prospect, to 
the ever-increasing number of monographs, reviews and special volumes 
which offer to him information on almost every conceivable branch, 
however obscure, of physiology. It is, I think, the practical instruction 
in physiology with which we may legitimately find fault. We are, I 
suppose, in part tied by tradition, in part handicapped in our laboratories. 
by the accumulation of apparatus of bygone days, and it is easy to point 


I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 165 


to lack of funds as an excuse for continuing in the same path as those 
who preceded us. The fact remains that so far as elementary practical 
physiology, as distinct from bio-chemistry, is concerned, reliance is still 
largely placed upon an experimental treatment of some of the rudimentary 
phenomena exhibited by amphibian muscle and nerve. I do not deny 
that some of these experiments do afford information which is of value 
to the student, but I am also prepared to maintain that others are merely 
artificial, and but relics of the past that would be better omitted, and that 
they in no way represent the standpoint of the present day in this branch 
of physiology. But though experiments on muscle and nerve still figure 
largely in the physiological curriculum, it is noticeable that simple experi- 
ments illustrating the progress of more recent years are gradually being 
introduced, and that in some laboratories a far more serious attempt has 
been made to remodel the curriculum than in others, and to afford an 
opportunity for gaining acquaintance with some of the facts of human 
physiology. 

Such a change in outlook is very welcome. When dealing with a 
subject which is so rapidly progressive as physiology I feel that we are 
bound to reconsider our methods of teaching at intervals, if we are to 
render those whom we instruct reasonably conversant with the actual 
state of knowledge at the time; mere addition to the curriculum is of 
no use, what is needed is reconstruction. Do not think that I say this in 
any carping spirit. After all, some facts have become so firmly established 
in the past as to have become axiomatic, and we must be content to accept 
many of these without constant repetition of their proof if time is to be 
found to give the student some indication of the experimental develop- 
ments which have led to alteration and extension of our earlier conceptions. 
If practical courses of instruction are to play their full part and not to 
degenerate into simple exercises in skilful manipulation they must be 
brought into line with current physiological thought; they must, even 
though the experiments be simple, help to convince the student of the 
meaning and truth of what he reads. I am certain myself that a serious 
attempt to incorporate even in elementary courses experiments on human 
physiology will be amply justified. 

I confess frankly that in my own case if I want to understand the 
facts of physiology I have to think of what they might mean to me in 
my own person; I cannot think easily in terms of lower animals. | 
have got to translate the information before Ican use it. I do not believe 
that I am peculiar in this respect. Many a student would, I am sure, 
acquire a deeper and more real interest in physiology if his attention were 
directed to some of the essential facts of human physiology at an early 
stage in his instruction. Show him something of what really happens 
in himself in the natural course of his daily life, awaken his curiosity 
about the way in which these events are actually accomplished, and he 


‘will then more readily understand the significance of what he learns 


from other sources. As it is, he runs the risk of being overwhelmed by 
the literature of the subject that he is studying and of losing himself in 


‘details which he cannot place in the right perspective : he too often fails 
‘to see the wood for the trees. The quantitative interdependence of 


function in the body can be well illustrated by simple experiments in 


166 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


human physiology ; and a more convincing introduction to those quanti- 
tative conceptions which must form the basis of physiology, as of other 
branches of natural science, can be gained, I think, in this way than by, 
say, a few quantitative bio-chemical analyses which, essential though they 
may be in themselves, can hardly be more than exercises in method in 
the early days of a student’s career. 

These students are for the most part going to follow the profession of 
medicine, and in the short time available our aim must be to develop their 
powers of thought and initiative that they may be the better equipped to 
face the future when they go out into the world; and if they leave us with 
only the recollection of a medley of seemingly disconnected facts, it is 
quite intelligible that they may fail to grasp what physiology really means, 
and that a gulf, for which there can be no justification, will deepen between 
physiology and medicine. Physiology is not medicine: the physician 
sees a side of life which the physiologist does not meet in the cold aloofness 
of the laboratory. The art of medicine is not based merely on the applica- 
tion of skilled technique ; it demands in addition a full and sympathetic 
comprehension of human nature with all its hopes and fears, its frailty 
and courage. And yet the more the physiologist can find out about the 
characteristics of normal life the greater will be his service to medicine, 
for a knowledge of the normal cannot but help us to estimate with greater 
certainty the influence of the abnormal, and the underlying principles of 
adaptation of organ activity which we as physiologists recognize in the 
functional changes which exhibit themselves in everyday life, and in the 
reactions to alterations of environment, have their counterpart in medicine 
in the natural efforts at compensation fur the effects of injury or disease, 
a compensation which it must be the aim of the physician to encourage 
and assist. 

And there is another field in which scope may be found for human 
physiology. In the growing complexity of the modern world the improve- 
ment of the general standard of life is a matter which appeals to all of us. 
Physiologists have already played a prominent part in investigations into 
the means by which conditions may be improved and risk reduced in 
industrial processes, into the factors which affect the efficiency and welfare 
of the working classes, and into the influence of diet on health. Problems 
such as these, whose solution is of direct benefit to the community at 
large, call for the practical application of physiological principles. We 
ought not to regard applied physiology as something distinct, as something 
to be divorced from the more academic study of theoretical physiology ; 
it should be looked upon as the natural extension of our researches in the 
laboratory. These practical problems in their turn often suggest new lines 
of inquiry, new methods of approach, by which the science of physiology 
may be still further advanced. 

The horizon stretching before the physiologist is a wide one, and, no 
matter whether he intends to adopt an academic career in pure physiology 
or to follow the path which leads on to medicine or to hygiene in its broadest 


sense, | am convinced that a study of human physiology will introduce ~ 


him to some of the fundamental facts of life, and by giving him a guiding 
line of thought will help him to make his way through a maze of minutie 
and speculations in which he might otherwise get overwhelmed. 


—— 


SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


MENTAL UNITY 
AND MENTAL DISSOCIATION. 


ADDRESS BY 
WILLIAM BROWN, M.D., D.Sc., M.R.C.P., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Ir is important to realise that the problem of mental unity and dissociation 
is in direct relationship to the problem of unity and dissociation in the 
physical and physiological spheres. The point of view from which we 
should first approach it is that of biology. The general tendency 
throughout evolution seems to be towards the building up of totalities or 
wholes, in which each separate activity takes place in relation to the 
whole. The general conception is not that of a purely mechanistic 
scheme in which we begin with particles of matter and consider how they 
interact with one another to produce a more and more complex system, 
but one in which there is a guiding unity from the beginning. We may 
indeed, as metaphysicians, assume that there is a guiding unity of the 
entire universe. But short of such an ultimate generalisation we find 
that observation itself reveals this tendency towards a progressive 
development and multiplication of unities, in relation to which individual 
activities occur. 

In one sense, biology may be regarded as the most fundamental of 
the sciences, and even the simpler physical and chemical activities occur 
as parts of systems, which may be likened to organisms in having an 
environment to which their reactions are adjusted. This biological point 
of view needs for its completion the psychological point of view, which is 
not something distinct from the biological, but a continuation of it. 
Psychology is a completion of biology as a science, and gives further 
meaning to it. The unity of the organism becomes more intelligible 
when we think of it as a mental, and in part a conscious, unity. It isa 
unity in plurality. Physically, the organism is a unity of parts in spatial 
relation to one another; psychologically, it is a system of mental ten- 
dencies in relation to one another. What we find physically is a reaction 
to an environment in the form of reflex action, simple or conditioned. 
Psychologically, response to external stimulation is the satisfaction of 
conation, and, at higher levels, satisfaction of desire, &c. Biologically, 
it is the struggle for existence, with all that this involves. Psychologically, 
it is a conscious striving first of all for something that the individual 
does not know—towards a goal which he gradually realises, gradually 
learns to understand as he achieves it or fails to achieve it. However 
helpful the biological concepts of tropisms and conditioned reflexes may 
be as explanatory factors, the psychological point of view throws further 


168 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


light upon the situation. The ultimate factor that has to be considered 
is something that is purposive—a general striving—which factor has to 
be assumed in order that the theory of conditioned reflexes will work. 
Unity of mind, then, is something which develops. In its general 
form it is there from the beginning, but it only exists in relation to a 
multiplicity. There is a one-and-many relationship from the beginning. 
Moreover, the individual himself is, to some extent, an abstraction. He 
belongs to a species. He has a history, and his history is, in part, the 
history of the entire species. The history of the species is part of the 
history of organic evolution, and the history of organic evolution is part 
of the history of the Universe—if, indeed, we may think of the Universe 
itself as having a history. But within the individual experience there are 
partial activities that may struggle with one another just as individual 
members of a eerias may compete with one another, and in this nisus or 
striving towards more complete unity and greater complexity and more 
adequate adaptation to environment, the process of dissociation shows 
itself as essential and normal. Right from the beginning we must realise 
that dissociation is just as normal and necessary as association. The 
mind as it grows must be able to reject, and also must be able to segregate 
one activity from another. Different activities must be insulated from 
one another to a great extent within the organism, just as in an electrical 
machine there must be insulation of the wires. This insulation is what 
is meant by normal dissociation or disjunction. And from the patho- 
logical point of view there can be disturbance in both respects— 
disturbance of association and disturbance of dissociation. Experiences 
may become associated in such a way as to blur the clearness of vision 
of the individual as regards appearances and values, just as, more obviously, 
dissociation may go beyond its proper function and tend to destroy the 
unity or totality towards which normal striving is directed. 
The earlier associationist doctrine of psychology was unsatisfactory 
because, among other things, it failed to distinguish between the process 
of experiencing, or the act of experiencing, and the content or object of 
experience ; and its aim seems to have been to describe the mind as a sort 
of mosaic of contents of experience joined up to one another according to 
the laws of association by contiguity and similarity. But association is 
primarily between the acts of experience. These acts of experience are 
differentiations of the fundamental striving—that which Spinoza called 
the conatus in suo esse perseverare, ‘the striving to persist in one’s own 
being.’ This striving has an object. There is always an object—the 
environmental changes which the individual has to face—and_ corre- 
sponding with the complexity of the environment there is a complexity 
developing within this general striving, forming a complex system of 
conations. This conation involves the two other well-known aspects of 
cognition or awareness, and of feeling-tone. Associationist psychology 
erred in failing to allow due weight to the conative side, and in attempting 
to range the different kinds of feeling on a level with the different kinds 
of objective experience. But even according to the associationist scheme, 
dissociation or disjunction was necessary for a complete explanation of 
normal mental activity. Side by side with the principles of association 
by contiguity and similarity, there was the principle of dissociation by 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 169 


varying concomitance. Only by such a principle could the important 
processes of discrimination, comparison and abstraction be brought within 
the circle of associationist doctrine. The general scheme of explanation 
was wrong, in that it dealt with contents of experience when it should 
have been dealing with acts of experience; and the general scheme of 
mental activity which we put in the place of this associationist scheme is 
that of systems of mental tendencies included within, and in subordination 
to, a wider system—tendencies towards knowledge and action, and 
involving feeling. One such system of explanation is that in terms of 
instinctive-emotional dispositions organised within sentiments, with the 
sentiments in their turn subordinated to one all-inclusive sentiment or 
master-interest. A sentiment is an organisation of emotional dis- 
positions centred about the idea of some object. What are organised 
are not the presentations or representations, not the contents of experience 
primarily, but the processes or acts of experience. The tendencies of 
experience, and the activity and organisation of these tendencies, bring 
with them an organisation of the objects; and so our memories, which are 
retained and which are used for the retention of past experiences, fall into 
systems because the acts of experience corresponding to those memories 
fall into systems. And from that point of view we see that the dis- 
sociations of memory—the gaps in the memory continuum, known as 
amnesias—find their true significance in the segregation of corresponding 
acts of experience. 

The question then arises, if we reject the associationist scheme accord- 
ing to which the mind is built up of presentations and representations 
cohering together in systems, are we to regard the unity of the mind as an 
aggregation of mental activities and tendencies ? Are we to put in place 
of our mosaic of mental contents a collection or a colony of mental 
tendencies ? The reply is ‘ No,’ because we do not have these mental 
tendencies separate from one another—just coming together and cohering, 
just as we do not have the mental contents coming together and cohering. 
Both subjectively and objectively, we must assume at the beginning a 
generalised striving and mental tendency, with a generalised objective— 

eg. ‘the great big buzzing confusion’ of which William James speaks as 
the world of the new-born babe—a continuum of sensation and movement 
on one side, and a continuum of mental striving on the other. The 
general mental striving which we assume at the beginning becomes 
gradually differentiated in relation to the needs of the organism, and the 
demands made upon the organism by its environment—a differentiation 
superimposed upon the differentiations accumulating in the history of the 
race, and handed on from generation to generation in the form of instinctive 
endowment and inherited aptitudes. The individual inherits not only 
separate instincts, but also the tendency towards an organisation of those 
instincts. He inherits the beginnings of sentiments, as well as instincts. 
He is already a one-and-many unity, with his mind a plurality of part- 
tendencies and processes, and his task in life is to carry that organisation 
to a higher stage. The demands made upon him by his environment 
bring with them movements in two directions—in the direction of greater 
unity and greater organisation, and also of greater complexity—a greater 
_ degree of differentiation and discrimination. Discrimination is necessary 


170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


because he has not only to accept, but also to neglect or reject, and this 
neglecting or rejecting involves dissociation, just as acceptance involves 
association. 

As regards dissociation in pathological cases, the writers of the last 
generation thought of this in terms of associationist psychology, and in 
the doctrine of Prof. Pierre Janet one finds that standpoint still apparent. 
In his description of cases of hysteria and multiple personality, he implies 
a general background of explanation, according to which personality may 
be regarded as a synthesis of mental presentations some of which can be 
split off from the main mass. This view is similar to the colonial view of 
personality which we find in the writings of Ribot. But if we remind 
ourselves of the fact that experience involves an act of experiencing, we 
see that the situation is rather different. The power of recall is an 
essential aspect of conscious memory. On the other hand, unconscious 
memories are unconscious or latent mental activities directed towards 
past events. They are not passive, but involve a certain amount of 
mental energy. And so we pass from Pierre Janet’s theory to the theory 
of Prof. Sigmund Freud, and we find that the dissociation which is taken 
as a fact in Janet’s theory is explained in Freud’s theory in terms of 
mental conflict and repression. These memories become inaccessible to 
the individual because the mental tendencies corresponding to them are 
in conflict with other tendencies of the individual and incompatible with 
his more fundamental interests. So they are extruded by an active 
process of repression—they are barred from consciousness. 

That process of repression and extrusion, though pathological in these 
cases, need not be necessarily so. We must not look upon extrusion itself 
as essentially pathological. It is because we have restricted the word 
dissociation so much to the pathological side that we find it so incom- 
prehensible to us. It is because we have thought too much in terms of 
mental unity that cases of multiple personality seem to be inexplicable. 
Actually the most normal mind is a multiplicity. We are all many selves. 
We have to face the world from many different angles. We have many 
different interests. Interests in the most normal mind may conflict and 
be incompatible with one another. And it is a condition of mental 
health that such conflict can be resolved by elimination or by a higher 
synthesis. What makes the dissociation of multiple personality 
pathological is that the elimination is not complete—that dissociation in 
normal mental activity is a successful rejection, and that dissociation in a 
pathological case is unsuccessful—is an incomplete and therefore an 
unsuccessful rejection. A tendency that is pathologically repressed is, as 
it were, rejected and accepted at the same time—rejected by clear con- 
sciousness, but still clung to by the mind. 

It is misleading to look upon the problem of mental dissociation and 
multiple personality as something standing by itself, as if we understood 
mental unity and were perplexed by the appearance of multiplicity. 
Multiplicity is an aspect of the normal mind, just as much as unity is, and 
unity needs explaining just as much as multiplicity does. Those two 
problems must be solved together, and kept in relation to one another 
all through. 

Many of the classical cases of multiple personality are fully explained 


ee ! 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 171 


along these lines. They are cases of alternating personality with 
reciprocal amnesia, as it is called, in which each personality is unable to 
recall the experiences of the other. The two individuals A and B alternate 
with one another. A has his own system of memories and, when he 
disappears and makes way for B, B has his system of memories distinct 
from the memories of A. We may explain this in terms of two general 
systems of interests which are mutually incompatible and in conflict 
with one another. As a rule, one part of the personality is more 
fundamental, ¢.e. more stable, than the other. But difficulty arises in 
cases where one personality is shut up within its own memories and 
experiences, while the other personality has access to those memories 
as well as to its own. A may have his system of memories but be quite 
ignorant of B, except from indirect evidence, whereas B not only has a 
special set of memories, but also has direct knowledge.of A’s memories, 
thoughts and feelings. This is a difficult problem which needs to be 
faced. We find an analogous, though not identical, situation in most 
cases of deep hypnosis. When a patient passes into the hypnotic state, 
he may remain fully aware of his waking consciousness, and may have free 
access to the memories of his waking self. But on awaking he does not, 
as a rule, remember his hypnotic experiences. The relation is a one- 
sided one. The hypnotic personality is acquainted with the waking 
personality, and all its memories, but the waking personality is not 
acquainted with the hypnotic personality. The range of the hypnotic 
personality is wider than the range of the waking personality. This 
similarity between one-sided multiple personality and the hypnotic 
personality is significant, when we remember that such cases have been 
investigated by the hypnotic method. Pierre Janet, Morton Prince and 
others used the hypnotic method in studying cases of multiple personality, 
and the criticism has been made against them that in doing so they were 
manufacturing personalities—that the personalities were artifacts pro- 
duced by the method. Everyone recognises that these investigators are 
psychologists of exceptional ability and circumspection and honesty of 
purpose, thoroughly trained and alive to the possibilities and difficulties 
of their method. We cannot dismiss their observations as false observa- 
tions, or as misunderstandings on their part. But we must nevertheless 
allow for the influence of the process of hypnosis in the result, and as 
contrasted with that earlier period of investigation—the hypnotic period in 
psycho-pathology—we find that, now that hypnosis is seldom used and 
has been replaced by deep analysis, cases of multiple personality are not 
on record. The psycho-analysts to-day seem to have no such cases to 
report. Moreover, if we contrast the very large number of cases of 
severe nervous disturbance caused by the late war with the absence of 
eases of multiple personality there, we may become still more impressed 
by the argument that it was the persistent use of the hypnotic method 
that was mainly responsible for the complexity of most of the earlier 
cases reported.t 


1 Cases of extensive amnesia, fugues, &c., were numerous during the war; but 
the first aim of the army doctors in the battle areas was to remove these ammesias and 
reassociate the patients as quickly as possible, so that the latter might be either 
returned to the line or sent down to the base with the minimum of delay. 


172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


The movement of thought is always towards system and unity. 
Thought abhors hard-and-fast distinctions. Thought is baffled by cases 
of multiple personality because they are so different from the ordinary 
cases of everyday life. If we can build a bridge between one group of 
cases and the other, then we may feel that we are likely to have not only 
a more satisfying but a true explanation of the situation. 

We must therefore approach the question of dissociation from the 
normal side—as manifested in a relatively normal mind. .No mind is 
completely normal, since no mind completely solves its problems from 
day to day, and it is the failure to solve mental problems which is one 
of the general causes of the symptoms of psycho-neurosis and mental 
disease. Dissociation and multiple personality are not to be contrasted 
with association and mental unity. Pathological dissociation should be 
contrasted with the dissociationist processes of the normal mind. It 
should be regarded as a failure of the normal process of dissociation. 

The unity of the normal mind, although it is there from the beginning, 
is a striving towards a more and more complete association ; it constitutes 
an urge to a greater and greater degree of completeness of systematisation 
and inclusiveness, but it is never really complete. In the most normal 
mind there is a falling away from complete unity. There is in the activity 
of this unitary mind not only a normal process of disjunction or dis- 
sociation, but also a certain degree of abnormal dissociation. In cases of 
multiple personality this abnormal dissociation has become so pronounced 
as to be apparent to the whole world. The process of deep analysis 
or psycho-analysis fails to reveal cases of thorough-going multiplicity, 
and the reason is that the process itself is a process of unification. As the 
individual is being analysed, the failures of adaptation in his past life are 
cleared up, so that his mind is enabled to work more and more normally. 
Analysis is not a good term for this process. It is more than analysis, it 
is a process of self-revelation or autognosis. The individual learns to know 
himself better, and in the process of analysis there is actual development 
of the mind going on. There is a development in the direction of the 
normal and the unitary. Any dissociation that is encouraged by the 
method is a normal dissociation, not an abnormal dissociation. It is 
only another expression of the same truth when we say that repressions 
are overcome in the process of analysis, because repressions are patho- 
logical dissociations—dissociations that are not complete and not 
thorough going. 

In contrast with this process of autognosis, the process of iinbee 
investigation carries with it a tendency to abnormal dissociation. A 
person who is easily hypnotised is a person who is already, to some extent, 
dissociated ; in hypnotising him we take a wedge, as it were, and drive 
it into his mind and split him up still more. No wonder the results give 
us an appearance of dissociation ; but it would be very dangerous for us 
to take these results at their face value and draw inferences from them 
as to the structure of the normal mind, or even of the mind of the person 
we have been experimenting with. This general line of criticism seems 
valid as against such a theory as that of Prof. W. McDougall in the last 
chapter of his ‘ Outline of Abnormal Psychology,’ in which he works 
out a theory of the Self as a system of monads which form a hierarchy, 
in which there is one dominant monad, the conscious self, and a whole 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 173 


number of subsidiary monads that are, in a normal mind, adequately 
subordinated to the chief monad and are in relation to the chief monad 


_ through telepathy?; but in a case of multiple personality one of these 


subsidiary monads may break loose and become insubordinate. This is 
an ingenious theory, and it may be true, but in the present state of our 
knowledge it would seem to be a case of explaining obsewrwm per obscurius. 
Telepathy may be a fact, but it is something about whose conditions we 
know next to nothing, and therefore not very suitable to take as a funda- 
mental factor in an explanation of the working of the mind. 

The mind can act at different levels on different occasions and under 
different circumstances. In many of the classical cases of multiple 
personality, the subsidiary personalities represent a regression to more 
juvenile forms of behaviour and of ethical valuation. This is clearly 
apparent in ‘Sally Beauchamp’ of the Miss Beauchamp case, and in the 
‘B’ personality of the ‘B.C.A.’ case (Morton Prince). Such mani- 
festations are not accurately described as ‘“split-off’ personalities. 
Indeed, any spatial metaphor is inappropriate. In other cases the 
tendency to dramatisation, natural to the human mind, may play an 
important part. Mutually incompatible ideas of character may be 
simultaneously or alternately aimed at, and identifications in early life, 
based on love and admiration for relatives, &c., may introduce incompati- 
bilities which reveal themselves under circumstances of stress in later 
years as the grounds of pathological dissociation. 

As regards the problem of the removal of pathological mental dis- 
sociation in hysterical patients, much was learnt from the wide range of 
cases dealt with during the war. While treating shell-shock cases in 
the field in France, I found that a large proportion of the cases showed a 
more or less extensive amnesia for events that had occurred immediately 
after the shell explosion. These patients were easily hypnotised, and 
under light hypnosis the lost memories could be immediately restored. 
But I soon discovered that if I recalled at the same time the terrifying 
emotion that had originally belonged to these experiences, there was a 
tendency for the accompanying hysterical symptoms—deafness, mutism, 
tremors, paralysis, contractures, &c.—to disappear spontaneously, without 
the necessity of giving explicit suggestions to this end. The more com- 
plete I made the working-off of the emotion, or the ‘ ab-reaction,’ to use 
Breuer’s original term, the more complete was the recovery. In cases 
seen by me previously in England, I had also restored lost memories by 
light hypnosis, but had not produced intense emotional revival and had 
not seen collateral symptoms disappear. But again, towards the end of 
the war, I was seeing more chronic cases in Scotland, and then found that. 
amnesias of longer standing could be cleared up with accompanying 
ab-reaction of the emotion of fear; and that with the ab-reaction there 
was observable that tendency for the collateral symptoms to disappear 
at the same time, such as I had observed so frequently in France. 

These are observed facts, and I endeavoured to show in a paper in 
the British Medical Jownal some years ago’ that they could be explained 
in terms of a theory of reassociation. The amnesic patients fresh from 


2 Unlike the monads of Leibniz, which ‘ have no windows,’ and are in a relation 
of pre-established harmony. 
5 «Hypnotism, Suggestion, and Dissociation,’ British Medical Journal, June 14,1919. 


174 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


the trenches showed a two-fold dissociation, namely (1) a dissociation of 
the memory of events immediately following upon the shell explosion 
from memories of earlier and later parts of the patient’s life; and (2) a 
dissociation of these memories, as mere intellectual awareness, from the 
accompanying emotional reaction of fear—tremors, sweating, mutism, 
paralysis, &c—which are of a physiological nature. The physical 
reaction of fear, thus dissociated from its psychical counterpart, had 
become relatively permanent instead of being transitory. The patient 
no longer felt the emotion of fear—at least, of just that fear which the shell 
explosion had aroused—but did show its physical manifestations in the 
form of hysterical symptoms. By re-arousing the whole of the lost 
experience in all its emotional vividness I overcame both dissociations. 
The physical manifestations became linked up with their psychical 
counterpart, and this in its turn was linked up with earlier and later 
memories of the patient’s life. In this way the mind was completely 
resynthesised, and the physical symptoms came once more under the 
sway of the entire mind (the complete personality) and could disappear. 

In addition to ab-reaction, I advocate the thorough thinking out of 
the whole psychological situation by the patient, so that he may be 
brought eventually to understand himself adequately. This is the 
process of autognosis, or self-knowledge. The patient is encouraged to 
obtain as objective a view of his entire mental condition as is possible. 

C. G. Jung* has explained the beneficial effects of ab-reaction in terms 
of ‘transference.’ By transference is meant the emotional rapport 
(conscious and unconscious) which springs up between patient and 
physician, and which enables the patient to live again, in the course of an 
analysis, through earlier experiences of his life in relation to the physician, 
and thus become freed from their harmful effects. The following case 
illustrates how ab-reaction can bring benefit without the factor of trans- 
ference coming in. It is a case of a man of considerable education, who 
had for some years suffered from obsessive fear, the origin of which he 
could not fathom. He would wake up in the morning with this fear 
weighing upon his mind. After reading about the method of ab-reaction, 
as used in treating shell-shock patients, he thought that he would try to 
cure himself by a similar method. He endeavoured to recall earlier and 
earlier memories of his past life, using the method of concentration—to 
all intents and purposes producing a light degree of self-hypnosis. At 
length he seemed to get this memory: it was half a memory, half a 
waking vision. He seemed to be in a sort of native compound in India. 
He experienced intense heat, such heat as he never remembered 
experiencing in his life before, and seemed to see a black kid lying on 
the ground with its throat cut and blood pouring out of the wound. He 
felt intense terror as he went through this experience. This terror grew 
and grew ‘like a bubble.’ It got bigger and bigger and at last burst, 
and all at once the fear began to subside again and eventually disappeared, 
and he remained free of it afterwards. So far as one could make out—he 
came and told me of it afterwards; I had not treated him at the time— 
he had cured himself of the fear by bringing up this memory. He could 


4 He writes: ‘It must, above all, be emphasised that it is not merely the rehearsal 
of experience that possesses an unconditional curative effect, but the rehearsal of 
experience in the presence of the physician.’ —Brit. Journ. Med. Psych., vol. ii, 1921. 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 175 


not be certain that the memory was a real memory, but thought that it 
probably was, because he had lived in India up to the age of two, when he 
left for England and had not returned since. It was thus probable that 
it was a real experience ; if not-so in all its details, the central kernel o1 
the experience was probably real, and its recall was effective in curing 
him. It will be noticed that he did not ab-react this experience in 
relation to another person. He was not in a doctor’s consulting-room, 
telling the doctor what he could remember. He was by himself. He had 
not even gone to a doctor beforehand, so that it could not be described 
as a transference towards the doctor in the latter’s absence. He had 
not applied to any doctor for treatment at that time. He came on to me 
afterwards, simply to talk the matter out still further, and to learn 
whether he had been working on the right lines, and how he should proceed 
in order to ensure that the fearsome experience should not return. An 
example like this is a refutation of the view that the only beneficial effect 
of ab-reaction is the transference. Transference is indeed often the chief 
factor of cure, and in many ab-reaction cases transference is an additional 
factor. But an example like this shows that ab-reaction by itself has 
therapeutic value, in contradiction to Jung’s view.” 

Ab-reaction of repressed emotion sweeps away the repression, and so 
frees energy which had been previously needed to hold the repressed 
memories apart from the rest of the mind and away from clear conscious- 
ness. This freed energy is thus put once more at the general disposal of 
the personality. The previous ‘fixation’ of this repressing energy and 
its deviation from the common fund of energy of the personality probably 
explains, to some extent, the feeling of fatigue that generally accompanies 
a psycho-neurosis. 

The unitary personality, as an organisation of mental activities and 
mental powers, is not static but dynamic, and is in process of development 
throughout life. Although it carries with it, as a physical correlate, a 
unitary working of the brain and of other parts of the body, this does 
not necessarily involve complete dependence upon the latter for its con- 
tinued existence. The question of personal survival of bodily death is 
one which can be intelligibly and scientifically put, and which is in theory 
answerable along the lines of scientific observation and inference. The 
investigations carried out by the Society for Psychical Research during 
the past fifty years are of this nature, and the Society’s results and 
provisional hypotheses can rightly claim a place in modern psychological 
science. Nevertheless, if due allowance is made for the possible working 
of such factors as conscious or sub-conscious fraud, telepathy between 
the living, and chance coincidence, the scientific evidence for personal 
survival of bodily death is not very strong. 

For more convincing reasons (apart from the pronouncements of revealed 
religion) in support of this belief we still have to turn to philosophy, and 
in modern philosophical theories of value we find arguments that are far 
from negligible.® 

Nore: At the meeting, this paper will be supplemented by descriptions 
of cases illustrating mental dissociation. 

°I record this case in Talks on Psychotherapy, University of London Press, Ltd., 
1923, pp. 39-41. 


®I have set out arguments from theory of value in my Mind and Personality, 
University of London Press, Ltd., 1926, pp. 309-318. 


SECTION K.—BOTANY. 


SOME ASPECTS OF THE PRESENT-DAY 
INVESTIGATION OF PROTOPHYTA. 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. F. E. FRITSCH, D.Sc., P.D., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Stvce the last meeting of the British Association two well-known figures 
have disappeared from the ranks of British botanists. Reginald William 
Phillips, after nearly forty years’ service in the furtherance of Welsh 
University education during which he found little time for original in- 
vestigation, used the years after his retirement to prosecute vigorously the 
work on marine Algae that had attracted him at the outset of his scientific 
career. That these promising researches were cut short, so soon after 
they were begun, is a source of very great regret to his many friends. 
Moreover, of workers on British marine Algae there are but all too few, 
and a reduction in their number represents a serious loss to science. 

The sudden death of Abercrombie Anstruther Lawson, as a com- 
paratively young man, is a heavy blow to British botany. His exceedingly 
careful work on the gametophytes and embryos of Gymnosperms will 
always remain as a model of what such researches should be. Lawson 


had enjoyed the rather exceptional experience of filling academic posts, 


in three distinct quarters of the world, namely, in the Leland-Stanford 
University, California, in the University of Glasgow, and in the University 
of Sydney. At the last he occupied the Chair of Botany from 1912 till 
the time of his death, and we know enough of his many activities there 
to extend our sympathy to our colleagues in Australia at the loss they 
have sustained by his premature demise. 

We have also to deplore the death of two well-known botanical artists 
—John Nugent Fitch, who worked so long for the Botanical Magazine, 
and Miss Matilda Smith, for may years artist at the Royal Botanic 


Gardens, Kew. . 
* * * * 


In practically confining my address to the Algae, and more particularly 
to the freshwater groups, I need make no apology, for not only have I been 
a student of these forms for some twenty-five years, but it appears that 
the simpler Algae have never before been made the subject of an address 
to this section. My predecessor in 1925, Prof. Lloyd Williams, it is true 
dealt with the many points of interest presented by the Phaeophyceae, 
but my remarks will refer in the main to forms with a much simpler con- 
struction than these. Whatever view we may ultimately take as to the 
relation of the present-day freshwater Algae to the rest of the Vegetable 


ee ee a 


K.—BOTANY. 177 


Kingdom, and I shall have something to say on that point anon, they 
represent the most elementary types of holophytic plant-life to which 
we are likely to have access. The probability that such forms will ever 
be found preserved in the fossil state in sufficient numbers and showing 
the necessary details of cell-structure to be of any value for comparative 
morphological study or for the elucidation of the mode of origin of the 
multicellular plant, appears at the best to be remote. A study of fresh- 
water Algae is, therefore, one of fundamental importance, not only because 
they illustrate various stages in the elaboration of a plant-body and 
afford some rough picture of the early beginnings of plant-life, but because 
itis in such unspecialised types that many important physiological problems 
have found and will find solution. From this point of view the absence 
of adequate facilities in this country for the direct investigation of these 
forms on the spot is much to be regretted. 

The relation of the different types of construction, that can be dis- 
tinguished among the lower Protophyta, to one another and to the more 
elaborate parenchymatous soma usual in land-plants must always remain 
in part a matter of conjecture. There are, however, certain definite 
facts which emerge from a comparative study of the simpler holophytic 
organisms and that have an important bearing on these problems. It is 
with these that I shall more particularly deal in the first place. 


Parallel Evolution among Protophyta. 


It is now nearly thirty years since the doctrine of the flagellate origin 
of the Algae became firmly established by the discovery in Sweden of 
Chloramoeba and Chlorosaccus. These two simple forms agreed with a 
number of others, already previously distinguished as Confervales by 
Borzi* and Bohlin?, in a series of sharply defined characteristics, namely, 
the possession of yellow-green, commonly discoid chloroplasts containing 
an excess of xanthophyll and devoid of pyrenoids, the storage of the 
products of photosynthesis in the form of oil, and the possession of a 
motor apparatus consisting of two very unequal cilia attached at the front 
end. These and other minor characteristics served to separate out from 
the extensive group of the Chlorophyceae a small set of Algae which 
became known by Luther’s name, Heterokontae.3 The large remainder 
of the Chlorophyceae were renamed Isokontae, a designation based 
upon the fact that here the motile stages bear equal cilia (commonly 2 or 4) 
arising from the anterior end. In the Isokontae the chloroplasts are 
often large and few in number and are commonly provided with pyre- 
noids ; they contain the same four pigments as do those of the higher 
plants and, so far as we know, in roughly the same proportions. Most 
Isokontae, moreover, store their photosynthetic products in the form 
of starch. 

Subsequent to this Blackman and Tansley in 19024 performed a 
valuable service in issuing a revised classification of the Green Algae in 
which the two classes, Isokontae and Heterokontae, were clearly distin- 


1 Stud. algol. Palermo, II, 1895, p. 99. 

* Bih. K. Sv. Vet.-Akad. Handl. xxiii, Afd. 3, No. 3, 1897. 
% Ibid. xxiv, Afd. 3, No. 13, p. 17, 1899. 

4 New Phytol. i, 1902, p. 17 et seq. 


1927 N 


178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


guished, and the same course was adopted by G. 8S. West in the ‘ British 
Freshwater Algae’ published in 1904 and by most other contemporary 
authors. Many of these followed Bohlin in regarding the Oedogoniales 
as a separate class, the Stephanokontae, while the designation 
Akontae adopted for the Conjugatae by Blackman and Tansley implied, 
though not quite definitely maintained, a distinct origin also for this 
group. This practice has been followed by many subsequent writers, 
although abandoned by Oltmanns in the most recent edition of his great 
work. He, however, in common with many other authorities, never- 
theless segregates the Conjugatae from the remainder of the Green Algae. 
There can be no doubt that any separation of these two groups from the 
bulk of the Isokontae obscures affinities and cannot reasonably be defended, 
although it is true that both Oedogoniales and Conjugatae have developed 
along very specialised lines. 

It is well to realise that the characteristics separating the Green and 
Yellow-green Algae, like those distinguishing the other great classes of 
pigmented Protophyta to be mentioned later, are essentially physiological, 
depending on the colouring matters present in the plastids and the types 
of metabolism associated with them, as indicated by the nature of the 
substances stored during photosynthesis. That these diverse classes are 
also in general characterised by other features, such as the number and 
arrangement of the cilia in the motile stages, the chemical nature and 
structure of the cellular envelopes, and sometimes by special peculiarities 
of the reproductive cells indicates that the physiological distinctions 
are fundamental and that they go hand in hand with other characters. 
In separating the Oedogoniales and Conjugatae from the Isokontae we 
are, however, carrying out a tour de force, since in the pigmentation 
of their chloroplasts, in the possession of pyrenoids with a ‘ starch-sheath,’ 
in the storage of starch, and in the chemical nature of their cell-walls 
these two groups are altogether Isokontan. Nor do they stand more 
isolated from the bulk of the Isokontae than do many other recognised 
members of this class, such as the Coleochaetaceae and Vaucheriaceae. 
As regards the fringe of cilia of the Oedogoniaceous swarmer, which is 
supposed to have been a feature of the flagellate ancestry of the Stephano- 
kontae, cilial numbers other than the usual 2 or 4 are not unknown among 
the motile Volvocales, a matter to which I shall return later. One pecu- 
larity of the Conjugatae, viz. the absence of all motile stages, is in no 
way confined to them, being found for instance in a large number of 
Chlorococcales,®> whilst it is not impossible, as Blackman and Tansley 
first pointed out,® to relate the conjugation-process to the sexual fusion 
found in some species of Chlamydomonas (e.g. C. monadina) in which the 
gametes are provided with cell-walls. I think there can be no doubt that 
Isokontae, Stephanokontae, and Akontae all constitute members of the 
same phylum, however much they may have diverged from one another, 
and any attempt to separate them must obscure the essence of the present- 
day concept of the main lines of algal evolution. 

It has been suggested to me by various of my colleagues that, having 
rejected Stephanokontae and Akontae as separate classes, I should abandon 


> Protococcales of other authorities. § Loc. cit. p. 168. 


K.—BOTANY. 179 


the name Isokontae and revert to the old designation Chlorophyceae 
for the Green Algae. Under this name, however, there were also originally 
included the Heterokontae and its use might thus prove misleading. In 
the following I shall therefore continue to use the designation Isokontae 
for all true Green Algae. 

Already at the end of the last century practically every conceivable 
type of simple plant-body was known in the Green Algae, ranging 
from the motile or motionless unicell, through manifold colonial 
forms, to a more or less highly elaborated filament. This extremely 
varied somatic development corresponds to a remarkable range 
of habitat and goes hand in hand with a great diversity in reproductive 
processes. There is in fact no other group of simple organisms showing 
such a wide scope in all these respects. By contrast the Heterokontae, 
when first distinguished, included only relatively few forms. By 
degrees, however, many additional members have been discovered, and 
in the course of this century it has become increasingly apparent that 
there exists a far-going parallelism between these two classes, Isokontae 
and Heterokontae, which are so sharply segregated by their metabolism 
and other features that the vast majority of algal workers have regarded 
them as quite separate evolutionary lines, in no way related to one another. 

Thus, in each class we have a series of motile unicells, Chlamydomonas 
and its many allies in the Isokontae, Chloramoeba and Heterochloris’ in 
the Heterokontae, while the palmelloid type, with large numbers of cells 
embedded in a mass of mucilage, is represented respectively by the Tetra- 
sporales and Chlorosaccus, &c. (Heterocapsales). The motionless, often 
spherical, unicell—we may speak of it as the chlorococcoid (or protococcoid) 
type of plant-body—is well represented in both classes, and in part the 
relevant forms are so similar that, prior to the clear recognition of the 
Heterokontae, they were classed in the same genus. Thus, many species 
of Characiopsis were first included in the Isokontan genus Characium, 
while the type-species of Chlorobotrys was first described as a Chlorococcum.® 
The unbranched and the branched filamentous habits are met with in 
both classes, while the coenocytic Botrydium is now clearly established 
as a siphoneous variant of the Heterokontan type analogous to Protosiphon 
among the Isokontae.? On detailed scrutiny it is not difficult to find 
other points of parallel; thus, in both classes there are colonial forms 
with an analogous dendroid construction (Chlorodendron, Mischococcus), 
while in each the chlorococcoid type is represented by two series of forms, 
the one reproducing by zoospores and the other (azoosporic) in which 
motility is completely suppressed. We are indebted to Pascher’® for first 
drawing attention to this striking degree of parallel. 

The Heterokontae do not, however, exhibit anything approaching 
the multiplicity of forms that are seen among the Isokontae, in particular 
they do not appear to have evolved in the direction of the motile colony 
which is so well developed in some of the other classes. Also the fila- 
mentous members are few, and the siphoneous type is as yet only known 


? Stisswasserflora, xi, 1925, p. 23. 

8 Bih. K. Sv. Vet.-Akad. Handl. xxvii, 1901, Afd. 3, No. 4, p. 34. 
® Kolkwitz, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. xliv, 1926, p. 539. 

10 Hedwigia, liii, 1913, p. 6. 


N2 


180 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


to be represented by Botrydium. The less vigorous development of the 
Heterokontae, which is thus manifest, accords with the fact that only 
a few of the more specialised members of the class exhibit sexual repro- 
duction and that this has not passed beyond the phase of isogamy. The 
oogamous Vaucheriaceae, at one time referred by some to the Hetero- 
kontae, are now by practically common consent regarded as outlying 
members of the Siphonales among the Green Algae. 

The few ciliated members of Heterokontae, that are at present known, 
without exception show ‘ flagellate’ characteristics ; that is to say, they 
are devoid of a cell-wall, their plasma-membrane (periplast) is more or 
less rigid but usually admits of some change of shape, multiplication 
is effected by longitudinal division, the protoplast readily encysts, and 
sexual reproduction is not known to occur. Some of the palmelloid 
members (e.g. Chlorosaccus), possibly all, also show these features. The 
many motile and palmelloid types among the Isokontae are, on the other 
hand, for the most part on a higher plane of organisation and reproduction, 
being true Algae provided with a firm cell-wall and usually exhibiting 
sexuality. When, however, the parallelism between the two classes is 
recognised, the distinction between flagellate and algal organisation loses. 
force, and it is realised that the assumption of ‘algal’ characteristics 
has taken place at an earlier stage in the evolution of the one and at a 
later stage in that of the other. 

These conclusions, however, do not apply only to Isokontae and Hetero- 
kontae. Itis now clear that, in all the classes of pigmented Protophyta, 
an analogous evolutionary sequence has been followed, but that the 
features associated with what may be called ‘ algal organisation’ have 
appeared, if at all, at different points in the sequence in the diverse classes. 
It is no longer feasible to separate the Algae from the holophytic 
Flagellata as distinct groups of Protophyta. There is reason to believe 
that every series of holophytic Flagellates could potentially have 
acquired algal characteristics, although on the present evidence some 
have failed to do so. 

These points are well illustrated by a consideration of Pascher’s Chry- 
sophyceae which, until relatively recent times, were only known to include 
a wealth of flagellate types, the Chrysomonadales, whose members on 
the whole favour pure waters and seem to attain a maximum development 
in the cold streams and pools of mountainous tracts. They are not, however, 
without their marine representatives (Coccolithophoridae) and also appear 
to play a conspicuous part in certain kinds of salt-marsh.14 

The Chrysomonadales are distinguished by a golden-yellow pigmen- 
tation of their plastids due to the presence of various accessory pigments, 
and by storage of the photosynthetic products in the form of oil and of 
usually rounded lumps of a highly refractive substance known as leucosin, 
the chemical composition of which is unknown ; endogenously formed 
silicified cysts with a very distinctive structure “ are also peculiar to this 
class. The chromatophores are parietal, relatively large, and generally 
only one or two in number. In the numerous motile individuals the 
cilia are always borne at the front end, but three distinct series can be 


11 Conrad, Archiv f. Protistenk. lvi, 1926, p. 167. 
12 Scherffel, Archiv f. Protistenk. xxii, 1911, p. 334. 


K.—BOTANY. 181 


traced throughout the class, one with a single cilium (Chromulinales), 
another with two equal cilia (Hymenomonadales), and a third with two 
unequal cilia (Ochromonadales). Each series is represented by motile 
unicells (e.g. Chromulina, Ochromonas), by motile colonial types (Synura, 
Uroglena, &c.) parallel with the Volvocales among Isokontae, and by an 
extensive development of sedentary epiphytic forms peculiar to the class 
and provided with a wide offistanding envelope. The palmelloid type is 
also well represented, reaching an exceptionally high differentiation in 
Hydrurus, while the dendroid colony is here realised by the planktonic 
Dinobryon. All of these forms are Flagellates, but within the last dozen 
years quite a considerable number of algal members of this class have 
been discovered on the continent, and it is clear that the Chrysomonadales 
too have progressed in the same direction as Isokontae and Heterokontae, 
but that here the bulk of the forms have remained flagellate and the 
minority have become algal. 

The latter are represented in the first place by chlorococcoid types 
like Chrysosphaera,’® whose spherical cells contain two parietal yellowish- 
brown chromatophores, harbour masses of leucosin, and are invested 
by a firm cell-wall; they reproduce by division of the protoplast with 
the formation of two new individuals and by means of zoospores closely 
resembling a Chromulina. There are also a considerable number of 
filamentous forms, such as the unbranched Nematochrysis‘* and the 
branched Thallochrysis,° reproducing by zoospores resembling an Ochro- 
monas and Chromulina respectively. Here also, according to the most 
recent investigations,1® we must refer Lagerheim’s Phaeothamnion, whose 
systematic position was long doubtful. In Hansgirg’s Phaeodermatium,? 
not uncommon attached to stones in cold streams of Central Europe, we 
have a discoid type parallel with similar forms in other classes. It is 
not improbable that each of the three series of motile forms previously 
mentioned has progressed towards the filamentous stage, although at 
present only representatives of two of them are known. That the balance 
in the Chrysophyceae is overweighted on the side of the presumably 
more primitive flagellate types coincides with the fact that sexuality 
has as yet been very rarely recorded in members of this class, and is only 
known to be isogamous. The Chrysophyceae exhibit other special 
developments in the direction of the Rhizopoda, which are of great 
interest, but lack of time renders their consideration impossible. Of the 
great diversity of Chrysophyceae, now known from many parts of the 
continent, only relatively few have so far been observed in this country, 
and there is a wide field for research in this respect. 

The Chrysophyceae show that in an otherwise rather homogeneous 
class the type of ciliation may be somewhat variable. Some species of 
Ochromonas are very similar to species of Chromulina except for this one 
feature, and the Chromulinales may well have originated from forms of 
the Ochromonas-type by suppression of the second shorter cilium. Only 


18 Pascher, Archiv f. Protistenk. lii, 1925, p. 533. 

14 Pascher, loc. cit. p. 511. 

© Conrad, Bull. Sci. Acad. Roy. Belgique, 1920, p. 180. 
16 Pascher, loc. cit. p. 498. 

17 Pascher, loc. cit. p. 517. 


182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


one cilium has so far been recognised in quite a number of the Hetero- 
kontae, and here too a suppression of the second is possible. 

Variation in number of cilia is also a feature in the Isokontae, where 
the dikontan and tetrakontan types are traceable throughout the class, 
and quite recently a uniciliate member (Chloroceras) has been described 
by Schiller“; this form is particularly interesting because occasional 
rare individuals show two cilia. Among the Polyblepharidaceae organisms 
are known with up to eight cilia which presumably result from multipli- 
cation. ‘These facts demonstrate the risk of basing a separate class, 
Stephanokontae, on the occurrence in the Oedogoniales of swarmers with 
numerous cilia. Moreover, they show that, although cilial characters 
are of undoubted value in the distinction of the main classes of Algae, 
the point must not be stretched too far and must be supported by other 
features. 

The parallel development, evident in Isokontae, Heterokontae, and 
Chrysophyceae, is recognisable, though not quite so markedly, also in 
other classes of Protophyta. One further striking instance may be men- 
tioned. The Peridinieae (Dinoflagellata) are a very distinct and rather 
specialised class of motile forms, abundant in freshwater and marine 
plankton, though on the whole more strongly represented in the sea. 
Their most striking characteristic lies in the division of the body of the 
cell into two usually slightly unequal, apical and antapical, halves by 
a transverse furrow harbouring one cilium, while the other trails out 
behind into the water. There are usually numerous discoid chromato- 
phores which are commonly dark yellow or brown; .a number of special 
pigments (peridinin, chlorophyllin, &c.) have been extracted from them. 
The reserves are stored as starch and oil. The nucleus is usually large 
and conspicuous, and shows either a granular structure or contains 
numerous fine threads. 

It was in 1912 that Klebs” described a number of forms that were 
clearly algal and chlorococcoid members of this class. His Hypnodinium 
shows the derivation clearly; it consists of large motionless spherical 
cells provided with a firm membrane and possessed of the chromato- 
phores and nuclei characteristic of the class. When reproduction takes 
place, the protoplast contracts somewhat and develops the distinctive 
furrows, but this is followed by division without resort to a motile phase. 
The two daughter-cells show no traces of furrows until a fresh division 
is initiated. In Phytodiniwm no such furrow-formation is observed and 
with it the last indication of the motile phase has disappeared. It is of 
interest that, among these chlorococcoid Peridinieae, Klebs distinguished 
one tetrahedral form (Tetradinium) recalling in outward shape the 
genus Tetraédron among the Isokontae and Pseudotetraédron among the 
Heterokontae. In 1914 Pascher?® briefly described a slightly branched 
filamentous Alga, Dinothrix, which is stated to have the discoid yellow- 
brown chromatophores and the large nucleus of the Peridinieae and to 
reproduce by swarmers resembling a Gymnodinium, one of the simplest 
of the motile types. Unfortunately no further description or figure of 


18 Osterr. Bot. Zeitschr. lxxvi, 1927, p. 1. 
19 Verhandl. Nat.-Med. Ver. Heidelberg, xi, 1912, p. 369. 
20 Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. xxxii, 1914, p. 160. 


Ven erat ee ee 


ny 


K.—BOTANY. 188 


this form has so far been forthcoming. There is no doubt, however, 
that in the Peridinieae there have again been diverse ‘ algal develop- 
ments,’ although the main differentiation of the class centres around 
the motile unicell. 

As an antithesis to classes like the Chrysophyceae and Dinophyceae 
(as Pascher has styled the whole series of Peridiniean forms) we have 
the Myxophyceae (Cyanophyceae), where motile types are altogether 
unknown and all the forms exhibit an algal organisation, progressing 
from the unicellular through the colonial to filamentous types. Even 
in this very sharply circumscribed class a considerable degree of parallel 
with those previously considered can be recognised. Other distinct 
classes of Protophyta exhibiting holophytic nutrition, but of more re- 
stricted range and generally showing special development in one direction 
or another, are the Bacillariales (Diatoms), the Cryptophyceae (including 
the flagellate Cryptomonadineae and a few little known algal 
types), the Chloromonadineae, and the Kugleninee. A detailed con- 
sideration of these is unnecessary, but in all of them one or other organism 
can be recognised as parallel with types in the classes that have been 
previously discussed, although none has evolved the branched filamentous 
habit so far as at present known. As instances of parallelism one may 
cite the occurrence of the dendroid colony in the Diatom Gomphonema and 
in Colacitwm among Euglenineae. In the latter class, too, we have the 
widespread genus T'rachelomonas in which the motile cell is surrounded 
by a special rigid envelope separated from the cell proper by a space. 
This encapsuled type is paralleled in the Isokontae by Coccomonas and 
in the Chrysophyceae by Chrysococcus. 

To sum up it seems clear that in all the nine classes mentioned evolution 
has progressed along similar lines and in many cases has led to the pro- 
duction of analogous forms of plant-body. Thus, the motile unicellular 
individual, the motile colony, the palmelloid type, the dendroid colony, 
the chlorococcoid type, the simple and the branched filament, thesiphoneous 
type, and others are all to be found in two or more of these classes. In 
five of them, moreover, the stage of the branched filament has been reached. 

While occasional indications of relationship are to be found (e.g. between 
Heterokontae, Chrysophyceae, and Bacillariales)," they are not very 
marked, and it is probable that all the nine classes represent as many 
evolutionary series of uncertain origin. We have in them practically 
all that is left to us of the early evolution of the holophytic organism. 
Tt can scarcely be doubted that there were other phyla which have become 
extinct, nor is it likely that future research will fail to disclose further series 
than those at present distinguished. 


The Relation of the Protophyta to the Higher Plants. 


Tt has been suggested in certain quarters” that the simple freshwater 
Algae are reduced from forms which had a more elaborate parenchymatous 
soma, being in fact ‘starvation-forms’ resulting from a paucity of 
nutritive salts, It should be stated in the first place that, although 


*1 Pascher, Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. xxxix, 1921, p. 236. 
#2 Church, Oxford Bot. Memoirs, No. 3, 1919, pp. 8, 46. 


184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


reduction-series can be recognised in some groups of the Algae, there is no 
evidence at all to indicate that freshwater Algae as a whole have undergone 
reduction. It must be remembered too that a large number of similar 
unspecialised forms are found in the sea. Moreover, with the facts of 
parallel development before one the supposition of a general reduction 
becomes practically untenable. We have no knowledge of any forms 
from which the filamentous Heterokontae or Chrysophyceae, for instance, 
could be derived by reduction, for the relationship between Chrysophyceae 
and Brown Seaweeds formerly entertained is probably fallacious and now 
no longer credited by most authorities. Until some real evidence can be 
adduced that reduction has occurred, it appears more logical to regard 
the filamentous forms in the different classes as the end-points of an 
upgrade development. Further facts that lend support to such an inter- 
pretation are the wide distribution of the simpler, less specialised, members 
of each class (very noticeable in the case of many groups of the Isokontae), 
while the more highly specialised forms are commonly of more restricted 
distribution. Within the Isokontae too anisogamy or oogamy are asso- 
ciated with the advanced forms and are mainly a feature of the specialised 
filamentous types, a fact which supports the idea of a progression, rather 
than of a retrogression. In other classes also sexuality is usually found 
only in those forms which have the more elaborate organisation. 

Among the numerous septate filamentous Isokontae, it is possible 
to distinguish four separate series, of which the Oedogoniales and Con- 
jugatae have already been recognised as specialised along directions of 
their own. Of the other two, the Ulotrichales are the simpler and the 
Chaetophorales the more complex, both possibly originating from a common 
stock. Many authorities, in fact, fail to distinguish these two groups, 
but the organisation of the Chaetophorales is so distinct from that of the 
Ulotrichales that, from the standpoint of comparative morphology, 
their separation is desirable. Whereas in the Ulotrichales we have a 
simple or branched filament attached by a more or less elaborate basal 
cell, the central types among Chaetophorales are distinguished by the 
possession of a plant-body showing differentiation into a prostrate system 
of creeping threads serving inter alia for attachment to the substratum 
and a projecting system which is more or less richly branched. This 
differentiation is seen for instance in many species of Stigeoclonium, 
Coleochaete, and Trentepohlia, representing three distinct families and 
three distinct developmental lines within this group. Among its numerous 
members there is much variation in the relative differentiation of the 
creeping and projecting systems, and reduction of the latter has led to a 
whole series of specialised prostrate or discoid types (Aphanochaete, 
Protoderma, &¢.). It is to be noted, too, that the Chaetophorales exhibit 
a greater morphological diversity and a capacity for existence under 
more varied circumstances than any other group of Isokontae, and in the 
Trentepohliaceae include one of the most vigorous and highly differentiated 
families of terrestrial Algae. 

The type of construction just considered is not encountered in any of 
the other nine classes of Protophyta previously mentioned, although 
hinted at in the Chrysophyceae and some Myxophyceae. An analogous 
differentiation of the filamentous thallus into a creeping and a projecting 


K.—BOTANY. 185 


system is, however, characteristic of many Ectocarpales (e.g. Hctocarpus) 
and Nemalionales (e.g. Chantransia), which include the simplest known 
members of the Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae respectively. In fact 
it appears that this kind of plant-body represents a definite stage in the 
evolution of various classes of Protophyta, affording another instance of 
parallelism. But, whereas in the Isokontae it represents the most 
advanced type of which we have any knowledge, in the two great marine 
groups it is seen in the simplest of the present-day forms, since no unicellular 
or palmelloid members of these classes are certainly known to exist. A 
consideration of the metabolism and reproductive features of the two 
groups of Seaweeds, however, clearly supports an origin for each of them 
distinct from that of any of the classes previously mentioned. 

It will be familiar that, of all the holophytic Protophyta, the two classes 
Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae, which are almost confined to the sea, 
have alone attained to a high degree of morphological and anatomical 
specialisation, often affording in one feature or another marked instances 
of parallel with those groups of the Vegetable Kingdom which are now 
dominant on the land. We owe to Church” a clear statement of these 
points of parallel and a suggestion that many, if not all, the fundamental 
features of higher land-plants were already realised in a marine environ- 
ment before a terrestrial flora was evolved. The totally differing meta- 
bolism obviously renders impossible, however, any direct derivation of 
the land-flora from forms belonging to either class of marine Algae. 

It will be generally agreed that we must seek the origin of terrestrial 
plants in organisms possessing the same plastid-pigments and the same 
essential metabolism as they do. The only representatives of such 
forms among Protophyta at the present day are afforded by the numerous 
Green Algae, the Isokontae. These, however, as has previously been pointed 
out, stop short at a level of morphological differentiation of the thallus, 
at which the two marine groups commence. Roughly speaking, too, 
the stature of the most highly differentiated Isokontae is approximately 
equivalent to that of the simpler Brown and Red Algae. Yet, in 
sexual differentiation and specialisation of the reproductive machinery, 
there is little to choose between these three classes, although the Red 
Algae have in part developed post-fertilisation complexities peculiar to 
themselves. 

We are thus confronted with the situation that in the Isokontae we 
have a class of great morphological diversity in which almost every con- 
ceivable type of simple plant-body has been realised and is still existent 
at the present day, but which stops short at a massive parenchymatous 
construction and forms of large stature. In the Brown and Red Algae, on 
the other hand, where no simple forms of plant-body are certainly known, 


plants of large size and possessed of a highly developed parenchymatous 
_ soma are abundantly represented. It appears improbable that a class like 
_ the Isokontae, showing such extreme capacity for morphological elaboration 


in every direction and for adaptation to very diverse habitats, should have 
failed to develop furtherin the direction generally indicated by Phaeophyceae 
and Rhodophyceae. Moreover, it must be remembered that they possess 


33 Op. cit. 


186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


the photosynthetic equipment which has evidently proved to be the 
only successful one on the land, and that practically every group and 
family of Isokontae has its terrestrial representatives. 

What then, it may be asked, has become of the more highly elaborated 
members of this class? It seems to me that there is every reason to 
suppose that, approximately at the level of morphological differentiation 
and stature reached by the Isokontae of the present day, the terrestrial 
habit was adopted in the remote past, that the more highly elaborated 
Green Alga became a land-plant, the early forms of which are perhaps 
yet to be disclosed by palaeontological research. The facts of relative 
development of the three large algal classes just considered appear to 
indicate that the first land-plants were probably forms of small stature, 
although not necessarily quite as simple as the most advanced Isokontae 
known to us at the present day. In this connection it is not without 
significance that the oogamous members of this class for the most part 
occupy a peculiarly isolated position, appearing as outliers well in advance 
of the rest, although for none of them is there to my thinking any possible 
connection with the higher land-plants. On the little available evidence 
it seems possible that oogamy may have been undeveloped or in an incipient 
stage in the first land-plants. 

If one recognises among Phaeophyceae and Rhodophyceae many features 
of anatomy, life-history, &c., that recall the characteristics of land-plants, 
I can see in that only a confirmation of the belief that environment has 
little to do with the broad evolution of the plant-organism and that 
these features are a natural outcome of the evolutionary trend in the 
Vegetable Kingdom and not any positive evidence for the view that they 
must necessarily have originated in a marine environment. The com- 
parative study of the simpler forms of plant-body in the different classes 
of Protophyta lends great support to such a concept of a general evolu- 
tionary trend. Before we adopt the idea of a mythical group of Thalas- 
siophyta as ancestral to the land-flora, the blind termination of the Iso- 
kontae must be accounted for. A more intensive investigation of the 
Chaetophorales, and in particular of the terrestrial Trentepohliacae, than 
has hitherto been undertaken may well afford data bearing upon the 
relation of the Isokontz to higher plants. 

It is scarcely possible to touch on the problem of the origin of the 
latter without some reference to that striking universal phenomenon in 
the life-history of the land-plant, the two alternating generations. It 
is just in this respect that the Isokontae are too incompletely known to 
afford any good points of contact. We know now, thanks to Dr. Knight’s 
researches on Pylaiella, that an homologous alternation exists in this 
simple filamentous Brown Alga, and it is possible that analogous. cases 
are yet to be discovered in the Chaetophorales among Isokontae. In this 
connection attention may be drawn to certain observations made by 
Meyer™ on Y'rentepohlia umbrina which appear to indicate a segregation 
of sporangia and gametangia on distinct individuals, and other like cases 
are suspected. These merit a fuller investigation. As a matter of fact, 
except in a few special instances, the cytological features of the life-cycles 


“4 Bot. Zeit. xvii, 1909, Abt. 1, p. 26. 


a ee 


¢ 
7 


ee 


K.—BOTANY. 187 


of the filamentous Green Algz are practically unknown, and a reinvestiga- 


tion of Coleochaete (and especially of other species than C. scutata) from 


this point of view is advisable. Lambert in 1910 reaffirmed” the presence 
in the life-cycle of Coleochaete of a succession of small plants that are 
purely asexual, a feature already emphasised by Pringsheim.” 

Klebs’ classical investigations” on the conditions of reproduction in 
various Algae have generally been regarded as disposing of the possibility 
of any alternation between asexual and sexual filaments such as Pringsheim 
postulated, but on closer consideration they afford no absolute proof of 
its non-existence. In the usual dense tangle of filaments asexual and 
sexual individuals may easily be intermingled, either remaining purely 
vegetative until conditions suitable for the formation of reproductive cells 
are realised. But there are more important considerations than these. 
With reference to Ulothrix zonata Klebs™ especially remarks that it always 
depended on chance whether he was able to get threads to form gametes 
or not.” He also records how at one and the same time threads from one 
habitat readily formed gametes, while those from another failed to do so. 
And Ulothrix is the only member of Ulotrichales and Chaetophorales in 
which Klebs deals at all fully with the sexual reproductive process. 
Yet from this one case conclusions have been drawn for the whole 

oup ! 

" There is, so far as I can see, little positive evidence that asexual and 
sexual reproduction takes place at all frequently in one and the same 
filament of these forms, although there is no reasou why sexual individuals 
should not reproduce themselves asexually after the manner of Pylaiella. 
An important matter for investigation is: are there in these filamentous 
Green Algae threads that can only reproduce asexually and that by no 
manner of means can be brought to sexual reproduction? This may be 
more readily established than possible cytological differences, which call 
for a highly skilled investigator owing to the small size of the nuclei in 
most of these forms. The fact thatin so many Ulotrichales and Chaetophorales 
the zoospores have four, and the gametes two cilia, is perhaps significant 
from this point of view. 

Even if, however, further investigation should altogether support the 
present view that there is no alternation between asexual and sexual 
filaments in the Green Algae, the example afforded by Pylazella serves to 
show how easily alternation can arise in lowly filamentous types, and in 
the case of terrestrial plants it may have originated after, rather than 
before, the adoption of the land-habit. I have elsewhere” indicated 
how the dual development of the plant-body in types like the Chaetophorales 
might readily, in the course of further evolution, afford an upright sporo- 
phyte and a prostrate gametophyte. I have nothing to add to this and 
I do not propose to pursue the topic further. 


% Tufts Coll. Stud., Scient. Ser. iii, 1910, p. 61. 

% Gesammelte Abhandl. i, 1895, p. 305 (Jahrb. wiss. Bot. ii, 1858). 
27 Beding. d. Fortpflanzung, Jena, 1896. 

8 Op. cit., p. 314. 

2% ef. also Dodel, Jahrb. wiss. Bot. x, 1876, p. 589. 

20 New Phytol. xv, 1916, p. 233. 


188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


The Investigation of Freshwater Algae. 


The many new freshwater Algae that have become known in the present 
century and that have contributed so largely to the foundation of the 
concept of a parallel evolution in the different classes, show how much a 
study of these forms may still be hoped to reveal. And at present the 
field of research is restricted to quite a small area of the surface of the 
globe. Over great parts of the earth the investigation of these forms is 
only just commencing, and enormous tracts are still altogether unexplored 
from this point of view, so that it is impossible to say what is yet to come 
to light. Already in many families of Isokontae it would seem that almost 
every conceivable variant of the central type has been evolved, and there 
can be little doubt that the parallelism with which I have dealt in the 
earlier part of this address will become still more striking, as investigation 
proceeds and some of the present gaps become filled up. I propose there- 
fore to devote the little remaining time to a few words upon the methods 
of algal investigation. 

The position of England as the centre of a huge empire is responsible for 
the fact that its few algal workers are inundated with demands for the 
working out of collections made in its dominions and colonies. G.S. West 
and his father devoted much time to such work which is very laborious, 
and I have myself fallen a victim to it. It cannot, however, be suffi- 
ciently emphasised that Algae are far better examined in the fresh condition, 
for however well preserved, in these simple forms where details of cell- 
structure are all important, much is obscured or becomes unintelligible. 
It is greatly to be desired that competent botanists should take up fresh- 
water algal investigation in different parts of the empire, and the activities 
of a number of Indian workers in this direction is a matter for congratula- 
tion. The necessary literature is now available in a fairly condensed 
form, and willing assistance will always be furnished by those in this 
country. : 

Moreover, an Alga cannot be said to be properly known until it has 
been studied at frequent intervals and, if widely distributed, examined 
in its diverse habitats. In this respect almost everything still remains 
to be done, even in our own parts of the world. Our cognisance of algal 
genera and species is still very limited, because they have been mainly 
studied on the basis of casual collections. True, in many cases (as for 
example in Oedogoniales and Conjugatae) there are such decided repro- 
ductive or vegetative characteristics that species can be broadly distin- 
guished without a full knowledge of their complete range; types with 
the same essential characteristics at least recur frequently in different 
habitats and in different parts of the world. But there are many groups 
and genera, where no such decided characteristics exist, or where possibly 
they still remain to be discovered, and where every algal worker has 
again and again experienced the difficulty of a satisfactory determination ; 
this is true, for example, of the majority of the Ulotrichales and Chaeto- 
phorales, not to speak of the many difficult genera of Chlorococcales and 
Myxophyceae. In all such cases we shall never arrive at a satisfactory 
solution of the problem until a careful study has been made of the range 
of variation of at least the commoner forms, not only in the course of 


Ri ali. 


K.—BOTANYs 189 


their annual cycle but in different habitats. The former is in a sense 
more important than the latter, since habitat-forms may be expected to 
represent distinct entities that in their respective environments will often 
maintain constant differences. Brand’s study of the Cladophoras ** has, 
however, shown how much an algal species can vary in the different seasons 
of the year, and analogous studies of species of genera like Ulothria, Stigeo- 
clonium, Trentepohlia, &c., are urgently required. They will not only 
lead to some solution of the ‘species’ difficulty, but may as already 
indicated afford valuable data in connection with possible points of con- 
tact with higher plants. Moreover, they are readily compassed during 
periodicity studies, such as have already afforded much information as 
to the conditions determining appearance, abundance, and reproduction 
of diverse Algae. m 

An attempt has been made in various quarters to find a solution of the 
species problem in the method of ‘pure culture.’ It is well, however, 
to realise the limitations of the method, and it may be doubted whether, 
except from the standpoint of physiology, the large amount of labour 
that has been expended on such work has been justified. Two mono- 
graphs of the genus Scenedesmus based on pure cultures have appeared 
in recent years, but the authors do not agree in any way as regards the limits 
of the species. It cannot be denied that, as a supplement to frequent 
direct observation, pure cultures may be of considerable value and that 
under certain circumstances (e.g. in the study of subterranean soil-Algae 
or of endophytes) they are essential. The conditions are, however, 
for the majority of Algae so artificial and of necessity in certain respects 
so uniform as compared with those in nature, that the results obtained 
require to be interpreted with great caution. 

Indoor conditions, especially in laboratories, are already as a general 
rule sufficiently harmful to freshwater Algae, and the occurrence of various 
bizarre forms in agar-agar or gelatine cultures, while of some interest 
from the point of view of comparative morphology, cannot be regarded 
as proving that such forms belong to the normal cycle in nature of the 
Alga in question. Conversely because, in a pure culture, a given Alga 
varies only between very narrow limits, that is no proof that these repre- 
sent the full range of its morphological variation, but merely that under 
the peculiar circumstances of a pure culture it exhibits this * habitat-form.’ 
No systematist would be satisfied with a knowledge of a higher plant 
derived only from specimens grown in a botanic garden, where conditions 
are by no means as artificial as they often are in an algal culture. 

I have offered these comments on the study of Algae in pure cultures, 
" not with any wish to deny the utility of the method in certain directions, 
but in order to make clear that it can in no way replace direct observation 
of the Alga in nature. Here alone we have the natural form, subjected 
to the normal seasonal changes and other meteorological influences, 
holding its own in competition with the other living members of its en- 
vironment, and exposed to the influence of the frequent changes in the 
organic and inorganic content of the water. It is a mistake to suppose 
that careful periodic observations cannot in most cases lead to the desired 
goal. The work will be laborious, but the labour will be repaid by the 


31 Bot. Centralbl. xxix, 1899, p. 145. 


190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


results. Immersion of glass slides or cover-glasses in the water will often 
afford valuable comparative data on the early stages of development. 

Since a large number of botanists are professionally occupied in 
towns, such direct observation of Algaeis a matter of some difficulty and 
in some cases of impossibility. Under these circumstances work with 
algal cultures is easiest, and this has no doubt been a factor in its rather 
widespread adoption. It is a matter of regret that practically no facilities 
exist in this country for the direct study of freshwater Algae and of the 
many limnological problems that are linked up with it. There are no 
freshwater biological stations, so far as I am aware, apart from the 
Experimental Station at Alresford, Hants, of the Ministry of Agni- 
culture and Fisheries. Nor have there been many researches in this 
country dealing with the biology and ecology of freshwater Algae, although 
thanks to the Wests and to Dr. Pearsall some very valuable work has been 
done on the waters of the Lake District ; Dr. Griffiths, too, despite the 
difficulties, has made considerable progress with the study of the fresh- 
water phytoplankton of the lowlands. 

It is specially to be deplored that there is no biological station with a 
permanent staff on the Norfolk Broads, where many problems of general 
interest could be attacked, and which would be within fairly easy reach 
of many of our universities. The benefits likely to accrue from the 
pursuit of investigations at such a station would by no means be confined 
to the pure aspects of our science, since the study of freshwater Algae 
is fundamental for the understanding of the general biological features 
of a piece of water and is intimately related to its productivity in animal 
life, including the diverse kinds of freshwater fish. Much profitable 
and important research in this direction emanates from Sweden, Germany, 
and other European countries, nearly all of which possess several well- 
equipped and well-staffed freshwater stations, but to this we, as a 
country with a large area of freshwaters, contribute practically nothing. 


eS Se 


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SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 


THE BROADENING OF THE OUTLOOK 
IN EDUCATION. 


ADDRESS BY 


THE DUCHESS OF ATHOLL, D.B.E., M.P., D.C.L., LL.D., 
F.R.C.M., 


PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


I reex as if I owed this assembly an apology for speaking on a theme 
which to many may seem well-worn. If I cannot claim any novelty for 
my subject, neither can I pretend to any expert or first-hand knowledge 
of the work of the schools. But perhaps you will allow one whose 
experience of education has been limited to the administrative side to 
indicate one or two conclusions to which that experience has led. A 
further reason for my choice of this subject is its intimate connexion 
with what is generally recognised as the main educational problem of the 
day—the education of the adolescent. It is because I think we all feel 
how important a bearing this question has on our social and economic 
well-being that I venture to bring the subject before you. 

The Board of Education’s Consultative Committee, in their recent 
Report on the Education of the Adolescent, have made various recom- 
mendations, of which the one that seems to have attracted most attention 
is that which deals with the raising of the school age to fifteen, as from the 
year 1932. Important as that question is, important as is the further 
recommendation that, a great extension of post-primary instruction 
being desirable, such instruction should be given under a unified scheme 
of administration, the heart and kernel of the Committee’s proposals 
lies in their recognition of what I conceive to be a fact of fundamental 
importance—that in a large number of children wide variations of capacity 
and gifts are to be expected, and that courses of instruction must therefore 
be varied to suit. ‘Equality,’ they declare, ‘is not identity, and the 
larger the number of children to be provided for, the more essential it 
becomes that they should not be pressed into a single mould.’ The child 
_ of practical ability must be catered for as well as the child of literary or 
scientific gifts. 

These statements may well appear too obvious to need argument. 
From the day when education began to aim at developing faculties as 
well as disciplining them, the case for a varied curriculum became over- 
whelming. If moral and perhaps intellectual discipline may be acquired 
through the study of uncongenial subjects, intellectual development can 
surely only come with understanding, or when an appeal is made to some 
latent faculty for appreciation or creation. A child to whom the use of 
words is new must have those words related to things seen and realised 


192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


in his own experience, or they will be meaningless ; once grasped, they 
awake his reasoning faculties. An appeal, therefore, to a love of colour, or 
of animals, or to a child’s creative instinct, will equally lay the foundations 
of cultural development. Anything in human or natural creation that 
arouses interest, that awakes a response, any spark that, in Browning’s 
words, ‘ disturbs our clod,’ must be an agent, and a powerful one, in the 
great process which we call education. 

It would be ungrateful to the many reformers of the past not to re- 
cognise how extensive has already been the widening of the curriculum 
both in school and university. The history of education may indeed 
be said to be the story of the broadening of the outlook. We have travelled 
long and far since the cathedral schools of the Middle Ages in which, the 
purpose being to train boys for the Church’s service, whether as choristers 
or clergy, the instruction was confined to Latin, the language of the Church. 
Universities, when founded, marked a slight extension of function, inas- 
much as they trained men not only for the Church but for medicine and 
the law. But, as Professor Adamson points out, in the age of chivalry the 
education of both school and university was felt to be unfitted for the 
boy who was destined for the more active life of a soldier or an adminis- 
trator of landed estates, and he received training on entirely different lines, 
lines that in some respects appear to us to-day as more truly cultural, if 
somewhat superficial. The Renaissance added Greek to the curriculum of 
our universities—though do not let us forget that the direct intervention 
of Henry VIII. was necessary to secure its admission to Oxford—and the 
“New Learning’ of that time gave a more humanistic outlook to all 
classical study, but many centuries were to pass before the other studies 
necessary to a well-balanced curriculum won their rightful place in school 
or university. 

France, from the sixteenth century onwards, had her ‘ academies’ in 
which modern languages, mathematics and some science were added to the 
study of the classics. Locke, as early as the end of the seventeenth century, 
took another long step forward, and stressed the value of manual instruction. 
He urged that it should form part of the education of everyone who fol- 
lowed what he termed a ‘ gentleman’s calling,’ and pointed out the ad- 
vantage of handwork as a recreation for ‘ one whose chief business is with 
books and study.’ Rousseau and Pestalozzi alike denounced the pre- 
vailing * bookishness ’ of the education of their days; Pestalozzi in parti- 
cular, as we know, laying great emphasis on the value of handwork. English 
public schools and grammar schools, however, remained dominated by the 
purely classical tradition until the nineteenth century was far advanced, 
though the industrial revolution gradually brought into being private 
schools, with a modern and commercial bias, but for the most part super- 
ficial in their work. Such schools were frequented by the sons of manu- 
facturers who regarded the classical curriculum as an unsuitable pre- 
paration for a business career. ‘Academies’ on fairly modern lines were 
opened in Scotland from the middle of the eighteenth century, but so great 
was the prestige of the old classical tradition in North as well as South 
that the Scottish ‘academy’ often ended by becoming the grammar 
school on a slightly more modern basis. Mr. Fearon, however, 
reporting in 1866 to the Schools Inquiry Commission on the principal 


L.—EDUCATION. 193 
‘burgh’ schools of Scotland, points out that the dependence of these 


_ schools on fees and support from public funds tended to make their curri- 


CO ——E————EE———— LL = CS 


culum broader than that of the English endowed schools, which was too 
often limited by the wording of trust deeds. 

Thring introduced manual work and music into Uppingham in the middle 
of the nineteenth century, but until mathematics, science, modern languages, 
and English had won a recognised place in the curriculum, only a limited 
development could be expected of subjects still further removed from the 
tradition of the schools. 

It may be said that it is only within the last twenty or thirty years 
that we have succeeded in establishing a fairly balanced secondary curri- 
culum on academic lines. The claims of English, indeed, in secondary 
schools are hardly yet fully established, and the cultural value of music 
is only slowly gaining recognition. We are no longer ready to accept the 
dictum of William of Wykeham that grammar (i.e. Latin) is ‘ the founda- 
tion gate and origin of all other liberal arts, without which arts of this 
kind cannot be known,’ but are we not too ready to give our assent to the 
view that the study of a foreign language is necessary to culture? It is 
well to remember that the Committee on the Teaching of Modern Languages 
expressed the opinion that ‘in schools where the majority of pupils do not 
stay for more than four years it may be advantageous that, after due trial, 
a certain proportion should be entirely relieved of language study and 
should concentrate their attention on English and the various other 
subjects which cannot be neglected in such schools. A pupil may have 
very useful abilities and yet be incapable of learning any foreign language. 
In the curriculum of such pupils the study of English might be much more 
fully developed than it is at present.’ It may be added that for these 
pupils the study of good translations of the best foreign literature, both 
ancient and modern, should greatly assist the attainment of a broad 
culture. 

Such being the history of the literary and scientific subjects, we need 
not be surprised that the progress of handwork has been slow. From 
1889 onwards, Local Authorities were empowered to give technical 
instruction, and a generous provision of public money was made for the 
purpose, but the instruction provided was frequently on too narrow and 
specialised a basis to have great educational value and therefore lacked 
popularity. Until the Education Act of 1902 enabled Local Authorities 
to deal with secondary as well as technical education effective co-ordina- 
tion of the two was impossible. 

It was not, however, until seven years after the passing of the Act 
that the Consultative Committee were asked by the Board of Education 
to consider the extent to which education by means of practical work 
should be developed in secondary schools. In 1912 the Committee 
reported to the effect that secondary education had been too exclusively 
concerned with the cultivation of the mind by books and the instruction 
of the teacher, and recommended that every secondary school should 
provide for the teaching of some branch of educational handwork. 
Handwork to-day, therefore, is found in some degree in all secondary 
schools in England and Wales, but, as the Consultative Committee pointed 
out, pressure of work often leaves little time for it in the forms preparing 


1927 O 


194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


for external examinations. About 1915 a further step was taken, when an 
alternative course of a practical character was introduced into a boys’. 
grammar school in the West Riding of Yorkshire. The experiment was 
found so successful in creating fresh interest, and in its reactions on other 
studies, that it was extended to other schools in the same area. Similar 
experiments existing to-day elsewhere could be mentioned. Itis interesting 
to find that, in 1926, the Association of County Councils, in giving evidence 
before the Consultative Committee, advocated the institution of alternative 
courses in secondary schools. Whether the alternatives should be within 
the walls of one school or of two seems a point of minor importance from 
the educational aspect, though it raises important administrative questions. 
The main desideratum is that wherever there is a secondary school of the 
usual type, simpler and more practical alternatives should also be available 
in order that the needs of children of varying types of ability may be met. 
We must, in fact, begin with the child and make the curriculum suit him. 
The converse policy has held the field too long in spite of its obvious 
absurdity. 

Even before the passing of the 1902 Act some of the larger School 
Boards had established higher grade schools, many of which provided 
manual instruction—a clear indication of the need felt in many quarters 
for a post-primary school of a more practical type than the purely secondary. 
In 1895 the Bryce Committee had reported favourably on schools of this 
kind, pointing out that they corresponded to the third grade of secondary 
school advocated by the Schools Inquiry Commission in 1868, and recording 
their opinion that secondary education included technical as well as 
academic subjects. In 1905 the Board’s Consultative Committee also 
expressed themselves strongly in favour of schools which would combine 
a general education with some practical instruction in a course extending 
up to fifteen years of age. But though grant was allowed for higher 
elementary schools under a minute of 1905, the more immediate necessity 
was felt to be the development of the secondary school of a purely 
academic type, with a normal leaving age of not less than sixteen. 

By 1911, however, the London County Council had taken the initiative 
in developing the type of school known as ‘central,’ aiming at a 
combination of practical instruction and general culture in a four-years’ 
course from eleven to fifteen. The setting up of similar schools followed 
in other areas in England and in Wales; and in 1918 the Education Act 
made it obligatory on Education Authorities to provide ‘ practical and 
advanced’ instruction either in central schools and central classes, or 
otherwise. 

The Scottish Education Act of that year contained no such provision, 
but Scotland for some years had had an alternative to ‘secondary ’ 
education in ‘supplementary ’ courses for children of the age-range of twelve 
to fourteen, which included practical instruction. In the large centres these 
were well staffed and equipped, but in rural areas too often both staff 
and equipment were insufficient, the long survival of the parochial system 
making it impossible to assemble the older children from various parishes 
at one centre, as in England. In 1919 the establishment of county 
Education Authorities brought a great increase of scholars to secondary 
schools, but too many of these, it was found, left at fourteen and fifteen 


L.—EDUCATION. 195 


without taking any certificate. In 1923, therefore, the Scottish Education 
Department instituted ‘advanced divisions,’ as alternatives to the first 
part of the purely secondary course, but under more exacting conditions 
of staffing than the old supplementary departments. All courses must 
have a ‘common core ’ of English subjects—these having the lion’s share 
of the time-table—training in morals and citizenship, mathematics (or, 
for girls, arithmetic), art and music. At either end of the scale are a 
number of alternative subjects, academic or practical. A foreign language 
is not compulsory. A ‘higher day school certificate’ is to be taken 
at the end of the course—normally at the age of fifteen. A ‘lower 
day school certificate ’ is given a year earlier. 

While, however, it is obvious from a recital of these facts that some 
steps have been taken to meet the demand for a wider curriculum, the 
position as we review it to-day can hardly be considered satisfactory. 
Too often our aim appears to be to pass on as many children as possible 
to the ordinary secondary school. Here the curriculum, however admirable 
an instrument of all-round culture for boys and girls of scholastic ability, 
if they remain at school until sixteen or later, may be quite unsuited to the 
boy or girl of another type who will leave school at the age of fourteen or 
fifteen. Though school life is appreciably lengthening, only one-half of the 
pupils in secondary schools in England and Wales enter for the first schools 
examination; only one-third of the pupils pass. Moreover, the 
Consultative Committee have expressed the opinion that schools or 
departments of the practical or ‘modern’ type are needed for the great 
majority of the children in the country; yet the number of children 
receiving this type of post-primary instruction, though steadily increasing, 
is only about one-third of the number in secondary schools. What are 
the reasons for this comparative failure to supply what I venture to 
suggest is the most pressing need of our education system as it exists 
to-day ? 

One, I think, is to be found in the fact that most persons interested in 
education have been educated mainly on academic lines, and therefore 
have found it difficult to realise the need for practical instruction. This, 
we are told, is why the efforts made many years ago by Sir James Kay- 
Shuttleworth to increase the practical training in elementary schools 
met with little success. At a later date the grant system was to blame. 
“Payment by results’ tended to restrict elementary education to the 
three R’s, and gave a serious set-back to manual training. 

Other reasons were the expense of the equipment, the comparative 
failure of the technical instruction given prior to 1902, the tardy develop- 
ment, outlined above, of the secondary curriculum, and the delay in 
organising secondary education on a national basis. Matthew Arnold’s 
plea—first uttered in the ’fifties—that secondary education should be 
organised on a national basis, had fallen on deaf ears. Wales obtained 
powers for secondary education in 1889, but none were available in 
England until the Act of 1902. The varying types of higher grade, 
higher elementary and science schools, which in the years following 
1870 were added to the schools of the old grammar school type, may well 
have made it appear that the first task alike of the Board and of the uew 
authorities set up by the 1902 Act must be to develop a clearly defined 


02 


196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


secondary school. In recent years the demand for more secondary 
schools, the need for dealing with many arrears of improvements or 
developments left by the war, and the financial difficulties with which 
Central and Local Authority alike have been beset, have delayed the 
expansion of practical instruction required by the Fisher Act. 

Yet another reason may be given. Secondary schools have had 
behind them the prestige of the universities, to which their curriculum 
naturally leads, and central schools in comparison have sometimes been 
regarded as blind alleys. Universities are the crown of our educational 
system. Itis a laudable aim that the education of all children of scholastic 
ability should be rounded off there—and, on the other hand, universities 
of late years have broadened their curriculum to include many techno- 
logical subjects. But their doors are guarded, and rightly so, by an 
examination which demands the all-round curriculum of the ordinary 
secondary school. On the maintenance of an effective entrance test 
depends to a considerable extent the standard of work of the universities, 
and on the standard of the universities depends the standard of every 
school in the country. Do not let us make the mistake of judging the 
efficiency of our educational system merely by the number of young men 
and women we send to the universities. Let us judge it rather by the 
standard of our universities, by the extent to which they are accessible 
to young people of scholastic ability, irrespective of circumstances, by 
the adequacy and efficiency of other provision for continued or higher 
education, and by the extent to which universities and other institutions 
alike, whole-time or part-time, are ministering to the development of 
powers of appreciation, thought and varied ability among our people. 

Further, I find it difficult to resist the conclusion that our tardy and 
somewhat grudging recognition of the need for practical instruction has 
been due partly to a failure to appreciate the psychological issues involved. 
There are two things which we seem too ready to forget. The first is that 
not only in the early stages, but also in the later—in adolescence—there 
will be no intellectual development without interest and understanding. 
The second is that if a child is not able to take interest in at least some 
of his lessons, school may be positively harmful to his mental development. 
‘An unsuitable course,’ said Sanderson of Oundle, ‘may not only fail to 
develop, but actually retard progress.’ Yet too many of us, quite un- 
consciously, seem to be guided by Mr. Dooley’s aphorism that ‘it doesn’t 
matter what you teach a child so long as he doesn’t want to learn it’! 

The value of practical instruction for younger children is now fully 
admitted, but too often we seem reluctant to recognise what its worth may 
be higher up in the school. Yet Professor Cyril Burt, to whom I am indebted 
for some valuable notes on this subject, writes that recent psychological 
tests have shown that both the range and nature of individual abilities differ 
increasingly among older children— though differences in inborn ability 
may appear quite early among individual children, the degrees to which 
they differ become larger and larger, and continue to increase (at any rate up 
to the age of about fourteen) almost proportionately with increasing age.” 
The need for variety of curriculum increases, therefore, with adolescence. 

Again, we have been ready to own the worth of practical instruction 
for the dull and backward, and to understand that one of its special values 


, es) 


L.—EDUCATION. LOT 


may lie in a rapid and desirable increase in self-confidence and self-respect 
among such children, but we have been slow to grasp the distinction between 
verbal and non-verbal or practical ability, and to realise how much ability, 
quite equal to the normal, may fail to show itself in the ordinary lessons 
of school. We constantly remind ourselves of the many distinguished 
men who in their school days were held to be of little promise, and yet we 
hesitate to draw the obvious conclusion that their school life should have 
been able to do something more to develop their special gifts. 

As long ago as 1912 Sanderson of Oundle expressed the opinion that 
probably the majority of boys thought in things, not words, and described 
how boys considered dull in class developed intellectually when set to 
work in shops, laboratories, drawing-office or fields. They gained in 
self-respect and confidence and returned with good results to subjects 
which previously had been dropped. Their work in school had a new 
interest for them, and many such boys had ended by gaining university 
scholarships. 

But Professor Burt goes further still. ‘So much of the children’s daily 
work in after-life,’ he reminds us, ‘ will depend upon muscular co-ordina- 
tion that a training in manual dexterity should form a part of the all- 
round culture possessed by every human creature. To perfect their 
accuracy all the muscular mechanisms of the body need specific exercise.’ 

Manual work, moreover, in its finer form leads to the development 
of a sixth or ‘ kinesthetic ’ sense, which Sir Charles Sherrington’s research 
has shown to depend on sense-organs embedded in the muscles. On this 
depends the prowess of the athlete, the highest skill of a masseur or 
trained mechanic. It probably reaches its greatest perfection in the 
musician’s ‘touch.’ An organist has this sense developed not only in his 
hands but in his feet. 

Professor Burt is, therefore, I think, right in warning us against the 
popular and exaggerated antithesis between handwork and brainwork. 
* All handwork,’ he writes, ‘that deserves the name is also brainwork. 
The reception and appreciation of muscle sensation is as much an intel- 
lectual activity as the reception and appreciation of the “ higher” sensations 
that are received by the observing eye or by the listening ear. Handwork, 
therefore, may claim quite as much “intellectual respectability” as reading, 
writing or arithmetic.’ As the Consultative Committee have done well 
to remind us, a liberal or humane education is not to be secured through 
books alone. 

Are we not also in some danger of ignoring the importance of purpose 
_in learning? The child is essentially a practical being. His deepest 
instinct is to create and experiment; his highest ambition to imitate 
what he sees his elders doing. As adolescence approaches his mind 
develops new interests and powers that are practical rather than purely 
intellectual or academic. The sounds of the world reach him through 
the school doors and lure him with the hope of a life of greater liberty 
and more definite usefulness. Masters of schools of every type can testify 
to the number of boys who take a new and living interest in their school 
work—of whatever kind it may be—from the day that it can be shown to 
them that it will help to prepare them for their future career. This 
sense of purpose—this desire to be of use—seems to me one of the finest 


198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


instincts to be found in young people. It must be the task of the school 
to foster it, to direct it to the channels in which it will best bear fruit, 
and the school in its turn—and in more classrooms than one—will reap 
the benefit of the new interests aroused. 

There is no need to dwell on the esthetic value of much handwork, 
especially such as is taught in girls’ schools. All indoor handwork bears 
a relation to the art lesson, and therefore has a definite part to play in 
the development of culture. 

Nor must we forget the importance of practical instruction as an 
element in character training. It taps fresh sources of energy, brings 
them under control, and is valuable to neurotic children in giving stability, 
and to adolescence in preventing overwork. At this stage Professor Burt 
tells us that more concrete and practical activities even for the super- 
normal and especially for the bookworm form a wholesome corrective. 
We know how much juvenile delinquency is due to the overflow of 
emotional energy and to misapplied manual skill, and how practical 
activities have proved successful in giving the youthful offender a necessary 
legitimate outlet for his energies. 

It is clear, therefore, on educational grounds that it is at the post- 
primary stage above all others that we need the greatest variety of courses, 
and of courses that will include practical instruction. 

But educational reasons are reinforced by considerations affecting our 
social and economic welfare. We can no more afford to forget the need 
for co-operation between education and industry than to ignore the 
economic interdependence of the different parts of the Empire. On the 
one hand, we recognise variety of character and ability as constituting 
one of the wonders of human nature, and believe that partly owing to our 
varied racial strain and partly to our love of mental freedom we may 
claim to possess it to an exceptional degree. On the other hand, we cannot 
but be conscious of an almost equal need of the country and the Empire 
in general for service of varied kinds. Only by services of infinite variety 
demanding every possible exercise of human ingenuity, initiative and 
industry, can we hope to find employment for our dense and still growing 
population. In particular we in this country need the greatest possible 
development in varied ways of productive industry, as the Overseas 
Dominions need the development of their vast unpeopled territories. Yet 
even twenty-two years ago the Consultative Committee, in the Report to 
which I have already referred, hinted that our education inclined to lead 
boys to desire to be clerks rather than mechanics, and deprecated any 
encouragement being given to enter a profession already at that date 
overstocked. In the years that have elapsed the tendency has increased 
—girls have entered clerical occupations in large numbers, and the crowding 
in the professions is greater than ever. Possibly this process has been 
accentuated since the war by industrial depression ; but if our productive 
industries, both rural and urban, are to meet the competition from abroad 
which now assails them even more fiercely than twenty years ago, 
they urgently need the best ability of varied kinds. Schools other than 
those recognised as ‘technical’ cannot be expected to send out trained 
workers, nor definitely to prepare boys and girls for life overseas, but 
schools and departments giving the ‘ advanced ° and practical instruction 


— ed 


L.—EDUCATION. 199 


required by the Fisher Act will render rare service to the country if they can 
develop a capacity to handle tools common to a group of occupations, some 
knowledge of the main principles of our most important industries or of 
industries peculiar to the locality, a desire to co-operate in their continuance 
and expansion, the adaptability which will enable a worker if need be to 
transfer from one occupation to another, and some understanding of the 
great opportunities which our Overseas Empire offers to the young man 
or woman of initiative who is trained on practical and realistic lines. 

There are some, I know, who feel that the introduction of machinery 
and the subdivision of labour make it hopeless to expect the factory 
worker to be interested in his task. Remembering, however, the interest 
that the average boy is wont to take in the interior economy of clocks and 
motors, the unwearying delight of the small boy in drawing engines and 
aeroplanes, I cannot but believe that the great majority of boys could be 
interested in the machinery of our various industries if they were made to 
understand its basic principles; and I feel pretty certain that much 
generous instinct would respond if it were pointed out that the introduction 
of machinery, though it had deprived the individual worker of the 
satisfaction of producing a complete article by his own labour, had so 
cheapened production that millions now could enjoy what in the days of 
hand labour was procurable only by the few. 

The development of repetitive processes, however, has emphasized the 
need of education for leisure, and, it may be~added, has reinforced the 
argument that the education given should be such as will arouse powers 
of interest and appreciation. One of the aims of the school must be to 
instil a love of good literature, music and art, more especially in those 
whose working hours in after-life may be spent in drab or monotonous 
surroundings ; but do not let us ignore the part that practical activities, 
such as needlework, carpentering and gardening may play in the enjoyment 
of leisure, even in the case of men and women to whose daily work it is 
somewhat akin. Miners, for instance, are notoriously fond of gardening, 
and it is difficult to imagine an occupation that can better compensate for 
the limitations under which their work is necessarily carried on. 

Another merit of handwork is that it is often co-operative and so teaches 
the team spirit. That spirit is also being widely inculcated through games 
and school organisation. Few greater services could be rendered by the 
schools to industry and to the country generally than that they should 
teach our young workers to bring with them into factory or office or mine 
the team spirit learned on the school play-ground or through school life 
in general. 

From these many points of view therefore it seems to me that our 
policy must inevitably be to develop new forms of post-primary in- 
struction. Here is the opportunity for the ‘modern’ school. But it 
must realise its purpose and be true to it ; it must not be a mere imitator 
and rival of the secondary school. The two types must work in closest 
co-operation ; the ‘modern ’ school must, wherever possible, pass on pupils 
who give evidence of literary or scientific ability; and the two schools to 
that end must if possible keep a ‘ common core’ of fundamental subjects. 
If that be done, the fears which have sometimes been expressed that an 
extension of schools of the ‘modern’ or ‘central’ type will damage secondary 


200 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


schools should be groundless. When the kind of education which I am 
advocating is available for those whom it suits, the number following 
the conventional secondary curriculum may be proportionately less, 
though we have not yet fully met the need for secondary schools in all 
parts of England and Wales, more especially in the rural areas. But do 
not let us forget that schools exist for the children, not children for the 
schools. The duty of the teacher is to ascertain the varying abilities 
of the children, a process in which the tests devised by psychologists should 
be of value. The duty of the administrator is to see that, so far as is reason- 
ably possible, every child is given a chance of developing his special ability, 
as well as of acquiring general culture. 

Moreover, once we recognise that variety of gifts as between boy and 
boy must receive different treatment, we shall no longer hesitate to differ- 
entiate so far as may seem desirable between boy and girl. Time was 
when it was necessary that girls should give proof of their ability to study 
the more serious subjects hitherto reserved for boys. To-day that claim 
has been long established. Heads of girls’ schools can now afford to 
adapt their curricula more than formerly to the varying needs of their 
pupils, intellectual and physical. More especially does it seem desirable 
that, unless preparation for professional life makes it impossible without 
overstrain, time should be found for definite training in domestic science. 
Many new and wider interests are opening up, but home-making must 
still play an important part in the lives of the vast majority of women. 

I have perhaps spoken of the ‘ central ’ school as if it-offered us the type 
of school we want. But its development is recent and it is still in the 
process of evolution, so that the term may connote either a school giving a 
purely general course, or one with a commercial or an industrial bias, or 
both. The London County Council, finding that ‘central’ schools of the 
commercial type have tended to increase more rapidly than those with an 
industrial bias, have lately decided that where possible both courses shall 
be included in one school—a step which seems eminently reasonable, 
though the practical difficulties of providing a double bias in one school 
may no doubt be serious. A head master of long experience in a ‘ central’ 
school has told me that he found further subdivision of these courses 
necessary in order to secure interest and sense of purpose. His experience 
showed that the interest aroused by wider variation had more than made 
up for the lack of special teachers for each group, and, as elsewhere in 
such schools, had had marked results in lengthening school life. 

As the Consultative Committee emphasize, however, whether ‘ central ’ 
or ‘modern’ schools realise the desired end must mainly depend on the 
breadth of vision of head master or mistress, and we may add, of the 
staff in general. Every keen teacher must long to see his pupils interested 
in the things which appeal to him personally, and to such it may be a con- 
siderable mental effort to realise that the interests of some pupils may 
develop along quite different lines. As we have seen, the inability of 
educationists generally to realise this has been one of the reasons for the 
loss of precious time. But a clear lead has lately been given from the 
presidential chairs both of the National Union of Teachers and of the 
Association of Education Committees, and we may therefore hope for a 
general broadening of the outlook among educationists in general. 


L.—EDUCATION. 201 


And what of the parents? Will they, where advisable, accept the 
simpler and more practical alternative to the usual secondary course ? 
Here we may find a difficulty due to the prestige of the secondary school. 
But we must have faith in the influence on fathers and mothers of a sane 
and informed public opinion, if that can be developed; and if teachers 
in particular will show their belief in this type of curriculum, many parents, 
Tam certain, will be guided by them. As to public opinion, in the political 
sphere the auguries are favourable. Unionists at the last General Election 
pledged themselves to the development of ‘central’ schools and other 
forms of post-elementary instruction, as well as to the provision of an 
adequate supply of secondary schools, and this has been the policy pursued 
since 1924. The Labour Party have published a statement of their policy 
in which they demand secondary education of a less ‘ bookish’ type 
than at present, and no one has stated the case I have endeavoured to 
put with greater emphasis or clarity than Mr. Philip Snowden; while a 
recent conference of the National Liberal Federation has declared in 
favour of the provision of such a variety of schools as will secure the full 
development of ability of brain and hand alike. Political parties are 
therefore agreed on this all-important matter. 

Nor must we imagine that only in these islands is the need for variety 
of post-primary curricula felt. The United States found alternative courses 
necessary by the time that seven or eight per thousand of their 
population had been received into secondary schools; and a feature of 
the recent Imperial Education Conference was the recognition from 
many varying parts of the Empire of the urgent need for bringing 
the schools into closer relation with reality, and of the cultural value of 
practical training. The provision of the necessary instruction on the 
scale required will take time; handicraft teachers are all too scarce ; 
many buildings may have to be enlarged; practical equipment is 
costly ; further experience is needed in the evolution of the curriculum. 
But if we can keep the principle of variety clearly in view, and can frankly 
recognise practical work as forming part and parcel of a liberal education, 
our progress will be sure, even if financial difficulties for a time may 
oblige it to be slow; and if we can make clear to the country as a whole 
that we are being guided by these principles, we shall, I am certain, rally 
to our support much opinion which at present is uninterested or sceptical, 
we shall introduce new and living interests into many lives whose intel- 
lectual development might otherwise have been stunted, and we may 
hope to bring to the service of the community in its varying needs rich 
contributions of equally varied ability. 


SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 


‘AGRICULTURE AND NATIONAL 
EDUCATION. 


ADDRESS BY 


C. G. T. MORISON, M.A., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


WHEN the Council of this Association did me the honour to invite me to 
become the President of the Agricultural Section for this year, I was 
filled with some consternation and alarm as I recalled the long line of 
distinguished men who have filled this position in previous years, and the 
high standard and excellence of their addresses. One of the difficulties 
that I felt most strongly was that, like many of my predecessors, I was 
originally a chemist who had fallen under the spell of agriculture, and 
whose fancy had led him, in the intervals of an otherwise busy life, to 
work at problems of the soil. Now, engrossing as those problems are, 
and fundamentally important to the business of agriculture as the results of 
such investigations can be, I observe that no one, at any rate in the last 
ten years, who has been President of this section has been brave enough 
to discuss them in his Presidential Address. The reason of this is perhaps 
not far to seek. There was a period in the history of agricultural science 
when chemistry seemed to offer all that was needed for a successful soil 
study, and when the chemists of the time appeared as the magicians of the 
piece, at the touch of whose magic wand all secrets were laid bare. Then 
with increasing knowledge, my colleagues fell under a cloud and a host of 
other scientists began each to play his part and to add each his fragment 
to our simple theme, until, at the beginning of this century, there was 
collected so vast a body of data about the soils of the world that any 
orderly thinking about the subject became almost impossible. Order is, 
however, coming again, and coming once more at the hands of chemists, 
and before many years are past, perhaps one of my successors may be bold 
enough to try to present our knowledge of soil conditions to this audience 
ina suitable form. It is a task, however, for the future and not for to-day. 
What then was there left about which a soil chemist might venture to 
speak? It has been my fortune to spend most of my life at one of the 
old Universities, where, like many people at Oxford, much of my time 
and energy has been devoted to teaching, and it is because of the experience 
that I have had in teaching agricultural subjects and in organising 
agricultural curricula, and of my great interest and belief in agricultural 
education, that I venture to make it the subject of my address to-day. 
It is not so very long ago that research and education in agriculture 
began to be seriously developed in this country, first, on a physical basis 
which is, and must remain, fundamental, dealing with the technique of 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 203 


manufacture and with the elimination of waste in the manufacturing 
process ; second, from the business side, so that the producer may have his 
business carried out successfully and at a profit. From the point of view 
of vocational training these two aspects are so closely interwoven that any 
attempt to magnify one at the expense of the other can only lead to disaster, 
whereas from the purely educational point of view the two are quite 
distinct, and are better treated as stages in development, leading up 
gradually from the purely scientific subject of the growth of the plant and 
animal, through the application of this science to practical requirements, 
to the business organisation of the fundamental producing units. 

The objects of vocational education in Agriculture have been recently 
described by Sir Daniel Hall,’ and further by Mr. Dale? in his paper to 
this section last year, and may be summarised as improvement of farming 
technique by making the results of recent research more readily and 
more rapidly available, and improvement in business management result- 
ing from more intimate knowledge of the economic details of the particular 
farming business and a wider acquaintance with the economic position of 
the whole industry. 

The development of technical education in this country has had for 
one of its aims the improvement of farming methods by creating a class 
of farmers who have had the benefit of a training at either a Farm Institute, 
an Agricultural College, or a University, according as he could spare time 
and money to pursue his studies. At the conclusion of these studies the 
presumption is that he will spread the light of his knowledge and his skill 
in his neighbourhood and, by the strong force of his example, cause an 
improvement in the methods of his neighbours. Thus would the country 
benefit from the greater yields per acre which would be grown, and the 
farmers themselves from their more satisfactory economic position. 

Unfortunately for the industry things do not work out quite so simply. 
The number of those who, on leaving the Universities and Colleges, 
engage in farming and set the shining example I have mentioned are 
none too many, and the effect in this way upon farming practice has not 
been as great as might have been expected. The great landlords too, 
with certain notable exceptions, have hardly lived up to their eighteenth- 
century tradition in taking the place which is theirs naturally as leaders of 
the countryside in agricultural and farming affairs. Even the country 
clergy, who seem in the eighteenth century to have been knowledgeable 
in these matters, have apparently lost heart. Thus it appears that, 
despite all the money which is annually spent on higher education, there 
is not going forth into the countryside from our Universities and Colleges 
that stream of well-informed and well-educated young men and young 
women whose influence would so greatly modify farming practice up and 
down the land. For let us be quite candid about the situation: British 
farming at its best as it is carried out by certain individuals and in certain 
districts—and that there is a greater concentration of these individuals in 
some districts no one will deny—is second to none all the world over. 
There are, however, a large number of farmers whose technique is poor, 
whose methods are slovenly, and whose general standard falls very far 


1 Scottish Journal of Agriculture, vol. x, p. 135. 
* * Progress of Agricultural Education in England and Wales.’ 


204 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


below that of the best. I cannot but believe that even in the present 
difficult and harassing economic situation their position would be better 
were their standards somewhat higher, and their aim to increase rather 
than decrease their output. 

The improvement in farming technique has been sought by the methods 
described by Mr. Dale, which consist in affording in all parts of the country 
access to three types of education, provided by means of University 
departments and Colleges, by Farm Institutes, and by local classes and 
lectures. Each of these types has a separate function in the whole scheme 
and, while the part played by local classes and by the Farm Institutes 
seems clear enough, the policy of the Colleges and the Universities is often 
rather vague and indefinite. If it is possible to make a criticism against 
these bodies in the last years it is this, that, while they one and all would, 
I imagine, claim that their function was to train their students in the 
technique of the agricultural business, so that as managers and occupiers 
of land, land agents, teachers, experts or officials they could raise the 
standard and status of the industry, they appear to think that the different 
educational requirements of these various classes can be obtained under 
the same general scheme of instruction. There are, of course, great 
difficulties in the way of any one of these institutes definitely adopting a 
course designed to give the maximum benefit to any one of those classes 
which I have enumerated, but I think that in some cases at any rate the 
beaten track has been preferred, and the old methods have been considered 
good enough to suit conditions that have largely altered. I am convinced 
that only by taking careful stock of the whole situation, and by being 
perfectly clear about the result aimed at, can the money which is to-day 
expended upon agricultural education have the desired effect. 

It was pointed out by Mr. Dale in the paper already referred to that, 
if the case of wage-earners be excluded, the facilities in Universities, 
Colleges, and Farm Institutes were equal to the demands made, but that 
if these demands were as great as they should be, then the existing 
institutions would be overwhelmed. According to Mr. Dale’s figures, the 
Colleges are only two-thirds full, and of this number only one-third are 
the sons and daughters of farmers. Something is wrong here, and until 
this is put right, excellent as is the work done by these institutions, it 
has not the effect upon the industry in this country which its excellence 
deserves. No doubt a fairly large proportion of these students learning 
agriculture will have some influence upon the industry in the future, 
but it is within my own knowledge that there are a considerable number of 
agricultural students in a University such as Oxford whose connection 
with agriculture subsequent to their leaving the University is very slight. 
I do not propose to traverse here already well-trodden ground in attempting 
to explain why there is not a greater demand for technical training in 
times of stress like the present. I believe that, while many factors 
contribute, it is mainly an economic question, and that the ordinary tenant- 
farmer is to-day in a position in which he can ill afford to spend money, 
even were he sufficiently farseeing to realise the ultimate benefit that 
would result. Such then is the main direction in which it appears to 
me that improvement in higher education is required, and this improvement 
must be achieved by a greater vision and clearer purpose on the part of 


ew, Se. 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 205 


these institutions, and by a greater appreciation on the part of those 
whom they are designed to serve. 

So far in this scheme of vocational training only the actual farmers 
have been considered ; nothing has been done to meet the needs of the 
manual labourer, and not very much to give the landlord a training 
suitable to his position as one of the partners in the industry. 

The case of the manual worker is one of most urgent need ; little or 
nothing is done to give him or her any kind of vocational training, and 
this in spite of the fact that the whole position of the industry at the 
present time, more than ever before, depends upon the efficiency of the 
labour unit. This aspect of agricultural education was dealt with by 
Mr. Duncan both at the Oxford Meeting and subsequently in an article 
contributed to the Scottish Journal of Agriculture? and it appears from 
this that no educational effort is being made to make the manual worker 
more efficient or to enable him to increase the value of his output. Mr. 
Orwin‘ has recently stated that the lad who remains on farm work 
definitely occupies a lower social position than those of his own age and 
district who seek the more highly remunerated work that can be obtained 
in the towns. Wireless and the motor-bus have done much to enliven 
rural conditions, but they really only succeed in emphasising the super- 
ficial undesirability of country life, country wages, and a country outlook. 
As Mr. Duncan has pointed out, until wages are higher, and until the 
skill of the worker enables him to earn those higher wages, agriculture 
will always be left with the more inefficient and the less active-minded 
of the countryside. The difficulties in the way of rendering labour more 
efficient are very great; the tasks to be carried out are so various, the 
possibilities of the use of machinery so limited, and the effective over- 
seeing, which is responsible for much of the success in other industries, 
is almost impossible. The comparative failure of agricultural trade unions 
means that there is not the continual pressure for improvement that there 
is elsewhere. If labour became more efficient the result would be either 
that the same amount of work could be done in the same time by a smaller 
number of men, or a larger amount of work done in the same time by the 
same or a smaller number of men. 

Now extensive agriculture in the newer countries is characterised by 
a large production per man engaged in the work, while in more intensive 
agriculture in the more settled countries a lower production per man is 
obtained, although the production per acre may be more than double. 
The urgent practical problem is to increase production per man while at 
the same time maintaining or increasing production per acre. All this 
implies technical skill of no mean order on the part not only of the manager 
but also of the manual worker, and to my mind it requires something 
more, something which makes the acquiring of technical skill a compara- 
tively easy matter, and that something consists in a good general and 
continued cultural education. There is no doubt, I think, that educa- 
tion, cultural education apart from vocational training, is held in greater 
respect in all those parts of the British Isles which are not English. It 
is certainly true of Ireland and of Scotland, and, I understand, of Wales. 


2 Scottish Journal of Agriculture, vol. x, p. 
4‘ The Transition of Agriculture,’ Journal of the Royal Society of Arts, May 20, 1927. 


206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


England alone stands unconvinced. It is of course difficult to measure 
the extent to which general education contributes to mental alertness in 
later years, but there is often among farmers, and among the rural popula- 
tion generally, a certain lack of elasticity, a certain dullness of outlook, 
which will have to disappear if agriculture is to take its rightful place 
among the other great industries of the country. The skilled manager, 
the skilled man, the educated manager, the educated man—if it pays to 
employ these, and it does appear to do so in other industries, then much 
more should it be remunerative in agriculture, where the calls on the 
management are so multifarious, the task so difficult, and the skill 
demanded of the manual worker so very varied. 

Let us now examine how a development of this kind affects the three 
partners in the agricultural business as we know it to-day—the landlord, 
the farmer, and the manual worker. 

The landlord may, or may not, remain as a permanent partnerin the 
agricultural industry; but while he does remain the power that he 
possesses of influencing the whole industry is enormous. Those of us 
who were privileged to hear Lord Bledisloe’s address when he was Presi- 
dent of this section will well remember his almost passionate appeal to 
the landowners of to-day to follow the example set them by their illustrious 
predecessors, and take upon themselves the position of leaders and 
organisers of the agricultural industry. Some there are of course who, 
like Lord Bledisloe himself, have taken up this burden, and whose names 
will be remembered as we remember those of the great leaders of the 
eighteenth century. ‘The agricultural community in Britain to-day,’ 
said Lord Bledisloe at Hull in 1922, ‘above all else needs enlightened 
leadership, just as agriculture needs efficient organisation ; and the land- 
owner, if, after due training, he would but take his proper position, should 
be both leader and chief organiser.’ This need for leadership all over the 
world is as great to-day as it was then, and, while the owners of the soil 
supply leaders in almost every branch of this country’s activities, they 
undoubtedly do so in smaller numbers in the very industry from which 
they have derived their position. This leadership is only possible to-day 
through suitable education, and if it is possible to provide suitable educa- 
tion for any class in the community, it should be possible in this case. 
The preparatory and public schools of this country, great as their faults 
may be, do undoubtedly at their best furnish an education which in 
certain aspects is surpassed by none, and provide a training in citizenship 
and leadership which it is difficult to equal. Specialisation and vocational 
training are, however, relegated to the last years of a public-school career, 
and so far in this country agriculture has been treated as a purely vocational 
subject, to be dealt with shortly in the secondary school as a preliminary 
to a fuller course in the subject at a subsequent stage. So the prospective 
landlord passes from the school stage to the university, where now he may, 
if he be so minded, spend the whole of his time completing his cultural 
and technical education and training himself for this occupation of 
leadership. And if the schools and universities of this country live up 
to their reputation, and if the latter seriously attend to the provision of 
the most suitable curricula, the education and training will be sufficient. 
In Lord Bledisloe’s words, ‘ their traditions are great, but their future 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 207 


destiny is greater if they have but the vision, the courage, and, above all, 
the will to press resolutely forward towards the goal to which public 
duty and material advantage alike point the way.’ 

What, then, is the actual farmer’s position? On him the greater 
part of the burden falls ; how does the education provided help him to 
support it ? 

In the case of the larger farmers general education and technical 
training will be provided by means identical, or nearly so, to those I have 
already discussed, and they with the landowner must share the burden 
of leadership, leadership not only in technical skill and administrative 
ability, but also in the more difficult task of building up a new rural life. 
In the case of the smaller farmers the facilities are not so complete ; 
the majority of these get their education at the local grammar schools, 
which usually require that a boy shall enter before the age of twelve and 
shall stay until the age of sixteen. In this way it should be possible to 
secure that the general education is satisfactory, and that it should have 
what is called a rural bias, or at any rate be closely related to environment 
in country districts. It has been shown by a committee of this Association 
on Training for Overseas Life that quite a number of grammar and 
secondary schools have introduced some agricultural work of a kind which 
may be regarded as semi-vocational, as something which would definitely 
be of service when the boy leaves school, as he usually does, between the 
ages of sixteen and seventeen. Definite technical education is subse- 
quently provided by the Agricultural Colleges, by the Farm Institutes, and 
the activities of the County Council officer in the way of lectures, demonstra- 
tions, visits to institutions, discussion groups, and young farmers’ clubs. 
I feel, however, that this is not enough, good though it frequently is and 
excellent as it may become. Something further is required, some scheme 
whereby education may be continued in later years and not cut off short 
at the time when it is perhaps most worth continuing. Is it too much 
to hope that there may develop in this country something in the nature 
of a rural university which shall continue education, and shall continue 
it on university lines? If I am correct, what is needed is not a greater 
volume of technical instruction but a greater desire for technical instruc- 
tion and a more educated habit of mind, which I believe can only be 
obtained in these cases by an improvement in, and a continuation of, 
general education to a later stage. 

It is frequently, though not universally, held that much of the success 
of modern Danish agricultural organisation is due to the existence of the 
famous Folk High Schools,> virtually rural universities, providing as they 
do in a manner which is unique the advantages of a residential university. 
It would take too long to examine the claim that has been made that 
without these schools Danish agricultural co-operation and Danish 
agricultural progress would have been impossible, but even if we make 
allowances for the enthusiasm of the believers, it is certain that much of 
the mental alertness and spirit of mutual help so essential to success has 
been acquired in the High Schools. In Denmark even up to the present 
day these have been almost entirely a rural development ; the towns have 


°*The Folk High Schools of Denmark and the Development of the Farming 
Community,’ by Holger Begtrup, Hans Lund, and Peter Manniche. 


208 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


been unwilling and slow to support the movement. It must be frankly 
admitted that it does not appear possible, with the English outlook on 
education, to transplant the High-school system into this country, but I 
do believe that in the development of the spirit which led to their founda- 
tion lies the greatest hope for the future of rural England. How far is it 
possible that this work can be carried out through the instrumentality of 
such organisations as the Extra-mural Delegacies of the Universities, 
Rural Community Councils, Women’s Institutes and other bodies which are 
interested in the regeneration of the countryside? The success of the 
Women’s Institutes has been very remarkable, and the potentialities of 
the Extra-mural work of the Universities are as yet hardly explored. If 
we look at the report of the Extra-mural Delegacy of my own University, 
we shall see that courses, which have been more or less well attended, 
have been given in purely rural areas on such subjects as ‘ Citizenship 
and How England is Governed,’ ‘ Industrial History,’ ‘ Current Economic 
Problems,’ all of which themes, to mention only a few, might be expected 
to interest a country audience. Some of the lectures deal specifically with 
rural affairs and their development, and it is interesting to learn that in 
the smaller centres, in the more purely agricultural districts, the audience 
generally consists of the parson, the schoolmaster, village shopkeepers, 
sometimes farm labourers and their wives, frequently farmers’ wives, but 
practically never the farmers themselves. I do not pretend to know what 
is the reason for this abstention on the part of the farmers, but it does 
indicate an attitude of mind that is to be deplored, and which must 
hinder any attempt to improve rural conditions. 

Turning next to the case of the wage-earner in the industry, as has 
been pointed out by Mr. Duncan, nothing has been attempted so far which 
will either improve his technical training or prolong his education; the 
improvement, such as it is, that has been effected in the skill and knowledge 
of the farmer has only intensified the difference between master and man. 
One of the real needs of the industry is to keep the best men on the land, 
not those who for one reason or another get left behind in the race to the 
towns, and this will only be possible when the employer can pay wages 
comparable with those which can be obtained in other industries. This 
he is unable to do, and will continue to be unable to do, until it is possible 
to increase the value of the worker’s output. I would here remark that 
in other industries employers have found out the value of prolonged 
education, as well as of vocational training, and the real worth of continua- 
tion classes has been clearly demonstrated. Is it too much to hope that 
something of the same kind may happen in the industry in which we are 
all interested? Much is being done towards the improvement of 
elementary education, and many persons are interested in this side of the 
problem. The development of Senior Country Schools and the possibilities 
that are to be found in such a scheme of fostering a liking for, and an 
understanding of, rural affairs are all happy auguries for a brighter future. 
Any improvement that can be effected, however, in the ordinary schools 
is likely to be very largely sterile, unless it is possible to continue this 
education over the critical years that follow the school-leaving age. Is it 
too much of a dream to look forward to an improvement in the general 
education and training of those who are engaged in agricultural pursuits, 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 209 


to a time when farmers up and down the country will feel that there is 
something worth while in an education and a standard of culture and 
technical knowledge beyond that to which they have been accustomed, 
and when they will be prepared adequately to remunerate good men whose 
output is high, and when the men themselves will realise that only if they 
have adequate education and training can they expect to earn wages 
comparable with those paid in urban industries ? 

I desire to turn now to two other aspects of agriculture in relation 
to national education, one of which I regard as having very great signifi- 
cance from the point of view of the industry itself, and the other as being 
at this stage in the development of the world of paramount importance 
to every civilised community. It has long been the complaint of persons 
interested in agriculture that it is very difficult to arouse intelligent 
interest in the minds of those persons in the country who are not either 
directly or indirectly concerned with the industry. There have, of course, 
been times in the history of every country when circumstances such as 
scarcity of food, or even the possibility of actual starvation, have drawn 
the attention of the whole population to this question. Under such cir- 
cumstances governments may have to act precipitately and commit the 
country to this or that policy without sufficient consideration. Such a 
course is fraught with much danger, especially when dealing with an 
industry like agriculture in which changes can only come slowly and 
gradually. In the present day, when our needs are satisfied by produce 
from all parts of the world, and when only a small portion of the food 
consumed both in the towns and in the country is provided by our own 
soil, is it not time that some effort was made to inform the whole body of 
consumers, not only of the way in which the food is produced, but of the 
manner of life of those who produce it, and of the mode of its arrival in 
their midst 2 So smoothly does the machinery of production and distribu- 
tion appear to work that the consumer is apt to think it automatic, and 
to take the arrival of these necessaries and luxuries almost as the falling of 
manna from heaven. Only by education, only by creating an informed 
opinion about agriculture among both the urban and rural populations 
in this country, can the mass of the people come to realise the peculiar 
circumstances of the farming community, and the difficulties with 
which their business is faced, and the particular problems that affect the 
countryside as distinct from the towns. 

To proceed still further, Sir Daniel Hall, in his Presidential Address 
last year, emphasised the fact that the continued expansion of the earth’s 
population and of the white races in particular, as representing the highest 
material standard of living, will demand either a great expansion in the 
area of land under cultivation, or an intensification of production in the 
area at present utilised. It is apparent from the papers that have been 
written in America by Dr. E. D. Ball,® that, even in the United States 
which has up till recently been a large exporter of food, the question of 
a national agricultural policy is regarded as most urgent. He asserts 
that the United States will only maintain her world position and 


6 Dr. E. D. Ball: ‘ Shall we have a Policy of Future National Development ?’ ‘ The 
Future of Agricultural Research.’ ‘The Need of a Food Supply for an Increasing 
Population.’ 


1927 1B 


210 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


her extraordinary development just as long as she can remain a food- 
exporting nation, and this can only be achieved if the whole energies of her 
scientific men are devoted to the intensification of production upon land 
already farmed. The need for this intensification appears then to be as 
great in America as here, and this calls for continued scientific research, 
not so much to ensure the benefit of any particular class of the community, 
however deserving, but because the nation needs it, because it is vital to 
the life of each and every individual. In Sir Daniel Hall’s view the area 
of suitable undeveloped land available is insufficient to provide the 
increase of food required, and, in his own concluding words, ‘ how close 
at hand the period of pressure may be it is unsafe to prophesy, but it 
may be agreed that pressure is sooner or later inevitable, and that one of 
the biggest problems before the world at present is to prevent the pressure 
developing suddenly and becoming unbearable. The intensification of 
production is the only remedy, and again the only means of rendering 
intensification practicable is the continued pursuit of scientific research.’ 

This intensification of production must come sooner or later in an 
ever-growing population, and can only be brought about by increasing 
knowledge and improving technique. Before this intensification can 
occur, the nations must realise the need for further investigation and 
research, and this they will only do if and when there exists among the 
citizens of every civilised community a widespread knowledge of this 
the most basal of all human activities. 

If it be admitted that it is desirable for each boy and girl to know 
something of the way in which their bread and meat are produced, 
something of the lives of those who produce it, and something of 
the sources of the food supply of their country, can the acquisition 
of this knowledge be justified on general educational grounds, and, if it 
can, is it practically possible? I assume that few would dispute 
the statement that the purpose of education is to enable a man to live a 
fuller and better life and to make a better use of his environment. 
Education must prepare for life and for the conditions which will be met 
throughout its course. Dr. Jesse Jones,’ in a book published last year, 
has endeavoured to simplify the problem of general educational policy, 
and to make us consider anew its fundamental purpose. As a result of 
his wide observations over three continents, and his experience of many 
different manners of education, he urges upon us to-day the importance of 
resisting what he terms ‘ Education by accretion,’ and ‘the need for an 
approach to education that is sufficiently fundamental to be accurate and 
sufficiently simple to be practical.’ He finds the solution of his problem 
in what he terms the ‘ vital consciousness of community conditions,’ and 
defines as one of his four fundamental educational elements ‘ appreciation 
and use of environment.’ 

Whether we agree entirely with Dr. Jesse Jones or not, most of us would, 
I think, agree to this, and most of us would further agree that the most 
fundamental subject that can be considered in man’s environment is the 
satisfaction of his most urgent bodily need. The Committee of this 
Association which considered the question of Training for Overseas Life, 
while quite definitely regarding the question from the vocational angle, 


?* Four Essentials of Education.’ Thomas Jesse Jones. 


——— 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 211 


brought to light some very interesting opinions about the possibility of 
dealing with agriculture as a cultural subject in schools. In the first report 
of the Committee presented at the Toronto Meeting occur the words : ‘ the 
undoubted value of agriculture as an educational instrument has been 
overlooked in the past.’ In various parts of Canada the view has been 
deliberately taken that the study of agriculture has definitely a cultural as 
well as a vocational value. In nearly all the newer countries agriculture 
forms part of the curriculum of the secondary schools, where, however, it 
is regarded by many as more vocational than cultural, because of course 
these countries are very largely rural, and depend more directly upon 
agriculture for their existence. Now, although as I have indicated, the 
Committee was concerned with the training of boys and girls who definitely 
propose to go into farming overseas, these interesting opinions about the 
value of agriculture as an educational subject emerge. One further 
sentence may be cited. ‘Overseas opinion . . . is much better informed 
and more advanced than in England, with the consequence that in the 
Overseas Dominions a considerable body of experience has been accumu- 
lated, which has led the way to a definite adoption of practical work on 
the land, wherever possible, for the urban school equally with the rural 
school.’ That is an indication of the lengths to which they are prepared 
to go in those countries where.a considerable, or it may be an overwhelming, 
number of their pupils go into an agricultural career. The case in this 
country is, of course, quite different, but nevertheless I would urge that, 
in spite of the small number of those who take up farming as a profession 
at home, and in spite of the comparatively small number of those who go 
abroad and do so in the Dominions or elsewhere, a study of agriculture 
as a cultural subject is more than worth while because of the basal character 
of the industry, the fundamental importance of its products, and the 
particular position of this country with respect to the food supplies of its 


_ people. The question naturally arises as to what is meant by the study 


of agriculture in this connection, and, while it is a question to which it is 
difficult to give a final answer, it is one to which a reply can best be given 
by considering how this subject could be developed throughout the schools 
and Universities. Nature study, illustrated and taught by means of school 
gardens, forms an integral part of the teaching of most elementary schools, 
and it is a matter for regret that in many preparatory schools this teaching 
is not attempted. If this study be properly carried out, I think that it 
meets the first demand which I would make that, in the elementary stage, 
children should have some slight acquaintance with the plants and animals 
with which they are surrounded and which supply them with the necessaries 
of life. In the next stage, that of the public and secondary schools, formal 
science is a definite part of the instruction provided and of the syllabus 
for the school certificate and for admission subsequently to the 
Universities. In my opinion, much of this science is too formal, too 
broken up into separate subjects which appear to have little connection 
with each other, and no connection at all with the facts and problems 
of everyday life. Certain improvements have been made of late, and 
the inclusion of General Science as an examination subject in the 
University Local Examinations and in that of the Oxford and Cam- 
bridge Joint Board are all steps in the right direction. Science for 
P2 


212 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


the ordinary pupil seems to me still to suffer from too much formalism, 
and too great a regard for, and belief in, experimental work in the 
‘laboratory. Too much practical work in the laboratory is impossible 
for the boy or girl to whom science is going to be a profession, but it is 
fatally easy to attach too much importance to the laboratory if the whole 
of scientific education is to be limited by what the pupil can illustrate in 
those laboratory experiments that he has time and ability to perform. 
May I refer to the Presidential Address given to the Education Section by 
Sir Richard Gregory at Hull in 1922, in which he says ‘the essential 
mission of school science is to prepare pupils for civilised citizenship by 
revealing to them something of the beauty and the power of the world in 
which they live,’ and again, ‘ reading or teaching for interest, or to learn 
how physical science is daily extending the power of man, receives little 
attention.’ The whole tenor of his address was a plea for the expansion of 
scientific instruction in this humanising spirit, an end which can, I believe, 
best be brought about by dealing with elementary science in relation to 
plant and animal life, to agriculture, and the food supply of the world. 

I will not weary you with details of suggestions of what I think school 
curricula might be. I only want at this stage to make the suggestion 
that for the average pupil, who will make little or no vocational use of his 
knowledge later in life, science should be approached from the plant and 
animal ends, that is, from the point of view of the environment of each of us, 
and developed into an elementary knowledge of the employment of plant 
and animal by man for his subsistence, of the means whereby these plants 
and animals are made to satisfy man’s ever-increasing needs, and last, but 
by no means least, some slight knowledge of how this country obtains its 
food supply. A development of this kind would not mean the introduction 
of another subject into a curriculum already overcrowded, if it meant 
that elementary science for the normal boy consisted of this work. 
Naturally as the subject developed the applications of science to other . 
industries would find their place, and would form part of a coherent whole, 
but the central idea would remain. 

What now is the part which the Universities must play in a scheme of 
this sort ? They should provide courses which would aim at giving their 
students, and these will represent the specialists in the subject, a general 
knowledge of what agriculture has meant in the past, is meaning to-day, 
and must mean in the future. To accomplish this, as I see it, some 
knowledge of technical processes is necessary, some contact with the soil 
is desirable, and some study of practical agricultural methods is essential, 
but let us be quite clear that this is only a small part of the whole study, 
which will demand far deeper inquiry and far wider reading than is usual 
among students of agriculture in the Universities. So far as I know, no 
University has had an end of this kind in view in framing its agricultural - 
curriculum. The curriculum at Cambridge is largely a modern develop- 
ment of the older methods adapted to suit the needs of that University, 
and to train men to become managers of land. We, in Oxford, have had 
that view in mind also, but we have I think gone farther towards developing 
a course of study along the lines I have indicated. An undergraduate at 
Oxford may take for his final examination in Agriculture three subjects, 
(1) Agriculture from the practical and technical side, (2) Economic Theory 


M.—AGRICULTURE, 218 


and the Economics of Agriculture, and (3) the History of Agriculture in 
Great Britain and Ireland and Comparative Agriculture, this last signifying 
a study of current conditions in the more important agricultural areas of 
the world. A study such as this seems to me to form the foundation of 
such a curriculum as I have in mind, and to represent more nearly than 
anything else a non-vocational agricultural education. This study will 
demand from the student some knowledge of physical science in order that 
he may understand the technical, that is, the manufacturing, process, for 
it is impossible to understand even in the most general way the relations 
of soil and plant, plant and animal without some scientific training, and 
this student of mine must be able to have an intelligent opinion about 
present practices and future developments. It is not, however, on the 
side of physical science that most of his work will lie. The chief develop- 
ment, as I see it, will consist in a wider and deeper study of economic 
science so that finally his knowledge of agriculture will include not only 
the history of the industry in this country, but in the world as a whole, 
and will be a study of economic history and economic geography of the 
first importance. An interesting new departure has been made by the 
University of Bristol in introducing the study of Agricultural Economics 
as an optional subject for the Final Honours Degree in Economics. This 
is all a move in what I consider the right direction, but for my part I would 
go still farther and make a study of the economics of British Agriculture 
not optional, but compulsory, for those taking a degree of this kind. 

Such a course as I have tried to indicate would then run side by side 
with the ordinary vocational and professional course, and would, I hope, 
in time be taken by a large number of persons who had no intention of 
engaging in practical agriculture, but who would form a nucleus of informed 
opinion that could not fail to produce an effect upon the fortunes of the 
industry and upon the whole of rural life. Thus, even more perhaps than 
by creating a class of farming landlords who would play to-day the part 
played by their predecessors of the eighteenth century, would it be possible 
to recreate the countryside, to build up a new rural order, under the 
enlightened leadership of those who have studied fully and carefully the 
problems of country life and the problems of country industry as they 
have varied throughout the centuries. 

I have ventured to put before you what I believe to be the great 
needs of the agricultural community—greater light in its own ranks and 
a public better informed of the needs of the industry and of its own 
requirements in the matter of essential supplies. It may be urged that 
much of what I have said is unreal and bears little relation to facts as they 
are, and, above all, offers no immediate help to the farming community 
in its present need. This last I admit is true. Others with more practical 
experience are attempting that almost daily. Some indeed would soothe 
the sufferings of agriculture with drugs which can afford but a temporary 
relief and, without removing the trouble, lull the sufferer into a false 
sense of security. I have tried to go beyond this, and in so doing have 
come to the conclusion that what is most fundamentally vital to the 
industry and to the whole body corporate is a new attitude of mind 
towards education and a true realisation of the value of cultural studies 
as distinct from vocational training, the worth of which all would, I trust, 


, 


214 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES. 


readily acknowledge. If, and when, this realisation comes to pass there 
will, I believe, develop all over the English countryside a class of landowners 
who are informed about country affairs, a class of farmers who are able 
and willing to pay rates of wages comparable with those which can be 
obtained in other industries, a class of workmen who by their skill and the 
value of their output make this rate of wages possible, and a general 
community which realises the value to itself of a flourishing agriculture, 
and is capable of thinking intelligently about the future of that industry, 
and of facing with knowledge the problems of its own food supply. Then, 
and only then, shall we be able to build up the new rural civilisation 
of which so many have dreamed. 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 


nG: 


Seismological Investigations. — Thirty-first Report of Committee 
(Prof. H. H. Turner, Chairman; Mr. J. J. Suaw, Secretary; Mr. 
C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crompre, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W. 
Dyson, Sir R. T. Guazeproox, Dr. Harotp Jerrreys, Prof. H. 
Lams, Sir J. Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macponaxp, 
Dr. A. Cricuton Mircuett., Mr. R. D. OLpHaw, Prof. H. C. PLUMMER, 
Rev. J. P. Rowianp, 8.J., Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Scuuster, Sir 
Napier Suaw, Sir G. T. Waker, and Mr. F. J. W. WHIpPLe.) 
[Drawn up by the Chairman except where otherwise mentioned. | 


General. 


Tur Milne bequest of £1000 mentioned in the last Report, together with the previous 
bequest from the late Matthew H. Gray, of Lessness Park, Abbey Wood, has been 
placed in the hands of the Official Trustee of Charitable Funds, as a British Association 
Seismological Trust. The income from the Trust will be paid over to the Westminster 
Bank (Oxford branch), and will be at the disposal of the Chairman for the time being 
of the British Association Seismology Committee. The arrangements have involved 
some correspondence and consequent delay, but are on the point of completion. 

A memorial stone to John Milne and his wife was, in November 1926, set up at 
Hakodate, in the graveyard of the Horikawa family, by subscriptions from nincty- 
seven of Milne’s former pupils at Tokyo. Initiative in this matter was taken by 
Prof. Imamura of Tokyo. 

The University of Oxford has now sanctioned the extension of the University 
Observatory by four rooms to the east of the present buildings, together with a 
basement below them jor the reception of the two Milne-Shaw pendulums, which are 
at present, by the courtesy of Prof. Lindemann, mounted in the basement of the 
Clarendon Laboratory. Excavation for the basement has already been made, and 
it is hoped that the work will now go forward without further delay. (See Report 
for 1925.) 

The salary of Mr. J. S. Hughes has been provided, half by Dr. Crombie and (after 
six months’ interva!, during which it fell on the funds of the University Observatory) 
half by the Royal Society. Under his supervision the current reductions have gone 
steadily ahead. (See below under Bulletins and Tables.) 

The telegrams from Fordham University have ceased to come, probably in con- 
sequence of the formation of the Jesuit Seismological Association in the United 
States; but on one or two important occasions very helpful telegrams have been 
received from Helwan, from Hyderabad, and from Perth (W. Australia). A con- 
spicuous instance was the great shock of 1927, May 22d, -22h, in Kansu, Western 
China, which must be put alongside the shocks of 1920, December 16, in the same 
neighbourhood, and those in Japan in 1923, September 1 and 2, as the four greatest 
shocks of recent years. Telegrams from Helwan, Hyderabad, and Perth enabled us 
to fix the epicentre at 35-8° N., 103-4° E., some 2-3° to the west of that of 1920, 
December 16, and this position was communicated to The Times of May 25, with the 
information that the intensity exceeded that of its predecessor. But conditions in 
China are so much disturbed that it was not until June 21 that news was received 
direct from the neighbourhood of this ‘ terrific earthquake.’ A month later, under 
date July 29, Mgr. Buddenbrook, Vicar-Apostolic in Kansu, reported that the ‘ city 
of Kulang has absolutely disappeared. He estimates that the range of the earth- 
quake was seventy miles, and that 100,000 people were killed.” He himself was at 
the time celebrating Mass at Lanchow (the capital of Kansu) and was hurled from 
the sanctuary into the open. (Lhe Times of July 30.) 

Dr. C. Davison has added to our obligations to him by publishing a new work on 
the Founders of Seismotogy (Camb. Univ. Press, 1927, 12s. 6d. net), in which special 
appreciation is accorded to the work of three Englishmen, Michell, Mallet and Milne. 

At the end of the Oxford Meeting of the British Association, our Secretary, 
Mr. J. J. Shaw, was attacked by serious illness, and was ultimately ordered abroad. 


216 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Fortunately the special treatment suggested has been very successful, and Mr. Shaw 
was able to attend the meeting of this Committee on July 4, though he is still in 
the doctor’s hands. 


International. 


The International Scientific Summary has been continued as below, by the help 
of a supplement from the Royal Society, to counteract the effects of the fall in 
the franc. 

The Prague meeting of the Int. Geoph. and Geod. Union has been fixed for 
September 1-10. The Chairman and Secretary of this Committee have been 
nominated as delegates. 


Instrumental. 
(Chiefly from notes by Mr. J. J. Shaw.) 


Mr. Shaw completed the repairs to the Christmas Island machine before leaving 
England; it is now at Colombo, and has been purchased by the Ceylon 
Government. 

As foreshadowed in the last Report, the original Milne-Shaw instrument, set up 
at Bidston in 1914, July 16, and recently replaced by another with larger magnifica- 
tion, has now been set up at Oxford as a N.S. component. It has the same 
magnification as the existing E.W. component, and there is a convenience in having 
the two instruments alike in this respect. When the new basement at present under 
construction at the University Observatory is completed, the two components will 
be mounted on the same pier. At present they are mounted on the two separate 
piers erected in the basement of the Clarendon Laboratory by Mr. C. V. Boys, F.R.S., 
for his Cavendish experiment in the years 1891-1895. (See Phil. Trans. 186 (1895), 
A. pp. 1-72.). The use of this basement has been courteously allowed by Mr. James 
Walker in the first instance (October 1918), and by Prof. Lindemann since his 
appointment in 1919. : 

On April 11, 1927, a second instrument was sent to Copenhagen for installation in 
Greenland. Earthquakes in the Arctic regions are occasionally recorded by European 
instruments and others (for instance, the catalogue of epicentres 1913-0-1920-5, 
published three years ago, contains ten epicentres with latitudes greater than 63°, of 
which the most active is that of 72:0° N., 2:8° W., from which six shocks are recorded, 
none of the other epicentres being credited with more than one) ; but it is suspected 
that others escape detection, and a pair of components in Greenland will be very 
valuable. 

The following note is contributed by the Superintendent of Kew Observatory :— 

‘An event of some importance to British seismology, the transfer by the 
Meteorological Office of the Galitzin seismographs from Eskdalemuir Observatory to 
Kew Observatory, should perhaps have been mentioned in last year’s Report. The 
instruments, which were provided in 1910 by the generosity of Prof. (now Sir Arthur) 
Schuster, were moved in October 1925. The pendulums were installed at Kew 
Observatory on a massive concrete pillar in the old magnetograph room, accom- 
modation for the photographic recording apparatus being provided in the room 
formerly occupied by the Milne seismograph. The instruments have been in 
continuous operation since the beginning of 1926. 

‘The Observatory now supplies the Air Ministry with information regarding 
important earthquakes for communication to the Press, and messages in the 
international seismological code are sent out by the Meteorological Office with 
telegrams of the daily weather service. At the beginning of 1927 the issue of a 
monthly builetin, to take the place of that issued previously from Eskdalemuir, was 
inaugurated. Fuller details of the seismological records, including measurements of 


microseisms, are being published in the Observatories’ Yearbook of the Meteorological 
Office.’ 


Bulletins and Tables. 


The International Seismological Summaries for October to December 1922, and 
the whole of 1923, have been printed and distributed. The number for January- 
March 1924 is passed for press, and the MS. for April-June 1924 is being read with 
the original records. [It has been the custom, almost from the first, to treat such 
MS. as printer’s proof, so that very few corrections are needed after it is set in type.] 
During the year the great earthquakes of 1923, September 1 and 2, in Japan, came 


2 


ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 217 


under discussion, naturally adding a good deal both to the work of the year and the 
printing bill. 

The discussion of the P and § residuals for the five years 1918-1922 has been 
completed and published in the Geoph. Supp. to the Monthly Notices R.A.S. Copies 
of the paper will be distributed to the various stations along with the number of the 
Summary for 1924, January-March. One incidental outcome of the discussion is 
that there seems to be near A=57°, a minimum frequency of records both in P and S. 
The following are the ratios of totals (on an arbitrary scale) to the areas of successive 
zones of the earth’s surface, 5° in width :— 


A ‘alti a pyle A ee ae B es 
| 

° | ° / ' o | ° | | | 
2-5 | 2-2 | -92 || 27-5 | -64| 57] 52-5 | -21| -21 | 77-5 | -31 | -31 | 
7-5 | 1-2 | -76 || 32:5 | -43| -40 || 57-5 | -17| -18 || 825 | -38| -42 | 
12-5 | 0-75| -44 || 37-5 | -31| -29 || 62:5 | -19 | -20 || 87-5 | 31 39 
17-5 | 0-71| -56 || 42-5 | -23| -21 || 67-5 | -18| -20| 925 | -15| -15 
22-5 | 0-65) -60 || 47-5 | -24| -24 | 725 | -23| -25 | 97-5 | -11 | -11 


The phenomenon may, of course, be a simple consequence of the particular dis- 
tributions of epicentres and observatories. The former tend to be near the 
Philippines, and the latter in Europe, at distances not far from 90°; and this may 
cause the rises in the ratio after A=67-5°, which might continue to fall with a more 
uniform distribution. But the point is worth further examination. 

The corrections to the adopted tables may be represented as follows :— 

Firstly, if we take the simple maximum of the residuals in P we get 


CORRECTIONS TO TABLES OF P. 


It will be seen that besides the well-known negative errors after 85°, there is a 
considerable error near 35°. But this is accompanied by a curious apparent 
duplicity in the maximum, which is even more striking in the case of S than of P. 
The results may, therefore, be presented more fully as follows :— 


CoRRECTIONS TO ADOPTED TABLES FoR P anp S. 


| P 8 oe Ste os 8 [S] 
° | s s s s iS s s s 
PE Fei hie eo ot 57-5 cy 8 
oc Pluie 2k eeeenlellal (a I 62-5 Ae EG) bp Bea tee 
be oii--OG a )\) 2) 6 67-5 oie IGM Weer gary (2s 
ice | tie = Pete = 19 72:5 4+ 1-8 0 + 25 
22-5 || 105 —2-5 | 10:7 —168 Wil Neem Wa Be eae 
27-5 —1:5 —19-9 | +3-0 —17-3 82-5o th cb O80.) = 5 — 1 
32-5 —63 —285 | 4-8 —28-6 Sita heal oxdadtdber ifyo=5 Be ots BA 
37:5 —5-0 —21-0 | —7-0 —30-3 92:5 || —10-2 | —13 — 57 
42-5 0-0 —18-6 | —1-5 —28-2 97-5 —12-8 | —22 — 80 
47-5 Beal A Sincere hae Abedin BAO,» (po ORS —166 | —30 —103 
525 || 408 — | +425 —70 | 1075 || —17-8 —126 


218 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


It will be seen that the adopted tables are in the main correct with the following 
exceptions :— 

(a) For values of A from 20° to 50° there appears to be a double maximum in 
both P and S. The principal maximum is not far from the tables, though both Pand § 
tables require a small negative correction near A=35°. The subsidiary maximum 
may either be real and distinct, involving a considerable departure from the tables, 
in which case the question arises which are the true Pand§. Or it may bethat the 
duplicity of maximum is spurious, and in that case the correction to tables must lie 
between the two values, much nearer the numerically smaller. 

The most interesting hypothesis is that the weaker and earlier maximum represents 
the true P and §, or at any rate provided the angles of emergence measured by 
Galitzin. If that is so, there is no difficulty in explaining why he could not reconcile 
his values for the angle of emergence with the adopted tables for P, for the corrections 
indicated above introduce a point of inflexion into the graph of dP. 

(6) For values of A from 70° to 115° observations of S are liable to be observations 
of [S] or S,P.S, Gutenberg’s wave which goes through the central core of the earth 
as P. Attention was drawn to this phenomenon in the last Report. 

Various suggestions have been made for the improvement of the existing tables, 
many of them based on the results for a single earthquake. The present discussion 
of the results for a large number of earthquakes scattered over the earth during five 
years suggests that there are several difficult questions to be considered before any 
change in the adopted tables is made. Any such change is bound to cause confusion, 
especially if it is made while our knowledge is still imperfect. 


Deep Focus. 


From the above-mentioned discussion of the large earthquakes in 1918-1922 the 
cases of abnormal focus were excluded. They represent another fundamental 
question on which opinion is divided. The cases of abnormal focus are a small 
percentage of the whole, but are by this time sufficiently numerous to constitute a 
considerable body of evidence in favour of the hypothesis put forward. The following 
is a summary of the cases. The four quarters of the year are denoted by I, II, III, IV. 


Caszes or ApnormalL Focus. 


High Focus. | Deep Focus. 
Near.) |= Total. : Total. 
1. ean: (| eam), ev. H4-4| - T.o| 00, om 
1916 ile ake pine eo eas enh ae Re se, 
1917 ies Dlg et a Dall ee 1 | tes 1 
1918 Ep ge 4 1 5 ee 4 8 
1919 au oe 1 4 8 3 3 seis 
1920 Be ee 0 6 4 4 2 | 16 
1921 1 | Sees a 1 4 2 2 Shove 
1922 DS ee 1 Doe 4 Sol + dik 
1923 a Y oa|| ee ys 1 1 1 5 SAGE 
Totals. | 2 6.) 4 lee Bei). UBedh 24) | 16. .[9 105 |. Sees 


In many of these cases a full discussion is given (in the International Summary 
itself) of the evidence for the hypothesis. Three principal points are generally 
examined with care. 

(1) The time T, is shown to be well determined by the observations at a number 
of stations near the epicentre. 

(2) The time of transmission to stations at the opposite side of the earth, as 
measured from this T,, is shown to differ sensibly from the average time, being less 
than the average when the focus is deep, greater when the focus is higher than normal. 

(3) The observations at stations well distributed in azimuth round the epicentre 
are all shown to require correction of one sign, applied as corrections to A. The 
equations for correction to the position of the epicentre are usually solved both with 
and without the corrections to A, and it is shown that one solution will work, the 
other will not. 


4 
’ 


ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS, 219 


So far no other hypothesis has been put forward for the explanation of any of 
these 15+-78=93 anomalous cases. While it is not claimed that all of them are 
convincing in themselves, it is claimed that a large number require some special 
hypothesis for an adequate solution ; and that when a single hypothesis satisfies them 
all, the cumulative evidence in favour of it is strong, and can only yield to some 
alternative which is equally or more successful. 


Near Earthquakes. 
By Dr. Harold Jeffreys. 

When many good seismological stations exist within about 1000 km. of the 
epicentre of an earthquake their records can be used to give information about the 
upper layers of the earth’s crust. It was discovered by A. Mohorovidié in 1909 that 
in such cases the records show not only the P and S of ordinary seismology, but also 
a pair of compressional and distortional waves that have travelled in an upper layer ; 
their velocities are lower, but their amplitudes greater. Further work by Gutenberg, 
Conrad and the present writer has shown that three layers are really concerned, which 
probably correspond to the granitic, basaltic, and ultrabasic layers of geologists. The 
foci in all cases yet investigated have been in the uppermost, or granitic, layer. Two 
waves travel in this direct from the focus to the observing station ; these are denoted 
by P, and §,, and their velocities are about 5-4 and 3-3 km./sec. Others called P* 
and §* seem to be transmitted down into the intermediate layer, travel along in this, 
and come up again to the surface. Their velocities in the intermediate layer are 
about 6-3 and 3-7 km./sec. Others go right down into the deepest layer. These are 
the ordinary P and §. Their velocities are 7-8 and 4:35 km./sec. Thus six distinct 
pulses are recognisable on the seismograms. 

The times of transmission are linear functions of the epicentral distance, but the 
constant term is different for every wave, owing to the time spent in the upward and 
downward journey. The differences indicate that the granitic layer is about 10 km. 
and the intermediate one about 20 km. thick; these estimates agree with those 
made by other means. 

The Jersey and Hereford earthquakes of 1926 have supplied much information 
in this work. Those used previously were all on the Continent of Europe. 

The velocity of compressional waves in the uppermost layer agrees with that 
inferred for granite by L. H. Adams and EH. D. Williamson from laboratory measures 
of its compressibility and density. That for the intermediate layer agrees. with 
Adams’s and Gibson’s experimental value for tachylite, or vitreous basalt ; and that 
for the lower layer with that of the same authors for dunite, an ultrabasic rock con- 
sisting mainly of olivine. Holmes has suggested the alternative succession granite- 
diorite-eclogite. The intermediate layer is not crystalline basalt; that would give 
a velocity of about 6-9 km./sec. 

The observed times of the waves are in accordance with the laws of geometrical 
optics, but theory and observation both indicate that the amplitudes do not follow 
these laws, and that diffraction plays an important part. It affects the amplitudes 
but not the times of arrival. 


The Palestine Earthquake. 


The Palestine earthquake on July 11 must be classed as one of those which excite 
widespread interest and sympathy rather on account of the nature of the locality 
than because of special violence. Though undoubtedly disastrous, the intensity of 
the indications on the Oxford seismograms was far less than that of the China earth- 
quake on May 22, at a far greater distance. The Acting High Commissioner for 
Palestine reported on July 18 [The Times of July 19] that in Palestine 200 people had 
been killed, 356 seriously injured, and 375 slightly injured. At a rough estimate 
1000 houses were seriously damaged. In Transjordan 68 killed, 102 injured. 

On July 22 and 23 there followed several shocks, one of them considerable, in 


Persia. 
The British Earthquakes. 


On 1926, August 15, one of the comparatively rare British earthquakes occurred 
near Hereford and Iudlow. On 1927, January 24, there was an earthquake in 
Scotland, and on 1927, February 17, there was one in Jersey. The Hereford and 
ny earthquakes have been carefully discussed by Dr. Harold Jeffreys as mentioned 
above. 


220 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Report of Committee (Prof. 
J. W. Nicnotson, Chairman; Dr. J. R. Atrey, Secretary; Dr. D. 
Wrincu-Nicuotson, Mr. T. W. CuHaunpy, Dr. A. T. Doopson, 
Prof. L. N. G. Fiton, Dr. R. A. FisHer, Profs. E. W. Hopson, ALFRED 
Lopes, A. E. H. Love, and H. M. Macponatrp). 


REFERENCE was made in previous Reports to the desirability of publishing various 
tables of functions. The tables in this Report include the Confluent Hypergeometric 
Function, M (a. y.«), y=1, 2, 3, 4 and a= —4 to +4 by 0°5 intervals and further 
values of the function for y=+4, +2; the Exponential, Sine and Cosine Integrals, 
considerably extending the tables calculated by Dr. Glaisher (Phil. Trans., 160, pp. 
367-387, 1870); Zeros of Bessel functions of small fractional order and the Ber, Bei 
and other functions. 
For next year it is proposed to publish tables of 


(a) The Integral Ty(a)=| Se. dt and functions derived by repeated integration 
of I,(x), z from 0:0 to 7-0 by 0-1 intervals to ten decimal places. 


(b) The Derivatives of Bessel Functions,” 2 aula) and By —y(x), where vy = 2n+1 
y) 


ov 2 
x from 0:0 to 10-0 by 0:1 intervals to six places of decimals. 


(c) The first derivative of the Zonal Harmonics, 5 


30 
the order, to six places of decimals. A table of P,,(cos®) to Ps(cos@) has been 
calculated by Prof. A. Lodge (Phil. Trans., 203 A, 1904). 


P»,(cos 0) for large values of 


(d) The hyperbolic sines and cosines, Sinh ma and Cosh m2, x from 0°0 to 4:0 
by 0-01 intervals to fifteen places of decimals. 


A list has been prepared of the tables which have appeared in the Reports of the 
Committee. The functions tabulated include the Circular and Hyperbolic functions, 
Gamma functions, the Exponential, Sine and Cosine Integrals, the Integrals of Fresnel, 
Zonal Harmonics, Riccati-Bessel functions, Bessel and other functions with real, 
imaginary and complex arguments, Lommel-Weber functions, and the Confluent 
Hypergeometric function. In a few cases prefatory notes to the tables give the 
properties of the functions and their applications to physical and engineering problems. 
Some tables from other sources are also included in the list. Before publishing in 
book form it will be necessary to rearrange the tables and remove a number of errors 
which have been discovered. 


The Confluent Hypergeometric Function, M (« . y . 2). 


In the construction of the tables for y=+4, y=+3, two calculations were made 
to ten decimal places for each value of the argument x, M(—}.4.x) and M(—3.4.2). 
Since M(4 . 4 .”)=er, the three values could be checked by the recurrence formula, 


aM(a+1. 7 .%)=(%+20—y)M(a. 7. 2)+(y—a)M(a—1, y. 2). 
The remaining values were obtained from the recurrence formule given in the intro- 
ductory note to the tables published last year. 
Similarly, when « is a positive integer, M(1.4.2) and M(1.3.) were calculated 
for each value of x and the results checked by the formula 


etd -y+1.2)=M(a+1.y.%)—M(a..2). 
The tables are a continuation of those given in last year’s Report. Differential 


equations of the second order which can be solved in terms of the function M («. y . 2) 
are also set out in the 1926 Report. 


er 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. rd h 


oe 


-_ 


0-00 + 1-00000 + + di + 1-00000 
0-02 + 1-04054 + 1:08162 + 1-12324 + 116542 
0-04 + 1:08217 + 1:16654 + 1-25315 + 1:34203 
0-06 + 1-12492 + 1:25487 + 1:38998 + 1-53037 
0-08 + 1-16881 + 1:34672 + 1-53403 + 1-73102 
0-15 + 1-33188 + 1:69760 + 2-09921 -+ 2-53885 
0-25 + 1:59230 + 2-28652 + 3-09300 4+- 4-02282 
0:35 -+ 1-88868 + 2-99405 + 434704 -+- 5-98169 
0-45 4- 2-22553 + 3:-83978 + 5-91442 + 8-53045 
0-55 + 2-60790 + 4-84620 + 7:85762 -+ 11-8077 
0-65 + 3-04145 + 6:03911 + 10-2501 + 15-9800 
0-75 + 3-53249 + 7:44809 + 13-1778 + 21-2471 
0-85 + 4-08810 + 9-10703 + 16-7417 + 27-8475 
0-95 + 4:71620 + 11-0547 + 21-0595 + 36-0657 
1-1 + 5-81390 +14-6161 + 29-2567 + 52-1846 
1:3 + 7-62288 + 20-8441 + 44-3086 + 83-0628 
15 + 9-91880 + 29-2564 -+- 65-7019 + 128-924 
1:7 + 12-8255 -+40-5417 + 95-7892 +196-109 
1-9 + 16-4975 + 55-5915 + 137-724 + 293-393 
M (a . 4.2) 

x a=—1 a=—2 a=—3 a=—4 
0-00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 -+ 0-96000 + 0:92053 + 0-88160 + 0-84318 
0-04 -+ 0-92000 + 0-84213 + 0-76637 + 0-69266 
0-06 + 0-88000 -+ 0-76480 + 0:65428 + 0°54834 
0-08 + 0-84000 -+- 0-68853 + 0°54533 + 0-41011 
0-15 + 0-70000 + 0-43000 + 0-18820 — 0-02712 | 
0-25 + 0-50000 + 0:08333 — 0-25833 — 053274 | 
0-35 -+ 0-30000 — 0-23667 — 0:63287 — 0-90918 | 
0-45 + 0-10000 — 0-53000 — 0-93860 — 1-16815 
0-55 — 0-10000 — 0-79667 — 1-17873 — 1-32099 
0-65 — 0-30000 — 1-03667 — 1:35647 — 1-:37867 
0-75 — 0-50000 — 1-25000 — 1:47500 — 1-35179 
0-85 — 0-70000 — 1:43667 — 1-53753 — 1-25059 
0:95 — 0-90000 — 1-59667 — 1:54727 — 1-08305 
11 — 1-20000 — 1-78667 — 1-46987 — 0-73637 
13 — 1-60000 — 1:94667 — 1-211738 — 013172 | 
15 — 2-00000 — 2-00000 — 0-80000 — 057143 | 
1:7 — 2-40000 — 1-94667 — 0:26027 + 1:31163 | 
1-9 — 2-80000 — 1-78667 — 0-38187 + 2-03331 


222 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 
M («. 4.2) 

@ a=4 a=2 a=$ a=g 

0-00 | + 1:00000 + 100000 | + 1:00000 +  1:00000 
0:02 | + 1:02020 + 1-06101 + 1-10236 + 1:14426 
0:04 | + 1-04081 + 1:12408 + 1:20956 + 1:29730 
006 | + 1:06184 + 1-18926 + 1:32177 + 1-45951 
0-08 ) + 1:08329 -+ 1:25661 + 1:43918 + 1:63129 
015 | + 1-16183 + 1:51038 + 1-89379 + 2-31414 
0:25 -+ 1-28403 + 1-92604 + 267505 + 354177 
0-35 + 1:41907 + 2-41241 + 3-63754 +  5-12690 
0:45 + 1-56831 + 2-97979 + 4-81472 + 7:14931 
0:55 + 1:73325 + 3-63983 + 6-24549 + 9-70402 
0:65 | + 1:91554 + 4-40574 + 7-97503 + 12-9040 
0-75 | + 2-11700 + 5+29250 +10:0558 + 16-8831 
0-85 + 2-33965 + 631705 + 12:5483 + 21-7997 
0:95 -+- 2-58571 -+- 7-49856 +15:5229 + 27-8410 
1-1 + 3:00417 + 9-61333 +21:0692 + 39-5044 
13 + 366930 + 13-2095 +31:0178 + 61-3937 
1:5 + 4-48169 -+ 17-9268 + 44-8169 + 93-2191 
1-7 + 5:47395 + 24-0854 + 63-7897 +138-930 

1-9 + 6:68589 +32:0923 +89-6801 -+203-907 

M (a .4.2) 

te a=—4 a=—3 a=— a=—f 

0:00 -+ 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 
0:02 + 0:97993 + 0:94020 + 0-90100 + 0:86232 
0-04 + 0:95973 + 0:88080 + 0:80399 + 0:72926 
0:06 + 0-93939 + 0°82181 + 070896 + 0-60075 
0-08 + 0-91892 + 0°76322 + 061591 + 0-47674 
0-15 + 0:84613 + 0-56136 + 0:30568 + 0:07733 
0-25 + 0:73904 + 0-28179 — 0 09638 — 0:40348 
0:35 + 0:62806 + 0:01273 — 045099 0-78481 
0:45 + 0:51295 — 0:24556 0:75919 — 1:07334 
0:55 + 0:39344 — 0-49286 1-02204 — 1:27566 
0:65 + 0-26925 — 0:72891 — 1:24063 — 1-39826 
0-75 -+ 0-14006 — 0:-95346 — 1-41605 — 1-44753 
0-85 + 0:00554 — 1-16622 1-54940 1-42972 
0:95 — 0:13467 — 1-36692 — 1-64183 — 1-+28767 
1-1 — 0:35650 — 1-64468 — 1-70625 — 1-13193 
13 — 0:67606 — 1-96986 — 1-65980 — 0-68217 
1:5 — 1-02641 — 2-24084 — 1-47103 — 0:09401 
1:7 — 1-41211 — 2-45455 — 1-15002 + 0:58877 
1-9 — 1-83845 — 2-60757 — 0-70722 + 1:32431 


dene all 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 223 


M (a. 2.2) 
a=1 ; a=2 a=3 a=4 
+ 1:00000 -+- 1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 
+ 1:01344 + 1:-02699 -+ 1:04065 + 1:05441 
+ 1:02710 + 1:05463 + 1:08261 + 1-11103 
+ 1-04098 -- 1:08295 + 1-12593 + 1:16994 
+ 1:05508 + 1-11195 + 1:17064 + 1-23121 
+ 1:10627 + 1-21907 + 1:33871 + 1:46546 
+ 1-18459 + 1:38844 + 1:61296 + 1-85964 
+ 1:26954 + 1-57911 +. 1-93284 + 233521 
+ 1:36170 + 1:79361 + 2-30515 + 2-90670 
+. 1-46173 |} + 2-03481 + 2-73766 + 3:59099 
+ 1-57034 + 230589 +. 3-23920 + 4-40767 
+ 1:68832 + 2-61041 + 3-81983 + 5:37950 
+ 1:81653 + 2-95231 + 449100 + 6:53278 
-+ 1:95589 + 3-33605 + 526571 + 7-89801 
+ 2-18814 + 4-00102 + 6:65480 +10:4218 
+ 2-54726 -+ 5:08507 + 902482 +14-9055 
+ 2:97293 + 6-44587 + 12-1485 +21-0741 
+ 3-47810 + 8-15181 + 16-2493 + 29-5059 
-+ 4-07829 + 10-2879 +21-6138 +40-9655 
M(a. $. 2) 
oe | a=—l a=—2 a=—3 a=—4 
ee 2 | 
| ) | 
000 =| + 1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 + 1:00000 
0-02 =| -- 0:98667 | + 0:97344 + 0:96032 + 0-94730 
004 | + 0:97333 + 0:94709 + 0:92128 + 0:89587 
006 | + 0-96000 + 0:92096 + 088286 + 0:84569 
0-08 -+ 0:94667 + 0-89504 + 084508 + 0:79675 
_— 015 -+ 090000 | + 0:80600 + 071774 + 0:63498 
0:25 + 083333 | + 0:68333 + 0-54881 + (-42864 
0-35 | + 0:76667 | + 0:56600 + 0:39473 + 0-24985 
045 | + 0:70000 | + 045400 -+- 025506 + 0-09692 
0:55 + 0:63333 | + 0:34733 + 012932 — 0-03182 
0:65 + 056667 | -+- 0-24600 + 0:01708 — 013801 
0:75 + 0:50000 | + 015000 — 0:08214 — 0-22321 
0:85 + 0:43333 + 0:05933 — 0-16879 — 0-28899 
0:95 + 0:36667 — 0:02600 — 0-24432 — 0:33752 
1-1 + 0:26667 — 0:14400 — 0:33341 — 0-:37818 
1:3 + 0-13333 — 0:28267 — 0-41539 — 0°38387 
1:5 ) + 0:00000 — 0:40000 — 0-45714 — 0:34286 
1:7 — 0:13333 — 0:49600 — 0-46232 — 0:26522 
1-9 — 0:26667 — 0-57067 — 043459 — 0:16038 


4 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M (a. 3.2) 

% a=% w=5 a=F a=% 
0-00 + 100000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 
0:02 + 1-00671 + 1:02020 + 1-03380 + 1:04752 
0-04. + 1-01349 + 1:04081 + 1:06857 + 1:09676 
0-06 + 1:02037 + 1:06184 + 1-10431 + 1-14780 
0:08 + 1:02732 + 1:08329 -+ 1-14106 + 1:20069 
0-15 + 1:05233 + 1:16183 + 1:27802 + 1-40117 
0-25 + 1:08997 + 1:28403 + 1:49803 + 1-73343 
0:35 + 1-13001 + 1-41907 -- 1:75018 +. 2:12765 
0:45 -+- 1:17262 + 1:56831 + 2-03881 + 2-59399 
0:55 + 1:21801 + 1:73325 -+- 2-36878 + 3:14412 
0-65 + 1-26638 + 1-91554 + 2-74561 -+- 3:79149 
0-75 + 1:31796 + 2-11700 + 3-17550 + 455155 
0:85 + 137300 + 233965 + 366545 + 5:44202 
0-95 + 1-43178 + 2:58571 + 4:22333 + 6-48324 
1-1 -+- 1-52757 + 3:00417 + 5:20722 + 8:37962 
13 + 1:67129 + 366930 + 6:84935 + 11-6830 
15 + 1-83603 + 4-48169 + 896338 + 16-1341 
la + 2-02531 + 5-47395 + 11-6778 + 22-1002 
19 + 2+24325 + 6:68589 + 15-1547 +30-0598 

M (a. 3. 2) 

x a=—4 a=—$% a=—3 a=—f 
0-00 -+ 1:00000 + 1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 
0-02 + 0:99332 + 0:98004 + 0:96687 + 0:95380 
0:04 + 0-98661 + 0:96016 + 0:93413 + 0-90852 
0-06 + 0-97988 + 0-94036 -+- 090179 + 0°86416 
0-08 + 097312 + 0:92064 + 0:86985 + 0-82071 
0:15 + 0-94923 + 0:85227 -+ 0-76117 + 067569 
0:25 + 0-91451 + 0:75633 + 061421 + 0:48700 
0:35 + 0:87904 + 0:66246 + 0:47689 + 031917 
0:45 + 0-84279 -+- 0:57070 -+- 0-34905 + 0-17125 
0:55 + 0:80573 + 0-48108 + 023056 + 0:04228 
0:65 + 0-76781 + 0:39363 + 0-12126 — 0:06868 
0:75 + 0:72901 + 0:30839 + 0-02099 — 0:16258 
0-85 -+- 0:68927 + 0:22540 — 0:07040 — 0:24032 
0:95 + 0:64856 + 0:14469 0:18640 — 032406 
1-1 + 0:58554 + 0-02798 — 0:26105 — 0:36991 
1:3 + 0:49762 — 011925 0:37601 — 0-41428 
1:5 + 0:40481 — 0-25660 — 0-45901 — 041338 
1:7 + 0:30660 — 0-38369 — 0-51141 — 0:37389 
1-9 + 0:20240 — 0:50009 — 053461 — 0:30225 


see P.4 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 225 


M («.—4.2) 

| 

| 
x a=1 a=2 a=3 a=4 | 
0:00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 -+ 1-00000 + 1:00000 
0:02 + 095838 + 091511 + 0:87018 -+- 0:82357 
0:04 + 091343 + 0:82010 + 071985 a 0:61249 
0-06 + 0:86501 + 0°71443 + 0:54763 oa 0:36398 
0-08 + 0-81299 + 0-59751 + 0:35207 + 0:07511 
0-15 + 0:-60044 + 0-09116 — 0-53861 “= 1-:30026 
0:25 + 020385 — 0:93941 — 2-48591 — 4-49732 
0-35 — 0:32207 — 2-41791 5:46084 _ 9-64802 
0:45 — 1:00298 — 4-45878 — 9-78176 — 17-4592 
0-55 — 1:86869 — 7-19951 — 15°8429 — 28-8314 
0:65 — 2:95388 — 10-8047 — 24-1298 — 44-9039 
0:75 — 4:29873 — 15-4709 — 35:2376 — 67-1082 
0:85 — §-94977 — 21-4317 — 49-8927 — 97-2333 
0:95 — 7:96078 — 28-9647 — 68-9778 — 137-503 
1-1 —11-7906 — 43-9461 —108°311 — 223-117 
1:3 —18-8195 — 73-0141 —188:217 — 404-180 
15 — 28-7564 —116-526 —313-631 — 700403 
1:7 — 42-6068 —180:448 — 506-132 —1172-90 
1:9 —61-6905 —272:938 —796:289 —1911:18 

M (a. —4.2) 

| 
x  — i | “a=—2 a=—3 =—4 
0-00 + 1:00000 + 1:00000 + 1:00000 + 1:00000 
0-02 -+ 1:04000 + 1:07840 | + 1-11522 + 1:-15049 
0-04 + 1:08000 + 1:15360 | + 1:-22097 + 1:28228 
0-06 + 1-12000 + 1:22560 / + 1:31738 + 1:39589 
0:08 + 1:16000 + 1:29440 + 1:40457 + 1-49182 
O15 | + 1:30000 + 1:51000 | + 1:63900 + 1:69546 
0:25 + 1-50000 + 1:75000 -+- 1:79167 + 1:66250 
0-35 | + 1-70000 + 1-91000 + 1:74433 + 1-:30133 
0:45 + 1:90000 + 1-99000 + 1-51300 + 0-66826 
0-55 + 2-10000 + 1:99000 + 1-11367 — 0-18294 
0-65 -- 2°30000 + 1:91000 + 056233 — 1:20107 
0-75 + 2-50000 + 1-75000 — 0:12500 — 2-33750 
0-85 + 2-70000 + 1:51000 | — 093233 — 3:54614 
0-95 + 2-90000 + 1-19000 — 1:84367 — 4-78347 
1-1 + 3-20000 + 0-56000 — 3:37067 — 6-60437 
1-3 + 3-:60000 — 056000 | — 5:62133 — 8-77184 
1:5 -+- 4-00000 — 2:00000 8:00000 —10-4000 
1:7 -+ 440000 — 3-76000 —10:3787 —11-2636 
1:9 --- 480000 — 584000 — 12-6293 —11-1782 


1927 Q 


2°26 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 
M (a .—4.2) 

a | a=j a=§ a=} 

| 

| 
0-00 + 100000 = + 1-:00000 + 1-00000 — 1-00000 
0:02 + 0:97939 ,; o+ 0-93695 -- 0-89286 ) + 0-84709 
0-04 + 0°95755 + 0-86762 + 0-77085 + 0-66707 
0-06 + 0-93442 + 0-79171 -- 0:63309 + 0:45795 
0-08 + 0-90996 — 0-70890 -- 0:-47863 + 0-21763 
0-15 + 0-81328 + 0-36017 — 0-20797 — 0-90221 
0-25 + 0-64201 — 0-32101 — 1-65853 — 342942 
0°35 + 0:42572 — 1:26297 — 3°80925 _ 7-39808 
0-45 + 0:15683 — 2-52498 — 6°85823 — 13-2926 
0:55 — 017333 = 417714 | — 11-0472 21-7216 
0:65 — 0-57466 6:30213 | — 16:6697 33-4448 
0-75 — 1:05850 — 8-99725 — 24-0809 — 49-4055 
0-85 — 1-63775 12-3767 — 33-7089 — 70-7684 
0-95 — 2-32714 — 16-5744 — 46-0679 — 98-9658 
1-1 — 3°60500 — 24-7543 — 71-1066 — 158-016 
1:3 —  5-87087 — 40-2155 — 120-862 | — 280-485 
15 — §8-96338 — 62-7436 — 197-194 — 476-852 
1-7 — 13-1375 —:- 95:0277 — 311-913 — 784-276 
1:9 — 18-7205 — 140-671 — 481-456 — 1256-30 

M (a. —4.2) 

x a=—} a=—3 a=—3 a=—f 
0-00 + 1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1:-00000 
0:02 + 1-02020 + 1:05940 + 1-09701 + 1-13305 
0:04 + 1:04081 + 1:11759 + 1-18805 + 1-25237 
0:06 + 1-06184 + 1-17456 + 1-27318 + 1-35826 
0-08 + 1:08329 + 1:23031 + 1:35243 + 1-45097 
0-15 + 1-16183 + 1-41567 + 1-58408 + 1:67579 
0-25 + 1-28403 + 1:65354 + 1-79444 + 1-74625 
0:35 + 1:41907 + 1-85871 + 1-86762 + 1-55193 
0-45 + 1:56831 + 2-02997 + 1:80896 + 1-12569 
0-55 + 1:-73325 + 2-16604 + 1:62390 + 0-49965 
0:65 + 1:91554 + 2-26556 + 1:31798 — 0-29484 
0-75 + 2-11700 + 2-32709 + 089691 — 1-22716 
0:85 + 2-33965 + 2-34907 + 0:36649 — 2-26749 
0:95 + 2-58571 + 2-32985 — 0:26730 — 3:38678 
1-1 + 3:00417 + 2:21987 — 1-39843 — 515217 
1:3 + 3-66930 + 1-91154 — 3:21009 — 7:52558 
1:5 + 448169 + 1-40245 — 532009 — 9-73319 
1-7 + 547395 + 0-67278 7-67269 | —11-5828 
1:9 6-68589 — 0-30020 —10-2090 — 12-8964 

| 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 227 


Pra aries 


M(a. — 
a=1 a=2 a=3 a=4 

+ 1:00000 +  1-00000 + 100000 100000 
+ 0-98722 + 0-97502 aE 0:96342 = 0-95244 
+ 0:97564 + 095377 + 0:93458 Ss 0-91824 
+ 0:96540 + 0-93682 + 0-91492 + 0-90036 
+ 0-95664 + 0:92477 + 0-90600 + 0:90199 
+ 0-93996 + 0-93084 + 0:98470 + 1:11473 
+ 0-96602 + 1-12259 ae 153691 ae 228646 
+ 1-07515 + 1:63933 + 2-91353 = 5-16473 
+ 1:30089 + 2:63853 + 5-57305 oe 10-8108 
+ 1-68519 + 432501 | + 10-1341 + 20-7056 
+ 228001 +  6:-96206 + 17-4183 + 36-8766 
+ 314936 + 10-8848 + 28-5036 + 62-0577 
+ 437154 + 16-5162 + 44-7887 + 99-8876 

+ 604183 + 24-3861 + 68-0721 +  155:157 

+ 9-64643 + 41-8736 + 121-301 + 284-921 

-+ 17-3102 + 80-5891 | + 243-710 + 593-999 

+ 29-7564 + 146-282 | + 459-913 + 1160:32 

+ 49-2877 + 253-796 + 827-412 + 2156-70 

+ 79-1413 -+ 424-863 | + 1433-50 + 3854-33 

M(a. — 

a=—l a=—2 a=—3 a=—4 
-+- 100000 -+- 1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 
+ 1:01333 -+ 1:02720 + 1:04158 + 1:05645 
-+- 1:02667 + 105547 + 1:08623 + 1:11879 
-+ 1:04000 + 1-08480 + 1-13382 + 1-18652 
+ 1:05333 + 1-11520 + 1:18423 + 1:25914 
+ 1-10000 + 1-23000 + 1-38100 + 1:54490 
+ 1:16667 -+- 1:41667 + 1:70833 + 2-00694 
+ 1-23333 -+ 1-63000 + 2:07567 + 2:48268 
+ 1-30000 + 1:87000 -+ 2-46700 + 2-92090 
+ 1-36667 + 2-13667 + 2-86633 + 3:27468 
+ 1:43333 + 243000 --+ 3:25767 + 3:50134 
+ 1:50000 -+- 2-75000 -+ 362500 + 3-56250 
+ 1-56667 -++ 3:09667 + 395233 + 342401 
+ 1:63333 -+ 3:47000 + 4:22367 + 3-05601 
+ 1:73333 + 4-08000 -+ 449067 + 2-01884 
+ 1-86667 + 4-98667 + 4-50133 — 0:37049 
-+- 2:00000 + 600000 -+ 4-00000 — 4.00000 
+ 2-13333 + 7-12000 + 2:85867 — 8-90382 
+ 2-26667 + 8:34667 + 0-94933 —15-0478 

Q 2 


228 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M(a. — §.2) 

x a= a=3 a=3 a=fF 
0-00 + 1-00000 + 1:-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 + 0-99354 + 0-98105 + 0-96914 + 0-95785 
0:04 + 0-98752 + 0:96438 + 0-94383 + 0-92604 
0-06 + 0-98199 + 0-95032 + 0-92499 +  0-90668 
0-08 + 0:97698 + 0-93917 + 0-91365 + 0-90204 
0-15 + 0:96432 + 0-92831 + 0:94910 +  1:03932 
0:25 + 0:96302 + 1:01652 + 1-29294 + 1:86451 
0:35 + 0:98862 + 1:28331 + 2-17213 + 389835 
0-45 + 1:05077 + 1-:80826 + 3°86573 + 7:85351 
0-55 + 1:16128 + 2-69290 + 6°74353 + 14-7081 
0-65 + 1-33449 + 4-06542 + 11-2889 + 25-7817 
0:75 + 1:58775 + 608638 + 18-1268 + 42-8296 
0:85 + 1:94191 + 8-95539 + 28-0571 + 68-1591 
0-95 + 2:42195 + 12-9191 + 42-0954 + 104:774 
1-1 + 3-44478 + 21-5980 + 73-7428 + 189-621 
1:3 + 5:57733 + 40-4308 +145-178 + 388-265 
1:5 + 8-96338 + 71-7070 + 268-901 + 745-753 
1:7 +14:1593 + 121-857 -+475:359 + 1364-20 
1-9 + 21-9297 +200-113 +809:957 + 2401-27 

M (a.—3.2) 
% a=—% a=—F a=—F a=—$ 
| 
0-00 + 100000 | + 1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 
0-02 -+- 1:00660 + 1-02020 + 1-03433 + 1:04895 
0-04 + 1-01306 + 1-04081 + 1:07061 + 1-10225 
0-06 + 1:01936 + 1-06184 + 1:10882 + 1-15975 
0-08 + 1:02551 + 1:08329 + 1:14890 + 1-22103 
0-15 + 1:04565 + 1-16183 + 1:30340 + 1:46181 
0-25 -+- 1:07002 + 1:28403 + 1-55962 + 1-85869 
0-35 + 1:08795 | + 1-41907 + 1:85277 + 2-28855 
0-45 + 1-09782 + 1-56831 + 217730 + 2-71999 
0-55 + 1:09773 | + 1:73325 + 2:52747 + 3-12290 
0:65 + 1:08547 | + 1:91554 + 2-89729 + 3:46841 
0-75 + 1-05850 + 2°11700 + 3:28054 -++ 3-72900 
0-85 + 1:-01385 + 233965 -+ 3-67079 + 3°87846 
0:95 + 0:94809 + 2-58571 + 4:06128 + 3-89199 
1-1 + 080111 + 3-00417 + 4:63207 + 360656 
1:3 + 0-48924 | + 3:66930 + 5:32597 + 2-54389 
15 + 0-00000 | + 4-48169 + 588414 + 0:56405 
1:7 — 072986 | + 5:47395 + 6:23644 — 2:45928 
Lee) — 1:78291 + 6:68589 -+- 6°30564 — 6:62572 


To construct the table of M («.y.2)when « and y are positive integers, two values 
of the function for each value of 2 are required, M(0.1.2)=1 and M(1. 1. a)=ez. 
The remaining entries to ten significant figures were calculated as before from the 
various recurrence formule. When «=—+4, 
M(%.1.2) and M(—4.1. x) were checked from the tables* of Ip(x) and L,(2). 


* A. Lodge. 
* Aldis. 


Proc. Roy. Society, 64, 1899. 


Reports of the Committee, 1893 and 1896. 


3, the independent calculations of 


oe ae 


es a oe 


When « 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 


LY 


229 


a M(a.y.2) can be expressed in terms of these Bessel functions of 


imaginary argument : 


M($.3.2)= 7 
M(«.1.2) 
“ a=1 a=2 
0:00 + 1:00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 ++ 1-02020 + 1-04061 
0-04 + 1:04081 + 1-:08244 
0-06 + 106184 | + 1-12555 
0-08 + 1:08329 + 1-16995 
0-10 + 1:10517 + 1:21569 
0-15 + 1-:16183 + 1-33611 
0-20 ok 1-22140 + 1-46568 
0-25 + 1:28403 | + 1-60503 
0-30 -+ 134986 + 1:75482 
0-35 + 1:41907 =o 1:91574 
0-40 + 1-49182 + 2:08855 
0-45 + 1-56831 + 2-27405 
0-50 + 1:64872 + 2-47308 
0-55 + 1-:73325 + 2°68654 
0-60 + 182212 + 2-91539 
0-65 + 1:91554 + 3:16064 
0-70 a- 2:01375 + 3°42338 
0-75 + 2-11700 + 3°70475 
0-80 + 2:22554 = 4:00597 
0:85 + 2-33965 + 4-32835 
0-90 + 2-45960 + 4-67325 
0-95 + 2-58571 + 5-04213 
10 + 2-71828 + 5-43656 
1-1 + 3-00417 + 6-30875 
12 + 3°32012 + 7-30426 
1:3 + 3-66930 + 8-43938 
1-4 + 4-05520 + 9-73248 
15 + 4-48169 + 11-2042 
-16 -- 4-95303 + 12-8779 
1-7 + 5:47395 + 14-7797 
1:8 a 6:04965 + 16-9390 
1-9 - 6-68589 -- 19-3891 
2-0 + 7-38906 oe 22-1672 
2-2 -|- 9-02501 + 28-8800 
2-4 + 11-0232 + 37-4788 
2-6 + 13-4637 -- 48-4695 
2-8 + 16:4446 + 62-4897 
3:0 + 20-0855 +> 80-3421 
3°5 + -33-1155 + 149-020 
40 + 54-5982 + 272-991 
4:5 + 90-0171 + 495-094 
5-0 + 148-413 + 890-479 
5-5 + 244-692 + 1590-50 
6-0 + 403-429 + 2824-00 
6-5 + 665-142 + 4988-56 
7-0 + 1096-63 + 8773-07 
7-5 + 1808-04 + 15368-4 
8-0 + 2980-96 + 26828:6 


M(h.1.2)=e2lp (5) and 


1-00000 
1:06121 
1-12491 
1-19117 
1-26008 
1-33173 
1-52346 
1-73439 
1:96616 
2°22052 
2°49933 
2°80463 
3°13858 
3-50353 
3°90199 
4-33664 
4-81040 
5°32638 
588791 
649858 
716224 
7-88303 
8-66536 
9-51399 
11-4309 
13-6789 
16-3100 
19-3839 
22-9687 
27-1426 
31-9952 
37-6288 
44-1603 
51-7234 
70-5756 
95-6812 
128-983 
172-998 
230-984 
467-756 
928-169 
+ 1811-59 
+ 3487-71 
+ 6637-27 
+ 12506-3 
+ 23363-1 
+ 43317-0 
+ 79779-9 
+146067-:0 


ie pupa op bot SETS UTE a ee 


ptt EEE EEE EEE E HEE EE TEEE EET E EP EEE EH 
3 
B 


+167419-3 
+322170-6 
+615071-0 


Oo ee ae ae ee (re ee ee ee | 


280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M (a.1.2) 
x “=—1 a=—2 a=—3 a=—4 
0:00 + 1-00000 -+- 1-00000 --+ 1-00000 -- 1-00000 
0-02 + 0-98000 + 0-96020 + 094060 + 0-92119 
0:04 + 0-96000 -+ 0-92080 + 088239 + 0:84476 
0-06 + 0-94000 + 0-88180 + 0:82536 + 0°77066 
0:08 + 0:92000 + 0-84320 + 0-°76951 + 0-69886 
0:10 + 0:90000 + 0-80500 + 0-71483 + 0:67066 
0-15 + 0:85000 + 0:71125 + 0-58319 + 0-46527 
0:20 + 0-80000 -+ 0:62000 + 0:45867 + 031473 
0-25 + 0-75000 + 0-53125 + 0:34415 + 0:17725 
0:30 + 0-70000 + 0-44500 -+- 0-23050 + 0:05234 
0:35 -+- 0:65000 + 0-36125 + 0:12660 — 0-06046 
0-40 + 0-60000 + 028000 + 0:02933 — 0:16160 
0-45 + 0:55000 + 0-20125 — 0:06144 — 0-25154 
0-50 + 0-50000 + 0-12500 — 0-14583 — 0-33073 
0:55 + 0-45000 + 0:05125 — 0:22398 — 0:39960 
0:60 + 0-40000 — 0:02000 — 029600 — 0-45860 
0:65 + 0-35000 — 0:08875 — 0-36202 — 0-50815 
0:70 + 0-30000 — 0-15500 — 0:42217 — 0-54866 
0°75 + 025000 — 021875 — 0-47656 — 0:58057 
0-80 -+ 0-20000 — 0-28000 — 0-52533 — 0:60427 
0:85 + 0-15000 — 0:33875 — 0-56860 — 062017 
0:90 + 0-10000 — 0:39500 — 0:60650 — 0-62866 
0-95 + 0-05000 — 0-44875 — 0°63915 — 0:63015 
1:0 + 0-00000 — 0°50000 — 0:66667 — 0:62500 
1-1 — 0-10000 — 059500 — 0:70683 — 0:59633 
1-2 — 0-20000 — 0-68000 — 0:72800 — 0:54560 
1:3 — 0-30000 — 0-75500 — 0:°73117 — 0:47566 
1-4 — 0-40000 — 0-82000 — 0:71733 — 0:38927 
1-5 — 0-50000 — 0-87500 — 0:68750 — 028906 
1:6 — 0:60000 — 0-92000 — 0-64267 — 0-17760 
1:7 — 0:70000 — 0-95500 — 058383 — 0-05733 
1:8 — 0-80000 — 0-98000 — 0-51200 + 0-06940. 
1:9 — 0-90000 — 0-99500 — 042817 + 020034 
2-0 — 1-00000 — 1-00000 — 0:33333 + 0°33333 
2-2 — 1-20000 — 0-98000 — 0-11467 + 0-59740 
2-4. — 1-40000 — 0-92000 + 0:13600 + 0°84640 
2-6 — 1-60000 — 0:82000 + 0:41067 + 1:06673 
2-8 — 1-:80000 — 0-68000 + 0°70133 + 1:24640 
3-0 — 2-00000 — 0-50000 + 1-00000 + 1-37500 
3°5 — 2-50000 + 012500 -+ 1-72917 + 1:41927 
4-0 — 3-00000 + 1-00000 + 2-33333 + 1-00000 
4-5 — 3-50000 -_ 2-12500 -+ 2-68750 + 0-08594 
5:0 — 4-00000 + 3-50000 + 2-66667 — 1-29167 
55 — 4-50000 + 5-12500 + 2°14583 — 3-03906 
6:0 — 5-00000 -+-_ 7-00000 + 1-00000 — 5:00000 
6-5 — 550000 + 912500 — 0:89583 — 6:95573 
7-0 — 6-00000 -+11-5000 — 3:66667 — 8-62500 
7-5 —: 650000 +14-1250 — 7-43750 — 9-66406 
8-0 — 7-00000 -- 17-0000 —12-3333 — 9-66667 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 231 


M (a.1. 2) 

x a=% a=F a=3 asf 
0-00 + 1-00000 +  1:00000 + 1:00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 + 1-:01008 +  1:03038 + 1-05088 + 1-07159 
0-04 + 1-02030 + 1:06152 + 1-10357 a. 1-14646 
0:06 +  1-03069 + 1:09346 + 1-15812 a 1-22471 
0-08 + 1-04123 + 1.12619 + 1:21458 + 1-30647 
0-10 + 1-05193 te 1-15975 + 1-27301 +: 1:39188 
0-15 + 1-07940 +  1:24738 a= 1-42811 Se 1-62223 
0-20 + 1-10794 + 1-34059 =} 1-59688 So 1-87841 
0-25 + 1-13758 + 1:43971 + 1-78038 + 2°16281 
0-30 -- 1-16838 + 1:54511 + 1-97970 + 2-47803 
0-35 + 1-20038 + 1:65714 -- 2-19606 ae 2:82686 
0-40 + 123365 4+ 177621 | + 243072 | - 3-21234 
0-45 + 1:26822 + 1:90272 + 2-68504 == 3°63774 
0-50 + 1-30417 + 2-03713 + 2-96050 a= 4-10661 
0-55 + 1:34154 + 217989 + 3: 25864 = 462278 
0-60 + 138040 + 233150 + 3-58114 +- 5-19039 
0-65 + 1-42082 + 249248 + 3:92977 -- 5-81389 
0:70 + 1-46286 + 2:66337 + 430645 + 6:49811 
0°75 + 1+50659 + 284477 + 4-71321 + 7+24823 
0-80 + 1+55210 +  3:03727 + 5°15221 ap 8-06988 
0:85 + 1-59944 + 9324154 =e 5°62578 ++ 8-96908 
0-90 + 1:64872 + 345826 + 6-13639 + 9-95237 
0-95 +  1-70000 + 3-68814 LE 6-68668 + 11-0267 
1-0 +  1-75339 +  3°93197 -- 7°27948 + 12-1998 
Ll + 1:-86683 + 4-46473 + 8-60483 Br 14-8750 
1-2 + 1-98984 +  5:06357 + 10-1390 + 18-0510 
13 + 2-12328 + 573635 + 11-9122 “- 21-8121 
1:4 + 2-26810 +  6:49185 + 13-9588 = 26-2560 
ds + 242533 + 7:33986 + 163179 a5 31-4955 
16 + 2-59613 + 829130 | + 19-0338 5 37-6608 
1:7 + 278172 + 9:35836 + 22-1567 + 44-9023 
18 + 298346 + 10-5546 + 25-7439 + 53°3930 
1-9 + 320285 + 11-8952 + 29-8600 Als 63-3324 
2-0 + 3-44152 + 13-3971 + 34-5784 + 74-9499 
2-2 + 3-98401 + 16-9621 + 46-1658 - + 104-314 
2-4 + 4-62733 + 21-4277 + 61-3121 + 144-102 
2-6 + 539122 + 27-0150 + 81-0490 + 197-760 
2-8 + 629933 + 33-9986 + 106-696 + 269-814 
3-0 -+- 738010 + 42-7190 [+ 139-937 + 366-191 
35 -_ 11-0791 + '75°1437 + 271-834 + 770-415 
4-0 -+ 16-8440 + 131-233 + 519-318 + 1583-08 
“5 - 25°8738 + 227-865 + 978-790 + 3191-17 
50 + 40-0784 + 393-770 + 1824-23 + 6330-98 
5-5 + 62-5213 + 677-927 -++ 3368+79 + 12394-7 

6-0 -+ 98-0333 + 1162-67 + 6168-21 + 23975+2 

65 -.154-467 -+-1988-73 +11218-0 + 45922-4 

7-0 +-244-333 +3393-22 -+-20277-9 + 87186-8 

7-5 + 387-747 +5776-96 +36458-2 +164241-5 

8-0 --617-064 +9816:37 + 65236-8 +307246-6 


232 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M («.1.2) 

x a=—#t a=— a=—§% a=--% 
0-00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 +  1-00000 
0:02 + 0-98997 + 0:97008 + 0-95037 + 0-93087 
0:04 + 0-97990 + 0-94030 + 0-90150 + 0-86348 
0:06 + 0:96977 + 0:91068 + 0°85336 + 079780 
0-08 + 0:95959 + 0-88121 + 0:80597 + 0-73381 
0:10 + 0-94936 + 0°85189 + 0°75932 + 0-67151 
0-15 +. 092356 + 0°77925 + 0:64592 + 0-52299 
0-20 + 0-89741 -- 0-70758 + 0:53708 + 0-38460 
0-25 + 0-87092 + 0:63689 + 0:43277 + 0-25607 
0:30 + 0-84408 + 0-56716 + 0-33296 + 0-13712 
0:35 + 0-81687 + 049843 -+ 0-23759 + 0-02751 
0-40 + 0°78929 + 043069 + 0-14662 — 0-07304 
0-45 + 0-76132 + 036396 + 0:06003 — 0-16478 
0-50 + 073296 + 0-29824 — 0:02224 — 0-24798 
0:55 + 0-70420 + 0:23355 — 0:10023 — 0-32288 
0-60 + 067502 + 0-16988 — 0°17397 0-38976 
0:65 + 0:64541 + 0-10727 — 0-24351 — 044884 
0-70 + 0:61537 + 0-04570 — 0-30890 0:50040 
0-75 -+ 0:58487 — 0-01480 — 0:37017 — 054468 
0:80 + 0:55392 — 0-07423 — 0:42737 — 051892 
0:85 + 0:52248 — 013258 — 0-48054 — 061238 
0-90 + 049056 — 018983 — 052972 — 063629 
0:95 + 0-45814 — 0-24597 — 0:57497 — 065390 
1-0 + 042520 — 030100 — 061632 — 066545 
1-1 + 035770 — 0-40765 — 068750 — 0-67132 
1-2 + 0:28796 — 0:50970 — 0:74364 — 065578 
1:3 -- 0-21583 — 0:60704 — 0-78510 — 0-62068 
1-4 + 0-14118 — 0-69956 — 081225 — 056785 
1-5 -+ 0-06386 — 0:78716 — 0-82547 — 0-49907 
1:6 — 0:01630 — 0-86972 — 082515 — 0-41610 
1:7 — 0:09948 — 0-94713 — 0:81168 0:32068 
1:8 — 018585 — 1-01927 — 0-78545 — 0-21449 
1-9 — 027562 — 1-08599 — 0-74686 — 0-09919 
2:0 — 0-36900 — 1-14717 — 0-69634 + 0-02359 
2-2 — 056754 — 1-25233 — 056116 + 0-28527 
2-4 — 078351 — 1:33351 — 0:38334 + 055821 
2-6 — 1-01929 — 1:38936 — 0-16647 + 0-83069 
2-8 —~ 1-270 760 — 1-41839 -- 0:08574 + 1:09152 
3°0 — 1:56163 — 1-41895 + 0-36940 + 1-33016 
3°5 — 2-40973 — 1-28329 -_ 1-18918 + 1-76605 
4-0 — $8-51873 — 0-92302 + 2-11124 -+ 1-86572 
4-5 — 499928 — 029246 - 3-05806 + 1-51950 
5-0 — 17:01438 + 0-66928 -- 3-94092 + 0-64792 
55 — 980795 + 2-04476 -_ 4-65791 — 079513 
6:0 — 13°7333 + 3-94440 + 5:08447 — 2-81743 
6:5 — 19:3375 + 652363 -- 5:07890 — 538529 
7-0 — 27-4321 + 9:99599 + 4-46405 — 8-41543 
7-5 — 39-2484 -+ 14-6616 + 3:02273 11-7681 
8-0 — 56-6583 + 20-9451 + 0-48284 — 15-2367 


‘ 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 233 
M (a .2. 2) 

x o=1 C2 a=3 a=4 
0-00 + 1-00000 +  1:00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 
0-02 + 1-01007 + 1-02020 “+ 103040 + 1:04067 
0-04 + 1:02027 -- 104081 + 1-06163 + 1:08272 
0-06 + 1-03061 + 1-06184 a 1-09369 + 1-12618 
0-08 + 1:04109 + 1:08329 — 1-12662 + 117111 
0-10 + 1:05171 + 1-10517 + 1-16043 + 1-21753 
0-15 + 1:07889 + 1-16183 -- 124897 + 1:34047 
0:20 + 1-10701 +  1-22140 - 1:34354 + 1-47383 
0:25 + 1-13610 + 1:28403 - 1:44453 = 1:61841 
0-30 + 1-16620 + 1-:34986 + 1-55234 + 1-77506 
0°35 + 119734 + 1-41907 + 1:66740 + 1:94471 
0-40 + 1-22956 + 1:49182 os 1-79019 + 2-12834 
0:45 + 1:26292 + 1-56831 + 1-:92118 + 2-32698 
0-50 + 1-29744 +  1-64872 + 2-06090 + 2-54178 
0-55 + 1:33319 +  1:73325 - 2-20990 + 2°77393 
0-60 + 1:37020 + 1-82212 + 2-36875 “= 3:02472 
0:65 + 1-40852 + 1-91554 + 2-53809 - 3°29553 
0-70 + 4-44822 +  2-01375 + 2-71857 - 3:58784 
0-75 + 1-48933 + 2-11700 + 2-91088 + 3-90322 
0-80 + 1:53193 + 2-22554 + 3°11576 + 4-24336 
0-85 + 41-57606 + 233965 “= 3°33400 + 4-61008 
0-90 + 1:62178 + 2-45960 + 3-56642 + 5:00529 
0:95 + 1-66917 + 2-58571 + 3°81392 + 5:43107 
1:0 + 1-71828 + 2-71828 + 4.07742 + 5-88961 
1-1 + 1:82197 -+  3-00417 + 4-65646 + 6-91459 
1-2 + 1:-93343 +  3°32012 + 531219 + 8-10109 
1:3 + 2-05331 +  3-66930 +- 6-05434 -E 9-47290 
1-4 + 2°18229 +  4°05520 + 6:89384 + 11-0572 
1:5 + 2°32113 + 4-48169 + 7-84296 + 12-8849 
1:6 + 2:47065 + 495303 + 8-91546 + 14-9912 
1-7 + 2°63173 + 5:47395 + 10-1268 + 17-4163 
1:8 + 2-80536 +  6-04965 + 11-4943 + 20-2058 
1:9 + 2-99258 +  6:68589 + 13-0375 + 23-4118 
2-0 + 3:-19453 +  17:38906 + 14-7781 + 27-0932 

2 + 3-64773 + 9-02501 + 18:9525 + 36-1602 

+ 4-17632 + 11:0232 + 24-2510 + 48-0610 
+ 4-79375 + 13-4637 + 30-9666 +  63°6386 
+ 551595 + 16-4446 + 39-4672 +  83:9773 
+ 6:36185 + 20-0855 + 50-2138 + 110-470 
+ 9-17584 + 33-1155 + 91-0675 + 216-630 
+ 13-3995 + 54-5982 + 163:794 + 418-586 
+ 19-7816 + 90-0171 + 292-556 + 798-902 
+ 29-4826 + 148-413 + 519-446 -+ 1508-87 
+ 44-3076 + 244-692 + 917-595 + 2824-15 
+ 67-0715 + 403-429 + 1613-72 + 5244-57 
+102-176 + 665-142 + 2826-85 + 9672-27 
+156°519 +1096-63 + 4934-85 +17728-9 
-+-240-939 +1808:04 + 8588-20 +32318-8 
+372-495 + 2980-96 +14904-8 +58625-5 


234 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 7 


M (a. 2.2) 
% “a=—1 a=—2 “=—3 a= —4 
0-00 + 1-00000 +. 100000 +. 1-00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 + 099000 -- 0-98007 +. 0-97020 +. 0-96040 
0-04 +. 0-98000 +. 096027 + 094080 + 0-92159 
0-06 +. 097000 ++ 094060 + 0-91179 -L 088356 
0-08 + 096000 + 092107 +. 088318 +. 0-84632 
6-10 +. 0-95000 -L 0-90167 + 085496 -L. 0-80983 
0-15 -L 0-92500 + 085375 + 0-78611 . 072194 
0-20 + 0-90000 -- 080667 + 071967 . 0-63868 
0-25 + 087500 +. 076042 +. 065560 . 055993 
0-30 +. 085000 + 0-71500 . 059388 . 0-48557 
0-35 + 082500 4. 067042 + 0-53446 + 0-41548 
0-40 + 080000 + 062667 + 047733 +. 034955 
0-45 + 0-77500 058375 642245 + 028765 
0-50 . 0-75000 4+ 0-54167 -. 0:36979 4. 0+22969 
0-55 072500 L 0-50042 L +31932 4+ 0-17553 
0-60 + 070000 046000 + 027100 +. 012508 
0-65 -L 067500 42042 +. 022481 +. 0-07822 
0-70 . 0-65000  0-38167 + 0-18071 + 003483 
0-75 -- 062500 + 034375 + 0-13867 — 0-00518 
0-80 + 0-60000 + 0-30667 -L 0-09867 - — 004192 
0-85 + 057500 1 0-27042 +. 0-06066 — 0-07550 
0-90 + 055000 +. 0-23500 +. 002463 — 010603 | 
0-95 +. 052500 + 020042 — 0-00947 — 013361 
1-0 ++ 0+50000 + 016667 — 0-04167 — 0+15833 
1 +. 045000 + 0-10167 — 010046 — 0-19963 
1-2 040000 +. 004000 — 0+15200 — 0+23072 
13 + 035000 — 0-01833 — 0-19654. — 0+25237 | 
1-4 + 0-30000 — 0-07333 — 023433 — 0+26532 
1-5 +. 025000 — 0+12500 — 0-26563 — 0-27031 
1-6 + 020000 — 017333 — 0-29067 — 0+26805 
1-7 +. 0+15000 — 021833 — 030971 — 0-25923 
1-8 + 010000 — 0+26000 — 0+32300 — 0-24452 
1-9 + 0-05000 — 0-29833 — 0+33079 — 0-22457 4 
2-0 + 000000 — 033333 — 0-33333 — 0-20000 
2-2 — 0+10000 — 0-39333 — 032367 — 0+13945 
2-4 — 0-20000 — 0-44000 — 0+29600 — 0-06752 
2-6 — 0-30000 — 0-47333 — 025233 + 001148 
28 — 0-40000 — 049333 — 0-19467 ++ 009355 
30 — 0-50000 — 0+50000 — 0+12500 - 017500 | 
35 — 0-75000 — 0-45833 + 008854 +L 0-35469 
4-0 — 1-00000 — 0-33333 +. 033333 + 0-46667 ‘ 
4-5 — 1-25000 — 012500 + 057813 +. 047969 : 
5-0 — 1-50000 ++ 0°16667 + 0-79167 +. 037500 ’ 
55 — 1-75000 4+ 054167 +. 0-94271 4 014635 : 
6-0 — 2-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 — 020000 5 
65 — 2-25000 4+ 154167 4 0-93229 — 0-64531 F 
7-0 — 2-50000 +. 2:16667 + 070833 — 1-15833 
15 — 2-75000 -- 287500 +. 0-29688 169531 ‘ 
8-0 — 3-00000 -- 3-66667 — 033333 — 220000 


———————=— Loo CC CCLTST!DLLUL CTC 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 235 


M(a.2.2) 

x a=4 a=3 a=3 a=$ 
0-00 +  1-00000 + 1-00000 4. 1-00000 a 1-00000 | 
0-02 + 1:00503 + 1-01513 + 1-02529 + 1-03553 
0:04 + 1-01010 + 1-03051 + 1-05118 ++ 1:07214 
0-06 + 1-01523 + 1-04614 + 1-07769 AS 1-10986 
0:08 + 1-02041 + 1:06205 + 1-10481 + 1-14872 
0-10 + 1:02564 + 1:07822 + 1-13257 + 1-:18875 
0-15 + 1:03895 + 1-11985 + 1-20487 + 1-29416 
0-20 + 105261 + 1-16326 + 1-28148 + 1:40764 
0:25 + 1:06662 + 1-20854 + 1-36266 + 1-52974 
0:30 +  1-08100 + 1-25576 + 1-44866 ae 1-66108 
0-35 + 1-:09575 —- 1-30502 + 1-53977 ae 1-80228 
0-40 + 1:11080 + 1-35640 + 163627 + 1-95405 
0:45 + 1-12644 + 1-41000 + 1:73848 + 211711 
0-50 + 1-14241 + 1-46593 + 1-84673 + 2:29224 
0-55 + 1-15880 + 1-52428 + 1:96135 + 2-48027 
0-60 + 1:17564 ae 1-58517 ae 2:08272 a 2-68209 
0-65 + 1-19293 + 1-64871 s 2:21122 2-89864 
0-70 + 1:21070 sF 1-71502 + 2-34726 ++ 313093 
0-75 + 1:22896 4 1-78423 + 249125 + 3°38004 
0-80 + 124772 + 1-85647 =F 2-64367 + 3-64709 
0:85 + 1-26701 + 1-93188 + 2-80499 + 3-93330 
0-90 + 1:28684 + 2-01060 + 2-97570 + 4-23998 
0-95 + 1:30723 + 2-09278 4- 3°15636 a. 456849 
1-0 + 1-32819 + 2-17858 + 3°34751 + 4-92030 
1-1 + 1:37193 + 2:36173 + 3:76373 ++ 5:70017 
1-2 + 1-41823 + 2-56144 4 4-22953 - 6:59331 
1:3 + 1:46726 + 2-77929 ++ 4-75066 + 7-61528 
1-4 + 1:51922 + 3-01697 + 5:33356 + 8-78367 
15 + 1:57432 ++ 3-27635 oo 5:98536 + 10-1184 
1:6 + 1:63277 + 3-55949 + 6-71403 + 11-6419 
1:7 + 1-69482 +- 3°86861 + 7:52844 + 13-3797 
1:8 + 1:76073 a 4-20620 “| 8-43848 = 15-3606 
1-9 + 1:83078 — 4-57493 — 9-45513 - 17-6171 
2-0 + 1-90526 4 4-97779 + 105907 os 20-1858 
2:2 + 206888 “ 589913 + 13-2744 + 26-4310 
2-4 + 2-25452 + 7-00015 + 16-6185 + 34-4959 
2-6 + 246558 + 8-31685 + 20-7823 -- 44-8890 
2:8 +  2+70605 + 9-89261 + 25-9633 a 58-2563 
3-0 + 298058 + 11-7796 + 32-4059 —- 75-4181 
3:5 + 3-85394 + 18-3042 + 56-1972 + 142-452 
4:0 + 509068 + 28-5973 + 97-0212 + 265-940 
4:5 + 686068 + 44-8869 + 166-872 + 491-639 
5:0 + 941857 +  170:7383 + 286-093 + 901-349 
5:5 + 13-1508 + 111-892 + 489-248 + 1641-07 
6-0 + 18-6278 + 177-439 + 834-257 + 2967-84 
6-5 + 26°7392 + 282-195 -+ 1419-89 + 5339-13 
7-0 + 38-8235 + 449-842 ++ 2412-10 -+- 9558-42 
7:5 + 56-9328 + 718-562 +- 4090-83 + 17037-8 
8-0 + 84-2153 + 1149-91 + 6927-55 + 30251-2 


236 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M (a .2.2) 

x a=—t a=—2 a=—3 a=—f 
0-00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 + 0-99499 + 0-98503 + 0-97512 + 0-96529 
0-04 + 0:98997 + 0-97010 ++ 0-95050 + 0-93116 
0-06 + 0:98492 + 095523 + 0:92612 + 089761 
0-08 + 0:97987 + 0-94040 + 0-90199 + 0:86462 
0-10 + 0-97479 + 0-92563 + 0-87811 + 083220 
0-15 + 0:96202 + 0-88892 + 0-81949 + 0°75360 
0-20 + 0-94915 + 0-85252 + 0-76240 + 0:67844 
0-25 + 0-93616 + 0-81645 + 0:70683 + 0:60666 
0-30 + 0-92305 + 0-78070 + 0:65277 + 0-53818 
0-35 + 0-90983 + 0°74527 + 0-60022 + 0-47295 
0-40 + 0:89649 + 0-71017 + 0-54916 + 0:41089 
0-45 + 0:88303 + 0:67540 + 0-49958 + 0:35194 
0-50 + 0-86944 + 0-64096 + 0-45148 + 0-29604 
055 | + 085573 + 0-60686 + 0-40483 + 024312 
0-60 + 0-84189 + 0-57309 + 035964 + 0-19311 
0-65 + 082792 + 053966 + 0-31590 + 0-14595 
0:70 + 0-81381 + 0-50657 + 0-27358 + 0-10158 
0-75 + 0-79957 + 0-47382 + 0-23268 + 0-05993 
0-80 + 0-78519 + 0-44142 + 0-19319 + 0-02095 
0-85 + 0:77066 + 040937 | + 0-15511 — 0-01545 
0:90 + 0:75599 + 037766 | -+ 0-11841 — 0:04930 
0-95 + 074117 + 0-34631 + 0-08309 — 0-08069 
1-0 + 0-72619 + 031532 + 0-04914 — 010966 
1-1 + 0-69578 + 025441 — 001471 — 0:16062 
1-2 + 066472 + 0:19495 |  — 0-07322 — 0-20268 
1:3 + 0-63298 + 0-13697 — 0-12648 — 023630 
1-4 + 0-60053 + 0:08050 — 0-17458 — 0-26197 
1-5 + 0-56735 + 002554 — 0-21760 — 0-28015 
1:6 + 0:53339 — 0-02786 — 025566 — 0-29131 
1-7 + 0-49862 — 0-07968 — 028882 — 0-29590 
1:8 + 0-46301 — 012990 — 031720 — 0-29437 
1-9 + 042651 — 0-17849 — 0-34088 — 0-28717 
2-0 + 0-38909 — 0-22542 — 035997 — 0-27473 
2:2 + 0:31127 — 0:31417 — 0-38474 — 023585 
2-4 -+ 0+22917 — 039590 — 0:39231 — 0-18109 
2-6 + 0:14233 — 0-47034 — 0-38352 — 0-11370 
2:8 + 0-05028 — 0-53719 — 0-35921 — 0-03682 
3-0 — 0-04756 — 0-59612 — 0-32025 + 0-04651 
3-5 — 0-32184 — 0-70642 — 016482 + 026426 
4-0 — 0-64893 — 0:°75856 + 0-06138 + 0-46234 
4:5 1-04596 — 0-74456 + 034190 + 0:60359 
5-0 — 1-53673 — 0-65433 + 0-65860 + 0-65623 
5:5 2-15504 — 0-47512 + 0-99146 + 059444 
6:0 — 2-94629 — 0-19001 + 1-31698 + 0-39822 
6-5 — 3-97864 + 0-22227 + 1-60988 + 0-05539 
7-0 — 534686 + 0-79028 + 1-83993 — 0-43904 
75 — 7-:18801 + 1:55186 + 1-:97211 — 1-08126 
8-0 — 9-70042 + 2:55778 + 196494 — 1-85764 


. 


CSS asd acdicdicdcdicdrecdicdicgre 
SCOAOFPNOUEODAATNPWNE OS 


3:5 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 237 


M (a .3. @) 
——— 
a=1 a=2 “=3 a=—4 

-+- 1-00000 + 1-00000 +  1-00000 => 1-00000 
+ 1:00670 + 1:01343 + 1:02020 = 1:02700 
+ 1:01347 + 1:02707 + 1:04081 + 1:05469 
-+ 1:02030 + 1:04091 + 1-06184 + 1-08307 
+ 1:02721 + 1-05497 + 1-:08329 + 1-11217 
+ 1:03418 + 1:06923 + 1:10517 + 1-14201 
+ 1-05193 + 1:10586 + 1-16183 + 1-:21993 
+ 1-07014 + 1-14389 + 1-22140 + 1-30283 
+ 1-08881 + = 1:-18339 + 1-28403 + 1-:39103 
+ 1:-10797 + 1:22442 + 1-34986 + 1:48484 
+ 1-12763 + 1-26704 + 1:41907 a 1:58463 
+ 1-14781 + 1:31131 + 1-49182 + 1:69073 
+ 1-16852 + 1-35732 —- 1:56831 ate 1-80356 
-+ 1-18977 + 1-40511 + 1:64872 _- 1-92351 
+ 1-21159 + 1:45478 ++ 1-73325 + 2-05102 
+ 1-23399 + 1:50640 + 1-82212 os 2-18654 
+ 1-25700 + 1:56005 +. 1:91554 + 2°33057 
+ 1-28062 + 1-61581 +- 2:01375 + 2:48363 
+ 1-30489 + 1:67378 + 2-11700 + 2-64625 
+ 1:32982 + 1-73404 + 2-22554 a 2-81902 
+ 1:35542 + 1:79669 + 2-33965 + 3-00255 
+ 1-38174 + 1-86183 -- 2-45960 — 3-19748 
+ 1-40877 + 1:92956 + 2-58571 +- 340452 
+ 1:43656 + 2-00000 + 2-71828 a. 3-62438 
+ 149449 + 2-14945 -L 3-00417 + 4:10569 
+ 1-55572 + 2-31114 + 3°32012 a. 464816 
+ 1:62047 + 2-48614 + 3:66930 a 5:25933 
+ 1:68898 + 2:67559 + 4-05520 + 5:94763 
+ 1-76150 +  2-88075 + 4-48169 + 6:72253 
+ 1:83831 + 3-10298 + 4-95303 + 7-59465 
+ 1-91969 + 3:34378 + 5:47395 + 8-57585 
+ 2-00596 + 3-60476 4. 6:04965 + 9-67944 
+ 2-09745 + 3-88770 + 668589 + 10:9203 
+ 2°19453 + 419453 a 7-38906 = 12-3151 
+ 240703 + 4-88844 ol. 9:02501 a 15-6434 
+ 2-64694 + 570571 + 11-0232 + 19-8417 
+ 2-91827 + 6:66923 + 13-4637 + 25:1323 
+ 3-22568 -+- 7-80622 + 16-4446 + 31-7930 
+ 3-57456 + 9-14913 + 20-0855 + 40-1711 
+ 4:67191 + 13:6798 + 33-1155 4- 71-7501 
+ 6-19977 + 20-5993 + §4-5982 + 127-396 
+ 8:34737 + 31-2158 + 90-0171 + 225-043 
+11-3931 + 47-5722 -+ 148-413 + 395-768 
+15-7482 + 72:8670 + 244-692 + 693-294 
+ 22:0238 +112:119 + 403-429 + 1210-29 
+31-1310 -++173-220 + 665-142 + 2106-28 

+ 44-4340 + 268-604 -+-1096:-63 + 3655-44 
+63:9837 +417-894 --+ 1808-04 + 6328°15 
+92-8737 + 652-116 -|- 2980-96 --10930-2 


238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M (a.3.2) 

“ “o=—1 a=—2 a=—3 a=—4 

0:00 + 1:00000 + 1:00000 + 1:00000 + 1-000600 
0:02 + 099333 + 0:98670 -+ 0-98010 + 0:97353 
0-04 + 0-98667 + 0:97347 + 0-96040 + 094746 
0-06 + 0-98000 + 0-96030 + 0-94090 + 0-92179 
0-08 + 0:97333 + 0-94.720 + 0-92159 + 089650 
0-10 + 0:96667 + 0:93417 + 0:90248 + 0:87160 
0:15 + 0-95000 + 0-90188 + 0-85557 + 0-81103 
0-20 + 0:-93333 + 087000 -+ 0:80987 + 0-75280 
0:25 + 0-91667 + 0:83854 + 0°76536 + 069689 
0:30 + 0-90000 + 0-80750 + 0:72205 + 0-64322 
0-35 + 0-88333 + 0:77688 + 067991 + 0-59177 
0-40 + 0:86667 + 0-74667 + 0-63893 + 054247 
0-45 + 0-85000 + 0-71688 + 0:59911 + 0°49529 
0:50 + 0:83333 + 0-68750 + 056042 + 0:-45017 
0-55 + 0-81667 + 0:65854 + 0:52285 + 0:-40708 
0:60 + 0-80000 0-63000 + 0:48640 + 0°36596 
0:65 + 0:78333 + 0-60188 + 045105 + 0°32677 
0:70 + 076667 + 0-57417 + 0-41678 + 0:28947 
0-75 + 0-75000 + 0-54688 + 0:38359 + 0-25400 
0-80 + 073333 + 0-52000 + 0:35147 + 022034 
0:85 + 0-71667 + 0:49354 + 0°32039 + 0:18843 
0-90 + 070000 + 0:46750 + 0:°29035 + 0:15822 
0-95 + 0:68333 + 044188 + 0°26134 + 0-12969 
1:0 + 066667 + 0-41667 + 0:23333 + 0-10278 
1-1 + 0:63333 + 0:36750 + 0-18032 + 0:05367 
1-2 -+ 0-60000 + 032000 + 013120 + 0-01056 
1-3 + 0-56667 + 0-27417 + 0-08588 — 0:02687 
1-4 + 053333 + 0-23000 + 0:04427 — 0:05893 
1:5 + 0-50000 + 0-18750 + 0-00625 — 0-08594 
1:6 + 0-46667 + 014667 — 0:02827 — 010820 
1-7 + 043333 + 0-10750 — 0:05938 — 0-12600 
1:8 + 0-40000 ++ 0-07000 — 0-08720 — 0-13964 
1-9 + 0:36667 + 0:03417 — 0-11182 — 0-14940 
2:0 + 033333 + 0-00000 — 0-13333 — 0-15556 
2-2 + 0-26667 — 0-06333 — 0:16747 — 0-15813 
2-4. + 0-20000 — 0-12000 — 0-19040 — 0-14944 
2-6 + 0-13333 — 0-17000 — 020293 — 013146 
2-8 + 0-06667 — 0-21333 — 0-20587 — 0-10606 
3:0 -+- 0-00000 — 0-25000 — 0-20000 — 0-07500 
3°5 — 0:16667 — 0:31250 — 0°15208 + 0:01684 
4-0 — 0-33333 — 033333 — 0-06667 + 011111 
4:5 — 0-50000 — 0:31250 + 0:04375 + 0-:18906 
5:0 — 0:66667 — 0:25000 + 016667 + 023611 
5°5 — 0°83333 — 0°14583 + 028958 + 0:24184 
6:0 — 1:00000 + 0-00000 + 0-40000 + 0:20000 
6°5 — 1-16667 + 0:18750 + 0-48542 + 010851 
7-0 — 1-33333 + 0:41667 + 0-53333 — 0-03056 
7-5 — 1:50000 + 0-68750 + 0-53125 — 021094 
8-0 — 1:66667 -+- 1:00000 + 0-46667 — 0-42222 


—_—- = ——- 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES, 239 
M («.3.2) 
x a=s a=#3 a=§ a=$% 
0-00 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 As 1-00000 +- 1-00000 
0-02 + 1:00335 +  1-01006 ta 1:01681 eis 1-02360 
0-04 + 1-00672 + 1-02025 + 1-03392 =e 1-04773 
0-06 + 1-01011 +  1:03057 = 1:05134 + 1:07242 
0-08 + 1-01354 + 1-04102 +. 1-06906 + 1:09766 
0:10 + 1-01698 + 1-05160 -- 1-08709 + 1-12348 
0-15 + 1:02572 + 1-07864 ++ 1-13359 + 1-19061 
0-20 + 1-03463 +  1-10655 ++ 1-18217 - 1-26162 
0-25 + 1-04370 + 1-13536 + 1-23293 + 1:33671 
0-30 + 1:05296 +  1-16510 -- 1-28598 + 1-41612 
0-35 + 1-06240 + 1-19581 + 1-34142 #5 1-50010 
0-40 + 1-07202 + J-22752 - 1-39936 + 1-58889 
0-45 + 108184 +  1-26026 + 1-45992 + 1-68277 
0-50 + 1-09185 + 1-29408 - 1-52321 + 1-78205 
0-55 + 1-10206 +  1+32902 + 1-58937 ae 1-88696 
0:60 + 1-11248 +  1:36510 + 1-65852 oe 1-99788 
0-65 + 1-12311 + ]-40238 _ 1-73081 + 211514 
0-70 + 1:13397 + 1-44091 + 1-80639 + 2-23908 
0-75 + 1-14504 + 1:48072 + 1-88540 + 2-37008 
0-80 + 1-15635 +  1-52186 + 1-96801 + 2-50854 
0-85 + 1-16789 +. 1-56439 + 2-05437 — 2°65486 
0-90 + 1-17967 +  1-60835 - 2-14468 + 2-80950 
0-95 + 1-19171 +  1-65379 + 2+23911 + 2-97291 
1:0 + 1-20399 +  1:-70078 + 2°33785 + 314558 
1-1 + 1-22937 + 1-79962 +. 254909 - 3-52080 
1-2 ++ 1:25586 + 1-90535 + 2-78014 + 393695 
1:3 + 1-28352 + 2-01850 -- 303288 + 4-40711 
1:4 + 1:31242 + 213964 + 330941 + 4-92873 
15 + 134263 +  2-26938 + 361201 - 5:51069 
1:6 + 1:37423 + 2-40840 a 394318 “+ 6-15986 
1-7 +  1-40729 +  2-55740 + 4-30568 +. 6-88389 
1-8 + 1:44191 + 2-71719 - 4-70253 + 7-69129 
1-9 + 1-47817 + 2-88859 + 5*13705 -- 8-59151 
2-0 + 1-51618 +  3-07252 + 5°61287 + 9-59510 
2-2 + 1:59783 + 348204 -- 6-70482 + 11-9605 
2-4 + 1-68779 +  3-95469 a 801530 + 14-8979 
2-6 + 1-78711 +  4-50098 + 9-58881 + 18-5436 
2-8 + 1-:89698 + 513326 + 11-4791 + 23-0664 
3-0 -+- 2-01876 + 586603 + 13-7508 + 28-6749 
3:5 + 2+38616 + §8:25728 + 21-6531 + 49-2884 
4-0 + 286980 + 11-7533 + 34-2119 + 84-4593 
4:5 + 351406 + 16-9005 + 6542157 + 144-341 
5-0 + 438212 + 24-5279 + 86-1418 + 246-103 
5:5 + 556575 + 35-9059 + 137-221 + 418-843 
6-0 + 7:19135 + 62-9370 + 218-940 + 711-194 
6-5 + 945163 + 78-6018 + 350-059 + 1205-92 
7:0 -+- 12-6201 + 117-434 + 560-644 + 2041-81 
75 ++ 17-0989 -+- 176-434 + 899-271 + 3452-52 
8-0 -+- 23-4789 + 266-424 + 1444-41 +- 5830-92 


240 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M («.3.2) 

zc a=—t a=—F a=—3 a=—f 

0-00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 -+ 1-00000 
0-02 + 0°99666 + 0-99001 + 0-98340 + 0-97681 
0:04 + 0-99332 + 0:98005 -+-+ 0-96692 + 0-95391 
0-06 + 0:98996 + 0-97011 + 0-95056 + 093130 
0-08 + 0-98660 + 0-96020 + 0:93433 + 0-90898 
0-10 + 0-98323 + 0-95031 + 0-91822 + 0-88694 
0-15 + 0:97476 + 0-92571 + 0-87850 ++ 083308 
0-20 + 0-96624 + 0-90126 + 0-83954 -+ 0-78096 
0-25 + 0-95767 + 0-87697 + 0-80135 + 0-73055 
0-30 + 0-94903 + 0-85284 + 0-76392 + 0-68183 
0-35 + 094034 + 0-82887 + 0-72725 + 0-63478 
0-40 + 0-93160 + 0:80507 + 0-69133 + 058935 
0-45 + 0-92279 + 0-78143 + 0:65616 + 0-54554 
0-50 + 0-91393 -+-+ 0:75795 + 0-62174 + 0:50330 
0:55 + 0-90500 + 0-73463 + 0:58806 -++ 0-46262 
0-60 + 0:89601 + 0-71148 + 0-55511 + 0-42347 
0:65 + 0:88696 + 0-68850 + 0:52290 + 0-38583 
0-70 + 0-87784 + 0-66569 + 0-49142 + 0:34966 
0-75 + 0-86866 + 064304 -+ 0-46066 -++ 0-31494 
0-80 + 085942 + 062056 + 043062 + 0-28165 
0°85 + 0-85011 + 0-59825 -+ 0-41030 + 0-24976 
0:90 + 0-84072 + 0:57612 -++ 0:37269 + 0-21924 
0-95 + 0:83127 + 0-55415 + 034479 + 0-19007 
1-0 + 0-82175 + 0-53236 + 0:31759 + 0:16223 
1-1 + 0:80250 + 0-48930 + 0:26530 + 0-11042 
1-2 + 0-78294 + 0:44695 + 0:21576 -+- 0:06360 
1-3 + 0-76308 + 0:40531 + 0:16896 + 0-02159 
1-4 + 074291 + 0°36439 + 012485 — 001581 
1-5 + 0-72240 + 0-32420 + 0-08340 — 0-04880 
1:6 + 0-70156 + 0:28475 + 0-04457 ~  — 0:07757 
1:7 + 0:68036 + 024605 + 0-00833 — 0-10230 
1-8 + 0:65879 + 0-20811 — 0-02536 — 0-12318 
1-9 + 0-63684 + 017094 — 0:05654 — 0-14040 
2-0 + 0:61450 + 013455 — 0-08524 — 015414 
2-2 + 0:56858 + 0:06415 — 0:13535 — 0-17190 
2-4 + 0-52089 — 0-00299 — 0-17602 — 0-17786 
2-6 + 0-47129 — 0:06679 — 0:20756 — 0-17343 
2-8 + 0:41962 — 0-12713 — 0:23027 — 0-15993 
3-0 + 03657 — 0-18391 — 0:24451 — 0:13868 
35 + 0-21976 — 0:30949 — 0-24519 — 0-05993 
4-0 + 0:05482 | — 0-40997 — 020048 + 004054 
4:5 — 0:13396 — 0:48287 — 0-11631 + 014547 
5:0 — 0:35296 — 0°52517 + 0:00095 + 0:23923 
5-5 — 0-61088 — 0-53330 + 0-14437 --+ 0-30803 
6:0 — 0:91876 — 0-50233 + 0°30625 + 0:33970 
6-5 — 1:29259 — 0:42696 + 0-47830 ++ 0-32452 
7-0 — 1-75347 — 0-29990 + 0-65113 -+- 0-25471 
7-5 — 2-33063 — 0:11207 + 0-81423 + 012496 
8-0 — 3:06455 + 0-14821 + 095565 — 0-06737 


———=-— 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 


M («.4.2) 

“ a=1 a—2 o—<o a=4 
0:00 +. 1-00000 + — 1-00000 +  1-00000 =f 1-00000 
0-02 -+- 1-00502 +  1-01006 + 101512 +- 1-02020 
0-04 + 1-01008 + 102024 +  1-03049 > 1-04081 
0-06 + 1-01518 + - 1-03055 -+  1:04610 + 1-06184 
0:08 + 1:02032 -+  1:04098 -+  1-06196 ++ 1:08329 
0-10 + 1:02551 + 1:05153 -+-  1-07809 + 1-10517 
0-15 + 1:03865 +  1:07849 + 1-11954 1 1-16183 
0-20 + 1:05207 +  1+10628 -+ _ 1-16270 -- 1-22140 
0-25 + 1-06576 + 1:13492 +  1-20763 + 1-28403 
0:30 + 1:07974 -+ 1-16445 +  1-25440 “+ 1-34986 
0°35 + 1:09400 +  1+19490 +  1:30311 + 1-41907 
0-40 + 1:10857 +  1-22630 --  1-35382 ao 1-49182 
0°45 + 112344 + - 1:25867 +  1-40664 - 1-56831 
0-50 + 1:-13862 + 129207 + 1+46164 -- 1-64872 
0°55 + 1:15413 + 132651 + 1+51892 ot 1-73325 
0:60 + 1+16997 +  1:36205 -+ 1-57858 + 1-82212 
0-65 + 1°18614 + 139870 + 164072 +. 1-91554 
0-70 +-  1+20267 -  1:43653 -+ 1:70546 + 2-01375 
0:75 + 1+21956 -+  1-47556 -+ 1-77289 -+ 2-11700 
0-80 + 1-23681 + 1-51583 + 184314 + 2-22554 
0°85 + 1-25444 -+  1+55740 + 1-91633 + 2-33965 
0:90 + 1:27245 +  1-60030 -+ 1-99259 + 2-45960 
0:95 + 1:29087 + 164459 + 2-07205 + 2-58571 
1:0 + 1:30969 +  1-69031 + 2°15485 + 2-71828 
11 + 134861 + 178625 + 233105 a 3:00417 
1-2 + 1:38929 +  1-88856 + 252243 + 332012 
Is + 1:43185 +: 1-99770 -+  2-73036 + 3-66930 
1-4 + 1-47638 + 211417 + 2-95630 + 4-05520 
15 + 1:52300 +  2-23850 + 320188 + 4:48169 
1-6 + 1:57184 +  2-37127 +  3-46884 + 4-95303 
1:7 +.  1:62298 + 2-51311 +  3-75912 + 547395 
1:8 + 1:67659 + 2:66468 +  4:07481 + 6-04965 
1-9 + 1-73281 + 2-82672 + 441820 + 6-68589 
2-0 +  1:79179 +  3-00000 + 479179 + 7-38906 
2-2 + 1-91868 + 338374 + 5-64079 + 9-02501 
2-4 + 2-05867 -+- 382347 +  6:64683 + 11-0232 
2-6 + 221338 -+ 4-32803 +  7-83982 + 13-4637 
2-8 + 2:38465 + 490772 -+ 9-25546 4+ 16-4446 
3-0 + 2-57456 -+ 557456 + 10-9364 -- 20-0855 
35 + 3°14735 + 772103 + 16:6592 + 33-1155 
4-0 + —3-89983 + 10:7997 + 25:4991 + 564-5982 
4:5 +. 4-89825 -+ 16°2456 +. 39-2009 + 900171 
5-0 -+- 6°23583 + 21-7075 + 60-5046 + 148-413 
55 + 804449 -+ 31-1557 + 93-7227 + 244-692 
6-0 + 10-5119 + 45-0476 --+ 145-655 + 403-429 
6-5 -+- 13-9066 + 65:5797 -+ 227-041 -+ 665-142 
7-0 + 18-6146 -+- 96-0729 -+ 354-870 --+ 1096-63 
7-5 + 25-1935 + 141-564 -+- 556:059 -- 1808-04 
8-0 + 34:4526 -++ 209-716 -+ 873°316 -+ 2980-96 

R 


242 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M(a.4. 2) 
= 

x a=—l a=—2 a=—3 a=—4 

0-00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1:00000 
0-02 + 0-99500 -+ 0-99002 + 0-98506 + 0-98012 
0-04 + 0-99000 -++ 0-98008 + 0-97024 + 0-96048 
0-06 + 0-98500 + 0-97018 + 095554 -++ 0-94107 
0-08 } + 0-98000 + 0-96032 + 0-94096 + 092190 
0-10 + 0-97500 -++ 0-95050 + 0-92649 + 0:90297 
0-15 + 0-96250 + 0:92613 + 0-89085 + 085664 
0-20 + 0-95000 + 0-90200 + 0°85593 -+- 0-81174 
0-25 + 0:93750 + 0-87813 + 0-82174 + 0-76823 
0-30 + 0-92500 + 0-85450 + 0-78828 + 0-72611 
0-35 + 091250 + 0-83113 + 075552 + 0:68534 
0-40 + 0-90000 + 0-80800 =- 0-72347 0-64590 
0-45 + 0-88750 + 078513 + 0-69212 +- 0-60776 
0-50 + 0-87500 + 0-76250 + 0-66146 + 0-57091 
0-55 + 0-86250 + 0-74013 + 0:63149 + 0-53531 
0-60 + 0-85000 + 0-71800 + 0-60220 + 0-50095 
0-65 + 0-83750 + 0-69613 + 057359 + 0-46781 
0-70 +- 0-82500 + 0:67450 + 0-54564 + 0-43585 
0-75 + 0-81250 + 0-65313 + 051836 + 0-40506 
0-80 + 0-80000 + 0-63200 + 0:49173 + 0°37542 
0-85 + 0-78750 + 0-61113 + 0-46576 -++ 0:34690 
0-90 + 0:77500 + 0-59050 -+ 0-44043 + 0:31948 
0-95 + 0-76250 + 0-57013 + 0-41573 + 0-29314 
1-0 -+ 0-75000 + 0:55000 + 0-39167 + 0:26786 
1-1 + 072500 + 0-51050 + 0-34541 + 0:22080 
1-2 + 0-70000 + 0-47200 + 0-30160 + 0-17687 
1:3 + 0-67500 + 0-43450 + 0-26019 + 0-13717 
1-4 + 0-65000 + 0-39800 + 0-22113 + 0-10111 
1-5 + 0-62500 + 0-36250 + 0-18438 + 0-06853 
1-6 + 0-60000 + 0-32800 + 0-14987 + 0:03927 
1:7 + 057500 + 0-29450 + 0-11756 + 0-01318 
1-8 + 0-55000 + 0-26200 + 0-08740 — 0-00990 
1-9 + 0-52500 + 0-23050 + 0-05934 — 0-03012 
2-0 + 0-50000 + 0-20000 + 0-03333 — 0-04762 
2-2 + 0-45000 + 0-14200 — 0-01273 — 0:07505 
2-4 + 0-40000 + 0-08800 — 0-05120 — 0-09330 
2-6 +- 0-35000 + 0-03800 — 0 08247 — 0-10346 
2-8 + 0-30000 — 0-00800 — 0-10693 — 0-10656 
3-0 + 0-25000 — 0-05000 — 0-12500 — 0:10357 
3-5 + 0-12500 — 0-13750 — 0-14479 — 007552 
4-0 + 0:00000 — 0-20000 — 0-13333 — 0-02857 
4-5 — 0-12500 — 0-23750 — 0-09688 + 0-02567 
5-0 — 025000 — 0-25000 — 0-04167 + 0-07738 
5-5 — 0-37500 — 0-23750 + 0-02604 + 0-11853 
6-0 — 0-50000 — 0-20000 + 0-10000 + 0-14286 
6-5 — 0-62500 — 0-13750 + 0°17396 + 0-14591 
7-0 — 0-75000 — 0-05000 + 0:24167 + 0-12500 
75 — 0-87500 + 0-06250 + 0-29688 + 0-07924 
8-0 — 1-00000 + 0-20000 + 0°33333 + 0-00952 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 243 


M («.4.2) 

z a=s a=3 a=8 a=% 
0-00 + 1-00000 +  1-00000 +  1-00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 + 1:00251 + 1:00754 + 1:01259 + 1-01766 
0-04 + 1:00503 + 1:01515 + 102535 + 1-03564 
0-06 + 1-00757 + 1-02284 + 1-03830 + 105394 
0-08 + 1-:01012 + 1-03061 + 1:05148 -- 1-07258 
0-10 + 1-01269 + 1-03846 + 1-06474 - 1:09156 
0-15 + 1-01918 + 1:05842 aia 1-09886 + 1-14053 
0-20 + 1:02577 + 1-07890 + 1-13421 =e 1-19176 
0-25 + 103246 + 1-09991 +  1-17082 + 1-24535 
0:30 + 1-03926 + 1-12145 + 1-20876 + 1-30143 
0-35 + 1-04616 + 1:14356 +  1-24806 + 1-36009 
0-40 + 1-05318 + 1-16625 +  1+28879 = 1-42147 
0-45 + 1:06030 + 1-18952 + 1-33101 + 1-48570 
0:50 + 1:06753 + 1-21341 + 1:37475 + 1-55306 
0-55 + 1-07489 + 1-23793 +  1-42010 + 1-62322 
0-60 + 1-08236 + 126310 +  1-46710 f 1-69681 
0-65 + 108995 + 1:28894 + 1-51583 + 1-77381 
0-70 + 109767 + 1:31547 + 1:56635 + 1-85440 
0-75 + 1:10551 + 1:34271 + 1:61873 + 1-93873 
0-80 + 1-11348 + 1-37068 + 1:67304 + 2-02700 
0-85 + 1-12158 + 139941 +  1:72937 + 2-11938 
0-90 + 1:12982 + 1:42892 +  1:78778 + 2-21606 
0-95 + 1-13820 + 1-45923 + 1-84836 + 2-31726 
1-0 + 1-14672 + 1:49037 +  1-91120 + 2-42318 
1-1 + 1-16420 + 1:55524 + 2-04401 + 2-65011 
1-2 + 1-18228 + 1-62374 + 2-18696 + 2+89877 
1:3 + 1-20099 + 1-69612 + 234088 + 3-17128 
1-4 + 1+22038 + 1:77262 + 2-50666 + 3-46996 
15 + 1-24045 + 1:85351 + 268526 + 3-79736 
1-6 + 1-26126 + 1-93907 + 287772 + 4-15627 
1-7 + 1-28283 + 2-02961 + 3-08520 + 4-54978 
1:8 + 1:30520 + 2-12546 + 330891 + 4-98126 
1-9 + 1-32841 + 222697 + 3-55020 + 545442 
2-0 + 1-35251 + 2-33452 + 381052 + 5:97334 
2-2 + 1-40352 + 2-56938 + 4-39470 “F 7-16685 
2-4 + 1-45863 + 2-83362 + 507576 | + 8-60321 
2-6 + 1-51826 + 3-13139 + 587057 + 10°3325 
2-8 + 1-58288 + 3-46744 + 6-79907 + 12-4151 
3-0 + 1-65306 + 384727 + 7-88479 + 14-9240 
3-5 + 1-85692 + 6:03239 + 11-4822 + 236873 
4-0 + 2-11124 + 666263 + 16-8440 + 37-6855 
4:5 + 2-43201 + 8-92432 + 24-8768 + 60-0835 
50 + 2-84105 + 12-0875 + 36-9683 + 95-9765 
5:5 -+ 3-36907 + 16-5491 + 55-2626 + 153-612 
6-0 + 4-05506 + 22-8728 + 83-0012 + 246127 
6-5 + 495887 + 31-9154 + 125-288 + 395-013 
7-0 + 6-16010 + 44-9201 + 189-947 + 634-784 
75 + 7-77180 + 63-7342 + 289-135 + 1021-30 
8-0 + 9-95380 + 91-1045 + 441-744 + 1644-94 


244 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


M (a.4.2) 
= 
z a=—i a=—#3 a= —z a= —F 
0-00 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 + 1-00000 
0-02 + 0-99750 + 0-99251 + 0-98754 + 0-98259 
0-04 + 0-99500 + 0:98503 --+ 0-97515 + 0°96535 
0:06 + 0-99248 + 0-97757 + 0-96284 + 0-94828 
0-08 +. 0-98996 + 0-97012 -+- 0°95060 + 0-93139 
0-10 + 0:98744 + 0-96269 + 0:93843 + 0-91467 
0-15 + 0-98111 + 0:94417 + 090835 + 0°87361 
0-20 -+ 0-97475 + 0°92575 + 0:°87873 + 0-83360 
0-25 + 0-96835 + 0:90743 + 0:84957 + 0-79464 
0-30 + 0-96192 -+ 0-88920 -++ 0-82087 -+ 0:75670 
0-35 » + 0-95546 + 087107 + 0-79262 + 0-71977 
0-40 + 0-94897 + 0-85303 + 0-76483 + 0:68384 
0-45 + 0-94243 + 0:83510 + 0°73750 -+ 0-64890 
0-50 + 0-93587 + 081725 + 0-71061 + 0-61493 
0-55 + 0-92927 + 0-79951 + 068417 + 0-58192 
0-60 + 0:92263 + 0-78187 + 0-65818 + 0-54986 
0-65 + 0-91596 + 0°76432 + 063264 + 051872 
0-70 + 0-90925 + 0-74687 + 0:60753 + 0:48851 
0-75 -+- 0-90250 + 0°72953 + 0:58287 + 0-45921 
0-80 + 0°89571 + 0-71228 + 0-55865 + 0:43080 
0-85 + 0-88889 + 0-69513 + 0-53486 + 0-40327 
0-90 + 0-88202 + 0-67809 + 0-51151 + 0-37661 
0-95 + 0-87512 + 0-66114 + 0-48859 + 0-35081 
1-0 +. 0-86818 + 0-64430 + 0:46610 + 0:32585 
Ie] + 085417 + 0°61092 -- 0-42240 ++ 0:27841 
1-2 + 0-83999 + 0-57796 + 0-38040 -++ 0-23419 
1-3 + 0-82564 + 054542 + 0-34008 + 019308 
1-4 + 0-81112 + 051330 + 0-30142 + 0-15500 
15 + 0-79641 + 0-48160 + 0-26440 + 0-11984 
1-6 + 0°78151 + 045034 + 022901 + 0-08751 
1-7 + 0-76642 + 0-41951 + 0-19523 + 0-05791 
1-8 + 0-75113 + 0-38912 + 016304 + 0-03094 
1-9 + 0°73564 + 0:35917 + 0-13242 + 0-00650 
2-0 + 0-71993 -_ 032968 + 0-10336 — 0-01549 
2-2 + 0-68786 + 0-27205 + 0-04983 — 0-05251 
2-4 + 0-65485 + 0-21629 -+ 0-00230 — 0-08085 
2-6 + 0-62086 + 0-16243 — 0-03938 — 0-10125 
2-8 + 058580 | + 0-11051 — 0-07537 —- 0-11440 
3-0 + 0-54961 -+ 0-06060 — 0-10582 — 0-12099 
3°5 + 0:45364 — 005511 — 0-15879 — 0-11316 
4-0 + 0°34859 — 0-15712 — 0-18077 — 0-07862 
4-5 + 0-23261 — 0-24438 — 0-17452 — 0-02683 
5-0 + 0-:10333 — 031567 — 0-14297 + 0-03343 
5-5 — 0:04232 | — 0-36964 — 0-08927 + 0:09410 
6-0 — 0-20821 — 0:40429 — 0-01672 + 0:14778 
6-5 — 0-39952 — 041781 + 0-07098 + 0-18800 
7-0 — 0-62296 — 0-40759 + 0-16990 -++ 0-20904 
7-5 — 0°88743 — 0-37052 + 0-27571 + 0:20613 
8-0 — 1-20478 — 0-30279 + 0:38363 -++ 0-17548 


Ey ———————————— 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 245 


The Exponential Integral, Hi ( + 2), 


-—z 
—Uu 


Several tables* of the function Bi =| £ du for both positive and negative 
U 
co 


oO 3] Set 
values of 2, and of the Sine and Cosine Integrals, Si (2) =. _s du and Ci (a) 


e09 
=—|' ee - du, have been published. 
Dr. Glaisher’s Tables give 29 values of the functions to 18 places for z= 0-00 to 
1-00, to 11 places for x=1-0 to 5:0 by intervals of 0-1, and for integer values from 
5 to 15; the Sine and Cosine Integrals are also tabulated to 7 places for a number of 
integer values of x beyond this range. 
The series in descending powers of the argument, 


! ! ! : 
(et . ohate ) 
x ar aa 


is most suitable and convenient for calculating Hi (x) for large values of z. When 
z is negative, the signs of the terms are alternately positive and negative; in this 
case several places of decimals can he added to the result obtained by stopping the 
calculation at the least term. If «w—n-h, the divergent part of series can be repre- 
sented by the product of the least term T and the factor ¢, of which the first five 


terms are 
ee LD /i hk :) 1 (144-1) 
3 ialst®) tea(atat® + iemleta” 
2 

1 (e 13h, Th )+ 


—— = = —— Seles ieee eS. 
32n4 Te 8 + 4 na a 
For example, when x=11, 9, = 0°488898908 . . . and the least term of the series, 
T=0-000139905948, the product, 0-000068399865, is equivalent to the divergent terms. 
The result is, in this case, improved to the extent of eight or nine places of decimals. 

If x is positive and equal to n+-«, the ‘‘ converging factor ”’ is 


eet ii (8 Se 47 obo ‘ 
== 2 ee De2— 3 Sk SF feed pete ~~ —S5ottar J+... i... 
(« brate ona a) + al isot 5 re Ser Sagat i 


For a=0, i.e. when x is a positive integer, the second least term must be multiplied 
by 


oe he S160. 
3 135n ' 2835n? 8505m? °°" 


When a=10, Ei (10) is given to four or five significant figures when the calculation is 
restricted to the convergent terms of the asymptotic series; by the above method 
Hi (10) has been computed to twenty places of decimals, giving a result in agreement 
with the value of the function in Bauschinger’s Tables. 


*Bauschinger. Archiv der Math. u. Phys., 1843, pp. 28-34. 
Bretschneider. Zeit. fiir Math. u. Phys., vol. 6, 1861, pp. 127-139. 
J. W. L. Glaisher. Phil. Trans., vol. 160, 1870, pp. 367-387. 
J.P.Gram. Afhandlinger der Kopenhagener Akad. (6), vol. 2, 1884, pp. 183-308. 
Lord Rayleigh. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, vol. 90, 1914, pp. 318-323, or Collected 
Papers, vol. 6, p. 228. 


246 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


x Ei (z) —KEi (—2) 
5-0 4018527 536 0-00114 82955 
51 43:27570 764 0: 102 13001 
5-2 46°62485 051 0- 90 86216 
5:3 50°25573 031 0- 80 86083 
5:4 54:19347 580 0: 71 98044 
55 58-46551 425 0 64 09260 
5:6 63:10178 598 0- 57 08401 
57 68°13497 924 0 50 85464 
5°8 73°60078 735 0: 45 31612 
5:9 79°53819 O15 0- 40 39035 
6:0 85:98976 214 0- 36 00824 
61 93-00200 999 0- 32 10870 
6:2 100°62574 194 0: 28 63763 
6:3 10891647 253 0O- 25 54714 
6-4 117:93486 570 0- 22 79479 
6°5 127'74722 023 0- 20 34298 
66 138-42600 141 0- 18 15837 
6:7 * 150:05042 344 0- 16 21138 
6-8 162°70708 757 O- 14 47577 
69 176:49068 109 O- 12 92826 
7-0 191°50474 334 O- 11 54817 
71 207:86250 497 O0- 10 31712 
7-2 225:68780 770 0- 9 21881 
7:3 245°11611 229 0- 8 23872 
7:4 266:29560 282 0- 7 36397 
75 289-38839 820 0: 6 58308 
7°6 314:57187 850 0: 5 88587 
77 342.:04014 009 0- 5 26326 
78 372:00559 032 0: 4 70716 
79 404°70069 585 0- 4 21039 
8-0 440-37989 954 0- 3 76656 
8-1 479-32172 208 0- 3 36995 
8-2 52183106 662 0 3 01548 
8-3 56824174 579 | 0- 2 69864 
8-4 618-91925 296 0- 2 41538 
8-5 67426380 152 0 2 16211 
8-6 734:71365 808 0- 1 93562 
8:7 800-74879 849 0- 1 73305 
8-8 872:89491 793 0- 1 55186 
8-9 951-72782 971 | 0: 1 38976 
9-0 1037-87829 07 I 0- 1 24473 
9-1 1132-03729 51 0- 1 11495 
9-2 1234-96188 18 0 99880 
9-3 1347-48150 67 0- 89484 
9-4 1470:50503 39 0- 80178 
9:5 1605-02840 66 0 71847 
9-6 1752-14306 55 0- 64388 
9-7 1913-04518 55 0- 57708 
9-8 2089-04581 35 0- 51726 
9-9 2281-58199 33 0- 46368 
10-0 2492-22897 62 0: 41569 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 247 


i 
Ei (x 
(x) —Ki (—2) 
|| - 
2722-71362 2 I 
2722-71362, 2 | 0:00000 37270 4173 
| 2974-92011 0 | 0- 33418 6054 
| 2250-95108 4 0 29967 3477 
3653-05037 6 0 26874 6958 
3883-73746 5 | 0 24103 1296 
4245-73383 7 | 0 21619 0858 
4642-04543 3 0 19392 5368 
5075-96339 4 0 17396 6147 
5551-09733 5 0 15607 2762 
6071-40637 4 0 14003 0030 
G64123321 8 0 12564 5346 
726534108 5 | 0 11274 6289 
8697-81340 3 | : "9080 3751 | 
9518-19976 0 | : 3149 3288 
10417-01743 9 | d "3181262 
11401-83851 9 ) : g566 3397 
12480-97173 8 1 5804 8763 
13663:53461 7 3 3201 8698 
1495953266 6 } 0 47510818 
16379-94640 } 7 1265 8180 
17936-82693 é 3830 3473 
19643-40095 | 3430 6340 
21514-18607 } 30887750 
23565-11759 | : OT73 9445 
25813-68767 | 7 2491 3443 
28279-09832 | a 2037 6085 
30982-42945 1 . 2009 9146 
33946-82354 | * 1803 4472 
37197-68849 | 1621 8662 
4.0762:92065 i 1457 0282 
44673-14972 | x 1309 0110 
44675-14972 | 0. 1309 0110 
53666-42637 . 1056. 7197 
58826-95908 , "949 6118 
64488-14140 | i 853. 2220 
70698-88214 | 766. 7338 
77512-89528 } ; 689 0452 
84989-17431 1 : 819 2572 
93192-51363 ! é 558 5631 
102194-08162 . 300 2389 
112072-05053 | . 149 6349 
122912-28891 = 404 1679 
134809-12276 | ° 303 3143 
147866-17221 | : 326 O48 
162197-27131 | rf 293 6160 
177927-47920 | 0 363, 9707 
195194-19178 | S 937 3284 
214148-36378 | 0 313 3838 
23495585249 | 0 101 8628 
| 0 191 8628 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


The Sine and Cosine Integrals, Si (x) and Ci (2). 


For large values of the argument «, the Sine and Cosine Integrals were calculated 
from the asymptotic expansions of these functions. 


For the series, 1-2 


Si(x)=F— 


Z0- 2a) — a5 


Las! 


and for the series ———, 
«2 


3 
+ en2 cn a 


The following tables of Si (#) and Ci (#) from #=5:0 to 20-0 have been employed in 


Wags (IS +4 


eae aah 
EOS ee (1-45 Pee ers ) 
re a CL 
j ! ! ! ! 
ae a! a8 a SEP AL Snes ) 
x \x @ @ gl 
ehi—2 aD oo montan ) 
£ Tee oe 
! if 5! ! 
cong(M_ 8451s.) 
eee og gl 
ail merece, 5 
ra 5a) — ién 1 (8+200.— a? — 2a") 
5! 7! ; 1 
A eae » when 24=2n+ a4; ee 
Miter? —— 12100) | Fone e rales 


, when 27=2n+4«, the ‘converging factor’ is 


tabulating derivatives of Bessel functions,* viz., 


Schafheitlin+ also gives an interesting relation between these derivatives and the 


fe Te) jog =J4(x) Ci (2x) —J_(x) Si (22) 


and Re ‘J 


Sine and Cosine Integrals. 


* Ansell and Fisher. 


derivative.” 


+ Schafheitlin. 


vla) | = _ =F) Ci 2x)+I4(2) Si (22). 


Sitzungsber. Berlin. Math. Ges., 


1 (1 + 20) 
n 


“‘ Note on the numerical evaluation of a Bessel function 
Proc. Lond. Math. Soc., vol. 24, 1926. 


vol. 8, 1909, pp. 62-67. 


’ 


——————— = CLL LULU UCU Ce 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 


Si (a) 


PPRPSMMRSSAAAAAAAAAT 


DKDAAMEWNOHSCODAAMUARWHHOCODADARWNHEKSOHDADAKWHHOCOBDIDUEWNHOS 


CPOSPPHOOOOOH OH HHHHHHHIII IIIT 


FEE EEEEEE AEE EE FEEL E FEE EEA HEEAFEE EEE EEE HE EEE HEHEHE +t 4+ 


1-54993 
1-53125 
1-51367 
1-49371 
1-48230 
1-46872 
145666 
1-44619 
1-43735 
1-43018 
1-42468 
1-42086 
1-41870 
1-41817 
1-41922 
1-42179 
1-42581 
1-43120 
1-43786 
1-44570 
1-45459 
1-46443 
1-47508 
1-48643 
1-49834 
1-51068 
1:52331 
1:53610 
1:54893 
1-56167 
1-57418 
1-58636 
1-59809 
1-60927 
1-61980 
1-62959 
1-63856 
1-64665 
1-65379 
1-65993 
1-66504 
1-66908 
1-67204 
1-67392 
1-67472 
1-67446 
1-67315 
1-67084 
1-66756 
1-66338 
1-65834 
1-65252 
1-64599 
1-63883 
1-63111 


| FFE F HEHE EEHATEE FEL EEFEEE4444 1 | 


| 


| 


Ci (2) 


0-19002 
0:18347 
0-17525 
0-16550 
0-15438 
0-14205 
0-12867 
011441 
0-09944 
0-08393 
0-06805 
9-05198 
0:03587 
0:01988 
0-00418 
0-01110 
0:02582 
0:03985 
005308 
0:06539 
0:07669 
008690 
0:09595 
0-10378 
0-11035 
0-11563 
011959 
012224 
0-12358 
0-12363 
0-12243 
0-12001 
0-11644 
0-11176 
0-10607 
0-09943 
0-:09193 
0-08367 
0:07475 
0-06528 
0-05534 
0-04506 
0-03455 
0-02391 
0-01325 
0:00267 
0-00770 
0-01780 
002751 
0:03676 
0:04545 
0-05352 
0-06089 
0-06750 
0-07331 


97497 
62632 
36023 
59586 
59262 
29475 
17494 
07808 
06647 
26741 
72439 
25290 
30193 
82206 
14110 
15195 
31381 
54400 
07167 
23140 
52785 
68881 
70643 
86664 
76658 
32032 
75293 
58319 
59542 
80071 
38825 
66733 
00055 
72931 
09196 
13586 
62396 
93696 
97196 
03850 
75313 
93325 
49134 
33045 
24187 
80588 
70361 
40977 
91811 
39563 
64330 
16129 
20650 
84193 
97774 


250 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


x Si (x) | Ci (a) 
| 10:5 + 1-62294 06928 i — 0:07828 40360 
| 10-6 + 1:61439 13081 i — 0:08236 81222 
10:7 + 1:60556 06086 — 0:08554 81414 
10:8 + 1:59654 12420 — 0-:08780 94350 
10-9 -+ 1:58742 59756 — 0:08914 65523 
11-0 + 1:57830 68070 — 0:08956 31355 
11-1 + 1:56927 40993 I — 0:08907 17213 
11:2 + 1-56041 57452 — 0-08769 34631 
11:3 + 1:55181 63692 — 0:08545 77762 
11-4 + 1-54355 65739 — 0:08240 19115 
11-5 + 1:53571 22370 — 0:07857 04624 
11-6 +. 1:52835 38648 — 0:07401 48108 
11-7 + 1-52154 60065 | — 0:06879 25181 
11:8 -+- 1:51534 67354 — 0:06296 66674 
11-9 + 1-50980 71987 — 005660 51650 
12-0 + 1-50497 12415 — 0:04978 00069 
12-1 + 1:50087 51047 — 0:04256 65182 
12:2 + 1-49754 72009 — 0:03504 25738 
12:3 + 1-49500 79674 — 0-:02728 78062 
12-4 + 1:49326 97981 i — 0:01988 28102 
12-5 + 1-49233 70523 — 001140 83496 
12:6 + 1-49220 61397 — 0:00344 45755 
12-7 +- 1:-49286 56808 + 0:00442 97378 
12-8 + 1:49429 67377 | + 0:01213 79323 
12-9 + 1:49647 31146 | + 0:01960 61745 
13-0 + 1:49936 17229 | + 0-02676 41256 
13-1 + 150292 30057 + 0:03354 51517 
13-2 + 1-50711 14191 | + 0:03988 85695 
13°3 + 1:51187 59633 + 0:04573 80870 
13-4 + 1:51716 07571 + 0:05104 22716 
13°5 + 1:52290 56528 + 0:05575 70387 
13-6 + 1:52904 68810 + 0:05984 43271 
13-7 + 1:53551 77245 + 0:06327 27908 
13°8 +- 1-54224 91979 + 0:06601 80057 
13-9 + 1:54917 07698 + 0:06806 26067 
14:0 + 1-55621 10501 + 0:06939 63559 
141 + 1-56329 85047 | + 0-:07001 61408 
14-2 + 1-57036 21513 | +- 0:06992 59037 
14:3 + 1:57733 22411 I} + 0:06913 65055 
14-4 + 1-58414 09199 + 0:06766 55230 
14-5 -+- 1:59072 28621 \ + 0:06553 69861 
14-6 + 1:59701 58712 | + 0:06278 10551 
14-7 + 1:60296 14427 I} + 0:05943 36438 
14-8 + 1:60850 52840 + 0:05553 59920 
14-9 + 1:61359 77858 + 005113 41927 
15-0 + 161819 44437 + 0:04627 86777 
15-1 + 1:62225 62235 | + 0:04102 36693 
15-2 + 1-62574 98701 ! + 0:03542 66015 
15:3 + 1:62864 81558 l + 0°02954 75181 
15°4 + 1-63093 00674 + 0:02344 84533 
15°5 + 1:63258 09314 + 0:01719 28004 
15-6 + 1:63359 24753 + 0:01084 46765 
15:7 + 1-63396 28269 + 0:00446 82867 
15°8 + 1-63369 64514 — 0:00187 27032 
15-9 -+ 1:63280 40282 — 0:00811 57823 


a -—7r 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 


251 


x Si (x) Ci (x) 
16-0 + 1:63130 22683 — 001420 01901 
16-1 + 1:62921 36765 — 002006 74889 
16-2 + 1:62656 62595 — 0-02566 21059 
16-3 + 162339 31849 — 003093 18413 
16-4 + 1:61973 23933 — 003582 83375 
16-5 + 1:61562 61697 — 0-04030 75052 
16-6 + 161112 06774 — 004432 99037 
16-7 + 1:60626 54599 — 0-04786 10702 
16:8 + 160111 29152 — 0:05087 17985 
16-9 + 1:59571 77500 — 0-05333 83622 
17-0 + 1:59013 64159 — 0-05524 26823 
17-1 + 158442 65368 — 0-05657 24381 
17-2 + 157864 63308 — 0-05732 11212 
17-3 + 157285 40326 — 0-05748 80314 
17-4 + 1:56710 73231 — 0-05707 82170 
} 17-5 + 1:56146 27703 — 0:05610 23592 _ 
: 17-6 + 155597 52875 — 0-05457 66039 
17-7 + 1:55069 76135 — 005252 23406 
| 17-8 + 1:54567 98202 — 0-04996 59346 
17-9 + 1:54096 88514 — 0-04693 84117 
18-0 + 1:53660 80969 — 0-04347 51030 
181 + 1:53263 70060 — 0-03961 52498 
18-2 + 1:52909 07445 — 003540 15759 
18-3 + 1-52599 98956 — 0-03087 98300 
18-4 + 152339 02103 — 0:02609 83036 
18-5 + 1:52128 24067 — 0-02110 73295 
18-6 + 1:51969 20207 — 001595 87655 
18-7 + 1:51862 93088 — 001070 54687 
18-8 + 151809 92044 — 000540 07658 
18:9 + 151810 13248 — 0-00009 79242 
19-0 + 1:51863 00318 + 0:00515 03710 
19-1 + 1:51967 45419 + 0-01029 25282 
19-2 + 152121 90863 + 0:01527 85452 
19-3 + 152324 31171 + 0-02006 04841 
19-4 + 1:52572 15595 + 0:02459 29217 
19-5 + 1:52862 51042 + 0:02883 33693 
19-6 + 1:53192 05393 + 0:03274 26615 
19°7 + 153557 11167 + 0:03628 53073 
19-8 + 1-53953 69490 + 0:03942 98014 
19-9 + 1:54377 54340 + 0-04214 88951 
20-0 + 1:54824 17010 + 0:04441 98208 


252 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Zeros of Bessel Functions of small fractional order. 


The first zero, 9, of Jv (x), was calculated from the relation 


> -10 7v+19 PY 
Ps P(v+1)P(v+2)2(v+3)(v+4)(v+5) © 
When y is small, approximate values of 9. and p, are sufficient to give the value of 
91 to five places of decimals. If y = —1+« and «& is less than 0°15, then to five 
places of decimals, 

49 


A= 3 rel a Be ) 
01= 2a (144s 96% +7758 PT Stee 


A short table* of the zeros to four places for the range v= —} to 1 was published 
some years ago. 


* J. R. Airey. ‘‘ Bessel functions of small fractional order and their application 
to problems of Elastic Stability.” Phil. Mag., vol. 41, 1921, pp. 200-205. 


Zero oe, of the Bessel Function, J, (7). 


b per Q1 v Pr y 1 | ov P21 


| —1-00 | 0:00000 | —0-50 157079: | +-0-00 2-40482: -+0-50 3°14159 : 
—0-99 0-20050 —0-49 1-58926 |+0-01 2-42023: |+-0°51 3-15576 : 
—0:98 028425 —0-48 1-60762 | -+0-02 2-43561 : ||+-0-52 3°16992 


,—0°97 | 0°34898: | —0-47 1-62587  |'+0-03 2-45095 : |-+0-53 3-18405 : 

|—0-96 | 0-40395: | —0-46 1-64402  ||+-0-04 2-46626: ||+0-54 3°19817 : 

|—0-95 | 0-45272: | —0-45 1-66207: | 4-0-05 2°48154: |'-+0-55 3+ 21228 
—0-94 | 049712  —0-44 1-68003: |+0-06 | 2-49679 |+0-56 3-22636 : 


| 

| —0:93 | 0:53823 | —0-43 1:69790 = |-- 0-07 2-51200  ||-++-0-57 3-24043 : 
| —0-92 0:57674: | —0-42 1-71568 ||+-0-08 2-52718 |-+0-58 3-25449 
—0-91 | 0-61316: || —0-41 173337 ||+0-09 | 2-54233 ||+0-59 326852 : 
| 064783 —0-40 1-75097: |+0°10 | 2-55745 §|+0-60 3°28254 : 
| 0°89 | 0°68101: |—0-39 1-76850 |+0-11 | 257254 ||+0-61 3°29655 
|—0-88 | 0-71292: || —0-38 1-78594: |+0-12 | 2-58760 |-+0-62 3°31053 : 
| —0:87 0-74372 | —0:37 1-80331 | +0-13 2-60263 |+0-63 | 3-32451 


| 
S 
© 
i=) 


—0-86 | 0-77353': |—0-36 | 1-82060 +0-14 | 261763: |4+0-64  3-33846: 
—0-85 | 0-80247: | —0-35 | 1:83781: +0-15 | 2-63261 {+065  3-35241 
'—0-84 | 0-83063 | —0-34 | 1:85496 +0-16 | 2-64755: +066  3-36633: 
|—0-83 | 0:85808: |—0-33 | 1-87203: +017 2-66247: |+0-67 | 3-38024: 
0-82 | 0:88489: —0-32 | 1-88904 +0-18 | 2-67736: |+0-68 | 3-39414: 
/—0-81 | 0-91112 |—0-31 | 1-90598 +0-19 | 2-69223 ||+0-69 | 3-40802: 


/—0°80 | 0-93680: | —0-30 1-92285: ||+0-20 2-70707 | -+0-70 3°42189 
—0-79 0:96200 || —0-29 1-93966: /|+-0-21 272188: ||+0-71 3°43574 : 
|—0-78 0:98673: | —0-28 1-95641: | -+-0-22 2-73667: | -+-0-72 3-44958 

| 1:01104: || —0-27 1:97310 |-++- 0-23 2°75143: ||+-0-73 3°46340 : 
—0-76 | 1-03496 || —0-26 1-98973 |+0-24 | 2-76617: |+0-74 347721 : 
—0-75 1-05851 —0-25 200630 = ++ 0-25 2-78088: -++-0:75 3°49101 
—0-74 108171 | —0-24 2:02281: |-+-0-26 | 2-79557: ||-+0-76 3-50479 
_—0°73 1:10458: | —0-23 2°03927 ||+ 0-27 2-81024 +0-77 3-51855 : 
—0-72 1-12716 || —0-22 2-05567: +-0:28 2:82488: +0-78 3-53231 
|—0-71 1-14944 | —0:21 2-07202: ||+0-29 2:83950 | +0-79 3°54605 
—0-70 1:17145: || —0-20 2-08832: -+0:30 _ 2-85409: ||+0:80 355978 


| 
2 
-~I 
I 


ON CALCULATION OF MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 253 


v Pi VG Pl v P1 | v P1 


—0-69 1:19321 ||—0-19 2-10457 : ||4-0-31 2°86867 |+0°81 | 357349: 
—0°68 1:21472 ||—0-18 2°12077 ‘|| 0-32 2°88322 |/-+-0-82 3°58719 : 
—0:67 1-23600 ||—0-17 2-13692 ||-+-0-33 2°89775 -+0-83 | 360088 : 
—0-66 1-25706 ||—0-16 2-15302  |/-++-0-34 2-91225 : |-40- 84  3-61456 
—0-65 127791 : || —0-15 2°16907 : ||+-0-35 2°92674 40-85 | 362822 
—0-64 1-29856: ||—0-14 | 2-18508: ||--0-36 2-94120: ||-++0-86 3°64187 
—0:63 1-31902 : 2:20105 = ||-++-0-37 2-95564 : | -+-0-87 3°65551 
—0-62 1-33930 | —0-12 2-21696 : ||-++0-38 2-97007 | -+0-88 3°66913 : | 
—0-61 1-35940 : | —0-11 2-23284 ; |-+-0-39 2-98447 ||-+0:89  3-68275 
—0-60 1-37934 | —0-10 2-24867 ; ||+-0-40 2-99885 ||-++-0-90 3°69635 
—0:59 1:39911 : | —0-09 
—0°58 1-41873 : |—0-08 | 
| 


| 

2 
ne 
oo 


2-28022 ||+0-42 302755 ||-+- 0-92 3°72351 : 
—0-°57 1-43820 : | 229593 ||+-0-43 304187 |1-0-93 3°73708 
—0-56 1-45753 : | —0- 2°31160 ||+-0-44 3°05617 : ||+0- 94 3°75063 
—0-55 1-47673 | —0-05 2°32723 ||+-0-45 3°07045 : |/-+-0-95 3°76417 
—0-54 149579 || —0-04 2:34282 |/+-0-46 3°08472  ||--+-0-96 3°77770 
—0-53 151472 ||—0-03 | 235838 ||-+0°47 309896 : ||+-0°97 | 3-79122 
—0-52 1-53353 || —0-02 2-37389 : ||-+-0-48 311319: ||-+-0-98 3°80472 : 
—0-51 1-55222 ||—0-01 238938 ||+-0-49 3-12740 ||-+0-99 | 3-81822 
—0:50 1-57079 : ||—0-:00 2-40482 : |/-+0-50 3°14159: |+-1:00 | 3°83170: 


2°26447 ||++-0-41 3-01321 |/+0-91 3°70993 : | 


Zeros of Ber, Bei, and other Functions. 


In series of descending powers of x, Ber x contains the factor cos §, where 
En 1 1 25 
v2 Sav2 6m 384a5V2" 


If ae r, 
2n—1 1 1 V2 25 
= Ceri as oe Rages OR et ae ae 
i ( 2 +4)" + ant T6n2 * 3840 
If a= B+2 oe poet te a iattane , then by Lagrange’s Theorem, 
8 ak 


If B= (a = m™ 2, the zeros of Ber x are given by 


Ee Roper el) 8/2 9! SRO 
se 16g?' 384" 12884 1536087" * 


For the zeros of Bei w, B= (n+i)x V2 


For Ker 2, B= (FAS : —3)m v2 


and for Kei 2, B= (n—3)x V2. 
The zeros of the functions Ber‘’z, Bei’x, etc., are given by 
aye 8V2 89 27/2 62 
Pn By 16y? 128y> 1284 SI20dy>' 


254 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


For Ber’, y= — LS ) TV 2 


Bei’x, y= (n—i)z V2 


Ker’s, y= a 1 +3)x V2 


a 


Kei’, y=(n+i)n y2 


These formule cannot be usefully employed in the calculation of the smallest zeros 
of these functions. In the case of Ber x, e; is found from the relation 


> —12_ 1857 
Ps 9106 12 


A similar method was adopted in calculating 9, for the other functions. 


First ten zeros of 


Ber x Bei x Ker x Kei x 
284891: 5:02622 1:71854 : 3:91467 
723883 9-45541 6-12728 8-34422 : 

11-67396 : 13-89349 10-°56294. 12-78256 
16-11356: 18-33398 : 15:00269 17-22314: 
20-55463 22-77544. 19-4438] : 21-66464. 
24-99636 : 27-21737 : 23-88558 26-10660 
29-43845 31:65958 28-32768 : 30°54882 
33-88075 36°10195: 32-76999 : 34-99120: 
38-32319 40-54444 : 37-21244 39-43370 
42-76572 44-98701: 41-65498 4387627: 
First ten zeros of 

Ber’z Bei’x Ker’x Kei’x 

603871 3°77320 266584 4-93181 
10-51364 : 828099 7-17212 9-40405 : 
14-96844 : 12°74215 11-63218 : 13-85827 
19-41758 17:19343 16-08312 18-30717 : 
23-86430: 21-64114: 20-53068 22-75379 
28-30979 : 26:08716 : 24-97661 : 27-19922 
32-75456 30°53225 29-42165: 31:64395 
37:19887 34:97676 33°86613: 36-08823 : 
41-64286 : 39-42090 38°31025 : 40-53221 : 
46:08664 : 43-86478 42-75412 44-97598 


i aa 4, 


ON INVESTIGATION OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 255 


Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere.—Report of Committee (Sir 
Napier Suaw, Chairman; Mr. C. J. P. Cave, Secretary; Prof. 8. 
CuapMaN, Mr. J.8. Dives, Mr. L. H. G. Dives, Mr. W. H. Dives, 
Dr. G. M. B. Dosson, Commr. L. G. Garzert, Sir R. T. GuazeBRooK, 
Col. E. Goin, Dr. H. JErrreys, Dr. H. Knox Suaw, Sir J. Larmor, 
Mr. R. G. K. Lemprert, Prof. F. A. Linpemann, Dr. W. Maxower, 
Mr. J. Parrerson, Sir J. E. Peravetn, Sir A. Scuuster, Dr. G. C, 
Simpson, SirG. T. WALKER, Mr. F.J.W. Warppre, Prof. H. H. Turner), 


Tur Committee was originally constituted in 1901 to co-operate with the Royal Meteoro- 
logical Society. It was in abeyance from 1915 until it was reconstituted in 1920. It 
presented a report at the meeting at Hull in 1922 in which the main principle for the 
operations of the Committee was ‘the desirability of inviting the co-operation and 
interco-operation not only of Directors of Institutes and Observatories but also of 
Scientific Academies and Societies in the study of the upper air.’ 

In its report the Committee mentioned that, at its suggestion, a resolution had 
been brought before the Meteorological Section of the British National Committee and 
passed on to the Meteorological Section of the International Union for Geodesy and 
Geophysics with suggestions as to procedure in the development of the plan. It was 
thought by the officers of the Committee that the Meteorological Section of the 
British National Committee might take over the work from the British Association ; 
but the Committee thought otherwise and in June 1923 decided that as the study of 
the upper air was only a part of meteorology the preferable course was to promote the 
co-operation of the various voluntary agencies interested therein, namely the Meteoro- 
logical Section of the National Committee, the Royal Meteorological Society and the 
British Association in a joint committee for the upper air. 

The special objects which the Committee then had in view were a pamphlet of 
instructions for observers in the use of (1) ballons-sondes at sea, and (2) pilot-balloons 
of long carry, with a view to observations at sea and in the less frequented parts of the 
world. 

At the meeting of the Meteorological Section of the Union for Geodesy and Geo- 
physics at Rome funds were allocated for the objects which the Committee had 
recommended, and with them were also joined an international investigation of dust 
in the atmosphere, the composition of the atmosphere above 20 kilometres, and the 
problem of solar radiation, all of which are closely interrelated with the more ordinary 
features of the exploration of the upper air. 


Solar and Terrestrial Radiation. 


| For the last two years the Committee’s attention has been directed towards solar 
_ and terrestrial radiation, which must always be regarded as the fundamental problem 
of meteorology and of primary importance for any effective investigation of the 
upper air. 
_ The Committee was glad to see a résumé by one of its own members of the results 
of observations of solar radiation at 59 stations in various parts of the globe which 
formed an Annexe to the report of the meeting of the Meteorological Section of the 
U.G.G.1. at Madrid. It recognises that a summary of the present state of our know- 
ledge of the subject is much needed and has learned with satisfaction that the Meteoro- 
logical Section of the British National Committee is taking steps to secure that 
_ the issues of the sections of the U.G.G.I. which contain data of the kind indicated 
_ may be made more generally accessible for the scientific reader. The Committee is 
_ also informed that our knowledge of solar and terrestrial radiation is treated as the 
_ basis of the science of meteorology in a Manual by Sir Napier Shaw, now in course of 
publication. It awaits with interest the development of that part of the subject which 
_ deals with the relation of solar and terrestrial radiation in different wave lengths. 
i Tn 1925 a grant of £38 was obtained for a self-recording radiometer and in con- 
nection therewith the co-operation of the Royal Meteorological Society was revived ; 
the subjects are now under the consideration of a joint committee of the two bodies. 
_ The instrument was acquired at a cost of £60, to which £17 was contributed by the 
Royal Meteorological Society and £5 by a member of the Committee. The cost of 


: 


256 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


installation at the School of Agriculture at Cambridge was borne by Mr. C. S. Leaf 
of Trinity College. The Committee is not yet in a position to report on the behaviour 
of the instrument. 

At the meeting of the Association at Oxford in 1926 a grant of £70 was obtained 
to aid in promoting the study of the relation of solar and terrestrial radiation by 
making an apparatus designed by Mr. W. H. Dines generally available for that purpose. 
The price quoted was contingent upon finding purchasers for a number of the instru- 
ments to be made at the same time. The Committee, however. have found themselves 
unable to apply for the grant made at Oxford, and there is no immediate prospect 
of being able to utilise it in the way proposed. 


Investigations by Members of the Committee. 


The Committee is, however, of opinion that although organised co-operative work 
had so far not been found practicable, the progress made by individual members 
of the Committee was sufficiently encouraging for the endeavour to be continued. At 
the suggestion of the Committee Mr. L. H. G. Dines has refurnished the Dines meteoro- 
graph with a recording pen for humidity. The pamphlet of directions for observa- 
tions at sea is now available, for ballons-sondes by the translation of the exposé 
technique of Teisserenc de Bort and Rotch, and for pilot-balloons at sea by a special 
issue of the Air Ministry. With the assistance of the Hydrographer, Commander 
L. G. Garbett, Superintendent of Naval Meteorological Services, has secured a 
considerable extension in the use of pilot-balloons at sea, and is still engaged upon 
work with ballons-sondes. It is gratifying that H.M.S. Repulse, carrying the Prince 
of Wales, and H.M.S. Renown, carrying the Duke and Duchess of York, are enrolled 
in the list of co-operators in the study of the upper air. 

The compilation of the observations of the upper air on the international days 
of 1923, which is now completed as a specimen volume for the International Commission 
for the Exploration of the Upper Air, is in itself a voluntary contribution of some 
importance, especially as, by instruction of the International Commission for the 
Exploration of the Upper Air, the compilation is expressed in units which bring 
meteorology into line with other geophysical sciences as part of a common system. 
The Committee has recorded its congratulations to the editors of the work on its 
completion. 

In the specimen volume referred to is found the first general application of the 
indicator-diagrams representing the results of observations of pressure and tem- 
perature in the upper air by a curve referred to entropy and temperature as co-ordinates 
and now known as tephigrams. They also form an important contribution to the 
subject because they add materially to the effective expression of the thermodynamics 
of the atmosphere. The Committee has watched their development through all 
its stages. The introduction of the values of geopotential into the diagrams adds 
materially to their interest. 

In other directions also there has been marked progress—the question of the 
composition of the upper air was raised by a member of the Commission some years 
ago; upon his contribution was based a resolution of the Meteorological Section of 
the U.G.G.I to invite the possessors of cryogenic apparatus to examine the atmosphere 
from time to time to determine whether the hydrogen content was a fixed or variable 
component. The question has been raised in a new way by the discussion of the 
origin of the green auroral line and the conclusion of Prof. McLennan that a mixture 
of nitrogen and oxygen extends far beyond the limit where they were supposed to 
have been displaced by helium and hydrogen. 

Further light is also thrown upon the composition of the levels of the atmosphere 
beyond the usual meteorological limit by the work of Prof. Lindemann and Dr. 
G. M. B. Dobson on meteors and by Dr. Dobson’s measurements of the amount of 
ozone. 

Among other questions in relation to the upper air (in the meteorological sense) 
which are of interest to members of the British Association, mention ought to be 
made of the transmission of sound waves to distances so great as to require the 
assistance of excessive refraction in the upper layers. Mr. Whipple was the first to 
propound the idea that this ‘abnormal’ propagation of sound to great distances 
was to be explained by postulating a warm layer of air at a considerable height, 


such as was required for the Lindeman-Dobson theory of meteors, but the layer would _ 


have to be lower than those authors required, say at 40 instead of at 60 kilometres. 


Can 


INVESTIGATION OI? THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE. 257 


Mr. Whipple has recently organised observations of the time of passage of air waves 
from gunfire. His initial success, in January 1926, was in timing the passage of 
audible sound from Shoeburyness to Grantham. Recently, with the assistance of 
the British Broadcasting Corporation, the times of firing a gun at Shoeburyness 
have been broadcast, and the assistance of the public in listening has been invoked. 
It appears that the occasions when sound can be heard at very great distances are 
rare and exceptional; observations with hot wire microphones, however, have been 
very successful. At Birmingham University good results have been obtained at 
each of three trials. Correlation with meteorological data promises to prove a 
valuable line of research. 

The counting of the dust particles by the Owens dust counter, which was one 
of the original suggestions of the Committee to the British National Committee, has 
been warmly taken up in the United States and observations have been made regularly 
in Australia for the Bureau of Meteorology by Dr. E. Kidson, who has now become 
Director of the Meteorological Service of New Zealand. In Mr. Hunt’s report to the 
Meteorological Section Dr. Kidson raises the question of the relation of the dust count 
in the Owens Counter with that in the Aitken Counter, a question of interest and 
importance. In the United States attention was turned to the dust counts at different 
levels of the atmosphere as observed in balloons or aeroplanes ; but the subject has 
not been pursued since the death of Mr. C. Le Roy Meisinger while engaged upon that 
inquiry. No other country has yet contributed information on that subject. 


The Interest of Universities and Science Departments of Schools. 


It is interesting to note that some of these researches owe much to the Universities. 
Dr. Dobson’s work on ozone was carried out at Oxford, and his collaborators have 
been students in that University. Yeoman service has been rendered to Mr. Whipple’s 
investigation of the audibility of gunfire by the Physical Departments in the Uni- 
versities of Birmingham and Bristol, and in University College, Southampton. 
The Committee is of opinion that there is still an opening for co-operation on the 
part of Universities and the Science Departments of Schools for those aspects of the 
investigation of the upper air which can be worked by the simultaneous action on 
selected occasions of moderately instructed observers over the country generally, as 
_ distinguished from the repetition of regular observations by the trained staff of the 
_ official establishments. As an example of an investigation which might be bene- 
fited by such co-operation may be cited the investigation of the structure of a 
typical cyclonic depression by a number of simultaneous soundings with registering 
balloons, supplemented by a much larger number of what may be called post card 
balloons. 
_ Such an investigation, however, requires the special attention of some such body 
as a Committee of the British Association to prepare a detailed programme, arrange 
for the supply of necessary apparatus and materials, issue instructions and give notice 
of the selected occasion which would naturally be so chosen as to fit in with the 
international organisation. 

If a suitable scheme could be drawn up in conjunction with the Association of 
Science Teachers the B.B.C. would probably not refuse its invaluable help in securing 
volunteers and notifying a suitable occasion. 
ei Committee has considered the possibility of initiating investigations of this 

ind. 

They have in mind a project of obtaining foreshortened stereoscopic photo- 
graphs of clouds by which valuable information might be obtained as to the position 
and dynamical condition of lenticular clouds in relation to their environment. The 
idea of obtaining foreshortened photographs of clouds was used with success many 
years ago by Mr. J. Tennant, who has sought various opportunities of developing it. 
It could easily be brought into general use as a co-operative exercise. 

It is also thought that arrangement could be made without great expense for the 
supply of apparatus and material which would enable those in charge of a school 

boratory to fill a balloon, and that schools thus equipped would be willing to co- 
Operate in an inquiry into the structure of the upper air on some occasions which 
Might be notified by broadcasting. Mr. L. F. Richardson has kindly given the Com- 
mittee assistance in the matter and devised an effective means of supplying apparatus 
for filling balloons at the cost of two shillings each for the apparatus and a shilling 
_ foreachturn. A note by Mr. Richardson is appended to this report. The Committee 
is of opinion that a co-operative investigation of that kind would afford evidence of 
e structure of the atmosphere in ‘ dirty weather,’ which is much needed in order 


j 1927 S 


258 REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


to arrive at a reasoned conclusion with regard to the opposed views of the nature of a 
tyclonic depression. 

The Committee accordingly asks for reappointment with the addition of the name 
of Mr. L. F. Richardson, F.R.S., and for permission to retain the grant of £70 made 
iast year to defray the expenses of a co-operative investigation. 


Problem : To find the cheapest way of filling ‘Post Card Balloons’ simul- 
taneously. One at each of 100 places scattered over the British Isles. 


Purity of hydrogen and accuracy of adjustment of lift have been regarded as of 
secondary importance. The following process has been found to work well. 

Apparatus.—Balloon weighing 5°5 grams empty. Tinned-iron can of capacity 
580 cm.* with air-tight lid through which is soldered a brass pipe of external diameter 
0:9 cm.,so as to project 6cm. outside the can and 1 cm. inside. Carton cup holding 
140 cm. (sold for holding preserved cream). Calcium hydride of Messrs. J. J. Griffin’s 
(Kemble St., Kingsway, London, W.C. 2) cheaper quality, ls. per oz. Bucket of cold 
water. Teapot or small jug with spout. Postcard. Thin cotton string. Balance 
weighing to 0.1 gram. 

Working Instructions.—Slip the neck of the balloon 1 cm. on to the brass pipe and 
tie in place. Weigh out 125 grams of hydride in lumps, rejecting powder, as it so 
rapidly spoils in damp air. Dry the canister internally and put the hydride into it. 
Lower the carton cup into place and fill it with water from the jug, taking care not 
to spill any water on hydride. Press the lidinto place. Now slightly tilt the canister 
so as to spill a little water on the hydride. To prevent a high temperature float the 
canister in water in the bucket. If the balloon fills lop-sidedly it may often be made 
symmetrical by squeezing the bloated side. Continue the tilting and shaking until 
all the water is spilt and no more fizzling can be heard in the canister. The balloon 
should then be about 30 cm. in diameter, and is ready to be tied at the neck after 
the manner of a football bladder. 


Suggestions for Onjabtiateeney 


The vendors of the calcium hydride might be persuaded to supply it ready weighed 
in sealed glass tubes, each containing just enough for one balloon. The canisters and 
cartons should be got ready by a firm and distributed by the firm to the observers. 


Estimate of Cost in Pence. 


Ist Ascent. d. Subsequent Ascents. 

Post card - : - : 13 

Balloon . : : : 3 104d. each. 
Hydride . ; E 6 

Canister . : 4 

Supplying and soldering pipe 6? 

Carton . 3 2? 

Carriage . : . : : 12? 

Total . 343 7? 


Other Methods, Rejected, and the Reasons for Rejecting them. 


1. Aluminium and NaOH in the same apparatus. Dangerous, for caustic froth 
entered balloon, and might be thrown in the operator’s eyes if balloon burst. Calcium 
hydride and water is much less frothy and less caustic. 

2. Cycle lamp as generator. Difficult to get the necessary pressure because the 
water vessel leaked. 

3. Purchase of hydrogen gas compressed in cylinders. Conversation at British 
Oxygen Co.’s office indicated, without commitment, that their smallest size of cylinder 
contains 10 cubic feet of hydrogen. They have about 50 of these and would lend them 


free for a fortnight. The hydrogen would cost about 123d. per cylinder. The charge © 


for carriage is probably more and is difficult to estimate. (Cylinders are class 3 on rail.) 
For instance, King’s Cross to Newcastle-on-Tyne would be 2/2 by goods each way. 


Carriage would be reduced by distributing from Glasgow, Walvectaaiieas and London, © 


whichever was nearest. 
Objections: Carriage; doubt as to whether enough cylinders; rent of cylinders 
if kept too long. 


PE SEL Weed |, 


& 


A DAES A 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 259 


Photographs of Geological Interest.—Twenty-third Report of Com- 
mittee (Profs. KE. J. Garwoop, Chairman, and 8. H. Reyno ups, 
Secretary ; Mr. G. Bryexey, Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. A. 8. Rerp, Prof. 
W. W. Warts, and Mr. R. Wetcr). 


In the present report 443 photographs are listed, bringing the number in the Com- 
mittee’s collection to 7623. In the previous report (Oxford 1926) 611 photographs 
from the Reader series were included. In the present list there are 218 photographs 
from the Reader series ; these are mainly from the Home counties, but include 
extensive sets from the Lizard and Llangollen areas. 

The following have kindly helped with the description of the Reader photographs 
included in the present list: Mr. G. Barrow, Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, Prof. A. Morley 
Davies, Mr. E. H. Davison, Mr. H. Dewey, Miss M. 8S. Johnston, Mr. A. L. Leach, 
Mr. R. W. Pocock, Dr. L. J. Wills, Mr. W. Wright. 

The 1926 report included a valuable series of 80 photographs illustrative of the 
geology of the Isle of Wight taken by Mr. J. F. Jackson, and presented by Miss 
C. Morey and her late brother, Mr. F. Morey. Miss Morey kindly gives a further 
series of twenty-two of Mr. Jackson’s Isle of Wight photographs. Mr. Jackson 
further contributes sets from Dorset and Devon; his photographs have a special 
value from the fullness of detail of the accompanying descriptions. 

Important sets of photographs have been received from the following new contri- 
butors: Mr. J. Challinor, Mr. G. Macdonald Davies, Mr. J. Ranson, Dr. W. G. 
Shannon, and Mr. H. W. Turner. Mr. Davies’ photographs, which illustrate no less 
than fourteen counties, are a particularly well-chosen and well-printed series. Dr. 
Shannon sends a beautiful series of enlargements illustrative of the geology of Torquay. 
The Welsh series is much strengthened by Mr. Challinor’s set from Cardigan and the 
late Mr. T. W. Reader’s from Denbigh. 

Among former contributors the Committee have to thank Mr. E. 8. Cobbold, 
Mr. G. G. Lewis and Mr. J. W. Tutcher. Mr. Lewis’ varied and well-chosen series 
includes examples from ten counties. 

Mr. T. Sheppard sends two enlargements illustrating coast erosion at Withernsea, 
and Mr. Harold Preston one of Salcombe Cliff. 

Certain photographs by Sir A. Strahan and Mr. A. 8. Reid taken many years 
ago have been added to the collection. 

The photographs published by the Committee as prints or lantern slides are 
obtainable from the Secretary at the following rates :— 


Stan id: 

Ist issue—22 Bromide Prints, with letterpress, unmounted. . é 113 0 
33 Fi is - mounted on cards.. 24 0 

93 22 Lantern Slides sh 2 at a2 24 0 
2nd issue—25 Bromide Prints ,, 35 unmounted. . ate 118 0 
rT t, 35 if mounted on cards.. 210 O 

$5 25 Lantern Slides xs ~ ee ae ag 2210550 

3rd issue—23 Bromide Prints .”,, a unmounted. . 114 6 
os 23 59 ae Re mounted on cards.. ee POLO, 

x 23 Lantern Slides 5 na 2 6 0 


The Reader negatives being the property of the Committee, prints (}-plate) may 
be obtained through the Secretary at 4d. each, lantern slides at ls. It is hoped 
before the publication of the next report to publish a fourth series of geological 
photographs. 

The Committee recommend that they be reappointed. 


TWENTY-THIRD LIST OF GEOLOGICAL PHOTOGRAPHS. 
From June 1, 1926, ro June 30, 1927. 


List of the geological photographs received and registered by the Secretary of 
the Committee since the publication of the last report. 

Contributors are asked to affix the registered numbers, as given below, to their 
negatives, for convenience of future reference. Their own numbers are added in 


$2 


260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. - 


order to enable them to do so. Copies of photographs desired can, in most instances, 
be obtained from the photographer direct. The cost at which copies may be obtained 
depends on the size of the print and on local circumstances over which the Committee 
have no control. 

The Committee do not assume the copyright of any photograph included in this 
list. Inquiries respecting photographs, and applications for permission to reproduce 
them, should be addressed to the photographers direct. 

Copies of photographs should be sent, unmounted, to 

Professor S. H. RrEyNoLDs, 

The University, Bristol, 
accompanied by descriptions written on a form prepared for the purpose, copies 
of which may be obtained from him. 

The size of the photographs is indicated, as follows :— 


L=Lantern size. 1/1=Whole plate. 
1/4=Quarter-plate. 10/8=10 inches by 8. 
1/2=Half-plate. 12/10=12 inches by 10, &e. 

P.C.=post card. E signifies Enlargement. 
ACCESSIONS. 
England. 


BERKSHIRE.—Photographed by the late T. W. READER and presented by 
F. W. Reaver. 1/4. 


7181 (A) Bracknell Brick Works . . Fossiliferous nodule from London Clay. 
7182 (B) Bracknell Brick Works . : Foreiliferous nodule from London Clay. 
7183 (C) Bracknell Brick Works . : Seana nodules from London Clay. 
7184 (D) Bracknell Brick Works - ett nodules in London Clay. 1911. 
7185 (E) Bracknell Brick Works . . Upper part of the London Clay. 1911. 


BUCKINGHAMSHIRE.—Photographed by G. M. Davins, M.Sc., 104 Avondale 
Road, South Croydon. 1/4. 
7186 (13-25) Warren Farm, Stewkley . Purbeck Marl on Portland Stone on 
Portland Sand. 1913. 

7187 (13-26) Hedges’ Brickfield, Stewk- Kimmeridge Clay crumpled by ice- 
ley pressure. 1913. 

7188 (26:43) Hartwell, 2 m. S.W. of Large ammonites and concretions from 
Aylesbury Portlands built into wall. 1926. 


Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, W.12. 1/4. 


7189 (4) Combe Hill, Wendover . . Chiltern escarpment, characteristio Chalk 
hill curve. 


Photographed by the late T. W. Reaper and presented by F. W. Reaper. 1/4. 


see Gilet) bee 


4 


7190 (1) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Thrust plane at junction of Chalk and 


Reading beds. 1915. 

7191 (2) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Thrust plane at junction of Chalk and 
Reading beds. 1915. 

7192 (3) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Green-coated flint bed at thrust junction 
of Chalk and Reading beds. 

7193 (4) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Reading pebble drift lying horizontally 
on inclined Reading beds. 1915. 

7194 (5) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Faulted Reading sand overlain by 
Reading pebble drift. 1915. 

7195 (6) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Drift on Reading beds showing erosion 
by torrential rain. 1915. 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 261 


7196 (7) Cowcroft, near Chesham - . Erosion hollows in Reading beds filled 
with pebble drift. 1915. 


7197 (8) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Erosion effect on Reading Sands of a 
storm. 1915, 

7198 (9) Cowcroft, near Chesham . Erosion effects on Reading Sands of a 
storm. 1915. 

7199 Walter's Ash. ‘ - Blocks of Sarsen for repair of Windsor 
Castle. 1919. 

7200 Walter’s Ash . . F - Sarsen workings. 1919. 

7201 Walter's Ash . ‘ 3 . Sarsens in situ. 1919. 

7202 Walter's Ash. Sarsens in situ. 1919. 


7203 Hartwell, 2 m. S.W. of Aylesbury Large ammonites and concretions from 
Portlands built into wall. 
Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, Bristol. P.C. 


7204 (1-24-3) Calvert Brick Works, Method of working Oxford Clay pit. 
Charndon 1926. 


Cornwa...—Photographed by G. M. Davies, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 


7205 (8:8) W. of St.Ives . : - ‘Greenstone’ resisting wave action. 
1908. 
7206 (811) Land’sEnd . - . ‘Castellated’ weathering of granite due 


to vertical jointing. 1908. 
7207 (12-25) Marble Cliff, Porthmissen, Alternating limestone and slate (Up. 
2m. W. of Padstow Devonian). 1912. 


Photographed by E. H. Davison, B.Sc., School of Mines, Camborne. 3 x 2. 


7208 Pendour Cove, Gurnard’s Head, Granite veins cutting greenstone boulder. 


Penzance 
7209 Cullis’ Qu., Ponsanooth . . Vein of pegmatite in granite with selvage 
of aplite. 1926. 
7210 Fistral Bay, Newquay ; . Raised Beach with vertical cylindrical 
pipes. 


Photographed by F. ENGLEHEART and presented by E. H. Davison, B.Sc., 
School of Mines, Camborne. P.C., 


72411 Cullis’ Qu., Ponsanooth . . Pegmatite vein with aplite margin. 
Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, 
W.12. 1/4. 

7212 (17) Fistral Bay, near aka - Raised beach. 

7213 (20) Pentire Head a . Differential erosion of vertical Devonians,. 

7214 (21) Perranporth : : . Stages in the production of stacks and 

inlets. 

7215 (22) Bedruthan Steps, N. of New- Dependence of form of sea stacks on dip. 
quay 

7216 (23) Holywell . z 3 . Sand dunes with marram grass. 

Photographed by the late T. W. Reaver and presented by F. W. REAvDER. 1/4. 

7217 (90) Baulk Head, Lizard . . Manaccan Series (L. Devonian). 1913. 

7218 (91, A) Baulk Head, Lizard . Manaccan Series (L. Devonian). 1913. 

7219 (87) Gunwalloe, Lizard 3 . Folded Manaccan beds. 1913. 

7220 (98) Gunwalloe . : : . Contorted Veryan sandstone, 1913. 

7221 Mullion . ; : ; . Cliffs of hornblende schist. 1913. 

7222 Kynance . ; ; : . Formation of arches by marine erosion 


along joints in serpentine. 1913. 
7223 Kynance . : A 3 . Serpentine coast. 1913. 


262 


7224 
7225 


7226 


7227 
7228 
7229 
7230 
7231 
7232 
7233 


7234 


7235 
71236 
7237 
7238 
7239 
7240 
7241 
7242 
7243 
7244 
7245 
7246 
7247 
7248 
7249 
7250 
7251 
7252 
7253 
7254 
7255 


7256 
T7257 
7258 
7259 
7260 
7261 


7262 
7263 


7264 


7265 
7266 


7267 
7268 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Kynance . . Serpentine coast. 1913. 

(69) Man of War rocks ‘from Lizard Rocks are formed of Man of War gneiss. 
lighthouse 1913. 

(69, A) Man of War rocks from Rocks are formed of Man of War gneiss. 
Lizard lighthouse 1913. 

E. of Lizard Pont . - . Cliffs of hornblende gneiss. 1913. 

E. of Lizard Point . . . Cliffs of hornblende gneiss. 1913. 

(75) Polpeor, Lizard . : . Cove due to erosion along dyke. 1913. 

(74) Polpeor, Lizard . : . Contorted hornblende schist. 1913. 

Housel Bay, Lizard . . . Marine erosion of hornblendeschists. 1913. 

(67) Cadgwith, Lizard : . Quarry in hornblende schist. 1913. 

(66a) Cadgwith, Lizard, the Devil’s Hollow probably produced by collapse of 
Frying Pan roof of cave eroded mainly in serpentine. 

1913. 
(53) Kennack, Lizard E . Kennack gneiss intrusive in serpentine. 
1913. 

(54) Kennack, Lizard : . Plexus of Kennack gneiss veins. 1913. 

(55) Kennack, Lizard ‘ . Bastite serpentine. 1913. 

(59) Kennack, Lizard 2 . Block of Kennack gneiss. 1913. 

(62) Kennack, Lizard . Brecciated steatitic serpentine. 1913. 

(36a) Spernic Cove, Lizard ~ . Serpentine coast. 1913. 

(33) Carrick Luz, Lizard. . Intrusive gabbro mass. 1913. 

(35) Carrick Luz, Lizard. . Gabbro showing flow foliation. 1913. 

(36) Carrick Luz, Lizard. . Gabbro showing flow foliation. 1913. 


(28) Chynhall’s Point, Coverack . Serpentine coast. 1913. 

(29) Chynhall’s Point, Coverack . The sea as an eroding agent. 1913. 
(29a) Chynhall’s Point, Coverack The sea as an eroding agent. 1913. 

(30) Chynhall’s Point, Coverack . Fissure weathering of serpentine. 1913. 
(31) Chynhall’s Point, Coverack . Prismatic weathering of serpentine. 1913. 
(32) Chynhall’s Point, Coverack . Prismatic weathering of serpentine. 1913. 
a Chynhall’s Point, Coverack Prismatic weathering of serpentine. 1913. 


(14) Coverack . . Weathered serpentine. 1913. 

(9) Coverack . - - . Gabbro pegmatite. 1913. 

(13) Coverack . < 2 . Gabbro cutting bastite serpentine. 1913. 

(15) Coverack . 2 : . Basic dykes cutting serpentine. 1913. 

(15a) Coverack . 5 - . Basic dykes cutting serpentine. 1913. 

(16) Coverack . : 4 . Weathered surface of bastite serpentine. 
1913. 

(19) Crousa Down, Coverack . Residual blocks of gabbro. 1913. 

(20) Crousa Down, Coverack . Residual blocks of gabbro. 1913. 

(21) Crousa Down, Coverack . Pliocene gravel. 1913. 

(21a) Crousa Down, Coverack . Pliocene gravel. 1913. 

(23) Crousa Down, Coverack . Pliocene gravel. 1913. 

(5) Lowland Point, near Coverack Broad terrace at foot of cliff is raised 
beach. 1913. 

(41) Lowland Point, Coverack . Raised beach platform from N. 1913. 

(24) St. Keverne, Lizard . . Weathering of gabbro producing core- 
boulders or ‘ niggerheads.’ 1913. 

(44a) Nare Head = £ . Devonian shales with plant remains. 
1913. 

(38) S.W. of Nare Point . Head resting on Devonian. 1913. 


(45) Dennis Head, 8. of Helford Portscatho series (Ordovician). 1913. 
river 

(80) Kynance . . a . Brecciated steatitic serpentine. 1913. 

(70) Lizard . ; 3 . Pebble of steatitic serpentine. 1913. 


Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, Bristol. 1/4. ° 


7269 


7270 
7271 


(1-9-3) Little Trevisco, near St. China pit showing sluicing process. 1922. 
Stephens 

(1:18-3) Pen Voose, Lizard . . Kennack Gneiss. 1924. 

(1:18-2) Chynhall’s Point, near Gabbro dyke cutting serpentine. 1924. 
Coverack 


» ES eee 


ee 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 263 


CumMBERLAND.—Photographed by G. M. Davims, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 


7272 (10-9) Roadside, N. of Rosthwaite, Moraine resting on glaciated rock surface. 
Borrowdale 1910. 


Photographed by B. Situ, M.A., Sc.D., H.M. Geological Survey, 28 Jermyn 
Street, London, S.W.1. 1/4. 
7273 Corney Hall, near Bootle . . Dry valley, a marginal glacial drainage 
channel. 1910. 


7274 Kinmont dry valley, near Bootle . Drainage channel marginal to Irish Sea 
ice. 1910. 


7275 Kinmont Beck valley, E. of Low Preglacial valley in Eskdale granite. 1910. 
Kinmont, near Bootle 
7276 Near Bank, near Bootle . . Glacial ‘in and out’ valley. 1910. 


DERBYSHIRE.—Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, 
London, W.12. 1/4. 


7277 (6) Doveholes, near Tissington . Wide-mouthed cave in Carboniferous 
Limestone. 1925. 


Photographed by R. O., Chellaston, Derby, and presented by B. Smirx, 
M.A., Sc.D., H.M. Geological Survey, 28 Jermyn Street, London, S.W.1. 1/2. 


7278 Chellaston alabaster quarry . Pillar of gypsum. 


DevonsuireE.—Photographed by G. M. Davius, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 


7279 (24-10) Pinhay Bay, looking W.. Lias section with White Lias at base. 
1924. 
7280 (22-1) Path to Samson’s Cave, Worm burrows (‘fucoids’) in Lester 


Combe Martin series. 1922. 
7281 (22-19) Wild Pear Beach, Combe Overfolded Hangman grits. 1922. 
Martin 


Photographed by J. F. Jackson, F.G.8., 2 St. Thomas's Square, Newport, 
LW. 1/4. 
7282 (1) Between Pinhay and Charton Landslip. 1927. 


Bays, Seaton 
7283 (2) Between Pinhay and Charton Outflow of water from springs rising in 


Bays, Seaton the landslip. 1927. 

7284 (3) Humble Point, Charton Bay, Surface of nodular Middle Chalk. 1927. 
E. of Seaton 

7285 (4) Humble Point, Charton Bay, Base of Middle Chalk with phosphate 
E. of Seaton nodules on Cenomanian. 1927. 

7286 (5) Humble Point, Charton Bay, Planed off and bored surface of Upper 
Seaton Greensand. 1927. 

7287 (6) Charton Bay, E. of Seaton . Up. Cretaceous unconformable on L. 


Lias and Rhaetic. 1927. 


Photographed by H. Preston, Milton House, Sidmouth. 1/1. 
7288 Salcombe Cliffs, Sidmouth . . Erosion of red Trias Marl. 1926. 


Photographed by W. G, SuHannon, D.Sc., Beverley Lodge, Torquay. 1/1. 


7289 Meadfoot, Torquay . . . Shows position of Meadfoot and Daddy 
Hole—Thatcher thrust plane. 1922. 


264 


7296 Kilmorie Hill, Torquay 


7291 Shannell Cove, Torquay 


7292 Black Head, Torquay 
7293 


Hope’s Nose, Torquay 
7294 


Hope’s Nose, Torquay 


7295 Anstey’s Cove, Torquay 


Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, Bristol. 


7296 (1-1-2) Redgate beach, Torquay . 


T7297 (1-2-2) Hope’s Nose, Torquay 


7298 (1-3-2) Saltern Cove, Paignton 

7299 (1-4-1) Hunter’s Tor, near Lust- 
leigh 

1300 (1-4-2) Packsaddle Bridge, Lust- 
leigh 

7301 (1:1-4) West Town, Ide, near 
Exeter 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Infolded Meadfoot grit and thrust plane. 
1922. 

Folding and inversion of Meadfoot beds. 
1922. 

Dolerite on Up. Devonian thrust over 
schalstein. 1922. 

Raised beach on folded Devonians. 1922. 

Overfolding and thrusting of Devonian 
limestone. 1922. 

Relations of dolerite and Devonians. 
1922. 


1/4. 

Slickensided fault face, Mid-Devonian. 
1921. 

Raised beach on Mid-Devonian Lst. 
1921. 

Crush breccia in Devonian Lst. 

Weathering of granite. 1921. 


1921. 


Elvan dyke in Culm. 1921. 


Interbedded Permian 
lava. 1921. 


sandstone and 


Dorset.—Photographed by G. M. Davies, M.Se., 104 Avondale Road, 


South Croydon. 


7302 


(23:2) Tilly Whim, Swanage 
7303 


(13-5) Arishmell, near Lulworth, 
looking E. 

(23-8) Arishmell and Worberrow 
Bay 

(23:10) Fossil Forest, Lulworth 


(13-1) Portland . : 

(13-2) Portland, N.E. 
house 

(12-8) Bridport, W. cliff 


71304 
7305 


7306 


1307 of light- 


7308 


7309 (12-5) Burton Bradstock 


1/4. 


Old workings in Portland Stone. 1923. 

Incipient caves in highly inclined Up. 
Chalk. 1913. 

Marine erosion in soft Wealdens after 
breaching of Portland barrier. 

Tufa masses round tree stumps in L. 
Purbeck. 1923. 

A stone quarry. 1913. 

Raised beach overlain by angular rubble. 
1913. 

Fuller’s Earth faulted against Bridport 
Sand. 1912. 

Lane section showing Bridport Sand 
passing up into Inferior Oolite. 1912. 


Photographed by J. F. Jackson, F.G.S., 2 St. Thomas’s Square, Newport, 


LW. 


(7) Watton Cliff, Bridport . 
(8) Burton Bradstock cliff . 
(9) Burton Bradstock cliff . 


7310 
7311 
7312 


7313 (10) Burton Bradstock cliff . 


7314 (11) Burton Bradstock cliff. 


7315 (12) Burton Bradstock cliff, W. 
end 

(13) Cliffs W. 
Bridport 

(14) The ‘ Western cliffs’ from 
Watton Cliff, Bridport 

(15) The ‘ Western clifis’ from 
Watton Cliff, Bridport 


7316 of Watton . Cliff, 
7317 


7318 


1/4. 


Forest Marble on Fuller’s Earth. 

Inferior Oolite sequence. 1927. 

Inferior Oolite : ‘ Red Bed’ with ‘ Snuff- 
box bed’ at base. 1927. 

Weathered surface of ‘ Snuff-box bed’ 
(Inferior Oolite). 1927. 

“Snuff-box bed’ (Inferior Oolite) 
section. 1927. 

Bridport Sands. 


1927. 


in 
1927. 


Middle and Upper Lias. 1925. 

Bathonian in foreground faulted against 
Lias of distant cliffs. 1927. 

Succession Middle Lias to Bridport 
Sands. 1927. 


7319 
7320 
7321 
71322 
71323 
7324 
7325 
7326 
7327 
7328 
7329 
71330 
71331 
71332 
1333 
71334 
71336 
71336 
71337 
71338 


71339 
7340 


7 
ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 


(16) Shore below Thorncombe 
Beacon, Bridport 
(17) Thorncombe Beacon, Bridport 


(18) E. end Thorncombe Beacon, 
Bridport 

(19) Thorncombe Beacon, Brid- 
port 

(20) Down Cliff, E. of Seatown 


(21) Doghus Cliff, E. of Seatown, 
nr. Bridport 

(22) Thorncombe Beacon, Bridport 

(23) Thorncombe Beacon, Bridport 

(24) Thorncombe Beacon, Bridport 

(25) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(26) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(27) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(28) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(29) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(30) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(31) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(32) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(33) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(34) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(35) Watton Cliff, Eypemouth, nr. 
Bridport 

(36) Doghus Cliff, E. of Seatown . 

(37) Down Cliff, E. of Seatown 


265 


Lias cliffs, doggers on shore. 1927, 


Lias section showing ‘Junction bed.’ 
1927. 
Lias section with ‘ Junction bed.’ 1925. 


‘ Junction bed.’ 1925. 


Bedding plane with spinatwm-zone fossils. 


Non-sequence in ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1927. 
Non-sequence in ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1925. 
Non-sequence in ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1927. 
Non-sequence in ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1927. 


Position of ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1925. 
Cliff before excavation. 1925. 
Cliff after excavation. 1925. 


Bathonian faulted against Lias; fallen 


blocks of ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1925. 

‘ Junction-bed’ in situ. 1927. 

Blocks of ‘Junction-bed’ on shore. 
1927. 


Full sequence of ‘ Junction-bed.’ 1925. 


‘ Junction-bed’ in situ. 1925. 

‘Junction-bed’ showing weathering of 
lithographic limestone. 1925. 

* Junction-bed ’ showing thinning out of 
layers. 1925. 

‘ Junction-bed’ (Watton Bed) in situ. 
1925. 

Dogger from Middle Lias. 

Doggers from Middle Lias. 


1927. 
1927. 


Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, W.12. 1/4. 


7341 
71342 


Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, Bristol. 


71343 


1344 
71345 


71346 


Portland Bill 
(15) Swanage 


(1:21-3) Bacon Hole, Lulworth and 
Mewp Rocks 


(1-6:3) Waddon, near Portisham . 
(1-7-1) Sandsfoot Castle, Wey- 
mouth 
(1:5:3) Foreshore below White 
Nothe 


Undercutting by the sea. 
Marine erosion along horizontal bedding 
plane. 


PC. 


Top of Portland and Lower Purbeck in 
Mewp rocks, and Up. Purbeck in cliff. 
1925. 

Chert in Portlands. 1922. 

Blocks of fucoid bed, Sandsfoot grits. 


1922. 
Block of Chloritic Marl with Holasters. 


Essex.—Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, 


71347 
71348 


W. 12. 


(19) Dovercourt c 
(18) Dovercourt : ; 


1/4. 


Submerged Forest. 
Submerged Forest. 


266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


GLOUCESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, 
London, W.12. 1/4. 


7349 (10) Bisley, near Stroud Passage from solid rock, through subsoil 
to surface soil. é 
7350 (9) Robinswood Hill, Gloucester . Outlier of Lias capped by base of Oolite, 
7351 (8) Cleeve Cloud, Cheltenham Cotteswold escarpment. 
Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, Bristol. 1/4. 
7352 = (1-20-3) Portway, Clifton, nearfoot Dolomite and shale (C,). 1924. 
of Gully 
7353 (1:20-2) Portway, Clifton (near Concretionary lower surface (D,). 1924. 
New Zigzag) 
7354 (1:11:2) Portway, between Sea Dolomitic Conglomerate unconformable 
Mills and Shirehampton on O.R.8. 1923. 
7355 (1-5-2) Portway, about } m. E. of Hard sandstone band in Keuper Marl. 
Shirehampton station 1921. 


Photographed by J. W. Turcuer, M.Sc., 57 Berkeley Road, Bishopston, 


Bristol. 1/1. 
7356 Hanham Green, near Hanham Angulata and Bucklandi beds (L. Lias). 
Abbot 1902. 


Hampsuire (IsLE or WicHt).—Photographed by J. F. Jackson, F.G.S., 
2 St. Thomas's Square, Newport, I.W., and presented by Miss C. Morey. 1/4. 


7357 (193) S.W. face of Headon Hill . Succession Barton beds to Bembridge 
Limestone. 1926. 
7358 (194) Headon Hillfrom Alum Bay Barton Sands and Oligocene beds. 1926. 
Pier 
7359 (195) Alum Bay cliffs from the pier Vertical Bagshot and Bracklesham beds. 
1926. 
7360 (196) By pier, Alum Bay Marine erosion. 1926. 
7361 (197) By pier, Alum Bay Marine erosion. 1926. 
7362 (198) Alum Bay. é - - ‘Mud glacier.’ 1926. 
7363 (199) Mouth of Shepherd’s Chine, Chine formation in Wealden shales. 
Atherfield 1926. 
7364 (200) Cowleaze Chine, Atherfield . Coast erosion and stream diversion. 1926. 
7365 (201) Near Cliff Terrace, Blackgang Wind and rain erosion of Ferruginous 
Sands. 1926. 
7366 (202) Near Cliff Terrace, Blackgang Undercutting by wind-erosion of hard 
sandstone band. 1926. 
7367 (203) Top of Atherfield, High Cliff Wind eroded platform and sand dunes. 
7368 aa Chale Bay from Atherfield Lower Greensand sequence. 1926. 
oint 
7369 (205) Bouldnor Cliff, Hamstead . Upper Hamstead beds. 1926. 
7370 (206) Bouldnor Cliff, Hamstead . Details, Upper Hamstead beds. 1926. 
7371 (207) Bouldnor Cliff, Hamstead Block from shell-band in Upper Ham- 
stead. 1926. 
7372 (208) Bouldnor Cliff, Hamstead . Part of the great ‘ mud-glacier.’ 1926, 
7373 (209) The Needles, from the sea . Sea-stacks in highly inclined mucronata 
Chalk. 1926. 
7374 (210) Brook Bay and Hanover Cliffs of Wealden marls and site of ‘ Pine 
Point + raft.’ -1927. 
7375 (211) Compton Bay Rain channels in soft Ferruginous Sands. 
1927. 
7376 (212) Compton Bay Sequence of strata Wealden to Lower 
Chalk. 1927. 
7377 (213) Compton Bay Junction Upper Greensand and Chloritic 


Marl. 1927. 


/ 7 J 
me AS eee ee tint -/ Sdn 


4 


7378 
7379 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 267 


(214) Compton Bay 


Nodule bed at base of Chloritic Marl. 
1927. 


(215) Between Brook Chine and Hazel-nut gravels on Wealden marls. 
1927. 


Hanover Point 


Photographed by the late T. W. Reaver, and presented by F. W. Reaver. 1/4. 


7380 High Down and the Needles 


Shows the dependence of the shape of 
the Needles on the dip. 


7381 Alum Bay and High Down with Southward decrease in angle of dip. 


the Needles 


Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, Bristol. 1/4. 


7382 
7383 


(1:10:4) Cowleaze Chine 
(110-2) Cowleaze Chine 


Eroded in horizontally lying Wealden 
sandstone and shale. 1923. 

Waterfall at head of Chine showing under- 
cutting of sandstone band in Wealden 
shale. 1923. 


HEREFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, 


1384 


London, 


W.12. 1/4. 


(14) Malvern Hills from British Looking N. to Worcestershire Beacon. 


Camp 


HERTFORDSHIRE.—Photographed by the late T. W. READER, and presented 
by F. W. Reaper. 1/4. 


7385 
7386 


1387 
7388 
7389 
7390 
7391 
7392 
7393 
1394 
7395 


(1) Ayot 
(2) Ayot 


(3) Ayot 
(4) Ayot 
(6) Ayot 
(7) Tetehadth 
(8) Letchworth . 


(9) Near Letchworth station 


(10) Arlesey 
(11) Arlesey 
(12) Arlesey 


Pocket of glacial gravel driven into 
disturbed Eocene clay. 1910. 

Reading sands bending down to occupy 
cavity in Chalk. 1910. 

Reading sands. 1910. 

Current bedded Reading sands. 1910. 

Westleton shingle. 1910. 

Gravels piping into Chalk. 1910. 

Gravels capping Chalk, 1910. 

Glacial gravels. 1910. 

Section of Chalk Marl. 1910. 

Section of Chalk Marl. 1910. 

Totternhoe Stone with over and under- 
lying strata. 1910. 


Kent.—Photographed by the late T. W. Reaper, and presented by F. W. 


7396 
1397 
7398 
7399 
7400 


7401 


7402 
7403 
7404 
7405 
1406 
7407 


(1) Rock Pit, Elmstead 
(2) Rock Pit, Elmstead 
(3) Rock Pit, Elmstead 
(4) Rock Pit, Elmstead 
Norris’ Pit, near Erith 


Norris’ Pit, near Erith 


(1) Land’s End, Sheppey 
(2) ee F 
(3) Sheppe 

(4) Land’s ent Sheppey 
(5) Sheppey : 

(6) Leysdown, Sheppey 


1/4. 


Blackheath beds. 1914. 

Blackheath beds. 1914. 

Blackheath beds. 1914. 

Blackheath beds. 1914. 

Brickearth on Thanet Sands on Chalk. 
1912. 

Brickearth on Thanet Sands on Chalk. 
1912. 

Cliff of London Clay. 1910. 

Erosion of London Clay cliff. 1910. 

Downwash from London Clay cliff. 1910. 

Septaria from London Clay. 1910. 

Sandy top beds of London Clay. 1910. 

Shell-beach and low cliff of alluvium. 
1910. 


268 

7408 
7409 
7410 
7411 
7412 
7413 
7414 
7415 


7416 
7417 


7418 
7419 


7420 
7421 


7422 
7423 
7424 
7425 
71426 
71427 
7428 
7429 
7430 
7431 
7432 
7433 
1434 
7435 
7436 
7437 
7438 
7439 
7440 
7441 


71442 


Photographed by E. R. Martry, 114 Southlands Road, Bromley. 


7443 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


(7) Leysdown, Sheppey 


(8) Leysdown, Sheppey 
(9) Leysdown, Sheppey 


(1) Peters’ Quarries, Wouldham : 
(2) Peters’ Quarries, Wouldham . 
(5) Peters’ Quarries, Wouldham . 


(6) Tingey’s Pit, Wouldham 
(7) Borstal Manor Pit 


(8) Margott’s Pit, Burham . 
(9) Blue Bell Hill, Burham . 


(10) Blue Bell Hill, Burham 


(11) Blue Bell Hill, Burham, top 
pit 
(12 a.b.c.) Blue Bell Hill, Burham 


(13) Burham 

(14) Burham 

(15) Burham 2 
Peill’s Pit, Bromley South : 
Peill’s Pit, Bromley South . 
Peill’s Pit, Bromley South . 
Peill’s Pit, Bromley South . 
Peill’s Pit, Bromley South . 
Charlton . 

Charlton 

Charlton . 

Charlton 

Charlton = 
Howe Hill. Pit, Greenhithe . 
Howe Hill Pit, Greenhithe . 
(1) Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe 
(2) Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe 
(3) Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe 
(4) Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe 
(5) Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe 
(6) Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe 


(7) Baker’s Hole, Southfleet 


Elmstead, near Chiselhurst . 


Outlying patches of alluvium surrounded 
by shell-beach. 1910. 

Shell-beach. 1910. 

Shell-beach (detail). 1910. 

Chalk—chiefly R. cuviert and H. sub- 
globosus beds. 

Chalk—chiefly R. cuviert and H. sub- 
globosus beds. 

Chalk—chiefly R. cuvieri and H. sub- 
globosus beds. 

Middle Chalk—T. lata and R. cuviert 
zones. 

Chalk—upper 3 WM. cor-testudinarium 
zone lower 4 H. planus zone. 

Chalk—mainly H. subglobosus beds. 

Chalk—R. cuvieri and H. subglobosus 
beds. 

Chalk—S. varians zone. 

Chalk—mostly H. planus zone. 


Chalk—H. planus to H. subglobosus beds. 
Chalk—top pit in 7. lata and R. cuvieri, 
lower in H, subglobosus beds. 
Chalk—top pit in 7’. lata and R. cwviert, 
lower in H. sublogbosus beds. - 
Chalk—old pit in S. varians beds. 


Blackheath pebble beds. 1914. 
Blackheath pebble beds. 1914. 
Blackheath pebble beds. 1914. 


London Clay. 1914. 

London Clay on Woolwich and Oldhaven 
beds. 1914. 

Blackheath beds on Woolwich beds on 
Thanet Sands on Chalk. 1913. 

Blackheath beds on Woolwich beds on 
Thanet Sands. 1913. 

Blackheath beds on Woolwich beds on 
Thanet Sands. 1913. 

Blackheath pebble bed on Woolwich 
beds on Thanet Sand on Chalk. 1913. 

Thanet Sands. 1913. 

High terrace gravel and loam. 1919. 

High terrace gravel and loam. 1919. 

Middle gravel overlying lower loam of 
the 100-ft. Thames terrace. 1913. 

Chalk pit, overlying strata removed. 
1913. 

Gravels of the 100-ft. Thames terrace 
overlying Chalk. 1913. 

Solution hollows in Chalk filled with 
Pleistocene deposits. 1913. 

Warped Pleistocene deposits in solution 
hollows in Chalk. 1913. 

Gravels of 100-ft. Thames terrace resting 
on Thanet Sand. 1913. 

Coombe deposits. 1913. 


44x Bh 


Blackheath beds. 1920. 


Photographed by A. 8. Retp, M.A., Greenburn, Balfron, Stirlingshire. 1/4. 


7444 
7445 


(B.38) Elham Valley . 
(B.42) Elham Valley . : 


. . Infilling of Lenham beds in Chalk. 


Infilling of Lenham beds in Chalk. 


— a 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 269 


— 


7446 (B.44) Elham Valley . : . Infilling of Lenham beds in Chalk. 
7447 (B.45) Elham Valley . - . Infilling of Lenham beds in Chalk. 
LANCASHIRE.—Photographed by G. M. Davigs, M.Se., 104 Avondale Road, 


South Croydon. 1/4. 

7448 (26-16) Quarry 1 m.§. of Huncoat Accrington mudstone (Coal Measures). 
Station 1926. 

7449 (26-15) Worsaw Knoll, 2m. N.E. Knoll in Salt Hill Series (S.). 1926. 
of Clitheroe 

7450 (26-14) Black Hill, near Whalley . Current bedding in L. Coal Measures. 


1926. 
7451 (26-13) Harper Clough Qu., near Bedding plane in 3rd grit with Stigmaria 
Rishton impressions. 1926. 


Photographed by J. Ranson, 174 Willows Lane, Accrington. 


7452 (1) Worsaw Knoll, 2 m. N.E. of Knoll in Salt Hill Series (S.). 
Clitheroe 

7453 (2) Whalley banks, near Whalley. Millstones in Lower Millstone Grit. 

7454 (3) Whalley banks, near Whalley . Millstones in Lower Millstone Grit. 

7455 (4) Close Brow Qu., Rishton, near Terminal curvature in Millstone Grit 
Blackburn attributed to N.W. ice-sheet. 

71456 (5) Wiswell Qu., near Whalley . Terminal curvature in Millstone Grit 

accentuated by ‘ creep.’ 

7457 (6) River Calder, near Whalley . Block of glacial conglomerate. 

7458 (7) Close Brow Qu., Rishton, near Haslingden flags. 
Blackburn 

7459 (8) Close Brow Qu., Rishton, near Ripple-marked Haslingden flags. 
Blackburn 

7460 (9) Close Brow Qu., Rishton, near Pitting probably due to worm-borings in 
Blackburn Haslingden flags. 


MrppiesEx.—Photographed by G. M. Davins, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 
7461 (9-1) Harefield, The Great Pit . London Clay on Reading beds on Chalk 
(IM. cor-anguinwm zone). 1909. 
7462 (9-2) Harefield, The Great Pit . Reading beds on bored surface of Chalk. 
1909. 


Photographed by the late T. W. Reaver, and presented by F.W. Reaper. 1/4. 


7463 (1) Harefield . ‘ . Flints rounded by 24 hours’ grinding in 
mill. 1913. 

7464 (2) Harefield . : : . London Clay on Upper Reading mottled 
clay. 1913. 

7465 (3) Harefield . 5 4 . Reading beds on Chalk. 1913. 

7466 (4) Harefield . p : . Current bedded sands at base of Reading 
beds overlain by Reading Clay. 1913. 

7467 (5)Harefield . - j . Current bedded sands at base of Reading 
beds. 1913. 

7468 (6) Harefield . ; 7 . London Clay. 1913. 

7469 (7) Harefield . , - . Woolwich and Reading beds. 1913, 


NorFoix.—Photographed by G. M. Davies, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 


7470 (19-27) Beeston Cliff, E. of Sher- Cliff chiefly of Contorted drift, Weybourn 
ingham Crag at base. 1919. 
7471 (26-28) Hunstanton, the cliff . General view of White Chalk, Red Chalk, 
and Carstone. 1926. 
7472 (26-29) Foreshore, Hunstanton . Erosion of Carstone along joints. 1926. 


270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


7473 (26-32) Hunstanton, the cliff . White Chalk on Red Chalk on Carstone- 
1926. 7 

7474 (26:36) Hunstanton, N.E. end of White Chalk on Red Chalk on Carstone. 
cliff 1926. 

7475 (26-33) Ringstead Downs, 1-2 m. Glacial overflow-channel in the Chalk. 
8.E. of Hunstanton 1926. 

Photographed by Sir A. StRAHAN, Fairfield, Goring, Reading. 1/4. 

7476 Sheringham : 5 . Cliffs of Contorted Drift. : 

7477 ‘(Trimingham i. a 5 . Chalk mass in Contorted Drift. 

7478 ‘Trimingham . F ; . Chalk mass in Contorted Drift. 


NorTHUMBERLAND.—Photographed by G. M. Davies, M.Sc., 104 Avondale 
Road, South Croydon. 1/4. 


7479 (24-22) Beadnell Point - . Pot-holed bedding plane of Bernician 
Limestone. 1924. 


SHROPSHIRE.— Photographed by KE. 8. Copsoxp, All Stretton, Church 
Stretton. 1/4 and 1/2. 


7480 Caer Caradoc, E. side looking S.W. Rhyolite crag. 1/4. 

7481 Caer Caradoc, HK. side looking N.E. Rhyolite crag; the Wrekin in the dis- 
tance. 1/4. 

7482 Caer Caradoc . ; : . Brecciated rhyolite or rhyolite tuff. 
1905. 1/2. 

7483 Caractacus’ Cave, Caer Caradoc . Cave eroded along flow-planes of amygda- 
loidal rhyolite. 1905. 1/2. 


Photographed by the late T. W. READER, and presented by F. W. Reaper. 1/4. 
7484 (B) Harley Hill, near Much Wen- Wenlock Limestone, well-bedded, with 


lock clay partings. 
7485 (C) Harley Hill, near Much Wen- Wenlock Limestone. : 
lock 


7486 (D) Blakeway Hollow Lane Qu., Jointing in Wenlock Limestone. 
near Much Wenlock 

7487 (E) Blakeway Hollow Lane Qu., Weathering of well-bedded Wenlock 
near Much Wenlock Limestone. 

7488 (F) Blakeway Hollow Lane Qu., Weathering of well-bedded Wenlock 
near Much Wenlock Limestone. 

7489 (G) Blakeway Hollow Lane Qu., Weathering of well-bedded Wenlock 
near Much Wenlock Limestone. 


Somerset.—Photographed by the late T. W. READER, and presented by 
F. W. Reaver. 1/4. 


7490 Woolston, near Williton - . . Uppersandstone on Bunter conglomerate. 

7491 Woolston, near Williton . . Trias section—Upper sandstone on con- 
glomerate. 1914. 

7492 Woolston, near Williton . . Upper sandstone on Bunter conglomerate. 
1914. 

7493 Woolston, near Williton . . Bunter conglomerate. 1914. 

7494 Woolston, near Williton . . Bunter conglomerate breaking away 


along joint-planes. 1914. 


SurroLK.—Photographed by G. M. Davins, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 
7495 (13-18) Sudbury, pit near the Glacial sand, on Crag, on Thanet Sand, 
cemetery on Upper Chalk. 1913. 


7496 (13-17) Sudbury, sand pit at Alex- Red Crag covered by Glacial gravel. 
andra Brick Works 1913. 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 271 


Surrey.—Photographed by G. M. Davies, M.8e., 104 Avondale Road, 


7497 
7498 
7499 
7500 
7501 


7502 


South Croydon. 1/4. 


(13-13) Tyler’s Green, Godstone . Pit in Folkestone Sand. 1913. 

(13-23) Limpsfield Chart. . Cherty Hythe beds. 1913. 

(13-31) Welch’s Pit, Claygate . Folded sand and clay (Claygate beds). 
1913. 

ee a} Copyhold Farm, E. of Red- Aptian-Fullers’ Earth overlain by sand 
and sandstone. 1915. 

(15: eS) Kennel Wood, Shirley, near Blackheath beds, current bedded sands 


Croydon and pebbles. 1915. 
(15: 31) Kennel Wood, Shirley,near Blackheath beds, sands and _ pebbles. 
Croydon 1915. 


Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, W.12. 1/4. 


7503 


(12) “Box Hill from Ranmoor Chalk escarpment. 
Common 


Photographed by the late T. W. ReavER, and presented by F. W. Reaver. 1/4. 


7504 
7505 
7506 


1507 
7508 
7509 


7510 
7511 
7512 
7513 
71514 
7515 
7516 
1517 


7518 
7519 


7520 
71521 
7522 


7523 
71524 


7525 


7526 
1527 
7528 
7529 
7530 


7531 
71532 
1533 
71534 
1535 


Chilworth 4 “ . Roadside section of Folkestone Sands. 
1911. 

Chilworth - 5 : . Roadside section of Folkestone Sands. 
1911. 

Chilworth A : 2 . Ironstone veins in Folkestone Sands. 
1911. 

Hayes Common - : . Blackheath pebble beds. 1916. 

Hayes Common - < . Blackheath pebble beds. 1916. 

Near Hayes Station . : . Gravel pit filled from bourne which 
appeared after interval of 33 years. 
1916. 

(1) Albury, near Shere 9 . Current bedded Folkestone Sand. 1916. 

(2) Albury, near Shere : . Current bedded Folkestone Sand, 1916. 


(3) Newlands Corner, near Shere. Clay-with-flints. 1916. 
(4) Newlands Corner, near Shere. Clay-with-flints. 1916. 
(5) Newlands Corner, near Shere. Clay-with-flints. 1916. 
(7) Newlands Corner, near Shere . Clay-with-flints. 1916. 


(6) Albury, near Shere ; . Chalky Drift with pipes. 1916. 
(a) N. of Chobham Place, Chobham Up. Bagshot Sands, capped by Plateau 
Common gravel. 1916. 


(b) Rifle Range, Portnall Park, L. Bagshot Sands. 1916. 
Chobham 

(1) Brook Street Pit, Hindhead . Passage loams between Ferruginous 
Sands and Atherfield Clay. 1914. 

(2) Hindhead. . “ . L. Greensand escarpment. 1914. 

(3) Hindhead . View over the Weald. 1914. 

(4) Devil’s Punch Bowl, Hindhead Hollow perhaps due to cutting back by a 
powerful spring. 1914. 

(5) Hindhead . . Atherfield Clay. 1914. 

(6) Brook Street Pit, Hindhead . Lower Ferruginous Sand, on passage 
loam, on Atherfield Clay. 1914. 


(1) Fairmile Park, Oxshott . . Ironstone concretion in Bracklesham 
beds. 1912. 

(2) Fairmile Park, Oxshott . . Bracklesham beds. 1912. 

(3) Fairmile Park, Oxshott . . Bracklesham beds. 1912. 

(4) Fairmile Park, Oxshott . . Lower Bracklesham beds. 1912. 

(5) Claygate. : . Claygate beds on London Clay. 1912. 

(6) Claygate. . ; . Folds due to slipping of beds down dip 
slope of syncline. 1912. 

(7) Claygate. . Folds in Claygate beds. 1912. 

(8) Claygate, Sim’s Brickyard . Bagshot Sands on Claygate beds. 1912. 

(9) Claygate, Sim’s Brickyard . Claygate beds on London Clay. 1912. 

(1) Beddington Brick Works . Thanet Sand. 1913. 


(2) Beddington Brick Works . Thanet Sand. 1913. 


272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


7536 (3) Beddington Brick Works . Thanet Sand. 1913. 

7537 (4) peas Brick Works . Thanet Sand. 1913. 

7538 (1) Gomshall . Folkestone beds, ironstained and with 
thin ironstone bands. 

7539 (2)Gomshall . : , . Current bedded Folkestone beds. 

7540 (3) Gomshall_ . 3 ‘ . Current bedded Folkstone beds. 

7541 (4) Gomshall_ . 3 : . Coneretion of ferruginous sand in Folk- 
stone beds. 

7542 (5)Gomshall_ . : ‘ . Concretion of ferruginous sand in Folk- 
stone beds. 

7543 (6)Gomshall_ . : L . Chalk escarpment of N. Downs. 


WORCESTERSHIRE.—Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, 
London, W.12. 1/4. 
7544 (13) E.end of Malvern Tunnel . Faulted Keuper marl. 1925. 


YORKSHIRE. Fe ae a by C. M. Brapiry. 1/4. 
7545 Penyghent : 5 . From Crag Hill, Horton. 


Photographed by G. M. Davies, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, South 
Croydon. 1/4. 
7546 (26-11) Penyghent from above Scarps due to grit bands. 1926. 
Horton-in-Ribblesdale 
7547 (26-19) Near Cracoe . - Reef-knolls. 1926. 
7548 (26-18) Near top of Skelterton Diphyphyllum in situ. 1926. 
Knoll, Cracoe 


Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, W.12. 1/4. 


7549 (16) N. of Filey. 5 : . Capes and bays. 

7550 (3) Filey Brig . é ; . Differential marine erosion. 
Photographed by J. Ranson, 174 Willows Lane, Accrington. 

7551 (1) Crummack Dale . 5 Syncline in Austwick grits, 8. limb, 

7552 (2) Crummack Dale . . . Syncline in Austwick grits, N. limb. 

7553 (3) Norber, near Clapham . . Carboniferous Limestone erratic. 

7554 (4) Norber, near Clapham . - Basement conglomerate of Carboni- 

ferous. 

7555 (5) Malham Cove - - - Rock-fall of winter of 1925. 1926. 

7556 (6) Malham Cove : . - Rock-fall of winter of 1925. 1926. 

7557 (7) Malham Cove : - - Rock-fall of winter of 1925. 1926. 

7558 (8) Moughton Scar . : Grikes in Carboniferous Limestone (D,). 

7559 (9) Foxley Bank, 3 m. N. of Contorted Carboniferous Limestone. 

Clitheroe 


Photographed by EK. StRAKeER, ‘ Eastern Morning News,’ Hull, under the 
direction of T. SuHepparp, M.Sc. 1/1. 


7560 Waxholme, near Withernsea . Effect of coast erosion. 1926. 
7561 Waxholme, near Withernsea . Effect of coast erosion, nearer view. 1926. 


Wales. 


Brecon.—Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, 
Wold. . 1/4. 


7562 (5) Clydach Valley, Brynmawr . Stream cutting back gorge. 
7563 (7) Under Blorenge, S. of Aber- Mud bog in Cwm. 
gavenny 


CarpieaNn.—Photographed by J. CHALLinor, University College, 
Aberystwyth. 1/2 E. 


7564 (1) Clarach Bay, Aberystwyth, Drift on folded Aberystwyth grits. 1921. 
looking S 


ON PHOTOGRAPHS OF GEOLOGICAL INTEREST. 


7565 (2) Cormorant Rock, Aberystwyth 

7566 (3) Nant-y-golomen ddu Rheidol 
valley 

7567 (4) Rheidol gorge, 4 m. 8. of Pont 
Erwyd 

7568 (5) 14m. N. of Borth 

7569 (6)1m.N. of Borth . Z 

7570 (7) Sarn Cymfelyn, Wallog . 

7571 (8) N. of Clarach Bay, Aberyst- 
wyth 

7572 (9)8. of Clarach Bay, Aberystwyth 

7573. (10) 8. of Clarach Bay, Aberyst- 
wyth 

7574 (11) 8. of Clarach Bay, Aberyst- 
wyth 

7575 (12) 8. of Clarach Bay, Aberyst- 
wyth 

7576 (13) Shore about 4 m. N. of 
Aberystwyth 

7577 (14) 8. of Clarach Bay, Aberyst- 
wyth 

7578 (15) Shore 4m. N. of Aberystwyth 

7579 (16) Shore 4m. N. of Aberystwyth 

7580 (17) Shore 4m. N. of Aberystwyth 

7581 (18) Shore N. of Aberystwyth 

7582 (19) Shore about 24 m. S. of 
Aberystwyth 

7583 (20) Shore about 2 m. S. of 
Aberystwyth 

7584 (21) Shore about 4 m. S. of 
Aberystwyth 

7585 (22) Shore about 4 m. S. of 
Aberystwyth 

7586 (23) N. of Aberarth . : : 

7587 (24) About $m. E. of Careg Lydan 


Carnarvon.—Photographed by G. M. 
South Croydon. 


7588 
7589 


(20:10) Porthdinllaen, near Morfa 
Nevin 

(16-5) Porthdinllaen, near Morfa 
Nevin 

7590 (16-7) Porth Wen, near Morfa 
Nevin 


273 


Shore platform and stack of 
Aberystwyth grits. 


A hanging fall. 1922. 


sea 
1926. 


Pot-holes. 1922. 

Storm beach. 1922. 

Submerged forest. 1923. 

Pebble beach of doubtful origin running 
out to sea. 1922. 

Sharp folding giving effect of uncon- 
formity. 1924. 

Denudation along a‘ smash plane.’ 1926. 

Coincidence of cliff face with bedding 
plane. 1922. 

Shore platform with curved strike, dip 
faults and miniature escarpments. 1922. 

Marine pot-hole formed at base of cliff 
by wave action. 1925. 

Fault plane and marine erosion along it 
1925, 

Erosion of cliff along bedding plane. 
1922. 


Pitching anticline. 1925. 
Pitching anticline. 1925. 
Pitching anticline. 1925. 


Reversed fault and cave formed along it. 
1925. 
Cubical blocks resulting from erosion 


along bedding and joint planes. 1922. 
Contorted strata in plan. 1923. 
Erosion of boulder clay cliffs. 1926. 


Erosion of cliffs of boulder clay showing 
banding. 1926. 

Boulder clay pillars. 1926. 

Stacks and cliffs showing bedding and 
jointing. 1926. 


Davies, M.Se., 104 Avondale Road, 
1/4. 


Precambrian spilite. 1920. 


Precambrian spilite. 1916. 


Cylindrical concretions of sandy-ironstone 
in Pleistocene-sand. 1916. 


Densicu.—Photographed by the late T. W. Reaper, and presented by 


F. W. READER. 


7591 (8 and 9) Vale of Llangollen. 


7592 (10) Castell Dinas Bran (left) and 
Eglwyseg rocks (right), Llan- 
gollen 

(14) Dee Valley from Castell Dinas 
Bran, near Llangollen 

(15) Eglwyseg Rocks, Llangollen . 


71593 
7594 


7595 
7596 


1927 


(16) Eglwyseg Rocks, Llangollen. 
(18) Garth Trevor, near Llangollen 


1/4. 

Drift-covered Vale and Carb. Limestone 
fault-scarp. 1919. 

The Aqueduct fault passes between the 
two hills. 1919. 


Present and earlier course of the Dee. 
1919. 
Silurian country in foreground, Carb. 
Limestone fault-scarp on right. 1919. 
Fault-scarp of Carb. Limestone. 1919. 
Grit of Cefn-y-fedw sandstone series 
worked for Gannister. 1919, 
AL; 


274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 
7597 (19) Garth Trevor, near Llangollen Massive grit near top of sandy Ist. series 


(Carb. Lst.). 
7598 (20) Trevor Rocks, Garth, Llan- Carb. Lst.; false-bedded sandy oolite 
gollen underlying massive bed. 1919. 
7599 (21) Trevor Rocks, Garth, Llan- Carb. Lst.; false-bedded sandy oolite 
ollen underlying massive bed. 1919. 
7600 (22) Trevor Rocks, Garth, Llan- Qu. in sandy limestone of Carb. Lst. 
gollen series. 1919. 
7601 (24) Australia Pit, Trevor . . Lowest Coal Measures quarried for fire- 
clay and Gannister. 1919. 
7602 (25) Australia Pit, Trevor . . Lowest Coal Measures quarried for fire- 
clay and Gannister. 1919. 
7603 (26) Australia Pit, Trevor . . Aqueduct Grit, Cefn-y-fedw sandstone. 
1919. 
7604 (27) Near Whitehurst Halt and Dee Valley where river enters post- 
Pen-y-Bont glacial gorge. 1919. 
7605 (28) Pen-y-Bont, terra-cotta brick Etruria or Ruabon marls (Up. Coal 
works Measures) capped on left by Glacial 
Drift. 1919. 


7606 (31) Horseshoe Pass, Llangollen . Old workings in Pentre-dwfr slates on 
right. 1919. 
7607 (33) Horseshoe Pass, Llangollen . Quarries in Pentre-dwfr slates in fore- 
ground. 1919. 
7608 (34) Horseshoe Pass, Llangollen . Carb. Lst. escarpment in distance, 
Silurian hills midway. 1919. 
7609 (36) Llangollen, Clogau Slate Qu., Highly cleaved and inclined L. Ludlow 
near Pentre-dwfr. slates. 1919. 
7610 (37) Llangollen, Clogau Slate Qu., Highly cleaved and inclined L. Ludlow 
near Pentre-dwfr. slates. 1919. . 
7611 (38) Llangollen, Clogau Slate Qu., Highly inclined and cleaved L. Ludlow 
near Pentre-dwfr. slates. 1919. 
7612 (39) Llangollen, Clogau Slate Qu., Bedding and jointing in slates. 1919. 
near Pentre-dwfr. 
7613 (40) Llangollen, Clogau Slate Qu., Slates breaking up along bedding planes 


near Pentre-dwfr. under influence of weathering. 1919. 
7614 (46) Pandy, near Glyn Ceiriog . Cleaved coarse Pandy ash (Caradocian). 
1919. 
7615 (47) Glyn Ceiriog ; : . Old Qu. in Pen-y-glog slates (base of 
Wenlock). 1919. 
7616 (49) Near Berwyn station . Highly inclined L. Ludlow beds. 1919. 


7617 (44) Near Cefn Uchaf, Glyn Ceiriog Qu. in L. Ludlow shale. 1919. 


Merionetu.—Photographed by G. M. Davixs, M.Sc., 104 Avondale Road, 
South Croydon. 1/4. 
7618 (15:16) Aberdovey, looking W. The ‘Roman Road.’ 1915. 
down the Dyfi estuary 
7619 (15-15) Aberdovey, looking EH. up The ‘Roman Road.’ 1915. 
the Dyfi estuary 
Photographed by G. G. Lewis, Ellerslie Road School, London, W.12. 1/4. 


7620 (11) Mawddach Estuary . . Bar or spit across river mouth. 


Channel Isles. 


ALDERNEY.—Photographed by the late T. W. Reaver, and presented by 
F. W. Reaper. 1/4. 


7621 The Casquets, W. of Alderney . These rocks are composed of grits. 1921. 

7622 The Casquets, W. of Alderney . These rocks are composed of grits. 1921. 

GUERNSEY.—Photographed by H. W. Turner, M.A., The University, 
Bristol. P.C. 


7623 (1-8-4) Grand Camp (N. shore of Acid veins in diorite. 1922. 
island) 


— 


ON PALASOZOIC ROCKS. 


i) 
~I 
Or 


Palaeozoic Rocks.—Report of Committee (Prof. W. W. Warts, 
Chairman; Prof. W. G. Frarnstpes, Secretary; Mr. W. 8S. Bisar, 
Prof. W. 8S. Bourton, Mr. E. S. Copzpotp, Mr. E. E. L. Drxon, Dr. 
GertrRupE Exes, Prof. E. J. Garwoop, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, 
Prof. V. C. Ittine, Prof. O. T. Jones, Prof. J. H. Marr, Dr. T. F. 
Srpty, Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. A. E. TRuEMAN) appointed to excavate 
Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales. 


Durie the year 1926-7, the work of this Committee has been carried forward in three 
districts—Leintwardine, Herefordshire; Ravenstonedale, Westmorland; and the 
Church Stretton area, Shropshire. 

At Leintwardine during the winter, Prof. Hawkins cleared and excavated, inch 
by inch, a column of strata three feet square and twelve feet deep at the classic 
‘Starfish Bed Quarry’ on Church Hill. The first results of this work have been 
presented in a paper by Prof. Hawkins, to be published by the Geological Society of 
London. The owner of the property (Mr. C. Boughton Knight) has taken great 
interest in the research, and there are no charges to be defrayed by the Committee. 
Prof. Hawkins hopes to proceed further at a later date. 

At Ravenstonedale, Prof.Garwood and other members of the Committee attempted, 
at Whitsuntide, 1927, to open up the section below the conglomerate exposed in 
Pinskey Gill. A trench was cut in the right bank of the stream west of the road 
bridge, and excavated until it became water-logged some three feet below water- 
level. Red and variegated shales of Carboniferous type were discovered in or under 
the conglomerate, but the main result was the proving of the conglomerate exposure 
as a buried cliff on the western side of a drift-filled ravine which does not exactly 
coincide with the existing stream-course of Pinskey Gill. It is now clear that the 
exact stratigraphical relationships of the red conglomerate with its rhyolite and other 
igneous rock pebbles, to the Spirifer-bearing dolomites and shales and the Silurian 
slates below, cannot, at Pinskey Gill, be proved except by boring. The expenses 
incurred in making the excavation have been mainly defrayed by members attending 
Prof. Garwood’s Whitsuntide excursion. 


Mr. E. 8. Cobbold writes as follows on his excavations among the Cambrian and 
associated strata in the Cwms Hollow, east of Caradoc, Church Stretton, his seventh 
report on his series of excavations :— 


Seventh Report on Excavations among the Cambrian Rocks of Comiey, Shropshire. 
By E. S. Copzoxp, F.G.S. 


On p. 118 of the Report of the Committee to the Manchester Meeting (1915) a 
short note is given of a few small trial holes in ‘ the Lower Ridge of the Cwms.’ At 
the reading of a paper by the present writer on the stratigraphy of the Comley 
Cambrian, it seemed desirable that the junction of the Cambrian quartzite with the 
pre-Cambrian should be exposed if the permission of the present owner of the land, 
Mr. W. Jarrett, of the Cwms Farm, could be obtained. This he gave very willingly, 
oA the writer wishes to acknowledge with cordial thanks his indebtedness to 

r. Jarrett. 


Excavation No. 56. The Lower Ridge in the Cwms. 


It will be seen by the section (page 276) that a trench, some 63 feet in length and 
6 feet in maximum depth, was made transverse to the strike of the quartzite. It 
exposed 14 feet of incoherent red sandstone (Torridonian), 25 feet of beds assigned 
to the Wrekin quartzite and 24 feet of the base of the Lower Comley sandstones. 

The strike of the Lower Cambrian beds is 20° west of north, that of the Torridonian, 
which had to be obtained in a subsidiary excavation, was found to be 20° north of 
east, and the two formations are separated by a 6-inch layer or vein of yellowish clay 
that appears to mark a fault hading at a steep angle northwards. 

Tae 


276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Description of the Section. Length of 
trench occupied. 


h. Bubbly beds of greenish grey sandstone, with clayey partings and 

occasional narrow quartzitic bands . : 3 : : 13 feet 
g. Glauconitic, coarse-grained quartzite, with a few red grains of 

felsitic material and becoming at the base almost a rotten-stone. 4 feet 
f. Sandstones and shaly beds, with one narrow band of quartzite . 7 feet 
e. Compact, grey quartzite : - 3 : : 8 feet 
d. Compact, dark grey quartzite, in several beds 3 “ : 10 feet 
c. Blocks of the same bed but broken into angular fragments, and with 

a few referable to higher beds ; : : ; 4 . “TI feet 
b. A layer or vein of yellow clay (the fault) 3 : . _ 
a. Red, incoherent sandstone : 4 A : - A . 14 feet 


Remarks :—The gradual change from quartzite to sandstone is paralleled in 
excavations 4! and 53.2 

The bed g has almost exactly the characters of bed 62 of the latter and portions 
of a, of the former. 


SEcTION or TRENCH IN THE Cwms, CoMLEY. 


Feeh lo ; 10 20 


a Wo 


n> 5 . 
TORRIDONIAN? WREKIN QuaRTZITE _L® ComLey SAnoSTONE 
Strvke E20°N ST IRM KE, 5; 200E cn an nes Sjomaa ; 


The red incoherent sandstone is strictly comparable with some of the beds of the 
Torridonian(?) seen in the brook 300 yards W.S.W. of the excavation, and the strike 
is the same at the two exposures. It seems obvious that though the Cambrian in 
this section is faulted against the Torridonian(?), the two formations are uncon- 


formable one to another, but the absolute base of the Cambrian has not yet been 
found. 


Dolgarrog Dam Disaster.—Report of Committee (Dr. E. GREENLY, 
Chairman; Mr. EK. Monae, Secretary; Prof. P. G. H. Boswett, 
Mr. I. S. Dousis, Prof. W. G. Frarnsrpes) appointed to obtain 
Photographic Records of the Geological Effects of the ‘ Débacle’ which 
resulted from the recent bursting of a dam at Dolgarrog, North Wales. 


Tue Dolgarrog disaster, as a result of which part of the small village of Porth-llwyd 
was destroyed, occurred during the evening of November 2, 1925. Situated on the 
western side of the Conway Valley some 64 miles south of Conway, the village lies at 
the mouth of the gorge of the Afon Porth-llWyd, one of the small streams draining 
from the ridge of Carnedd Llewelyn, Foel Fras, and other mountains. The western 
side of the Conway Valley is hereabouts a steep rock-wall nearly 1,000 feet in height, 
and above it a mature drift-covered upland rises gently for three or four miles to the 
mountains, at the foot of which lies Llyn Eigiau at 1,219 feet above O.D. The 
existence of this lake is determined by a morainic bar which does not lie athwart the 
valley, but is aligned parallel to the ridge, i.e. north and south. The Afon Porth- 
llWyd entered and also left the original lake near its southern end. The lake receives 
the greater part of its water from Cwm Kigiau, the principal eastern cwm of Carnedd 


' Rep. Brit. Assoc. 1908, Dublin, p. 238 (1909); and 1915, Manchester, p- 121 (1916). 
* Idem 1915, Manchester, p. 118 (1916). 


ON DOLGARROG DAM DISASTER. O77 


Llewelyn, which lies to the south, but since the Clogwyn-r-Eryr ridge has been 
pierced by a tunnel, the surplus waters of the Afon Dulyn have been added from the 
north. 


The River Course. 


Though the area and level of Llyn Eigiau had, before the disaster, been materially 
altered by the erection of a dam on the morainic ridge, and the stream-course had 
been modified by subsidiary dams and leats, yet certain well-marked topographic 
stages can still be distinguished. 

Stage I. Liyn Higiau to Pwll-du.—After leaving the lake, the natural level of which 
is 1,219 feet above O.D., the Afon Porth-llwyd meanders over a Drift-covered area 
for two miles down to the farm of Pwll-du, 1,150 feet above O.D. At this point 
rejuvenation of the stream begins, and a leat has been constructed to carry the water 
round a spur of Moel Eilio to Dolgarrog. 

Stage II. Pwll-du to the Low-level Dam.—From Pwll-du the valley deepens and 
cliffs in Boulder Clay appear. Half a mile farther downstream, at 850 feet above 
0.D., the Low-level Dam, 40 feet in height, was constructed to hold up sufficient 
water for one day’s supply for the pipe-line to Dolgarrog which begins here. 

Stage III. The Low-level Dam to the lip of the Rhaiadr Porth-lbyd.—For the next 
three-quarters of a mile of its course the river falls some 200 feet to the 650 feet 
contour. But above that, at a height of 750 feet above O.D., the solid rock appears 
in the river bed, and from this point the river flows through a rocky gorge with 
undercut cliffs of Boulder Clay resting on the rock-shelves. 

Stage IV. The Rhaiadr Porth-llwyd.—At the 650 feet level the gradient steepens 
so suddenly that this part of the stream-course may well be termed a lip. In less 
than a quarter of a mile the stream falls over bare rock from 650 feet above O.D. to 
a sloping ledge 350 feet above O.D. From where solid rock first appears (at 750 feet 
above O.D.) to this point, the stream-bed lies in what is apparently an auto- 
brecciated basic lava or intrusion. The sloping ledge is a pre-Boulder Clay 
topographic feature forming the southern bank of a pre-glacial valley which apparently 
deviates somewhat from the present stream-course and runs towards the north-east. 
This valley is filled with glacial debris and contains very large boulders. Intensive 
erosion here has resulted in the undercutting of a cliff of Boulder Drift 100 feet in 
width and 50 feet in height. This cliff now forms the northern wall of the present 
stream-course. 

Stage V. Below the Rhaiadr Porth-llibyd to the Conway.—From the ledge at 350 feet 
0.D. to the floor of the main valley, the stream passes through a post-glacial ravine 
cut in black pyritous shales into which an irregular mass of rhyolite-like rock has 
been intruded. The ravine has steeply cut sides and is noteworthy for the number 
of pot-holes both in its floor and at different levels on its flanks. The end of the 
gorge near to the Conway Valley is cut through black slates overlain by Boulder 
Clay. Thence the stream reaches the main river across an alluvial plain. 


The Effects of the Flood. 


Stage I.—A concrete wall, three-quarters of a mile in length, was constructed on 
the moraine (here overlain by peat) along the eastern side of Llyn Higiau and the 
level of the lake was raised thereby from 1,219 feet to 1,239 feet above O.D. Special 
precautions were taken to strengthen the wall across the southern outlet of the 
lake, but a shallow saddle crossing the moraine about half a mile to the north of the 
outlet was not specially safeguarded. In the midst of this potential overflow channel 
slight seepage of water had apparently long been in progress, and when the heavy 
rains which preceded the disaster raised the level of Lake Higiau the seepage increased 
inordinately. With augmented flow, the seepage developed to a well-defined spring 
which, bursting close to the wall, soon enlarged itself to a well, or cauldron, 30 feet in 
width and 20 feet in depth, over which the wall remained standing as a bridge. The 
spring in bursting lifted the peat bed which covers the Boulder Clay and broke it 
into rafts ; these the waters floated forward or cast outwards to strand on the margins 
of the flood near by. . 

Around the cauldron of emergence neither peat nor Boulder Clay are in any way 
disturbed, and, notwithstanding that 120 million cubic feet of water flowed forth over 
the moor, there is for the next 100 yards no perceptible water-channel, neither grass 
nor heather being uprooted. A little way below the cart-track the hollow in the 
moorland becomes more evident, and the flood, when it found this, confined itself to 


278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


a deeper and narrower track. Here, under a very few feet of water, the peat-bed, 
4 to 6 feet in thickness, seems to have floated up and, separating itself from the moraine 
in cakes and strips, often many tens of square yards in extent, allowed the rushing 
waters to uncover and erode the Boulder Clay. Across the 400 yards of moorland, 
as far as the main Afon Porth-llWyd, a new stream-course 50 to 100 feet in width was 
thus defined. The course was deepened generally by some 6 to 10 feet, with one or 
more narrow channels locally incised within it to a depth of 20 feet. The finer debris 
from this new cut was carried forward with the flood, but stones more than six or 
eight inches in diameter were dropped as a delta at the edge of the main valley. Peat 
rafts were also moved alittle way, but most of them were detached in masses so large 
and so well loaded with root-clay that the flood could not transport them to any 
great distance. Many rafts of intermediate size were left stranded in the shallows 
before the flood-waters reached the course of the main Afon Porth-llvyd. From the 
confluence of these streams down to Pwll-du the valley is wide, and its gradient is so 
low that the velocity of the waters was never considerable. In this reach the banks 
show no signs of erosion, and even in two pronounced meanders above the farm of 
Pwll-du the stream-bed was not altered. 

Stage II.—Below Pwll-du the banks of Boulder Clay were eroded and undercut 
at each bend of the stream, the flood again becoming heavily charged with small and 
large stones and boulders. When it reached the still waters of the storage-basin 
formed by the Low-level Dam, it spread out and dropped its load of boulders and 
finer material as a fan at the head and over about one-third of the total extent of the 
floor of this sheet of water. 

Stage IIJ.—The Low-level Dam was an earth-dam with a concrete core, concave 
towards the upland area. It was made of the local Boulder Clay with its included 
boulders, and was about 40 feet in height, with a spillway from the leat at the side 
of its southern end, some 4 feet lower. This leat collects waters from the flanks of 
Moel Kilio, below the Pwll-du leat, and brings them into the Low-level storage basin. 
The flood-waters from Llyn Eigiau banked themselves against the dam and increased 
the flooded area very considerably. Eventually they reached such a height that 
water overflowed the dam to a reputed height of two feet, and thus began to erode 
the piled-up Boulder Clay on the downstream side. This overflow in itself was not 
serious, but two feet of water over the dam gave a height of six feet above the by-wash 
or the spillway. The by-wash, though it could not accommodate all the flood, did 
send down a very large quantity of water which, rushing with unaccustomed velocity, 
cut into the toe of the earth-dam. Thus near the southern end of the dam the 
concrete core was probably exposed, and after an interval it broke. A gap 120 feet 
in width was made and a tremendous flood (11 million cubic feet of water) was 
suddenly released. It met the pipe-line mounted on its concrete pillars, buried that 
pipe-line in gravel, and was temporarily checked. The obstruction gave way 
in turn and the flood swept on to the Conway Valley. Sections of the pipe-line went 
with it, and some of the concrete piers were uprooted. Some of the material soon 
became stranded, but some made the whole journey to Dolgarrog, where it now forms 
part of the fan. The flood-water undercut the Boulder Clay on the rocky shelves, and, 
scouring them clean of all movable material, swept out loose supports and allowed 
joint-blocks of solid rock to move forward down the gorge. There is definite evidence 
that some very large blocks of rock were moved even at the top of the gorge. A 
boulder 15 by 15 by 15 feet, lying near the lip, still has dead vegetation attached to 
its under side, hanging head downwards. The boulder is trapped against joint- 
blocks of unmoved rock, and has caught and smashed a slab of slaty ash, which is 
now held beneath it. While it has not actually been proved that any large mass of 
the solid formation was carried to the foot of the gorge at Dolgarrog, this is considered 
possible. As a result of the under-cutting along the stream-course, the gradient has 
been disturbed and the slope locally made steeper than the angle of rest for joint- 
blocks; thus certain steeply inclined master-joints behind projecting masses have 
been given opportunity to open under gravity. During the flood, boulders fell into 
some of these gaping joints, and these may have acted as wedges. All this is well 
shown at the ‘lip,’ where evidence of the mighty power of the flood is particularly 
impressive. 

Stage IV.—From the lip downwards, the most noticeable phenomena are the 
effects of the blows struck by the boulders which hit the solid rock in their tumble 
over the waterfall. New fractures, often triangular in form and many square feet 
in area, can be seen on projecting corners and edges all the way down to the slanting 


ON DOLGARROG DAM DISASTER. 279 


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Sketch-map of Llyn Eigiau and Afon Porth-llWyd, Dolgarrog, showing the ‘stages’ 
referred to in the Report. Contours at 50-feet intervals on flanks only of valley 
of Afon Porth-llwyd. 

The cross- fetched part of Llyn Kigiau shows the extent of the lake before the 
upper dam was constructed. It is approximately the present (or post-flood) outline also. 


| Mile 


280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


ledge. Many pot-holes drilled by the post-glacial pre-flood stream have had the 
down-stream lip. battered and destroyed. Along this stage the flood met the bank of 
Boulder Clay infilling the pre-glacial valley and dislodged many very large boulders, 
which it carried through the steep and narrow ravine of Stage V and left upon the 
Dolgatrog fan. Several big erratics like those which are found in the fan below still 
project precariously from the Boulder Clay cliff, and two (of which one is estimated 
to weigh 200 tons) have fallen on to the ledge itself since the disaster. 

Stage V.—In Stage V, although the whole of the surface of the upper parts of the 
gorge have been hammered, it is remarkable how little effect the battering has had 
on the rhyolite. Only projecting corners have been removed and there is no sign of 
any corrasion. In the narrow (lower) parts of the gorge the pre-flood surface with 
all its pot-holes remains practically unaffected. The black slates, on the other hand, 
gave way along their cleavage-planes, and slabs of moderate size were detached and 
carried forward in considerable volume. At about 250 feet above O.D., a reinforced 
concrete wall 10 feet in height and 6 feet in thickness had been erected to maintain 
a water supply for the village. Of this only a very small part now hangs on the 
southern bank. A view up the valley at this stage shows that the rocks near the 
stream-course have been smoothed, but all the higher parts of the ravine are raw and 
hackled like the face of a quarry from which every loose block has been removed. 

The fan below the termination of the ravine is a wilderness of great stones standing 
at all angles, Many of these consist of the auto-brecciated basic rock which crops 
out across the upper part of the gorge. Practically all have shapes and surfaces like 
those of ice-borne boulders, and a few show pot-holes and smoothed water-channels, 
sufficient to prove that streams of water have flowed over them and to suggest that 
they have formed part of a river-bed. It is the opinion of the Committee that only 
the freshly fractured slate slabs and a few of the angular blocks of the ‘lip’ rocks 
were quarried by the flood out of the solid beds. The great majority are ‘ second- 
hand’ boulders and were scoured by the falling waters from the Drift section on the 
ledge. One of these boulders measures 21 by 21 by 12 feet. It rests upon a smooth 
boulder of hard dolerite 24 inches in length and 8 inches in thickness, which it has 
broken into three pieces. At least four others are only slightly inferior to this in 
size and quite a score of others have more than half that bulk. The fan is rudely 
triangular in shape and extends across the former main road, where it is rather over 
700 feet in width, the newly transported debris being there over 10 feet in thickness. 
A rough sorting action can be observed. Near the apex lie the biggest boulders. 
They decrease gradually in size to near the main road, where boulders of 6 to 8 feet 
in diameter are common. The finer material was spread over the alluvial plain in the 
direction of the River Conway. The present level of the fan at its apex is 100 feet 
above O.D. and on the road 26 feet above O.D. Under this large fan lie the remains 
of the wrecked church and of several houses. Over the position where the church 
stood, nearly 50 feet of material, including at least one 100-ton boulder, have been 
accumulated. 

The Committee’s task was to obtain photographic records of the geological results 
of the débacle. Forty-three photographs are herewith submitted, most of which 
have been specially taken by Mr. W. H. Wilcockson, M.A., F.G.S., to whom the 
Ccmmittee wish to offer sincere and hearty thanks. 


ON VASOLIGATION, ETC. 281 


Vasoligation, Ete.—Report of Committee (Dr. F. A. E. Crew, Chairman ; 
Mr. J. T. Cunnincuam, Secretary; Professor J. 8. Huxtiry) for 
the experimental Investigation of the Effects of Vasoligation, Crypt- 
orchidism, Grafting, etc., on the Seminal Tubules and Interstitial 
Tissue of the Testes of Mammals. 


Tue report submitted last year dealt with artificial Cryptorchidism and ligature of 
the vas deferens in the rabbit. The present Report contains some more experiments 
of the same kinds on the rat and cat, but describes chiefly experiments on the ligation 
of the vasa efferentia in tame rats, mostly of the albino variety. 

It was desirable to carry out experiments on the ligature of the vas deferens in 
some animal in which the testis could not be withdrawn into the abdomen by the 
animal, either voluntarily or by reflex action, as in rodents, and the cat was selected 
for the purpose. By this means all doubt whether the result was due to the ligature 
or to the alteration of the normal relations of the testis to the scrotum, in other words 
to a partial or complete, temporary or permanent, dislocation of the testis into the 
abdominal cavity would be eliminated. It is difficult to find in the literature definite 
descriptions of the condition and relations of the inguinal canal in different mammals, 
but it is stated in Quain’s Anatomy that the canal is actually closed only in the human 
species, in adaptation to the erect attitude. Dissection of a male cat showed that the 
cavity of the scrotum is connected with the abdominal cavity by a long narrow canal 
lined by peritoneum, and passing beneath the skin over the ventral surface of the 
pelvic girdle. The lumen of the canal was so narrow that only an ordinary seeker or 
probe could be passed through it, and there was no possibility of the testis passing 
into it or through it. There was no muscular layer in the wall of the canal, and very 
little muscle in the wall of the scrotum itself. 


Ligature of the vas deferens in the Cat. 


Urethane was tried as an anesthetic for cats, but proved very unsuccessful. One 
cat injected with this drug died after the operation without recovering consciousness, 
another died during the operation. A successful operation was carried out by using 
chloroform and ether as anwsthetic. The scrotum on the right side was opened, the 
vas deferens ligatured in two places, and a piece between the ligatures cut out. The 
animal recovered quickly and lived in good health until it was killed with chloroform 
104 days after the operation. The end of the vas next to the operated (right) testis 
was found to be closed, and the spermatic blood vessels uninjured. Abundant active 
sperms were obtained from the cauda epididymis of the left side. Sections of the 
operated (right) testis showed perfectly normal spermatogenesis. 

The post-operative period stated by Bouin and Ancel to be sufficient to produce 
complete degeneration of the seminal tubules after ligature and vasectomy in the 
guinea pig was 102 days. In this experiment on the cat no injurious effect was 
visible after the lapse of 104 days. The epididymis of the operated side, as in similar 
experiments on the rabbit carried out last year, was distended with semen, its diameter 
being twice as great as that of the normal on the unoperated side. The testis and 
epididymis of the operated side showed slight congestion of the blood vessels, having 
a darker colour than the normal from this cause. This experiment confirms the 
evidence of the previous experiments on rabbits, and proves that ligature and 
resection of the vas deferens does not cause degeneration of the seminal tubules with 
cessation of spermatogenesis in the cat within a period of more than three months. 

No further experiments were made on cats, as it was desired to test the effects 
of ligature of the vasa efferentia for comparison. For these experiments, as stated 
above, with one exception, albino rats were used. Complete descriptions of the 
position and relations of the vasa efferentia in the lower mammals have not been 
available until quite recently, but for man they are given in standard text-books of 
anatomy. In most cases (e.g. rabbit and cat) the epididymis and testis are so closely 
attached that the vasa efferentia cannot be distinguished by inspection of the surface, 
and it did not seem possible to pass a ligature round them with certainty. In the rat, 
Miss Gertrude van Wagenen, of the University of California (Anat. Record, Philadelphia, 
Vol. 27, 28, 1894, p. 189), has stated that the ducts are sufficiently discrete to permit 
complete ligation without interfering with the blood supply to the testis. She states 


282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. | 


that they consist of twelve to twenty thin walled ducts which pass from the head ot 
the testis to the caput epididymis. Observation in the dead animal showed that the 
epididymis is connected to the testis by a membrane about } in. broad, which is 
somewhat thickened where it terminates between the free extremity of the caput and 
the head or anterior end of the testis. It seemed that this was the site of the vasa 
efferentia indicated by Miss de Wagenen, and experiments were made to test the 
effect of ligation of this thickened membrane, while at the same time microscopic 
investigation was made to trace the vasa efferentia completely and certainly. 

In the first experiment the rat was killed three weeks after the operation and 
sections of the testis showed complete disorganisation of the seminal epithelium in 
the tubules. It seemed therefore that this was the actual position of the vasa 
efferentia, but this is not the case. 


The vasa efferentia in the Rat. 


Shortly afterwards the number and course of the vasa in the rat were ascertained 
by two methods, namely, by making cleared preparations of the whole membrane 
containing them, from their origin from the testis to their junction with the caput 
epididymis, and by making serial sections from the anterior end of the caput to the 
portion of the testis containing the rete and the origin of the vasa. The number 
of the vasa at their origin was found to be six, not twelve to twenty, as stated by 
Miss de Wagenen, and at their origin from the rete they are straight. Farther on 
they become more and more convoluted and form a bundle which increases in thick- 
ness, passes dorsal to the epididymis, and joins the caput on its anterior border. The 
inner end of the caput is, in fact, formed by a continuation of the bundle of the vasa 
efferentia which bends back on itself and is continued into the body of the epididymis. 
Where the vasa efferentia join the caput epididymis they are united into a single tube, 
which is continued in a much convoluted but unbranched condition to form the whole 
epididymis. 

It was afterwards found that these observations are in agreement with those of 
Dr. Jacques Benoit,! of the Faculty of Medicine of Strasburg. Mr. Cunningham 
also examined the corresponding parts in the mouse where the relations are very 
similar. In the specimen examined, the number of vasa efferentia was only three ; 
Benoit found four or five in the majority of cases, three in two specimens, and six 
in one. 

The vasa efferentia in the rat leave the testis somewhat behind the anterior 
extremity, near the point where the spermatic artery and vein enter it, and they pass 
obliquely forward in the connecting membrane between the epididymis and testis. 
The operation of ligaturing the vasa offered no great difficulty as they were not 
closely connected with the vascular cord formed by the spermatic artery and vein. 

A number of experiments on ligation of the marginal membrane were made in 
order to ascertain whether disorganisation of the seminal epithelium, as in the first 
experiment mentioned above, was a constant result. The following is a list of these | 
experiments :— 


Experiments on ligation of marginal membrane. 


Marginal membrane in Rat ligatured on right side only. 
Post-operative 
period. Result, 
ils 21 days. Seminal epithelium disorganised. Weight of normal, left, testis 
2.5 gms., operated right, 1.3 gms. 
2. 14 days. Ligatured testis functional, but larger than the other. In sections 


a few tubules slightly abnormal, but the great majority showed 
normal spermatogenesis. 


3. 7 days. Active spermatozoa in vas deferens of operated side. In sections 
of operated testis normal spermatogenesis, except in a few 
tubules. 


1 Benoit, Dr. Jacques. ‘ Voies excretrices du testicule chez les Mammiferes. 
Strasburg, Imp. Alsacienne, 1925. 


ON VASOLIGATION, ETC. 283 


Post-operative 
period. Result. 
4, 14 days. Normal spermatogenesis in right testis. 


5. 17 days. Seminal epithelium completely disorganised and reduced in right 
testis. Left, normal. 


6. 20 days. Sperms from right vas deferens dead and motionless. In sections 
very slight signs of abnormality in a few tubules, otherwise 
normal spermatogenesis. 


Marginal membrane ligatured on left side. Right testis detached from scrotum 
and fixed to abdominal wall by ligature passing through gubernaculum. 


Post-operative 
period. Result. 
7. 16 days. Right testis atrophied and degenerate, only about half the size of 
the other, seminal epithelium completely disorganised. Left 
testis functional, the ligature loose. 


Of the first six experiments, leaving out of consideration that in which the other 
testis was removed from the scrotum to the abdomen because in that the ligature 
was found to be loose, there was complete disorganisation of the seminal epithelium 
in two, the first and fifth; normal spermatogenesis in one, the fourth; and slight 
traces of disorganisation in a few tubules in three. Careful examination by sections. 
and cleared preparations showed nothing in the marginal membrane but lymphatic 
channels and small blood-vessels. It is probable that the injurious effects of ligature 
of this membrane are due to varying degrees of injury to the tubules of the apex of 
the caput epididymis to which the membrane is attached. 

The following is a list of the experiments in which the true vasa efferentia were 
ligatured :— 


Experiments on ligation of vasa efferentia. 
Vasa efferentia ligatured on left side, marginal membrane on the right. 
Post-operative 


period. Result. 
1. 6 days. Testis of each side flaccid and reduced in size. In sections, 
seminal epithelium in both testes disorganised, no spermato- 
genesis. 


Vasa efferentia ligatured on right side only. 
Post-operative 
period. Result. 
2. 14 days. Seminal epithelium completely disorganised. Weight of right 
testis 1.535 gms., left 2.200 gms. 


3. 14 days. Seminal epithelium completely disorganised. 


4. 7 days. Seminal epithelium completely disorganised, but not so much 
reduced. No spermatogenesis. 


These experiments show that closure of the lumen of the vasa efferentia causes. 
complete disorganisation of the seminal epithelium in seven days, or even in six days, 
assuming that the evidence of the first experiment is valid. In the other three the 
left testis served as control, and showed perfectly normal spermatogenesis. As there 
was no interference with the blood circulation in the testis, the effect must be due to 
increase of pressure within the tubules. It follows therefore that when the vas 
deferens only is ligatured, the absence of injurious effect is due to the fact that the 
great space contained in the long coiled tube of the epididymis prevents this increase 
of pressure in the seminal tubules, the epididymis acts as a reservoir for the semen 
and becomes greatly distended in consequence. The conclusion is that when the 
distension and pressure increase to a certain point within the epididymis, absorption 
of semen is increased, an equilibrium is reached, and no further rise of pressure occurs. 


284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Report of Committee 
(Prof. E. B. Poutton, Chairman; Dr. F. A. Batuer, Secretary ; 
Dr. W. T. Caiman, Mr. KE. Heron-Aten, Dr. P. Coatmers MITCHELL, 
Mr. W. L. ScuaTeEr). 


Dunrine the past year inquiries have continued to reach your Committee on various 
points of detail and have been answered by letter and by sending the relevant report. 
In particular the Committee was consulted by the Editor of the Journal of the South- 
Eastern Agricultural College, and he has adopted many of the suggestions made. 

The Committee notes with pleasure the publication, by the Oxford University Press 
in 1925 and 1927, of the World List of Scientific Periodicals (1900-1921), and strongly 
urges that in the making of brief references to literature the contractions used for 
the titles of periodicals should always be those which have been most carefully drawn 
up by Dr. A. W. Pollard and Mr. W. A. Smith, and printed in the second volume of 
that work. Authors and editors should at least make themselves acquainted with the 
rules and principals of abbreviation explained on pp. ix, x of that volume. To 
aid them in so doing, we are permitted, by courtesy of the Council of Management of 
the World List, to reproduce those pages as an Appendix to this report. 

The Committee also welcomes the establishment of a Committee on Bibliography 
by the International Institute of Intellectual Co-operation. In the deliberations of 
the section dealing with the bibliography of the biological sciences Dr. Chalmers 
Mitchell, a member of your Committee, has already taken part. 

Your Committee asks for its reappointment with a grant of £1 for postage of 
this report. 


APPENDIX. 
ABBREVIATION OF TITLES OF PERIODICALS, 


Reprinted from the World List of Scientific Periodicals. 


Titles of periodicals have been abridged on a plan which, it is hoped, will enable 
users of the Index to reconstruct all of any reasonable length. It will be a great 
satisfaction if for titles using commonly recurring scientific and technical phrasing 
stable abbreviations have been achieved. For less common technical titles this is 
hardly to be expected. but even here, it is hoped, some progress has been made towards 
a consistent usage. 

Prepositions and articles are normally omitted. In English titles capitals are used 
throughout. In other languages nouns have capital, adjectives small, initial letters : 
Bullfetin of the] Scifentific] Socfiety of] Nfew] Y[ork]. 

Publlications de la] Soc[iété] scifentifique de |’] Aisne. 

The conjunction ‘and’ (with the corresponding words in other languages) 1s 
omitted, except in titles consisting only of two nouns connected by ‘ and’, and where 
it connects broken compounds : 

Coal and Iron. 
land- u[nd] forstw[irtschaftliche] Bl[atter]. 


Number is not distinguished (Bl.=Blatt and Blatter); nor in English is any 
distinction attempted hetween substantive and adjectival forms (Sci.=Science, 
Sciences, and Scientific). Where possible, cognate words in all languages are reduced 
to the same form : 


Academy, Académie, Academia 4 : : ; : . >Aead. 
Annals, Annales, Annalen, Annali_ . 3 3 - ; . >Ann. 
Science, Scienza, Sciencia a F z i > Sci. 
Society, Société, Societa, Sociedad, Sociedade, Societas, Societate, 

Societit . F F . + 9 >iSoee: 


Normally the place of imprint is omitted (except when needed to distinguish 
periodicals with the same title); but when the abbreviated form would leave it 
uncertain what was the language of the original, the imprint is added for all except 
the best-known language of those between which confusion could arise, taking the 
order of familiarity as being: (i) English; (ii) French; (iii) German; (iv) Italian or 
Spanish, 


So: 


ON ZOOLOGICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY AND PUBLICATION. 285 


Progress of Science, London. 
Progrés des sciences, Paris. 
Progresso delle scienze, Torino. 
Progrés scientifique, Paris. 


Progresso scientifico, Milano. 
Annales de biologie, Paris. 
Annales de chimie, Paris. 
Annalen der Chemie, Berlin. 


> Prog. Sci. (Without imprint.) 

> Prog. Sci. Paris. 

> Prog. Sci. Torino. 

> Prog. sci. (Without imprint, since there 
is no confusion with English.) 

> Prog. sci. Milano. 

> Ann. Biol. Paris. , 

> Ann. Chim. 

> Ann. Chem. Berl. 


In the Germanic and Scandinavian languages where long compound words occur 
freely the different parts of the compound have been abbreviated as if they were 
With nouns no hyphen is used between the parts but each part is made to 
begin with a capital letter : 


distinct. 


inserted. 


Entwicklungsmechanik 
Materialpriifungen 
Fiskeritidende 


> EntwMech. 
> MatPriif. 
> FiskTid. 


Dampfkesseliiberwachungsvereine > DampfkUberwVer. 
Compound adjectives are similarly contracted, but between the parts a hyphen is 


agrikulturekonomisch 
technischwissenschaftlich 


> agrik.-ekon. 
> tech.-wiss. 


It is not considered necessary to give a list of the abbreviations, as most of them 
are self-explanatory and reference can be made to the fullform. Exception is made of 
the following German forms, some of which differ somewhat from those in common use 


Bl. 
Mbl. 
Wohl. 


= Blatt. Zbl. = Zentralblatt. Mschr. =Monatsschrift. 
=Monatsblatt. Mhft. =Monatsheft. Wschr. = Wochenschrift. 
=Wochenblatt. Schr. =Schrift. Ztg. = Zeitung. 


Z. ==Zeitschrift. 
and of the following place-names : 


Aberd. =Aberdeen. F.M.S. =Federated Ma- N.Z. =New Zealand. 
Afr. = Africa. lay States. Nebr. = Nebraska. 
Amer. =America. Fink. =Finland. Okla. =Oklahoma. 
Amst. =Amsterdam. ir: =France. Ont. = Ontario. 
Ariz. = Arizona. *s-Grav.=’s-Gravenhage. Penn. =Pennsylvania. 
Aust. =Australia. Ind. =India. Philad. = Philadelphia. 
B. Aires. =Buenos Aires. Ire. =Treland. Qd. = Queensland. 
B.C. =British Colum- Ital. =Ftalia. R.1. =Rhode Island. 
bia. Kans. =Kansas. Rhod. =Rhodesia. 
Beig. = Belgique. Kjgob. =Kjpbenhavn. Rio de J. =Rio de Janeiro. 
Berl. = Berlin. Krist. =Kristiania. St. Petersb.=Saint Peters- 
Bgham. =Birmingham. Lond. =London. burg. 
Brux. =Bruxelles. Lpool. =Liverpool. Saskatch. Saskatchewan. 
Buitenz. = Buitenzorg. Madr. =Madrid. Scot. = Scotland. 
Calif. © =California. Manchr.= Manchester. Stockh. =Stockholm. 
Can. = Canada. Mass. =Massachusetts. Tasm. =Tasmania. 
Carol. =Carolina. Mex. =Mexico. Tex. =Texas. 
Colo. =Colorado. Mich. =Michigan. Transv. =Transvaal. 
Conn. =Connecticut. Minn. =Minnesota. Trin. Tob. =Trinidad and 
Dak. = Dakota. Miss. =Mississippi. Tobago. 
Deuts. =Deutschland. N.S. =Nova Scotia. Vict. =Victoria. 
Edinb. =Edinburgh. N.S.W. =New South Wash. = Washington. 
Engl. =England. Wales. Wise. = Wisconsin. 
Esp. = Espajia. N.Y. =New York. Wyom. = Wyoming. 


286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Biological Measurements.—Report of Committee (Prof. J. S. 
Huxtiey, Chawman; Dr. R. A. Fisner, Secretary; Dr. W. T. Catman, 
Mr. C. ForsteR-Cooper, Prof. J. W. NicHouson, Dr. EH. 8. PEARsoN, 
Mr. O. W. Ricwarps, Mr. G. C. Rosson, Dr. J. F. TocuEr) 
appointed to draw up recommendations for the taking and presentation 


of Biological Measurements, and to bring such before persons or bodies 
concerned. 


THE Committee held six meetings during 1926 and 1927. Preliminary discussions 
showed that two obstacles ordinarily stood in the way of the satisfactory presentation 
of numerical data in the biological literature. In the first place editors showed a 
natural reluctance to printing extensive data in full detail, especially when every 
advantage had not been taken to arrange such data as compactly as possible ; in the 
second place the methods available for providing a statistical summary, such as is 
essential wherever the original data are not presented in full, are neither sufficiently 
well known nor have been sufficiently standardised by accepted conventions for such 
summaries to have an exact and unambiguous meaning. 

The Committee decided that these obstacles could be overcome by action along 
two lines: (a) by the establishment of centrally placed archives for the reception of 
original biological data, which were too extensive for complete publication, and (b) by 
the preparation of a leaflet for the guidance of contributors to biological journals 
who wish to conform to acceptable modern practice. It is anticipated that this 
leaflet will require periodical revision as need arises. 

Negotiations with the Natural History Museum at South Kensington and with 
the Royal Society of Edinburgh have resulted in the establishment of the required 
archives for the reception of biological data, where they will be available to students, 
and in this sense will have secured effective publication. The thanks of the Com- 
mittee are due to the authorities of these two institutions for undertaking a function 
which in the opinion of the Committee will be of increasing value to biological science. 

The leaflet prepared by the Committee consists of a foreword illustrating the 
practical needs of modern biological work, followed by four sections (A) on general 
considerations in the planning and execution of research by metrical methods, (B) on 
the methods available for the compact presentation of data, and on the recognised 
methods by which it can be adequately summarised, (C) on the interpretation of 
statistical results and on tests of significance, and (D) giving detailed references to 
text books upon the several types of tests generally required. The leaflet is presented 
as an appendix to this report. 

Seeing that the practical utility both of the archives and of the leaflet will depend 
on their existence becoming known to biological workers, the Committee have cir- 
cularised the editors of the chief biological journals published in Great Britain asking 
~ for the incorporation of additional clauses in their permanent notices to contributors. 


The Committee are glad to report that a favourable reply has been given by the editors 
of a number of important journals. 


Recommendations of the 
British Association Committee on Biological Measurements. 


ForEWorRD. 


Biology is rapidly becoming more and more of a science in which exact mathe- 
matical methods are required. In all fields accurate measurements or quantitative 
data of some kind are being increasingly employed. On the other hand, such data 
are not infrequently rendered useless, or at least much less useful than they might 
have been, through neglect of simple precautions, either in the making, the recording, 
or the analysis of the data. Bearing these facts in mind, Section D of the British 


Association appointed the present Committee to draw up recommendations upon the 
presentation of biological measurements. 


ON BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS. 287 


The chief fields in which statistical data, properly taken and analysed, can be of 
great service are perhaps the following :— 

(a) Genetics —Obviously, here all conclusions based upon ratios are valid only in 
so far as statistically significant. In the early days of Mendelism much confusion 
was brought about through lack of proper statistical treatment. It has, however, 
recently become increasingly realised that a combination of Mendelian and statistical 
(biometric) methods is in many cases necessary for full analysis. In human genetics 
the statistical method is the main available weapon. 

(6) Variation—Here the achievements of biometrics are too well known to need 
statement or comment. It should be pointed out,, however, that in many cases a 
technically perfect biometric analysis may tell us less than it ought owing to in- 
adequate selection of material. H.g. without experiment, biometric methods cannot 
tell us how much of a given variation range is genotypic, how much phenotypic. 
Only properly directed work on variation can give us much needed information as 
to the differences between different species as regards variability, the reasons for the 
differences, and the bearing of the facts upon evolutionary theory. 

(c) Systematics.—With increased delicacy of systematic determination, measure- 
ments are becoming more and more important as a criterion of the distinctness of 
closely related species, sub-species or races. 

(d) Development.—Only by taking large numbers of measurements will it be 
possible to discover the laws of relative growth of parts. 

(e) Evolution.—As more perfect paleontological series are obtained, accurate 
measurements of absolute and relative sizes of parts may enable us to establish simple 
laws of evolutionary growth and development comparable to those which are being 
obtained by similar methods in ontogeny. 

Naturally the taking of quantitative data constitutes the essence of much of 
physiology ; but we have here been concerned mainly with data which may be called 
statistical. 

It may be as well to begin by enumerating a few of the cases in which neglect of 
simple precautions has made laboriously taken measurements of much less value 
than they might otherwise have been; for such examples will serve better than 
anything else to convince the working zoologist of the need for improvement. The 
defect may have lain in the failure to take the most suitable measurements, to record 
them adequately when taken, or to analyse them in the most desirable way. 


A. Nreeuect or Biometric ANatysis. (See also No. 2.) 


1. In the preparation of Witherby’s ‘Handbook of British Birds’ (London, 1922) 
considerable numbers of accurate measurements were made both upon the skins 
(usually twelve specimens) and eggs (usually 100 specimens) of a large number of species 
of birds. However, in recording these valuable data only the mean and high and low 
extreme variants were set down (in the case of skins, the mean was omitted). Pre- 
sumably the main purpose of such measurements is to give the systematist help in 
distinguishing between closely related forms (sub-species, races, &c.). Even for this 
purpose, however, and especially when the ranges of two forms overlap, this method 
of record is markedly inferior to one giving mean and standard deviation. In 
addition, the recording of standard deviation would have enabled a wholly different 
and very interesting problem to be attacked, namely, the suggestion originally made 
by Darwin (‘Origin of Species,’ chapter ii) that wide ranging and abundant species 
and genera are more variable than scarce and local ones. 


B. Numpers INADEQUATE FOR THE STATISTICAL ConcLusIONS DRAWN. 


2. Examples of the failure to realise the statistical invalidity of small numbers are 
frequent. H.g. Kriiger (1920 and 1924, Zool. Jahrb. (Syst.), 42, 289, and 48, 1) dis- 
tinguishes closely related ‘species’ of Humble-bees by means of certain relative 
proportions of parts. Considering, however, that the maximum number of any one 
species measured is 25, and is often below 10, that the ranges frequently overlap, and 
that only mean, maximum and minimum are recorded, it may be doubted whether 
these quantitative results are at all significant. 

3. If data are properly taken and recorded, failure to use suitable analyses can be 
remedied by subsequent workers. Nevertheless, conclusions based on unsatisfactory 
analysis often, as a matter of fact, become generally accepted, and it is then difficult 
to correct the error. The most frequent source of error is failure to discount chance 


288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


or random sampling. A well-known case of this is afforded by the paper of Pearl 
and Parshley (1913, Biol. Bull. 24, 205), who believed that they had clear evidence 
that in cattle the relation of time of insemination to the cyclical events of oestrus 
influenced the sex-ratio. Later investigation of a larger body of material, however, 
convinced them that their first result had been wholly due to chance (Pearl, 1917, 
Maine Agri. Exp. Station Bull. 261, (3), 130). 


C. INcoMPLETE RECORD oF ADEQUATE Data. 


4. Very often the investigator is so much preoccupied with the solution of a particu- 
lar question that he is content to record his data incompletely, provided that this 
will suffice for his special problem. He fails to remember that complete record may 
make it possible for later investigators to use his original data for the solution of quite 
new problems. A good example of this is afforded by the classical paper of Bateson 
and Brindley (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1892, 285) upon dimorphic organs. The authors were 
concerned to prove that in the beetle Xylotrupes, while the frequency-curve for body- 
length was of normal type, that for cephalic horn-length was bimodal; but that in 
the stag-beetle Lucanus both body-length and mandible-length showed normal 
frequency distributions. The frequency distributions of these four characters were 
therefore given singly. Since, however, two measurements were taken and recorded 
for each individual, it would have been possible to present not only the information 
immediately required, but also all information bearing on the correlation between 
body-length and appendage-length, by means of two-way tables. This information 
was later required by another investigator: luckily the original data had been pre- 
served, and so new conclusions could be drawn (J. Genetics, 1927, 18, 45). A pre- 
cisely similar failure to record by means of two-way tables is found in the paper 
by Djakonov (J. Genetics, 1925, 15, 201) on the bimodality of forceps-length in male 
earwigs (Forficula). Here again only lucky chance preserved the original data, which 
were then found to yield new results (J. Genetics, 1927, 17, 309). 

5. Frequently not merely are data published in an incomplete way, but owing to 
lack of space or for other reasons are not published at all. The danger of this pro- 
cedure may be illustrated by the benefits accruing from its converse. Haldane 
(J. Genetics, 1920, 10, 47) was able to demonstrate from Nabour’s data on heredity in 
the grasshopper Paratettix (J. Genetics, 3, 141, and 7, 1) that two factors which the 
original investigator had thought to segregate independently were in reality linked. 
He expressly states that this would not have been possible if it had not been for 
the exceptional fullness of Nabour’s records. 

6. Duncker (1903, Biometrika, 2, 307) re-analysed the figures of Yerkes (1901, Proc. 
Amer. Soc. Arts and Sci. 36, 417), which involved the careful measurement of a number 
of characters on eight hundred Fiddler-Crabs (Gelasimus). Neither author published 
the data in full; and since they were utilised only for certain special purposes, the 
very fundamental growth-relations between the various organs were not brought out. 
Duncker himself points out that asymmetry of all the organs on the side of the large 
chela increases with absolute body-size, but does not tabulate the figures by size 
classes. It is therefore impossible to arrive at the laws of growth underlying the — 
phenomena. Duncker calculates a number of correlation coefficients from which 
he deduces certain conclusions. The conclusions would have been much more firmly 
based, however, if the underlying growth-laws had also been established, as only by 
so doing can we hope to understand the biological, as opposed to the statistical, 
meaning of the coefficients. This therefore represents a failure not only to publish 
the data in full, but also to analyse the data sufficiently fully even for the purpose 
envisaged by the author. 


D. Famure To CHoosre THE Most SvurraBLe MEASUREMENTS OR CONVENTIONS. 


7. Sometimes data are less valuable than they should be because the points of refer- 
ence used in making measurements are chosen arbitrarily instead of conforming to 
an accepted standard, or of being chosen with reference to their biological significance. 

An example of the latter procedure is shown by two recent authors (Nomura, 1926, 
and Sasaki, 1926, Sci. Report Tohoku Imp. Univ. 2, 57 and 197) who have made 
elaborate measurements of a number of Molluscan shells, with a view to the analysis 
of relative growth of parts. The results, however, would have been more valuable 
if measurements had been made of the magnitudes needed for determining the mathe- 
matical growth relations of a Molluscan shell, as set forth for instance in D’Arcy 
Thompson’s ‘ Growth and Form’ (Cambridge, 1917), chapters xi and xii. 


Se ee 


ie Daa! 


ON BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS. 289 


E. Farure To MAKE THE Most SvirTasLe BrotogicaL ANALYSIS. (See also No. 6.) 


8. A further example of failure to analyse data in the best way owing to lack of 
the most suitable preliminary biological method (the statistical method being wholly 
adequate) is afforded by a paper by Pearl, Gowen and Miner (1919, Maine Agric. 
Hxp. Sta, Ann. Rep.), who in calculating the influence of bulls on the milk-production 
of their female descendants takes as a measure of the bull’s performance: daughter’s 
yield minus mother’s yield. This clearly gives an undue advantage to bulls mated to 
cows of low milk-yield. The error here has practical consequences, since the market 
value of the bulls would be altered in relation to the verdict of the scientist. 

9. As Klatt (1919, Biol. Zentralb. 39, 406) points out, failure to realise that other 
relations than that of simple proportionality may, and usually do, hold between the 
size of an organ and the size of the whole organism vitiates many discussions as to 
the relative size of organs in different types within one group. The usual plan is to 
express relative organ-size as a percentage of total size. Since, however, a frequent 
relation of organ to body is not y = ax, but y = ax?, this is of no value. Parrot 
(1894, Zool. Jahrb. (Syst.) 7) had arranged a series of birds in a scale according to their 
percentage heart-weights. Klatt, having previously found that the heart-weight (h) 
of warm-blooded vertebrates was related to the body-weight (w) according to the 
exponential formula h = a.w» where a varied considerably, but b was always close 
to 0-83, re-analysed these figures, and was thus enabled to calculate the real relative 
heart-weight, which is given by the size of the fractional constant a in the above 
formula. Thus, for instance, the stork has a moderately low percentage heart-weight, 
but this is due to its large absolute size. When the value of a is calculated by the 
correct method, its true (physiological) relative heart-weight turns out to be one of 
the three highest in the list. 

10. In general, measurements reveal the fact that in many groups there are no 
final fixed proportions of parts (e.g. many Crustacea), and that the only quantitative 
constants which are of value are not percentages but exponents. This is true 
even of certain Mammals (‘ Monograph of the Voles and Lemmings living and extinct,’ 
M. A. C. Hinton, vol. i, 1926). 

D’Arcy Thompson (‘Growth and Form,’ chapter ii) gives an historical and 
critical account of many similar cases where absolute size must be taken into con- 
sideration in assessing the functional meaning of particular relative sizes of parts. 


A. General Considerations. 


1. IDENTIFICATION. 


The material under investigation should be examined by exact taxonomic methods 
and care should be taken that the series of specimens dealt with are, so far as possible, 
correctly identified. The advice of an expert in the group under consideration should 
be sought if necessary. 


2. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE POPULATION SAMPLED. 


The examination of a sample only supplies direct information respecting the popu- 
lation as sampled by the methods of collection employed, or, in other words, the 
population from which such a sample may be regarded as fairly drawn at random. 
This may often differ materially from :— 

(i) the whole population living at the time of capture, owing, for example, to 
selection of sex, age or size by the methods of capture ; 

(ii) the average population ordinarily living in the same habitat, owing, for 
example, to seasonal or other periodic fluctuations; and 

(iii) the populations of different habitats in the same region. 

The results of the examination of a sample should therefore be supplemented 
with all possible care by information designed to specify the population sampled, 
even though such specification is undoubtedly often difficult. The aim should be 
that any significant (see Section D) discrepancies between samples obtained by 
different investigators should be assignable to their true causes, whether age, sex, 
local variation, time, season, method of capture, &c. 

These should always be specified where possible, but in every investigation special 
points will need to be considered. 


1927 U 


290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


3. Conrormity TO Previous MEASUREMENTS. 


Whatever other measurements may be made, the value of the work for com- 
parative purposes will often be much increased by the inclusion of measurements 
which are comparable, as strictly as possible, with those taken in the same or related 
species by previous workers. 

It is desirable that some quantitative measurements should always be presented 
with general biological data. Length measurements are the most usual. However, 
a frequent ‘failure to record’ is seen in microscopical figures to which no record 
of magnification is appended. For example, in the article on Rotifera in the Cam- 
bridge Natural History and in the Encyclopedia Britannica no magnification is 
given in any of the figures, nor are any measurements given in the text, so that the 
reader (inter alia) will not be told, nor able to find out for himself, the interesting 
biological fact that the Rotifera have the lowest average size and the smallest size 
range of any considerable Metazoan group. 

The most satisfactory way of giving magnifications is to reproduce with the figure 
some unit of length magnified to the same scale. This obviates the error which 
frequently creeps in when figures from one source are reproduced in another publi- 
cation on a different scale, but without altering the statement as to magnification 
in the legend. 

In addition measurements of weight or volume should be made whenever possible 
as a matter of routine, since they provide the best standard of quantitative comparison 
between differently shaped organisms or organs. 


4, SPECIFICATION OF PRECISE CONVENTIONS. 


It is essential to specify the conventions, including any points of reference adopted, 
by which each measurement is defined. This can often best be done by the aid of a 
diagram. When satisfactory standard terms, conventions or points of reference 
already exist they should be adopted whenever possible. The aim should be to 
ensure that a second observer, working over the identical material, and guided only 
by such specifications, should normally obtain significantly similar results. 

The state of preservation of the material may often affect the measurements, 
especially in the case of soft parts. Accordingly the method of preservation and the 
degree of contraction or relaxation of the parts should be noted. 

Observations of colour should when possible be referred to one of the standard 
scales in general use, e.g. ‘ Nomenclature of colours for naturalists,’ R. Ridgeway, 
U.S, National Museum, 1912; ‘ Code des couleurs 4 l’'usage des naturalistes, artistes, 
commergants et industriels,’ P. Klinksieck, Paris, 1908. 


5. TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE. 


The critical stages of the statistical examinations of a body of data are reached 
in the application of what are known as tests of significance, (See Section D, 3-8.) 
These are essentially tests whether the difference between two (or the variance among 
several) groups is or is not greater than can with reasonable probability be ascribed 
to the variability found within each group. The ultimate value of the conclusions 
to be drawn from any data depends upon the precision and validity with which such 
tests can be carried out ; consequently it is advisable that investigators, whether or 
not they undertake the work of statistical analysis, should have a general acquaintance 
with the nature of such tests, and, where the case does not seem clear, should seek 
the advice or co-operation of a statistician. 


B. Presentation of Data. 


1, An incomplete specification of a sample is never to be preferred to a complete 
specification, ¢.g. greatest, least and mean length is an incomplete specification 
(see below). 


2. SINGLE-VARIATE Data. 


_"--" 


Ca lad ah bib i id ne 


For a single measurement a complete specification of a sample may be given by — 


recording the number of cases observed to fall in successive intervals of magnitude. 


43, 4 


¢ 


ON BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS. 291 


Example: Length of cuckoo’s egg (after O. H. Latter). 
Length class,mm. . . 19:0 19:5 20:0 20:5 21:0 21-5 22:0 22-5 23-0 


Frequency : 5 : 1 3 633 39 «#4156 152 392 288 286 
Length class, mm. . 23-5 24:0 24-5 25:0 25-5 26:0 26-5 Total 
Frequency ; : ple SO 2 12 2 0 1 1572 


A series of numbers arranged in this way form what is called the frequency distribu- 
tion of the sample. 

The total of 1572 eggs is distributed in 16 length classes, each with a range of 
half a millimetre, each class being specified by its central length. Thus the entry 
under 21-5 mm. indicates that 152 of the eggs measured were judged to lie between 
the precise limits 21-25 and 21-75mm. The class range need not be equal to the 
unit of measurement, but should be (either one unit or) an integral number of such 
units; the table above was condensed from a record giving the length to 0-1 mm. 

A fruitful source of bias is avoided, at the time the measurements are actually 
taken, by using length classes bounded by the divisions marked on the measuring 
instrument used, instead of the more common practice of using length classes centred 
on visible divisions, and bounded by imaginary ones. The effect of the latter pro- 
cedure appears to be especially noticeable in micro-measurements. If working with 
length classes of 1 mm. adopt class boundaries of 0-1, 1-2, 2-3 mm., &c., with class 
centres at 0-5, 1-5, 25 mm., &c. If working with length classes of 0-5 mm. adopt 
class boundaries of 0-0-5, 0°5-1-0 mm. &c., with class centres at 0:25, 0°75, 1-25 mm., 
&e. 


Measurement groups free from bias, bounded by divisions which can be accurately 


visualised. 
Units Half units 
Se ee eo 
0 1 2 z 4 
—_—_—_—~_____————"_ —.-»§ — Er 


Groups usually employed, centred on divisions which can be accurately visualised, 
but bounded by imaginary divisions. 
The use of small units is less important than accuracy of the class boundaries, and 
it is above all essential that these boundaries should be clearly indicated. For 
example, headings such as these are ambiguous : 


Age - > . 6 years 7 years 8 years 
Frequency . - 15 38 62 


It is impossible to tell whether the 38 individuals were between 7:0 and 8-0, 
or between 6:5 and 7:5 ; the former interpretation adhering to the popular convention 
of age, the latter to the scientific convention of specifying the central measurement 
of each class. 

In the choice of the class interval, which should be uniform throughout, little 
additional information is supplied by a very fine classification ; for material which is 
apparently homogeneous a class interval equal to a quarter of the Standard Deviation 
is sufficiently small; this will usually be provided for by dividing the material into 
about 20-25 classes. Coarser groupings are by no means valueless. To bring out 
the peculiarities of heterogeneous material finer grouping will sometimes be required. 
Small samples should not be grouped more coarsely than large samples. Extreme 
measurements should never be pooled as, e.g., ‘more than 25 mm.’; since in the statis- 
tical treatment the precise determination of these is of particular importance. 


3. SUMMARY OF SINGLE MEASUREMENT Data, 


If space does not allow a complete specification of the observations, these may be 
summarised by means of a few quantities calculated from them ; each of these quanti- 
ties is technically termed a statistic. If this course be taken, great care and some 
additional knowledge will be needed to make the summary adequate. Tor instance, 
the mean and range of the lengths of the individuals of a sample contain only a small 


u2 


CORRELATION TABLE. 


CENTRAL VALUES OF 23 LuNnaTtH CLASSES. 


LzenetTu or Eaa (Cm.). 


BREADTH OF Ea@ (Cm.). 
CENTRAL VALUES OF 13 BREADTH CLASSES. 


# 
Se 4+ 727 NO oD mH wo HM Mm oH CO Re) 
» aa Yen} + N for) eel Ct on Lol 19 
= fal Nn — A fon) 
N 
CL9-F pete 16 
- ee 
CZ9-F a 
lol io} N ioe) 
CLG-F ay 
N ine) ww a) 
CCG-F al zo 
onl N of oD oD vo) ive} = | 
GLE a 
oD ioe) oS ive) N le.0) 
GCE-P Ae a ees re SS 
Ll 
b i | ad Lod Ct 
GLE-F eS pee a = 
_ 
CUS‘ ez SA OM Bain Ueto, tae ES 
SLL ie a = ak ele ta S 
_— 
CZF resect O R 
Loa 
SLO-F = si "di hae OI SN a 
£20-F mi Neen: Boece Roadt Se Ie a 3 
GL6-E mi My Seta AM ey eae 8 
GZ6'E AQ Lan) on H et nN La La nN = 
CZ8-E 4 fo] cal of 19 N ~ 
GLL‘E hop ae! © 
GSL-€ ee ee N 
CL9-E ° 
GZ9-E ° 
GLG-E 4 = 
i Ten) uD ww) ile) nm 
Se ee See eee a 2 a re aq nS a he 3 
err 2666 SSH BAG! SZ 
an an NAAN AHNANH MH Oo OD OH O&O = 


ON BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS. 293 


fraction of the information available from the original data, and for this reason, if 
they be recorded alone, needless inaccuracy is introduced. 

For an important class of cases of homogeneous samples, an adequate summary 
may be given by stating two statistics only ; namely, conventional estimates of the 
mean and the variance of the population sampled. 

(a) The arithmetic mean of the measurements, defined as the sum of the measure- 
ments divided by their number. 

(6) An estimate of the variance calculated from the sum of the squares of the 
deviations from the arithmetic mean by dividing it either by (i) the number of indi- 
viduals in the sample, n, or by (ii) one less than this number, n—1. With large samples 
it is seldom of importance which divisor is adopted, and the former method has been 
the more widely employed in biology. Attention is called to the latter method for 
no other reasons than that : (A) it is somewhat the more accurate in using the Normal 
probability function of tests 5(a) and 6 (a) (Section D), if the variance there employed 
has been estimated from the sample; (B) it is upon this convention that the table 
of ¢ for tests 5 (b) and 6 (b) has been calculated; (C) it alone should be used when it 
is desired to average the variance as estimated from several independent samples. 

From the variance two other quantities may be calculated: (i) the Standard 
Deviation is the square root of the variance; (ii) the sampling variance of the mean 
may be estimated by dividing the variance as estimated from the sample by the number 
in the sample ; this measures the amount of variability to be expected among means 
of different samples of the same size drawn fairly from the same population ; its square 
root provides an estimate of the Standard Error of the mean. Large samples, if equally 
homogeneous, will consequently enable finer distinctions to be drawn than can be 
detected with confidence in smaller samples. 

For samples of the normal form (Section D, 4) the two quantities (a) and (b) 
provide a complete statistical summary. Such a summary, though often valuable, 
cannot be regarded as complete when the distribution of the sample is unsymmetrical, 
or in other ways differs clearly from the normal form. 


4, BrvaRIATE Data. 


If two measurements are taken on each individual the sample may be completely 
specified in a two-way or correlation table. The arrangement of such a table may 
be illustrated by the example on page 292.! In the table are recorded the measure- 
ments of the Length and Breadth in cm. for each egg in a sample of 956 eggs of 
the common Tern (Sterna Fluviatilis). The class interval is -05 em. for each 
measurement. The table shows, for example, that 18 eggs were found with a 
breadth between 2°95 and 3-00 cm. and a length between 4:05 and 4:10. The figures 
in the two margins give the total distributions for length and breadth respectively. 
The table supplies in a compact and readily available form the whole of the infor- 
mation supplied by this collection respecting (i) the variation in length, (ii) the 
variation of breadth, and (iii) the co-variation of length and breadth. 

It is not necessary, however, that both or either of the variates should be quantities 
eapable of numerical measurement. For instance, observations upon the colouring 
of eggs in a nest in relation to the type of environment in which the nest has been 
placed could equally well be recorded in a two-way table. In such a case the group- 
ing in one direction would be based upon a graded colour-scale and that on the other 
by a series of environmental classes, such as green plants, speckled shingle, brown 
sand, &c. In the following table, taken from the same source, the two characters 
considered are (a) ‘ Value’ of ground-colour of one egg from a nest, and (b) ‘ Value’ 
of ground-colour of a second egg from the same nest. 

The -75’s, -5’s and -25’s among the frequencies arise because in cases of un- 
certainty in classification a half-frequency was assigned to both, or a quarter to al 
four of the possible groups. The colour-value classes w,—Wwg were described with 
the aid of a coloured plate in the Memoir. (The table has been made symmetrical by 
entering each pair of eggs twice, first with one egg as ‘first egg’ and the other as 
“second egg ’ and then in reversed order.) In this table there is seen to be a marked 
clustering of frequencies along a diagonal ; for instance, when the ‘first egg’ falls in 


1 This and the table on page 294 are taken from a paper in Biometrika, vol. xv, 
pp. 294-345. 


294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


class we, in the largest number of cases (101-5) the ‘second egg’ is also in this class, 
and the next largest numbers are in the neighbouring classes w; (95-5) and w, (75-75). 


| ‘Value ’ of ground-colour in first egg. 
| Weil W Wy | ws We. horeWriell edwin elebalea 
| | | | 
We Bis wilt vir Br lease 1:75 | ey = 17 
| Ws 8 44 | 40 19 6 |) = = 123 
A 2 40 135 68 | 29:5 | 12 | 2 288-5 
| Ws ie |e LO 68 | 153 | 95:25 | 41 One MSS 
| We 1-5 | 6 29-5 95:25 | 101-5 | 75:5 13 322-5 
W7 “75 | 6 12 41 75°75 | 126-5 28 290 
Pa - |}; — 2 9 13 | 28 [noe SO ws) v8 2 
| | a 
17 | 123 288-5 387 | 322-5 | 290 | 82 1510 


The mere arrangement therefore in the table brings out the similarity in colour- 
value between eggs in the same clutch. 
With pairs of measurements the same considerations as to class interval should 
be applied, as with single variates, save that with close associations a finer grouping 
‘may be required to make the class interval as small as a quarter of the average 
standard deviation of the arrays (separate rows or columns). 


5. SUMMARY OF A Two-way TABLE. 


In all cases where two characters are considered the results can be displayed most 
compactly in a two-way table, and this forms a convenient basis for the calculation 
required if it is wished to study the relationship between them. Where the data 
are in the form of numerical measurements, as in the first example, and if they con- 
form to what is termed a Normal Correlation distribution, the contents of the table 
may be described by five quantities. These, in addition to being useful in them- 
selves, will serve as a statistical summary of the data when the two-way table cannot 
be presented in full. These are (i) and (ii) the means and (iii) and (iv) the 
variances of the two marginal distributions, and (v) the ‘ product-moment coefficient ” 
which is calculated like the variance from the deviations from the means, using the 
products of the deviations of the two variates (having regard to the positive and 
negative sign of these deviations) instead of the squares of the deviations of a single 
variate. From the three latter statistics any of the following may be at once obtained, 
one or other of which will in almost all cases be of importance in the interpretation 
of the data. Denoting the two variates by x and y, ‘ 

(a) the regression coefficient of y on % is the ratio of the product moment coeffi- 
cient to the variance of x; here x is regarded as the independent variate, and y 
as dependent upon it ; 

(b) the regression coefficient of x on y is the ratio of the product moment coefficient 
to the variance of y ; 

(c) the coefficient of correlation is the geometric mean of the two regressions, and 
may be found either from them, or by dividing the product moment by the 
geometric mean of the two variances, or by the product of the standard deviations. 
(Section D, 2.) 

This method of description becomes inadequate if the material differs markedly 
from Normal in the form of its distribution ; in such cases the two-way distribution 
table should not be replaced by a summary. 


6. More THAN Two VARIATES. 


There is no compact form for the complete publication of sets of three or more 
measurements. When the number of individuals is not too great, these may be set 
out serzatim, each occupying a line of the table. If the number of class combinations 
is sufficiently small, which can only occur if very broad classes are employed, it may 
happen that the class combinations and the corresponding frequencies of occurrence 
can be compactly listed. For storage in a form ready for immediate use, cards are 
recommended, each card representing an individual with its numerical measures 


ON BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS. 295 


entered in corresponding positions on the different cards. A key card should always 
be prepared giving the significance and units of the several entries on the individual 
cards. 

An incomplete but valuable record of a large number of individuals measured in 
more than two characters is provided by the preparation of every possible two-way 
table. Thus with seven variates, twenty-one tables will specify the simultaneous 
distribution of the samples for every pair of variates. Such a record, though 
incomplete (because it does not specify which values of all seven characters were 
associated together in an individual, but only considers them in pairs), will yet 
provide a basis for all calculations ordinarily conducted. 


7. Grapuic Mernops. 


Diagrams should be freely used in exploring the character of the relationship 
between two closely related variates. In plotting two sets of values against each other, 
we may take absolute values, or the reciprocals of the absolute values of one or both, 
or the logarithms of one or both, and so forth. If a straight graph is obtained by any 
one of these methods, it suggests a particular type of mathematical relationship, the 
recognition of which may facilitate the detection of the biological process or mechanism 
involved. 

Diagrams provide no adequate substitute for the tabular presentation of data, 
or for the critical tests necessary to examine their conformity with the hypotheses 
they suggest. In the publication of results their purpose is to illustrate and make 
plain particular facts selected for emphasis by the author, and not to establish such 
facts. It is not necessary to publish every diagram which has proved useful in 
studying the data. 


C. The Interpretation of Results and Tests of Significance. 


1. In carrying out any statistical analysis it is necessary to bear in mind the 
distinction between the following :— 

(1) The population which has been sampled. 

(2) The true measurements of the sample available. 

(3) The measurements of these individuals as recorded. 

Provided that the specification is adequate and that the errors of measurement are 
small compared with the real biological variation among the individuals of the sample, 
it may be assumed that (3) provides no adequate description of (2). The problem 
that remains is to consider what may be inferred legitimately from the measurements (3) 
regarding the population (1). It needs little experience to realise that the average 
measure of some character found in a sample, or the percentage of individuals falling 
into certain groups, may often differ considerably from the values in the population 
sampled, and further that two samples will themselves often differ considerably 
from one another. The problem is therefore to obtain criteria which will enable 
a judgment to be formed as to whether the variation in a sample is of statistical 
significance (see Section D, 3-8); or is not more than might be expected to arise from 
the chance fluctuations of random sampling. 

By mathematical analysis it has been found’ possible to determine the variation 
due to random sampling of some of the most important descriptive measures or 
statistics, such as the mean or the standard deviation of a series of observations. 
A definite measure of probability can therefore be assigned to the occurrence of a 
particular value of the statistic in a random sample. In general, the procedure is to 
calculate the ratio of (a); the difference between the statistic and the quantitative 
character of the population of which it is the estimate or between the corresponding 
statistics in two samples, to (b), the Standard Error or an estimate of the Standard 
asi of that difference, and then to obtain the probability from the appropriate 
table. 

The nature of the problem can be indicated most readily by considering two typical 
examples. 

(1) Suppose there to be a population of individuals whose frequency distribution 
for measurements of a single character is Normal (Section D, No. 4); and that the 
mean measurement is known to be 22-56 cm. while the standard deviation is 1-54 cm. 
Then it is possible to state by reference to the appropriate table that only in about 
two cases out of one thousand should we expect to find a mean of 23-56 cm. or more 
in a random sample of twenty individuals. Or supposing that the only available 


296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


information to be contained in the sample of twenty, with mean of 23:56 em. and 
a standard deviation of 1-44 cm. by the use of the appropriate probability table, we 
can assign a measure of probability of 7 in 1000 for the mean in the population sampled 
lying outside the range 22-56 cm. to 24-56 em. (Section D, No. 5b). It follows that, 
in whichever way the problem is presented, one is justified in concluding that it is 
most unlikely that the difference between the sample mean (23-56) and the population 
mean (22-56) can be due to the chance fluctuation of sampling. It is therefore what 
is termed a significant difference, the cause of which must be sought elsewhere. 

(2) Another type of illustration is as follows :— 

Suppose that in a Mendelian experiment there are theoretical reasons for expecting 
ratios of 2:1:1 in three frequency groups. In a sample of forty the following 
frequencies are observed: 22, 7,11. There it is possible to say that a divergence 
from the ‘ expected ’ frequencies of 20, 10, 10 as great or greater than that observed 
will occur in the long run on fifty-five random samples out of one hundred, or in other 
words that the divergence is not at all exceptional (Section D, No. 8). 


2. Tor DISADVANTAGE OF SMALL SAMPLES. 


In both the examples that have been given, the samples contained only a small 
number of observations. If the distribution of the character or characters in the 
population is known it is possible to obtain a measure of the probability of drawing 
a given sample, however small that sample may be. But when the sample only is 
known, the nature of the population can be inferred with far less precision from small 
than from large samples. The difficulties in interpretation to which this may lead 
can again be illustrated by the previous examples. 

(1) Suppose that in addition to the sample of twenty observations with mean 
of 23-56 cm. and standard deviation of 1-54 cm., there is a second sample of twenty- 
five with mean 23-14 em. and standard deviation 1-61 cm. Then in neither case is it 
possible to estimate the mean of the population sampled with sufficient precision to 
conclude that the two samples have been drawn from different populations. The 
position may be put into exact terms by stating that on the evidence available a 
difference, one way or the other, between the means as great or greater than the 
observed 0-42 cm. would occur in thirty-seven cases out of one hundred in the 
random drawings of two samples from the same population. 

If, however, the samples had been each ten times as large, viz. 200 and 250, it 
would have been possible to obtain a more precise estimate of the populations sampled, 
and to infer that they had almost certainly different means. This can be expressed 
by saying that for these larger samples a difference in means of 0-42 em. or more 
would be expected to be found in only five cases out of one thousand (Section D, 
No. 6). 

(2) If two possible hypotheses existed as to the Mendelian ratios, viz. either 2:1: 1 
or 9:3:4, the evidence provided by the sample figures 22, 7, 11 would be quite inade- 
quate to distinguish between them. It has been seen that the odds are 55 to 45 in 
favour of obtaining so great a divergence from the expected numbers on the first 
hypothesis, and for the second hypothesis the corresponding odds are 925 to 75 in 
favour. These figures would not justify the acceptance of one hypothesis rather than 
the other, for the observations are not improbable on either hypothesis. 

If, however, the sample had been of 400 and the group frequencies 220, 70, and 110, 
it is found that samples with as or more divergent frequencies would only occur: 

(a) in 25 cases in 10,000 if hypothesis 2: 1 : 1 were true; 

(b) in 49 cases in 100 if hypothesis 9 : 3: 4 were true. 

It follows that now the evidence is sufficient to show that the first hypothesis is 
quite improbable, while the second is still in reasonable accordance with the facts 
(Section D, No. 8). 

The statistical methods available thus allow one to test the validity of various 
hypotheses in relation both to the nature and to the extent of the data presented. An 
increase in the number of observations will usually increase the precision of all tests, 
and may justify conclusions which would otherwise be doubtful. The size of the sample 
is not, however, always a mere matter of the number of individuals measured. Each 
unit may be a district, a season, or a complete and lengthy experiment, and for such 
cases the more exact methods appropriate for small samples will be particularly 
necessary. 


ON BIOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS. 297 


D. Notes on Methods and References. 


The greater part of the procedure and methods of analysis indicated below was 
first given in memoirs which appeared in journals such as The Philosophical Trransac- 
tions of the Royal Society, The Philosophical Magazine, Biometrika, The Journal of 
the Royal Statistical Society, Metron, &c. The fullest collected information is 
probably contained in the following books, for which detailed page references are 
given below :— 
(A) A. L. Bowley. ‘The Elements of Statistics.’ King & Son, London. 1920. 
(B) R. A. Fisher. ‘ Statistical Methods for Research Workers.’ Oliver & Boyd, 
Edinburgh. 1925. 

(C) T. L. Kelley. ‘ Statistical Method.’ Macmillan, New York. 1923. 

(D) G. U. Yule. ‘An Introduction to the Theory of Statistics.’ Griffin & Co., 
London. 1927. 


(1) Computation of the Arithmetic Mean, Variance and Standard Deviation. 


(A) pp. 251-255. (B) pp. 48-54. (C) pp. 45-48; 77-82. 
(D) pp. 108-113 ; 134-141. 


(2) Definition and Computation of the Product Moment, Coefficient of 
Correlation, and Regression Coefficients. 


(A) pp. 350-355 ; 380-383. (B) pp. 114-125 for regression. 
pp. 146-150 for correlation. 
(C) pp. 161-164. (D) pp. 157-188. 


(3) The Standard Error and the Probable Error. 


The standard error of a descriptive constant or statistic measures the amount of 
variability to be expected between the values of that quantity found in different 
samples of the same size drawn at random from the same material. If o? represent 
the variance in the population, then o/./N is the standard error of the arithmetic mean 
for samples of N individuals. Since in the study of natural variation the variance of 
the population is unknown, we must use instead the variance as estimated from a 
sample or group of samples, taking care to employ methods which made due allowance 
for the sampling errors so introduced. 

Owing to the fact that if the distribution of a variate be Normal, 50 per cent. of 
the observations will lie within the range taken from -6745 x standard deviation 
below to a corresponding distance above the mean; this multiple of the standard 
deviation has been termed the Probable Error. Thus + -67456/./N is termed the 
probable error of a mean, by which it is implied that the means in samples of N will 
as often fall inside as outside limits greater and less than the population mean by 


-6745 rad As it is always necessary to find o or an estimate of c before the probable 


error can be calculated, it is always simpler, and more conformable to modern practice, 
to measure variation by the standard error rather than the probable error. 


(4) Tests for Normality. 


The distributions given above of the length of Cuckoo’s egg and the length and 
breadth of Tern’s egg may be taken as roughly representing the Normal form. This 
is typified by a central concentration about the mean and a symmetrical tailing off 
of the frequency for positive or negative deviations, in accordance with a definite 
mathematical law. 

In dealing with samples containing only a few observations, it is only possible 
to detect wide deviations from the normal form. The test, which is sensitiv. only 
for large samples, involves the calculation of the third and higher moments followed 
by a comparison of the values obtained from the sample with those to be expected 
from a normal distribution having the same variance. 

(B) pp. 54-56 or Phil. Trans. vol. 198A, 1902, p. 278. 


298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 
(5) The Significance of a Mean. 


(a) Population variance known, or estimated from a large sample. 

The test consists in entering the tables of the Normal Probability Function with 
the ratio of (a), the deviation of the sample mean from the population mean, to (b), the 
standard error of the mean. 

(A) pp. 415-416. (B) pp. 101-103. (C) pp. 82-83. (D) pp. 344-345. 

Tables. ‘Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians,’ Cambridge University 
Press. Table IT. 

(B) Table I. (C) Appendix C. 

(b) Sample variance only known. 

Here the ratio of (i) the deviation of the sample mean from the population mean 
to (ii) the estimated standard error of the mean is taken, and the tables of the 
‘ t ’-distribution are used. 

For large samples this test becomes the same as (a) for all practical purposes. 

(B) pp. 106-108. 
Tables: (B) Table IV. Metron, vol. v, 3, 1925. 


(6) The Significance of the Difference between the Means of Two Samples. 


The procedure is to enter the appropriate probability tables with the ratio of the 
difference between the means to the standard error, or estimated standard error, of 
that difference. 

(a) Test applicable in the case of large samples from two populations in which 
the variance may differ. 

(B) pp. 103-105. (D) pp. 345-346. Tables as for 5 (a). 

(b) Test, sensitive for difference between the means, as to whether two samples. 

can be regarded as drawn from the same population, accurate for small samples. 
(B) pp. 109-113. Tables as for 5 (b). 


(7) The Significance of the Difference between the Variance of Two Samples. 


Test whether two samples can be regarded as drawn from populations of equal 
variance. 


(B) pp. 192-200. Table VI., p. 210. 


(8) The y? Test for Goodness of Fit. 


(a) Comparison of the observed frequencies with those expected theoretically in 
the corresponding groups or classes. 
(A) pp. 426-433. (B) pp. 77-84. (C) pp. 370-387. 
Tables. ‘Tables for Statisticians and Biometricians.’ Table XII. 
(B) Table IIT. 
(b) Analogous test of agreement between two or more observed frequency series. 
‘B) pp. 94-95. Biometrika, vol. viii, pp. 250-254. 
Tables as for 8 (a). 


tt ee 


ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 299: 


Geography Teaching.—Feport of Committee (Prof. T. P. Nunn, Chair- 
man; Mr. W. H. Barker, Secretary; Mr. L. Brooks, Prof. H. J. 
Frievre, Mr. O./J. R. Howartu, Mr. J. McFaruane, Sir H. J. 
Mackinper, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. Marton Newesicin, Mr. A. G. 
Oertvig, Mr. A. StEvENS, and Prof. J. F. Unsreap, from Section E ; 
Mr. D. BerripcE, Mr. C. E. Browne, Sir R. Grecory, Mr. E. R. 
Tuomas, Miss O. Wricut, from Section L) appointed to formulate sug- 
gestions for a syllabus for the teaching of Geography both to Matricu- 
lation Standard and in Advanced Courses ; to report wpon the present 
position of the geographical training of teachers, and to make recom- 
mendations thereon ; and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through 
the Organising Committee of Section E, upon the practical working of 
Regulations issued by the Board of Education and by the Scottish 
Education Department affecting the position of Geography in Training 
Colleges and Secondary Schools. 


Tue Report consists primarily of a statement prepared by the Scottish members 
of the Committee on the position of geography in the schools of Scotland. The 
syllabuses and regulations governing the subject in England remain substantially as. 
given in a previous report. The Oxford and Cambridge Schools Examination Board 
has the whole question of the status of geography under consideration. 

In the Oxford Local Examinations the syllabus in the School Certificate Examina- 
tion of 1927 differs from the corresponding syllabus for 1926 only in one important 
particular, viz.: in the omission of common Map Projections. The Delegates have 
come to the conclusion as a result of the 1926 and previous Examinations that it is 
inadvisable to expect a knowledge of Map Projections from candidates of about 
sixteen years of age. The Delegates have also endeavoured. while giving adequate 
choice to all candidates, to limit the range of the Regional Geography. Examiners 
and many teachers had come to the conclusion that some limitation was essential. 
For 1927 and future years the Higher School Certificate syllabus has been enlarged 
by the inclusion of a practical paper in response to a recommendation received from 
a number of geographers and teachers of geography in schools. 

In the Cambridge Local Examinations no change is contemplated in Geography 
Syllabus in the School Certificate Examinations; in the Higher School Certificate 
Examination the Syndicate have decided, on the recommendation of the investigators, 
to introduce a new paper on the geography of France and Germany, which may be 
taken as a subsidiary subject. A list of books will be printed for the guidance of 
teacher and candidates, and some of these books will be in French and German. It 
is thought that such a subsidiary subject will appeal to Group II candidates taking 
French or German, and possibly also to candidates taking History. 

The University of Durham School Examinations Board have made certain 
modifications in the Syllabus, the subject counting in strict parity with the other 
subjects of Group C (Science and Mathematics). 

The Report of the Scottish members is attached. 


Report by Dr. M. I. Newbigin and Messrs. J. McFarlane, A. G. Ogilvie, and A. Stevens, 
Scottish Members of the Commitiee. 


Leeds, September 1927. 


The Scottish members of the Committee wish to report as follows upon the 
present position of Geography as a subject of higher study in Scottish schools. { 

Geography was recognised in the school curriculum by the Scottish Education 
Department as a subject for the Higher Grade Leaving Certificate in 1914. New 
regulations were promulgated in 1924, retaining the subject, but resulting in the 
discouragement of its study. 

In Scottish schools the leaving certificate (Group Leaving Certificate) is awarded 
by the Scottish Education Department as evidence of the satisfactory completion of 
a *Secondary Course.’ The award is made on the basis of teachers’ estimates checked 
by official examinations, and the certificate covers a number of subjects. The 


300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Secondary Course extends over five or six years from the ‘ Qualifying Stage,’ which 
is generally reached at the age of twelve or thirteen years. Subjects may be pro- 
fessed on the ‘higher standard’ or on the ‘lower.’ The higher standard may be 
defined as a reasonable standard of attainment in a subject which has been studied 
continuously throughout the secondary course for about four hours (or five periods 
each nominally of three-quarters of an hour) per week, and the lower as a similar 
standard for three years’ study, or for a shorter weekly allowance of time. Before 
1924, passes on the higher standard were required in three subjects and a pass on the 
lower standard in one, as the minimum for the issue of the certificate. The choice of 
subjects was limited and the higher subjects commonly offered were English, a 
foreign language (classical or modern), mathematics or science. Apart from the 
paper on Geography which was included under the subject of Lower English as 
Paper III, Geography on the higher standard could be professed only as an additional 
subject. 

Two important alterations were made in the regulations of 1924. The first was 
the abolition of the Intermediate Certificate, which was a group certificate on the lower 
standard, and for which some geography was obligatory. The subject is still obligatory 
for the first three years, but there is now no official written examination at the end 
of that period. As a result of the demand for time devoted to those subjects which 
have a value from the point of view of a school anxious to obtain leaving certificates, 
it has actually disappeared beyond the third year’s curriculum in many secondary 
schools. 

The second alteration of the 1924 regulations is the marshalling of the subjects 
of a secondary course in four groups. Group II offers a choice between mathematics 
and science. Science is defined as ‘ any approved combination of physics, chemistry, 
botany, zoology, geology, geography.’ Since the typical approved combination is 
physics and chemistry, it may be assumed, as Circular 30 indicates, that the members 
of a combination are normally two in number. 

Prior to 1924, the status of geography in Scottish schools was that of a full 
individual subject on the higher standard, although the fact of its being regarded as 
an additional subject prevented it being taken by many candidates. A maximum 
of 200 candidates can never have been reached in any one year. As the total number 
of candidates for the leaving certificate is in the neighbourhood of 4,000, less than 
5 per cent. offered higher geography. The last candidates under the old regulations 
were examined in the present year. 

While, however, under these regulations the number of candidates taking higher 
geography was small, the fact that lower-grade geography formed a part of the com- 
pulsory subject of English meant that all candidates taking Lower English were 
required to display at least an elementary knowledge of the subject. 

Under the new regulations geography, with at least one other science subject, is 
alternative to mathematics. Together with another science it ranks as co-ordinate 
with English, a foreign language, art, music, or domestic science, and can be offered 
either on the lower or the higher grade. It has, therefore, the status of a half-subject 
only, with a correspondingly restricted amount of time for its study. In theory 
geography may be offered in conjunction with physics, botany or geology; but for 
reasons indicated below such combinations are unlikely in practice. 

It is certain that the number of schools and of candidates offering higher geography 
has greatly declined in the last two years. 

In most of the secondary schools physics is taught in conjunction with chemistry. 
There is very little provision for the teaching of botany, and next to none for geology. 
It has been suggested that botany and geography form a likely combination in girls’ 
schools. In Scotland, however, girls’ schools are comparatively rare ; mixed schools 
constitute the great majority. Moreover, it is illogical to assume that geography is 
a subject of special interest and value to girls, and it is absurd to regard it as of minor 
importance for boys. On the contrary, we believe that it is extremely desirable from 
various points of view that boys should be encouraged to carry the subject on to the 
end of their school course. This they cannot do, on account of the exacting demands 
on their time, unless they offer the subject for the leaving certificate. Further, the 
Sub-Committee feel that geography suffers from this grouping in another way. A 
course must be an approved course, and the approval is presumably in the hands of 
inspectors whose university training has not included geography, and whose sympathies 
consequently tend to favour other science. : 

The position of geography in the school curriculum is directly affected by the 


ON GEOGRAPHY TEACHING. 301 


official interpretation of the regulations of the Scottish Universities Entrance Board 
due to become effective in February 1927. This Board accepts the group leaving 
certificate as exempting from an entrance examination, provided, inter alia, it includes 
(but not necessarily on the higher standard) a pass in mathematics or an ‘ approved ’ 
science. The regulations, however, exert a distinct preference for the selection of 
mathematics or a classical language on the higher standard in the leaving certificate. 
Further bias against geography is introduced by an official note on the regulations, 
precluding the recognition of a higher pass in science where the combination does not 
include physics (studied continuously throughout the whole science course); and 
again by the special regulations where, in the alternative examination conducted by 
the Board the choice in Group II is restricted to mathematics and physical science, 
defined as physics and chemistry. In illustration of the effects of these regulations, 
it may be mentioned that the number of candidates at the open bursary competition 
at the University of Glasgow who have taken geography this year has fallen from 
50-60 (in recent years) to 29. 

The feeling of the Scottish members of the Committee is that, as a medium of 
general education and as a contribution to mental equipment, geography, properly 
taught, is entitled to hold in the school curriculum a position inferior to no other 
subject, save perhaps English, and that it ought to be regarded in the examination as 
equivalent to mathematics or to the science combination. It is impossible to judge 
at present of the likelihood of such a view ultimately finding recognition and adoption 
in official quarters. It has been claimed that under the new regulations the position 
of geography has in general not been lowered, but rather, in certain respects, improved. 
The official attitude to the subject claims to be favourable. Nevertheless, whether 
on account of limitations of school time, misinterpretation of regulations by officials, 
or the attitude of the Scottish Universities Entrance Board, the effects of adverse 
influences on the study of geography in the schools are clearly in evidence. 

The Sub-Committee, therefore, conclude that the present position of geography 
in Scottish schools is highly unsatisfactory, and there is evidence that these are 
much behind English schools, both as to the standard attained and as to the number 
of pupils carrying the subject beyond a very elementary stage. There appear to be 
about 35,000 candidates sitting annually in geography for school certificates in 
England and Wales; while in Scotland in recent years there have been less than 
200 candidates in geography for the leaving certificate. In view of the importance 
of the subject as affording an introduction to scientific method and logical thought, 
the Sub-Committee regard this as a disastrous state of affairs. Moreover, geography, 
along with history, offers the only means whereby pupils can be given that framework 
of precise facts which must underlie sound judgments of the national and inter- 
national problems that confront the citizen in the complex modern world. 


Derbyshire Caves.—Interim Report of Committee (Sir W. Boyp 
Dawkins, Chairman; Mr. G. A. Garrrrr, Secretary; Mr. Lesti1e 
Armstronec, Mr. M. Burxirt, Mr. E. N. Fatraizn, Dr. R. V. Favetr, 
Miss D. A. E. Garrop, Mr. Witrrip Jackson, Dr. R. R. Marner, 
Mr. L..8. Parmer, Mr. H. J. E. PEAKE) appointed to co-operate with 
a Committee of the Royal Anthropologicai Institute in the exploration 
of Caves in the Derbyshire District. 

Durine the current year the work at Creswell Crags has been steadily advanced by 

Mr. Armstrong, a re-examination of Langwith Cave has been commenced by Miss 

D. A. E. Garrod, and of Ravencliffe Cave by Mr. W. Storrs Fox. In addition an 

important series of masked caves have been located in Lathkill Dale, apparently 

containing Pleistocene levels, one of which has been examined by Major T. Harris. 
Reports upon these excavations are as follows :— 


Creswell. 


Mr. Leslie Armstrong reports that during the current year work has steadily 
progressed in the Pin Hole Cave, and a further area of 24 superficial feet of the Mother 
Grundy’s Parlour rock shelter has been carefully examined. The latter has yielded 


302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


a few further implements of similar type to those already published, and evidence 
confirming the distribution of fauna observed in the excavations of 1924 and already 
published. 

Excavations in the Pin Hole have now reached a point 60 ft. from the entrance. 
‘The narrow passage connecting the outer and inner chamber has been completed and 
work is in progress on the first section of the inner chamber. The deposits of cave- 
earth in the length examined since July 1926 totalled an average depth of 14 ft. 
The sections were dug to an average depth of 15 ft. 6 in., terminating in a narrow 
fissure. The lowest 18 in. was composed of red sand, introduced by water and sterile 
of animal or human relics. The observations in each section have confirmed those 
made in the sections previously examined. 

The Upper Cave Earth, an average depth of 6 ft. 6 in., was sealed partly by breccia 
and partly by stalagmite, broken through and disturbed in places to a depth of 
1 ft. 6 in. along the eastern wall. Traces of human occupation were constant through- 
out the deposit and included definite hearths at several points, artefacts of flint, bone 
and ivory, and also numerous animal bones burnt and split, including several of 
Bhinoceros. Jmplements of flint have not been plentiful, but those recovered are of 
fine workmanship and include Aurignacian and Proto-Solutrean forms. 

Five small fragments of worked ivory found appear to be portions of a javelin, 
of the classic Magdalenian type discovered in 1924. Two of these fragments form 
parts of the same implement and have been united; a third bears a similar engraved 
pattern to that upon the 1924 example and confirms the nature of the object and 
the fact that the upper level of the Upper Cave Harth is contemporary in time with the 
Magdalenian period of France. Quartzite implements of Upper Mousterian type occur 
sparingly at the junction of the Upper and Lower Cave Earth. The Lower Cave 
Earth includes two definite implementiferous zones, exclusive of the Upper 
Mousterian layer which surmounts it. These zones are each separated by a 
stratum of fallen blocks of large size associated with a cold fauna. ‘The two layers 
of blocks have been constant throughout the whole portion of the cave examined 
and are believed to be indicative of periods of intense cold. No artefacts have occurred 
in either of them. The lowest stratum of blocks was in places cemented by breccia 
and stalagmite. 

The implements consist of hand axes and trimmed flakes of quartzite and also split 
bones and pieces of reindeer antler showing signs of use by man. 

The fauna recovered includes bones, teeth and antler of Irish Elk in addition to 
the fauna already recorded, also skulls of several birds and fragments of four large 
eggs, one of which is almost a complete specimen and resembles the egg of a goose. 


Ravencliffe Cave. 


A re-examination of this cave, situated in Cressbrook Dale, was undertaken in 
May by Mr. W. Storrs Fox and is still in progress. 

An undisturbed Pleistocene level has been proved and bones of Rhinoceros 
Tichorinus and Bear recovered, also cut and split bones indicative of man’s presence. 

Upon the platform outside the cave two flints were found, Upper Palaeolithic in 


facies and associated with Rhinoceros. A layer of stalagmite three to four feet thick 
is now in course of removal. : 


Lathkill Dale. 


Early in the year a masked cave was discovered here by Major Harris of Ashford, 
and, acting on Mr, Armstrong’s advice and under his general supervision, Major Harris 
has carefully excavated it. Cave-earth in two layers was discovered. The lower, 
a stiff red loamy clay, contained a Pleistocene fauna and flakes of flint bearing signs 
of use. No typical implements have been recovered, but Prof. the Abbé Breuil, who 
inspected the cave in May, considers them to he Upper Palaeolithic in facies. Their 
horizon is at present uncertain. 

The Upper Cave Earth yielded well-worked implements of flint, Neolithic or Bronze 
Age in date. The crags in the vicinity of this cave were reconnoitred by Prof. Breuil 
and Mr. Armstrong, and further masked caves located, an examination of which will 
be undertaken in the near future. 

As Palaeolithic remains have not previously been recorded from this area of 


Derbyshire, the results of the work in Lathkill Dale and Cressbrook Dale are 
important. 


ON DERBYSHIRE CAVES. 303 


The work on the above caves has been assisted by a grant made by the Trustees of 
the Perey Sladen Memorial Fund. 


Report of Excavations at Langwith Cave, Derbyshire: 
April 11-27, 1927. 


Work was carried out in Langwith Cave for three weeks in April 1927. I first 
excavated a chamber to the north of the main chamber dug out by Mr. Mullins, and 
found the following sequence of deposits :— 

1. Black loamy earth containing modern bones, about 60 em. thick. 

2. Stiff sandy clay (cave-earth), reddish-yellow in colour, 80 em.—-1 metre thick. 
This was excavated in three levels, each about 30 cm. thick, and yielded Pleistocene 
bones, including Rhinoceros Tichorhinus, reindeer and hyena. 

After the excavation of this subsidiary chamber I began to dig away a bank of 
cave-earth left in place against the N.W. wall of the main chamber, and uncovered 
a low archway leading into a part of the cave hitherto unknown. Inside this arch 
only the cave-earth was present, and it was covered in places by a thin plate of 
stalagmite. Bones were very abundant, and included reindeer and hyena. It was 
not possible to finish the excavation of this chamber, which seems to extend a good 
way in a N.W. direction. 

Fragments of flint were found in ‘the upper levels of the cave-earth in both parts 
of the cave. I obtained in all six finished implements of Upper Aurignacian type, 
and eight flakes. ’ 

Miss D. M. Bate will study the animal bones, and the final disposition of the 
material is in the hands of the Derbyshire Caves Committee of the British Association. 

D. A. E. Garrop. 


Kent’s Cavern, Torquay.—feport of Committee appointed to co-operate 
with the Torquay Natural History Society in investigating Kent's 
Cavern. (Sir A. Kerra, Chairman; Prof. J. L. Myrus, Secretary ; 
Mr. G. A. Garrirt, Prof. W. J. Sottas, Mr. Marx L. Sykes.) 


The Committee submits the following report from the excavators, and desires to 
express its grateful acknowledgment of their work, and of the facilities given by the 
Torquay Natural History Society.. The Committee asks to be reappointed, with 
the balance in hand, and renewal of leave to collect funds from other sources as 
required. 


Second Report on the Hxcavations in Kent’s Cavern, Torquay: 
October 1926—June 1927. 


The second season’s campaign began in October 1926, and has continued to the 
end of June 1927. Work has been concentrated upon an area 16ft. by 10ft. at the 
east end of the trench dug last season, which has been extended to a length of 51 ft., 
while an additional deposit over 13 ft. thick has been removed and sorted. 

Remains of all the members of the usual Cave-fauna discovered last season have 
continued to turn up, and to these must now be added the Mammoth and Man. 
Three teeth of the latter found at a depth of 10 ft. 6 in. below the Upper or Granular 
Stalagmite (A) (datum line) have been submitted to Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S., for 
examination and are stated by him to be of Upper Palaeolithic age, and to be not 
distinguishable from the teeth found by Pengelly in 1866 in the lower portion of the 
Upper Stalagmite (A). 

During the course of the season’s labours the geological conditions under which 
this thick deposit of cave-earth was laid down have been clearly revealed. At the 
E. end of the trench the walls of the cave approach each other to form a bottle-neck 
between the Vestibule and the N.E. Gallery. A Section 12 ft. deep visible at this point 
is filled from top to base with a deposit composed of angular, rounded and rolled 
limestones in a matrix of cave-earth, either loose or in places cemented lightly by 
stalagmite, and evidently representing a ‘ jam’ of material in the bottle-neck. 

At a point 8 ft. below datum line this deposit is interrupted by a Stalagmite floor 
(B), but reappears beneath and continues to the base of the excavation, at this point 
16 ft. below datum. Both above and below the stalagmite floor slabs of broken stalag- 
mite occur here and there in the caye-earth, and it is clear that at least one more 


804 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


floor of this material had once existed, only to be broken up and dispersed. But it 
has not been possible to trace its original position more exactly. 

The lower Stalagmite floor (B) is itself discontinuous, having been in parts broken 
up and its place taken by a firmly cemented breccia of angular limestones of no great 
size, presumably the agents of destruction. 

At 16 ft. west of the bottle-neck, at a point where the Stalagmite floor (B) thins 
out from nearly 1 ft. thick to no more than 2 in., a mass of heavy rock had fallen upon 
and destroyed it, and then had itself been cemented into a strong breccia by the 
continued formation of stalagmite. To the base of this breccia slabs of the broken 
stalagmite adhere. This heavy breccia is known to continue westwards for another 
10 ft. at least, and over this distance its lower surface appears as an arch, covering an 
empty space, from which all deposits have been denuded and whose floor appears 
to be the natural rock of the cave, descending steeply into a narrow fissure. 

But beneath the Stalagmite floor (B), where still intact, and beneath the breccia of 
smaller stones which sometimes takes its place, and from the bottle-neck to a point 
16 ft. to the west, there is no empty space, but the deposit of cave-earth continues 
downwards. It is in this area that the cave-earth has been excavated to a total depth 
of over 20 ft. below datum line. 

The geological sequence of events appears to have been as follows :— 

1. Deposition of 12 ft. (or more) of cave-earth, with large fallen stones. 

2. Formation of a Stalagmite floor (B). 

3. Partial destruction of this floor by a fall of rock. 

4. Continued formation of stalagmite, brecciating the fallen material. 

5. Torrential fooding from the direction of the N.E. Gallery, penetrating beneath 
the Stalagmite floor (B) at the point of fracture, and ravining and carrying away the 
cave-earth from beneath the heavy breccia. 

6. Resumption of the deposit of cave-earth. 

7. Formation of a second stalagmite floor. 

8. Destruction and dispersal of that by further floods. 

9. Resumed deposition of cave-earth. 

10. Occupation of the chamber by man with the remains of hearths (the Black 
Band) in the final Magdalenian period. 

11. Formation of a third and final Stalagmite floor (A). 

The flint implements discovered this season have been few in number. They do 
not differ from those found last year. We have been slowly approaching the con- 
clusion that the industry represented may be Upper Aurignacian. This view is based 
mainly on the high proportion of simple blades. It has since been supported by very 
high authority. But the position is difficult. Other experts have pronounced the 
same series to be of Middle Aurignacian provenance. Evidently the series is not 
very typical—a remark which may perhaps apply equally to a small series of scrapers 
and a bone pin found in 1866 at 4 ft. below datum, which has also been referred to 
the Middle Aurignacian. On the whole there does not appear to be sufficient material 
of good type for satisfactory classification, and it may be wise to regard the imple- 
ments as Aurignacian without further qualification as to phase until further work 
may produce datable examples. 

It is evident that the geological conditions under which the deposits were formed 
render highly possible a mixture of artefacts from more than one period. In the 
course of the season’s work only one or two charred bones have come to light. We 
have not discovered the hearth from which it was derived. The high proportion of 
broken or frustrated blades suggests the debris of a workshop. But the position of 
this workshop is as yet unknown. The most prolific level (7 ft. 3in.) has yielded no 
more than one flint specimen of any kind to 6 square feet of superficial area—hardly 
sufficient to denote a Palaeolithic floor of occupation. Further exploration in the 
direction from which the deposits entered the cavern may result in the finding of more 
typical flints. But the abundance of teeth and bones of hyena at nearly every level, 
and of bones gnawed by that animal, suggests that human occupation of this part 
of the cave must have been temporary and occasional at best. 

One may tentatively suggest that man may have been a summer visitor to the 
neighbourhood, camping out on the plateau above the cave, quite possibly in more 
than one phase of Aurignacian times, and that floods originating from the melting 
of heavy snows, on two occasions at least, ravined his deserted camping grounds, 
sweeping into the cavern, through swallow holes, the artefacts of different periods and 
depositing them side by side, or even in apparently inverse chronological order. 


305 


ON KENT’S CAVERN, TORQUAY. 


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1927 


306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., has kindly informed us that, according to a recent re- 
classification by the Abbé Breuil, the two uniserial harpoons found in 1866 in the 
first foot level of the cave-earth and in the Black Band (which is incorporated in that 
level) belong to the final phase of the Magdalenian and are Maglemosian in type. 
An interesting light is thus thrown on that obscure period which lies at the end of 
the Palaeolithic Age and precedes the true Neolithic period. One of these harpoons 
closely resembles the Maglemosian specimen from Bethune. The other and stratigra- 
phically slightly later specimen shows some approach towards the fine, slender 
examples found in Holderness. But the Devonshire specimens were associated with 
remains of a late Pleistocene cave-fauna and must lie at the beginning of a series 
which terminates at. Holderness and at various localities on the Baltic. 

At the same level in Kent’s Cavern we have a flint industry showing Late 
Aurignacian survivals with an occasional tendency to geometric forms. This 
tendency is more definitely seen at Aveline’s Hole in the Mendips, where it is associated 
with a later fauna, and with a harpoon which appears to be on a different line of 
evolution from that of, Maglemose. A link seems to be provided by the earliest 
known appearance in Britain of a brachycephalic folk, represented by skulls at both 
sites, and one remembers that still farther north, at Creswell, a brachy skull was 
found many years ago, apparently at a level where a similar mixture of Late 
Aurignacian flints and Magdalenian bone and horn industries passed definitely into 
an Azilio-Tardenoisian microlithic industry. It seems that at the end of the 
Palaeolithic Age in this country, two new factors appear—a brachycephalic people 
and a geometric tradition in flint working. Are they related as cause and effect ? 

We desire to express our thanks to Mr. F. Beynon, whose advice and leading on 
the geological side has been of great value to us; to Mrs. M. M. Currey, Mr. H. J. 
Norman, and other friends who have helped in the work, and to the proprietor of 
the cave and his son, who have assisted us in every way possible. Towards the end 
of the season we had the pleasure of a visit from Prof. J. L. Myres, who inspected 
the excavations in our company. Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S., has kindly reported on 
the human remains which have come to light, and we owe a debt of gratitude to Prof. 
W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., for his unfailing patience in dealing with the questionings of 
inexperience. 

It is hoped to reopen the campaign next October. H. G. Dowin. 

A. H. OGILyir. 
Postscript. 


Since writing this report one of us has had the opportunity of seeing the flints 
from Paviland preserved at Oxford, with the following results: (1) One or two 
straight scrapers from Kent’s Cavern resemble closely similar scrapers from the 
Middle Aurignacian of Paviland. (2) But the blades from Kent’s Cavern, both of 
the pointed and broad truncated types, are not seen in the Paviland Collection, 
and, on the contrary, have numerous analogies from the Upper Aurignacian of Aveline’s 
Hole and Gough’s Cave. (3) Two well-made end-scrapers are the best implements 
in our series, but they may be of almost any period of the Upper Palaeolithic. 
(4) Two or three blades are notched, and one has been referred to the Middle 
Aurignacian, but the notches seem to us to be probably natural. (5) One end-scraper 
with opposed tang approaches the type of the carinated scraper. Another, with 
straight scraping edge, is apparently identical with one illustrated from the Upper 
Aurignacian of Aveline’s Hole. 

On the whole, the general facies does not seem to be Middle Aurignacian, and 
there is an absence of the careful, regular marginal retouch characteristic of that 
period. 

Prof. W. J. Sollas, F.R.S., has kindly offered to submit the series for classification 
at the hands of the Abbé Breuil. Any further remarks will naturally await his 
conclusions. H. G. Dowin. 


ON COLOUR VISION. 307 


Colour Vision. Report of Committee (Sir CHARLES SHERRINGTON, Chair- 
man; Prof. H. E. Roar, Secretary; Dr. Mary Coxuiys, Dr. F. W. 
EpripGE-GREEN) appointed to report upon Colour Vision, with 
particular reference to the classification of Colour-blindness. 


1. Defects of colour vision usually consist of a decrease in the perception of 
colours, therefore hypochromatism or hypochromatopia is a suitable term for defects in 
colour vision. 

2. In order to classify satisfactorily the defects in colour vision, one must know 
the actual differences in colour discrimination between normal and hypochromatic 
individuals. 

3. Defects in colour discrimination are not always accompanied by decrease in 
sensitivity to light. Localised decrease in sensitivity to long wave lengths is not 
infrequent, a similar decrease in sensitivity limited to short wave lengths is also 
found, but the statement that there are cases with a localised decrease in sensitivity to 
intermediate wave lengths is not proved. 

4. The terms red blindness, violet blindness, &c., are meaningless, except on the 
basis of a decrease in sensitivity limited to the corresponding portion of the spectrum. 

5. Decrease in sensitivity to light such as is mentioned in paragraph 4 will cause 
change in colour value of all colours which include those wave lengths to which the 
individual is less sensitive than the normal, but when there is no decreased sensitivity 
to light the term confusion should be used. Thus red-yellow-green confusion would 
describe the usual form of hypochromatism in which there is decreased ability for 
distinguishing colour differences at the longer wave lengths of the spectrum. It 
would be preferable to indicate the actual wave lengths at which discrimination is 
defective, as that would indicate the extent of the defect and not merely the qualitative 
region of the spectrum involved. 

6. The nomenclature at present in use is unsatisfactory, and it is recommended 
that it be discarded. The descriptions of cases are very defective, as one cannot be 
certain whether they are based on theory or on examination of the cases. By the loss 
of one system of the Young-Helmholtz hypothesis dichromatie vision would 
occur, there being only two colours recognisable in the spectrum. Such a loss is 
implied in the following terms, which should be abolished. 

(a) Protanopia, or scoterythrous vision, has been used to imply a failure to 
distinguish between red, yellow and green, with a shortening of the long wave 
length end of the spectrum. 

(6) Deuteranopia, or photerythrous vision, has been used to imply a failure to 
distinguish between red, yellow and green without any shortening of the 
spectrum. 

(c) Tritanopia has been used to indicate a failure to distinguish between blue and 
green, not necessarily accompanied by shortening of the short wave length 
end of the spectrum. 

7. The following method of classification is recommended, as it avoids all 

theoretical views and allows for variation in degree of the defect. 

(a) Any marked decrease in sensitivity to a special region of the spectrum should 
be specified as blindness; thus red blindness indicates decreased sensitivity to long 
wave lengths, and if one can state the wave lengths involved the description will be 
more accurate. 

Note to 7 (a).—The length of the spectrum for a normal individual will vary 
with the intensity and quality of the light used, as well as with the characteristics of 
the optical system. Therefore the best method of showing the defect is to present 
a curve showing the increase in threshold to light of the region involved. Any 
spectral apparatus with a shutter for isolating a narrow region of the spectrum can 
be used to determine the rise in threshold, if the intensity of the light is varied by an 
episcotister or a photometric wedge. Any shift in the region of maximum intensity 
would be shown by such a method. 

(6) Any failure to discriminate colours should be described as confusion, prefixing 
the colours confused, e.g. yellow-green confusion. The number of distinct colours 
which are recognised in the spectrum is a rough measure of the degree of colour 
discrimination; thus Dr. Edridge-Green classifies those with defective colour 
discrimination as penta-, tetra-, tri-, di-, and mono- or a-chromats. As in 7 (@), it is 
preferable to have some quantitative statement of the degree of the defect. 


x 2 


308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Note to 7 (6).—Both normal and hypochromatic individuals use differences in 
brightness as an aid to colour discrimination, therefore some method should be used 
in which comparisons are made of lights of unequal brightness. As normal persons 
have maxima of discrimination, at wave lengths 5850 A° and 4950 A°, and at the 
same wave lengths differences in intensity do not cause a change in colour, therefore 
one method of measurement would be to state the maximum mistakes at these 
regions. A difference of over 50 A° or a range of over 100 A®, if the difference on each 
side of a fixed wave length is measured, would indicate defective colour discrimination. 
(See Roaf, Quart. J. Exper. Physiol. 1927, vol. 16, pp. 379-392.) The measurement 
would correspond to a monochromatic patch as measured by Dr. Edridge-Green, if 
the difference in brightness between different wave lengths of the same spectrum 
could be eliminated. 

(c) All those persons with dichromic vision—i.e. who recognise only two colours 
in the spectrum—possess a neutral region, the position and extent of which should 
be determined. 


University Course in Experimental Psychology.— Report of 
Committee (Dr. J. DREvER, Chairman ; Dr. Mary Co..ins, Secretary ; 
Mr. F. C. Bartuett, Mr. R. J. Barrietrt, Prof. C. Burt, Dr. 
SHEPHERD Dawson, Prof. A. E. Heatu, Dr. Lut. Wynn Jongs, Prof. 
T. H. Pear) appointed to consider a first-year course in the above. 


1. It is realised that experimental courses must vary in procedure according to 
circumstances, such as equipment of laboratory and number of students and nature 
of the general course of study of the students. 

2. The aim of the Committee is to lay down fundamental principles which ought 
to guide the drawing up of any experimental course. 

3. Theoretical psychology and practical psychology should go hand in hand from 
the beginning. : 

4, Lectures on experimental topics should be included in the general lectures. 

5. Sixty hours’ laboratory work should represent a reasonable minimum in a first 
year’s course. 

6. The aim of the earlier experiments should be to familiarise the student with the 
experimental method of approach in psychology, and at the same time emphasis 
should be laid on the importance of introspection. 

7. The employment of the psycho-physical methods should come early in the 
course. 

8. A first year’s course should include laboratory work on perception, imagery 
and association, learning and memory, imagination, the special senses, feeling and 
reaction time, psycho-physical and statistical methods. 


Illumination of Plants.—Report of Committee (Prof. W. Nerison 
Jones, Chairman; Dr. E. M. DExr, Secretary; Prof. V. H. Buacx- 
MAN) appointed to make investigations on the effect of duration and 
nature of illumination on growth and flowering in Arachis hypogea 
and Voandzeia subterranea. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) 


EXPERIMENTS were carried out under my direction from July to October, 1926, some 
at the Royal Gardens, Kew, by Miss K. Ritson, B.Sc., with the permission of the 
Director, and others at the same time by Miss A. Westbrook, M.Sc., in the greenhouse 
laboratory of Bedford College, by the courtesy of Prof. Neilson Jones. Additional 
experiments are now in progress at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Regent’s Park. 

Seeds of Arachis and Voandzeia were kindly supplied from West Africa by the 
Director of Agriculture for the Gambia, and were grown successfully to the flowering 
stage; Pelargonium (hybrids) and other pot plants were also used. 

The plants were exposed daily for short time intervals (30 seconds to 15 minutes) 
to the unscreened light of a Hewittic mercury vapour lamp, at distances varying from 
2 to 8 feet. With exposures of 1 minute daily or longer, the modifications of growth 
and structure were similar, and became progressively more marked with the longer 
exposures. Exposures of 30 seconds daily in November appeared to give no result 


ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 309 


with seedlings of Trifolium subterraneum, but subsequently a stronger growth appeared ; 
a somewhat similar after-effect was also seen in the case of a hybrid Pelargonium. 
Exposures of 2 minutes daily given to plants of Voandzeia receiving natural 
illumination for only 7 or 5 hours daily have a much more serious effect than when 
given to a plant receiving a 12-hours’ day. 
The full report of these experiments will appear in the Proceedings of the Society 
of Experimental Biologists during the course of the present year. 


Educational Training for Overseas Life.—Report of Committee 
appointed to consider the Educational Training of Boys and Girls in 
Secondary Schools for Overseas Life (Sir Joun Russet, Chairman ; 
Mr. ©. E. Browne, Secretary ; Major A. G. Caurcu, Mr. T. S. 
Dymonp, Dr. Varcas Eyre, Mr. G. H. Garrap, Rev. Dr. H. B. 
Gray, Sir Ricuarp Grecory, Mr. O. H. Larrer, Miss McLean, 
Miss Riva OtpHaw, Mr. G. W. Oxtve, Mr. A. A. SomervILueE, Dr. G. K. 
SurHERLAND, Mrs. Gorpon Witson). 


Tux special work undertaken by the committee since the last meeting of the 
Association, viz., the elaboration of schemes of practical work in schools for garden, 
field, and laboratory, has not been sifficiently developed for publication this year, but 
it is hoped to issue an interim report in 1928. 

In carrying out this project the committee have had in mind the twofold nature 
of their objective, viz., the introduction of agricultural studies into the curriculum, not 
only to help forward those who are destined to pursue an agricultural career on leaving 
school, but also to benefit boys generally whatever avocation they are likely to adopt 
later on. 

1, Agricultural studies have an educational and cultural value which has been fully 
proved wherever the work has been carefully planned and systematically established. 
By their means the teaching of History, of Geography, and of Science becomes vitalised 
and humanised. Such studies lead to a natural growth of knowledge of the basal 
facts of life ; they afford an inexhaustible supply of projects from which other sub- 
jects of the curriculum may draw their inspiration. Ordinary schooi occupations, 
to the young, often present no rational sanctions, they suggest no simple purpose 
linking them to actual living. Agricultural studies and associated activities succeed 
in supplying these sanctions, and therefore create the interest which bridges the gap 
between work in school and the course of life outside. 

2. Their economic value is equally clear in affording opportunities for a first-hand 
acquaintance with ‘ the chief industry of the world.’ They open the eyes of a youth 
to the possibilities of a career on the land overseas, and they afford him sufficient 
experience to enable him to decide whether he is fitted or unfitted for such a life. 
To sum up, by supplying land workers for the Oversea Dominions the schools would 
be helping, in no small measure, to bring about that distribution of population within 
the Empire so keenly desired by all economists, not only in the interests of the 
Oversea Dominions and of Great Britain generally, but equally in the interests of the 
individual. 

In connection with the last-named objective, and as a valuable contribution to 
their inquiry, the committee have included in this report a paper written by Commis- 
sioner D. C. Lamb, of the Salvation Army, ‘On the importance to the Empire of 
the transplantation of boys, with some observations anent (a) the benefit of giving 
them elementary training in agriculture before they leave the Mother Country, and 
(6) their settlement and after-care in the King’s Oversea Dominions.’ Though this 
paper does not refer to secondary schools, it deals with the adolescent stage in life 
and describes experiences which supply useful information for the guidance of those 
concerned with the training of boys of every grade between the ages of fourteen 
and eighteen years. 


Transplantation of Boys Overseas. 
By Commissioner Davip C. Lams. 


The density of the population of England and Wales, 649 persons per square mile, 
is now the highest in the world. 
In June 1921 the peak of unemployment in post-war conditions was reached, the 


310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


number of unemployed persons on the live registers of the Labour Exchanges in the 
United Kingdom being 2,580,429, of whom 102,116 were boys aged 18 and under. 
In 1926, when the total unemployed reached 1,527,751, the unemployed youth was 
43,542. The disastrous effect of unemployment upon adults is a serious matter, but 
in youth the deterioration aggravated by overcrowding is tragic. 

It was to do something to arrest this demoralisation of youth that led to the initia- 
tion of General Booth’s Scheme for Boys, a scheme which provides for giving boys in 
the United Kingdom of from fourteen to eighteen years of age some elementary 
agricultural instruction and training before actually taking them overseas and 
placing them in situations with farmers. 

The value to the Empire of this work cannot be over-estimated since the vast 
vacant spaces in the King’s Oversea Dominions are in themselves a challenge, while 
the proper distribution of the man-power of the Empire is vital to her safety and well- 
being. The value of the transplantation of youths, however, is much more than a 
mere distribution of man-power would indicate. Demoralisation is arrested, and the 
creative faculty is re-born by the process. It is the spirit of adventure, too, rather 
than the feeling of social and economic pressure, that inspires youths who go over- 
seas. They fit readily into conditions overseas, and they take with them a breath of 
the Homeland. Men and women often emigrate because of social and economic 
pressure, their outlook and enterprise being restricted by these circumstances. Not 
80 a boy emigrant, his youthful enterprise is at bursting-point. 

These boys are doubly welcome overseas because they engage themselves in the 
primary productions and do not disturb—except beneficially—existing economic 
conditions ; at the same time, without much additional capital expenditure, they 
themselves become producers, and relieve for men’s work men who have hitherto 
been uneconomically engaged in boys’ work. 

General Lines of the Scheme.—The scheme provides for the selection of boys in 
‘ blind alley ’ occupations, in odd jobs, or unemployed in the United Kingdom, training 
them on the Army’s Farms at Hadleigh, Essex, and transplanting them overseas. 
It takes cognisance of the boy’s whole needs. It complies with the requirements of 
the respective Governments ; provides for efficient after-care, and covers contingencies 
not recognised by the Governments. Repatriation when necessary is arranged. 
Suitable outfits are given to each boy before embarkation, and the boys travel overseas 
in the care of a conductor. The scheme is carried on without respect to creed or 
nationality, except that imposed by the Empire Settlement Act, 1922. There is no 
financial qualification or disqualification in the scheme, general fitness being the test. 

Period of Training.—The period of training depends upon a boy’s ability. It is 
also influenced by the fitting in of dates of sailings, etc., but training is never less than 
six weeks, and may extend to three months. The curriculum is designed for short 
and long periods of training. A boy taking the shorter course is able to cover all the 
subjects, and if taking the longer course, would not be going over the same ground 
again. No attempt is made to specialise, but a boy with ‘ stock ’ sense will naturally 
come closer up to ‘stock’ questions. | Elementary knowledge of simple farm opera- 
tions is acquired in a short course of training, and as soon as a lad is reasonably advanced 
he goes overseas. If a longer course were given him he would probably have some 
things to unlearn. The net result of the training may be said to be that the boy has 
learned that he knows nothing about the business! Boys are taught how to approach 
a horse, made familiar with the process of milking a cow, taught to tend sheep and 
pigs, and generally instructed in the attendant duties. 

The Farms and their Equipment.—Hadleigh in Essex lies near Southend-on-Sea, 
forty miles east of London, on the north bank of the Thames (opposite Sheerness), and 
from the ruins of the old castle one sees the Thames Estuary with the Nore Lightship in 
the distance, and the ceaseless arrival and departure of the world’s shipping. The 
Training Farms cover 2,000 acres and carry forty head of milking pedigree cattle (Red 
Lincolns) ; 200 pedigree pigs (Middle White Yorks); 600 sheep, etc. Some 300 
acres are taken up in orchards and market gardens, and there is a brickfield worked 
on the estate. The property has been in the Army’s occupation since 1891, but it 
was not until August 1923 that it was devoted largely to the training of boys, although 
prior to that men, women and boys had been trained for overseas settlement. Since 
the inception of the Boys’ scheme over 3,000 boys have been successfully trained 
there and settled overseas. 

Recruitment and Selection of Boys.—Publicity is given by announcements in the 
Press, lectures in public halls, in schools, etc., and through the Army’s offices and 
periodicals. On receipt of applications from boys some general information is sent, 

v 


Lag 4> 


LM he tab er: LRP a heels gels vos 


ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 311 


and if the replies warrant further enquiry, this is made to schoolmasters, clergymen, 
employers and others. Before being accepted for training, each boy is seen by a 
Salvation Army officer, and is passed by the family doctor. The Government Medical 
Inspection takes place after the boy has been on the Training Colony for a few weeks. 
The total number of applications received from boys for the years 1925 and 1926 
was 20,624. 
The number of boys selected and received for training was 1667. 
The actual sailings were 1519. 
The boys who sailed represented the following proportions of nationalities or 
districts :— 
English, 59 per cent. | Trish, 11 per cent. 
Scots, 25 per cent. | Welsh, 5 per cent. 


Trades or occupations were represented in the following proportions :— 
Trades (i.e., Fitters, Tinsmiths, Woodworkers, 
Butchers, Hairdressers) 5 ei ; : 
Occupations (i.e., Errand Boys, Shop Assistants, 

Lift Boys, Van Boys) - : 2 . 25 per cent. 
Unemployed . = - - : : . 45 per cent. 


30 per cent. 


Religious denominations of boys transplanted work out to the following per- 
centages :— 


Church of England . : - 40 | Nonconformists : . 23 
Presbyterian . : - -. 20 | Salvationists . , : 8 
Church of Ireland . : -. 4 | Roman Catholic : 5 


The ages of boys who actually sailed may be divided as follows .— 


14 to 17 years . : Z . ; 42 per cent. 
17 to 19 years . 2 : : A - . 55 per cent. 
Over 19 years . ‘ ; , ; : ; 3 per cent. 


Total Costs. 


The total cost of the transplantation of a youth is on the average about £60, made 
up as follows :— 


Awe 
Recruitment and selection : medical fees, etc. . 4 00 
Training : 8 weeks at 30s. per week : : 5 A 12 0.0 
Railway travelling to training centre and to port of embarkation 110 0 
Outfit : : : A - : : : : ott OnE 70) 
Ocean passage, including embarkation and disembarkation expenses, 
and rail overseas fs - a 7 : : - 2610 0 
Reception and after-care, covering a period of three years : oF LOMO sO 


Cost of ocean passage varies, and there is also considerable differences in overseas rail 
costs. Governments (Home and Overseas Dominions) co-operate in meeting or 
assisting to meet the ocean passages, and in some instances in the other expenses. 

The net cost to Army funds is about £10, and towards this the boys themselves 
are expected to assist when they are at work overseas. Contributions from boys 
before sailing, on the average, amount to a little over £1 per boy. In this con- 
nection it might be noted that while the training of a youth by the Army costs 30s. 
per week, a young man being trained at one of the Government farms costs 50s. a 
week, and further, that period of training for a youth is two months as against four 
months for a young man. 

Repayments : a Moral Principle-—Before passing from the question of costs, 
reference must be made to the question of payments and repayments by the boys. 
It is afundamental principle that the beneficiaries of the Army’s ministrations—spiritual 
and social—should, according to their ability, make some contribution towards 
the cost of the services rendered. All that the Salvation Army asks is that the boy 
should pay or repay what has been spent of Army funds—which on the average 
is about £10—so that similar work may be continued for others. This system 
engenders a spirit of independence ; it tends to maintain self-respect ; it creates a 
thought for others and helps us to continue the good work. The scheme limits the 
period over which repayments can be spread to a maximum of two years. During 
the first year, clothes, and a fairly liberal amount of pocket money, are a first charge 


312 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


on the boy’s earnings, and in the second year—for as long as may be necessary—half 
his wages. The repayments are invariably paid off long before the end of the second 
ear. 

Cost of a Boy.—The average cost to the country of a boy, in food, clothes, shelter, 
and education, may be taken at £20-£26 a year, so that a lad between fifteen and 
sixteen years of age has cost the country approximately, say, £350. Surely itis a good 
investment then to add this £60 for transplantation, and so guarantee a satisfactory 
return for the expenditure. By neglecting the boy when he completes his education, 
he becomes a charge on industry and continues to be a consumer when he ought also 
to become a producer. 

Value of a Boy.—The expenditure upon a boy, together with the cost of his 
emigration, gives a total cost, approximately, of £400 per hoy. The Motherland makes 
a gift of this potential wealth producer to the Oversea Dominions, and looks for no 
definite or tangiblo return for the outlay. 

Present v. Future Empire Needs.—Statistical information would suggest that in a 
comparatively short space of time the heavy fall in the birth-rate during the Great 
War will affect the supply of juvenile labour in Great Britain. It is estimated that in 
1933 the number of juveniles (boys and girls) available for employment will be 400,000 
less than the number available to-day, which is estimated to be 2,165,000. It may 
be safely assumed that 50 per cent. of these figures refer to boys. Even if this be so, 
it is no reason why boys of the present day, having regard to the past seven years’ 
unemployment and the profound world changes affecting all our industries, should be 
denied the opportunities awaiting them overseas; further, it is contended that the 
Empire’s present needs should outweigh any problematical view of the future. In 
view of all the circumstances, it would seem to be good business to set about training 
tens of thousands, instead of a few hundreds. 

Demand for Boys.—To those who may have a doubt that, if in the event of training 
schemes being undertaken on a grand scale, boys would find employment overseas, 
it may be said that the demand overseas for boys is many more times than the supply, 
and is likelv to continue so, because these young fellows will quickly commence farming 
on their own account. 

Arrangements made before arrival Overseas.—What happens to the boys overseas ? 
On arrival, the conductor of the party introduces them to the officers who have 
already been advised by letter and cable of the actual numbers travelling. These 
overseas officers have been enquiring into the suitability of the farmers applying for a 
boy, and no boy is sent to a situation until some experienced person acting under our 
instructions has seen the farmer, and is satisfied that the conditions are fair and 
reasonable, and that suitable house accommodation is provided. Thus the boy is 
sent without delay toa situation—care being taken not to send two boys off the same 
ship to adjoining farms. Usually a boy goes a month on trial. If the farmer likes the 
boy, and the boy likes the farmer, twelve months’ agreement is then concluded. This 
ensures the opportunity to the boy of observing a full year’s work on the farm, and 
prevents any town drift in the winter time. 

After-care Safeguards.—The boys’ distributing centres areset up in country districts 
—not in large cities—and the officers keep in touch with the boys by visits and corre- 
spondence. During the first six months newspapers or magazines are posted regularly 
every week to the boy, and if a boy wants to run away he knows where he can be assured 
of a sympathetic understanding and treatment of the malady of homesickness as well 
as minor ailments which might prevent his continuing at work, but would not require 
his admission to:a hospital. They are not spoon-fed, but rather taught to be manly 
and self-reliant. 

Re-placing Misfits Experience has shown that boys settle well, but in the nature 
of things there aré bound to be misfits. Even employers are not always what they 
might be. There is no possible guarantee that a lad will be comfortably settled 
in his first situation, and this is where the Army’s organisation is particularly effective. 
Among the boys there are the proverbial ‘ rolling-stones ’ as well as a large percentage 
who want to improve themselves and to see the world. The record of the re-placings 
of the 594 boys trained and emigrated in 1925, up to the end of December 1926, is a 
very useful guide to what may be expected after boys have arrived overseas. 
Re-placings were as follows :— 


Number of times re-placed c é - 1 2 3 4 5 6 over 6 
Number of boys E : 3 ; - 141 87 55 28111 5 


ON EDUCATIONAL TRAINING FOR OVERSEAS LIFE. 313 


Percentage still on Farms.—It is worthy of note, however, that of the 594 youths 
settled overseas in 1925, 86 per cent. were known to be still on farms on December 31, 
1926, while but 63 per cent. were to be found in large cities. 

Instance of what a Youth can do.—One instance may be given of many of individual 
progress made possible by General Booth’s scheme for boys. A young miner of eighteen 
arrived in Australia in January 1925. By December of the same year he repaid to the 
Army the expenditure incurred on his behalf out of Army funds. Then solely by his 
earning capacity on an Australian farm he was able to pay the migration costs of his 
father, mother, brother and sister. He therefore nominated them, and they arrived 
in Australia on October 21 last. Thus within twenty-two months this young fellow had 
done remarkably well. A friend who recently returned to this country, and who 
actually saw him, brought the information that on the arrival of his relatives this young 
man took a week’s holiday, met them, and handed his mother £15 for temporary 
expenses. The father and brother are now in good situations. 

Experimental stage passed.—But this work has long passed the experimental stage, 
for during the past twenty-five years the Army has happily and_ successfully 
transplanted 160,000 folk—men and women, and children—from the British Isles 
to the King’s Oversea Dominions. The failures over all have amounted to less 
than 1 per cent. 

The determining Factor in Migration.—The founder of the Army, the late General 
Booth, grasped the essential fact that it was the absorbing power of the lands overseas, 
and not social or economic pressure at home, which must determine the flow of migra- 
tion. By using the organization of the Army, with its vast ramifications at home 
and overseas, and utilising to the full up-to-date methods of communication, the two 
problems have been paralleled—which incidentally is the means of solving both—of 
vacant lands overseas and unemployment at home; accomplished much good and 
useful work, and demonstrated in the unity of contro! peculiar to the Army’s system 
the essential lines on which the work of transplantation must be carried on. Work 
has been so arranged that every worker emigrating under the auspices of the Army 
has sailed with an assurance that work and a welcome have awaited him or her on 
arrival, 

An aid to Creation of Trade.—Trade can be created by agricultural employment, and 
opportunities of profitable employment exist in so many parts of the Empire that our 
economic ills could be substantially cured were we to make use of more widely so 
simple an expedient as training in elementary agriculture for migration overseas. 
Even if the training of boys for farm work, with which this paper particularly deals, 
were the only attempt made to turn non-producers into producers, the result, if the 
work were undertaken on adequate lines, would be largely to improve the Empire’s 
economic outlook. Apart from this important result there would be incalculable 
benefit to health and moral questions, and the British race would in an increasing 
degree be regenerated against the present danger of degeneration. 

Of course no Empire Schemes for Migration and Settlement of Boys can be 
entirely satisfactory unless they are followed or accompanied by the migration and 
settlement of larger numbers of women. It has always been the policy of the 
Salvation Army to do nothing to accentuate the disparity in numbers of the sexes in 
the Homeland and Overseas, but rather to emigrate more women than men. The 
recent Census showed approximately two million (2,000,000) more females than 
males in the British Isles. Overseas in many districts men outnumber women. 

Population and Empire go together, and the day when our death-rate exceeds 
the birth-rate our powers in the councils of the world will begin to decline. I submit, 
therefore, that the Old Country can engage in nothing more important and nothing 
more profitable than the transfer of tens of thousands of her young people to the 
vast undeveloped lands of the King’s Overseas Dominions, under such conditions as 
I have outlined. The task before us is the opposite to that which confronted thie 
country two generations back; then it was the transforming of a rural to an urban 
population, now it is the transforming of an urban population to a rural one. 

Let us begin with the boys. Overseas the presence of these young people will be 
a strength to the Empire and their successful settlement a bond in commerce. 
Furthermore, the breath of the Homeland which they will carry, mingling with the 
freedom of the new lands, will make for the growth and development of a people 
well calculated to carry high the banner of our Christian civilisation: ever ready to 
sustain the best British traditions and well able to develop the Great Heritage which, 
in the good Providence of God, are ours. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL 
SCIENCES. 


Thursday, September 1. 


(Communications on Textiles, received at special sessions, will be found on p. 411 seq.) 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 430.) 


Prof. R. A. Mitt1xan.—The Relations between the Spectra emitted by the 
Atoms of the First Row of the Periodic Table in all Stages of Ionization. 


Mr, A. C. Menzies.—Regularities in Fuse Spectra. 


Dr. W. HeIsenBere.—Recent Progress in Quantum Mechanics. (Followed 
by Discussion. Mr. R. H. Fowzrr, F.R.S., Dr. H. T. Fuint and 
others.) 


Mr. H. Jones.—Electron Impacts. 


DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. 


Prof. H. W. Turnsutut.—Non-commutative Algebra. 


The fundamental laws of algebra which provide axioms of the subject can be 
dealt with much in the same way as those of geometry. Experience has shown that 
the surrender of the law axb=bxa for multiplication leads to interesting results, 
notably in the theory of matrices and of g-numbers. The finite matrix, as discovered 
by Cayley, is a powerful symbol in discussing such questions as orthogonal trans- 
formations and (what is nearly the same thing) those of the restricted relativity in 
physics. The infinite matrix, which has many properties in common with the finite, 
introduces other possibilities also, which it shares with the gnumber. For example, 
the formula 

pq—qp=constant 


is impossible for the Cayley matrix, but possible for the infinite matrix if certain tests 
for divergency are satisfied. Differentiation can be extended in at least two ways to 
functions of variables in this non-commutative field. Dirac has discovered one type 
of differentiation which has immediate place in quantum physics. Another type 
yields results more directly applicable to functions of a finite matrix. 


Friday, September 2. 
Joint Discussion with Section B on The Structure and Formation of 
Colloidal Particles. (See p. 317.) 
Report of Committee on Sezsmological Investigations. (See p. 215.) 


Dr. C. R. Davipson.—The Determination of Stellar Temperatures. 


DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. 
Prof. W. P. Mitne and Mr. F. P. Wuire.—Noether’s Canonical Curves. 


Noether has shown that the general plane curve of genus p can be represented 
point by point on a curve of degree 2p— 2 in space of p—1 dimensions. The object 
of the communications is to describe as far as possible the fundamental properties 
of the Canonical Curves for p=3, 4, 5, 6. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A, 315 


Monday, September 5. 


Presidential Address by Prof. E. T. Wurrraxer, F.R.S., on The 
Outstanding Problems of Relativity. (See p. 16.) 


Prof. P. DEnyE.—The Polar Properties of Molecules. 
Dr. W. Kotnérster.—Some Experiments on Penetrating Rays. 


Prof. J. J. Notan.—Ionization in the Lower Atmosphere. 


Afternoon Lecture by Prof. R. Wuipprneton, F.R.S.—Luminous Dis- 
charge in Rare Gases. 


DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. 


Prof. 8. Bropetsky.—The Equations of the Gravitational Field in Two and 
in Three Dimensions of Space-Time. 

Experience has shown that in order to deduce gravitational fields in fewer than 

four dimensions of space-time care has to be taken to avoid obtaining what is merely 


a Galilean field. This question is discussed in regard both to the original equations 
of the gravitational field and to the modified form recently suggested by Einstein. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Prof. C. G. Barxua, F.R.S.—The Coherence of X-rays and the J pheno- 


menon, 


Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S.—A New Mass Spectrograph and the Whole Number 
Rule. 


Prof. E. N. Da C. ANpDRaDE.—Note on a Molecular Theory of Liquid 
Viscosity. 


Mr. D. Brown and Dr. E. F. Brerr.—Secondary Emission from Metallic 
and Metallic Oxide Targets. : 


Reports of Committees on Tides, Upper Atmosphere (see p. 255), and 
Earth's Gravitational Field. 


DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS. 
Prof. W. E. H. Berwicx.—The Arithmetic of Cubic Number-Fields. 


It was known as far back as Euclid’s time that every whole number can be 
decomposed, in just one way, into a product of prime factors. When a renewed 
interest began to be taken in mathematics, after the Renaissance, interest was again 
directed to the science of whole numbers. One of the first steps taken was the 
enlarging of the conception of the term ‘ number’ by introducing first a root of unity 
and secondly a quadratic surd into the field of operations. The general stage was 
reached by considering the system of numbers containing, in any arithmetical 
combination, an assigned algebraic irrationality. It was soon seen that there was 
a difficulty in defining the integral elements of such a system of numbers. No 
definition, in fact, could be constructed permitting every integer of an algebraic 
field to be uniquely expressed as a product of similar prime factors. The next step 
was the widening of the conception of the integral elements to render factorisation 


316 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A, B. 


into primes again unique, and the general lines on which a solution was ultimately 
obtained were outlined about a hundred years ago. It was Richard Dedekind who 
finally consolidated the whole theory some fifty years ago. Dedekind showed that, 
when the integral elements of a field of algebraic numbers are suitably defined, these 
integers can be combined (in accordance with rules advanced by him) into ‘ ideals,’ 
and that every ideal is uniquely expressible as a product of prime ideal factors. These 
ideals can be arranged in a finite number of classes, the determination of which is 
one of the fundamental problems connected with the field. In some fields there is 
only one class of ideals, and every integer can then be factorised uniquely into primes, 
just as in the case of ordinary integers. A field of algebraic numbers possesses units, 
integers which divide every integer contained therein, and an important problem 
is to determine all the units of the field. There exist only three types of number-field 
in which as yet the class-number and all the units can be infallibly determined in a 
finite number of arithmetical operations. 


Mr. B. M. Witson.—Ramanujan’s Work on Congruence Properties of the 
Number of Partitions of n. 


By numerical evidence, based upon calculations made by MacMahon, Ramanujan 
was led to conjecture the truth of the following theorem : 


Tf 85" 7” lle, 2441 (mod 8), and n=A (mod 8), then p(n) =0 (mod 8). 


The truth of this conjecture has been established only in five independent special 
cases and in the few other special cases which can be deduced immediately from 
these five. In addition to Ramanujan’s own publications on the problem and a 
memoir posthumously edited for publication by Hardy, there exists a long but 
very incomplete manuscript of Ramanujan, now in the hands of his editors, which 
contains the results he had obtained up to his death. He there considers also con- 
gruences with moduli 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 and 31. : 

The paper is a report on the methods and scope of Ramanujan’s researches, pub- 
lished and unpublished, on this subject. 


Mr. A. E. Incuam.—The Analytical Method in the Theory of Numbers. 


A general account of the method of Hardy and Littlewood as applied to Waring’s 
problem, including some discussion of the more recent developments based on the 
analysis of the ‘ singular series.’ 


DEPARTMENT OF CosmicaL Paysics. 


Joint Discussion with Sections C and K on The Climates of the Past. 
(See p. 386.) 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY-. 


(Communications on Textiles, received at special sessions, will be found on p. 411 seq.) 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 430.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Presidential Address by Dr. N. V. Sipewick, F.R.S., on Co-ordination 
Compounds. Followed by Discussion—Prof. G. T. Morean, F.R.S., 


Prof. C. K. Incotp, F.R.S., Dr. 8. SuepEn, Dr. F. G. Mann. (For 
Address, see p. 27.) 


Dr. Suepren.—The physical reality of residual valencies shown by the optical 
activity of co-ordinated compounds of beryllium, copper, platinum, &c., is discussed. 
A definite picture of residual affinity is offered by the singlet linkage. Application 
of the rules of the extended electron valency theory to (a) acetylacetone and its metallic 
derivatives, (6) compounds of co-ordination number 6, discussing the isomerides 
possible on (i) the octahedral theory and on (ii) the singlet theory, (c) odd co-ordina- 
tion numbers, (d) ‘ molecular compounds.’ 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 317 


AFTERNOON. 
(a) Visit to works of Messrs. Wood Bros. Glass Co., Barnsley. 


General manufacture of glass and glassware, including the processes involved in 
making scientific and laboratory glassware. 

Prof. W. E. S. Turner, of the Department of Glass Technology, University of 
Sheffield, kindly assisted in showing the party round the works and explaining the 
technical processes. 


(6) Visit to the British Research Association for the Woollen and 
Worsted Industries, Torridon. 


Mr. A. T. Kine.—The Chemical Aspect of Wool Research. (See p. 411.) 


Friday, September 2. 


Joint Discussion with Section A on The Structure and Formation of 
Colloidal Particles. Sir Witu1am H. Brace, K.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. 
Dr. H. Freunp.icu, Prof. R. WHytLaw Gray, Dr. F. L. Usuer, 
Mr. B. N. Desat, Mr. J. Ew1es. 


Prof. FREUNDLICH.—A distinction between amorphous, crystalline but not orien- 
tated, and crystalline with orientation, forms of colloidal particles may be made by 
employment of the X-ray method of analysis. 

The two factors influencing the structure of a colloid particle are the rate of con- 
densation of the molecules and the rate of their orientation in the crystal lattice 
under the influence of the crystal forces. While the crystal forces are extremely 
great in metals, thus giving rise to crystalline colloids of the metals, it has been possible 
to prepare amorphous silver colloid by rapid condensation and freezing. 

Some indication of the shape of the particles may be obtained by optical methods, 
and particles which are pear-, spherical-,and rod-shaped, and in the form of lamellar 
plates of various materials have been examined, as well as the gradual transition 
from one form to the other with age. 

Prof. R. WHytLaw Gray.—The Process of Coagulation in Smokes and the Structure 
of the Particles. 

It has been found that these systems are unstable and that the particles are con- 
tinually coagulating. Consequently, it is difficult to obtain the same degree of dis- 
persion as in liquid sols. The analogy between these two classes is more apparent 
than real. Recently a reliable method of following coagulation has been worked 
out, and the results will be described. 

The larger smoke particles are of microscopic dimensions and it has been found 
possible to obtain direct information about their structure. 

Dr. F. L. Usner.—The formation and growth of colloidal particles from molecules 
are considered in systems from which crystalline structure is absent. The formation 
of nuclei depends only on the degree of supersaturation and the interfacial tension ; 
while the growth of the nuclei, in absence of stabilising factors, depends on the relation 
between the rate of production of the molecules of the disperse phase and the rumber 
of partially grown particles already present. In stable liquid-liquid systems the 
particles grow only to a limiting size determined by the electrical conditions of their 
surface. There is independent evidence of a surface condition which should produce 
a type of distribution of sizes similar to what is observed. 


AFTERNOON. 


Visit to the works of Messrs. The Yorkshire Coking and Chemical 
Co., Ltd., and of Messrs. Hickson & Partners, Ltd., Castleford. 


The Yorkshire Coking and Chemical Co.—Coke oven and by-product recovery 
plant, including sulphate of ammonia and benzene recovery. Messrs. Hickson— 
Manufacture of acids and synthesis of dye-intermediates and some dyestuffs from 
the crude benzol recovered from thecoke ovens. The complete manufacture of certain 
dyestuffs from the coke ovens to the finished product is thus shown. 


318 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B, C. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on The Chemistry of Hormones. Prof. G. Barczr, F.RB.S., 
Prof. H. 8. Raprer, C.B.E., Mr. F. H. Carr, C.B.E.,; Prof. J.C. 
Drummonp, Prof. E. C. Dopps, Prof. J. MELLANBY. 


AFTERNOON. 
Visit to the works of Messrs. L. B. Holliday & Co., near Huddersfield. 


General manufacture of dyestufis. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Prof. H. M. Dawson.—New Developments in the Study of Acid Catalysis. 


Prof. JounfREap.—Researches on Menthones, Menthols and Menthylamines. 


Mr. W. A. Wicutman.—Multiplanar Rings and Some Consequences of 
Strainless Motion. 


Dr. W. Warpiaw.—Co-ordination Compounds of Molybdenum. 


Dr. J. A. V. Burter.—The Effect of an Electric Field on the Adsorption of 
Ions and neutral Molecules at the Interface of Mercury and Aqueous 
Solutions of Electrolytes. j 


AFTERNOON. 


Visit to the works of Messrs. Joseph Watson & Sons, Ltd., Whitehall 
Road, Leeds. 


The various processes of soap manufacture, the distillation of glycerine, and the 
production of caustic soda. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 431.) 


Thursday, September 1. 
Prof. A. Gittigan.—The Geology of the Leeds District. 


Mr. W. 8S. Bisar.—The Correlation of the Carboniferous Beds of Western 
Europe. 


Thanks to the great exposures of goniatite-yielding beds in the Pennine area of 
the North of England, the zonal analysis of the middle portion of the Carboniferous 
sequence has been carried out to an extent which enables practically all the goniatite- 
yielding beds of Western Europe to be correlated easily with some portion of the 
English sequence. 

Such correlations have been obtained in Belgium, Holland, Westphalia, N. of France 
and Portugal. They also exist farther afield, as in the Sahara and United States. 

In Scotland, Northumberland and Silesia the almost complete absence of goniatites 
makes correlation more difficult, and to a large extent dependent on the broader 
floral zones. Also for the main portion of the Lower Carboniferous in all districts we 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 319 


are still dependent on the coral-brachiopod sequence. Similarly in the Middle and 
Upper Coal Measures of the Midland Province of England and the equivalent beds 
abroad we are dependent for zonal analysis mainly on the freshwater mollusca 
and the flora. 

It would, however, appear that, taking the Midland Province of Gibson as a whole, 
and including in it all the Pennine area south of the Craven Faults, we delimit area 
extremely suitable for use as a type area. Not only is the sequence approximately 
complete (including beds not yet recognised elsewhere), but the goniatite-yielding 
phase is a widespread one, and affords a most delicate index for correlation purposes. 
Also the exposures at the junction of this phase with the coral-brachiopod phase of 
the Northern Province are excellent, and offer the most promising avenue yet dis- 
cernible for a more accurate correlation and explanation of the two great marine facies. 


Miss Emity Dix and Dr. A. E. TRureman.—Marine Horizons in the Coal 
Measures of South Wales and the North of England. 


The importance of marine bands as datum planes in the correlation of the Coal 
Measures has been recognised for some years, and in Nottinghamshire and Yorkshire, 
and North Staffordshire, several marine bands have been much used in determining 
the structure of the coalfields. The two most noteworthy are the Mansfield Marine 
Bed (the Gin or Speedwell band of North Staffordshire) and the First Marine Bed 
(the Lady Coal band of North Staffordshire). These appear to indicate widespread 
submergences which affected simultaneously a wide area in the North of England. 

In the South Wales Coalfield there has been little information concerning marine 
horizons, but an examination of cores of recent borings has revealed the existence of 
several well-marked horizons, two of which may be compared with the Mansfield and 
First Marine Beds. They agree closely in fauna, and they likewise occur near the top 
of the Anthracomya pulchra Zone. They appear to have been the latest marine 
episodes in all these areas. Earlier marine horizons are known in South Wales in the 
Carbonicola ovalis Zone and possibly in the A. modiolaris Zone. 


Mr. W. 8. Brsat.—The Junction of the ‘Upper’ and ‘Lower’ Carboniferous 
Strata. 


The view that the deposition of the Carboniferous beds formed everywhere an un- 
broken sequence from bottom to top has long since been exploded, but the exact 
status of such break or breaks as occur in the succession has still to be determined. 

It is by no means clear that a twofold division has any physical basis when 
Western Europe is viewed as a whole. 

_ In Yorkshire a considerable break occurs at the junction of the Mountain Limestone 
and the basal beds of the Millstone Grit, but this break is associated with, and is prob- 
ably largely caused by, a median ridge in the Carboniferous geosyncline of Northern 
England. This ridge, elusive though its character may be, served as an effectual 
barrier between the Midland Province of Gibson, and a Northern Province which 
included Garwood’s North-western Province and the Northumberland-Durham area. 

From the researches of Tonks and Hudson on this break in Yorkshire at the 
junction of the Yoredale rocks and the Millstone Grits, it would appear that the 
barrier itself moved northwards in Grit times, and that the Midland Province increased 
in area at the expense of the Northern Province. Apart from this median ridge with 
its attendant though obscure phenomena of kmoll-reef limestones, breccias and 
facies-changes, there appears no important break in the North of England succession, 
except perhaps at the margins of the basins and around the Lake District and the 
Derbyshire Peak. 

In S. Wales and Somerset there is a much more important break at the junction 
of the Limestone and Grits, and perhaps to a lesser extent the same is true of 
Westphalia, though here it is difficult to know how much of the apparent non-sequence 
is due to lack of exposure or barrenness of the strata. 


Mr. W. 8. Bisar.—Some Episodes in the ‘ Millstone Grit’ Period. 


Thanks to the detailed zonal analysis of the Millstone Grits, it is now clear that 
there were several major outwashings of coarse grit into the deltaic area of the Mid- 
land Province, with intercalated marine periods of considerable extent. The earliest 
such grit invasion appears to be that of the Grassington and Pendle Grits, which form 


320 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


a great thickness of beds extending from North Yorkshire down to Pendle Hill, but are 
apparently absent farther south. The second such invasion was that of the 
Kinderscout Grit and associated beds, which are of great thickness in Derbyshire, and 
dwindle away northwards to a few feet near Clapham. Of less importance and not so 
clearly defined is the invasion represented by the Third Grit of Lancashire, which has 
a maximum in the west of Lancashire. Lastly, we have the Rough Rock extending 
in one unbroken sheet perhaps over the entire Midland Province, and in its regular 
character showing a marked contrast to the preceding great lenticular masses of grit. 


Mr. R. G. Hupson.—A Mid-Avonian Unconformity in the Craven Lowlands. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Bell Busk and Skipton. 


Friday, September 2. 


Prof. P. G. H. Boswett.—The Cleavage-Fan in the Ludlow Rocks of the 
Denbighshire Moors and Clwydian Range. 


One of the most interesting tectonic features found by Mr. Howel Williams during 
his investigation of the Snowdon district of North Wales was the presence of a ‘cleavage- 
fan.’ A similar fan has been traced in the area of Ludlow rocks forming the 
Denbighshire Moors and the Clwydian Range (which is separated from the Moors by 
the down-faulted area of the Vale of Clwyd). 

The strike of the cleavage is approximately east-west; in the moorland area it 
strikes frequently north of east, and in the Clwydian Range it often swings to north of 
west. Where hard sandstone bands intervene in the muddy Salopian sediments, or 
where the rocks are disturbed by post-Caledonian faulting, the cleavage-direction 
varies considerably and may, for the purpose of this discussion, be regarded as 
anomalous. 

In the northern part of the Moors, behind Abergele and Colwyn Bay, the cleavage 
displays a southerly dip at angles increasing from 45° to 80° as we proceed south- 
wards. Along an east-west belt through Llanefydd, Llanfair-Talhaiarn, and Pentre- 
Llangerniew, the cleavage becomes vertical or oscillates rapidly, dipping towards the 
north or south at angles greater than 80°. South of this area, over the greater part 
of the Moors, the cleavage-planes dip steadily northwards at angles varying from 
40° to 80°. 

In the northern part of the Clwydian Range the cleavage is southward-dipping. 
Over the central part it is vertical or rapidly oscillating, and in the southern part 
it is consistently northward-dipping. 

The formation of the fan is attributed to deep-seated movements due to pressure 
acting from the directions of the northern and southern margins of the geosyncline of 
Ludlow rocks, and directed towards the centre. 

The middle or ‘ axis ’ of the cleavage-fan is in places translated by post-Caledonian 
faulting. Displacement by tear-faulting, as distinct from vertical movement along 
the fractures, may thus be determined. 


Dr. G. Stater.—The Structure of the Disturbed Chalk and Diluvium on the 
East Coast of the Isle of Riigen (Jasmund District), Germany. 


The classical disturbances on the east coast of the Isle of Riigen (Jasmund District) 
extend from Sassnitz to Stubbenkammer, a distance of five miles. The cliffs are 
composed of chalk associated with drift. The former belongs to the Upper Senonian 
Pencil Chalk and is unstratified, the bedding being indicated by flint-bands. A 
representative fauna was collected from the Sassnitz pits and confirms the opinion of 
previous workers that this zone is equivalent to the Trimingham horizon of England. 
Macroscopic fossils in the cliffs, however, are scarce. The drift belongs to two 
series :— 

(a) Lower Diluvium, associated with the disturbed chalk. This drift is 
tripartite, two boulder clays being intercalated with stratified sands of 
fluviatile and fresh-water origin. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 321 


(6) Upper Diluvium, which rests unconformably on the outcrops of the 
disturbed deposits. 

To the south, near Sassnitz, the general strike of the disturbed chalk is NNW-SSE, 
and there is a general dip of the beds approximately to the south, in the coast 
sections. 

Traced from north to south the structure may be divided into three zones :— 


(1) A ‘hérst’ of chalk to the north forming the lofty cliffs of Stubbenkam- 
mer, bent into a magnificent sigmoid curve at the Kénigsstuhl bluff. 

(2) A zone of thrust planes, in the central area between Sassnitz and Kolicker 
Ufer, a distance of three miles. In this zone the Lower Diluvium is 
repeatedly intercalated in the chalk. 


In each case the lower boulder clay rests evenly on the underlying inclined face 
of the chalk, while a thrust plane is associated with the ‘hanging wall’ of the 
overlying chalk, the ‘ sole’ of the thrust transgressing the tripartite succession of the 
drift, disturbing and, in places, removing either the whole or portions of the upper 
members. The chalk, between adjacent thrust planes, always assumes the form of 
a truncated flow-curve or squeezed anticline. All observers agree that the lower 
boulder clay consists of isolated strips severed from a once continuous sheet; it is 
therefore a valuable datum-line. This zone proves, ina convincing manner, imbricate 
or ‘schuppenstruktur,’ due to ice-action, repetition occurring at least fourteen 
times. 

(3) The third zone occurs near Sassnitz and is characterised by a peculiar de- 
velopment of ‘false-domes,’ and ‘pseudo-synclines’ or drift-lined hollows 
in the chalk, associated with thrust. ; 


The structure is analogous to that of the Mgen area south of the Sommerspir, 
described at the Oxford Meeting last year. 

The cost of this investigation was defrayed by a grant from the Sladen Trustees, 
1926, for which I express my thanks. 


Dr. G. Stater.—The Structure of the Mud Buttes and Tit Hills of Alberta, 
Canada. 


Examination by O. B. Hopkins of the district in question showed Cretaceous beds 
surrounding the buttes and hills dipping gently southward, while.in the Mud Buttes 
the sediments, disposed irregularly in miniature folds, prevailingly dip about 30° N.E. 
The anomalous structure was tentatively explained by Mr. Hopkins as due to pressure 
of an advancing ice-sheet against an obstructing outcrop which was moved en masse 
with consequent thrusting and folding. 

Studies by the writer in 1924 confirm the essential point of Hopkins’ view—namely, 
that the Mud Buttes and Tit Hills owe their origin to ice-action; but the detailed 
relations observed in the field and described in this paper show that these interesting 
local topographical features are built up by accretions in the form of comparatively 
thin lenticles of englacial material, the origin being similar to that of deposits 
investigated at several European localities. 

Structurally the Mud Buttes present, from south to north, three zones: (1) bluffs 
with little compression and no overfolds, this zone being analogous to a ‘hérst’; 
(2) a zone of compression ; (3) overfolds forming the highest part of the hills. The 
structure was built up from south to north, but movement of the beds was in the 
reverse direction. 

The moulding of material forming the southern bluffs has been from below upwards. 
The material is composite in character and has been moved as individual ledges or 
lenticles along thrust planes. Against the sigmoid curve and associated thrust plane 
on the exposed side of the bluffs, which acted as a ‘hérst,’ the central zone of compressed 
material has been squeezed, resulting in the formation of folds, and rippling. The 
upper surface of the central zone finally formed a glide plane for the passage of other 
material forming zone 3. This material moved in the form of overfolds dissected by 
thrust planes, the whole having a radiating structure. The exposed or northern 
flank formed one of the major thrust planes of the area. Although the axes have a 
general east-west trend, there is a slight southerly deflection on the eastern flank, 


1927 ns 


322 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


and this is associated with the production of a hummocky area. Pressure was greatest 
in the centre of the area. 

This structure is a clear example of glacial tectonics. -Lenticles of englacial 
material became incorporated in ice during its southerly passage over Cretaceous 
strata, and this material, embracing sandstone, &c., must have been derived from out- 
crops in the vicinity, the plane of ‘ gumbo’ clay to the north forming a suitable floor 
for ice movement. The repetition of similar lithological material by thrust produces 
imbricate or ‘schuppenstruktur.’ Material between two neighbouring thrust planes 
may be regarded as being moved en masse. The contortions include (a) compression 
folds due to lateral pressure, and (5) flow curves of subsequent deformation by pressure. 
They display drag phenomena. The association of thin plastic clays with sand offered 
a most favourable material for incorporation as englacial material in a moving body 
of ice. The structure represents the final stages of the deglaciation of the area and 
belongs to the stagnant glacier type of glacial tectonics. 

The cost of this investigation was defrayed by a grant from the Sladen Trustees, 
1924, for- which I express my thanks. 


Mr, Hersert P. Lewis.—The Zoning of the Avonian Rocks in the South of 
the Isle of Man. 


The lower beds (Lower Limestone of Cumming), as developed above the Basal 
Carboniferous Conglomerate from Cass-ny-Hawin to the east side of Castletown Bay, 
at Port St. Mary, at Ballasalla and at Ballohot, find their closest parallel in the 
Michelinia and Productus corrugato-hemisphericus zones of the N.W. Province as 
defined by Prof. Garwood. 

In the Michelinia zone, which in places is oolitic, the lowest persistent fossil band 
is rich in Syringothyris cuspidata var. exoleta and contains Athyris glabistria, 
Cyathophyllum multilamellatum, &c. Higher in these C, beds the Chonetes carinata 
band with Michelinia grandis, Clisiophyllum multiseptatum, &c., has been traced from 
Cass-ny-Hawin to the east side of Castletown Bay. The highest Michelinia beds at 
Ronaldsway contain Punctospirifer glabricosta, Zaphrentis cf. enniskilleni, and bryozoa, 
These and associated fossils occur near the base of the limestone and above beds 
with Syringothyris at Port St. Mary. The same band is found at Ballasalla and 
Ballohot. At Port St, Mary and Ballasalla, immediately above this band, are beds 
containing mollusca (* gasteropod beds’) which indicate a low horizon in §,. At 
Ballohot the presence of Nematophyllum minus, Chonetes papillionacea, &c., indicates 
the top of S,. In the intervening § beds P. corrugato-hemisphericus is found, but 
fossils are not common. 

In the coast-section at Strandhall Nematophyllum cf. minus occurs below D, beds 
which yield Cyathophyllum murchisoni; a higher band with Chonetes cf. comoides is 
probably near the top of D;. Beds near the top of this section contain Zaphrentis 
costaia and show analogy to the Cyathaxonia beds of Scarlet which are near the top of 
D,. The Scarlet-Castletown beds with Prolecanites compressus (Merocanites) pass up 
into beds with a knoll fauna at Knockrushen. 

The knoll limestone (Poolvash Limestone of Cumming) is divisible into two zones: 
a lower with Beyrichoceras micronotum and B. vesiculifer, and an upper with Goniatites 
crenistria and Beyrichoceratoides truncatum. Near the base of the higher zone is a 
coral band with Dibunophyllum cf. muirheadi, &c. 

The black limestone (Posidonomya Schist of Cumming) yields Prolecanites serpen- 
tinus, Goniatites punctatus, and G. falcatus near the base, below the interstratified 
“breccia bed’ of knolly limestone which contains Cyathaxonia, Emmonsia parasitica, 
and small Michelinias. Above the ‘ breccia bed’ the black limestone fossils include 
Posidonomya becheri, G. falcatus, and goniatites of the G. striatus gens. These lower 
P, beds of Bisat are the highest beds exposed. The Poolvash beds are comparable 
with those of Cracoe. 

Wheelton Hind’s view that none of the limestone was deposited before D, time is 
therefore considered untenable, as there is evidence of continuous deposition from C, — 
until Lower Bowland Shale time. Cutting out of the lower beds between the 
Punctospirifer band and the basal conglomerate at Port St. Mary indicates westward 
transgression of the C,—S, sea on to a pre-Carboniferous ridge of land which, it is 
thought, never became wholly submerged in Lower Carboniferous times. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS,—0O. 323 


Dr. 8. W. Wootpripce.—The Denudation Chronology of South-east 
England. 


This paper attempts to evaluate and to arrange in order of date the several episodes 
of planation legible in the land-forms of S.E. England (Weald and London Basin). 
Brief reference is made to the earlier episodes, more particularly the Miocene 
sub-aerial planation whose work was completed by the Lenhamian sea. The several 
stages of the post-Lenhamian rejuvenation of the river-system is traced and em- 
phasis laid upon the widespread occurrence of a dissected plain at 200-250 feet O.D. 
This feature is traced in the several water-gaps of the northern Weald and in the country 
lying north and south of them. Its occurrence in the London Basin, north of the 
Thames, is demonstrated and its relation to the glacial deposits discussed. From this 
and other evidence indications of age are obtained and it is interpreted as a base-level 
of late Pliocene or early Pleistocene date. Some description is given of the character 
of the deposits resting on the plain, and attention is drawn to the prevalence of drainage- 
modifications as evidenced by wind-gaps, on the surface of the plain. The question 
of wider correlations is broached, though the evidence does not permit of definite 
conclusions being drawn. Some interest attaches to the regions, notably East Anglia 
and parts of the southern Weald, where the 200-foot platform cannot be traced and 
reasons for its absence are suggested. 


The Rev. Dr. 8S. G. Brapr-Birxs.—The Bionomics and Affinities of 
Archipolypoda. 


Scudder (1882)! in his study of Archipolypoda from the Carboniferous rocks of 
the United States suggested a possible aquatic habitat for Acantherpestes major on 
the strength of the anatomical features exhibited by the ventral plates. He inter- 
preted the openings seen on a typical ventral plate as a pair of medioventral branchial 
cups, a more laterally placed pair of openings for the insertion of the legs and, outside 
the base of each leg, an oblong-ovate spiracle. Verhoeff (1926)? has compared his 
own interpretation of like structures in Acantherpestes gigas with that of Fritsch 
(1899). Since Jackson and the Brade-Birkses (1919)! gave their account of 
Palaeosoma giganteum, a new specimen of Luphoberia ferox from the Northumberland 
coal measures has become available for study and for comparison with other 
specimens of the same species elsewhere, and with the specimen of Palaeosoma giganteum 
preserved in the Manchester Museum. 

Recent Colobognatha, Thysanura and Symphyla exhibit some structures worthy 
of comparison with those of the Archipolypoda. This makes a discussion of the 
bionomics of a number of species possible and helps to throw light upon the origin 
of the arthropod land fauna. - 

The structure and affinities of the genus Kampecaris are considered. 


Prof. P. G. H. Bosweii.—The Source of the Constituents of the Lower 
Greensand and other Aptian Sediments. 


A review of the paleogeographic features of the British area in Aptian times indicates 
that the possible land-masses which might have contributed detrital material to the 
Aptian sediments were (1) the now-buried Palzeozoie floor under the east of England, 
(2) the south-western Hercynian massif, (3) the western and north-western Paleozoic 
rocks with their fringe of Jurassic and Triassic strata, and (4) smaller masses of ancient 
rocks partially buried under newer sediments in the Midlands. The peculiar characters 
of both coarse and fine detrital constituents of the Lower Greensand, as determined 
by numerous investigators, indicate that no known British sediments can be regarded 
as their source. Only newly exposed metamorphic rocks (and probably acid igneous 
rocks) could have yielded the fresh material of the Greensand. Unfortunately, the 
older Palzozoic rocks known from deep borings under eastern England are not of a 
type to satisfy the requirements, nor are those of the west and north-west of England 


1 Mem. Boston (U.S.A.) Soc. Nat. Hist., vol. 3, No. 5, p. 155, &c. 

2 “Fossile Diplopoden,’ in Bronn’s Klassen und Ordnungen des Tier-Reichs, 2. Abt. 
2. Buch, p. 330, &ce. 

3 Fauna der Gaskohle . . . Bohmens. 

4 Geol. Mag., Dec. 6, vol. 6, p. 406, &c. 


324 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


and Wales. The south-western provinces (including Devon and Cornwall and 
Brittany) may have yielded the detrital constituents, but the coarseness, variety and 
freshness of the heavy minerals of the Aptian of the northern Midlands and Yorkshire 
appear to demand a source closer to hand and at present unknown to us. The 
long-standing puzzle of the source of the Aptian deposits must therefore still be 
regarded as unsolved. 

AFTERNOON. 


Excursion to the Drifts of the Aire Valley. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to examine the Millstone Grits and Lower Coal Measure 
Rocks of Huddersfield and Blackstone Edge. 


Sunday, September 4. 
Excursion to South-east Craven. 


Monday, September 5. 


Presidential Address by Dr. Hersert H. Tuomas, F.R.S., on The 
Tertiary Plutonic Centres of Britain. (See p. 43.) 


Dr. G. W. TyrgReLtL and Mr. B. H. Barrerr.—The New Red Sandstone 
Rocks of Arran. 


The first complete stratigraphical succession of the New Red Sandstone of Arran 
wasestablished by Prof. J. W. Gregory.t At the same time the senior author (G. W. T.) 
contributed a description of several critical sections ; * and the junior author (B. H. B.) 
has recently described the petrographical characters of the Brodick Breccia, and has 
traced the provenance of its constituents.? The present communication confirms 


DiacramMatic Srction or New Rep Sanpstone Rocks 1n ARRAN. 


1. Corrie Sandstone; 2. Brodick Breccia; 3. Lamlash and Machrie Sandstone; 
4. Ballymichael and Glen Dubh Sandstone; 5. Lag a Bheith Marls and Cornstones ; 
6. Auchenhew Sandstone and Shales; 7. Levencorroch Marls and Cornstones. 


1 «The Permian and Triassic Rocks of Arran.’ Trans. Geol. Soc. Glasgow, xv. pt. 2, 
1914, pp. 174-87. 
Ibid. pp. 188-99. 
The Permian Breccia of Arran.’ Ibid. xvii. pt. 2, 1925, pp. 264-70. 


~ hil etait, apie Rt Pali 


1 ae ee 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 825 


Prof. Gregory’s succession while adding to 1t in many details. A diagrammatic section 
across the Arran New Red Sandstone from N.E. to 8.W. (fig. 1) shows the dune- 
bedded, round-grained red Corrie Sandstone (Brodick Freestone of Prof. Gregory) 
thinning toward the south-west and interdigitating with the Brodick Breccia. Isolated 
masses of dune-bedded sandstone intercalated within the Brodick Breccia, well seen 
on the Corriegills shore, are interpreted as fossil dunes. The Brodick Breccia is divided 
into three horizons which have been found to be remarkably persistent. The 
constituents of the basal parts of the breccia are mainly vein-quartz, quartzite, and 
schist of Highland provenance, and fragments of this nature are found, although 
in smaller amount, throughout the breccia. In the central horizons, however, a great 
number of basalt pebbles come in, sometimes in such quantity and of such sizes as 
to suggest the near proximity of the distributing volcanoes, although the sites of these 
vents have not been discovered. The smaller basalt fragments are often well rounded, 
and one or two large sub-rounded masses even suggest bombs, but most of the larger 
pebbles are angular. So far as can be recognised the basalts are similar to those of 
the Permian vulcanicity of the Ayrshire mainland. Good sections of this horizon 
are to be found in the Glen Dubh Water,‘ and on the Corriegills shore. Basalt pebbles 
persist up to the top of the breccia, but here numerous white-weathering agate pebbles 
appear, and are everywhere characteristic of the upper horizons. 

Following upon the Brodick Breccia, and interdigitating with it to some extent, 
are thin-bedded red sandstones with some pebble beds. These are well exposed at 
Lamlash and Machrie. Then comes a thick post of white, yellow, and pink, massive 
calcareous sandstones, with a carious, yet smooth-surfaced, blocky type of weathering. 
These are best seen on the southern slope of Glen Dubh, Whiting Bay, and Ballymichael 
Glen. A few lenticles of conglomerate with well-rounded pebbles occur in it. 

The upper part of the New Red Sandstone includes three distinct series: the Lag 
a Bheith Marls and Cornstones, well exposed in the headwaters of the Lag a Bheith 
(the Birch Glen, 8.W. of Brodick); the Auchenhew Sandstones and Shales, with 
sharp-angled grains and mica flakes ; and finally another series of marls and cornstones 
(the Levencorroch Marls and Cornstones). 

The relations of the various horizons are indicated on the diagram, fig. 1. The 
Corrie Sandstone, Brodick Breccia, and the Lamlash-Machrie Sandstone are believed 
to be essentially contemporaneous formations. 


Prof. G. B. Barsour.—The Tertiary and Quaternary History of North 
China. 


An attempt is made to reconstruct the record of events by combining data involving 
the character of the deposits, inferred climatic conditions, faunal associations, 
migration of strandline, diastrophic movements, and physiographic stages. 

After the Middle Mesozoic disturbances which finally fixed the major structures 
of the region, erosion peneplaned the land-surface ; early Tertiary deposits are limited 
to local warp-basins. At no subsequent time did marine waters much overlap their 
present confines in North China. 

In late Oligocene and early Miocene times, crustal dislocation and vulcanicity 
produced an irregular surface upon which erosion again took hold. This T’anghsien 
stage (Willis) yielded broad open valleys with residual clays and local gravels: the 
Hipparion (Pontian) fauna and other Pliocene vertebrates point to moderate steppe 
conditions. 

Towards the close of the Pliocene slight movement led to ponding of rivers in the 
mountain areas. In the Sangkanho basin, Barbour, Licent, and Teilhard recently 
found a rich mammal fauna showing affinities with both Pliocene and Pleistocene 
types. The find is of special interest in view of Zdansky’s discovery of two human 
teeth in Ch’ou-K’ou-Tien cave near Peking associated with vertebrate species, several 
of which appear to be identical with Sangkanho types. 

Following on this Sanmen fluvio-lacustrine stage, renewed down-cutting by rivers 
drained the basins. A closely parallel succession of stages seems to have obtained 
in Central and South China, though the absence of faunal criteria prevents strict 
correlation. 

The onset of colder dry conditions of the Malan stage (Anderson) marked a sharp 


4 J. W. Gregory and G. W. Tyrrell, ‘Excursion to Arran.’ Proc. Geol. Assoc., 
xxxv. pt. 4, 1924, p. 414. 


326 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


contrast, though this change probably set in with varying vigour in different areas : 
locally basal gravels suggest transitional conditions of moisture, and it is to this 
horizon that the Ordos Paleolithic culture belongs. 

During Pliocene times chemical weathering had penetrated deep into the surface 
of the Mongolian plain, but the residual decay products remained undisturbed. 

In Pleistocene times uplift exposed this material to high winds that swept it over 
the border into China, depositing it as a blanket of loess as far south as the Yangtze 
valley. A characteristic fossil is the egg of the ostrich, Struthiolithus. 

During the fluctuating stage of return to moister conditions, wind and water vied 
as agents of scour and deposit. The ‘ Dune-dwellers of Shabarakh’ (? Azilian), 
whose implements were found by the Central Asiatic Expedition, presumably fall 
within this stage. The various Chinese Neolithic culture stages invariably lie on the 
upper surface of the main body of the torrential deposits of this Panch’iao stage. 

The present stage of erosion has been stimulated by slight up-warping of the moun- 
tain hinterland. The coast-line of the Yellow Sea shows evidence of emergence only 
in one locality: elsewhere all points to a continued geosynclinal sinking of the 
delta area. 


Mr. E. H. Davison.—The Variation in the Composition of Cornish Granites 
and its Relation to the Occurrence of Tin Lodes. 


It has long been recognised that the Cornish tin lodes which occur in the granite 
are often accompanied by hydrothermal and other alterations of the country rock 
such as greisening, tourmalinisation, kaolinisation, &c. These intense types of 
alteration are usually confined to the immediate neighbourhood of the lode fissure, 
though in some cases they spread outwards for a considerable distance and cover 
large areas. The presence of any of these types of alteration is invariably 
suggestive of the presence of mineral lodes. 

In many of the mining districts, however, the granite is for the greater part not 
affected by these drastic changes, and the aim of the work described in this paper was 
to discover if there is any constant difference in composition between the granite in 
areas free from lodes and that of the granite in areas where lodes are numerous. If 
any such difference in composition exists it would be of great help in deciding which 
areas are worth prospecting and which are not. 

In order to solve the problem samples of granite were collected from as many 
localities as possible, including surface exposures in quarries and cliffs as well as under- 
ground exposures inmines. From these samples thin sections were cut and examined 
microscopically, while in many cases the rock was subjected to mechanical analysis to 
determine the proportions of significant minerals. As a result the granite was found 
to vary in composition as follows :— 


Granite from areas free from mineral lodes. 

Muscovite seldom present. 

Biotite usually present in an unaltered condition. 

Little or no tourmaline. 
i Fresh felspars free from kaolinisation or sericitisation ; well-formed crystals of 
elspar. 


Granite from areas with mineral lodes. 
Muscovite always present. 
Little or no biotite. When present the biotite shows alteration to chlorite. 
Tourmaline almost always present. 
Felspars show partial sericitisation and occur in ill-formed crystals. 


A further problem was afterwards attacked. It is a common experience to find 
that lodes vary in value along their strike—that is, they have zones of rich ore alter- 
nating with zones of low-grade ore which usually run diagonally down the dip of 
the lode. An attempt was therefore made to discover if there was an easily 
recognisable difference in composition between the granite near the poor (low-grade) 
lode and that near the rich (high-grade) lode. ' 

The aid of the various mine managers was asked for and they kindly arranged for 
the collection of samples of the granite from near high-grade lodes and also from 
near low-grade lodes. These samples were treated as described above and the 
granite was found to vary as follows :— 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 327 


Granite near rich lode. 
Much muscovite, chlorite, and tourmaline. 
Felspars much sericitised or kaolinised. 


Granite near low-grade lode. 

Some biotite, little tourmaline, felspars only slightly altered. 

A limited number of copies of a paper giving detailed results are available for those 
specially interested. 


Mr. E. H. Davison.—The Cornish Pegmatites. 


Pegmatites occur in Cornwall both as veins in the granite and also as veins pene- 
trating the overlying altered slates. When in the granite they are most common near 
the margin of that rock, but are also found well inside the granite mass, an instance 
being the pegmatite cut in Williams’ shaft, Doleoath Mine, which was cut at a depth of 
nearly 4,000 feet from the surface of the granite. 

They vary much in coarseness of texture, some being exceptionally coarse with 
felspar crystals up to 18 inches in length and 4 inches square in cross-section, while 
others are little coarser than the normal Cornish granite. 

In composition they also vary considerably. Quartz and orthoclase are invariable 
components, and a mica is usually present which may be muscovite, zinnwaldite, 
or gilbertite, biotite being rare. Tourmaline is a common constituent, while fluorite, 
apatite, pinite, cassiterite, wolfram, and mispickel also occur. 

One of the characteristic features of the Cornish Pegmatites is the occurrence of a 
banded structure, the veins being built up of alternating bands of pegmatite and aplite 
or having a centre of pegmatite with selvages of aplite or of a much finer grained pegma- 
tite. One dyke of pegmatite (at Trelavour Downs, St. Dennis) shows exceptional 
banded texture, the margins consisting of medium-grained brown (lithia-bearing) 
mica and felspar, followed by massive fine mica and then massive coarsely crystallised 
mica with a centre of coarse mica, felspar and quartz. 

Another feature is the manner in which veins of pegmatite in the slate shade off 
into aplite and in some cases into quartz veins. This can be seen at Porthmeor 
Cove, Gurnard’s Head, and was observed in the Roskear shaft, where veins of pegmatite 
were seen to pass into aplite, and aplite into quartz veins. 

That the temperature was low at the time of solidification of the pegmatite is 
shown by the fact that pegmatite veins in the slate produce very little alteration in 
that rock at the contact. At Megilligar Rocks, near Porthleven, the largest vein of 
pegmatite, some 10 feet wide, alters the slate for a distance of only an inch or two 
from the margin, while the vein contains slate xenoliths of small and large size which 
show only an alteration selvage of about half an inch. 

The close relation between the intrusion of pegmatite veins and the formation of 
mineral lodes is also shown by the occurrence of metallic minerals such as cassiterite, 
wolframite, mispickel, &c., in the veins, and this is supported by the occurrence of 
mineral lodes with pegmatite-like structure and containing patches of granitic material 
at points well outside the granite itself. 


AFTERNOON. 
Prof. W. G. Fearnsipes.—Report of the Dolgarrog Committee. (See p. 276.) 


Excursion to Ackton Hall Colliery. 


: Tuesday, September 6. 
Joint Discussion with Sections A (Cosmical Physics Dept.) and K 
on The Climates of the Past. (See p. 386.) 
Mr. H. C. Versry.—Post-Carboniferous Movements in the Northumbrian 
Fault Block. 


By reason of its rigidity this area was unable to fold, and in consequence a large 
system of fractures originated, and the area was uplifted as a fault block. The 


328 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


fractures are related to areas of heavy sedimentation in Carboniferous times. A saddle- 
shaped structure was produced and the thin cover of Carboniferous rocks on the 
rigid sub-stratum was wrinkled into low ‘ plis de couverture ’"—the Cotherstone and 
Middleton Folds. Relation of this movement to Whin Sill intrusion. The fault block, 
formed early, acted as a horst to the folds produced in the Pendle trough. Relation 
of these movements to the deposition of Permo-Trias east and west of Pennines. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to the Permian Rocks of Harrogate and Knaresborough. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Dr. A. R. DwEeRRyvHovsE and Mr. A. Austin Mitter.—The Glaciation of 
Radnorshire and Parts of the Adjoining Counties. 


We wish to place on record some preliminary observations on the district and to 
indicate the general conclusions at which we have arrived. 

The work is being undertaken with the aid of a grant from the Research Board of 
the University of Reading. 

Certain anomalies in the drainage of the country lying to the east of Clun Forest 
and Radnor Forest first attracted our attention, and it early became evident that the 
peculiarities were due to the action of ice during the Glacial Period. 

The main facts as we see them at present are as follows :— 

1, The country lying immediately to the west of Clun Forest, Radnor Forest, and 
the range of hills extending southwards from the latter to the gorge of the Wye near 
Builth Wells, was occupied by ice which was continuous with that of the Plinlimon 
Highlands and which was moving in a southerly direction down the valleys of the 
Ithon and Wye, and thence by way of Llanwrhyd Wells and Llandovery towards 
Llandeilo. 

2. This ice rose to considerable heights on the western flanks of Radnor Forest 
and penetrated to some of the valleys on its eastern side. 

3. A series of small lakes and Mawn (Peat) Pools mark the limit of this western 
ice at a stage during its retreat. They occur at heights varying from 1,250 to 1,600 feet 
from the latitude of Newtown (Montgomery) to that of Builth Wells in the south. 

4. Much ice passed eastwards over the area of the Wye gorge and the valley of the 
Arrow, fanning out when it reached the more open country on the east side of the 
range. ; 

5. A lobe of this glacier passed north-eastwards past Leominster, laying down a 
terminal moraine at Orleton, causing the easterly deflection of the River Teme past 
Tenbury. 

6. The River Lugg and its tributaries were also diverted, several lakes and overflow 
channels resulting from the damming up of their waters by the ice. Of the overflows 
the Downton gorge and the valleys in the neighbourhood of Mortimer’s Cross may be 
cited as examples, while the lakes which formerly existed at Presteign and in the Vale 
of Wigmore are typical of the latter. 

We acknowledge much valuable information contained in the papers by the Rev. 
¥. Grindley and others published in the Proceedings of the Woolhope Club. 


Dr. A. RaistRick.—Periodicity in the Glacial Retreat in West Yorkshire. 


In the valleys of the rivers Aire, Wharfe, Nidd, Ure, and Swale, of West Yorkshire, 
the earlier stages of the glacial retreat are marked by lakes impounded in the 
tributary valleys, and a very complex system of overflow channels cut by the lake 
waters over the lateral spurs of the valleys, sometimes accompanied by lateral moraines 
on the main valley slopes. These lakes and channels belong to two main periods of 
retreat, separated by a short period of readvance of the ice. A third stage of the main 
retreat is marked by numerous terminal moraines left on the main valley floors by the 
rapidly retreating and dwindling ice tongues of the valley glaciers. This retreat was 
frequently interrupted by brief periods of moraine formation, and it has been found 
that six principal pauses, with corresponding moraine belts, can be recognised, and the 
moraines are practically complete, in all five valleys. Most of the moraines were 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 329 


breached during the ensuing period of retreat of the ice, and frequently connection 
can be traced between river terraces and the gorges through the moraines. 
Comparable terminal moraines in other parts of the Pennines, in Durham and 
Westmorland, and in parts of Cumberland, suggest that the periodic pause in retreat 
was due to a climatic periodicity affecting the North of England as a whole. 


Mr. Ratcurre Barnetr.—Geological Sections in the Sladen Valley, West 
Yorkshire. 

This paper gives an account of the method which was adopted to ascertain the 
nature of the strata in a section of the Sladen Valley, near Haworth, so as to prove 
whether the sites of two reservoirs were suitable for the construction of the reservoirs 
which it was proposed to build for the additional supply of water to the town of 
Keighley. 

The sites had been adopted many years previously, but no attempt had been 
made to test the character of the sub-strata of the sites. These reservoirs were known 
as ‘ Bully Trees Reservoir’ and ‘ Lower Laithe Reservoir ’ respectively. 

On the line of the embankment of the proposed ‘ Bully Trees Reservoir ’ four trial 
borings were put down to depths varying from 100 feet to 151 feet from the surface 
of the ground. Six trial pits were sunk to supplement the bore-holes, the deepest 
reaching to 70 feet from the surface of the ground. The details of these bore-holes 
and trial pits are given in tabular form in Appendices Nos. | and 2 and in diagrammatic 
form in Diagram No. 2. 

The results of these borings and pits are described in the paper and reasons given 
for the decision arrived at that the Bully Trees site was quite unsuitable for the 
construction of a watertight reservoir. 

The bore-holes and trial pits which were put down to test the other site, that at 
‘Lower Laithe Reservoir,’ are next described in detail and similarly shown in 
Appendices Nos. 3, 4 and 5. The results are also shown in diagrammatic form in 
Diagrams Nos. 7 and 8. 

The results of these borings and pits are similarly described in detail and the 
inferences set forth by which it was concluded that a watertight reservoir was in all 
probability feasible at the Lower Laithe Reservoir site. 

This reservoir has been constructed and has proved to be quite watertight. 

The paper is illustrated by lantern slides. 


Dr. D. A. Wray.—The Carboniferous Succession in the Central Pennine 
Area, with special reference to the Country between Todmorden, 
Rochdale and Huddersfield. 


The strata usually described as the millstone grits and lower coal measures are 
typically developed in the Central Pennine area, on the borders of Lancashire and 
Yorkshire. 

This area was originally surveyed by the officers of the Geological Survey some 
sixty years ago: a detailed series of subdivisions was instituted, based largely on 
lithological considerations. 

The detailed study of the fossils which occur at numerous horizons was taken up 
at a much later date, and it was the late Dr. Wheelton Hind who first paid attention 
to the Goniatites with a view to their establishment as zonal indices. The material 
then available, however, was insufficient for a thorough study of the group on 
ontogenetic lines. This has recently been taken up by Mr. W. S. Bisat, who has 
instituted a zonal sequence based on mutations and species of the genera Reticuloceras 
and Gastrioceras. 

The present writer has geologically surveyed on the six-inch scale upwards of two 
hundred square miles of the Central Pennines and has found these zones to have 
a high stratigraphical value; by their means a complete correlation of the succession 
on both sides of the Pennine axis can now be confidently instituted, based entirely 
on palaeontological considerations. 

The lower coal measures have also been studied in detail and a modified cor- 
relation is now presented. It is further claimed that the Arley Mine, Better Bed, 
Kilburn and Woodhead coals of Lancashire, Yorkshire, Derbyshire and North 
Staffordshire, respectively, are of close if not exact contemporaneity, and make a 


330 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C, D. 


suitable datum line for the subdivision of the upper Carboniferous (with the exception 
of the uppermost barren coal measures) into two great groups, viz. (1) a lower group, 
the Lancastrian of Bisat (Lanarkian of Kidston), characterised by massive grits, 
sandstones, and thin coals; and (2) the Yorkian of Watts (Westphalian of Kidston), 
containing practically all the main productive measures. 


Mr. H. L. Cuurerer.— 
(a) The Lamprophyres and Associated Rocks of Mokpalin, Burma. 
(b) The Volcanic Rocks of the Irrawaddy Delta. 
(c) Ancient Metallurgy in Burma. 
(Taken as read, in the author’s absence.) 


Dr. W. F. P. McLintocxk and Mr. J. Poemister.—Preliminary Note on a 
Torsion Balance Survey over the Swynnerton Dyke. 


Dr. Ferix OswaLtp.—A Mud Volcano at Shugo, Western Caucasus. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. 


(Communications on Textiles, received at special sessions, will be found on p. 411.) 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 431.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Presidential Address by Dr. G. P. Brpprr on The Ancient History of 
Sponges and Animals ; followed by Discussion. (For Address, see p.58.) 


Mr. H. W. Hervey.—The Fertility of the Sea. 


The animal life in the sea is ultimately dependent upon the minute plants suspended 
in the water for its nourishment. Like plants on land, these require a sufficiency of 
light and of nutrient salts for profuse growth ; the phosphates and nitrates in solution 
in the sea are at times almost entirely used up by the plants and consequently limit 
their growth. In general the deep water of the open oceans is rich in these two 
constituents, but is restrained from coming to the upper layers where plants have 
light enough to grow owing to the greater density of the deep water. Where however 
this deep water is brought to the surface by currents, minute plants and animals are 
abundant. By reflecting the rays of white and yellowish light they give the sea a 
green hue, whereas the barren areas of the ocean are a deep blue when viewed from 
above. 

In the waters around our coasts, cooling of the surface in winter causes mixing 
with the bottom water, and as plant life is sparse during these months owing to lack 
of light the water becomes rich in phosphates and nitrates mostly from the decay 
of dead organisms lying on the bottom. In March-April, when the daily sunlight 
reaches about three hours per day, a rich outburst of diatoms utilises these salts in 
the water, starting from near the surface and proceeding downwards; in the late 
summer a second outburst of plant life occurs, utilising the nitrates and phosphates 
regenerated from the corpses of the spring and early summer growth of plants and 
small animals. 


Mr. J. T. SaunDERS.—Environment and Behaviour. 


This paper deals with changes in the behaviour of certain ciliate protozoa in 
response to very small changes in the environment. The diurnal vertical movements 
of Spirostomum in small ponds may be maintained indefinitely in aquaria if the bottom 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D., 331 


water is slightly more acid (or less alkaline) than the surface. When the pH of the 
aquarium water is uniform these movements cease. Aggregations of Colpidium and 
Paramecium in cultures can be completely controlled by varying slightly the pH of 
the culture. Slight changes in the pH of the culture also materially affect the powers 
of these ciliates to ingest food. If a layer of distilled water be placed over some 
culture fluid containing Paramecium in a test tube the Paramecium can be made to 
rise into the distilled water or not by slightly varying the pH of the culture fluid. 
Tf the pH of the culture fluid is adjusted so that the Paramecium are just able to 
rise from it into the distilled water, they can be prevented from rising by adding a 
trace of Mg (1 in 100,000) to the distilled water. The pH of the culture fluid controls 
this sensitivity to Mg and other kations. 


Prof. W. Garstanc.—The Origin of Appendicularians. 
‘Mr. J. R. Bruce.—Physical Factors on the Sandy Beach. 


The complexity of the distributional and other responses of shore-living organisms 
points to their being the integrated result of many variable factors operating inde- 
pendently. The measurement and recording of such factors is an essential preliminary 
to a general ecological survey of the littoral fauna and flora. 

No region of the seashore—possibly no other region of the entire biosphere—is 
subject to such frequent and far-reaching fluctuations as the sandy beach, and in this 
paper an attempt is made to indicate the nature and range of some of the more 
important factors operative in that region. 

The dominant influence is undoubtedly the tidal rhythm, every other factor— 
temperature, salinity, oxygen-pressure, hydrogen-ion concentration, &c.—undergoing 
a semidiurnal change with the advance and return of the tidal flow. The effects of 
this major rhythm may be profoundly modified, however, by variable factors of 
longer period, both daily and seasonal, including meteorological changes, and the 
composition of the sea-water itself. In addition to these, numerous non-periodic 
factors are to be reckoned with, including the effect of fresh-water draining from the 
land, variations of grain-size or ‘ grade,’ with corresponding differences in retentive 
and adsorptive capacity, lithological differences in the sand-substance, and the 
varying proportion of organic detritus due, in most cases, to the very organisms whose 
physical environment we are studying. 


Mr. C. F. Hicxurne.— Dogfish in the Faroe-Shetland Channel. 


In the Faroe-Shetland Channel it was noticed that, in very deep water, all specimens 
of the dogfish Acanthias vulgaris taken in the trawl were males, whereas in shallow 
water females predominated. 

Now the liver in the female dogfish is much larger, proportionately, than that of 
the male, and is also proportionately lighter; it must therefore tend to act as an 
organ of flotation, so that a female dogfish will require less effort to maintain its level 
in the water than a male. If one can assume that, in the dogfish, there are periods 
of diminished activity, such as after heavy feeding, the males will tend to sink to the 
bottom more readily than the females, and will therefore tend to predominate in hauls 
made in deeper water. This theory accords with the fact that pregnant females, 
which are heavy owing to the large eggs and developing young, are found to a much 
greater extent in deeper than in shallower water. 

It is suggested that in bathypelagic fish, such as the dogfish, the varying sex-ratios 
found at different depths are due, in part, to a mechanical separation due to differences 
in specific gravity. 


Prof. A. E. Cameron.—The Experimental Removal of Graber’s Organ in 
Tabanid Fly Larve. 


By reason of its comparatively large size, Graber’s organ lends itself admirably 
to experimental treatment, and as its true function has not been definitely determined 
it was thought that any modification in the behaviour of the larva following the extir- 
pation of the organ might shed some light on this question. The chitinous, cystoid, 
pyriform organ is invariably found in the eighth abdominal segment, and contains a 
variable number of black, pedunculated, globular bodies. It possesses its own system 


332 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 


of muscles, by the contraction of which it is kept in almost continual oscillation in the 
living larva. 
' Graber in 1878 attributed to the organ the function of an otocyst, to which it 
bears a general similarity. Later investigators argued that it was either a gland or a 
sound-producing organ, but neither of these latter contentions can be readily accepted. 
In twenty anesthetised Jarve belonging to four distinct terrestrial species of 
Tabanus, the organ was successfully excised. On recovering from the effects of the 
anesthetic the larve fed regularly, moulted and even pupated, producing in two 
instances perfect adults. In no case was the organ regenerated at a subsequent 
ecdysis. After the operation the larve responded to a variety of stimuli just as 
readily as they did before the organ was removed, and no lack of co-ordination was 
discernible. On this evidence Graber’s organ is not a mechanism for the regulation 
of the organism’s movements, an attribute commonly associated with otocysts. It 
may, however, serve to detect disturbances in the surrounding medium, and in this 
respect would serve a useful purpose both in free-swimming and terrestrial tabanid 
larve. 


Friday, September 2. 
Miss 8. M. Manron.—On the Embryology of a Mysid Crustacean, 


Only a few points of more general interest can be considered. The germ layers 
and genital rudiment are differentiated externally on the germinal disk prior to 
gastrulation. The spatial relations of the germ layers in the Malacostraca are funda- 
mentally different from the lower Crustacea in both yolky and non-yolky forms. 

The mesoderm is formed in three ways. There are preantennulary and seventh 
abdominal somites, and ccelomic cavities appear in most segments. The walls of the 
preantennulary coelomic sacs form the stomodceal musculature and anterior aorta 
just as in Limulus and Spider. Paired mesodermal bands in the ‘ naupliar ’ segments 
never contain cavities other than the antennal gland end sac. - The whole antennal 
gland is mesodermal. The trunk mesoderm is formed by a row of eight teloblasts. 
Paired ccelomic cavities occur in all but the maxillulary segment. A dorsal vessel is 
developed from the coelomic sacs much as in Estheria ; and a ‘ cardiac plug ’ is formed 
as in Chirocephalus. The seventh mesodermal somites lie behind the sixth segment 
which bears the uropods. 

The endoskeletal system is ectodermal, and consists of (1) hollow ectodermal 
intuckings of the nature of apodemes, and (2) transverse segmental bars which separate 
from the ectoderm forming median tendons of the mandibular adductor and trunk 
mesodermal muscles. 

Much of the musculature is ectodermal in origin. 


Prof. E. W. MacBripsg, F.R.S.—On the Heart of the Larva of the Sea-urchin 
(Echinus miliaris). 


The existence of a pulsating vesicle or ‘heart’ in Echinoderm larve has been 
asserted ever since the time of Metschnikoff, who described it in the larve of 
Sea-urchins in 1864. It was rediscovered and more exhaustively described by Bury 
in 1889 and again in 1896. 

A similar vesicle was described by Gemmell in the larve of starfish in 1912, and 
subsequently in those of Ophiurids in 1916. 

In the course of experiments made with a view to modifying the normal course 
of development I have reared the larve of Echinus miliaris through the entire course 
of their larval development until the conclusion of metamorphosis every spring for 
the last fifteen vears. 

The larve of this species are peculiarly transparent, and so are well adapted to 
show their internal structure when living. 

The pulsating vesicle can be made out in a larva about a fortnight old; but it 
is best observed just prior to metamorphosis. It lies above the cesophagus just under 
the madreporic pore. 

The wall of the vesicle is the ventral wall of the dorsal sac; the contents of the 
vesicle are blastoccelic fluid contained between this wall and cesophageal epithelium. 

The ‘ beating’ is a wriggling forwardly directed peristalsis which must drive the 
contents forward. It is apparently dependent on a good oxygen supply, for if a 
larva be confined in a hollowed slide under a coverslip peristalsis occurs only at long 


SECTIONAL TRANSAOTIONS.—D. 333 


intervals (about once a minute), but in a larva taken from a vigorous culture and 
examined immediately it may occur forty times a minute. 

The dorsal sac is derived from the posterior tip of the right anterior ccelomic 
sac; it has the origin and the position of the so-called pericardium in Balanoglossus. 
The heart of Balanoglossus is like that of Echinus, a blastoccelic space contained 
between the ventral wall of the pericardium and the dorsal wall of the cesophagus. 
Peristalsis, as in Echinus, is directed forward. This pulsating vesicle is already 
developed in the Tomana larva and affords another proof of the homology of the 
Tomana and Echinoderm larve. 


Lt.-Col. the Right Hon. Sir Matrnew Naruay, P.C., G.C.M.G., Sir T. W. 
EpcewortH Davin, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.S., Mr. F. A. 
Ports, and Dr. C. M. Yonce.—The 1928 Great Barrier Reef Expedition. 


Sir M. Narnan.—Prior to 1922 inquiries with regard to the reef in its various 
scientific aspects suffered from want of continuity and of correlation; in that 
year a committee of Australian scientists was formed to secure continuous and 
related investigations; under their direction some physiographical and geo- 
logical work has been done; owing to want of trained biological investigators 
and to other reasons, biological inquiry of a systematic and comprehensive nature 
has not yet been started; and the Australian Committee is hoping to get such a 
start made by British investigators with Australian assistance. The keeping of 
continuous records of biological interest and possibly even the establishment on a 
permanent basis of a Marine Biological Station in the south-western Pacific may, it 
is thought, be the ultimate result of such an expedition. 


Sir EpgewortH Davin, in stressing the importance of sending a well-found 
zoological expedition to work on the Great Barrier Reef of Australia, emphasises 
(1) the need for determining the existing bathymetric life zones in the present reef 
for comparison with the zones in the core from the recent diamond drill bore through 
the reef, near Cairns, in Queensland ; (2) the general scientific importance of further 
exploring the Great Barrier Reef, especially from the point of view of the recently 
advanced theory of the post-glacial origin of existing coral reefs throughout the 
world. 


Mr. J. Gray.—The Evolution of the Vertebrates from an Experimental 
Point of View. 


The course of evolution must have conformed to the principle of physiological 
continuity of function as well as to morphological continuity of structure. The 
bearing of experimental methods on such problems is illustrated by the data derived 
from the eggs of aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. 

The transition from aquatic to completely terrestrial life can only have occurred 
in those forms which were physiologically equipped with a mechanism for providing 
the embryo with an adequate supply of water. One half of the weight of a newly 
hatched fish consists of water derived from the external environment; more than a 
half of the water in a newly hatched chick is derived from the albumen. These facts 
suggest that the Amniota are to be derived from a form whose egg was similar to those 
of modern Dipriocus or Amphibia in that it possessed a tertiary gelatinous capsule. 
This capsule was primitively of a protective function, but was utilised as a reservoir 
of water as soon as the eggs were laid on land. The modern Amphibia provide a 
series of types whose eggs are physiologically intermediate between those of a typical 
fish and those of a typical Reptile. The reserve of water in Monotreme eggs is of a 
different type from that of Reptiles, and in the reduction of the albumen layer the egg 
foreshadows that of Hutherian mammals. 


Mr. C. F. A. Pantin.—Movement in Ameba. 


Although Amcebe may be considered degenerate rather than primitive, yet in 
their movement they exhibit the most generalised form of contractility to be found. 
There is a great variety of types of amceboid movement, but they all agree in that, 
unlike muscle and cilia, the amceboid individual possesses no permanently differentiated 
contractile structures. 


334 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 


It is important to determine the class of physical phenomena to which amceboid 
movement belongs. Crude analogies suggested that a moving amceba was compar- 
able with a fluid drop in which the surface tension is lowered at one point. Micro- 
dissection and other evidence show this view to be untenable, and that movement 
is associated with the ready changes of state of the protoplasm from a fluid ‘ sol’ to 
a contractile, solid ‘ gel’ and vice versa. 

These changes are most easily observed in the ‘ Limax’ type of amceba, in which 
it can be seen that each particle of protoplasm undergoes a more or less rhythmic 
change of state, sol=gel. 

A physiological study of the amceba shows that in the effect of temperature and 
of salts there is abundant evidence that the mechanism of movement is identical 
with that in the contracting muscle fibre. 

During the course of evolution it seems that fundamental physiological systems 
such as the processes involved in contractility have remained unchanged, although 
the structures in which contractility occurs have undergone great morphological 
changes. 


Afternoon Meeting in the Department of Textile Industries in the 
University of Leeds. Exhibit and papers by Dr. F. W. Dry and 
Prof. A. F. Barker. (See p. 414.) 


Monday, September 5. 


Dr. A. J. Grove.—The Passage of the Spermatozoa into the Cocoon in the 
Brandling Worm, Eisenia foetida (Sav.). 


In the account which has been given of the process of cocoon deposition in this 
worm it was shown that the eggs pass back from the apertures of the oviducts to the 
cocoon while the latter is still surrounding the clitellum, but it could not be determined 
at that time how the spermatozoa entered. 

In sections through the albumen of cocoons fixed some short time after deposition, 
spermatozoa are found lying in varying positions indicative of a condition of inactivity 
following upon failure to enter an egg. In the albumen of cocoons dissected from 
around the clitellum just prior to deposition no spermatozoa could be detected. In 
freshly deposited cocoons spermatozoa are to be found surrounding the eggs but not 
actually penetrating the vitelline membrane. The outline of these spermatozoa is 
sinuous, indicating that they were actively swimming at the time of killing. 

The evidence obtained supports the view that, although the eggs are passed back 
into the cocoon while the latter is still surrounding the clitellum, the spermatozoa 
enter during the passage of the cocoon over the apertures of the spermathece. This 
difference in the method by which the two reproductive elements enter the cocoon 
is associated with the posterior position of the clitellum so characteristic of the 
Lumbricide, 


Mr. ArtHur M. Banta and Mr. L. A. Brown.—Sex in Cladocera as 
controlled by Environment. 


The paper (after a very brief statement of the necessary essential descriptive 
facts) treats the following topics as relating to Moina macrocopa: (1) Occurrence of 
males in nature. Data showing the production of males in experimental cultures 
(2) by crowding the mothers (accumulation of excretory products), (3) by low tempera- 
tures, (4) by chloretone and other chemical treatments; (5) the lowered rate of develop- 
ment of the mother as associated with these treatments; (6) means of restoring the 
rate of development to normal and thus preventing male production by mothers 
whose sisters, without the secondary treatment, produce males; (7) comparison of 
times of egg-laying of eggs destined to become females and those becoming males; 
(8) rate of development of embryos of the two sexes; (9) the clear-cut association of 
male production with lower rate of development and of female production with the 
normal goie of development; (10) relation of results of this study to other results on 
sex control, 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 335 


Dr. F. A. E. Crew.—Studies on the Thyroid. 
(a) The Hairless Mouse. 


A new mutation ‘ hairless’ in the mouse is described. This character is a recessive. 
The coat is developed normally, but is shed when the mouse is about three weeks 
old. ‘The hairless male is fecund, the hairless female is infecund and her thyroid is 
definitely abnormal in histological structure. When the hairless female is kept at a 
temperature of around 30° C., however, she is fecund, and matings yield offspring. 


(b) Thyroidectomy in the Hen-feathered Cock. 


Hen-feathered Campine cocks after the removal of the thyroid become cock- 
feathered. The bearing of this fact upon the physiology and genetics of plumage 
characters is discussed. 


Mr. D. Warp Curier and Mr. L. M. Crump.—The Effect of Food Supply 
on the Multiplication of Protozoa. 


The effect of both quality and quantity of food upon the organism has been the 
subject of considerable study in many groups of animals. Among the protozoa it 
has been shown that in the case of a holozoic ciliate, Colpidiwm colpoda, there is a 
very definite relation between the number of bacteria supplied to a culture and the 
rate of production of the Colpidia. Among the Amceb the same relation holds good 
in Hartmanella hyalina, and in this case it has also been shown that the variety of 
bacterium used has a marked influence on growth and reproduction, certain varieties 
having a high and others a low nutritive value. 


Mr. G. P. Wetis.—The Action of Potassium on Contractile Tissues. 


Although very similar in their chemical properties, Sodium and Potassium have 
widely different physiological actions. Experiments illustrating the action of 
Potassium on the tone of muscle-preparations from Gasteropods (Helix and Aplysia) 
and Decapod Crustaceans (Maia and Cancer) are described; in both cases, as in 
Mammalian plain muscle, there is augmentation of tone if Potassium is either with- 
drawn or greatly increased above its normal concentration. Certain possible 
mechanisms of the specific effects of Potassium are discussed. The fact that in 
Aplysia the characteristic effects of Potassium can also be produced by the Ammonium 
ion suggests that the secret of Potassium specificity lies in a property such as ionic 
mobility, and excludes radioactivity from being a possible cause. i 


Prof. R. Doveras Laurite.—The Position of Biology in the School 
Curriculum. 


Some study of biology should be included as an integral part of the education of 
every boy and girl. 

It is of first importance to consider the scope and treatment of the subject for 
children of the 12-16-year group, the great majority of whom are preparing for 
citizenship without thought of going through the universities. It should be regarded 
as thoroughly bad to divorce from each other the study of animals and plants at this 
stage. 

Biology which does not include plants fails to cover adequately the relation of the 
living to the non-living world; without animals it fails in its human significance as 
a foundation for hygiene, human physiology, and social science. This has been 
realised in other countries much more than in our own. The common fallacy that 
animals lend themselves less readily than plants to simple physiological experiment 
has been exploded. 

It is suggested that in girls’ schools botany, now so prevalent, should be converted 
into biology, and that botanists and zoologists should unite in claiming for biology 
the place due to it in the time-table of boys’ schools. The movement in girls’ schools 
has already begun; it may be anticipated that the slower movement to be expected 
in boys’ schools will not be long delayed. The chief difficulty is the lack of qualified 
teachers, particularly for boys’ schools, a lack to which more than one recent Govern- 
ment report has called attention. 


336 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 


Equipment is a relatively simple affair. ' 

The general principles to. be borne in mind in the arrangement of a course of 
biology for school children from twelve to sixteen years of age, as suggested in a 
recently published memorandum drawn up by a joint committee of teachers in 
schools and universities, are brought before the meeting for discussion. 


Mr. H. N. Ripitey.—Fifteen Years in a Tropical Zoological Garden. 


The menagerie of Singapore Botanic Gardens was based on a small nucleus of 
animals which the author found there in 1888 when he took charge of the Gardens. 
These were increased until at various times there was a collection of almost all the 
most remarkable mammals, birds and reptiles of the Malay region. Not only 
attractive to visitors, the collection gave an opportunity of observing the habits and 
life-histories of many animals of which little was known ; accounts are given of observa- 
tions on the most interesting ones. Among these are the Anthropoid Apes, the Mias 
(Simia satyrus) and the Gibbon (Hylobates agilis) and its remarkable singing powers ; 
the defence of the feeble Slow Loris (Nycticebus) by its poisonous bite; the habits, 
language and life-history of the smaller monkeys (Macacus) ; the liquid blood require- 
ments of the tiger, the cause of its ferocious attacks on human beings and cattle ; the 
cryptic colouring of the tapir both in young and adult pelage, the feeding of this 
animal and the rhinoceros and other forest ungulates as of importance in the dispersal 
of tree-seeds in the forests ; and some account of the methods of capture of prey by the 
larger serpents is also given. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Dr. KatHiren E. CarpentER.—On the Survival of some Ice-age Relics 
in the Freshwater Fauna of Cardiganshire. 

The Turbellaria-Tricladida of the Aberystwyth area include three species of 
particular interest: of these, Planaria albissima Vejd., hitherto known only from 
Bohemia, is remarkably abundant in this area. Two others, Planaria alpina (Dana) 
and Polycelis cornuta (Johnson), are well known on the European Continent as glacial 
relicts, surviving on the high Alps and sporadically in the cold stenothermic waters 
of mountain brooks in the Taunus, Harz, Eifel, &¢. Both species occur in Cardigan- 
shire streams as low as the tidal limit, and neither has been found on the high plateau 
above 1,250 feet. These apparent anomalies are to be understood with reference 
on the one hand to the geological history of the area, on the other to modifications 
in physiology and habit whereby the life-cycle is adapted to withstand a temperate 
cliniate. 

Mr. E. Percrvat and Mr. H. Wurrexneav.—Methods for the Quantitative 
Examination of the Fauna of Some Types of Stream Bed. 

Nature of stream bed—stones without plants in rapid current, stones with moss 
and with filamentous alge, beds with phanerogams, gravel. Definite areas sampled. 
The material is sieved, genera and species determined where possible and individuals 
counted. From the data obtained it is possible to determine the density of the 
population, the actual and the relative occurrence of species and the constitution of 
the fauna in each sample. It has been found that the density of the population 
varies largely with the nature of the substratum. Greater numbers occur with plant 
growth ; smallest numbers are found among stones liable to movement and among 
bare stones. The presence of fine deposit on stones is correlated with an increase in 
number and variety of population. 

Analyses of samples show the insect fauna in the regions examined generally to 
constitute more than 50 per cent. of the total. Of these the Diptera, mainly Chirono- 
midz, are the most widely distributed and most abundant organisms. The Tri- 
choptera and Ephemeroptera together equal the Diptera in number. Oligocheta 
come next in abundance to the insects, and the Mollusca follow. The main mass of 
the bottom population is vegetarian. 


Mr. J. W. Tavtor.—U pon the Geographical Range of the Mollusca and other 


Organisms and the Causes influencing their Dispersal. 


The dispersion of life over the globe is not an erratic and irregular process, or due 
to chance, but is governed by laws which are applicable to every form of life. A 


SECTIONAL TRANSAOTIONS.—D. 387 


study of these laws shows that dispersion is due to the more rapid advancement within 
the Western Palearctic region of improvements in organisation, this region being the 
theatre of the highest developments of the various forms of life in the world, and 
consequently there exists a more or less regular decrease of dominating power and 
organisation as we proceed therefrom; and confirms the region as that of the greatest 
evolutionary force, the forms arising there being superior to those of every other 
region, and therefore of invading and overrunning the neighbouring territories and 
dispossessing the previous occupant, and this is shown to be equally true not only for 
the Mollusca but for Mankind, Birds, Earthworms, Spiders, Plants, Fungi, Diatoms, 
Desmids, &c., and emphasises the improbability of world-diffusion from the Antarctic 
or other centres as is sometimes advocated. 

The routes of dispersal from Europe of the dispossessed species have been deter- 
mined by the correlation of a large number of facts gleaned from many sources, 
and are shown to be largely influenced by physical features, and that the areas now 
occupied, considered in relation to the evolutionary area, form an index to their position 
in the scale of life, as is confirmed by geological evidence and by the distribution of 
the Mollusca in time and space and supported by that of Mankind, Birds and other 
organisms displaying the intimate and indissoluble connection with Evolution and 
Phylogeny. 


Prof. E. E. Prince.—The Pectoral Fin in the Mackerel Sharks ; Skeletal 
Contrasts in Isurus and Lamna. 


Prof. E. E. Prince.—The Canadian Land-locked Salmon or Ouananiche. 


Dr. J. W. Munro.—The Needs of Economic Entomology. 


With increasing specialisation in agricultural and forest entomology there has 
been a tendency to regard economic entomology as a branch of plant pathology or 
of agriculture or forestry and its zoological basis has been neglected. 

While much can be done to control insect outbreaks by improved methods of 
cultivation, by selection of immune or relatively immune crop varieties and by such 
mechanical means as spraying and dusting, there is a real need for work on insects 
as such. In the solving of many insect problems progress depends on a fuller 
knowledge of insect morphology and physiology. 

What is needed is a fuller recognition both by zoologists and by growers and 
manufacturers, who suffer from insect depredations, of the vast field still to be explored 
in economic entomology and of the varied nature of the work to be done. Economic 
entomology has need both of those who are interested in industry and the application 
of science to industry and of those who are interested in research. Until both groups 
of workers work in harmony progress will be slow, but by co-operation both groups 
of workers will benefit. It is, however, for the zoologists to show the way. 


Afternoon Excursion to Washburn Valley. 


EXHIBITS. 


The Rev. Dr. 8. G. Brape-Brrxs.—Recent Progress in our Study of British 
Diplopoda (Millipedes) and Chilopoda (Centipedes). 

Millipedes and Centipedes ; especially recent progress in the study of British forms. 

The following subjects are included :— 

(A) Recent contributions of the continental workers Attems, Brolemann, Loh- 
mander, Schubart, and Verhoeff to our knowledge of groups and forms occurring in 
the British Isles. 

(i) Attems (1926), ‘Progoneata. Chilopoda,’ in Handbuch der Zoologie, 1V Band 
(Berlin and Leipzig: Gruyter), reviews the classification of Diplopoda and Chilopoda. 
The application of his conclusions to British forms is illustrated by specimens and 
diagrams. 

(ii) Brolemann (1923), ‘ Blaniulide,’ Arch. de Zool. exp. et gén. 61, 99-453, includes 
an account of British forms which are exhibited. 

(iii) Lohmander in Sweden and Schubart in Germany have recently thrown light 
upon certain nomenclatural questions. Their conclusions are illustrated by micro- 
preparations and other specimens. 


1927 Z 


338 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D, E. 


(iv) Verhoeff (1926), ‘ Fossile Diplopoden,’ in his account of Diplopoda in Bronn’s 
Tier-Reichs, deals with the structure of the sternites in Archipolypoda. British 
specimens of Archipolypoda are exhibited to illustrate various interpretations of the 
features observed, and preparations of recent Diplopoda are added for comparison. 

(B) The fossil genus Kampecaris. A series of specimens and preparations for the 
comparison of this genus with recent Millipedes. 

(C) Brachydesmus and Polydesmus ; Iulide : comparisons illustrating the principles 
of elongation and contraction in phylogeny and ontogeny. 

(D) The economic status of Millipedes and Centipedes in the British Isles. 

Dretopopa associated with cropsare to be regarded as injurious (e.g. Brachydesmus 
superus, Blaniulus guttulatus). 

Among Cuitopopé, LirHoBrioMoRPHA are to be ranged with the so-called beneficial 
insects. How far they are beneficial depends upon the habits of their prey; while 
certain GEOPHILOMORPHA, sometimes carnivorous, may on occasion prove to be a 
pest to crops. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 432.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Presidential Address by Dr. R.N. RupMoss Brown, on Some Problems 
of Polar Geography. (See p. 75.) 


Mr. J. M. Worpir.—Colonisation and Development in East Greenland. 


Attention is directed to the decision of the Danish authorities to establish Eskimo 
colonies on the east coast of Greenland in Scoresby Sound and northward between 
70° and 75° N. lat. The colonies will be recruited from Angmagsalik (66° N.); and 
the first has already been established. When visited last summer it had just con- 
cluded a most successful season ; and further developments are now certain. 

The new settlements invite comparison with the story of former habitation shown 
by tent rings and winter houses found over the entire length of the east coast even 
up to 82° N. These remains indicate a flourishing people at a date prior to 1822. 
In that year Scoresby made the first landings in East Greenland in Scoresby Sound 
and on Traill Island, and found more than one village site, but all deserted. The 
next year Clavering, farther north, met a party of twelve in Gael Hamkes Bay. Apart 
from the latter discovery, no other living Eskimo are recorded on the east coast, until 
the discovery of Angmagsalik in 1884; this centre is much farther south, however, 
and should be described as on the south-east coast. The Eskimo of the more 
northern part had practically disappeared in Clavering’s time, and their connection, 
if any, with Angmagsalik is doubtful. 

Investigation of the remains shows a people living in much the same way as the 
Cape York or Polar Eskimo (Sir John Ross’s Arctic Highlanders). No remains 
definitely assignable to the earlier Thule culture were found by the Cambridge party. 
Whether the Eskimo arrived on the east coast by a route round the north or round 
the south of Greenland is still open to question. The reason for their disappearance 
may be set down to changes in the distribution of game and behaviour of the pack 
ice—both ultimately due to changes of climate. 

The question is raised whether the modern colonies have a chance to survive 
when the older natives were unable to do so. In the interval new factors have come 
in—firearms and the possibility of trading with the outside world—and it is con- 
fidently expected that the new development will be a success. 


Dr. VaucHan Cornisn.—On the Fixing of Linguistic Boundaries by 
National Adoption of Christianity between the Beginning of the Sixth 
and the End of the Fourteenth Centuries. 


The readjustment of political boundaries in Continental Europe following on the 
Great War has been for the most part in linguistic borderlands. In the course of an — 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 839 


examination of the historical geography of these districts, the author has found that, 
almost without exception, the present linguistic boundary is within a few miles of a 
former boundary of Christendom on the eve of the official conversion of the heathen 
country ; an event which occurred as early as the sixth century in Western, and not 
later than the fourteenth in Eastern, Europe. Thus the boundary of Flemish and 
German with Walloon occupies the same position as at the time of adoption of 
Christianity by the Franks; that between German and French in Alsace-Lorraine 
marks the division between the Christian kingdom of Burgundy and the heathen 
Alamanns, afterwards converted; the Italian linguistic boundary in Tyrol that 
between the Christian kingdom of Lombardy and the heathen Bavarians ; and in the 
former Duchy of Friuli approximately that between the Christian Lombards and 
Slavs before the conversion of the latter. The borderland of Greek language in 
Macedonia and Thrace marks the southern frontier of the Bulgarian empire at its 
official adoption of Christianity in the ninth century. 

An infiltration of Germans among Czechs has gone on for a long time past, but the 
borderland of mixed language marks the limit of Bohemia at the time of conversion. 
There is little trace upon the present map of the former linguistic boundaries of the 
Slavs who remained heathen until after their conquest by the Germans, as in 
Brandenburg, but the borderland of mixed Polish and German speech approximately 
marks the position of the Poles at the time of their conversion in the tenth century. 
The boundary of Russian language with Polish, Latvian and Estonian occupies the 
same position as at the time of the adoption of Christianity by the Russians in the 
reign of Vladimir I (980-1015). Similar results have been worked out for other 
borderlands of European language where political reconstruction has occurred since 
the Great War. 

The author calls attention to the light thrown upon problems of modern 
Ay raed by a study of the dioceses and archiepiscopal provinces of medieval 

urope. 


Lt.-Col. the Rt. Hon. Sir MattrHew Naruay, P.C., G.C.M.G.—The Great 
Barrier Reef. 


While Darwin’s theory of coral reefs growing up as the foundation on which 
they rest subsides, so that coral-beds of great thickness can be formed within those 
depths that are favourable to coral growth, is consistent with recent speculations as 
to the influence of isostasy and radio-activity in producing a series of earth surface 
revolutions creating mountain ranges and buckling the ocean bottom, neither these 
speculations nor Darwin’s theory are universally accepted. The bearing on the 
latter of the results of borings in 1903 at Funa-futi, one of the Ellice Islands in the 
Pacific, and in 1925 on the Great Barrier Reef itself, are discussed in the paper, which 
gives a geographical description of the reef and of the neighbouring land and seas, 
explaining the factors that have limited coral growth to the north and south, and 
that have produced the high rocky inner and low coral outer islands on either side 
of the long lagoon that runs by the coast of Queensland. The recently observed 
erescentic formations and pinnacle growths on the inner reef are described, as well 
as the manner in which the loose coral growths are gradually compacted by filling 
and cementing, and the circumstances in which coral branches and masses are broken 
off, disrupted, and triturated. The paper concludes with some remarks on the 
zoological aspect of coral reefs in general, and of the Great Barrier Reef in particular, 
and on the economic results that may flow from a greater knowledge of life on this 
unique geographical structure. 


Dr. Battey Wiiis.—The Palestine Earthquake, July 11, 1927. 


Friday, September 2. 


Papers on Studies in the Geography of Leeds, by members of the 
School of Geography of the University of Leeds :— 


Dr. C. B. Fawcert.—The Position and Growth of Leeds. 


Leeds is a foothill town at the eastern edge of the Pennine Highland, on the 
largest of the valleys which open on to the Vale of York. It is also near the western 


Z 2 


3840 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 


end of the morainic ridge across the Vale of York, and just within the northern edge 
of the coalfield. It appears first as an agricultural village in Domesday. Later it 
became a market town and a manorial borough. But not till the development of 
the woollen industry was it an important town. The location of this industry was 
fixed by the presence of the soft-water streams from the highland; and Leeds became 
its chief commercial focus when the Aire was made navigable up to Leeds Bridge. 
This waterway has been a primary factor in the growth of the city, and must be 
further developed if that growth is to be maintained. In land ways it is noted that 
before the growth of Leeds the trans-Pennine route was along Wharfedale, and the 
transfer of that route to Airedale is a result, rather than a cause, of the city’s 
importance. The plan of the city is summarised and related to the natural features 
of the site. 


Messrs. G. E. Hitt and A. T. Wurtraxer.—Land Utilisation in South 
Leeds. 


A survey of a segment of the city from Leeds Bridge to the southern boundary 
shows three well-marked zones: (a) below 150 feet above O.D., on the valley bottom, 
is an area mainly devoted to heavy industry and transport working, with some slum 
housing ; (5) above this, and extending half a mile beyond it, an area of better-class 
residences with few industrial buildings; (c) an outer zone of recent and better 
residential type which has developed only since the tramway made it accessible in 
1901 and 1904. The steep slope overlooking Worthy Beck is still unbuilt on and is 
partly waste. 


Mr. R. E. Dickrnson.—Zones of Influence of Leeds. 


Returns have been obtained indicating the areas served or controlled from Leeds 
by head offices or Yorkshire district offices for many forms of activities, such as 
retail and wholesale provision and other merchants, the markets areas, insurance 
and other finance work. We have also mapped out the zones of accessibility from 
Leeds by train and bus, taking account of both time and frequency of services. From 
these and other evidences we map three zones of influence round the city. The 
outermost is the distinctive Yorkshire region, which extends from the North Sea to 
the Pennine watershed and has well-marked limits to north and south. To the 
north we find Cleveland, all the Tees Valley and Swaledale are under the influence 
of the Tyneside combination and not that of West Yorkshire. To south the frontier 
between the zones of influence of Leeds and Sheffield lies along the watershed between 
the Calder and Dearne Valleys. Within this wide region is the smaller area served 
daily from Leeds and some subdivisions as between Hull, York, Leeds and Bradford. 


Mr. E. Hepworta.—Castleford. 


Castleford is now a small urban district ten miles §.E. of Leeds at the confluence 
of the Aire and Calder. It was a Roman station on the Great North Road, and is 
now a colliery and manufacturing centre. But its position in the flood plain, and its 
overshadowing by the medieval fortress town of Pontefract, only three miles away, 
and the earlier industrial growth of Leeds, have prevented any considerable growth. 

AFTERNOON. 


Excursion in the Leeds area. 


Saturday, September 3. 
Excursion to Middle Wharfedale, Skipton, and Nidderdale. 


Monday, September 5. 


Dr. Jansma.—Land Reclamation in Holland with Special Reference to the 
Zuiderzee. 


A Frenchman said: ‘ Dieu créa le monde, excepté les Pays-Bas qui furent créés 
par les Hollandais.’ Indeed, a large part of Holland is so low that it lies below the 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 341 


level of the sea. In the Middle Ages a considerable amount of land was flooded by 
the sea; in the seventeenth century the reclamation of ‘ polders’ by means of wind- 
mills began ; a number of lakes were drained. Between 1849 and 1852 Haarlem Lake, 
the last large one left, of about 44,000 acres, was drained. At the same time schemes 
of a much larger scope were published, viz. to drain the Zuiderzee. After careful 
consideration, a scheme proposed by Dr. C. Lely was sanctioned by the Dutch 
parliament in 1918, and is now being carried out. The result will be the reclamation 
of about 550,000 acres of excellent soil, or an increase of the arable part of Holland 
by about 10 per cent. 


Sir Grorce Forpuam.—Surveys and Maps of the Elizabethan Period 
remaining in manuscript—Saaxton, Symonson and Norden. 


This paper is an attempt to gather up the work, other than that which has been 
perpetuated by the engraver’s art, of three representative surveyors and cartographers 
who flourished during the last quarter of the sixteenth and the first of the seventeenth 
centuries—Christopher Saxton, Philip Symonson, and John Norden. 

Saxton’s activity in private practice as a surveyor seems to have been confined 
to a period of ten years, 1596-1606 ; his atlas of the countries of England and Wales 
having been completed in 1579, and his large scale map of England and Wales having 
been published about 1580. He surveyed Manchester in 1596, but this map cannot 
now be found. In the same year Saxton was a witness in proceedings as to boundaries 
in Lincolnshire, and in 1599 he was similarly engaged, as he was also in 1601 and 1606 
in controversies as to water-rights, in all of which proceedings he prepared and certified 
plans. These plans are now in the Public Record Office. A plan of Dewsbury and 
of the River Calder above that town, by Saxton, is in the Dewsbury Free Library, 
and dated 1600, 

Symonson is only known generally by his important map of Kent of 1596. He 
was superintendent and surveyor of the Rochester Bridge Estates from 1592 until 
his death in 1598. During his term of office he surveyed and mapped four of the 
estates, the property of the Bridge Wardens, and three of these maps still exist 
among the archives of this corporation. In art, appearance and colouring, they 
resemble closely the work of Saxton. 

Norden’s work in estate survey is much more instructive from the point of view 
of the history of cartography in England than that of either of his contemporaries. 
In 1600-1601 he made an elaborate survey, drawn in twenty-eight large sheets, of the 
estates of Sir Michael Stanhope in and around Orford, on the coast of Suffolk. These 
maps are now in two sections, following a division of the original estate, of which one 
(maps I to X) is in Woodbridge, in the office of Mr. Ernest Wood, solicitor, and the 
other (maps XI to XXVIII—except XIII, which is missing) is in the Sudbourne 
Estate Office, at Chillesford Lodge, near Orford. This series is of uniform appearance 
and detail, and is drawn in bright colours on vellum sheets measuring about 528 mm. 
in height by 722 mm. in width. It is a work of considerable cartographical importance, 
and geographically is interesting for the delineation of a long length of coast line, 
since 1600 subject to alteration and erosion. The total acreage mapped is about 15,000. 

Norden’s next important work was a survey of the Honor of Windsor, with the 
Castle and all the forests, walks, parks, &c., and details of the head of deer in each. 
This is of 1601 and is on seventeen sheets of vellum, drawn in colours and gilded. Two 
copies are known, that made for the king (James I) is in the British Museum 
{Harleian MS.), and a duplicate made for Henry, Prince of Wales, has been lately 
acquired by the Royal Library at Windsor Castle. 

A further important work was confided to Norden at this period, that of a com- 
plete survey of the manors and property of the Duchy of Cornwall in the West of 
England, made in the years 1609 to 1616. This also is now at Windsor, having been 
recently presented to the King by Lord Verulam from the Gorhambury Library. It 
has, however, but a few sketch maps, and is generally the written record of inquiries 
relating to the estates, and summaries of the particulars thus obtained, made up into 
two quarto volumes. It is obviously only of collateral interest in connection with 
the present subject. 

The paper deals fully with the maps and plans enumerated above, which are, 
especially those of Norden, instructive as illustrating the progress achieved in the 
reign of Elizabeth in the art and practice of survey and map construction, Few such 
maps, whatever may have been their original number, have survived to the present 


842 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 


time, and those here described can certainly be regarded as typical of their period. 
It is possible, and it is hoped, that the publication of this study may lead to the 
discovery of other similar estate plans of early date now buried in public and private 
depositories. 


Mr. J. H. Reynoups.—Iceland. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Otley Chevin, Lower Wharfedale and Adel. 


Tuesday, September 6, 


Mr. G. N. Humpureyvs.—Ruwenzort. 


The legendary source of the Nile in snow mountains, the rediscovery of such 
mountains by Stanley and the British Museum Expedition and that of the Duke of 
the Abruzzi in 1906, brought the Ruwenzori Mountains at that time much to public 
notice. During the following twenty years, however, no fresh ground was broken 
in the range and no peak reclimbed. Last year exploration was continued by two 
expeditions. The former of these climbed some new peaks and crossed the range 
through the largest unknown area, making the first crossing of the mountains via the 
snows. Three lakes were discovered, two of them larger than lakes previously found 
in the range. The latter expedition climbed several new peaks and reclimbed the 
highest peaks of the four largest snow mountains, including the highest point in the 
range. Exploration was handicapped during the former expedition by the desertion 
of the porters and during both expeditions by bad weather, which obtained during 
the two and a half months spent in the mountains. 


Miss A. Garnett.—The Capitals of Morocco. 


The major geographical factors underlying the historical and political importance 
of the present capitals, their relation to lines of expansion and invasion of the Moorish 
Empire via the Atlas passes and 8. Riffian highway. 

Marrakesh as an oasis centre; a ‘ crossroad’ and ‘ storehouse’ site for invaders 
from the west Sahara; a ‘forward’ position for sixteenth-century expansion south- 
ward to the Sudan. 

Fez and Mequinez as ‘ crossroad’ sites at the western terminus of the great E.-W. 
Barbary highway. The early historical importance of this region.. 

The geographical division of the empire into the dual kingdoms of Fez and 
Marrakesh when politically weak; and greater domination of Fez when politically 
strong. 

Rabat as the capital of the French Protectorate: its value as a coastal capital in 
comparison with the inland capitals, in relation to present economic and political 
conditions. 


Dr. 8. E. J. Best.—Wheat Cultivation im relation to Soil Types on the 
Yorkshire Wolds. 


The soil above the chalk on the Yorkshire Wolds is generally very thin, often 
being not more than six inches in depth. A map constructed from the Parish Returns 
of the Ministry of Agriculture showing the distribution of wheat in the East Riding 
shows a greater concentration than would be expected on the eastern flanks of the 
Wolds. When a line is drawn showing the westward limit of this concentration—a. 
‘ wheat line ’—it is found to be higher up the sides of the Wolds than is the boulder 
clay mapped by the Geological Survey. 

Reference made to Kendall’s work on the glaciation of Yorkshire shows that the 
‘Wheat Line’ almost coincides with his probable maximum limit of ice up the 
eastern sides of the Wolds. 

The inference is that there are in this area patches of boulder clay and glacial 
detritus neither deep nor constant enough to be mapped, but still of sufficient im- 
portance to be regarded as constituting a definite and distinctive Soil Region, different. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E, F. 848 


from the chalk area to the west and the boulder clay area to the east. This is corro- 
borated by personal investigation and by work on the distribution of crops and of 
population. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Miss 8S. Harris.—Village Settlements in the Channel Islands. 


(I) The ‘natural’ control of settlement in the Channel Islands the same in each 
island. Human groups moved up valleys to fertile patches on plateaux, focussing 
round sites of prehistoric importance (later, sites of parish churches). 

(II) Meitzen (German school) divides settlements in N.W. Europe into (1) Einzel- 
héfe, single farms, (2) Dérfer, compact villages; and places the Channel Islands in 
the former group, with Jersey as a special example. His map is too generalised a 
statement of facts. 

(III) Channel Islands show grouped homesteads, open fields with ownership of 
scattered strips, communal organisation, banon (rights of stubble pasture), inalienable 
rights of grazing on the waste, one-field rotation. This is not pure Einzelhof. 

(IV) Einzelhofe of e.g. (a) Westphalia, (b) North Sea coastal lands, were modified by 
introduction of ‘Esch’ (common arable); and in (6) a one-field system obtained. 
Settlers from (b) colonised Kent and introduced tenure by ‘ gavel-kind.’ Settlements 
in Channel Islands and Kent very similar and probably the same in origin. 


Mr. H. Kine.—A Geographical Study of a Yorkshire Manor. 
Mr. R. P. Brapy.—Rural Settlements in the Middle Trent Valley. 


The relation of the area to the Midlands—its ‘ confluence’ feature. The surface 
geology and its relation to relief and the main rivers. The distribution and types of 
village in relation to these. The riverside type—the gravel terrace type—the hillside 
type—the valley type of the lower Trias. 

Examination of the types by characteristic examples. Their sites analysed and 
their typical developments noted. The riverside villages from Willington to Swarke- 
stone; the gravel villages of Weston and Aston ; the spur villages of Mickleover and 
Littleover; the townships of Repton and Donnington. Some changes in value of 
the sites due to changing lines of communication. 


SECTION F. 
ECONOMIC SCIENCE. AND STATISTICS. 


(Communications on Textiles, received at special sessions, will be found on p. 411.) 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 432.) 


Thursday, September 1. 
Mr. T. S. Asuron.—The Coalminers of the Eighteenth Century. 


In Scotland, until 1775, the colliers were bound in lifelong servitude ; and, before 
and after emancipation, the family was the labour unit. In the North of England a 
yearly hiring was general, under bonds made between individual colliers and their 
employers. South of the Tees the hiring period was much shorter, and the economic 
unit was a co-operative group of workers represented in bargaining by a leader or 
charter-master. 

Between 1700 and 1780 money wages remained constant, and food prices varied 
widely with the harvests, and in the industrial disturbances, which commonly occurred 
in years of shortage, animosity was directed, not against the employers, but against 
the dealers in grain. After 1780 wages showed more flexibility, and industrial disputes 
of the modern type took the place of food riots. 

Some migration of labour occurred between the coalfields, but there was little 
recruiting from other industries, and wages were maintained at a relatively high 


344 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 


level. In spite of physical and spiritual isolation the mining population occasionally 
threw up men of talent. After 1815 an influx of outside labour was perhaps responsible 
for some fall of economic standards ; and too rapid development may explain some 
of the conditions revealed in the reports of the ’forties. 


Presidential Address by Prof. D. H. Macerecor on Rationalisation 
of Industry. (See p. 98.) 


Friday, September 2. 


Prof. J. ScoumPETER.—The Instability of our Economic System. 


In what sense can our economic system be said to contain possible causes of 
instability ? 


Dr. P. Sarcant Fiorence.—Fallacies and Pitfalls of non-Statistical 
Economies. 


(1) Economics assumes certain ‘ principles,’ such as the principle of substitution 
and the notion that all incomes except rent are remuneration for real costs in effort 
and sacrifice, and assumes also certain conditions such as occupational mobility, 
competition, business acumen, knowledge of trade opportunities and the stationary 
state. 

(2) These assumptions are only gradually and grudgingly modified by a process 
of ‘ disabstraction’’ to approximate to the observed conditions and ways of human 
behaviour which are variegated, changeable, uncertain and juxtaposed in unexpected 
combinations. When applied to interpret any particular situation this deductive 
method, though a corrective of many popular and bourgeois fallacies, is prone to lead 
to the ‘ fallacy of accident ’ and the pitfalls of dogmatism and fatuity. 

(3) Strict economic generalisations are blind to the implications of such statistically 
measurable ‘ accidents ’ as the skew distribution of incomes, or the variety of automatic 
and deliberate methods of fixing price and production, or the variation of opportunity 
and mentality among actual and potential entrepreneurs, or the vagaries of trade 
from industry to industry. 

(4) Fallacies of dogmatism were frequent among the classical economists. To 
the admitted wage-fund fallacy may be added Senior’s theory of output as an exact 
multiple of hours worked, and the iron law of wages that supposed a positive correla- 
tion of income and births per family. 

(5) Warned by the positive fallacies of their predecessors, modern economists 
run in most danger of a fall into the pit of fatwity. They claim that their theories 
are true deductions from fixed principles and conditions ‘ other (independent) things 
being equal,’ but make little attempt to test the existence of those conditions, to 
bring their principles into relation with the complicated welter of facts, or to find how 
far what ‘ other things’ are ever equal or even independent. 

(6) Statistical methods have been specially devised for the summary measurement 
of the variable and composite events displayed in human society. Is it possible to 
fuse in a ‘statistical economics’ statistics fidelity to facts with the tried faiths of 
economic theory? This fusion is certainly in line with the views of Marshall, Cassel 
and some of the modern American school. 

(7) Statistical economics would first attempt (a) to select the units in which 
such events as an increased supply of ‘labour’ or increased productivity is to be 
reckoned, and (b) to define such economic characteristics and principles as specialisa- 
tion, mobility, localisation, or over-population in measurable terms such as index 
numbers, ratios or co-efficients. This implies the use of the objective measuring rod 
of money or quanta as a starting-point rather than vague psychological components 
such as real costs and utility. 

(8) How economic events and characteristics (e.g. rent) are supposed to be deter- 
mined would be finally (c) set forth step by step as correlation theories or other definitely 
statistical issues; these issues to be argued, after expert inquiry ‘in the field,’ by 
een ie analysis in combination with such economic speculation as has stood the 
test of time. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. B45 


Monday, September 5. 


Mr. J. Wepewoop.—Some Evidence Concerning the Influence of Inherit- 
ance on Distribution. 


Among the questions which require an answer, in assessing the relative importance 
of inheritance as a factor in distribution, are (1) What is the proportion of the aggregate 
property derived from inheritance? (2) What degree of correspondence is there 
between the inheritances and fresh accumulations of individuals? Lack of data on 
the subject. Inadequacy of official statistics and of millionaires’ biographies. Analysis 
of a large number of individual cases required. Investigation of a sample at the 
English Probate Registry. An attempt to compare the fortunes of the hundred 
richest men dying in 1924-25 with those of their predecessors. Difficulties and 
limitations of the investigation. Results—high proportion of inherited wealth 
indicated as regards the aggregate; comparatively small proportion of ‘ self-made’ 
men; correlation between size of fortunes of predecessors and successors. Review 
of chief trade interests and social status of predecessors. Miscellaneous results— 
€.g. average age at inheritance and length of the generation. Evidence from the 
Estate Duty statistics. Analysis of the figures relating to four pre-war and three 
post-war years shows that the relative distribution of property in England is remark- 
ably similar among individuals at different ages, i.e. the nature and slope of the 
curve of distribution is much the same for all age-groups after thirty-five. This 
observation is significant, in view of the fact that the size of the average estate increases 
up to the most advanced age, and that the proportion of property acquired by saving 
must be greater among the relatively old; it indicates that the inherited wealth of 
individuals is a more important factor than is sometimes supposed in determining 
the extent of their subsequent accumulations. 

Some observations on the question of the proportion of the aggregate capital of 
the United Kingdom inherited trom previous generations. 


Discussion on The Recent Course of Prices : 
(a) Sir ALFRED YARROW. 


The price of a commodity is its value measured in gold. The value of gold 
fluctuates like other commodities, dependent upon the cost of production and the 
supply and demand. Consequently, the price of a commodity varies with the value 
of gold and the value of the commodity exchanged for it. 

The rapid development of the gold industry in the Transvaal since 1900 has brought 
into circulation a large increase in the supply of gold, and as much is obtained at 
the present time from the Transvaal as from all the rest of the world. This great 
addition in the supply of gold reduces its value, i.e. more gold is now required in 
exchange for the necessaries of life and other commodities than formerly. This 
increase of price is proved by the fact that in 1913 eighty-five sovereigns were required 
to purchase commodities which in 1896 cost sixty sovereigns. 

At the outbreak of war Treasury notes were printed and made legal tender. 

When the credit of Great Britain began to decline Treasury notes were not taken 
at their face value, and in 1920 251 £1 notes were required to purchase what in 1896 
cost sixty-one sovereigns, This enormous increase in price was mainly due to, firstly, 
the supply of gold from the Transvaal ; secondly, the shortage of commodities owing 
to a large section of the population having been drawn away from producing in order 
to fight ; thirdly, the reduced credit of this country. When the funding of the British 
debt to America was agreed upon the increase of price due to the depreciation of our 
paper currency gradually disappeared. 

The rise in the cost of commodities from 85 in 1913 to 127 in 1926 is mainly due 
to the increase in the cost of production in this country caused by :— 

1. Excessive taxation. 

2. Reduced production due to strikes, lock-outs, &c. 

3. The restrictions demanded by trade unions which diminish the output per man. 

4, Unwise legislation, such as giving doles without work being done in exchange. 


(6) Miss M. Tappan.—Prices and Price-Control in Great Britain and 
the United States. 


Movements in general prices in Great Britain, 1890-1913; secular, seasonal and 
cyclical variations, with suggestions upon the possible inter-relations of these 


346 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 


movements. The movements of prices (a) in the steel industry, and (6) in the cotton 
industry, in relation to those of general prices. Movements in the prices of variable- 
income shares, and in short-money rates. Customary sequences in the movements 
of these several classes of prices and alterations in such sequences ; their potential 
explanation. 

Comparative movements in strictly similar classes of prices in the United States, 
1890-1913, the problem of relative precedence in the movements of prices as between 
the two countries, and possible interpretations of certain apparent relations. 

The movements of general prices in Great Britain and the United States in the 
post-war period. The extent of their control by central banks, as inferred from the 
inter-relations of prices in the markets for commodities, for securities and for money. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Joint Discussion with Section J on Innate Differences and Social Status. 
Introduced by (a) Dr. Morris GINSBERG. 
(b) Prof. Goprrey THomson. 
(c) Mr. F. C. Barrierr. 


Dr. GinsBeRG.—The paper deals with the nature of the social classes and the 
differences in respect of physical and mental characters existing between them. The 
problem is to determine to what extent these differences are due to forms of social 
selection operating upon innate differences, and to what extent they are due to 
environmental influences. A critical study will be made of the evidence relating to 
(1) differences in physical characters, such as stature, cranial capacity, brain weight, 
&c.; (2) differences in intelligence as measured by mental tests and in other ways. 
The difficulties of disentangling the environmental from the mnate factors will be 
stressed. It will be shown that only very tentative conclusions can be arrived at as 
yet. Considerable importance will be shown to attach to the problem of the extent 
of social mobility, and evidence bearing on this will be submitted based on (1) data 
derived from Prof. Bowley’s studies on poverty, (2) a questionnaire specially designed 
for this purpose. The whole problem will be discussed in the light of what is known 
with regard to the laws of heredity in man and in the history of social differentiation. 


Mr. A. W. Asupy.—The Economic Situation of Agriculture. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Mr. C. J. Hamitton.—The Theory of Co-partnership. 


(1) The capitalist system has hitherto exhibited certain characteristics which 
have exposed it to just criticism. Co-partnership is advanced as a remedy for some 
of these, and its adherent claim that it enables the essential advantages of capitalism 
to be reconciled with ‘ a socialised industry.’ 

(2) The expectations regarding co-partnership entertained fifty years ago have 
not been realised. It is now often said that the claims of co-partnership are fallacious, 
or that co-partnership is of very limited application. 

(3) The term co-partnership has been used in two senses: a partnership between 
workers and a partnership between capital and labour. The latter interpretation 
now predominates. 

(4) The supporters of co-partnership have commonly belonged to one of two 
schools. According to one view co-partnership is founded on the need for economic 
justice and goodwill. According to the others it is based on the need for a productive 
stimulus. Both schools have treated profit-sharing as an essential element. The 
justification for profit-sharing thus needs to be examined. 

(5) Profit-sharing as a stimulus to productive effort. The nature of the stimulus 

differently conceived. This mode of rewarding it implies its partial application. 
It is said that ‘ profit-sharing is a form of exploitation.’ 
(6) Profit-sharing based on surplus. This raises the question of the reality of 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I, G. B47 


surplus. Further, its determination implies that the risk rate is calculable. Finally 
it may be questioned whether surplus profits should be distributed. 

(7) Contributory co-partnership may be distinguished from the two preceding 
schools. In itself it does not contain a complete theory. 

(8) Conclusion as to the place of co-partnership in industry. 


SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. 


(Communications on Textiles, received at specia] sessions, will be found on p. 411.) 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 432.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Presidential Address by Prof. Sir Jamms B. HENDERSON on Invention 
as a Innk in Scientific and Economic Progress. (See p. 120.) 


Papers on Lubrication :— 
(a) Dr. T. E. Stanton, C.B.E., F.R.S.—The Lubrication of Surfaces 
under High Loads and Temperatures. 


The paper deals with experimental investigations carried out at the National 
Physical Laboratory for the purpose of determining the thickness and are of contact 
of the oil film, and the nature of the frictional resistance of a cylindrical bearing when 
the load is increased up to the seizing point. 

Apparatus for the measurement of the attitude and eccentricity of a cylindrical 
half bearing is described, and the results obtained are compared with those calculated 
from the theory. It is shown that the discrepancy between the observed and 
theoretical results for high values of the eccentricity is due to the pressure in the oil 
film at the extremity of the ‘ off’ side of the bearing becoming negative, as indicated 
by the theory and the consequent drawing in of air into the space in the neighbourhoud. 
of the ‘ off’ side with the result that the arc of contact rapidly diminishes. 

This, it is concluded, is the condition which brings about seizure of the surfaces at 
loads considerably below those which would be expected from the theory. 

Apparatus is also described for the determination of the values of the frictional 
resistance of the bearing as the temperature of the film is increased, and it is shown 
that for every lubricant there is a well-defined temperature of minimum friction and 
temperature of seizing. 

The results of experiments with various lubricants are discussed, and it is shown 
that for bearings under very high pressures and temperatures the best performance 
is not necessarily given by lubricants having the least co-efficient of friction for 
surfaces in contact, i.e. under boundary lubrication conditions. 


(b) Sir W. B. Harpy. 
Followed by Discussion. 


Prof. W. Crampe.—A Hydraulic Model illustrating the Behaviour of the Arc. 


The electric discharge, whether in the form of a spark, the current through a neon 
tube, an ordinary are, or a vacuum arc lamp, has one characteristic which distinguishes 
it from conduction of other kinds. No current passes across the are until a certain 
maximum pressure has been reached, but after this the current can be maintained by 
a very much lower p.d. In some cases, the slope of the p.d. current characteristic is 
negative ; in others, as, for instance, the neon tube, it is positive. Special forms of 
discharge, such as the Poulsen arc, have a characteristic intermediate between that 
of the neon lamp and that of the ordinary arc. The fact that the discharge p.d. 
may be much lower after the current has once begun than at the time of breakdown, 
enables the discharge, in its various forms, to produce surges and oscillations, provided 


348 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 


that appropriate apparatus, such as resistances, condensers, and inductances are 
included in the circuit. 

Since in a circuit consisting of a tube containing liquid resistance may be repre- 
sented to some extent by fiuid friction, inductance by mass, and capacity by storage, 
it follows that, if such a tube can be provided with apparatus which will allow of 
the free escape of liquid when a certain pressure is reached, and with a continuation 
of that escape at a lower pressure afterwards, the condition of the electrical discharge 
circuit may be imitated. 

Such an arrangement entails the use of a valve, which will open at a predetermined 
pressure and remain open until a lower pressure has been reached. This is not easy 
to provide by mechanical means. It may, however, be arranged by making use of 
the phenomena of surface tension. If a siphon tube is made of gradually increasing 
diameter, the potential energy of the meniscus increases as the diameter increases, 
and consequently there will be a tendency for the meniscus to contract against the 
gravitational force of the liquid in the tube. If, therefore, the amount of liquid in 
the tube increases, the meniscus expands until a certain limit is reached, when it 
allows liquid to escape. This arrangement forms a very perfect automatic valve for 
the purpose of a model to imitate the electric discharge. Such a model has been 
made and will be shown. It is possible to imitate the production of electric oscillations 
by the Duddell are, the behaviour of the neon lamp when fed from a constant pressure 
circuit with a resistance in series and condenser in shunt, and the behaviour of certain 
phases of the Poulsen arc, as confirmed by photographs taken of cathode ray 
oscillograms, 


Friday, September 2. 
Papers on Coal :— 


(a) Dr. C. H. Lanprer.—Our available Coal Supplies and their 
Utilisation. ; 


(5) Prof. J. W. Cops.—The Utilisation of our Coal Supplies. 


The author considers what are the factors at present limiting the applications of 
carbonisation or similar processes to the great bulk of our coal supplies, and what 
is being done or may be done to remove those limitations. Such processes entail a 
thermal and monetary expenditure. If they are to be justified it must be by the 
enhancement in value of the products sufficient to cover the cost. 

The high thermal efficiency of carbonisation is pointed out, and the enhanced 
value of the heat unit in gas as compared with that in coal. The expenditure for 
installing and working plants for carbonisation is high compared with the appliances 
for the direct burning of coal, because the rate of combustion of coal in air is so very 
much more rapid than the reactions involved either in carbonisation or gasification. 
Hence the amount of work which is being done to speed up the working of processes 
in one way and another. 

In carbonisation, apart from new designs of plant, studies are being made of the 
influence of temperature of working, size of coal, the effect of blending and carbonisa- 
tion of very fine particles. These are discussed, and also the results obtained, when 
the behaviour of coal is modified by the introduction of small quantities of inorganic 
constituents, such as iron oxide, lime and soda. Greatly enhanced rates of gasification 
are so obtained with steam or carbon dioxide on the laboratory scale—reactions which 
underlie the processes of making water gas and producer gas on the industrial scale. 


(c) Prof. R. V. WanELer.—The Chemistry of Coal. 


The materials, all forms of plant structures, that may have contributed to the 
composition of coal, are numerous and diverse in character. Except for certain specific 
substances, too small in amount to require consideration here, these materials are, 
however, substantially the same in chemical nature, though varying widely in form 
and in the relative quantities present, whatever the type of plant life to which they 
belong. The relative amounts of the different plant materials that ultimately form 
coal may be considerably altered by the conditions of their accumulation in the 
coal-forming beds. There will, for example, be a tendency for the heavier woody 
matter, containing much lignin and cellulose, to be segregated from the lighter 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 849: 


débris, such as spores and pollens, so that the resulting coal may show local enrich- 
ments of such bodies. 

Local contributions of different plant materials account for the commonly banded 
appearance of bituminous coals. The diflerentiation of such banded coals into 
physically distinct components—vitrain, clarain, durain and fusain—enables a study 
to be made of the extent to which local enrichments affect the properties of coals, for 
these components of banded bituminous coals differ from one another almost entirely 
because of the different contributions made to them by the various parts of plants. 
For proper understanding of the character of bituminous coal it is, in fact, essential 
to study each physically distinct banded component separately. 

As a result of numerous researches on banded bituminous coals, it has become 
increasingly apparent that the great complexity of character of the initial coal- 
forming materials has not been transmitted to the resulting coal. During the 
process of coalification and, as it would appear, during the initial stages, those of 
decay of the vegetable matter, many of the more important components (in quantity) 
of the accumulated plant-material lose their identity and by extensive alteration 
and interaction find a common level as ‘ ulmin compounds.’ These ulmins form a 
definite class of compounds, not necessarily homogeneous, but probably comprising 
several distinct types, yet sufficiently alike in their chemical constitution and behaviour 
to justify their being grouped under one head. So far, no separation of the naturally 
occurring ulmins into markedly different classes of compounds has been obtained 
experimentally. 

The plant materials that contributed to the ulmin group of compounds are the 
structural portions, the lignin and celluloses of the cellular framework, together with 
much of the cell-contents, namely, carbohydrates and proteins. These materials 
formed the bulk of the plants, and the resulting ulmins form the bulk of coal. The 
predominance of ulmins is already apparent in an accumulation of plant débris after 
a comparatively short process of decay, e.g. in peats, in which alkali-soluble ulmins 
are found in increasing amounts as the age of the peat increases. The ulmins, as 
first formed, are not permanent, unchangeable compounds, but are subject to pro- 
gressive alteration according to the conditions to which they are subjected. Their 
progressive alteration becomes most apparent in a decrease of solubility in alkalies, 
partial in the lignites, complete in bituminous coals. Over the whole range of coals, 
also, the ulmins progressively alter, more particularly as regards their ease of oxidation, 
as the ‘rank’ of the coal increases. There is good reason for the belief that the rank 
of a coal is mainly determined by the change that has taken place (by such factors 
as pressure, temperature and time) in the ulmins it contains. 

The parts of plants which do not undergo decay, with the formation of ulmins, 
are the protective coverings of plant tissues, such as the coats or exines of spores and 
the cuticles of stems and leaves, together with certain special plant products such as 
the resins. These are not readily subject to decay, nor are they readily altered by the 
conditions attending coalification, so that they are found in coal but slightly modified 
from their original forms and in quantity greater than corresponds with their original 
proportions in the plant débris. There are also present in coal small quantities of 
free hydrocarbons, probably derived from the oils and waxes of the plants during 
the processes of decay and coalification. These three classes of plant materials, 
protective tissues, resins and hydrocarbons, though different in character, can con- 
veniently be grouped together as ‘ resistant plant remains.’ 

A normal coal can be regarded as essentially a mixture of the two groups of 
compounds, ‘ ulmins ’ and ‘ resistant plant remains.’ It can be confidently anticipated 
that, as the result of work now in progress, the nature of any coal can be related to 
(a) the character of its ulmin compounds, and (b) the contents and nature of its 
resistant plant remains, so that a rational classification can be obtained. There seems 
to be no possibility of compounding the influence of these two groups of materials, 
for their effects on the character of the coal composed of them are independent. 

At present cur knowledge of the extent to which each of these main component 
groups of compounds affect the behaviour of coal under different conditions is 
incomplete, but it is possible to relate one or other property broadly to the presence 
of one or other component. For example, in those reactions of coal which involve 
its oxidation the ulmin compounds play the major part; while the behaviour of coal 
on destructive distillation, as regards its yield of tar, is determined mainly by its 
contents of resistant plant remains. The ‘ coking-power’ of a coal (its ability to 
yield a commercial coke) depends on too many factors to permit of its being related 


350 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 


so simply to the presence of some ‘ coking ingredient,’ nevertheless, it should be 
possible to deduce the coking properties of a coal from its chemical constitution. The 
- resins, and to a certain extent the hydrocarbons, appear to play the part of 
agglutinating materials, but it is clear that the character of the infusible part of the 
coal is of equal importance. 


Followed by Discussion. 


Mr. J. L. Hopeson.—An Examination of the Problem of Utilising the 
Earth’s Internal Heat. 


The paper attempts to collect the essential data and to formulate the principal 
difficulties which bear upon the problem of utilising the earth’s internal heat, and to 
present these in a form convenient to engineers. 

The earth’s total reserve of heat, the heat lost by radiation into space, and the 
amount of heat produced by radio-active materials in rocks are estimated. 

The distribution of radio-active materials and their effect on the temperature 
gradient of rocks is discussed. 

Reasons for assuming that the interior of the earth is getting hotter rather than 
cooler, and is solid rather than liquid, are given. 

The rates of heat leakage from a cylindrical bore-hole in the centre of a hot slab 
of heat-insulated material which (a) does not contain radio-active material, and 
(5) which does contain radio-active material are calculated, and the ‘ heat leakage, 
time’ curves are plotted. 

The heat yield under steady flow conditions for a deep heat bore-hole is also 
estimated. 

Means for making such deep bore-holes are considered, and details such as the 
use of cooling suits for the workers and the choice of the most suitable circulating 
liquid for the bore-holes are briefly discussed. 

The probable heat yield from a deep heat bore-hole is compared with the yield 
of a modern boiler, and the apparently insuperable difficulties introduced by the 
combination of distance and the low heat conductivities of rocks are emphasised. 

The paper closes with an account of what has already been done in utilising the 
heat available in hot surface rocks, which are usually porous or fractured, and in 
which heat bore-holes can be put down at frequent intervals without undue expense. 

A summary of the data, the formal mathematical proofs, and certain of the 
technical details are given in the appendices at the end of the paper. 


AFTERNOON. 

Visits to Textile Works :— 

Messrs. Hudson, Sykes & Bousfield, Morley.—Cloth manufacture from spinning 
to finished piece : modern power plant. 

Messrs. Joshua Wilson & Co.—Woollen and worsted goods. 

Messrs. William Lupton & Co.—All processes of woollen manufacture (initial 
stages at Cliff Mills, Pudsey ; finishing processes at Leeds). 

Messrs. W. E. Yates, Bramley.—All processes of woollen manufacture. 


Saturday, September 3. 


EXCURSION. 


Smeaton’s House. Selby. Goole Waterworks overhead tank (capacity, 750,000 
gallons, height 155 ft.). 

Goole Docks—Inspection and lunch (Lowther Arms Hotel) by invitation of Aire & 
Calder Navigation Co. Compartment train for coal. The compartments are loaded 
at the mines, conveyed on bogies to the canal and towed down in trains. At the docks 
are hydraulic hoists which tip the compartments complete into the steamers. New 
dock construction ; the debouchment of the New River Don. 

Ferrybridge Power Station.—The Ferrybridge Super-Power Station of the York- 
shire Electric Power Co. is one of the newest in the country. There are at present 
installed two 19,000 K.W. generating sets, but the ultimate capacity is 180,000 K.W. 
In the circulating pump house is the experimental axial flow pump which forms the 
subject of a paper in Pontefract. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 351 


Sharlston Colliery.—The New Sharlston Colliery Co., Ltd., have one of the most 
modern collieries in the district. Their hydraulic decking plant, new system of 
spiral separators for cleaning coal, &c., are unique in this country. Their system of 
economic power production is of exceptional interest. In their office is one of the 
first pair of Parsons’ turbines made. Visit to the coal-face. Tea by invitation of 
the Company. 

Wakefield. 

Rothwell Haigh Collieries.—Messrs. J. & C. Charlesworth. Three very old 
pumping engines, the oldest of which was probably originally of the ‘ Newcomen ’ 
type, erected in 1776, converted to ‘ Watt’ type in 1793. The engine at one time 
pumped water to work a ‘ water balance ’ for winding coal in adjacent shafts. There 
is a ‘ horse gin’ for raising and lowering men working in the shaft. 


Monday, September 5. 
Mr. P. Dunsuratru, O.B.E.—Super Tension Cables. 


The transmission of large blocks of power by underground cable is a subject of 
great interest at the present time, and the paper reviews some of the most important 
features of the problem. The working of cables at higher voltage is necessitated by 
both technical and economic considerations, and the latter are illustrated by a series 
of curves in which estimated costs of plant for typical super tension transmission are 
plotted to show the interdependence of different factors, such as voltage and distance. 
Time effectsin cable failure are briefly discussed, and the characteristics and significance 
of dielectric loss and power factor explained. In comparing the relative merits of 
plain three-core and metal-sheathed core cables, it is shown that the latter have decided 
advantages, and one form, the reinforced 8.L., possesses outstanding features. When 
voltages of 66,000 and above are contemplated, the single core cable becomes a serious 
rival to the three-core construction, and then eddy current losses in the sheaths have 
to be guarded against by keeping the three cables as close together as possible and 
avoiding individual magnetic armouring. The progress already made in cables for 
132,000 v. systems is referred to, and the paper closes with a discussion on the 
difficult, but important, problem, the assessment of cable quality. 


Mr. H. W. Ciroraier.—Switchgear for Alternating Current. 


After a reference to the comparatively recent rise of the science and industry of 
switchgear, the paper proceeds to indicate the distinction between Continental, 
American and British designs, and to state the general tendencies of present-day 
developments in America and in Great Britain. Future designs will be controlled 
by the results of research on outstanding problems; and the paper therefore states 
some of these problems and their lines of solution as an avenue to a forecast of the 
future. The problems dealt with are those of: (1) Insulation, under the headings 
(a) general, (6) need for care in manufacture, (c) material for abnormal conditions, 
and (d) cable insulation ; (2) Relief to operators, with special reference to means of 
ensuring safety and accuracy of operation; (3) The breaking capacity of circuit- 
breakers ; (4) Metal-clad auxiliary apparatus ; (5) Measurement of currents in high- 
voltage circuits; (6) Economy, as influenced by various factors; and (7) The draw- 
out feature in metal-clad switchgear. The essentials for safety in all electrical plant 
and devices are: (1) Complete enclosure of all conductors when alive; (2) Effective 
earthing of all accessible metal which may otherwise become alive by accident ; and 
(3) Easy and safe means of isolation of moving parts for inspection and maintenance ; 
and illustrations are given to show how these fundamental principles are applied to 
switchgear, ranging in size from a domestic plug up to the very largest circuit breakers 
for super-power stations. The paper concludes with a reference to possible lines of 
future development, stressing especially the primary need for absolute freedom from 
failure in switchgear if it is to fulfil its function of protecting the supply against break- 
down or interruption. 


Mr. F. Murcarroyp.—The Mechanical Strength of Metal-Filament 
Electric Lamps. 


The mechanical strength of metal-filament lamps is a matter of primary 
importance to many users, some of whom may purchase each year thousands of lamps 


352 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—@. 


which are used under conditions of mechanical shock and vibration. The paper’ 
seeks to examine the subject comprehensively ; to state the facts now established by 
research and experiment ; and, finally, to define the path of future progress. 

Under ‘ General Considerations,’ the subjects of light efficiency, and the use of 
gas, spiralised filaments, and anti-vibration fittings are briefly considered. 

A second section on ‘ The Metal Filament ’ deals with the subjects of grain growth 
and grain size, effect of stress on deformation and fracture, effect of vibration, the 
transition temperatures of tungsten, and the effect of temperature and intensity of 
vibration. From metallurgical arguments, it is concluded that a filament is always 
weaker when hot than when cold. Large crystals are desirable in order that crystal 
growth may be minimised and ductility increased, although it is pointed out that the 
use of large crystals does not necessarily mean increased strength, owing to fracture 
being generally intra-crystalline. 

In a third section, particulars of practical shock tests of lamps are given, together 
with a view of the automatic shock-testing machine used. As a result of a large 
amount of shock testing work on various types of lamps, it was conclusively demon- 
strated that a lamp is weaker when burning than when cold, the weakness being due 
to failure of the filament which may fracture, short-circuit, or sag. The chief factor 
governing mechanical strength is the nature of the filament; and other factors, such 
as the geometrical arrangement of the filament, the type of mounting, and the general 
design of the lamp, are secondary. It was found that spiralised filaments are not 
necessarily stronger than straight, and that in a gas-filled lamp any added strength 
due to the damping effect of the gas is negligible. 

The fourth, and final, section states briefly the conclusions and recommendations. 
It is argued that although high temperature tends to weaken a filament, it is a 
retrograde step to obtain added strength by lowering the temperature, and therefore 
the light efficiency. Greater strength must be attained by better filament structure 
and not by resorting to uneconomic operation. A general adoption of the spiral 
form of filament is deprecated until the success of the low-consumption gas-filled lamp 
is established. Until then, the straight filament vacuum type lamp is advocated for 
low-consumption lamps, and a squat squirrel-cage form of mounting is advisable. 

Since the mechanical strength of a lamp largely depends on the nature of the 
metal filament, the user is essentially concerned with all investigational work having 
for its object the improvement of the filament. Hitherto he has known little about 
the filament for which he is paying. It is suggested that advantages might accrue 
to both the large user and the manufacturer by indicating on the lamp bulb the type 
of filament used. A method of symbols could be adopted similar to that which works 
successfully in the carbon-brush industry. Although such a system would not tell 
the user much about the filament, it would give him an assurance that he is buying a 
known article, the qualities of which have been determined, or a new article, the 
qualities of which he may then compare with those already known. The user who 
wishes to co-operate would, at any rate, be in a position to add his practical experience 
towards the attainment of the desired ideal. 


Dr. J. Harrmann.—The Jet Wave Rectifier. 


Mr. F. C. Turner.—A Thermionic Valve Type Close Voltage Regulator. 


The paper describes a method of automatically controlling the voltages of D.C. 
generators within fine limits. 

The load on a generator consisting of constant temperature furnaces and fatigue 
testing machines running for long periods is described, and the effect of changes in 
the generator voltage considered. It is shown that for his special caste the allowable 
variation is of the order of plus or minus 0°5 volt in 200. 

Alternative methods of maintaining constant voltage are discussed, and are shown 
to generally permit too large a variation and to be comparatively expensive. The 
evolution of a thermionic valve operated relay is described which gives control of the 
desired order at a moderate cost. A double element regulator capable of controlling 
within plus or minus 0:03 volt is explained. A description is given of the design and 
operation of a heavier time lagged relay and rheostat control, worked by the fine relay. 

The behaviour of the complete regulator over a considerable period is dealt with, 
and possible modifications of control mentioned. The paper is illustrated. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 353 


AFTERNOON. 
Visits to Works :— 


The Leeds Forge Co., Armley and Newlay.—Railway rolling-stcck construction. 
Well House Foundry, Messrs. Joshua Buckton, Ltd.—Testing machines, heavy 
machine tools, enveloping worm-gear. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Prof. W. T. Davin.—The Efficiency of Internal Combustion Engines. 


The suggestions made in this paper are (7) that calculations of the ideal efficiencies 
of internal-combustion engines should be higher than those usually made, and (77) that 
they increase with compression ratio at a greater rate than is generally supposed. 

(t) Experimental work has been carried out during the last few years at Leeds 
in conjunction with Messrs. 8. G. Richardson, W. Davies, R. A. Smith and B. H. 
Thorp, upon explosions of inflammable gaseous mixtures contained in closed vessels 
by means of flame photography and optical indicators. The experiments suggest 
that the usually accepted values for the specific heats at high temperatures of gases 
constituting the products of combustion are too high. The reason for this is that 
specific heat values have been calculated from explosion experiments on the assump- 
tion that the whole of the gaseous mixture has been burnt and is in thermal 
equilibrium by the time that the maximum pressure is reached. The flame photo- 
graphs, together with pressure measurements in explosions covering a wide range of 
mixtures in which the proportion of H, or CO and O, and N, were varied, show that 
this assumption is not justifiable even in the case of those mixtures in which a large 
excess of the reacting gas is present. The significance of this in connection with 
internal combustion engines is that the ideal efficiencies calculated on the basis of 
specific heat values deduced from explosion experiments are too low. 

Engine experiments by Mr. H. Ricardo support this view. He finds that the 
measured thermal efficiency of an engine approaches too closely to the ideal value 
calculated upon the basis of the generally accepted specific heat values to give one 
confidence in the latter. 

(zi) Closed vessel explosions also show that for a mixture of any given composition, 
the ratio of the maximum pressure reached on explosion to the initial pressure of the 
mixture before explosion increases as the initial pressure is increased. I have 
suggested that the causes responsible for this are (?) more complete combustion with 
increasing density, and (i) that the specific heats of CO, and water vapour at high 
temperatures decrease with increasing density. 

Engine experiments by Messrs. Tizard and Pye are of interest in this connection. 
They show that the thermal efficiency of an engine working on a mixture of any given 
composition increases as the compression ratio increases to a greater extent than that 
to be expected from their efficiency calculations which are based upon specific heat 
values assumed to be independent of density. If, as I have suggested, combustion 
becomes more complete in the early stages of the expansion stroke, and the specific 
heats of the products of combustion at high temperatures decrease as the density 
increases, the explanation is clear. 


Mr. H. R. Lupron and Mr. J. H. W. Gru.—Low-lift Axial Flow and 
Centrifugal Pumps. 


Mr. R. Bortase Marruews.—Transport on the Farm by the Ard of 
Electricity. 


It is contended that agriculture—the largest industry in every country—must be 
industrialised if it is to be profitable. To attain this end transport must be done 
electro-mechanically. In the field wagon loaders should be employed, and at the 
barn the loads should be removed and transported in single lifts. Any redistribution 
of the crops should be made by aid of automatic grapple forks. Chain conveyors 
should supply the threshing machine, and mechanical or pneumatic conveyors should 
carry away its products to granary, chaff room and straw barn. Thus the complete 
threshing operation can be carried out with three or four men as compared with the 
usual round dozen. With every electro-mechanical aid in the cow byres the work 


1927 AA 


354 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 


of cleaning, feeding and milking of 150 cows can be accomplished by three men, as 
against the fifteen normally needed. A central hydro-manure plant to distribute the 
manure over the farm hydraulically saves a lot of labour, both of men and horses, 
Over eight tons of produce have to be transported on a farm per arable acre, plus 
34 tons of milk per cow, and at least another nine tons of manure per acre has also 
to be carried and spread. This means a total of 8,152 tons to be transported annually 
on a farm with 420 acres of arable land—no mean proposition. Hence the importance 
of modern electro-mechanical means of transport. 


Mr. H. W. Swirt.—The Transmission of Power by Belts. 


The fundamental principles of the operation of a driving belt are still incompletely 
understood ; in particular, opinion on the mechanism of creep and slip is still divided, 
and relations obtained by causing a belt to move slowly over a stationary pulley are 
still applied to running conditions. 

Discussion of the transfer of power by an extensible belt shows that so long as the 
tension ratio (T,/T,) is less than that (e“8) corresponding to the limiting co-efficient 
of friction and angle of embrace, relative motion on either pulley will only occur over 
the ‘active’ are of embrace which extends back from the point of leaving through 
an angle B where T,/I,=e»8. The successful operation of crowned pulleys and 
twisted drives depends on this fact. Preliminary experiments demonstrated that 
‘ static’ tests do not enable the running characteristics of a belt to be predicted. 

A new plant for the testing of belts under running conditions is described, by means 
of which the speed, power and mean tensions can be controlled and measured and the 
loss of speed and power determined. Power is obtained from a variable speed motor, 
and may be returned mechanically by means of a return belt which permits greater 
powers to be transmitted by the belt under test than can be obtained from the driving 
motor. 

A series of tests carried out under constant mean tensions at a low belt speed 
(1000 f.0.m.) show that the creep-power characteristic can generaliy be predicted 
with some confidence from the known elastic properties of the belting, and that serious 
bodily slip occurs at a value of the tension ratio which corresponds tolerably well 
with that obtained from a ‘static’ test. The characteristics for various classes of 
leather and fabric belting are compared, and the ratio eles defined as the ‘ Co- 

1 
efficient of Performance,’ is proposed as a useful criterion of the effectiveness of a 
driving belt. 

The practical conditions of operation at constant centre distance are discussed ; 
changes in mean tension with power transmitted are examined for horizontal drives 
and the results of experiments are given to confirm the results obtained. 


AFTERNOON. 


Visits to works in Hunslet district :— 


(t) ATREDALE F'ounpRy.—Messrs. Kitson & Co., Ltd. 
(a) A Kitson-Still Locomotive—a combination of an internal combustion and 
steam engine: as applied to a locomotive this is a new departure. 
(b) Three engines for Western Australia. 
(c) Special foundry work in connection with complicated cylinders for locomotives. 
(d) Surface combustion appliances applied to furnace work, heating, cremation, 
and. cooking. 
(7v) Steam ProuacH WorKks.—Messrs. J. Fowler & Co. 
(a) Cultivating machinery (cable-drawn implements, forest clearing engines, 
steam and motor tractors), 
(b) Road transport machinery (steam wagons, traction engines, &c.). 
(c) Road-making machinery (rollers, sprayers, gritters, scarifiers, &c.), 
(d) Construction machinery (concrete mixers, &c.). 
(e) Light railway machinery. 
(wt) Honster EnciIne Works. 
(a) A series of engines for Ceylon. 
(6) Shunting engines of latest L.M. & S. Rly. type. 
(wv) MipLanp Eneinz Worxs.—Messrs. J. & H. McLaren. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G, 355 


(a) Agricultural machinery of many kinds. 

(6) Examples of the new McLaren-Benz high-speed heavy oil engine. 
(v) Sun Founpry.—Messrs. Hathorn Davey. 

(a) Water pumping plant for Ahmedabad. 

(6) Sewage pumping plant for Karachi. 

(c) Large irrigation screw pumps for fen drainage. 
(vt) Lrnps Mrapow Lane Gasworks. 

Inspection of the old Middleton viaduct, by invitation of the Superintendent. 
The first steam locomotive ran on this viaduct in 1812. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Mr. J. Gitcurist.—Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams in Shear. 


1. Results of compressive and tensile tests of concretes used in the beams tested : 
between 1000 and 5000 Ibs. per square inch the compressive strength can be expressed 
in terms of the tensile strength by the following formula :— 

C=12 (T—100) 
where C is the compressive strength of the concrete and T its tensile strength, both 
in Ibs. per square inch. Above a compressive strength of 5000 lbs. per square inch 
there is not the same increase in the tensile strength for this particular kind of concrete, 
which was made of varying mixtures of cement fondu and crushed millstone grit to 
pass through a quarter-inch riddle. 

2. Shearing strength of beams of T section, with straight tension reinforcement 
bars hooked at the ends, with no verticals or shear reinforcement whatever. The 
following table gives the practical minimum values of the shearing stress at the neutral 
axis near the end of the beam calculated on the ordinary beam theory from the results 
of the tests. 


C.8.D.C. C.S.B.L. 
C. ie 1% steel. 14% steel. 1% steel. 13% steel. 
1000 183 160 210 290 350 
5000 520 290 420 350 500 


C and T are the compressive and tensile strengths of the concrete, C.S.D.C. is the 
calculated shear stress under the load at which the first crack was seen in the region 
of greatest shear ; while C.S8.B.L. is the calculated shearing stress at the breaking load. 
All the figures are in lbs. per square inch, 

The author had previously stated in a paper published in Hngineering in 1915 that, 
for a concrete of about 3000 Ibs. per square inch compressive strength, the failing 
shear stress of a beam would be 275 lbs. per square inch, this being a conclusion from 
published tests. In the above table the corresponding figure would be the mean of 
290 and 350, that is 320 lbs. per square inch. 


Mr. H. H. Burness.—Large Low Head Conduits. 


Mr. T. M. Naytor.—The Whirling of Shafts. 


Some years ago a discussion took place as to whether there was a disturbance 
before the whirling speed proper. A further discussion followed as to whether the 


disturbance occurred at 9° yo the whirling speed proper. 

Before describing his experiments, the author gives a brief summary of the matter 
published on this point. Then he describes his experiments and gives photographs of 
the disturbances which occurred when experimenting with an overhung shaft loaded 
at the end. 


The conclusion arrived at is that there is a disturbance at 4 the whirling speed 
proper. 


Report of the Earth Pressure Committee. 
AA 


356 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 433.) 


Thursday, September 1. 
Mr. R. G. CoLtinewoop.—Roman Signal Stations on the Yorkshire Coast. 


A considerable number of small Roman forts exist on the Yorkshire coast, all 
situated on high commanding ground suchas Scarborough Castle Hill, Filey Brigg, &c., 
and each consisting of a stone rampart and ditch enclosing a strong central foundation 
evidently intended to support a tower. These fortified towers, several of which have 
been dug in the last 15 or 20 years, are signal-stations of a type evolved by a 
continuous process from a light wooden signalling-turret used in the early Imperial 
age; as time went on, the system of signalling developed and the signal-stations 
became more massive and partook more of the character of miniature forts. These 
Yorkshire specimens are of unusual interest as evidence of the measures taken in the 
late fourth century A.D. to secure Britain against the piratical raids of Saxons and 
other tribes. They belong to the latest phase in the Roman occupation of Britain, 
and there seem to be references to them in the-literature of the period. Five stations 
have been discovered, reaching from Scarborough to Saltburn ; it is highly probable 
that there were many others, some awaiting discovery, some doubtless destroyed by 
coastal erosion. In at least one case—Scarborough—the Roman site is curiously 
complicated by prehistoric remains below it and medizval above. 


Mr. S. N. Mitter.—Roman York: The excavations of 1925-26. 


Most of the excavation has been done within the east corner of the fortress near 
Monk Bar. There has been a little supplementary digging in the Museum Gardens, by 
permission of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. The total area so far excavated 
is small, and the conclusions it indicates are therefore to be regarded as provisional. 

Remains have been discovered of the clay rampart and wooden barracks of the 
original legionary fortress, which seems to have been established c. 71-74, in the 
governorship of Petilius Cerialis. The clay rampart was later replaced by a stone 
wall with an earth backing, probably c. 104-108, in Trajan’s reign, and the first stone 
tower at the east corner would seem to date to that period. There is evidence to 
suggest that the tower and wall had to be repaired early in Hadrian’s reign as the 
result of a destruction which may have had some connection with the disappearance 
of the Ninth Legion and its replacement by the Sixth. This, however, requires 
confirmation, and here valuable evidence may be given by the series of interval towers, 
the sites of which can now be laid down round the circuit of the defences as the result 
of the fortunate discovery of a well-preserved example between the east corner of the 
fortress and Monk Bar. Whether or not the fortress suffered a disaster towards the 
end of Trajan’s reign, it now seems certain that extensive damage was done in the 
serious trouble which broke out early in the reign of Commodus and led to the 
abandonment of Scotland (c. 182). During the lengthy period of restoration that 
followed the damage done at York was repaired, and the wall and east corner tower 
as then reconstructed can now be seen near Monk Bar still standing to a height of 
15 feet. 

The supplementary excavations in the Museum Gardens, besides helping to clear 
up the interior plan of the Multangular Tower, have proved that that bastion and the 
adjacent length of wall form one homogeneous structure, dating to the opening 
years of the fourth century, when Constantius was in Britain. How far this late 
reconstruction extended backwards from the river front is still to determine. So far 
there is no proof of any fourth-century occupation within the east corner, and it is 
just: possible that the fortress may have been reduced in size. It is hoped that further 
excavation will enable the fourth-century defences to be traced, and throw light 
upon York and kindred fortresses as they existed under the military system represented 
by the Notitia Dignitatum. 


Mr. I. A. Ricumonn.—The Roman Camps at Cawthorn. 


These excavations, reported to the Association at Southampton in 1925, have since 
been continued for two months, in 1926. The results were the complete recovery of 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 357 


the plans of the wooden gates of Camp A, and the discovery of traces of a wooden 
front to the rampart of a type not discovered in Roman Britain before, but represented 
in various forms in the Rhine-lands. Unfinished earth-ovens of this period were also 
found, in almost every stage of construction, indicating the short life of such structures 
and the ease with which they could be excavated in firm subsoil. To the second 
period of occupation of this camp belong newly discovered rectangular pits covered 
with wigwam-like roofs, of which the strut-holes were found ; these were apparently 
used for habitation, since they had hearths at their edges. A long narrow and deep 
pit which occurred near them was of quite different type and seems to have been a 
latrine-trench, but more examples are wanted. Excavations in Fort D, confined to 
its northern defences, produced evidence that these defences were never completely 
dug or finished, thus confirming surface indications on other parts of the circuit. 
Much still remains to be done at this interesting site, which continues to fulfil 
its early promise by producing unique features in an excellent state of preservation. 


Mr. L. 8. B. Leakey and Mr. B. H. Newsam.—Preliminary Report on 
Excavations in Kenya Colony—The Stone Age in Kenya. 


Mr. Leakey’s first year’s work was concerned with sites in two areas, one at Lake 
Nakuru in the Rift Valley, one at Upper Elmenteita. On the Lake Nakuru site 
evidence was found for two high lake levels, and for falls in connection with these 
two high levels to a point below the 200-feet level. These are the high levels which 
are thought to represent pluvial periods to be correlated with the glacial epochs in 
Europe. This suggestion awaits further examination in the light of evidence 
furnished by fossil bones and skulls collected from various horizons on the lake 
deposits. The archeological site at Nakuru is situated 365 feet above present sea- 
level, and consists of a deposit along the edge of a cliff. The two upper strata show 
no sign of submergence, and must be later than the high-water level. In these, 
through a depth of 13 feet, were found ten burials with hundreds of tools, pottery 
fragments, &c., as well as stone bowls, these last more numerous in the upper layers. 
One skeleton was in almost perfect condition. It alone afforded possibility of any 
detailed measurement. The striking features were the length and width of the 
face, the depth of the mandible at the symphysis, the height of the vault of the palate 
and the prominent relatively narrow nose, with a low index of 50.9. The head was 
very long, in fact ultra-dolichocephalic. The associated industry is essentially 
microlithic. Beneath this stratum was a small deposit of pebbles and sand which 
appears to have been subject to water action. In it were a few obsidian tools and 
fossil bones. It is obviously older than the upper two, and has been submerged by 
high lake level. The tools for the most part were backed blades. 

The second site at Upper Elmenteita is 393 feet above present lake level. It is 
situated along the edge of a cliff which consists of lava overlying an alluvial deposit, 
forming one side of a valley cut by a prehistoric river during an interpluvial period, 
and subsequently filled up by a rise of the lake, most of this later alluvium being 
washed away in a subsequent fall. In the residue were found remains of twenty-six 
individuals, scattered about at various depths, in pockets in crevices; obsidian tools 
and pottery and eggshell were found around with them. It is suggested that they 
belong to a period previous to the rising of the lake, which deposited them where they 
were found. All the bones are more or less fossilised and well preserved. The human 
remains include at least two skull types—a primitive type, Elmenteita A., and a less 
primitive, but with one or two remarkable features, Elmenteita B. In skull A the 
remarkable feature is the mandible, which has a very deep bone at the symphysis— 
41 mm.; the relative height of the ascending part, and the obtuseness of the angle ; 
also the low forehead, the length of face, the bizygomatic width, compared with the 
breadth of the skull, and the exceptionally long and narrow nose, index 47.4. The 
skull is very dolichocephalic, the relation of breadth to length being 68.2. Skull B 
differed from skull A in its greater breadth, index 75; the capacity of the skull 
exceedingly high, 1680.96; the nose, exceptionally narrow, index 40, and the jaw, 
exceptionally long. Neither of these types resembles the modern negroes of the 
country. 

The third site, at Upper Elmenteita, is a cave or rock-shelter, on the side of a 
steep valley 216 feet above stream level, and 594 feet above lake level, and has yielded 
important stratagraphical evidence: 1, 2 and 3 are modern layers, contain no tools ; 
4 is a barren layer of alluvial silt; 5, a layer of rock rubble from roof; 6, 3 feet of 


358 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


hearth earth, containing pottery, tools, &c., and animal bones; 7, rock rubble from 
roof; 8, layer as 4; 9, layer of rock rubble; 10, layer of hearths with implements 
and bones; 11, burials. If, as it is argued on the geological evidence, the two 
alluvial deposits here are deposits of the two high lake levels, the first prehistoric 
period belongs to the last interpluvial and the second to an earlier one. Of the 
prehistoric horizons, the first or later belongs to the Neolithic in culture if not in 
time, resembling the industry of the first Elmenteita site (Mr. Monroe’s farm), while 
the second is much cruder and contains no pottery, but rough flakes with just a very 
small trace of secondary chippings. Large quantities of small rodent-like animals 
had been found, but none of the human remains has yet been taken from the burials. 

Lastly, a drift across the Enteril River gives a section across the alluvial plain 
330 feet above present lake level in the deposits of the last pluvial period, in which 
appear a number of obsidian tools, chiefly lunates and backed points associated with 
fossil bones and teeth of some extinct form of hippopotamus. 


Rev. H. J. Duxinrietp AstLey.—Cup and Ring Markings. 


The real origin and significance of these mysterious markings are to be found in the 
endeavour of primitive man to express by signs, the meaning of which was understood 
by him and his fellows, the ideas which he would convey to them. 

It is suggested, therefore, that in these signs or markings we have at once both a 
primitive form of heraldry and the beginnings of an alphabet ; as a primitive form of 
heraldry they are connected with Totemism. Various theories have been advanced 
as to the magical or religious significance of the markings ; other theories are that 
they were astronomical, or intended to be maps of the locality in which they were found, 
and the like. A study of the examples which are to be seen, for instance, at Ilkley 
will be sufficient to show the baselessness of these theories. 


Dr. H. M. Amt.—Recent Discoveries at Combe Capelle. 


The paper deals with the various discoveries made during the last two seasons at 
Combe Capelle by students of the Canadian School of Prehistory organised under 
the auspices of the Royal Society of Canada and under the egis of ‘ Les Beaux Arts’ 
of France. 

Many interesting types of previously unrecorded industries of Monstierian Age 
are described, and an attempt is made to correlate the discoveries made at Combe 
Capelle with those of La Micogue, Le Monstier, La Ferrassie and Les Eyzies. 

The four beds (or zones de terrain) in which the materials were found offer an 
interesting succession of objects in stone as well as of bones and teeth of animals of 
early Quaternary Period, which, when taken together, afford excellent criteria, 
by means of which the industries of man and the faunas of the period can be determined 
to advantage. 


Dr. T. AsHpy.—Roman Roads in the Valley of the Taber. 


I pointed out in my Presidential Address to Section H two years ago that one of 
the principal factors in the growth of the power of Rome was her command of the 
only permanent crossing of the Tiber in the lower part of its course. The bridge 
which was established just below the island, within the area of that part of the river 
bank which was protected by the city wall and by a fort on the Janiculum, was only 
the successor of a ferry which probably existed long before there was any city on the 
site of Rome at all, and was used extensively for trading purposes. Another ferry 
must have been situated at Fidenae—where there was never a bridge—a few miles 
up the river from Rome, and its existence explains the continual struggles between 
Rome and Veii for the possession of that important strategic point. 

Like several others higher up, it continued to exist in imperial times; and thus 
the roads on each bank, which are of very early origin, were kept in communication 
with one another; for the absence of bridges even above Rome is most striking, 
while below the city even ferries were entirely lacking, except at Ostia itself. The 
Via Flaminia, with its two bridges taking it into and out of Etruria, distant 
respectively 3 and 42 miles from the city, is a purely military highway, and dates 
only from 220 B.c.: and a theory recently advanced that the first of the two, the 
Pons Milvius, has taken the place of a very early crossing has little to commend it. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 859 


Dr. Ferrx Oswatp.—Recent Excavation on the Roman Camp of Margi- 
dunum on the Fosse Way. 


Excavation carried on for several years has revealed the fact that the Roman 
camp of Margidunum, situated on the Fosse Way, halfway between Leicester and 
Lincoln, was founded in the reign of Claudius, probably by Ostorius Seapula, when 
(according to Tacitus) he built a series of frontier-forts between the Severn and the 
Trent (i.e. along the Fosse Way) to secure his hold on the country during his advance 
into Wales. Margidunum is rhomboidal in outline, with an area of about 7 acres, 
and probably held a garrison of 1,000 men. It was strongly defended by as many 
as six ditches and a wooden stockade, burnt apparently during the Boudiccan insurrec- 
tion, when Cerialis and a remnant of cavalry of the Ninth Legion fled to Lincoln after 
being ambushed. The camp is traversed by three parallel roads, but the headquarters 
building is in a field not yet available for excavation. Dr. Oswald is at present 
excavating a large bath-house on the west side of the fort, interrupting the continuity 
of the ditches. Margidunum ceased to be of military value at the beginning of the 
second century, and was completely dismantled, even foundations being removed ; 
it became a mere posting-station, mentioned twice in the Antonine Itineraries. In 
the fourth century, after Theodosius had repelled the invasion of the Picts who had 
laid waste nearly the whole country, Margidunum was refortified by a stone wall on 
a concrete foundation, 9 feet thick, and continued to be occupied down to the end 
of the Roman occupation. The pottery is abundant and remarkably varied, and is 
of great chronological value when occurring in numerous wells, sealed-up pits and 
ditches ; it belongs to all periods, from pedestalled urns of late Celtic type in Claudian 
wells to the imitation ‘Samian’ with ‘ daisy’ pattern of the fourth century. 


Friday, September 2. 


Presidential Address by Prof. F. G. Parsons on Lhe Englishman of the 
Future. (See p. 138.) 


Sir W. Boyp Dawkins, F.R.S.—The Place of Man (Homo sapiens) in the 
Tertiary Period. 


The study of mankind, formerly confined to history, has now been extended through 
prehistory far back into the geological record, in which Man (Homo sapiens) is 
the last outcome of the mammalian evolution which characterises the successive 
stages of the Tertiary Period. In this evolution the Anthropids—universally taken 
to be intermediates between man and the higher apes—appear in the Late Pliocene 
or the Early Pleistocene, and apparently become extinct in Europe before the close 
of the Pleistocene Age. 

In Europe and in Palestine they occur in association with rude stone implements 
of the Chellean, Acheulean and Mousterean groups of the French archeologists, a 
fact which raises the question as to whether the whole of the Early Paleolithic imple- 
ments, generally assigned to man, should be referred to one or other of the anthro- 
pids. All the reputed cases of their association with Homo sapiens which I have 
examined turn out to be burials in later times. I should therefore answer that 
question in the affirmative. The anthropids passed into Europe from their centres 
of evolution in the warmer regions of Africa and Asia along with the animals now 
living in warm climates, such as the hippopotamus. They ranged as far north as 
Yorkshire, occupying the same hunting grounds in middle and northern Europe as 
their successors the artists of the caves. The artist cave-dweller—the earliest re- 
presentative of Homo sapiens in Europe—has left his remains in strata that overlie 
those containing the implements of the anthropid hunters, and are therefore of later 
date and proved by the associative remains to belong to the last phase of the Pleistocene. 
He appears in Europe as an emigrant from Asia—a well-equipped hunter highly 
developed in brain and body and of the same physique as the Iberic or Mediterranean 
tribes that form the basis of the present population of Europe. He found his way 
into Britain when it was part of the Continent and lost his characteristic arts and 
crafts during the vast period of the slow depression of the Atlantic border, which 
created the British Isles and forms the hard-and-fast line between the Pleistocene and 
Holocene periods. He probably was absorbed into the invading Neolithic tribes 


360 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


that also came in from Asia, bringing with them the domestic animals and the Neolithic 
culture at the beginning of the Holocene age. 

Of the Holocene it only remains to note that prehistory shades into history, so 
that what is prehistoric in one region is historic in another. The records of Chaldea 
and Egypt, going back to about 4000 B.c., are the limits to the possibility of fixing 
a date in years. 

While, therefore, we cannot date the arrival of man in Europe, we can be sure of 
his vast antiquity, and trace him back to the last phase of the period when the British 
Isles were the uplands of the Pleistocene Continent. 


Prof. T. H. Bryce.—On a Collection of Human Skeletons from the North 
of Scotland dating from the Viking Period. 


The bones which form the subject of this note were recovered from a group of 

graves in Caithness, excavated by Mr. A. J. H. Edwards, of the National Museum of 
Antiquities, Edinburgh. The graves were of a type not before described, but in some 
particulars resembling those described long ago by Laing and Huxley. They were 
discovered during the partial removal of a turf-covered, sandy eminence. The 
structural detail of the graves varied, but the typical grave was surrounded by a 
well-formed kerb enclosing a rectangular or circular space some twelve feet across. 
This was occupied by a rudely built wall which served to enclose an elongated chamber 
of about 7 to 10 ft. long by.3 ft. 6 in. broad. The upper stratum of the wall 
was formed of rounded pebbles of white quartzite. The chamber or cist contained 
two or more skeletons fully extended—the bodies being in some cases separated 
by flags set upright, in other cases they were enclosed in cists placed at different 
levels. The orientation was commonly roughly N.W. and S8.E., but varied. The 
head was generally placed at the north, but sometimes at the south end of the 
grave. ; 
There was a remarkable absence of grave goods, the only relic found being a 
bronze chain round the neck of the skeleton of a young female. The poverty of the 
graves distinguishes them from those hitherto recognised as Viking. The kerb 
differentiates them from graves belonging to the Norse Early Iron Age. They most 
closely resemble graves in Bornholm and Gothland of various periods of the Early 
Tron Age. The bronze chain belongs, in the form of its links, &c., to a type found 
across the North Sea and dating from about 1000 a.p. 

The people buried in these graves were of low stature, the average height of the 
men being 5 ft. 5 in., and that of the women 5 ft. 4 in. This contrasts with the 
average stature of the Caithness men among Dr. Tocher’s recruits, which was 
5 ft. 8 in. 

In considering these skeletons, another group from an underground building 
at Renniboster, Orkney, with exactly the same general characters, has been 
included. 

The skull form is dolichocephalic, the average index for the males being 74, and 
that for the females 75-6. This last figure is unduly high, being raised by the inclusion 
of one broader skull, the only one in the series which approached the limits of 
brachycephaly. These indices are lower than any other larger and more modern 
series. They may be taken to represent the main factor in the population of the 
sen of Scotland in their early days. The type differs little from that prevailing 
to day. 

A typical Viking grave excavated by Mr. Edwards, with iron axe, umbo of a 
shield, an iron knife, bronze pin, &c., may be given as a contrast. The stature of 
the man was about 5 ft. 63 in. The skull was brachycephalic with an index of 
82, and not of Nordic type. 

The chief interest of the skeletons lay in the characters of the leg bones. In the 
majority the angle of torsion, so called, of the femur was high, sometimes very high, 
and associated with the forward directed head, the upper part of the shaft of the 
bone showed a distinct outward twist. The so-called torsion of the tibial shaft was 
also great in most cases. Further, the outer tibial condyle was generally convex 
posteriorly, and the border of the talar surface was facetted. In these respects the 
bones resemble those of certain peoples who habitually adopt the squatting posture, 
and we may conclude that the same was true of these early northern folk. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 361 


Dr. Atrrep A. Mumrorp.—Body Measurements, Respiratory Tests and 
School Progress. 


Body measurements and respiratory tests have been taken during school life in 
order to study (A) Body Growth, (B) Progress in power and endurance, (C) the relation 
A and B bear to School progress. Some preliminary enquiry has also been made 
into their relation to subsequent University career. 

The measurements usually taken during school life are those of Height and Weight. 
When considered in relation to each other, as well as to age, such measurements often 
afford useful indication of the degree of nutrition and the presence of circumstances 
favourable to general growth among pre-adolescent children. But when we come to 
consider the physical progress of the adolescent child, other measurements and tests 
must be added, particularly those connected with the degree of respiratory develop- 
ment, viz., chest girth and vital capacity. If we wish to estimate the value of special 
kinds of physical training in sports, we need to make additional measurements, e.g. 
thoracic diameters, shoulder girth in relation to trunk length, upper and lower arm 
girth, &c. We may also use the endurance test, or power to hold the breath against 
a definite pressure, or we may study the regional movements of the chest walls. 

We gain little by considering body measurements or respiratory tests singly. 
We must consider them in their mutual relationship. This may be described in the 
form of ‘indices.’ Height-Weight indices give us some knowledge of nutrition. 
Thoracic indices, based on the relation of antero-posterior to lateral diameters, provide 
information about the shape of the chest and, when combined with shoulder trunk 
indices, that is the relation of shoulder girth to trunk length, provide information 
about the development not only of the shoulders and arms, but of the underlying 
development of the respiratory organs. Further, height, weight and chest girth not 
only give an index of body build but, combined in the form of a certain index, provide 
a relevant figure descriptive of the relation of volume to weight, that is the specific 
gravity or buoyancy of the body. 

The terms physical fitness and physical efficiency are frequently used as if there 
were some uniform standard either of body build or physiological function by which 
we could measure the vigour of all classes of individuals. It is necessary to take 
into consideration the special characteristics of the body build and the aptitude for 
special activities before we assign these terms, for there are probably as many forms of 
physical fitness and physical efficiency as there are forms of physical activity. 
Swimming, harriers, sprinting, boxing, wrestling, all make special demands both on 
body form and method of respiratory action. 

Although body measurements and respiratory tests have been principally con- 
sidered in relation with physical activity, yet full enquiry shows they are also related 
to mental activity and to the capacity to withstand and recover from mental strain 
in school life. School work calls for activity of the same organs and tissues, e.g. 
brain, heart, lungs, and skin, as does bodily exercise, though in a different way and in 
a different degree. Undue activity of body or mind leads to overstimulation of one 
and neglect of the other. In either case the complete functions of the body organs 
are not called out. Early failure follows overstimulation of one aspect and under- 
stimulation of the other. 

Numerous tables, diagrams and charts will be shown to illustrate the above- 
mentioned points. 


Prof. H. 8S. FLEurE and Miss R. M. Firemrnc.—Demonstration of a new 
type of Anthropometric Instrument. 


Mr. E. K. Tratman.—The Prehistoric Archeology of the Mendips. 


Nearly all past writers and many present ones on the prehistory of England either 
completely ignore the Mendip Hills of Somerset as an area of importance in relation 
to the subject or make but passing reference to such remains as they happen to have 
heard about. The Ordnance Survey maps too show but comparatively few sites, 
and one is left with an impression, after studying these maps, that the Mendips were 
but very sparsely populated during the various prehistoric periods. 

Actually the reverse is the case. A survey shows that the caves in which parts 
of this district abound were, when they were at all suitable for habitation, occupied 


362 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


in Paleolithic times as well as in many cases in the succeeding prehistoric periods ; 
but as yet the scientific excavation of the caves has not proceeded very far and the 
evidence of occupation is often at present based on more or less haphazard excavations. 

The succeeding Neolithic period is so far but poorly represented until we come to 
the closing phase of the age, but this lack of evidence is almost certainly due to want 
of excavation, and work now proceeding is beginning to yield a firm basis for further 
research. 

In the Bronze Age the top of the Mendips was densely populated, so densely in 
fact that it rivals even Wiltshire, but here again much further excavation is needed 
in order to get a full history of the occupation during this period. 

In the Iron Age the population apparently increased still further, for every possible 
cave yields remains either of the pure Iron Age or of Romano-British times. Man is 
using every available site for living purposes and is even spreading down into the 
valleys and low-lying marshy moors. 

Thus it is seen that the Mendips were extensively occupied from Palzolithic times 
onwards through the succeeding ages up to the coming of the Romans, at which point 
our survey ends. 


Mr. Hersert Taytor.—Fzcavation of King Arthur’s Cave, near Whit- 
church, in the Wye Valley. 


Intact portions of the deposits of King Arthur’s Cave excavated by the University 
of Bristol Speleological Society have yielded a sequence in fauna and industry from 
Final Aurignacian or Proto-Solutrean to a late phase of the Paleolithic. 

In a passage a deposit, probably the Upper Cave Earth of the Rev. W. 8. Symonds, 
lay directly upon the limestone floor and contained a small hearth ; a fauna including 
Rhinoceros tichorinus, Cervus sps., Hyena spelea—all very common—Equus sp., 
Elephas primigenius, Bos sp., Ursus sp.; and an Aurignaco-Solutrean industry. 

At the mouth, upon yellow clay formerly continuous with the cave contents, was 
a talus of angular fragments of limestone. ; 

At its base the fauna was similar to the above, at its centre predominantly 
microtine, and at its surface cervine, including rarely the reindeer. Besides scanty 
industrial remains throughout the rubble contained two hearth-levels, one near the 
base, one at the surface beneath about a foot of humus. The industry of the lower 
approximates to that of the hearth in the passage; that of the upper, characterised 
by gravette-like pygmy implements and gravette points incompletely retouched and 
sometimes shouldered, is probably comparable with that of the Base and Lower 
Middle Zones of Mother Grundy’s Parlour. 


Monday, September 5. 


Dr. J. P. Hurron.—The Significance of Head-Hunting in Assam. 


A recently published and authoritative work on Borneo suggests that the origin 
of head-hunting in that island may be due to a desire for human hair as ornament 
or for human beings to accompany the dead in the next world. These alternatives 
suggest that the real significance of head-hunting in the Indonesian area is as yet 
imperfectly understood, and the practice in Assam may throw light on the whole 
question. 

It can be demonstrated that in the Naga Hills the souls of the dead are regarded 
as fertilising agents for the soil, for stock and for the human population, and practices 
connected with head-hunting go to show that this custom also is founded on the same 
underlying belief as the customs which govern the disposal of the dead. 

In order to assist the fertilising powers of the dead, phallic stones are erected 
either as symbolic abiding places for the soul or, more probably, as actual media for 
the soul’s exercise of its fertilising powers, and similar phallic stones are intimately 
connected with head-hunting, the soul being apparently transferred from the head 
to an erect stone as it is in some cases from the head of a deceased relative to a wooden 
statue of the same. 

Head-hunting is a widespread practice, and it is possible that the custom elsewhere 
has been based on a similar theory of the soul. 


Miss W. 8. Brackman.—The Modern Egyptian Medicine Man. 


ae 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H; 863 


Mr. G. R. Cartine.—Primitive Weaving at Bankfield Museum. 


Primitive weaving implements and the early history of weaving is essentially a 
suitable subject to illustrate in a museum like Bankfield Museum at Halifax, as that 
town is in the centre of the weaving trade. It was on this account that the late 
H. Ling Roth, one of the chief authorities on primitive weaving, decided to exhibit 
this subject at Bankfield Museum as fully as he could. The collection starts with the 
usually accepted theory that weaving is probably derived from mat-making and 
basketry. The chief feature in weaving is the loom, and the evolution of the loom 
and the distribution of the various types as well as the evolution and distribution of 
the various accessories is the main purpose of the collection. At present the looms 
have been divided into those for mat-work, or in other words for unspun filament, 
and those in which a spun filament is used. Looms again can be divided into vertical, 
semi-vertical and horizontal, but probably more important than the position is the 
method of obtaining the ‘shed.’ The most primitive method is to obtain it by hand, 
but a great advance was made when the use of a rod was introduced to which the 
alternate warp threads were attached. This is the rod-heddle. The frame-heddle, 
which is usually worked by the feet, enabled further advances to be made in devices 
to accelerate the speed of working. 


Mr. H. W. Seron-Karr.—A Traveller’s Impressions of the Physical 
Superiority of the so-called Uncivilised and Subject Races and its Causes. 


Notwithstanding the unhealthy climates in which certain native tribes and races 
are living, and in spite of, or perhaps because of, hard conditions of life, the author 
assumes from their general appearance, apart from medical statistics, that the physique 
of such people is superior to that of the European city-dweller. He cites some able 
and distinguished authorities as to cause and cure—breeding from the unfit being 
one of the former. 


Visit to the Bankfield Museum, Halifax. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Dr. H. Franxrort.—The Early Prehistoric Painted Pottery of the Near 
and Middle East. 


The earliest painted pottery of which we know seems to be that of Susa I. At 
Tepe Khazineh, Tell el Obeid, and Abu Shahrein we find its descendants. But 
westward of the Persian mountains it appears in the earliest (pre-Sumerian ?) period. 
It is characteristic, however, for the Persian-Armenian Highlands ; for in Seistan we 
find a descendant of the Susa I. pottery, with evidence that it persisted there while 
in Susa itself the second civilisation with its north-western affinities flourished. And 
it seems to have extended at least as far north as Rhages. Probably the early pottery 
from Samarra and that from Tell Zeidan belongs to it, and it may therefore be that 
originally Mesopotamia, as far north as the Middle Euphrates, has belonged to this 
culture. But on the whole the ‘ Fertile Crescent’ is culturally opposed to its eastern 
neighbour. The earliest pottery of Palestine and Syria dated by its exportations into 
predynastic Egypt is different. This civilisation of the plains, which we may call 
perhaps North Syrian, is predominant in Southern Mesopotamia at the time of the 
earliest appearance of the Sumerians, and precedes these newcomers in Northern 
Mesopotamia. It is marked by polychrome pottery and theriomorphic vases, and 
extends from North Syria via Assur and Kish up to Susa II, thus hardly leaving the 
lowlands. Architectural and other characteristics contrast it with the Sumerian 
civilisation, and it may well be responsible for the Semitic element in Mesopotamia. 
Beyond Taurus there is from the beginning a third civilisation, marked first by 
monochrome black and then by red wares. Whether any connection existed with 
the civilisation of the Persian-Armenian Highlands earlier than the movements of 
peoples which mark the opening of the second millennium B.C., we cannot say with 
certainty, but it seems probable. 

The painted pottery discovered in India is partly late, and then connected with 
Nal in Beluchistan ; some of it, however, is similar to that from Tell Kaudeni in the 


364 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


Zhob Valley, while other cases from Beluchistan resemble in many ways those from 
Samarra. Thus there is a possibility that the civilisation of the Persian-Armenian 
Highlands extended farther east. But in connection with Sumerian origins it should 
be remembered that the Sumerians seem in Mesopotamia to use unpainted wares 
throughout, and that at Mohenjo Daro also the unpainted wares are most common. 
The painted pottery found in China can, with one exception, not be brought in 
relation with either Asiatic or South Russian wares. The exception is formed by a 
few sherds found at Sha Ching ; these seem to resemble wares found at various points 
within the province of the civilisation typical for the Persian-Armenian Highlands, 
. namely at Tepe Mohammed Djaffar, and.at Urmya. The resemblance seems close 
both as regards technique and style of decoration, and we may perhaps assume that 
it spread with the knowledge of copper-working from a Transcaucasian centre. 


Followed by discussion. 
Dr. R. C. C. Cray.—The Overlap of the Bronze and Iron Ages. 


Recent excavation has shown that cinerary urns of the collared type were the 
immediate predecessors of those of the barrel-bucket-globular types. It is 
unquestionable that the latter were the products of invaders. The close similarity 
in form and decoration between the barrel-bucket-globular types of cinerary urns 
and the domestic vessels of the first part of the early Iron Age, also the products of 
invaders, suggests that the two were contemporary—one the funereal and the other 
the domestic ware of the same peoples. It is probable that in the south of Britain 
the middle Bronze Age lasted up to the introduction of the knowledge of Iron. 


Mrs. M. E. Cunnrineton.— Woodhenge.’ 


The excavations described were carried out by Mr. and Mrs. Cunnington on a 
site in the parish of Durrington, Wilts. A photograph from the air taken in the 
summer of 1926 revealed a series of pits enclosed within a circtilar bank and ditch. On 
excavation these pits have proved to be arranged in a series of six concentric ovals, 
and to have once held the bases of timber posts or uprights. The pits forming each 
ring are fairly uniform in size, but they vary in each ring. Thus the outermost 
ring consists of 60 comparatively small holes; the next of 32 uniformly larger 
ones; the next of 16 still larger holes; while the holes of the three inner rings 
are more uniform in character and of a medium size. This difference in the size of the 
holes clearly indicates that the uprights differed in size and character in each ring. 
The evidence obtained that the uprights were of timber is believed to be quite definite. 
The site represents a type of prehistoric monument that appears, so far as is known 
at present, to be unique. The plan has certain analogies to that of Stonehenge, and 
it can only be conjectured that this remarkable timber structure was designed for 
ceremonial purposes of some kind. From bank to bank the outer enclosure is 250 ft. 
in diameter. The site is a little less than two miles N.E. of Stonehenge. 


AFTERNOON, 


Prof. T. H. Bryce.—The Prehistory of Scotland and the Theory of the 
Archaic Culture. 


The object of this paper is to examine briefly some points in the prehistory of 
Scotland in relation to the propositions of the supporters of the theory of the archaic 
culture. The points are the distribution of chambered cairns in relation to mineral 
deposits, and to the known rites of ancient mining for gold, silver, and copper; the 
distribution of interments containing beakers and brachycephalic skulls in relation to 
that of the chambered cairns; the distribution of stone circles in Scotland and their 
archzological horizon ; the occurrence of terraces in south Scotland and the problems 
they present ; dry-stone building in Scotland. 


Dr. A. C. Happon, F.R.S.—Geometrical Figures from Malekula and — 
Ambrym, New Hebrides. 


These remarkable figures were discovered by Mr. A. B. Deacon last year. Mr. 
Deacon was a brilliant young student of the University of Cambridge who, after 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 365 


taking his degree, went to Malekula for ethnographical investigations. He did a 
large amount of first-class work during the year or more that he was in the field, and 
died of blackwater fever as he was waiting for the steamer to take him to Sydney, 
where he had been appointed to the lectureship in Anthropology in the university. 
His death is a very grievous loss to the science of Anthropology. From time to time 
he sent me copies of some of his notes, and from these I have compiled the information 
that I now present to the section. 

There is a very large number of different diagrams or figures, and the method of 
drawing them is handed down from generation to generation. They are made only 
by men, but they are not secret, as women may see them. A rectangular area is 
made level and smooth on the sand or ashes are spread over the surface of the 
smoothed earth. In drawing them a framework of simple lines, squares or rectangles. 
is first constructed, and then, starting from a certain point, curves, circles or ellipses. 
are described about the framework in a continuous line without lifting the finger from 
the sand until the original starting-point is reached. So far as possible no line is 
traced over a second time. The natives have technical terms for certain loops. 
Some of the figures represent various tubers, shells or turtle, a rat eating a breadfruit, 
the sun, moon and various objects and persons connected with their mythology or 
secret ceremonial. Many of the figures have stories about them. A number of the 
figures have extraordinary functions: one is used in swearing an oath. Another, 
called ‘ the path,’ is drawn by a spirit in front of a rock, the path lies across the middlc 
of the figure. As each ghost of a dead man comes along the road to the other world 
the guardian spirit rubs out half the figure on arriving at the rock, the ghost loses his 
way and wanders about searching for a road to get past the spirit of the rock. If 
he knows how to complete the rubbed-out half of the figure he does so, and passes 
along the track or path in the middle. If, however, he does not know the figure, 
the spirit eats him and so he never reaches the abode of the dead. Several of the 
figures are definitely connected with a mythical being variously termed Ambat, Kabat, 
Hambut. Sometimes he is spoken of as the being who made man; others speak of 
five Ambat who are affirmed to have been white men with narrow noses, but their 
descendants became black. The Ambat are associated with very secret fertility 
ceremonies, the charnel place of the clan, stone tables and upright stones, sacred 
pottery and other things, including a ritual use of branches of the piper methysticum, 
the kava tree. Until Mr. Deacon’s full notes are available little more can be said 
about these elaborate drawings, but it is evident that they belong to that rich and 
distinctive cult which has spread over so wide an area in Western Oceania. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Dr. R. A. Fisner.—Measurements and Degrees of Resemblance in Triplet 
Children from the King’s Bounty Records. 


Unlike most foreign countries, there is in Great Britain no official registration of 
multiple births; the existence of a Royal Bounty to parents of surviving triplet 
children does, however, afford a means, of which advantage has hitherto not been 
taken, of studying triplet cases. Since the conditions of the bounty are very wide, 
the records of the King’s Bounty afford effectively a special registry of triplets born 
alive. The paper deals with an extract covering three years of these records, with 
the information supplied by the parents and with measurements of the surviving 
triplets at 64 years of age. 

Two controversial problems in connection with twins concern (i) the supposed 
influence of the father, and (ii) the frequency of occurrence of identical twins due to 
the fission of an original single zygote. Records of births of near relatives of the 
fathers and mothers of triplets afford decisive evidence of the influence of the father 
in the case of triplets. 'The measurements of the children afford measures of the degree 
of resemblance of triplets of like and unlike sex. Additional points of interest concern 
the precision of measurements required in such an enquiry and the precision actually 
attainable ; the partial or complete recovery in physical dimensions of children born 
much undeveloped and with a low chance of survival; and the need of more 
comprehensive national data upon normal children as a basis for comparison. 


366 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


Mr. ArtHurR Davies.—A Continuation of Prof. Arthur Thomson’s and Mr. 
Dudley Buzxton’s ‘Studies of Nasal Indices in Connection with Climate’ 
for Africa. 


(a) Instead of the Reconstruction formula of Mr. Buxton, which is not capable 
of general application, it is suggested that the coefficients of temperature and of 
relative humidity variation can be resolved and graphed and so substituted in the 
formula N.I. = Temperature x C,+ Relative Humidity x C, + 38 whereC, is value of 
temperature coefficient at temperature T and C, the humidity coefficient at humidity 
H. This has proved applicable not only to Africa, but over the examples included in 
J.R.A.I. 1923. 

(b) Climatic Standards.—Instead of taking average conditions of temperature and 
of relative humidity everywhere it is suggested that we use maximum conditions 
in hot moist regions (torrid zone) ; average conditions in temperate regions ; average 
conditions for cold regions, because it is found the cold conditions do not affect N.I. 
to the extent that hot conditions do. For this reason in extreme climates a standard 
between average and maximum seems desirable. 

(c) Mathematical evidence and physiological aspect.—Mathematical evidence : 
(1) increase of coefficients of temperature and of humidity steadily with rise of tem- 
perature and humidity ; (2) higher correlation between N.I. and climate in hotter 
regions ; (3) maximum climatic standard in hot regions and average elsewhere; 
minimum conditions not acceptable, i.e. heat more important than cold. - 

Nasal organ includes two relevant functions: (1) admission of air to lungs in suffi- 
cient quantity ; (2) adjustment to temperature and humidity suitable to lung tissue. 
A wide nose does not interfere with function (1), but as N.I. approaches 60 the volume 
of air admissible rapidly decreases and interferes with function (1). A nose can widen 
freely, the more so because devices for cooling are less numerous and effective than 
devices for conserving heat. Under cooler conditions narrowing proceeds to a stage 
beyond which it is dangerous for function (1); henceforth the onus of adjustment 
to cold conditions is thrown on other organs and on artificial devices, e.g. wearing 
furs over mouth to form an outer warming chamber. This physiological aspect 
emphasises the effect of heat on N.I. and minimises the effect of .colder conditions. 
Narrow nose and medium nose adjust to climatic changes far more readily than the 
broad nose. Section C suggests the physiological explanation that the broad nose 
is a more definite specialisation than the others. 

(d) Conclusions (tentative).—Broad nose, i.e. high N.I., has considerable racial 
persistence even when environment militates against it. The broad nose, a specialisa- 
tion little affected by climate, retains its significance as a test of distinction between 
races but not as a test of relationship of two groups unless the climates of these two 
groups differ. 


Mr. E. G. Bowren.—An Interpretative Map of Dr. Bryn’s Anthropological 
Observations in Mid-Norway. 


The main object of this paper is to summarise the results obtained by re-examining 
the anthropological record given by Dr. Halfdan Bryn in his ‘Trgndelagens 
Antropologi,’ published in 1920. An attempt has been made to translate Dr. Bryn’s 
records, individual by individual, into the scheme adopted by Prof. H. J. Fleure, 
and to make a large-scale map of the new data. An examination of the map 
illustrates many new points of interest, such as the mixture of other elements without 
marked Nordic characteristics in a region believed to be a great Nordic stronghold. 
Then there is evidence of a substratum in the population of the survivals of Upper 
Paleolithic Man and further evidence that red-haired people have a peculiar distribu- 
tion. Survivals of Upper Paleolithic Man are noticed for Sweden by Ekholm and 
ae contributors to the recent book on ‘The Racial Characters of the Swedish 

ation.’ 


Mr. J. E. Danteu.—Distribution of Religious Denominations in Wales in 
its relation to Racial and Social Factors. 


(1) The Anglican Church with its emphasis on outward decorum failed to take 
the place of Roman Catholicism in the districts inhabited chiefly by dark long-heads. 


= 7°, ee, = - -) 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H, I. 367 


Anglicanism took root in English centres, e.g, county towns, market towns, castle 
towns, among a Nordic type. 

(2) Puritanism owed much to Continental weaver refugees settling in wool-producing 
areas, e.g. Radnorshire, Quakers and Baptists; and parts of Montgomeryshire, 
Independents (Llanbrynmair, &c.). Baptist and Independent movements also in 
towns along the coastal plain of 8. Wales. Independence or Congregationalism 
especially in Towy Valley among Alpine folk—note present co-operative schemes of 
farming. The Strict Baptist (Particular) creed survived opposition in such retreats 
as the Vale of Olchon, and western outposts like Rhydwelym. Subsequent movement 
westwards (root crops and seafaring commerce) to N.W. Pembrokeshire. The coin- 
cidence of Baptists and dark broad-headed men in this area, studied in the light of 
the characteristics of the latter and the tenets of the former, indicates a possible 
relation between the two in Wales. 

(3) The dark long-headed stock-breeders of the remoter parts, untouched by 
Puritanism, were opposed to the Church of the Nordic squire and found expression 
through the Welsh language in the eighteenth century in the Calvinistic Methodist 
Movement: In mining areas Cornish miners exerted an influence for Wesleyanism. 

(4) In South Cardiganshire, in a rural area, with a hyperdolichocephalic dark 
population, Unitarianism has dominated almost to the exclusion of all other faiths. 


Miss M. McInnes.—An Ethnological Survey of Sheffield and the Surrounding 
District. 

A few years ago, in making an economic survey of Sheffield and the district around, 
a cursory glance at the workers seemed to offer material for an ethnological study. 
This was undertaken with interesting results. 

Investigations on hair and eye colour of 2,200 school children in the outlying 
districts of South-West Yorks and North-East Derbyshire, and of 6,300 children in 
Sheffield itself, were recorded in the manner recommended by Beddoe. The methods 
for obtaining the Index of Nigrescence advocated by Parsons were preferably followed. 
The conclusions drawn were :— 

1. That the Nordic types predominated throughout the area. 

2. That the darkest children were found in the poorest and most congested 
industrial areas of the city. 

3. That the farther away from the city the fairer the children became, both of 
hair and of eye. 

4. That ‘nests’ of dark children remained here and there in the outlying districts, 
especially on the higher gritstone moorlands of the Don Valley headstreams. 

5. That mixed types, also, were found oftenest in the crowded city areas, though 
they occurred throughout the city in greater numbers than in the outlying districts. 

Investigations on adults confirmed these conclusions and, in the variations found, 
gave interesting points for future study. 

Head and body measurements on adult town workers showed two types. The 
lighter cutlery and silver-plating trades employed, on the whole, a fairer, taller type 
than the heavy iron and steel works. The workers in the latter were stunted, longer 
of body, shorter of leg and darker of colour than those in the former. Both fell far 
below the average of the more leisured classes, where the tall, muscular, well- 
proportioned Nordic type was in the majority. 


SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 433.) 


Thursday, September 1. 
Prof. B. A. McSwinry.—Observations on the Elasticity of Arteries. 


The velocity of the pulse wave has been measured with accuracy in man by the 
use of the hot wire sphymograph and the relative extensibility of the arteries cal- 
culated from a simple formula. To determine how far differences of diastolic pressure 


368 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 


may be responsible for observed variations in the velocity of the pulse wave, a simple 
device was adopted. A bandage of known width was applied to a limb and the 
pressure of the bandage raised to p mm. of Hg: the effective pressure inside the 
artery was then not P, the blood pressure as usually observed, but P—p. The pulse 
velocity can then be measured at varying effective pressures. A curve has been 
drawn relating the effective pressure to the arterial extensibility. 


Mr. C. J. Bonn, C.M.G.—On the Effect of Certain Radiated Iipoids on the 
Cellular Constituents of the Blood. 


When blood is incubated in a closed cell on an ergosterol film, half of which has. 
been exposed to U.V. rays from a mercury vapour lamp, the red blood corpuscles in 
the radiated area undergo hemolysis, while leucocytic emigration is also stimulated, 
and the leucocytes show marked changes. 

This agglutinative and hemolytic effect on the red cells can be used as a test for 
the presence of radiated fatty substances in smears or extracts from organs and 
tissues, in blood serum and in other materials. 

Thus, while lanolin and some other fats give a similar result to ergosterol, extracts. 
and smears from the cells of some animal organs give an opposite effect, and show the 
hemolytic change in the non-radiated area of the film. Of the organs so far examined, 
smears from liver cells give the most marked results. 

Radiated Blood Serum. 

Some blood serum (C.J.B.) was evaporated to dryness in the cell of a hollow- 
ground slide. Half the film of this desiccated serum was then exposed to the U.V. 
rays from a mercury vapour lamp for half-an-hour. The whole cell was then filled 
with a suspension of washed native red cells in normal saline, and sealed with a cover 

lass. 
On standing, the red cells undergo agglutination over the whole film, but much 
more so in the radiated part. 

Blood serum so treated by concentration and radiation thus acquires the property 
of agglutinating native red cells. 

Further experiments show that, by concentration in air and by subsequent. 
radiation, the blood serum of an individual belonging to one blood group can be 
converted (as regards agglutinating capacity) into that of another group. 

This change in the blood serum can also be brought about by repeated agitation 
in a test tube, in contact with air. 

In the same way blood serum which has been evaporated to dryness in the air 
retains its increased agglutinative capacity when redissolved in serum or in N.S. 

By the use of concentrated and radiated blood serum, it is possible to show on 
the same film the presence of rouleaux-formation, agglutination, and hemolysis. 
Light is thereby thrown on the nature of hemagglutination. 


Prof. H. 8. Raper, C.B.E.—The Direct and Indirect Oxydases. 


Recent investigations on the action of tyrosinase have shown that from the 
phenols and allied substances on which it acts ortho-quinones are produced. In 
certain instances these turn guaiacum tincture blue without addition of hydrogen 
peroxide. Since a similar production of ortho-quinones may take place in plants 
under the action of tyrosinase, which itself does not turn guaiacum blue, the guaiacum 
reaction is not a correct indicator of the presence of ‘direct oxydases.’ The 
classification of oxidising enzymes based on the guaiacum reaction is, therefore, 
fallacious. 

A study of other reactions which may be used to distinguish these aerobic oxidising 
enzymes leads to the conclusion that up to the present only two have been shown to 
exist, namely, tyrosinase and peroxydase. The direct blueing of guaiacum shows 
only the presence of certain peroxides or an oxidation system that can produce them 
in presence of air. 


Prof. J. W. McLeop.—Variations in Respiratory Mechanism amongst 
Bacteria. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 369 


Dr. KE. R. Dawson.—The Action of Pancreatic Lipase, !. 


The effect of phosphates on the hydrolysis of esters by pancreatic lipase varies 
according to the method of preparation of the enzyme. In some circumstances a 
simple relationship is observed between the activity of the enzyme and the con- 
centration of phosphate ions. 


Mr. B. 8. Prarr.—The Action of Pancreatic Lipase, IT. 


An attempt has been made to define the conditions for synthesis of esters by 
pancreatic lipase. The methods used to estimate the amount of synthesis will be 
described. The state of the preparation appears to modify the behaviour of the 
enzyme when water-soluble esters are being synthesised. The synthesis of true fats 
presents some differences which may bear on the question of re-synthesis in the body 
of the products of fat digestion. 


Miss Marton Hirst and Dr. C. G. Imrre.—Some Observations on the 
Excretion of Creatine. 


Dr. E. J. Wayne.—A Contribution to the Study of the Oxidation of Fatty 
Acids in the Body. 


For several reasons it was considered possible that fatty acids might be oxidised 
in part by some mechanism other than by a series of B-oxidations, and a quantitative 
examination of the fate of a series of normal phenyl fatty acids has, therefore, been 
carried out. Those containing an odd number of carbon atoms in the side chain 
appear in the urine exclusively as benzoic acid, those containing an even number as 
phenylacetic acid. The amounts obtained indicate quantitative B-oxidation among 
the lower members with the possibility of some additional mechanism among the 
higher members of the series. 


Mr, HK. N. Wittmer.—The Influence of the Medium on the Multiplication 
of Cells growing in vitro. 


Friday, September 2. 
Presidential Address by Dr. C. G. Doveras, C.M.G., F.R.S., on The 
Development of Human Physiology. (See p. 155.) 
Discussion on Circulation Rate. 
(a) Dr. H. Warrrince Davies. 
(b) Prof. B. A. McSwiney. 
(c) Mr. H. Barcrort. 


Dr. W. Cramer.—The Requirements of the Population in Milk-fat (Vita- 
min A) and the available Supply. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Harrogate. 


Monday, September 5 
Dr. A. D. MacDonatp.—The Influence of Anesthetics on the Action of 
Drugs. 
Dr. H. Wairripce Davirs.—Some Observations on Hemophilia. 


Investigation of the acid-base balance of the blood in a number of cases of 
hemophilia revealed an appreciable degree of flattening of the carbon dioxide 


1927 BB 


370 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—I. 


dissociation curve. In other words, for a given increase in carbon dioxide pressure, the 
carbon dioxide content of the blood increased to a lesser extent than in the bloods of 
normal individuals. This indicated a deficiency of the buffering power of the blood, 
which, on further investigation, appeared to be due to an alteration of the normal 
ionic interchange between plasma and corpuscles. In addition, it was found that the 
clotting deficiency in hemophilics seems to be due partly to an alteration in the 
permeability of the blood cells. 


Prof. R. J. 8. McDowatu.—The Effect of Mental Stress on Man. 


Of recent years a large amount of evidence has been accumulated regarding the 
effect of mental stress on man. Briefly, it may be stated that the general effect of 
such stress appears to be identical with that produced by exercise, and appears to be 
associated with general increased sympathetic activity which is specially well seen in 
the modification of the activity of the circulation and of the alimentary canal. In 
relation to the former, it becomes evident that there is an increased rate of the heart 
and vasomotor tone which together bring about a great increase in blood pressure. 
Small degrees of mental effort which even to the individual may appear insignificant 
can be shown to cause definite constriction of the blood vessels of the skin, and all 
degrees are found between this and the rapid cardiac action of which the individual 
is conscious. 

In physical or mental stress there is now definite evidence that alimentary activity 
in generalis reduced. Salivary and gastric secretion is markedly reduced, while there 
is marked delay in the emptying of the stomach. There is good reason to believe 
that such conditions may be largely responsible for many alimentary ailments, and 
may in part be responsible for undue strain on the circulation. 


Dr. R. H. Taoctess.—The Physics of the Psycho-Galvanic-Reflez Phenomenon. 


The electrical changes in the body which result from the physiological con- 
comitants of emotion have been stated to be :— 
(a) A change in resistance. 
(b) A change in the back E.M.F. of polarisation. 
(c) A change in the difference between the potential of the skin at the two 
points to which electrodes are applied. 

There has been a tendency for physiological investigators (Gildemeister, Prideaux, 
Sidis, &c.) to assume that only one of these changes really takes place, and that other 
investigators’ reports of other changes are due to carelessness in interpretation of 
results or even to ‘ errors in logic ’ (Sidis). ; 

Experimentation under different conditions of circuit shows that all three changes 
take place. The change in resistance is an increase immediately after the stimulus, 
followed by a larger decrease after a latent period of about 1-8 seconds. The change 
(c) has twoforms. Sometimes it is a simple increase of the somatic current. At other 
times a very small increase is followed by a larger decrease, which is followed again by 
a still larger increase with very slow recovery. There is also a change in the polarisa- 
tion produced by an external current, but this may simply be the secondary effect of 
the change in bodily resistance. 

The electrical changes in the body produced by emotion are thus more complex 
than has generally been recognised by those who have proposed physiological explana- 
tions of them. An adequate physiological explanation of the phenomena must take 
into account the three changes in the somatic current which correspond probably to 
three different physiological events. 


Prof. H. E. Roar.—The Effect of one Coloured Light on another with 
reference to Theories of Colour-vision. 


Dr. F. W. Epripce-Green, C.B.E.—The First Recorded Cases of Colour- 
Blindness. 


It is usually stated that the first definite record we possess of a case of colour- 
blindness is Huddart’s account of the shoemaker, Harris, in 1777, but that great 
genius, Robert Boyle, in his ‘Some Uncommon Observations about Vitiated Sight,’ 
1688, gives an account of two cases. The first case is that of a girl of about eighteen 


=" 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—T. 371 


or twenty years old. She stated that about five years previously, after having blisters 
applied to her neck and other parts, she was quite deprived of her sight. Robert 
Boyle continues ‘that sometime after she began to perceive the light, but nothing 
by the help of it: That then she could see a Window without discerning the Panes or 
the Barrs: That afterwards she grew able to distinguish the Shapes of Bodies, and 
some of their Colours: And that at last she came to be able to see the Minutest Object.’ 
After giving some further details, Robert Boyle continues :—‘ But the other, which is 
more Strange and Singular, is this, that she can distinguish some Colours, as Black 
and White, but is not able to distinguish others, especially Red and Green: And 
when I brought her a Bag of a fine and glossie Red, with Tufts of Sky-Colour’d Silk ; 
she look’d attentively upon it, but told me, that to her it did not seem Red, but of 
another Colour, which one would guess by her Description to be a Dark or Dirty one : 
and the Tufts of Silk that were finely Colour’d, she took in her Hand, and told me they 
seem’d to be a Light-colour, but could not tell me which; only she compar’d it to 
the Colour of the Silken Stuff of the Lac’d Peticoat of a Lady that brought her to me ; 
and indeed the Blews were very much alike. And when I ask’d her, whether in the 
Evenings, when she went abroad to walk in the Fields, which she much delighted to 
do, the Meadows did not appear to her Cloathed in Green? She told me they did 
not, but seemed to be of an odd Darkish Colour; and added, that when she had a 
mind to gather Violets, tho’ she kneel’d in that Place where they grew, she was not 
able to distinguish them by the Colour from the neighbouring Grass, but only by the 
Shape, or by feeling them. And the Lady that was with her, took thence occasion 
to tell me, that when she looks upon a Turky Carpet, she cannot distinguish the 
Colours, unless of those parts that are White or Black.’ 

The second case is that of a mathematician eminent for his skill in optics who 
found, ‘that there are some Colours he constantly sees amiss,’ but no colours are 
mentioned by names, though an instance is given of a mistake. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Miss W. J. Wapce and Mr. W. H. Newron.—Rapid Colorimetric Method 
for Measurement of pH. 

The method consists of the neutralisation of British Drug Houses’ ‘ Universal 
Buffer ’ with sodium hydroxide until its colour exactly matches that of the unknown 
solution, when the two are treated with equal volumes of a given indicator and 
examined in a colorimeter. A measured quantity of indicator is added to 1 cc. of 
‘Universal Buffer,’ to which is added N/10 NaOH from a burette to the nearest 
0-1 ce. before the colour matches that of the unknown. N/50 NaOH is added in the 
same way until the colours exactly match. The pH of the unknown is then read 
from a composite graph which shows the hydrogen-ion concentration of ‘ Universal 
Buffer’ when given amounts of both N/10 and N/50 NaOH have been added. The 
range of the method is from pH 3:1 to pH 11-4, 


Mr. A. Wormati.—Some Properties of Complement. 

The complement system consists of four factors, all of which are necessary for 
the hemolysis of sensitised red cells. Two of these factors are heat labile and are 
destroyed at 56°C. in half an hour, while the other two are relatively heat-stable. 
The destruction of complement by yeast, ammonia, pancreatic extracts, acids and 
alkalies and ultra-violet rays, is due to the inactivation of one or more of these 
components, and the inactivated serum can be reactivated fully by the addition of 
the missing component or components. The properties of the separate components 
and the relationship, if any, between complement and the opsonic system of serum, 
are being investigated. 


Demonstrations :— 

(a) Mr. G. Witx1nson.—Model of Cochlea. 

(b) Prof. B. A. McSwrney and Dr. BerensLoom.—Apparatus for 
regulating pH of Solutions for Smooth Muscle Experiments. 

(c) Miss W. J. Wapce.—Methods for determining H-con Concentration. 

(d) Dr. H. W. Davies.—Apparatus for Oxygen and CO, Adminis- 
tration. 

BB 2 


372 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 
i SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 434.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Joint Discussion with Section L on The Psychology of Special Scholastic 
Disabilities. Miss G. Humn, Miss E. WaHerELER, and Miss A. H. 
McALLISTER. 


Miss G. Hume.—Disability in Reading. 


The Complexity of the Reading Process.—Reading is a highly complex activity, 
involving the acquisition of skill in the mechanics of the process and also the ability 
to comprehend meaning. Acquisition of the mechanics of reading depends upon 
the ability to perceive and synthesise the contributions received from the eye, the 
ear and the muscles. Ability to comprehend what is read involves the apprehension 
of the right relations between the various elements of the sentence. 

Ability to acquire the mechanics appears to be more loosely correlated with 
intelligence than ability to comprehend meaning. 

An Investigation into Backwardness in Reading among Elementary School Children 
in London.—Selection of cases; definition of reading ability; below 85 per cent. of 
mental age; method of study, intelligence tests, educational tests, trait rating 
schedule, personal history. Analysis of results obtained : (a) frequency of cases, 2-3 per 
cent. ; (b) causes, (1) extrinsic 50 per cent. of the cases—e.g. irregular attendance, low 
culture or poor vocabulary at home, physical defect in early childhood, inappropriate 
teaching methods, emotional disturbance, e.g. shock or fright; (2) intrinsic, e.g. 
(a) weak specific ability, i.e. weakness of immediate or long-distance memory for 
verbal symbols, inability to discriminate between simple letter and word forms, &c. ; 
(6) innate emotional instability. 

Disability, however, is not a simple but a complex condition, and is commonly 
due to a plurality of causes. 

Illustrations from individual cases. 

Conclusions and suggestions for pedagogical treatment. 


Miss E. WHErEeter.—Backwardness in Arithmetic. 


An investigation into backwardness in arithmetic was carried out in sixteen 
elementary schools. In twelve of these schools cases of special backwardness in 
arithmetic were selected by the head teachers; in the remaining four schools cases 
of backwardness were determined by means of tests of intelligence, and educational 
attainments, given to the whole school. Certain selected cases were studied with a 
view to discovering the causes of backwardness. 

They are classified as follows :— t 

1. Conditions in the child’s environment as they affect not only his background 
of experience, but also his emotional life. 

2, Physical conditions—physical defect—nervous conditions, &c. 

3. School conditions—defective school organisation—teaching methods unadjusted 
to needs of exceptional individuals. 

4, Intellectual disabilities—defects of ‘ attention,’ memory, &c. 

5. Temperamental difficulties—emotional instability—general apathy. 

General conclusion—emotional factors seem to be most potent in producing and 
maintaining a condition of backwardness. 


Miss A. H. McAtutster.—Speech Disabilities. 


An investigation into the speech of 21,000 school children, made for the purpose 
of finding the frequency of speech disabilities and their effect upon educational 
progress, showed that 5-6 per cent. were suffering from some form of speech disability, 
and that of these 70 per cent. fell below the class average in scholastic attainment. 
There was a distinctly greater proportion of disability at ages six to seven and eleven 


a 


a 


4 


ihe aD: 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 3873 


to twelve years, and it was about twice as frequent among boys as among girls at all 
ages. All speech defects, except stammering, were less frequent at the higher ages ; 
the proportion of stammerers among the seniors (age eleven years) was twice as 
great as among the infants (age six), and it was twice as great among boys as among 
irls. 

: Clinical records suggest that speech disability is as frequently the cause as the 
effect of mental disorder. The defects which call for special attention in this connec- 
tion are imitated defects, which are most difficult to cure and emotionally most 
disturbing, and defects due to organic malformation or to delayed development 
which rouse feelings of inferiority as soon as the individual becomes aware of them. 
The most common causes of stammering and stuttering among young children appear 
to be fear, anxiety, jealousy—e.g. of a younger brother or sister—thwarted desire and 
bad teaching. 

Among the many causes of indistinct and badly articulated speech must be 
reckoned low sensitivity to pitch differences. An investigation of the speech of 
200 women revealed a correlation of 0°73 between sensitivity to pitch and amount of 
improvement in speech. 


Dr. J. Drever.—Meaning. 


Dr. Lu. Wynn-Jones.—The Appreciation of Wit. 


The distinction between. the psychology of the wit and that of the appreciator of 
wit in others may sometimes profitably be made. The divergence of views regarding 
the former is well known, cf. Locke, Hazlitt, Bergson, Freud, &c. _But even with 
regard to the latter, which is the subject of this paper, various beliefs are current. 
Most, however, would agree that one characteristic of witty, as distinct from humorous, 
stories is the pause of varying length during which the point of the story becomes 
manifest. 

Two series, each of eighteen paragraphs, involving sound-wit, play on words, 
caricature, characterisation wit, repartee and incongruities were shown to elementary 
school children (Standards 5 and 7), to secondary school children (Form 5), and to 
university graduates. The stories were short, for not only is brevity the soul of wit, 
but the exigencies of experimentation also demand it. 

It is sometimes held that wit is relative, not only to class, but also to locality ; 
but a preliminary survey seems to indicate that locality as such plays an insignificant 
part, if any, in comparison with the paramount factor of ‘g.’ Lack of comprehension 
of written words and phrases makes it very difficult for children in Standard 5 to 
appreciate the majority of witty stories. 

A characteristic of all groups is that when the point of a story is not manifest 
there is an active search for a clue and an irrelevant solution is often accepted. In 
many cases, however, these solutions are highly ingenious. 

The marking of such tests is not so rapid or ‘ fool-proof’ as in most group tests, 
but a counterbalance is the greater insight into personality. Greater still is this 
insight when they are used as individual tests. 


Mr. E. Farmer.—Certain Psychological Aspects of Accident Causation. 


The statistical work of Yule, Greenwood, and Newbold has shown that the distribu- 
tion of industrial accidents among individuals exposed to the same risk is not such 
as can be explained by chance. The typical curve of accident distribution is L-shaped, 
with a large number in the group having relatively few accidents and a small propor- 
tion having an undue number. The hypothesis that best explains this distribution 
is that each person has a given degree of accident proneness that will determine to a 
large extent the number of accidents he will sustain in a given period of exposure. 

Tests have been carried out by the Industrial Fatigue Research Board with the 
object of determining what are the personal qualities connected with a high accident 
rate. Several hundred subjects have been tested and the preliminary results published. 
These indicate that subjects who do badly in certain sensory-motor tests also tend to 
have a larger number of accidents in a given period of equal exposure than those who 
do well in the tests. The difference in accident rate between those above and below 
the mean for the 600 subjects tested during the investigation was 48 per cent. This 


374 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—4J. 


group of sensory-motor tests has been called ‘ esthetokinetic tests,’ because they 
intercorrelate among themselves in a small degree and also have the common factor 
of requiring a visual, auditory or tactual stimulus to be reacted to by a movement 
requiring rapid and accurate co-ordination. 

Certain tests connected with temperamental instability have also shown a relation- 
ship to accident incidence, but on account of certain difficulties in scoring they were 
not included in the final weighted score. Their use will probably be greatest in 
deciding cases left doubtful by the other tests. 

No relation has up to the present been established between intelligence and accident 
rate, but the data on which this conclusion is founded are not so extensive as that 
yielded by the esthetokinetic tests, and further research is being carried out to 
elucidate this particular aspect of the problem. 

The conclusions arrived at by the Industrial Fatigue Research Board are admittedly 
preliminary, and much further work needs to be done before results obtained by this 
method can be regarded as of practical value. Sufficient, however, has been done 
to show that inequality in accident rate is a personal measurable quality, and future 
research must be directed towards determining to what extent it can be measured 
and by what tests the best measures can be obtained. The Industrial Fatigue 
Research Board is at present engaged in an extensive research along these lines, but 
several years must elapse before the results can be properly appraised. 


Friday, September 2. 
Mr. R. J. Bartiett.—Feeling and the Psychogalvanie Reflex. 


The ‘ emotion ’ theory of the ‘ reflex ’ has been challenged by a ‘ conation ’ theory. 
The experimental basis of neither theory is fully conclusive. Attempts have been 
made to secure under experimental conditions mental states in which, unequivocally, 
‘ feeling ’ should be the dominant factor in experience. Experiments will be described 
and results submitted to demonstrate that the ‘ reflex’ follows a variety of complex 
mental states, some at least of which include a phase that would ordinarily be described 
as ‘ feeling,’ and that differences in the form of tachogram record provide an objective 
basis for classification of these complex experiences. 


Dr. R. H. Tooutess.—Fechner’s Law. 

Fechner’s law is a valid method of measuring sensation over the range for which 
Weber’s law is true. His central step of treating just noticeable differences of 
sensation as equal is, however, to be regarded as a convention of measurement. 


Dr. D. N. Bucnanan.—The Psychological Effects of Flickering Light. 
Dr. F. W. Evripce-Green, C.B.E.—The Classification of the Colour-blind. 


There are probably no subjects in science in which there are more misstatements 
than in vision and colour vision. A classification of the colour-blind should, therefore, 
be made only on facts; this classification can easily be made with the aid of my 
spectrometer, with which any portion of the spectrum can be isolated. 

Cases of colour-blindness may be divided into four distinct classes, each of which 
may occur separately or they may be combined. These classes are (1) Defective hue 
discrimination, (2) Defective light perception, (3) Defective perception of colour 
through the foreal or central region of the retina not being normal, or supplied 
normally, (4) In this class, while there is no defect in colour discrimination or defective 
light perception, one or more colours do not occupy the normal position. For 
instance, the position of pure yellow instead of being at . .585, as in the normal sighted, 
is in the yellow-green or orange-yellow. These cases can hardly be called colour- 
blind, but are really colour different, but have to be taken into consideration in 
testing colour-blindness for a practical object. 

Defective hue discrimination may be classified according to the number of colours 
which are seen in the spectrum, check examinations being made to prove that the 
examinee sees as described by him. One man will declare that there is no difference 
in colour over the whole spectrum but simply variations in brightness ; another will 


ee Ya aa rere 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 375 
say that the spectrum is tinged with red at one end and violet at the other, the 
central portion of the spectrum being colourless ; another that the spectrum consists 
of two colours, red and violet, with a small colourless interval; another that the 
spectrum contains three colours, namely, red, green, and violet, the orange and yellow 
regions being designated red-green and the blue region green-violet. Another will 
say that he sees four definite colours, others five or six and a few seven. It will be 
seen that our colour sensations are very limited, the person having the most acute 
colour perception only having seven definite colour sensations. We can, therefore, 
classify the colour perception of individuals as achromic, dichromic, trichromic, 
tetrachromic, pentachromic, hexachromic, and heptachromic. 

The term ‘dichromic’ is applied to those who have only two definite colour 
sensations and white. When examined with a bright spectrum, they say that they 
see only two coloursthere. In the same way the designations trichromic, tetrachromic, 
pentachromic, hexachromic, and heptachromic, are applied to those who see in the 
bright spectrum three, four, five, six or seven colours. Those examined behave in 
every way as if they possessed the number of colour sensations indicated. 

All Dichromics are not equally Colour-Blind. 

A fact that seems to have been generally overlooked is that colour-blindness 
found in dichromic vision is a defect of hue perception, and that it is this defect of 
hue perception which causes the characteristic symptoms of colour-blindness. 

The colour perception of the dichromic varies from those who have a colour per- 
ception bordering on the trichromic to those who are almost totally colour-blind. It 
is obvious that a man who cannot see the least difference between the colour of the 
red and that of the green signal on the railway line, except when one is changed to 
the other, has a colour perception which is more defective than that of the ordinary 
dichromic. Though I have never found a dichromic who had a hue perception equal 
to that of the trichromic, I have examined many who pussessed a hue perception which 
was nearly equal. 

Trichromic vision is quite distinct from the so-called anomalous trichromatism, 
ninety per cent. of the colour-blind agree with the normal equation. 

Abnormalities and defects of light perception may be subdivided as follows :— 

. Increase or diminution in the visible range of the spectrum. 
. Defective sensibility for certain wave-lengths. 

. Increased sensitiveness for certain wave-lengths. 

. Variations in the maximum of the luminosity curve. 

. Increase or defects in the power of dark adaptation. 

(a) Very rapid or slow dark adaptation. 

(b) Very complete or imperfect dark adaptation. 

It will be seen that the terms used in previous classifications are quite meaningless ; 
for instance, a so-called typical red-blind is a dichromic with a considerable shortening 
of the red end of the spectrum, but this shortening may be associated with normal hue 
differentiation, and scarcely two cases agree in the amount of shortening. 


Cum Co bo 


Mr. C. A. Mace.—Factors Determining ‘ Natural’ Rates of Mental and 
Physical Work. 


The specific questions from which an extended course of investigations has arisen 
were (1) To what extent is the ratio of ‘natural’ to maximum rates of working constant ? 
and (2) Is the natural rate of working more efficient than any prescribed rate ? 

Provisional answers, limited in application, have been obtained. (1) The ratio is 
far from constant, but at natural rates of working the individual’s measure is some- 
times more constant, and individual differences more marked. Hence it is desirable 
that more mental tests should be standardised for both rates. (2) The greater 
efficiency sometimes observed with subjectively preferred rates of working is a transient 
phenomenon disappearing with practice. In general a law of inverse variation 
between speed and accuracy appears to hold over a wider range than has been 
supposed. 

On the more general questions which arose suggestive observations were made in 
the course of the inquiry. On the basis of these observations further investigations 
have been opened up which promise to elucidate the distinction between abilities 
proper and temperamental traits. 


376 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—4J. 


Mr. D. Kennepy-Fraser.—The Use of the Elements of School Instruction 
in Psychological Investigation. 

A scheme is being devised whereby the elements of number work and reading may 
be used in making psychological investigations under school conditions and for 
diagnosing specific school disabilities. A series of tests is being formed in which both 
the stimulus and the response involve either number or reading elements in such a 
way as to discover any peculiar difficulties in forming associations between different 
sensory categories. Illustrations from the results so far obtained indicate some 
hitherto unsuspected sources of difficulty in the learning of number and reading and 
point to some probably fruitful lines of further psychological and educational research. 


This method may also form the basis of a number or reading ‘ profile’ for beginners. 


or those who are experiencing difficulty in acquiring these forms of skill. 


Miss M. M. MacTaccart.—Some Causes of Backwardness. 


This paper is based on the results of an examination of backward children of 
ages eleven to twelve (the Scottish Qualifying Stage). The aim of the investigation 
was to find the percentage of pupils whose retardation in school work was the result 
of unsuitability of curriculum rather than of low intelligence. 

The procedure was to find the Mental Age, Intelligence Quotient, Educational 
Age, and Accomplishment Quotient of each retarded pupil. The accomplishment 
quotient, which is the ratio of the educational age to the mental age, ought to be 100 
if the child is working up to his innate ability. It was considered satisfactory if it 
was over 95. 

Fifty-eight per cent. of the backward children had accomplishment quotients of 
95 or more; they were, therefore, working at or above their innate ability. Their 
scholastic performance, in spite of this, was distinctly inferior to that of normal 
children of the same age. The cause of their backwardness was, therefore, low 
intelligence. 

Of the remainder 8 per cent. were backward for other reasons, e.g. weakness in a 
specific subject, poor home circumstances, bad health. The remaining 34 per cent. 
were mainly of normal intelligence or only slightly retarded; some were even of 
superior intelligence. To find whether their weak educational ability was compen- 
sated by non-scholastic ability and out-of-school interests, they were examined by 
three sets of non-scholastic tests specially constructed for this purpose—technical 
information tests, picture tests, and a practical test. The performance of 27 per cent. 
of them in at least one of the special tests was ‘superior to their educational per- 
formance: while they did not respond to the ordinary school curriculum, they were 
keenly interested in practical, technical, and mechanical subjects. The cause of 
their retardation in school was apparently unsuitability of curriculum. 


Mr. H. LowEery.—The Musical Ability of School Children. 


Music appears to be, par excellence, that subject in which tests of native ability 
should be most successful, since the possession of musical gifts is usually regarded as 
a special endowment. 

It is desirable that tests of musical ability should draw upon music for their 
material, and, in the framing of such tests, it is important to distinguish between the 
technical and interpretative sides of musical performance. 

The test of ‘musical memory ’ now presented consists of fifty examples made up 
from variations of ten musical themes in ways suggested by the compositions of the 
classical composers, together with musical phrases having no connection with these 
themes. Judgments are to be given as to whether or not the examples in the test 
seem to the subjects to be founded on the ten original themes. 

The following distribution was obtained with thirty-six girls (twelve to fourteen 
years of age) :— 


Number having 80% to 100% correct Meghest mark 90%) : ns 
” ” 70 % ” 79 % re) y, ? 9 

” ” 60 % 33 69% > 17 

2”? ” 50 WA ” 59% 7 

33 », less than 50% Commer (lowest nek 48%) 1 

36 


oa. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 377 


The votes for the individual examples of the test afford material for remarks on 
transposition, augmentation, diminution, ornamentation, and other elements which 
contribute to the development of a musical composition, 


Monday, September 5. 


Presidential Address by Dr. W. Brown on Mental Unity and Mental 
Dissociation. (See p. 167.) 


Dr. H. Rurcers MarsHatt (the late).—Self-consciousness and the Self. 


(1) We speak of our conscious experiences as presentations to the Self of the 
moment of apprehension, and we accept Ward’s conception of the presentation- 
continuum. The Self ‘is part of the consciousness of the moment, but being that 
part to which the mental items are presented, cannot itself be part of that presentation. 
its nature can only be known by indirection. But it would seem likely to prove to 
be a continuum. But in our experiences of self-consciousness the mental item 
presented consists of an Ego to which a presentation is given—a complex presentation 
given to the Self. This Ego being part of the presentation cannot be the Self, 
although commonly spoken of as such. Furthermore, this Ego appears to be an 
empirical thing. That we commonly call it the Self suggests that it may be a 
simulacrum of the Self. 

This empirical Ego is evidently a changeable thing, and if it is a simulacrum of 
the Self, the Self must be a changeable thing. Objective evidence favours this view, 
as a man’s character is known to change as he develops, and his Self is an essential 
part of his character. 

(Il) Further light is gained if we consider the nature of the neural activities that 
are found to correspond with changes in consciousness. The neururgic system is all 
active, in each moment being a complex pulse of activity. A ‘special activity’ in 
a part is rather an emphasis of activity in that part. It appears as an increment in 
contrast with the whole mass of undifferentiable parts of the total neururgic pulse, 
which is changed by each increment. When a presentation occurs it corresponds 
with a neururgic increment; a presentation, therefore, may be looked upon as a 
psychic emphasis within a whole psychic pulse, which pulse appears as an increment 
in contrast with the whole mass of undifferentiable psychic parts. But the Self 
is a psychic somewhat to which the presentation accrues as an increment. Hence 
the Self of any moment would appear to be this whole mass of undifferentiable psychic 
parts. 

This indicates that the Self, while a continuum, is not a persistent entity. As 
presentations change, so must the whole psychic mass—presentations plus the Self— 
change. The Self of each moment is a new Self. The empirical Ego then appears 
as a simulacrum of the Self. 

(IIL) In cases of choice we are dealing with the comparison of two diverse empirical 
Egos, either of which, if it prevailed, would act in a determined manner, and yet be 
free to act in accord with its essential nature. Right conduct is then dependent 
upon the nature of the prevailing Ego—in the end upon knowledge. ‘There is no such 
thing as voluntary unreasonable action ; no such thing as sinning. What we have 
is recognition that we have sinned or might sin; have acted or might act as the 


prevailing empirical Ego would not act. And this is of the essence of ethical advance. 


Dr. T. W. MircHety.—Phenomena of Mediumistic Trance. 


Dr. G. H. Mives.—Time and Motion Study as Employed by the Industrial 
Psychologist. 


The Industrial Psychologist attempts to evaluate the physical and mental demands 
on the worker at each stage of the operations which he is timing. He also studies the 
movements made and endeavours to reduce the strain by simplifying these. Thus 
to the psychologist the effect on the individual is of more significance than the time 
value of an operation or a pause during that lapse of time. A pause in an operation 
is, from a pure time-study point of view, a waste of time, and if the human being 


378 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 


were a machine, it would be necessary to eliminate or reduce this unproductive time. 
The psychologist, however, must consider whether this pause is, or is not, serving 
some useful purpose in giving adequate rest to the workers’ efforts. 

A time study directs attention successively to important features in a cycle of 
operations, and the completed study gives a picture of such a cycle. It is essential 
to estimate from the picture so obtained what points are of fundamental importance 
before proceeding with a detailed study of a portion of the cycle. Thus it may be 
important first to reduce the strain which may be imposed on a worker owing to 
unnecessarily divided attention, or to the faulty supply of material, and then proceed 
to a more detailed study of, for example, finger movements. 

During movement study it is important to determine what movements are 
unnecessary. From a mechanical point of view many movements which a worker 
makes appear to be quite unnecessary. Yet from a psychological and physiological 
point of view these movements may be useful to give relaxation, to assist in the 
blood flow, or to fill in some portion of a rhythm or cycle of movements. Instances 
occur in which fatigue may be lessened by actually increasing the number of move- 
ments made. 

In order to ascertain whether the increased rate of working produced as a result. 
of movement study is likely to be beneficial to the worker in the long run and is 
not a mere temporary speeding up, the Industrial Psychologist time-studies the 
altered method of working, and from the work curve obtained he estimates the true 
value of the new method. 

Time studies of a group working on a series of operations often indicate inequalities 
of effort. One or more members of the group may be unduly pressed and the 
Industrial Psychologist attempts to equalise the strain by regrouping or subdividing 
operations and redistributing duties. 

Time and movement study enables the Industrial Psychologist to ascertain where 
human energy is being misapplied and to correct these. It also provides the means 
of checking the value of alterations which may be introduced to avoid waste and 
undue fatigue. 


Mr. 8. Wyarr.—Machine Speeds and Output. 


Mr. J. A. Fraser.—The Value of Stoppage Analysis with special reference 
to Weaving. 


Voluntary and Involuntary Stoppages.—The number, duration and distribution of 
voluntary stoppages may reflect upon working capacity at different times throughout 
the day, and may also throw light upon the way in which the worker is affected by 
changes in environmental conditions. A study of involuntary stoppages may give 
information as to the effect upon efficiency of such factors as method of organisation, 
type of machinery, quality of material, &c. 

The Stoppage Analysis in Weaving.—Here we are dealing mainly with unavoidable 
loom stoppages. The ability of the weaver is largely dependent upon the speed with 
which she performs certain standard operations. When loom stoppages occur, a 
study is made of the nature and duration of each loom stoppage. Thus, in weaving, 
a stoppage analysis is virtually a ‘ time-study.’ Some stoppages, however, may be 
due to factors such as carelessness on the part of the weaver, desire for relaxation, &c., 
and those same causes may be responsible for undue prolongation of loom stoppages. 
A stoppage analysis in weaving may provide data upon which to base (a) an explana- 
tion of variations in efficiency throughout the day ; (6) a study of the relative efficiency 
of different methods adopted by weavers with a view to selecting the most efficient 
methods and training young weavers accordingly ; (c) conclusions as to the special 
abilities which underlie efficiency in weaving with a view to framing a scheme of 
selection ; (d) conclusions as to the effect upon efficiency of the mechanical factor, 
quality of the warp and the weft, method of organising supplies; (e) evidence as to 
the effect upon the worker and upon the yarn of changes in environmental conditions 
such as temperature and humidity. 

Selection and Training.—Classification of abilities necessary to efficiency in weaving. 
Some principles of method underlying efficiency in weaving. Suggestions as to 
selection tests. A joint scheme of selection and training. 


Wan 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J, K. 379 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Joint Discussion with Section F on Innate Differences and Social Status. 
Dr. M. Ginsserc, Prof. Goprrey H. THomson, and Mr. F. C. 
BaRTLeEtTv. 


Dr. W. R. D. Farrpatrn.—Religion and Fantasy. 

The researches of the psycho-analytic school have led to the theory that religious 
phenomena are symbolic expressions of primitive instinctual forces to which overt 
expression has been denied for social and cultural reasons. These primitive forces 
remain active at unconscious levels, and reach consciousness usually in disguised 
and sublimated forms, of which the most important are the religious and the artistic. 
Two main conclusions have been reached regarding the origin of the religious urge in 
its psychological bearings :— 

1. The religious attitude is the sublimated expression in the adult of an infantile 
attitude toward the parents, who appear to the child as omnipotent. 

2. Religious practice is directed towards the removal of a sense of guilt, which 
has its ultimate origin in the @dipus Complex, i.e. the childish desire to possess the 


Mother at the expense of the Father. 
A study of religious fantasies in the neurotic and insane provides evidence in 


favour of these theories. 

Acceptance of these theories regarding the origin of the religious urge does not 
involve the discrediting of religious values, for the nature of Truth is a separate 
question from that of its origins. Further, these theories enhance rather than detract 
from the importance of the réle played by religion in the transmutation of man’s 
primitive instinctual forces into higher cultural forms of activity. 


Prof. C. W. Vatentine.—The Comparative Reliability of Intuitive Judg- 
ments of Men and Women. 


Dr. H. R. pe S1rva.—Fxperimental Control of Introspection. 


Mr. G. G. Campton.—The Organic Growth of the Concept as one of the 
Factors in Intelligence. 


SECTION K.—BOTANY. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 434.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Presidential Address by Prof. F. E. Frirscu on Some Aspects of the 
Present-day Investigations of Protophyta. (See p. 176.' 


Prof. J. Luoyp Wriiurams.—Some Parasites of the Pheophycew. (Com- 
municated in title only.) 


Miss E. M. Rers.—Observations on the Structure and Reproduction of 
Bifurcaria tuberculata, Starckh. 


The genus Bifurcaria includes three species, all of very restricted range ; of these 
B. tuberculata only is British. 

The distribution, habitat and habit of B. twberculata are described, and reference is 
made to the remaining two species, B. brassiceformis and B. levigata, both of which 
are South African. 


380 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


Little is known of the British species since the work of Griiber on the mode of 
branching of the shoot, and of Nienburg on the development of the conceptacle. 

Observations have been made from living plants and from material preserved 
in situ at different times of the year. 

The development of the conceptacle from a single initial cell is shown, and the 
retention of a single basal hair up to the time of formation of antheridia is a con- 
spicuous feature of the young conceptacle. The production of antheridia and oogonia 
is described, and the formation of ‘ plugs’ at the mouths of old conceptacles reported 
—a, phenomenon similar to that described by Tahara for Sargassum Hornert. 

The genus as a whole is characterised by marked vegetative activity, new fronds 
arising from the rhizome and, especially in B. levigata, by proliferation from the 
bases of old stipes. The anatomy of the stipe is described for the three species ; 
in B. tuberculata the anatomical relationship to the other genera of the group Cystosiro- 
Sargassez is evident, while this is less clear in the two South African species. 


Mr. W. T. Marutas.—The Cytology of Callithamnion. 


The paper deals primarily with the stages of nuclear division undergone during 
the development of the tetraspores of Callithamnion brachiatum. The resting nucleus 
is described and the stage where synapsis occurs is indicated. The various steps in 
division are unlike those described for other red alge, and the diploid chromosome 
number is 18-20, in the tetraspore mother cell, this number being reduced to 9-10 
in the mature tetraspore. 

The development of the spermatia in this species is also described, and the nucleus 
of the mature spermatium is shown to be a homogeneous hollow band of chromatin 
encircling the cell, and not a granulated network as it has been described. 

The cytology of abnormalities in Callithamnion tetragonum is also traced, and 
shows that tetraspores borne on sexual plants develop and mature, while the 
carpospores possess the Haploid chromosome number, suggesting cytological insta- 
bility, and a more complicated alternation of generations. 


Mr. A. Matrns Smitra.—The Alge of a Bog: Fie Years’ Observations. 


The alge of a small sphagnum bog have been examined, approximately monthly, 
for five years. Records of temperature and hydrogen-ion concentration of the water, 
as well as observations of the weather conditions and of the flow of the water, have 
been periodically taken. Chemical analyses of the water have also been made. The 
results shed light upon the specific composition of the alga-flora of such waters, the 
relative abundance and interdependence of the chief groups of algz, and the periodicity 
of the various species. The relation of the alga-flora to the phanerogamic flora is 
briefly considered, and the status of the upland sphagnum bog as a habitat for a 
definite algal association is estimated. Comparison is made with the alga-flora of 
lowland pools and montane lakes. 


Prof. N. E. Svepretius.—The Cytology and Development of Asparagopsis 


armata. 


The general morphology of this alga has already been described by Conolly. 
Observations now have been made especially regarding the cytology and the develop- 
ment of the cystocarp. Tetraspores are not known. The carpogonial branch is 
3-celled, just as in Bonnemaisonia. The carpogonium at an early stage is binucleate, 
as in most Floridee. Spermatia are to be seen adhering to the trichogyne and also 
inside them. Fertilisation thus certainly occurs. The number of chromosomes in 
the spermatia is at the most ten. Seven to eight have been observed with certainty ; 
but probably there are some more. To determine the number exactly is very difficult 
owing to the smallness of the nuclei. The haploid chromosome number is then at 
most ten. 

The carpospores are not produced as directly as in Bonnemaisonia, since the 
sporogenous filaments branch and in the first place form an extensive tissue, a so-called 
‘nucleus,’ from which later on the carpospores are formed. 

In the mitoses in the young sporogenous filaments a chromosome number of 
about eight has been observed. Thus the carpospores also must be haploid. 
Asparagopsis, then, is certainly a haplobiontic alga. 


ict 4 abe 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 381 


This quite naturally explains the absence of tetraspores and tetrasporic plants. 

Where the reduction-division occurs is not yet settled with absolute certainty. 
It either occurs immediately after fertilisation—probably, however, not in the carpo- 
gonium itself—or else there are a number of divisions of the diploid nucleus, followed 
eventually by several reduction-divisions. At the moment it has not been settled 
which of these two possibilities really holds good. This must be decided in the future. 
It is, however, a fact that Asparagopsis armata must be classed among those Floridex 
which the author has designated as haplobiontic. 

In the opinion of the author the Floridee should be divided into two main 
groups :— 

I. Haplobiontice or haplobiontic types, and 

Il. Diplobiontice or diplobiontic types. 

To the former belongs with certainty the majority of the group Nemalionales; and it 
may be that the concept haplobiontic Floridez coincide with the group Nemalionales. 

We must always keep in view the possibility of finding the haplobiontic condition 
among the remaining Floridean families. If this results from apogamy it is of no 
systematic value. If, on the other hand, it is primary, depending upon the place 
of occurrence of the reduction-division, it is of great systematic importance. 

It must be emphasised that the Floridee are remarkable among the members of 
the vegetable kingdom in the fact that the place of occurrence of the reduction- 
division—in other plants quite fixed—is different in the different main sub-groups. 

It is not impossible that future cytological investigation of the Red Algz may offer 
us new types regarding the place of the occurrence of the reduction-division. 

However this may be, one thing is certain: the future taxonomy of the Rhodo- 
phycez will demand cytological investigations to a very high degree. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Bramham Park. 


Friday, September 2. 
Joint Discussion with Section M on The Control of Plant Diseases. 


Mrs. N. L. Atcock.— 


(1) A short review of past measures in the control of Plant Diseases in Great Britain 
and how far successful. 

The rise of American gooseberry mildew. Prof. Salmon’s warning against 
American gooseberry mildew and wart disease. Prof. Somerville and white pine 
blister rust. The saving of the situation as regards wart disease by the discovery 
of the immune varieties. Action that succeeded—methods that have not succeeded. 
(2) The present point of view and present administration of control. The essential 
factors for success in control are :— 

(a) The convinced and willing co-operation of growers. This implies their share 
in framing legislation. 

To attain this end clearness in exposition and ability to see the point of view of 
the grower and realisation of the business value of all control measures must go hand 
in hand with scientific efficiency in administration. 

(6) Accurate scientific knowledge on the part of those administering control. 

(c) Moderation in policy when framing rules and regulations for ordinary occasions, 
and brevity and conciseness in all exposition of such rules, 

(d) Drastic measures for extraordinary occasions. 


(3) Some questions for the future. 

Plant disease control in Agriculture. 

Margin of profit here small. Methods must be (a) certain, (b) easy, (c) cheap. 
Examples—Bunt and Formalin. 

Seed-borne Diseases. 

Some 70 common diseases carried on seeds. Research needed on treatment. 


Horticulture. 


382 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


Plant disease control more promising in horticulture. Margin of profit higher. 
More labour available. Plant sanitation essential. Prevention better than cure. 


Forestry. 
Prevention of disease in nurseries and inspection and control of importation. 


Dr. Witi1aM B. BRIERLEY.— 
(1) Scope of Discussion. 
(2) Research Aspects. 

(A) Centres of Research. 

(i) Source, training and supply of men. Financing and staffing of laboratory, 
field and administrative services. 

(ii) Types of research centres. Gradation from pure to applied work. Uni- 
versities, research foundations, crop stations, government and extension 
services, commercial services. Source of moneys and type of centre in 
relation to scope of work, integration and administrative control. 


(B) Fields of Research. 

(i) Principles of control. Disease surveys; plant hygiene and sanitation ; 
plant protection ; escapement of disease ; exclusion of disease. Effective- 
ness of methods in relation to expense, social, economic and political 
implications. 

(ii) Some primary general issues. 

(3) Applied Aspects. 
(A) Popularisation of Knowledge. 

Oral instruction, field service, printed matter. Relative values of the several 
avenues. 

(B) Application of Knowledge. ; 

Liaison mechanisms; official, commercial, institute and extension, ad hoc, 
personal. 

Comparative values of the several mechanisms in relation to types of knowledge 
and practice. Suggestions regarding organisation. 


(4) Essential problem for discussion is the integration of practice and research. 


Miss E. Wetsrorp, Dr. M. Witsom, Dr. W. G. Smrra, Mr. W. A. 
Miniarp, Dr. Storey. 


Dr. J. P. Lorsy.—Demonstration (during the above Discussion) of 
Natural Hybrids between Plants and between Human Races in New 
Zealand and South Africa. 


Prof. J. McLean Tuompson.—Sterility and Gigantism in the Lecythidee. 


An attempt is made to show that in the Lecythidean Myrtles a marked advance 
in sterility has occurred, and may still be in progress. It has affected in particular 
the andreecium which has been transformed progressively into massive and sterile 
tissue which is in part glandular and in part petaloid. The latter part is marked by 
pronounced cellular gigantism, the presence of which feature is in some way connected 
with stamen sterility. The climax of these modifications in the group is the almost 
complete perversion of the andreecium. A basis of generic distinction for certain 
organisms hitherto in doubt is further offered by the study of the floral development. 


Dr. H. 8. Hotpen.—On the Structure of the Endodermis in Aletris farinosa. 


Aletris farinosa is a small liliaceous plant occurring in the United States of America. 
The endodermis of the root passes through transient primary and secondary phases 
and, in the tertiary condition, consists of extremely thick-walled cells. The available 
evidence suggests that the suberin lamella developed in the secondary phase does 


not present a completely impermeable barrier to the exchange of materials between 


the endodermal cells and those of the stele and cortex respectively. 


NE nt OPe tee 


a 
& 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 383 


AFTERNOON. 
Visit to Weetwood Hall. 


Saturday, September 3. 
Excursion to Bolton Woods. 


Sunday, September 4. 
Excursion to Malham. 


Monday, September 5. 
Discussion on the Carpel. 


Miss E. R. SAauNDERS.— 


In the hitherto generally accepted interpretation of the Angiosperm gynecium, 
only one type of carpel is recognised. This is conceived as a leaf member, folded 
inwards so that it becomes united either along its own margins or with those of its 
neighbours, and capable of bearing on these sutures from one to several rows of ovules. 
This conception is based mainly on the gross anatomical appearances in the earliest 
stages of flower development and on the outward aspect of the mature ovary. Neither 
method of examination is sufficiently refined to furnish critical evidence. Further- 
more, certain features in some ovaries can only be brought into line with this 
monomorphic view by distorting the facts. Exceptional cases in which the carpels 
take on a leafy character have also been cited in support, but here, too, it appears 
that the evidence has often been misinterpreted. 

The monomorphic view entails the acceptance of many morphological incon- 
sistencies and unfounded assumptions. Among these may be mentioned the com- 
missural stigma, the solitary terminal carpel, free-central placentation, false partitions, 
supernumerary styles and stigmas. It offers no explanation of the obdiplostemenous 
condition, of the occurrence of dimorphic fruits, of reversed orientation in allied forms 
or of certain modes of fruit dehiscence. In innumerable cases it is at variance with 
the clear evidence afforded by the vascular system and the stigma form, which has 
been almost entirely ignored. 

On the other hand, the conception of the carpels as polymorphic structures offers a 
satisfactory explanation of all the above features, and accounts besides for many 
minor anatomical characters which, on the monomorphic interpretation, appear to 
be without significance. On this view it is held that two main carpellary types have 
originated in the course of evolution, the valve (hollow) type which, so far as appears, 
never bears more than a single row of ovules on each margin, and the consolidated (solid 
and semi-solid) type in which from one to several rows of ovules may be borne on either 
side of the midrib. With this diversity in carpel form there very generally occurs 
a redistribution of the three carpellary functions (stigmatic, protective, reproductive). 
When two types of carpel are present in the ovary, one only, as a rule, is fertile. The 
stigmatic function may similarly be restricted to one or other type, or may be per- 
formed by both. This polymorphic condition is found to occur throughout the whole 
range of Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons. 


Dr. H. Hamsuaw THomAs.— 


When a morphologist who has been mainly occupied with the Pteridophyta turns 
to study the carpel he will be struck with the great neglect of anatomical evidence. 
Prior to Miss Saunders’s, the only general survey of the vascular supply of the carpel 
was that of Van Tieghem, and he was concerned mainly with the demonstration of the 
foliar nature of the carpel. He gave the Ranunculacee, the Leguminose and 
Epimedium as examples of plants having simple carpels of the primitive type, but in 
the light of recent work not one of these plants can be regarded as having carpels 
composed of simple infolded leaves with marginal ovules. 

Most authors have cited the megasporophyll of Cycas as the type of structure 
from which the closed Angiosperm carpel was evolved. This view is based only on 
analogy. The ovary of Caytonia deserves as much, if not more, attention, even 
without postulating any direct relationship between the Caytoniales and the flowering 


384 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


plants. Here the ovules were borne in two rows near the midrib of the structure. It 
is quite possible that the megasporophyll of Caytonia will supply the clue to the 
morphology of the carpel of Aquilegia and other forms of a similar structure. 


Dr. A. B. Rennie, F.R.S., Dr. T. W. Woopneap, Mr. J. Parxin, 
Dr. E. J. Satispury, Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.; Prof. J. M. McLean 
THOMPSON. 


Dr. J. B. Lorsy.—Demonstration (during the above Discussion) of 
Natural Hybrids between Plants and between Human Races in New 
Zealand and South Africa. 


Prof. F. O. Bowsr, F.R.S8.—Evolutionary Changes in the Superficial Sorus. 


In certain ferns the sorus took a superficial position in Paleozoic time, e.g. 
Oligocarpia and Ptychocarpus. Living examples are seen in Gleichenia, Alsophila, 
Woodsia and Matteuccia. Originally the sori were all radial and simple. Transitions 
followed to the gradate and mixed types, and the origin of a basal indusium accom- 
panied them; the result is seen in Woodsia, Diacalpe and Peranema. The further 
step to zygomorphy of the sorus in relation to the leaf-margin was taken by Peranema ; 
this eventuated in the soral type of Dryopteris. The similarity of this to Lindsaya 
and Nephrolepis was of homoplastic origin; they are essentially marginal types of 
Dicksonioid origin. 

Dryopterid derivatives are seen in Polystichwm and Polybotrya. A particular 
interest attaches to the elongated sori of Didymochlena, Fadyenia and Mesochlena, 
for these give the clue to the origin of the sori of Athyrium, Diplazium and Aspleniwm, 
which may be held as Dryopteroid derivatives, their indusia representing the remnants 
of the basal indusium of the Dryopteroid type. 

Matteuccia and Onoclea are also superficial types, of which the former may be 
still non-indusiate. By fusion of such naked sori in linear series the ccenosori of the 
Blechnum type originated, covered in by the leaf-margin. These also show the 
transition from the gradate to the mixed state, together with the innovation of a 
photosynthetic ‘ flange.’ By convolution and interruption of the ccenosorus upon a 
widening leaf-surface, asseen in Blechnwm punctulatum var. Krebsii, and in Camptosorus 
sibirica, the condition is arrived at of Phyllitis scolopendrium (the Hart’s Tongue). 

Asplenium and Phyllitis (Scolopendrium) have usually been classed together ; 
but if these comparisons be valid their soral similarities are homoplastic. In particular 
the protective flaps would not be homogenetic but homoplastic. The indusium of 
Asplenium would represent part of the Dryopteroid indusium ; it would, in fact, be 
of true indusial character by descent. But the so-called indusium of the Hart’s 
Tongue would be by descent an isolated portion of the original margin of the leaf- 
blade, which already in Blechnwm has assumed an ‘ indusoid ’ character. 


Prof. T. Jounson.—Irish Fossil Gymnosperms. (Communicated in title 
only.) 


While Ireland now possesses only two indigenous conifers—Juniperus and Taxus— 
it was in the early Tertiary relatively rich. Though a scientific survey of the timbers 
found in the bogs has never been made, Pinus sylvestris is not uncommon, and 
P. montana var. Mughus is recorded. The writer has had the opportunity of 
examining the fossil plants collected by Bailey, Gardner and others in Co. Antrim, 
and those found in the core of the bore at Washing Bay, Co. Tyrone, in 1916, 
carried out by the Board of Trade in the search for coal. The paper deals with 
Gingko, Taxus, Podocarpus, Pinus, Sequoia, Cryptomeria, Cunninghamia, Cupressus, 
Libocedrus and Ephedra. 

The deposits are regarded as Oligocene, with connection with those of Mull in 
Scotland, the plants showing affinities with the flora of East Asia, Pacific North 
America and the Mediterranean region. COunninghamia, now confined to East Asia, 
is the most interesting addition. 


—_—o—er Oe 


=e 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 385 


Mr. Jonn Watton.—4 Review of the Present Position of Knowledge of 
Paleozoic Bryophyta, with Descriptions of some New Types. 


Mosses.—There are only two reliable records of fossil-mosses of Paleozoic age— 
Muscites polytrichaceus, Ren. and Zeill.,and Muscites Bertrandi, Lignier. Both records 
are from the upper carboniferous of France. The former consists of small shoots with 
leaves in the form of an incrustation on shale. The habit and the size of the leaves 
are the only evidence that we have of its Bryophytic affinity. The latter consists of 
a petrifaction of a small axis bearing multicellular uniseriate hairs which have oblique 
cross walls. The centre of the axis is not preserved, and the hairs are attached to 
the outermost of two or three layers of thick walled cells. The obliquity of the 
cross walls is very strong evidence for considering them to be rhizoids and for regarding 
the fossil as a moss stem. 

Liverworts.—In addition to the liverworts described from the upper and middle 
coal measures of this country (Walton, Ann. Bot., vol. xxxix, 1925), another type has 
been discovered which has a well-defined vascular strand differentiated from the 
rest of the tissue of the thallus, which was flat and ribbon-like and branched 
dichotomously. Since we have only vegetative structures to deal with, we cannot 
draw any certain conclusions about the relation of these fossil liverworts to the main 
divisions of the living ones. It is of interest to note, however, that as regards thallus 
organisation they are but little behind the living ones. Of leafy forms there is one 
representative, Hepaticites Kidstoni, Walt., which has almost as sharp a differentiation 
into axis and leaves as those liverworts which are classed in the Acrogyne. There 
are several thalloid species, Hepaticites Langi, H. Willsi, and H. vascularis (MS.). 
The first two have a simple parenchymatous dichotomously branched thallus, while 
the last has a vascular strand which forks with the forking of the thallus. Hepaticites 
lobatus has a lobed thallus with a slightly differentiated axial region. 

There were present, therefore, in Paleozoic times, as at the present day, liverworts 
with (a) differentiation into axis and leaves, (6) thalloid form with lobed margin, 
(c) simple dichotomously branched thallus, (d) thalloid form with highly differentiated 
vascular strand. 


Dr. G. W. Scartu.—The Regulation of Stomatal Behaviour. 


(i) A brief historical statement. 

(ii) A summary of the principal findings already published by the writer regarding 
the relation of stomatal behaviour to the H-ion concentration of the guard cells— 
studied chiefly by mounting leaf sections in penetrating acid or alkali. 

It was found that stomata open both in acid and alkali, and that in the latter 
there are various intercellular changes which duplicate those associated with normal 
Opening in light. Evidence was also discovered that the pH in the guard cells influences 
their turgor partly through its effect on the ‘ swelling ’ capacity of a colloid in their sap. 

(iii) A short account of recent experiments to determine by means of indicators 
the pH of guard cells, &c., both in sections and entire leaves under various environ- 
mental conditions, pointing to the conclusion that the pH and turgidity of the guard 
cells. varies readily with the CO, concentration of the leaf as a whole—regulated 
normally by its photosynthetic v. its respiratory activity. 


Dr. Harotp Wacer, F.R.S.—The Effect of Light on Chlorophyll. 


Dr. F. W. Went.—Growth-promoting Substances and the Explanation of 
Phototropism. 


Small blocks of agar, gelatine and silicate jelly, placed eccentrically upon the cut 
surface of the coleoptile-stump of Avena, fail to induce curvature of the stump for the 
first two hours. However, if the gel had been in contact with the freshly cut surface 
of a coleoptile-top (in order to allow the growth-promoting substances to diffuse into 
the gel), then the stumps will show a curvature such that the block is situated on the 
convex side. It is possible to prove that the rate of curvature is determined by the 
concentration of the growth-promoting substances. These substances appear to be 
a limiting factor for growth (in the sense of Blackman) up to a certain concentration, 
above which concentration another limiting factor rather suddenly comes into play. 
The latter factor I assume to be the amount of material used in the cell-extension, 


1927 CC 


386 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


the concentration of which increases from the base towards the top of the coleoptile. 
This gives a plausible explanation for the specific distribution of the growth-rate over 
the coleoptile. 

Experiments by Dolk (as yet unpublished) show that the absence of growth-’ 
promoting substances in the coleoptile of Avena causes an almost absolute stagnation 
in its growth. It follows, therefore, that any curvature must be caused by a one- 
sided increase or decrease of the growth-promoting substances. From this point 
of view I have analysed the problem of phototropic curvature; the results already 
obtained are in good agreement with the above assumptions. 


Dr. W. H. Pearsati.—WMetabolie Effects of Nitrogen. 


Dr, James Ewine and Miss E. Roucuton.—The Influence of Hydrogen-ton 
Concentration on the Swelling of Plant Tissues. 


It has been found by several observers that plant protoplasm in its physico- 
chemical reactions resembles protein in showing marked amphoteric properties. In 
some respects plant tissues behave in similar fashion. The differential swelling 
which potato or beet tissue exhibits when placed in buffered solutions over a range 
of hydrogen-ion concentration from pH, to pH, cannot be wholly explained by osmotic 
phenomena. While a large part of the swelling is undoubtedly due to osmosis, it is 
considered that the differences in water absorption at different pH value may be due, 
either to differences in hydration of the protoplasm or constituent proteins, or to 
some changed condition in the permeability of the cell membrane. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Joint Discussion with Section A (Cosmical Physics Department) and 
Section C on The Climates of the Past. 


Prof. A. C. Sz—warp, F.R.S.— 


Few problems make so strong an appeal to the imagination as those relating to 
climatic retrospects. It is important, in the first place, to state the nature of the 
evidence bearing on the problem ; to consider whether or not the evidence is such as 
to bear the conclusions drawn from it. Fossil plants from different geological forma- 
tions are compared with recent genera or species; it is generally assumed that the 
conditions under which the existing plants grow may be accepted as criteria of climatic 
conditions in the past. As examples of fossil floras, which appear to afford evidence 
of much higher temperatures in Arctic regions than at present, the following are 
selected for brief description: Upper Devonian; Rhetic ; Cretaceous. 

It is suggested that too little account has been taken of (I) the fact that closely 
allied plants have different reactions to climate, or of (II) the possibility of specifically 
identical plants becoming modified in their power of resistance during lapse of time 
as senility replaces juvenile vigour. In this connection reference may be made to 
recent work by Fernald on the persistence of plants in the Gaspé Peninsula during 
the last glacial period. There is the further consideration, that certain genera 
(e.g. Gleichenia), now mainly tropical in their distribution, are represented by some 
species which flourish at high altitudes where conditions are much less genial. 

In the second place, having formed an estimate of the climatic contrasts between 
the past and the present, our aim is to discover the most probable explanation of 
these differences. Does the Wegener hypothesis offer a satisfactory solution? Can 
we, by altering the distribution of land and water, so far as is consistent with geological 
data, with its concomitant effects on oceanic and atmospheric circulation, reproduce 
temperatures believed to be required on paleobotanical grounds, without having 
recourse to Wegener’s floating continents and shifting poles ? 


Dr. G. C. Simpson, F.R.S., Mr. C. E. P. Brooxs, Dr. D. H. Scort, F.R.S., 
Prof. J. W. Grecory, F.R.S., Dr. H. Hamsnaw Tuomas, Mr. J. 
Watton, Mr. R. J. Matruews, Mr. R. D’O. Goon. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 387 


Dr. Apriancr 8. Fosrrr.—Nodal Anatomy and the Morphology of Bud- 
scales in Dicotyledons. 


One might be led to believe, from the confident opinions expressed in many 
botanical texts, that the morphological nature of bud-scales had been definitely 
settled, and hence no longer constituted a problem demanding further investigation. 
However, a careful survey made by the writer of the extensive literature on the 
subject, especially of the contributions of German and French investigators, indicated 
that sufficient differences of opinion have prevailed in the past, and indeed still exist, 
to warrant a complete re-examination of the problem with particular regard to the 
hitherto neglected evidence furnished by nodal anatomy. 

The results and general conclusions drawn from the writer’s investigation of the 
nodal anatomy of the bud-scales of about 130 species of ligneous Dicotyledons may 
be briefly summarised as follows :— 

(1) Nodal anatomy furnishes an important clue to the specific homologies of bud- 
scales, especially in plants where these organs have been regarded equivalent to 
modified stipules or to ‘ fused’ leaves. 

(2) In the majority of the species investigated, the nodal anatomy of the bud- 
scales and foliage-leaves is identical. 

(3) With few exceptions, the stele of the axillary bud of the scale or leaf is 
associated with the gap of the median trace, a fact of great assistance in the interpre- 
tation of specialised nodal conditions in the bud. 

(4) Two types of nodal specialisation have been found, viz. :— 

(a) The reduced node (confined to tri- and multi-lacunar species), where the 
scale receives fewer traces than the foliage leaf. Reduction involves either 
the suppression of one or more of the lateral traces, or, in stipulate leaved 
species, the suppression of the median trace with the development of the 
laterals, 

(6) The amplified node (found in uni-, tri- and multi-lacunar species), where the 
scale receives more traces than the foliage-leaf through the addition of 
accessory lateral traces.' 

(5) The reduced node is frequently (not always) associated with the small outer 
scales of the bud, while the node of the inner scales usually simulates that of the 
leaf. The amplified node is often found in buds with a small number of well-developed 
scales, and seems to represent a higher degree of specialisation than the reduced node. 
A study of the comparative ontogeny of scales and leaves may be expected to shed 
light on the significance of these types of nodal specialisations. 

(6) The close parallelism between the node of the bud-scale and foliage-leaf 
lends no support to the theories that scales are (a) organs sui generis, (b) vestiges of 
the primitive foliar organs of the Angiosperms, or (c) developmental possibilities of 
‘indifferent leaf-primordia.’ On the contrary, the evidence from nodal anatomy, 
together with corroborative data from ontogeny, experiment, histology, transitional 
forms and teratology suggest that bud-scales probably represent the original ontogenetic 
modifications of foliage-leaf primordia with subsequent evolutionary specialisation. 

(7) The fact that the nodal typography of the scale and leaf tends to be identical 
in a given species is evidence of the similarity in the early developmental stages of 

these organs, and emphasises the necessity for a specific, rather than a generalised, 
interpretation of the particular homologies of bud-scales. 


Mr. A. E. S. McInrosu.—Perithecial Development in Nectria Mammoidea. 


The origin of the perithecium cannot be traced to any differentiated archicarp. 
The perithecium is at first composed of a small knot of twisted hyphe, all of which 
stain similarly. Later certain cells near the centre become differentiated and stain 
more deeply, while others disintegrate. This results in the formation of a cavity 
into which the differentiated cells protrude whip-like extensions. The central cavity 
enlarges and there arises a differentiation of the deeply staining central cells into an 
upper and lower group. The cells of the upper group by growth down into the cavity, 
ultimately reach the foot and intertwine with those of the basal group ; these former 


1Cf. Sinnott, E. W., ‘ Investigations on the Phylogeny of the Angiosperms,’ I. 
«The Anatomy of the Node as an aid in the classification of Angiosperms.’—Amer. Jour. 
* Bot., I., 303-322, 1914. 


oo2 


388 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


constitute the paraphyses. The lower whip-like cells are at first uninucleate, but on 
further development become multinucleate. These are the ascogonia, and occupy 
the lower half of the central cavity under the descending curtain of paraphyses. 
Each of these ascogonia gives rise to one or more hyphz. Nuclei pass into these 
hyphz from the ascogonia, increase by division, and then associate in pairs while 
the hyphe become multicellular by septation. The tips then bend over in preparation 
for ascus formation. This is the highest developmental point of the ascogonia and 
the hyphz produced by them. They disintegrate just as the paraphyses curtain 
closes down on them from above. The true ascogenous hyphe arise directly from 
the vegetative cells at the foot of the cavity. These hyphe consist of a single cell 
which is generally binucleate. Fusion takes place between two nuclei to give the 
definite ascus nucleus, and this nucleus divides three times to give the eight nuclei 
around which the spores form. The spore nucleus again divides and the spore 
becomes uniseptate. Meiosis takes place during the first two divisions in the ascus, 
the third being an ordinary vegetative mitosis. 


Prof. Dame H. C. I. Gwynne-VauenHan and Mrs. H. 8. Witt1iamMson.— 
Germination of Fungal Spores. 

Considerable difficulty was experienced in germinating the ascospores of Lachnea 
cretea (Cooke), Phil., and development was first obtained after exposure to bright 
sunlight. Further experiment showed that the spores are not ripe for germination 
at ordinary temperatures till eight weeks after they leave the ascus. In younger 
spores germination can be induced by exposure to heat, the highest temperature and 
longest exposure being needed for spores newly shed. Ascospores remain viable for 
four years; conidia die more quickly, but are capable of germination as soon as 
produced. They are not killed by freezing. 


Mr. B. Barnes.—On Cultural Varieties of Fungi, produced by heating the 
Spores. 


Spores of Hurotium herbariorum derived from a stock which has remained constant 
in ordinary culture since 1922 have been exposed to high temperatures for a short — 
time before sowing, and have then given rise to a number of variants, differing from 
normal cultures in colour and in form. Some of the variants have retained their 
peculiar characters through a number of transfers; others have shown a tendency 
to revert to the original form ; some have died out. 

Evidence has been obtained that the pigmentation of the sclerotia of Botrytis 
cinerea may be influenced by similar treatment. 

These results have a possible bearing on the phenomenon of saltation in fungi. 


Mr. James Stirtinc.—The Occurrence of Monascus on Desiccated Coco-nut. 


The occurrence of this fungus on desiccated coco-nut is noted and its morphological 
features described. The development of the ascocarp has been followed chiefly in 
culture in glucose solution, but also in cultures on agar media. The presence of a 
fusion tube between the antheridium and the trichogyne of the oogonium has been 
noted, and nuclei have been observed in this tube midway between the two cells. 
Owing to the minute size of the nuclei and the large number present in the oogonial 
cell it is impossible to say whether or not fusion of nuclei takes place. Investment 
by hyphe follews immediately on the passage of the contents of the antheridium into 
the oogonium, while at the same time the oogonial cell swells and becomes more or 
less spherical. Short hyphal protrusions, with aggregations of nuclei in their neigh- 
bourhood, are found round the periphery of this cell, and these give rise to the asci. The — 
asci become spherical, growing at the expense of the central cell, which is crushed. 
The investing hyphe are at first swollen, and do not completely envelope, but as 
development proceeds they become flattened and form a thin pellicle round the asci. 


Ae TN etal SE EB danse 


Dr. T. WarrenEeapd.—Phlem Necrosis and Starch Accumulation in Potato : 
Leaf-roll. ; 


The phloem of healthy and leaf-roll material of twenty varieties has been examined, 
and necrosis found to occur in all diseased specimens and not in healthy ones. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 389 


Necrosis was found in stem, petiole and the main veins of the leaf-blade, but not in 
the finer vein endings. It may consist merely of a swelling of the middle lamella, 
which eventually more or less obliterates the lumen, or may be followed by the 
deposition of ligno-celluloses. In many cases the radial walls of the phloem are much 
elongated. 

Phloem necrosis, except in the most extreme cases of leaf-roll, does not occur to 
a sufficient extent to account for the excess accumulation of starch in the leaves, nor 
for the external symptoms of the disease ; it is, however, possible that necrosis marks 
the end point of phloem disease and not its inception. Necrosis was not observed in 
plants affected with ‘ blackleg * or mechanical ‘ wilt.’ 

Starch accumulation in leaf-roll leaves is a reliable method of diagnosis in cases 
where the external symptoms of leaf-roll are somewhat doubtful, providing that 
whole leaves are used and that other diseases, which also induce excess accumulation 
of starch, are known to be absent. 

Excess starch accumulation begins prior to rolling of the leaves, but pathological 
changes of the phloem may occur concurrently. By excluding light for six days, 
leaf-roll plants have been partially depleted of starch, but in a manner quite different 
from depletion in healthy plants. 

A rough comparison of sugar and starch contents of healthy and leaf-roll leaves 
has been made at bi-hourly intervals during the night. At midday healthy leaves, 
which were full of starch, contained little or no reducing sugars. Conversion into 
such sugars began in the late afternoon, and by 5 a.m. the whole of the starch had 
been depleted. On the other hand, the leaf-roll leaves contained not only more 
starch at midday than the healthy ones, but also very much more reducing sugar. 
Translocation was very slow in diseased plants during the night, and the reserve starch 
was apparently not drawn upon at all. 


Miss Marcarer Marrin.—The Influence of Ultra-Violet Light on the 
Structure of Plants. 


Observations have been made on the growth and structure of plants irradiated 
with a Hewittie ‘ Ulviare’ quartz mercury vapour lamp for short periods daily, as 
described by Miss Westbrook in a previous communication. 

Plants of Arachis and Voandzeia showed definitely harmful effects when irradiated 
with the unscreened lamp for daily periods of 10, 5, 2 minutes and 1 minute respec- 
tively at a distance of three feet, over a period of five weeks. Some of these effects 
are described, and the reaction to such doses is followed at different stages in these and 
other plants. 

When the daily period of irradiation was reduced to 30 seconds at a distance of 
5 or 8 feet, there were indications of a stimulating effect upon plants of T'rifoliwm and 
Pelargonium. 

Voandzeia, Pelargonium and other plants have also been irradiated with the same 
light filtered through various screens, and the effects of isolated regions of the spectrum 
have been investigated in this way. ‘The results are discussed in connection with 
the difficulties of obtaining screened light of comparable intensity. 


Miss Atison WestBroox.—The Influence of Ultra-Violet Radiation on the 
Growth of Plants. 


Recent physiological research and medical experience have shown repeatedly the 
value of artificial ultra-violet light in remedial treatment and in maintenance of health. 
Much less is known of its action on plants, but stunting and other harmful effects have 
been reported. 

Observations have now been made on the growth of plants as influenced by 
irradiation varying from } minute to 15 minutes daily with a Hewittic ‘ Ulviare’ 
quartz mercury vapour lamp, the spectrum of which shows lines in the ultra-violet 
from 226-400, together with intense bands in the violet, blue, green and yellow. 
Distances were chosen such as to avoid local heating at the surface of the plant. In 
other experiments various screens have also been employed, transmitting only certain 
parts of the spectrum :— 

1. Clear Vitaglass ; transmitting 90 per cent. of the visible rays and a proportion 
of ultra-violet rays of 20-30 per cent. in the region of 1.290. 
2. Blue Uviol : transmitting the blue-violet and ultra-violet rays to about 2.290 


390 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K, K*. 


3. Chance’s Ultra-violet Glass :; transmitting a little of the violet and ultra-violet 
rays to at least uu300, mainly u.3300-3900. 
Various methods have been employed in order to determine the equivalent 
exposures under these screens. The difficulty of obtaining light of comparable 
intensity in each case is discussed. 


Mr. F. T. Brooxs.—Lecture on Disease Resistance in Plants. 


Wednesday, September 7. 
Prof. F. E. Frirscu.—The Genus Spheroplea. 


Spheroplea has usually been regarded as a septate member of Siphonales of 
uncertain affinities. Apart from the multinucleate character of its ‘ cells,’ there is, 
however, nothing in favour of such a relationship. A survey of the features presented 
by the different species (well represented in South Africa) indicates an affinity with 
Ulotrichales, on the grounds both of vegetative and reproductive characteristics. 


Dr. Harotp Wacer, F.R.S.—The White Strip on the Leaf of Crocus. 


Mr. C. V. B. Marquann.—Aretic Alpine Bryophyte Associations in Britain, 
as compared with those of Western and Central European Mountains. 


Mr. H. DurrpdEN.—The Sporangia of Selaginella. 


In heterophyllous species of Selaginella the megasporangia tend to occur in line 
with the large ventral leaves. 

In many cases the number of megaspores in the sporangium is increased. In 
Selaginella Watsoni one case of eight megaspores: Selaginella Lobbii eight, twelve, 
fourteen, sixteen, eighteen and twenty. In Selaginella Willdenowii sixteen, thirty-six 
and forty-two megaspores. 


Mr. T. M. Harris.—The Fossil Plants of N.E. Greenland. 


SUB-SECTION K*.—FORESTRY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


Prof. Fraser Story.—World’s Timber Supply and Consumption. 


The timber supply problem concerns soft woods principally because, to the extent 
of over 80 per cent., the world’s demands are for timber of this description. The 
conifers which produce soft woods are found extensively only in temperate regions 
and are practically confined to North America, Northern Europe and Siberia. 

In the United States one district after another has been cut over until nearly all 
the lumbering activity is centred in the few Western States, the resources of which 
at the present rate of cutting cannot be expected to hold out for more than twenty 
to thirty years. Forest exploitation in Canada has followed a remarkably similar 
course. The once heavily timbered regions of Eastern Canada have been cleared 
of practically all large-sized timber and the soft woods of smaller dimensions are now 
seriously threatened owing to the great demands made on them by the paper-pulp 
industry. According to official statistics, three-quarters of Canada’s merchantable 
timber has already been destroyed or utilised. 

Apart from North America, approximately 75 per cent. of the world’s soft-wood 
area is located in Northern Europe and Siberia. In Europe the consumption of 
soft woods exceeds growth by about 3,000 million cubic feet. Most of the existing 
coniferous forests are to be found in Northern Russia, but this area cannot be relied 
upon owing to its inaccessibility and the sparsity of the population. For similar 
reasons Siberia, although containing vast forests, cannot be economically exploited. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS,—K*. 391 


Possibly, as resources diminish, greater care will be exercised in forest protection 
and timber utilisation. Even so, however, a serious shortage of soft woods is in 
sight with an accompanying marked rise in prices. Great Britain will be one of the 
first to suffer because it imports more soft woods than any other country and obtains 
90 per cent. of these supplies outside of the Empire. 


Mr. R. 8. Prarson.—Utilisation of Soft Woods, Developments and 
Improved Methods. 


The paper opens with a paragraph explaining that the subject is a very large one 
which can be discussed from several viewpoints, and that one of the most important 
factors governing the situation is the present position held in the market by softwoods 
of foreign origin. It goes on to discuss the reason why home-grown softwoods are 
not favoured by architects and builders, citing the primary causes, such as the quality 
of the timber, the scattered nature of the forests, their individual limited area, and 
the consequent difficulty in obtaining large supplies of uniform grades. 

The position of the import trade is then discussed, and the economic position 
reviewed with reference to the source of supply and the large quantities available, 
permitting of grading and a study of market requirements. 

The paper goes on to point out that the problem resolves itself into the question 
of creating large forest areas in this country, and in co-ordinating existing supplies 
on the one hand and of improving methods of utilisation and in determining what 
species to plant on the other. The former problem being outside the scope of the 
paper is not further discussed, and the question of more intense utilisation and what 
species to plant alone dealt with. f 

A review follows as to what has been done to solve similar problems in other 
countries, followed by a more complete analysis of the functions of a Forest Products 
Research Laboratory in investigating the anatomical structures of wood, its strength 
factors, seasoning and working qualities, durability, possible uses and its deterioration 
from fungi and insects. 

The paper concludes by giving three definite examples of these classes of investiga- 
tion, and ends with a plea for discussion. 


Mr. Wn. Datuimore.—Minor Forest Products. 


This paper directs attention to many of the minor products of forests that occur 
in various parts of the world. Some of them help very materially towards the financial 
success of sylvicultural undertakings, and they should receive greater attention from 
forest officers in general. The aim of the writer is not to present an exhaustive 
treatise upon the subject, but to bring forward suggestions for discussion in order 
that a better understanding may be arrived at as to the future possibilities of these 
products. Among the subjects mentioned are oils, resins, tans, dyes, drugs, maple 
‘sugar, nuts, &c. 


Mr. G. K. Fraser.—Wood Derivatives. : 


Mr. W. R. Day.—Forest Mycology. 


There are three chief branches to forest mycology : first, the study of the pathology 
of trees as related to plant parasites ; second, the nutrition of trees as dependent on 
the soil micro-flora ; third, the decay of sawn timber. 

Forest pathology is to-day dominantly the pathology of conifers. For an under- 
standing of the present position in forest pathology, there must be a true appreciation 
of the way in which Britain is becoming reafforested, chiefly with species that are 

not only exotic but are also of an entirely different type from those indigenous and to 
which the soils reafforested are not immediately suited or adapted even if the climate 
is more or less agreeable. This situation is complicated by an incomplete under- 
standing of the requirements of the new species and the introduction with them of 
exotic parasites of yet largely unknown importance. The pathology of broad-leayed 
trees is here shortly compared with that of conifers. 

Closely related to pathology is the study of the relation of fertility to the micro- 
flora of the forest soil. It is probably more important when reafforesting a difficult 
soil to establish a suitable soil micro-flora than to attempt, in the first instance, the 
growing of an economic crop. 


3892 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*. 


The key to future progress in the prevention of timber decay is, first of all, an 
appreciation of the preventable economic loss endured in this way and then a wider 
knowledge among timber users of the rules necessary to limit or prevent the growth 
of the fungi causing it. This is a matter in which co-operation between the economist 
and mycologist will bring the most fruitful results. 

It may be said generally that there is, at the present time, far too little study of 
the biologic relationship between the fungus and its host or the substratum on which it 
grows. Upon the prosecution of this study all future progress depends. 


Dr. J. W. Munro.—Forest Entomology. 


Friday, September 2. 
Dr. G. W. Rosrnson.—Forest Soils. 


Mr. E. V. Latne.—The Living Tree. 


The living tree attains its best development under a definite set of conditions— 
climatic, edaphic, and biotic—and to save labour and time and to eliminate trial and 
error methods in planting, a knowledge of the factors operating within the range of 
any particular species is called for. The question of the living tree and its growth 
factors is a complex one, but one factor may compensate for another, as, for instance, 
feduction of light intensity may compensate for poor soil conditions, and good soil 
may mitigate the effects of exposure and altitude. The limiting factor to a tree’s 
growth may be some element such as nitrogen, potash or magnesia. Frequently the 
nitrogen exists in a form unsuitable or unavailable to the tree, and in such conditions 
the presence of a suitable fungus to form Mycorrhiza may become of vital importance. 
The whole question of the growth factor leads to that of the health of the tree. When 
the habit and habitat of each species are known, a safe guide is provided regarding 
the soil and locality best suited for its successful cultivation as a forest crop. 


Mr. W. H. Guintesaup.—Sylvicultural Surveys. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Dr. T. F. Curpp.—Forestry in Relation to Climate and Erosion. 


The influence of climate on forests is generally recognised ; some examples of this 
aspect are given with references to recent work. Considerable controversy has arisen 
with regard to any influence forests may have on climate. Many publications on the 
subject cite evidence from hydrology, ‘ exsiccation,’ or topographic or biotic factors. 
An examination of the principal climatic factors shows that the presence of a forest 
mass exerts an influence in its immediate vicinity. The forester’s conception of climate 
is not necessarily that of the climatologist, and itis a matter for consideration whether 
the forester cannot ascertain the effect of forest better by the aid of phytometers than 
by the data furnished by meteorological instruments. 


Mr. C. E. P. Brooxs.—The Influence of Forests on Rainfall. 


The possible influence of forests may be general, i.e. on the rainfall of the whole  j 
district, or local, i.e. confined to the actual forested areas. The general influence 
should depend on the relative amounts of water vapour passed to the air by forests, 
crop land and bare soil. Three processes are effective, evaporation of rainfall inter- 
cepted by foliage, evaporation from soil, and transpiration. The available data suggest 
that the total is greatest from crop land, least from bare soil. Hence, the replacement 
of forests by crop land should increase the general rainfall slightly, replacement by 
bare soil should decrease it. Owing to the variability of rainfall from other causes, 
it is difficult to find actual examples of these effects. 

_In dealing with local rainfall, it is necessary to distinguish between the catch of — 
rain and the true fall. The excess of rain generally shown by forest clearings over 
open sites is mainly due to the shelter of the gauges from wind eddies. The true fall — 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*. 393 


over forests is found to average only one or two per cent. above that in the open; 
this is due to the increase in the effective height of the ground caused by the forests. 
Forests are beneficial in conserving the winter snowfall. 


Dr. A. W. Bortuwicx.—Forestry in Relation to Water Catchment Areas. 


AFTERNOON. 


Excursion to Fewston Reservoir of Leeds Corporation. 


Sunday, September 4. 
Excursion to Jervaulx Abbey Woods. 


Monday, September 5. 


Address by Sir Perer CLurrersuck on Forestry and the Empire. 


Opening with general remarks on the importance of forests to mankind, the 
coming timber famine is referred to. This pending calamity has resulted in a revival 
of interest in forestry in many parts of the Empire. With a view to stimulating 
sound principles, a system of periodical Empire Forestry Conferences was inaugurated 
in 1920 in Great Britain, was continued in Canada in 1923, and is to be continued in 
Australia and New Zealand in 1928, and in South Africa in 1933. Lord Lovat, then 
Chairman of the Forestry Commission, was the prime mover in this matter. About 
the same time the Empire Forestry Association was started under Royal Charter, 
with a view to fostering interest in forestry and to assist in every possible way in 
developing and encouraging correct principles of forest management. 

In order to provide for the future a judicious conservation of existing forests is 
necessary, while afforestation would have to be undertaken in countries not 
possessing a sufficient forest area. Timber, resulting from such efforts, will not, 
however, in most cases grow quickly enough to affect the threatened famine. Every 
device for mitigating this famine must be sought for and pushed. Such devices are 
by economising the consumption of soft woods, by persuading consumers wherever 
possible to use the lighter hard woods available from the more tropical parts of the 
Empire instead of soft woods, and by fostering the use of materials other than wood 
for the manufacture of paper-pulp, and thus help to eke out the supply of soft woods. 

The forestry position in the various parts of the Empire is then touched upon. 


Mr. R. L. Rosinson.—British Forest Policy. 


The paper is divided into three parts :— 

(1) Pre-war Policy, indicating briefly the efforts made by the State to safeguard 
the supply of shipbuilding timber, for example, after the Civil Wars and the Napoleonic 
Wars ; the period of neglect following on the decline of wooden ships and the free 
access to abundant supplies of overseas timber to meet the needs of the great industrial 
expansion; the revival of interest during the twenty years or so preceding the Great 
War. 

(2) Current Policy.—The experience of the Great War; the Acland Committee’s 
programme; the Forestry Act, 1919; the Forestry Commission: its constitution, 
procedure and results achieved : the probable position at the expiration of the Commis- 
sion’s tenth year of existence. 

(3) Future Policy.—Factors bearing on its determination; the state of British 
woodlands as disclosed by Census of Woodlands; probable demands for timber ; 
prospective supplies ; productivity of and extent of land available for afforestation ; 
forestry and land settlement; responsibility of the State ; bases of action, finance 
and administration. 


Mr. A. C. Forses.—The Maintenance of Permanent Soft-wocd Supplies 
in North-Western Europe. 

The importance of an adequate supply of soft-wood timber is greatest in those 

countries in which industrial development is most advanced ; building and railway 


394 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*; 


construction, paper-pulp and packing boxes representing the main purposes for which 
coniferous soft woods are used. With the exception of Germany and Italy, the 
industrial countries chiefly relying upon supplies of soft wood imported from Northern 
Europe are those lying along the north-western seaboard, including Belgium, Denmark, 
France, Holland, Great Britain and Ireland. These countries have the lowest area 
of forest per head of population, and would feel most acutely any serious shortage. 
Their annual imports are, according to Mr. Fraser Story, about 600,000,000 cubic feet, 
their total consumption nearly 12,000,000 cubic feet. This does not include pulpwood 
or hardwood. Great Britain takes nearly two-thirds of the total import. The 
normal increment from 7,500,000 acres of conifers, of which about 66 per cent. are 
privately owned, is about 300,000,000 cubic feet, so that there is an apparent over- 
felling or reduction of the capital stock equal to 25 per cent. of the total consumption. 

Northern Europe possesses about 300,000,000 acres of coniferous forest capable 
of producing, under proper management, the whole of the industrial deficit elsewhere 
in Europe for all reasonable time. Sweden and Finland possess one-fourth of this 
area, and their forests are conservatively managed. Russia is at present an uncertain 
quantity. The present exports from Northern Europe of about 800 to 900 million 
cubic feet could not be greatly increased at present without over-felling. 

The chief measures most likely to assure the maintenance of an adequate supply 
of soft woods are :— 

(1) Better protection against fire and more intensive management of the existing 
forest area. 

(2) The conversion of unprofitable hardwood areas into coniferous forest. 

(3) The afforestation of land possessing a low agricultural value. 

(4) The lowering of the per capita consumption of soft-wood timber by substitutes 
such as ferro-concrete, plywoods, and pulpwood from hardwood timber, &c. 

The high percentage of privately owned forest in most parts of Europe suggests 
a more adequate control of all forest land by the State, leading to more intensive 
management and the prevention of over-felling. Afforestation of poor land is a 
State enterprise, and cannot be effected on an adequate scale without legislative 
measures. The discovery of substitutes for coniferous wood is a matter for research 
and investigation. 

The possibility that population and industrial activity in Europe have reached 
their maxima, and that present estimates of future timber consumption may be 
excessive, must not be left out of account. 


Dr. J. D. SurHeRLAND.—The Economic Balance between Agriculture and 
Forestry. 


Intervention in land utilisation has been forced upon all Governments. The 
extent depends upon the natural resources of the country, their development, the 
system of tenure, and upon the recognition of national conservation as a policy. 
Such a policy implies that a certain balance is regarded as necessary. 

In Great Britain the chief protagonists of the hinterlands are agriculture and 
forestry, with sport as guerillist. 

In none of these spheres can the requirements of the country be fully produced, 
and inquiry is made as to how far the natural balance has been upset, and whether 
definite economic improvement could be obtained by redisposition. 

In this connection the actual and potential contributions of the various classifica- 
tions of land are considered with a view to determining whether retention in their 
present categories is nationally economic. The consumption and imports of the 
country in agricultural and forest produce are also compared, together with the relative 
costs. 

State aid to agriculture has evidently not been ungenerous. The current year’s 
appropriations amount to over £15,000,000 in Great Britain, and analysis of this 
is contrasted against expenditure upon forests. 

The reactions and relationship of Agriculture and Forestry upon and with each 
other are of vital importance. 


Mr. W. B. Turritit.—Forests of the Balkan Peninsula. 


Naturally most of the Balkan Peninsula should be forest clad, but owing to the 
destructive activities of man and his domesticated animals the lowland and hill 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*, L. 395 


zones are now denuded of trees in many parts. The woody vegetation, floristically 
and ecologically, can be subdivided into three main types : Mediterranean, transitional 
and Central European, and all of these show very clear altitudinal zonation. Climatic 
factors are of greater importance than edaphic in limiting the distribution of the 
various communities. Within the Mediterranean domain the most important com- 
munities are those of Pinus halepensis, P. pinea, oaks, laurels, Platanus orientalis, 
Cupressus sempervirens, Abies cephalonica, Taxus baccata, beech, and Pinus nigra. 
In the transitional areas manna-ash, oak woods, the Strandja woods, limited com- 
munities of Aesculus hippocastanum and Ostrya-Fagus orientalis forest can be distin- 
guished. Within the Central European domain the important forest communities 
are the oak woods, chestnut woods, Pinus nigra association, the omorika association, 
fir and spruce association, and beech association. The composition and successional 
stages of these are of considerable interest when compared with corresponding features 
in better-known parts of Europe. The causes of the replacement of forests by various 
types of brushwood-macchie, pseudomacchie, phrygana and shibljak and the final 
degeneration to poor grassland or stony ground with a meagre open vegetation are 
nearly all connected with man. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Mr. Wm. Rarrr.—Paper Pulp from Bamboo. 


Mr. 8. K. Muxers1.—The Forests of Kashmir. 


This paper, illustrated by lantern slides, embodies the results of extensive 
ecological study of the Forest Communities of Kashmir up to an elevation of 14,000 
feet. It deals with the geological, climatic, physiographic, edaphic, and biotic factors 
of the region. 

Types of Forests :— 

. Winter Deciduous Forests: Populus, Aesculus, Acers, Fraxinus, Ulmus, and 
etula. 

Coniferous Forests: Pinus excelsa, Cedrus Deodara, Cupressus torulosa, Taxus 

_baccata, Picea morinda, Abies Pindrow and A. Webbiana. 
: Undergrowth of forests and their ground flora. Succession of Forest Communities. 
Striking absence of ‘ Oak-belt ’ in Kashmir Himalayas. Limestone rocks in relation 
to occurrence of special types of Forest Communities. Natural Regeneration of some 
valuable timber trees. Brushwood of Parrotia Jacquemontiana in relation to 
Regeneration of Deodar and Blue-pine. Effect of grasses on seedling regeneration 
and afforestation. Exploitation of Forests in Kashmir. Preservation of Forests— 
“The Rakhs.’ Some useful Forest produce of Kashmir. 

Vast field for developing scientific farming of important indigenous medicinal 
and economic plants. Edible mushrooms and morchellas. 

Suitable field for extensive cultivation of species of Populus for wood-pulp. 


SECTION L.—EDUCATION. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 435.) 


Thursday, September 1. 
Joint Discussion with Section J on Psychology of Special Scholastic 
Disabilities. 
Miss G. Hume, Miss Wureier, Miss McALuisterR. (See p. 372.) 
Overseas Training Committee. Paper by Commissioner D. C. Lams 


on Importance and Value to the Empire of the Transplantation of 
Boys, &c. (See p. 309.) 


396 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L., 


Friday, September 2. 


Discussion on Education in Tropical Africa. Sir THEODORE Morison, 
Mr. Rivers Smiru, Mr. Norman Youne, Major A. G. Cuurcu, Miss 
S. BuRSTALL. 


Sir THEopoRE Mortson.—An Educational Policy for Tropical Africa. 
(Read by Dr. Krumins in the unavoidable absence of the author.) 


The official policy in regard to education in Tropical Africa now defined : it is to 
* produce a better kind of African, not an inferior imitation of a European.’ A sound 
policy, but a hard one to put into practice. Indian experience shows that English 
thought is very destructive of indigenous beliefs. In Nigeria, where a considerable 
proportion of the people are Moslem, it may be possible to avoid “ denationalisation ’ 
by drawing upon the rich stores of Islamic learning. In East Africa, where indigenous 
culture is slight, the task is much harder. The best hope lies in giving education in 
the vernacular. Do not teach in English at all, even in the University—if ever there 
is one. Set to work at once to make Swahili the cultural language of East Africa. 
Enrich it with translations; hammer out a scientific terminology, form words and 
phrases to express abstract thought. The object is to make Swahili a fit vehicle for 
precise ideas. The Governments of East Africa must combine to set up a Translation 
Bureau, as has been done at the Osmania University of Hyderabad. 

This is the most important item of educational policy in East Africa ; the second 
is to train the hand and eye and teach the simpler arts of rural life, viz.: ploughing, 
weaving, and the use of the potter's wheel. So direct both education and the 
administration that it may be clear to the African that his own personal advantage 
rather lies in developing the economic resources of his country than in becoming a 
lawyer or a clerk. 


Mr. Rivers Smrra.—The Education of the African Chief. 


The problem of the education of the African Chief is largely an administrative 
problem, and must be regarded in its special relation to his position as the leader 
of his people, and the change in that position which has come about as the result 
of the necessity to make tribal autocracy conform to ordered government under 
civilised rule. 

The best results are to be looked for by the adaptation to the demands of civilised 
societies, of what can be retained of native social systems; and so to-day we find a 
marked tendency to develop systems of indirect rule in which native authorities are 
encouraged, under the guidance of their European administrators, to accept a larger 
measure of responsibility for the maintenance of law and order in the tribal unit ; 
and eventually, through a natural process of evolution, rather than by an undue 
insistence on Western systems, to enable that unit to find its natural expression in © 
the new social order which must grow as the result of impact with civilisation. 

One of the finest characteristics of the pagan African, in addition to his well- 
developed communal sense, has been his loyalty to constituted authority as recognised 
in the person of his chief. The successful growth of a system of indirect rule would — 
appear, therefore, to depend on the maintenance of the authority of the hereditary 
head of the people. The education of the heirs to this authority must therefore 
fit them to exercise that authority in accordance with the requirements of good 
government, while maintaining what is best of their own social systems and adapting 
them, where necessary, to the changed conditions. 

The first duty of the school must be to exercise care not to destroy a good African 
by the inculeation of ideas and tastes which cannot find expression in an African 
community ; the aim should be to produce perhaps a new but finer conception of 
the African rather than a spurious imitation of the European. 

The young chief will eventually have to exercise judicial functions, and at least 
those laws which native authorities are competent to administer should form a subject 
of study. An elementary knowledge of procedure and of the administrative system 
generally must be taught, and, above all, the pupil must be imbued with a sense of 
civilised justice. But more important even than his magisterial duties are his social 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L, 397 


responsibilities. In the present stage of development he must in a very real sense 
be the civic leader of his people, and should possess therefore a working knowledge of 
the social services. 

His training should be essentially a practical one, though his general education 
should be no less thorough than that given to other young men whose responsibilities 
are less. He should leave school well equipped as an agriculturalist and possessing 
a sound knowledge of animal husbandry ; citizenship and hygiene are of prime impor- 
tance; and some skill in handicrafts should be encouraged. Recreations and the 
wise employment of leisure are matters which need to be stressed while the future 
chief is at school. 


Mr. Norman Youne.—Problems and Personalities at the Accra Teachers 
Training College. 

The Training College a Government institution, founded in 1911 and now taken 
over by Achimota. It and the kindergarten the only departments of Achimota thus 
far open. 

Rediscovery in West Africa of the important commonplace that ‘ educational 
problems’ largely resolve themselves into the mystery of the personalities of Tom, 
Dick and Harry—lknown in our country as Pudjo, Pobbina and Kwami. 

Consideration of a few outstanding College Characters.—Attempt to discover a 
common denominator. After one tour the search leads chiefly to a series of paradoxes. 
They are frank in feeling and circuitous in thought; self-confident in the adoption 
of other people’s opinions, literal-minded and yet lovers of abstractions ; having moral 
and religious aptitude, yet scant application. 

Some Problems in the light of their Characteristics.—The job of the Training College 
threefold: to develop good scholars, which involves supplementing and correcting 
the training given in Standards I to VIL; to teach them to teach; to train them to 
take the lead in developing a new West African culture. 

Problems in the Making of a Scholar.—E.g. rule of thumb tradition in the schools 
in which they have been trained. 

Problems in the Making of a Teacher.—E.g. their phenomenal memories, but 
reluctance to readjust methods to suit particular classes, &c. 

Problems in Training them for Leadership.—E.g. they are too ready to adopt 
European ideas, and too slow to adapt them—considerable understanding often 
shown, but little originality. 

Village patriotism strong and natural, but national and racial patriotism 
stilted and rather self-righteous. 

Perhaps the greatest problem is the prevalent conception of education—you buy 
it as you buy automobiles—‘a means of getting on faster.’ Hveryone wants 
education, for it appears to spell power. 


Major A. G. CaurcH.— 


The impact of the alien trader and missionary upon the natives of Africa results in the 
breakdown of tribal arts and crafts and native customs and social pleasures. This 
breakdown has been accelerated by the cessation of intertribal warfare consequent 
upon the introduction of a ‘ white’ administrative system, the encouragement given 
to native cultivators to produce crops for export, and our interference with their 
system of shifting cultivation. Village life becomes dull for the ambitious and 
adventurous male. The flight from the land is the logical outcome of native discontent 
with his changed environment. Can this be arrested? The task confronting 
Europeans in Africa is to train natives for new functions they must perform under 
the changed conditions prevailing. Professional and semi-professional as well as 
industrial workers are needed. What type of education is necessary for these various 
classes ? Will the problem of the industrial worker be solved by giving him a purely 
vocational training ? What is to be the basis of the training for industry? Can 
industrial work be given a dignity comparable with that of professional work? A 
few tentative suggestions are offered in the paper. 


Miss S. Burstaty.—The Education of the African Woman. 


Demand only just beginning in most of the nine colonies. Coast areas in West 
Africa, special conditions. Simplicity and difficulty of the problem. The primitive 


398 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


African woman: her duties in the social organisation. The four H’s: Hygiene, 
Housecraft, Handwork, Horticulture. Infant mortality. Food and gardens. Appli- 
cation of the general principles of the White Paper, March 1925 (Cmd. 2374). Religion, 
The missionaries must do most of the work. No demand in Islamic areas. The Girl 
Guide movement. Solution of the problem in a School Village in Northern Rhodesia, 
by Miss Mabel Shaw (London Missionary Society). Native girls live in their own 
way, sleep in huts, grow food, &c. Approval by parents, eager to pay fees: 
bride price above average: girls stay till 17 or 18. Boarding school essential. 
Tanganyika, U.M.C.A. plan. Recreative subjects: music, dancing. How far should 
girls learn English ? Cf. French in the education of an English girl, or Latin in the 
Dark Ages of Western Europe. 

The African girl in Europeanized families: the West Coast problem. How not to 
do it. The new Queen’s College at Lagos. Demand from Uganda. Difficulty of 
securing African women teachers, especially for villages. Jeanes School in Kenya. 
The married woman teacher essential : cf. French methods in their African Colonies. 
The European married woman in Africa, especially in the official class. Local Boards 
of Education. Need for good English mistresses, Government or mission. Better 
education of the European child in Tropical Africa, especially the girls in Kenya. 
Northern Rhodesia, girls’ schools needed. 

The text-book problem: vernaculars: the influence of the mother in the home. 
French text-books. The new International Institute of African Languages and 
Cultures: standardization and verification of dialects. A great task for to-day: a 
great hope for the future. 


Sir Jonn RussExx, F.R.S.—Report of the Overseas Training Committee. 
(See p. 309.) 


Presidential Address by Her Grace the Ducurss or ATHOLL, on The 
Broadening of the Outlook in Education. (See p. 191.) 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on Education and Industry. Mr. J. WickHam Murray, 
Mr. E. Watts, Mr. J. H. Everett, Dr. H. Scoorrenp, Mr. A. P. M. 
FLEMING. 


Mr. J. WickHam Murray.—New Outlooks and Tendencies. 


Preliminary.—It is to be noted that the views expressed in this paper are not 
necessarily those of the executive or central committees of the Emmott Corfimittee 
of Inquiry into the Relationship of Technical Education to other Forms of Education 
and to Industry. Further, the view taken throughout is that in Technical Education 
is to be found the best link between education and industry. Reasons for this view. 

How does Industry regard Technical Education 2—Is there any evidence to show 
that industry recognises the help it receives from education, values that help and 
desires to contribute help and advice towards reshaping the education system ? Can 
any broad lines of advance, with which industry is in agreement, be set down? The 
views of industry upon (a) the grouping of educational facilities; (b) content of 
curricula ; (c) supply of staff ; (d) research ; (e) training of artisan, foreman, manager. 

How does Education regard Industry ?—Machinery which has been used hitherto, 
é.g. advisory boards of employers, employers on local education authorities, &c. — 
Informal nature of interest hitherto taken in the possibilities of education as an 
essential to industry. Sandwich systems. In some cases educationists tend to fear 
that the influence of the industrialist may take something away from what is regarded — 
as the ‘liberal’ quality of education ; is this a real danger ? 

Changing Philosophies in Education.—Tendencies which may be observed (a) in — 
the attitude of the Board of Education ; (5) in the recently expressed views of teaching — 
bodies ; (c) in the reports of committees such as the Malcolm Committee on Education 
and Industry ; (d) the Balfour Committee. The Junior Technical School. ; 

Humanistic Aspects of Technical Hducation.—Difference between vocational — 


d 


a oe 


instruction and technical education ; the cultural possibilities of the latter. Educa- x 


tional administration should secure unity. Difficulty and necessity of labels such as 


ra 
2 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 399 


* Primary,’ ‘Secondary,’ ‘Technical,’ ‘ University.’ The present position. Social 
balance between craftsman and clerk. The dual problem of the ‘ black-coated ’ 
worker and the lack of skilled craftsmen. Dependence of technical education on 
primary and secondary education. Adult education. Relationships with the 
universities. Training of teachers for technical education. 

Some Suggestions—Development of the local college. Matriculation conditions. 
The kind of local and national machinery which might produce definite relationships 
between education and industry. Advanced classes. Development of day classes. 
Transfer of pupils in secondary, junior technical and central schools. 


Mr. E. Watis.—Educational Needs of Industry. 


There is needed a greater co-operation between the schoolmaster and the employer. 
The ultimate active life of 90 per cent. of the pupils is in industry, and educational 
plans should have the working life of the pupil in mind from start to finish. This 
does not mean that education has to be utilitarian. There is needed more grading, 
by observation rather than by examination, a constant sieving, which almost auto- 
matically brings the pupil to his most likely destination in life. In this way the 
school is the true junior employment bureau. An attempt to place scientific and 
literary studies in the true relation. The bearing of educational methods on industrial 
peace. 


Mr. J. H. Evererr.—The Technical Colleges, ther Courses and Problems. 

Aims. 

To supply the requirements of industry. To train young persons for their work 
in life. Not necessarily to give skill, but rather to teach, by practical methods, the 
principles of the trade in which the apprentice is employed. To give adaptability so 
that the apprentice can become a fully competent worker or craftsman. 

To keep up, and where possible to improve, the standard of the ordinary workman ; 
but also to train selected men for executive or managerial positions. Must be 
‘education’ and not merely ‘instruction’; technical education can have some 
‘cultural’ value. 

Courses. 

Tn order to meet requirements, courses are either full-time or part-time. 

Full-time courses are for those who want good preparation before entering industry, 
or for those who can make it possible to leave industry for a period in order to undergo 
special training, which implies that they should be able to return to industry. 

Part-time courses are for those who remain in industry and take courses of study 
concurrently. This work is much better done in the day-time when the mind is (or 
should be) clearer and more responsive. 

Full-time courses are conducted in junior technical, art or commercial schools, 
and also in senior technical schools and colleges. The junior courses are of a general 
character, the only bias being towards industry as a whole; the senior courses are 
arranged to meet the needs of separate industries. 

Part-time courses affect by far the larger number of students and present special 
problems. Such courses usually entail an attendance of three evenings a week over 
several winter sessions, although where employers are favourably disposed, and trade 
organisation will allow, apprentices attend one or two half-days in lieu of certain 
evenings ; in such cases the day attendance may continue through the summer term. 

The courses are usually graded as junior (two years), senior (two, three or four 
years), and advanced (one, two or three years). The courses are arranged on the 
“group course’ system; its educational advantages ; difficulties with the allied (or 
ancillary) subjects. 

Three evenings a week, with homework in addition, appears to be too much for 
at least some students. Is it advisable to institute two evenings a week group 
courses? Danger of the soft option. Other solution is day attendance. 

Major and minor courses with possibility of transfer from one to the other. 

All courses involve or should involve practical instruction in some form or other, 
ranging from the academic type to the craft or trade type. Equipment problems. 

All courses should include costings and organisation in the later or advanced 
stages, but for general information rather than from the professional accountancy 
standpoint. 


400 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


Examinations and Certificates. 

Object of examinations and value of certificates. Multiplicity and need for 
co-ordination. 

Some problems and difficulties. 

The whole system voluntary. Great variation in attainment, ability and needs 
of students. Overtime and the shift system. Gap from fourteen to sixteen and the 
summer gap. The teacher, full-time and part-time. Annual leakage of students. 
Small advanced classes. 

Have technical schools the whole-hearted support of Industry? - Need for local 
and national advisory committees. Preparation for trade revival. 


Dr. H. Scnuorrep.—Engineering Training on Production. 

Although the subject of training the engineer is one full of controversy which does 
not apparently grow any less as experience proceeds, there is yet one point upon which 
we have almost complete unanimity, namely, that somewhere in the training of the 
engineer must come time spent in actual practical experience on productive output. 
This may precede or follow a University or Higher Technical College training, according 
to the views held by those responsible for placing students in such institutions. There 
are difficulties whichever way the course is taken, and it was in an endeavour to get 
over these difficulties that the scheme of training now in progress at Loughborough 
College was founded. 

Whether we approve or not, in general, the system of Engineering production in 
this country is tending to change. The mass system of output is slowly but surely 
gaining ground, and must extend if we are successfully to meet the difficulties of 
world-wide competition. Consequent upon this system it may be shown that the 
best boy tends to have the least chance. The mobility allowed to the average young 
man in our modern works is small, and there is little connection between the manu- 
facturing and the distributing sides. 

Tf we turn to the institutions responsible for the theoretical side of a student’s 
training, we find other difficulties inherent in the system. There is a tendency which 
will grow alarming, unless carefully checked, for the College or University responsible 
for technological training to become dissociated from the industry for which it is 
responsible for training recruits. Many reasons may be given for this, not the least 
of which is the practical difficulty of teachers keeping in organic contact with industry 
on its commercial side. University Courses in Engineering and allied Technology 
are designed, perhaps of necessity, on a mathematical and physical basis, yet for an 
all-round engineer there are three aspects of training, each of which is equally 
important :— 

1. Its Mathematical and Physical side. 

2. The question of Management. 

3. The art of Selling, Distributing, and obtaining a Market. 

The so-called engineering workshops in our larger technical institutions tend to 
become laboratories rather than workshops in the real sense of the term. 

Various methods of training have been introduced from time to time to deal with 
the above difficulties; the Faraday House system embodies a very good admixture 
of the theoretical and the commercially practical; the works productive ‘ bays’ in 
large firms such as the British Thomson-Houston Company, Limited, of Rugby, and 
Messrs. W. H. Allen & Company, of Bedford, give an excellent method of keeping the 
student in touch with production during his years of training; the experiments in 
America, at Worcester and Cincinnati, should also be quoted as giving a successful 
method of tackling this problem. 

In the productive college the exercise is abolished in every section. Graded 
production suitably selected giving the maximum variety of experience is substituted 
from the beginning. Again difficulties occur: the right type of instructor is not 
easily found; the cost of scrap may prove serious, unless carefully watched ; the 
attitude of interested people may not always be sympathetic, and last, but by no 
means least, delivery is a formidable trouble. On the other side the advantages are 
overwhelming. A student is interested, keen, and enthusiastic ; he feels that he is 
working to some purpose, and that his work has a value which can be assessed com- 
mercially within his own experience, his practical work is in direct and constant 
touch with his theory in the lecture room and laboratory. At the end of a fifth- 
year course he has had a reasonably wide experience for a young man of his age, and 
he knows something of the relative costs of the application of his theoretical knowledge. 


acon 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 401 


The ‘ acid test ’ of any scheme is shown by its results. So far the appreciation of 
industry of this form of training is interpreted in the fact that students thus trained 
can be placed without difficulty. 


Mr. A. P. M. Fremine.—Educational Facilities offered by Industry. 


The portion of the subject assigned to the writer is to indicate how industrial firms 
themselves have attempted to provide suitable educational facilities for their workers. 

The attempts that firms have made to provide educational facilities of a more 
or less conventional type have, perhaps, led many who are not intimately associated 
with industry to form an entirely wrong conception of industrial educational needs; 
and, more particularly, of what those responsible for the conduct of industry believe 
to be its educational needs. In this paper it is proposed only to touch upon 
the more conventional facilities, but rather to indicate those which do not fall 
directly within the recognised scope of education, whereas industrially they are 
educational efforts of the most vital kind and apply equally to all types of workers, 
whether manual or mental. 

The fundamental factor in industry is personnel, and the educational needs of 
personnel—industrially and individually—are to fit the worker for his environment, 
whatever it may be. 

Industrial environment is continually changing, and conditions at the present 
time call for educational effort which will produce an appreciation of the need, to the 
community, for intensive production ; the ability to work effectively in a ‘team’ ; 
and to exercise independent judgment based on an accurate appreciation of facts; a 
spirit of fairness towards one’s fellows; an instinctive desire to improve the means 
of productive effort in the service of the community; and all the other attributes 
that go to the making of a good citizen. 

While it is recognised that these qualities, which are essential to fitting a worker 
for his environment, can, in a general way, be developed through the more con- 
ventional educational facilities, the need for the exercise of them cannot be fully 
appreciated by the juvenile until he enters his working environment, so that it is not 
until then that the best opportunities for such development occur. 

To some extent organisations of the type represented by the Boy Scouts do much 
to fit the young worker for his industrial environment, but something much more 
intimately associated with his work is needed. The writer will outline the types of 
organisations that exist in some of the large industrial concerns in which the juvenile 
workers are not only given training facilities which enable them to follow effectively 
their own particular trade or vocation, but which provide the means for training in 
those aspects of industrial life that involve relationships with their fellows—whether 
in work, play or in the general communal relations that exist between all sections 
and classes of workers associated together for industrial production. 

Facilities for continuing this form of education in adult years are needed, and the 
most satisfactory are those which arise from the outworkings of societies and 
institutions which are identified with a man’s work, or with the welfare of himself and 
his fellows. Thus, in all the healthy industrial concerns in which sports and general 
and social activities of every kind are being pursued very actively, the real education 
of fitting a man for his environment is going forward effectively. 

To gauge the importance of this type of education, one must bear in mind that 
in a country like Great Britain, industry is a fundamental necessity to the entire nation, 
and everything that operates against national prosperity eventually diminishes the 
well-being of every individual. One of the most lamentable features operating 
against national prosperity is the unrest and want of agreement that exists between 
employees and the management of industry. An analysis of conditions shows that 
many of the factors referred to above are involved, and it would seem that the only 
way of satisfying the educational requirements they represent lies in making the 
very best and fullest use of the experience of the worker in his particular sphere. 

This ‘non-conventional ’ type of education must necessarily be closely linked with 
the more conventional training of the worker for his job and in the general, scientific, 
and economic principles underlying it. In so far as employment is concerned, it 
should aim at off-setting the general tendency to ‘ safety first ’ in any job and create 
the outlook that industry has all the attractions of adventure. The instruction in 
economics should enable the worker to appreciate the various factors that govern 
raw material supply, and should enable him to exercise judgment as to the possibility 


1927 DD 


402 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


offered to him by employment overseas in the development of the vast field of 
undeveloped resources that is needed to feed the fast-developng manufacturing 
resources of the home country. 


Demonstration of The Work of the Leeds Schools Music and Drama 
League. Address by Sir Henry Havow, C.B.E. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Discussion on School Examinations. Dr. P. B. Battarp, Dr. J. M. 
Crorts, Mr. B. C. Wauuis, Mr. J. H. ARNOLD. 


Dr. P. B. Battarp.—The Art of Examining Children. 


Examining is measuring, and the very essence of measurement is accuracy. Hence 
modern efforts at the reform of examinations aim at making the testing objective. 
An attempt is made to eliminate so far as may be the element of chance. Luck 
enters largely into the current examination system which tests knowledge by very 
limited samples, and uses formal English composition almost exclusively as the 
mode of response. As a result the testing has a low degree of ‘ reliability,’ in the 
technical sense of that word. 

An examination may be diagnostic, or evaluative, or competitive. The purpose 
of the examination determines its content and its difficulty. Itis rare that an examina- 
tion can adequately serve more than one of the purposes referred to above. What- 
evet its purpose, however, it should satisfy certain criteria. It should, so far as possible, 
distinguish between promise and performance; it should be independent of the 
personality and mood of examiner ; it should be reliable in the sense that a similar 
examination given the same candidates on, say, the following day would yield virtually 
thesameresults; and it should cover a reasonably wide field of knowledge and capacity. 
The modern tendency is towards a large number of brief questions easy to mark, 
instead of a small number of questions difficult, if not impossible, to mark. 


Dr. J. M, Crorrs.—The First and Second School Certificate Examinations 
and Standardisation of Results. 


An account is given of the procedure followed by most examining bodies in an 
endeavour to standardise their results; the procedure affects appointment of ex- 
aminers, setting papers, and, above all, marking scripts. It is shown that it is com- 
paratively easy for examiners to place a batch of candidates in order of merit, but 
that there is no certainty of opinion as to where the pass line should be drawn. The 
chief examiners in a subject review the standard of marking adopted by each assistant 
examiner, and apply such corrections to his scale of marking as they deem necessary. 
There is no guarantee, however, that the chief examiners have adopted the right 
standard ; they are always examiners of much experience, and dcubtless they are 
fairly successful in obtaining a satisfactory standard, but they have no absolute unit 
of measurement to go by, they can give only their personal opinion, and testing of 
this personal opinion shows a very considerable variation among experienced 
examiners. It is suggested that where the number of candidates is large, it is fair to 
assume that approximately the same percentage should pass from year to year. 
Such an assumption cannot be proved, but it is supported by the constant difference 
in performance between boys and girls over a series of years as regards standard 
of work sent in, and in the dispersion of the frequencies of distribution. 

For the Higher School Certificate Examination, on which many scholarships are 
awarded, other considerations enter, as the value of marks in literary subjects has 
to be balanced against those in scientific or other subjects, and different types of 
distribution curves are obtained in different groups of subjects. It is suggested that 
the marks as sent in by the examiners should be modified so that they all conform 
to the same type of curve, and so equate the chances for scholarships of candidates 
in different groups. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 403 
Mr. B. C. Watuis.—The Position of the School Inspector. 


1. Four parties are primarily concerned with external school examinations— 
the examinees, the teachers, the examiners, and the examining authority. The school 
inspector represents the teachers and the authority. 

2. Theoretically the examiner and the inspector are antagonistic. 

3. Bad examination traditions: (a) Examinations require preparation; (6) Ex- 
aminations should tend to improve teaching. The examiner postulates complete 
freedom in setting his tests; the inspector limits his activities in the interests of the 
schools, z.e. of the non-examinees. 

4. The examiner regards each examination as a unique phenomenon; the in- 
spector considers it as part of a series, part of the machinery of inspecting the schools. 

5. The inspector regards the examiner as a potent factor in education and holds 
that the examiner should say how the examinees have been taught. The examiner 
replies (a) that similar groups of candidates at an identical examination in London 
and Birmingham would perform differently ; (b) that boys and girls always perform 
differently, and (c) that he has no grounds for the judgment that either London children 
or boys are relatively weil or badly taught. 

6. (7) The good teacher is not necessarily a good examiner; (i) the specialist 
teacher is probably a bad examiner; (#7) the inspector deals with averages, the 
examiner with departures from the average; (?v) examiners should be free from the 
constraint now imposed by teachers and inspectors; (v) examiners should be 
specialists in examining, with sure appointments over long periods in order to have 
time for the necessary research into the conditions and consequences of their labours. 


Mr. J. H. Arnotp.—First School Examinations in Secondary Schools. 


A. General Function : To test results of courses of general education (teaching) 
in a particular class of schools forming part of a national system of education. 

B. Specific Functions : Leyitimate—to test actual knowledge, ability to marshal 
facts, and ability to apply facts, by simple processes of induction and deduction, 
to the solution of ordinary problems—to act as an incentive in secondary school 
work—to furnish schools with an independent estimate of the results of that work. 
Illegitimate—unnecessarily to limit curricula and subject syllabuses—to attempt to 
guide, or to criticise, the work of the schools. 

C. Standard (pass)—such as may be fairly expected of pupils of reasonable industry 
and ordinary intellisence—complication through intrusion of University Entrance 
standards (credits). 

D. Equality of Standard—necessary because of a national system of education 
(A above); complications through multiplicity of examining bodies. 

E. Two methods of Eyualisation—(1) reliance upon (a) attempted standardisatien 
of difficulty of papers set, and (6) impressionism by examiners; (2) assumption that 
average standard of large number of candidates does not vary greatly from year to 
year. Second method far preferable—not based wholly on theory of probabilities— 
gives a relative, not a merely arbitrary, standard by connecting credits with numbers 
of candidates—not absolutely accurate but fairer than ‘impressionism ’ which results 
in anomalies and injustice. The ‘ don’t cheapen the examination ’ bogey. 

F. Curricula : Examining bodies’ duty to examine on curricula followed by 
schools and approved by Board of Education—no limitation to subjects that can be 
taught only ‘ academically ’"—via media—‘ a reasonable demand.’ ; 

G. Syllabuses : Attempts to ‘lead’ schools or encourage particular teaching 
methods are unwarrantable interference—need to minimise so far as possible the 
unavoidable effects of working to ‘outside’ syllabuses—handicap on new, and 
experimental, teaching methods. 

H. Papers : Easy questions and strict marking—stern discouragement of ‘ cram ° 
questions—phrasing ; that of the ‘ adolescent,’ not that of the ‘ cultured adult.’ 

J. Publicity : Publication of general methods of marking and, in particular, of 
percentages of ‘ credits ’ in individual subjects essential—fears of trivial and carping 
criticisms groundless—secrecy breeds suspicion. ; 

K. Co-operation : Examining bodies must know what the schools are doing; 
otherwise examination not a fair test—appreciation by schools of real co-operation— 
no attempt to ‘run’ examinations. 


DD2 


404 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L, M. 


L. Conclusion : Commercialisation of ‘results’ through advertisement ; school 
authorities, not examiners, to blame; what examinations cannot do; overwork; 
examinations should be recognised for what they are—a partial test of one aspect 
only of education. 


SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 435.) 


Thursday, September 1. 


Mr. J. Srracnan.—Arable Dairy Farming. Followed by Discussion : 
Sir Jonn Russexz, F.R.S.; Mr. W. R. Peet; Mr. J. H. HEvuier. 


Presidential Address by Mr. C. G. T. Morison on Agriculture and 
National Education. (See p. 202.) Followed by Discussion: Mr. 
J. L. Hottanp; Mr. H. W. Cousins. 


AFTERNOON. 


Visit to Laboratories of the British Research Association for the 
Woollen and Worsted Industries, Torridon. (See page 411.) 


Friday, September 2. 


Joint Discussion with Section K on Control of Plant Diseases. Mrs. 
Atcock: Dr. W. B. Brizrtey; Mr. W. A. Mituarp. 


Prof. J. Sepetren.—Study and Development of Agricultural Science in 
Norway. 


It is stated in this paper that, in spite of the unproductiveness of 71 per cent. of 
the Norwegian area, and in spite of the fact that Norway is the most pronounced 
small-farming country of the world, agriculture and forestry are of considerable import- 
ance. The output of the small but intensively manured plots has always been fairly 
large, and Norway grows still more grain on the same area than most of the better 
situated countries of Europe. 

Since the establishment of the first agricultural school in 1812, there have grown 
up a number of such schools in every county, subsidised partly by the State, partly 
by the counties. Besides these, the Royal Agricultural College at Aas, established in 
1859, has been the centre for the more scientific education for practical farmers_ 
and for teachers and other public functionaries, also for scientific research and 
experimental work on behalf of agriculture. The institution is, after its thorough 
reorganisation in 1898, working on five lines: agriculture, forestry, horticulture, dairying 
and surveying. The teaching staff consists of 32 professors and lecturers and about 
16 assistants. The course is for 23 years, but the students have, before admission, to 
guarantee their fully practical education and acquaintance with the manual labour of 
their profession, besides the necessary previous theoretical knowledge. The yearly 
eae from the State to the college has in this century varied from about £8,000 to 

7,300. 


Of the problems discussed and worked upon in the different departments of the 
college are mentioned : 

The experiments for plant culture and plant breeding. These have resulted in a 
lot of new sorts of fodder plants, potatoes and grasses, furnishing the different parts of 
Norway with sorts of greater economical value than those of former days. 

The same may be said of the researches in horticulture, not only about new breeds 
of vegetables, but also about the substitution of horse-manure in hot beds with electrical 
heating. This is shown to be not only very economical in Norway, but it has a good 
influence on the quality of the crop. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 405 


The researches in electroculture in different ways have given results which are 
shortly reported. 

In the department of forestry a number of extended investigations are going on 
about different systems for utilising the forest, and other experiments with trees and 
seeds of different sorts. 

The investigations in feeding domestic animals are mentioned, especially the results 
with feeding milk-cows and pigs with herrings, herring meal, cod-liver meal and whale 
meal. 

It ismentioned that the Norwegian experiments on the heredity of lethal achondro- 
plasia are in collaboration with the parallel experiments of Dr. Crew at Edinburgh. 

Regarding the geological and soil science there are mentioned the researches of the 
composition and the acidity of soils from different parts of Norway, as also the 
nitrification in Norwegian soils. 

Experiments with fertilizers and manure have been executed in different parts of 
the country by a number of investigators. The pot-experiments, hitherto mostly 
from the chemical laboratory of the College at Aas, are described. 

Finally are mentioned the experiments belonging to analytical and pure chemistry, 
botany and dairy-researches, also the institute for trying new machinery for agricul- 
tural purposes. 

It is stated that agriculturalists and foresters in Norway on the whole have utilized 
the instructions and scientific results presented to them, and it is hoped that their 
good fund of knowledge, being on the whole at a level with the most progressive nations 
of Europe, will help them through the bad times ruling Norway as well as most nations 
of Europe. ; 


Capt. C. W. Hume.—The Slaughtering of Animals for Food. 


An ideal system of slaughtering must be (a) humane, no pain or fear being 
indicted ; (b) hygiene, the carcases being adequately bled, prepared in clean conditions, 
and uniformly inspected for disease, and (c) commercially profitable, so as to enable 
home-killed meat to compete on favourable terms with imported meat. 

Humane Considerations.—The knocking-down box should be installed in every 
slaughter-house, as it enables beasts to be positioned for slaughter without preliminary 
struggling. Slaughter-men should be trained and licensed on a nationally controlled 
system. Public abattoirs would facilitate supervision for humane purposes. 

The poll-axe (used for stunning animals which are large enough to give trouble) 
is less accurate than the captive bolt which can be made practically infallible. Sheep 
and lambs are not stunned, as they do not offer much resistance. 

Pigs are hoisted by one leg and stuck: in cases where squealing is an objection 
they are stunned with a hammer. In Great Britain the old-fashioned methods are 
used for about 15 million animals per annum, while the pistol is used for about one 
million. Great Britain and America are less humane in this respect than the Teutonic 
countries of the Continent. 

The Jewish (ritual) method of slaughtering is particularly open to criticism as 
regards the methods employed for casting large beasts. The Weinberg Casting 
Pen is believed to offer a solution of this difficulty. 

Hygienic Considerations.—Slaughtering should be centralised in large (e.g. public) 
abattoirs, but in England it is impossible to make the butchers use these when they 
have been built, and the abolition of the competing private slaughter-houses is opposed 
by vested interests. 

The persistent prejudice to the effect that the use of the mechanical poll-axe 
(pistol) hinders bleeding and causes ‘ splashed’ pork has been finally refuted by the 
City of London inquiry. 

Bleeding depends on a number of factors—the time elapsing between stunning 
and bleeding, fatigue, the nature and condition of the animal, and the skill of the 
slaughterman. 

Commercial Considerations.—It is suggested that if home-killed meat could be 
certified as hygienic and humanely killed, and advertised as such, the effect on the 
market would be favourable. The City of London report has refuted trade objections 
to the humane pistol, except that in the case of sheep and lambs its use involves 
slightly more trouble, and that the inquiry did not extend to bacon pigs. 

General Situation.—The Ministry of Health recommends the use of the pistol 
(Model By-law 9b), but in view of opposition from the Meat Traders’ Federation the 


a 


406 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


Government does not enforce this nationally. It throws the onus of decision on the 
local authorities, and the City of London and other local authorities throw the onus 
on the Ministry of Health, on the ground that the by-law works unfairly unless nation- F 
ally enforced. An impasse has therefore been reached. 

Conclusion.—It is suggested that the British Association should appoint a com- 
mittee to inquire into the available evidence as to the desirability of (a) the national 
as distinct from local regulation of methods of slaughter ; (6) control of the training 
and licensing of slaughtermen ; (c) abolition of unsuitable slaughter-houses when 
central slaughter-houses are available. 


“Mewptin » 


Prof. N. M. Comper.—The Teaching and Research Work on Soil Chemistry. 
Mr. W. A. Mittarp.—Demonstration Work on Scab of Potatoes. 

Mr. 8. Barr.—Internal Rust Spot. 

Mr. T. H. Taytor.—Potato Kel Worm. 

Mr. W. D. D. Jarpine.—Warping (illustrated by cinematograph films). 


Mr. C. V. Dawe.—A’ Yorkshire Township: Its enclosure and subsequent 
agricultural development. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Pedological excursion to Horsforth, Lawnswood, Otley Chevin, 
Dunkeswick, Harlow Quarry, Hook Moor, Halton, Templenewsam Park. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on the Production and Distribution of Milk. Speakers : 
Dr. A. G. Ruston; Mr. J. A. Venn; Mr. J. Wyte; Mr. V. Liversace. 


Mr. J. A. McMittan.— Winter Feeding of Sheep at Garforth. 


This paper deals with feeding trials carried out at the Leeds University Farm 
during the winters of 1925-26 and 1926-27. 
The chief objects of the trials were to compare rations of :— 
(a) Roots alone; roots and hay ; roots, hay and concentrated foods. 
(b) Concentrated foods of high, moderate, and low protein content. | 
(c) Concentrated foods of high protein content (including and excluding linseed 
cake). 
There were twenty hoggs in each lot in the 1925-26 trial, and twenty-five in each 
lot in the 1926-27 trial. Roots and hay were allowed ad lib. in each case. 
The results of the two tests show that the high protein rations produced the best 
live weight increase, and that the sheep receiving these rations also fattened more 
quickly. The health of the sheep did not appear to be affected adversely by any of 
the rations. 


Sa 


Mr. C. G. A. Ropertson.—Farming in the Industrial Area of the West 
Riding. 

The soils of the area are briefly described, and some of the problems connected with 

the management of both arable and grass land discussed. The farming practice and 


its relation to the conditions, also the stock and their management, are described. 
Brief reference is made to rhubarb farming, which is a feature of the Leeds area. 


AFTERNOON. 


Excursion to the works of Messrs. John Fowler & Co., Leeds (Steam 
Plough and Locomotive Works). 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 407 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Morninc. 


Discussion on Soil Surveys. Sir Joun Russett, F.R.S.; Prof. G. W. 
Rosinson; Prof. J. Henprick; Prof. N. M. Comper; Dr. W. G. 
Occ; Mr. W. Mortey Daviss. 


Sir Jonn Russet, F.R.S.—Soil surveys are an old activity of British agricultural 
experts, the first having been made at the end of the eighteenth century by the 
simple method of inspection; the purpose was to obtain information as to the 
existing state of agriculture and to offer suggestions for improvement. No other 
general survey was made until after 1894, when the present system of agricultural 
education came in ; it was then conducted on wholly different lines. The Rothamsted 
experiments had emphasised the importance, for crop production, of nitrogen, 
potassium and phosphorus; chemists had developed methods for estimating the 
amounts of these in the soil, and for forming an estimate of the probable response 
of the crop to fertilisers. The staffs of the Colleges carried out fertiliser experiments 
which met with considerable success; the idea developed of making soil surveys 
which would help the farmer in his fertiliser practice and soil management generally. 
Thus, the British surveys were from the outset intended to describe the soil as a 
medium for crop production; the analytical work was directed to the discovery of 
the amount of plant nutrients present and the depth of sampling was fixed at 0”-9” 
for the surface layer, and 9’-18” for the lower layer, these being regarded as average 
root ranges for shallow and deep-rooting crops respectively. The American surveys 
were on essentially the same lines: they were started in 1860 to afford guidance for 
the development and improvement of agriculture and they were based on the view 
that the soil was a prime agent in crop production. Through the influence of Miltoa 
Whitney, and probably resulting from his early interest in the tobacco crop, which is 
profoundly affected by soil type, the American workers attached more importance 
to mechanical analysis than to the estimation of plant nutrients. Hall and Russell 
combined both methods and studied soil type as well as chemical composition. 

Meanwhile the Russian workers were studying the soil quite apart from its crop- 
producing power. They, like the British workers, had laid out fertiliser experiments 
which were under the charge of Mendeleeff, then in his youth ; but these experiments, 
unlike the British, had given negative results, so that they were given up and Mendeleéeff 
returned to pure chemistry, to discover the Periodic Law. But they had shown the 
importance of soil types, and the Free Economic Society which had fostered them 
invited Dokuchaiev to study the chernozem. He ignored agricultural considerations 
entirely and studied the soil simply as a distinct natural object, restricting himself 
also to its morphology, with results now known through the writings of Glinka. He 
was followed by a number of Russian workers who have made soil morphology 
essentially a Russian subject ; their work has had considerable influence in Britain 
and America. 

The British workers had long recognised that soil analysis could at best only afford 
comparisons of one soil with another, and they had studied numerous methods of 
describing the soil. They had, however, retained the two depths, 0’-9” and 9-18”. 
The Russian workers frankly discarded any connection with crop producing power, 
and showed that inspection of the profile gave a much more rational indication for 
the depth of sampling. 

In practice the soil surveyor in Britain is compelled to cover a moderately large 
area of land and the soils do not as a rule fit in with any of the Russian groups; they 
are influenced more by the nature of the parent material than by the climate. Con- 
sequently the geological map affords the best basis of surveying, especially for all 
formations down to the Devonian, though for the lower ones it appears less useful. 
The boundaries do not quite agree with those of the geologist because of local slipping 
or drifting, and in regions of much drift the geological basis may lose much of its 
significance. The surveyor records the general nature of the ground, its configuration, 
stoniness and state of drainage, also the colour, texture and reaction of the soil; 
these particulars are recorded for the various layers down to the underlying rock. 
Soils of similar appearance are mapped similarly, but in practice mapping is often a 
difficult operation. Useful guidance may be obtained from a study of the vegetation 
of the different areas. 


408 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


For small areas, such as an experimental farm, where the parent material may be 
the same throughout, and where configuration and micro relief are very important, 
the dynamometer affords a useful method of surveying the soil. 

Continents give the widest scope for the surveyor, for here all groups of soil are 
found; the great climatic zones form the first great groups, within these come 
divisions based on the nature of the parent material, and within these again the 
smaller divisions based on local sorting out of soil materials resulting from con- 
figuration of the land; finally, there come the subdivisions due to the micro relief. 


Prof. G. W. Ropryson.—From the standpoint of the practical soil surveyor, the 
present question dates from the pioneer work of Sir A. D. Hall and Sir E. J. Russell 
in Kent, Surrey and Sussex. In their survey, soils were classified according to their 
parent geological formation. The geological map, with certain adjustments, was 
also the soil map. Various soil surveys have been executed since the publication of 
Hall and Russell’s work, and it has been found that the geological classification of 
soils is not always applicable. Considerable interest has been aroused in the Russian 
work on soil classification, but although we have learnt the importance of profile 
studies, we cannot entirely adopt the Russian system as applicable to this country. 
For the present, our task is to collect important data such as surface, relief, texture, 
water conditions, colour and stoniness. Above all, profile descriptions are required. 
While a soil map based on profile would be very valuable, since profile is the 
summation of the effect of a number of factors each of which can operate in a number 
of different ways, the number of kinds of profiles is likely to be too large for practicable 
mapping. It might be better in generalising from the 6” field maps, on which all data 
are recorded, to make more than one 1” map. For example, one map might show 
the nature of the parent material, another the texture of the surface soil, and a third 
the character of the drainage conditions. For the present, our task is to collect 
data and to generalise from these data in such a way as to bring together into classes 
those soils which are most nearly alike, leaving for the future the work of synthesising 
those regional classifications into a more comprehensive scheme. 


Prof. J. Henprick.—There are at present considerable differences of opinion in 
this country as to the methods of soil survey and mapping. The importance of 
uniformity was emphasised. The soil maps of a country should all be prepared on a 
uniform system or else their usefulness is greatly diminished. 

There are three great factors on which the nature of a soil depends: (1) the 
materials from which it is derived, the rocks and organic materials from which it has 
been formed ; (2) the climate in which it was formed ; and (3) the topography of the 
place where it was formed. The vegetation does not form an independent factor, as 
it depends on the other three and in turn reacts upon the nature of the soil. All of 
these factors have long been recognised, but we have in recent times made much 
advance in our knowledge of their action, and have in particular learnt much about 
the climatic factor. We have also learnt that the resultant of all these factors is 
expressed in the soil profile. The modern views of soil profile are only a development 
of the earlier division of the subject into soil and subsoil. As the profile expresses the 
result of all the soil-forming agencies, the best method of mapping soils is in terms of 
profiles. We require to get busy and collect and tabulate accurately the facts as to 
soil profiles; when we have collected a sufficient body of facts they will require to be 
classified and the result expressed by means of soil maps. As knowledge accumulates, 
the value of such maps will ever increase. 


Prof. N. M. Comper.—Surveying and mapping soils on the basis of the soil profile 
has two important characteristics. 

(1) It considers the soil as a whole.—No other process of classification does this. 
It is frequently said, referring to a particular area, that the soil has a certain 
mechanical composition, which statement implies that the mechanical analysis of the 
soil is uniform throughout its depth. Except in the case of certain new warp soils 
this is probably never true. The study of the profile differentiates between the texture 
factors of different horizons. The same consideration applies to any other character- 
istic which may be studied separately in each horizon. 

(2) It takes cognisance of the soil- formation processes.—The processes going on in 
a soil effect removals, leachings and depositions and the soil profile reflects these 
processes. The importance of this cannot be exaggerated, for it is a philosophical 
necessity that one cannot claim a scientific knowledge of soil without a knowledge 
and understanding of what has gone on in its formation, and what is still going on 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 4.09 


within it. Hitherto there has been too great a tendency to consider the soil statically, 
and to try to visualise its constitution as a fixed thing. 

Immature, Cultivated and Sedimentary-rock Soils—In soils which are immature 
and in which the soil processes have not had full play, some of the characteristics of 
the parent material still obtain. The characterisation of such soils involves a com- 
bination of the two considerations, namely, the parent material and the processes 
acting upon it. 

In cultivated soils the upper part of the natural profile is disturbed by cultivation 
processes which prevent the formation of horizons within the depth of their influence. 
and tend to make the soils uniform. This disturbance of the upper horizon or 
horizons may have considerable effect upon the lower horizons. 

Soils which are formed from sedimentary rocks such as the clays and sands of this 
country will not, under uniform weathering conditions, ultimately become alike in 
all respects. The rocks from which they are formed are the results of a sorting-out 
process in which the larger particles have been approximately separated from the 
smaller ones. 

It may be thought that the considerations underlying the genetic classification of 
soils are of less importance in all these cases and, therefore, of less importance in this 
country. There is, however, a sense in which those considerations are of greater 
importance in the study of such soils. Crudely speaking, the soil processes have gone 
on to the utmost in the mature soils, and the processes are easily discovered by the 
examination of the soil. In the immature and cultivated soils the processes are 
going on and the soil itself does not so clearly indicate what these processes are. But 
the knowledge of these processes is equally important ; indeed, it is fundamentally 
important. The study of the soil-formation processes is much more difficult in a 
country of immature and cultivated soils than in a country of mature soils, but it 
cannot possibly be less important. 


Dr. W. G. Oee.—The Soil Profile as a Basis for Intensive Soil Surveying. 

It is now generally agreed that the broader grouping of soils is most satisfactorily 
based on climatic factors. These find expression in the soil profile and boundaries 
between the great climatic types can be decided by an examination of the profile. 

There is not, however, the same consensus of opinion on the question of intensive 
surveys. 

Minor modifications of the profile occur within each of the broad climatic types. 
These may be due to the parent material (origin, method of deposition, &c.), topography, 
drainage, and other causes. There appears to be no reason why these minor profile 
differences should not be used in field mapping, and there seems to be every likelihood 
that a system which takes account of the whole profile will yield more useful results 
than those which take account of a single character or a single layer. Vegetation 
differences have been found to be closely linked up with differences in the profile and 
without changing the basis of mapping, the vegetation may be used to facilitate the 
fixing of profile boundaries. 

It is probably too soon to attempt to evolve a scheme of classification for intensive 
work. Mapping, however, can be carried out and the profile differences found should 
be described with explanations, where possible, of the features observed. The amount 
of detail will, of course, depend on the scale of mapping. 

There is urgent need at present for the definition of texture and colour and 
standards to be employed in field work, and also for the clearer definition of such 
terms as soil ‘ type,’ * variety,’ &c. 


Mr. W. Mortry Davirs.—I feel that the remarks of Prof. Hendrick are of con- 
siderable importance. In an area as small as Britain, with similar climatic and 
agricultural conditions, concordance as to method seems to be essential. Furthermore, 
I agree with Mr. Morison that the practical side of the question cannot be totally 
disregarded. The needs of the agriculturist, standing as they do at present, necessitate 
that this interest should be in the mind of the surveyor when deciding on a scheme of 
survey. 

te would be a pity if the meeting obtained the opinion that the methods suggested 
were all at variance. As a matter of fact, considerable uniformity holds, everyone is 
agreed as to the essential data to be collected. It is in the fashion that this data 
should be presented where a difference of opinion is apparent. It is probable that 
this difference will gradually disappear when co-ordinated work brings the individuals 
involved together, with an opportunity for discussion in the field, as distinct from the 
conference room. 


410 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


Discussion on Plot Technique. Dr. R. A. Fisher; Mr. T. Even; 
Dr. E. S. Beaven; Mr. A. Mrtzar. 


Dr. R. A. Fisner.—The development of modern methods of plot arrangement is 
intimately connected with the development of an exact statistical technique for 
examining the results obtained. This goes back to ‘ Student’s’ paper of 1908. A 
compact arithmetical procedure is now in use, called the Analysis of Variance, which 
embodies the exact treatment developed from ‘ Student’s’ method. The essence of 
this method of analysis lies in dividing the total amount of variation observed between 
the plot yields into separate portions, some representing experimental effects to be 
utilised, others, perhaps, experimental effects to be eliminated, while at least one 
portion represents the experimental errors to which the results are liable. To each 
portion is assigned a definite number representing the degrees of freedom, and these 
numbers depend on the structure of the experimental design; the analysis into 
degrees of freedom is useful, not only in guiding the arithmetical procedure in the 
analysis of the results, but in determining to what questions a given experiment 
could give definite answers, and how many independent comparisons would be 
available to answer each such question. 

The first step towards the development of a sound field technique was taken in 
the uniformity trials, such as those of Wood and Stratton and of Mercer and Hall in 
1910. These showed unmistakably that by far the greater part of the errors of field 
experimentation were due to soil heterogeneity, and only much smaller errors were 
introduced in the measurement of the land, the separation and weighing of produce, 
&ec. The errors due to soil heterogeneity can be reduced by (1) replication, or assigning 
to each treatment or variety a number of plots, and (2) the elimination of certain 
components of the soil heterogeneity which, as the uniformity trials also show, is 
best done by eliminating the differences in fertility between whole areas, rows, columns 
or blocks containing a number of adjacent plots. When such elimination is effected 
in the field it is essential that it shall also be done in the statistical procedure by which 
the experimental error is estimated ; equally it is important that the portion of the 
soil heterogeneity which is not eliminated shall be deliberately randomised, in order 
that the estimated error shall correspond to the real errors affecting the results. 
Personal judgment of a fair distribution of plots is not a satisfactory substitute for 
actual randomisation. Slides were exhibited illustrating the lessons of uniformity 
trials, and some of the field arrangements adopted this year at Rothamsted based 
upon these principles of experimental design. 


Dr. E. S. BEAvVEN said that he had been conducting replicated experiments with 
cereals for the last twenty years, but only for comparisons of yield of different varieties, 
and he would refer only to such trials. Seven years ago he designed the half-drill 
strip method for field experiments (Jrl. Min. Agr., Nos. 4 and 5, 1922), and this had 
been adopted by the National Institute of Agricultural Botany at their stations in 
various parts of England for the past five years. Replication was the first essential, 
and the question whether the arrangement of the plots should be systematic or 
‘randomised ’ was of comparatively minor moment. A diagram which was exhibited 
showed that the same number of replications could be obtained on the same area in 
the case of yield trials of varieties by this method as by Dr. Fisher’s method, and it 
might be strongly contended that the small increase of accuracy, if any, obtained 
by the ‘ Latin Square ’ method was of much less moment than its practicability under 
field conditions. The ‘ Latin Square’ method was impossible, or at least extremely 
difficult, of execution in trials of varieties with the customary implements of 
husbandry. In an agricultural section it was hardly necessary to say that it was not 
possible to lift and transport drills and reaping machines from plot to plot by 
aeroplanes. It was necessary to use horses or tractors—which could be done easily 
in the half-drill-strip system—but would present extraordinary difficulties in field 
plots laid out on the ‘ Latin Square’ system. It was very necessary in the design 
of such trials not only to know the mathematical theory of probability applicable to 
such experiments, but also to have a knowledge of the material under investigation, 
and of agricultural practice. 

A previous application of Dr. Fisher’s theories of ‘analysis of variance’ and 
“degrees of freedom’ to an experiment in 1923 on ‘ Manurial response of different. 
varieties of Potatoes ’ led to the conclusion that ‘ there is no significant variation in 
the response of different varieties to manure.’ This appeared to be contrary to 
common sense. It was a well-established general proposition that races of the same 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M, TEXTILES. 411 


species do differ in their response to soil conditions; and manuring was obviously 
a method of varying soil condition. There was, in fact, abundant evidence to disprove 
Dr. Fisher’s conclusion. 

The statement that the error in field experiments was ‘almost wholly’ due to: 
differences in soil fertility-was far too sweeping. They also had to deal with weeds 
of all kinds, wireworm and numerous other insect pests, fungoid diseases of many 
kinds, also with rabbits, birds and field-mice. The list of causes of error might, in 
fact, be increased almost ad infinitum. As the diagram showed, some of these were 
more or less systematically, but most of them quite erratically, distributed. 

In conclusion, the Lawes Agricultural Trust was to be congratulated on having 
at last, after so many years, accepted the principle of the desirability of replicating 
plots on different areas. 


SPECIAL SESSIONS FOR TEXTILE SUBJECTS. 


(For references to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following list of transactions, see p. 435.) 


Thursday, September 1. 
Dr. 8. G. Barxer.—Fading of Dyestuffs. 


Investigation of fading of dyestuffs shows that atmospheric influences and the 
conditions under which the exposures are made have a considerable effect on the 
amount of fading. Artificial light sources are compared with sunlight as regards 
constitution and fading power. It is shown that the carbon arc is the best artificial 
light for use as a fading agency. The influence of glass screens is discussed and 
experimental results quoted to show the influence of shop window glass on fading, 
&c. An outdoor fading cabinet and a new type of fading lamp giving controlled 
conditions of humidity, temperature and illumination at the surface of the pattern 
under test are described. The effect of tropical sunlight is compared with that of 
sunlight in England. Methods of measurement of the amount of fading, &c., are 
discussed. 


Dr. J. J. Hepces.—Moisture Relations of Colloidal Fibres. 


Textile fibres are hygroscopic colloids, and their physical properties vary con- 
siderably with the amount of absorbed water. In the case of wool fibre the whole 
of the absorbed water is not removed by heating alone; the last } per cent. of water 
being held very tenaciously. 

During the absorption of moisture there is an evolution of heat, and for dry wool 
the amount is quite considerable (24:1 calories per gram). The amount of heat 
evolved by the textile fibres during absorption is given by a form of the Kirchoff 
equation for the heat of dilution of a solution. 

Wool and its absorbed water behave like a two-phase system in which a little 
water is absorbed by the colloidal particles while the bulk is held in a system of pores. 
This hypothesis accounts for the lowering of vapour pressure of the water, the large 
apparent compression of the latter, the peculiar rate of evaporation curves, the 
change in length of a fibre under tension with change in moisture content, &c. The 
heat of absorption can also be accounted for in such a system by surface energy 
considerations. Under certain conditions, pores can be observed in textile fibres 
under the microscope. 

The moisture content has a very definite effect on the electrical and thermal 
conductivity. This has been investigated by a number of observers, and their results: 
are discussed in the paper. 

The amount of water held also affects the fastness to light of absorbed dyes. 
With increasing moisture content, the dyes become more fugitive. 


Visit to Laboratories of the British Research Association for the 
Woollen and Worsted Industries, Torridon. Papers :-— 
Mr. A. T. Krxc.—The Chemical Aspect of Wool Research. 


This paper gives in the first place a general indication of the wide scope of chemical 
research in relation to wool and wool processes, and touches upon some of its more 


412 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—TEXTILES. 


outstanding points of contact, from the raw wool down to the finished products of 
manufacture, mainly in regard to practical considerations. 

It then deals with underlying theoretical considerations imposed by the amphotene 
characteristic of wool substance exhibited in its sorptive capacity for acids and bases, 
especially in relation to sorption of alkali in scouring, together with the after-effects 
of sorbed alkali, and the method devised of locating the distribution of alkali and of 
demonstrating the origin of alkali faults. 

A discussion follows of the present knowledge of the chemical nature of wool 
viewed simply as a natural organic product, and of its variability m composition as 
shown by the sulphur content, and also of the relation of the latter to differences 
in the physical structure of the fibre, and to biological considerations. 

Further, the significance is discussed of the presence of the cystine nucleus in wool 
keratin, as applied to changes in the properties of wool on incipient hydrolysis and on 
exposure. 

In conclusion, the promotion of pure research not directly on wool is instanced by 
a study of the bisulphite compounds of azo-dyestuffs, demanded by the encountering 
in practice of unexpected divergences from the accepted standards of fastness to 
stoving (bleaching with sulphur dioxide). 


Mr. H. R. Hirst.—Use of Ultra-violet Radiation in Textile Analysis. 


Radiation from a mercury vapour lamp, after passing through a Chance’s Uviol 
screen, is filtered, leaving rays of 4046 to 3022 A units; when allowed to fall upon a 
number of substances, gives rise to fluorescence. This fluorescence may appear as 
an ordinary colour or as an apparently self-luminous object. Examination of fibres 
of wool, cotton, silk, and artificial silks give distinctive colour impressions. Oils 
may be differentiated by their fluorescence into groups and the effect of oxidation is 
readily seen. Saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons show marked difference. 
Esters of the indigoid type of dyes are fluorescent, and incomplete oxidation or 
hydrolysis can be detected with accuracy. This can be used as check on the dyeing 
process, so that more permanent colours can be obtained with certainty. 

The effect of sunlight and atmosphere on dyed fabrics in some cases produces 
fluorescent compounds, whereby small amounts of fading, invisible by ordinary 
visual observation, are made evident. 


Mr. H. Priestman and Mr. A. W. Stevenson.—Higher Drafts in Worsted 
Spinning. 


Drafting.—In worsted spinning, the ‘ top,’ the product of combing and associated 
processes, is reduced to the size required for yarn formation by a series of drawing or 
drafting processes, about ten for the finer wools. As a matter of convenience, the 
material at each stage is wound on a bobbin and unwound for the next stage, the 
fibres thus approaching the rollers in a reverse direction compared with the previous 
process. From a convenience this reversal has come to be a trade axiom, and two 
drafts without reversal are believed to be impossible. The authors have developed an 
efficient spinning frame which makes two successive drafts. 

The early attempts had just enough intermittent success to be encouraging, but 
fibres too frequently strayed and lapped on the various rollers, particularly the 
carriers. Only when the usual mechanism was abandoned and false twist introduced 
in the second draft did the experiments begin to be reliably successful. Merino 
roving, usually drafted six, is drafted thirty-six with ease. Crossbred wools have been 
dealt with in similar fashion with two false twist tubes in series, but it is quite probable 
that a single tube will be devised. 

These experiments on successive drafting, while on the one hand foreshadowing 
possibilities in the elimination of machines and processes, on the other throw con- 
siderable light on what really happens in existing machinery. 

Spinning.—Spinning mechanism of the cap type has been studied from various 
points of view. The first essential for such work was a stroboscope, and as none 
at the time on the market was suitable, one was developed. A revolving mirror 
produces intermittent illumination from an arc lamp beam, the instrument being 
robust in construction and giving an image of great brilliancy and precision. 
Peculiarities in the behaviour of the balloon such as ‘ cap licking ’ have been explained, 
and previously unsuspected variations in spindle speed noted and measured in the 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—TEXTILES. 413 


laboratory and in the mills. Instruments have been devised for measuring the 
tension or ‘ drag.’ in the yarn (of the order of ten grams), not only as it leaves the 
front roller, but as it winds on the bobbin, the.latter instrument revolving at 6000 
r.p.m., and being used in conjunction with the stroboscope. 


Mr. J. A. Fraser Roserts.—The Inheritance of Some Colours and Patterns 
in Sheep. 

During the past four years the University College of North Wales, in association 
with the Animal Breeding Research Department, University of Edinburgh, has been 
conducting breeding experiments to determine the mode of inheritance of certain 
colours and patterns in sheep. 

The following characters have been investigated :— 

1. A dominant black in the Black Welsh breed. 

2. A dominant black in the Piebald breed. 

3. A brown modification of black. 

4, The recessive black known in several breeds. 

5. A highly characteristic pattern that has been called ‘ badger-face ’ and which 
is recessive to white. 

6. Reversed badger-face pattern, in which the colours of the above pattern are 
exactly reversed ; also recessive to white. 

7, Piebald pattern, found to depend on a recessive factor that only acts on sheep 
that possess the constitution for self-colour. 

The interrelations of the factors responsible for the production of these colours 
and patterns are in some cases curious and interesting. Badger-face pattern, reversed 
badger-face pattern, and recessive black appear to form with white a series of multiple 
allelomorphs. White crossed to the other three gives white; badger-face crossed to 
reversed badger-face and recessive black gives badger-face; the cross reversed 
badger-face x recessive black has yet to be made. Dominant black segregates 
independently of badger-face pattern and is, therefore, presumably independent as 
regards the reversed pattern and recessive black also. The reversal of pigmentation 
in the case of badger-face and the reversed patterns is very striking. The form of 
the pattern is identical down to the smallest details, but those areas that are white 
in the badger-face are black in the reversed badger-face, and vice versa. This in 
conjunction with the probable existence of the multiple allelomorphic series already 
mentioned presents an unusual and interesting phenomenon, The modifications of 
colour, especially of black to grey and brown, would be of interest in connection with 
any attempt to develop coloured fleeces for the production of undyed fabrics. 


Mr. J. E. Nrcnoits.—Ooloured Fibres in the Fleece. 


Coloured fibres present one of the most serious objections to British wools from the 
point of view of the manufacturer, and also, in many breeds of sheep, of the breeder. 
But the presence of pigmented areas on the head and legs is considered highly desirable 
by the butcher in many localities ; it is a matter of common observation that where 
the extremities are pigmented there is a tendency towards an admixture of pigmented 
fibres in the fleece. The problem of the elimination of these admixed coloured fibres 
is the most important if the clip is considered as a whole, and observations show that 
the solution of the problem lies in breeding and selection but is complicated by the 
influence of external conditions. 

It may be considered that the basic coloration of the animals is determined by 
genetic factors, and the degree to which the colour is expressed is likewise conditioned. 
Observations have been made on the Suffolk breed where the darkness of extremities 
is most marked, and the great problem of the breeder is to limit definitely the 
pigmented areas. A study of the early coat of the lamb indicates that the first 
development of all kinds of fibres in this breed is accompanied by and includes 
deposition of pigment in the fibres ; the lambs are born more or less dark in appearance, 
and the changes in coloration which follow as the lambs age take place in two 
directions and at different rates according to individuals. The extremities become 
darker, while the body area appears to become lighter in general appearance, because, 
in the latter case, of the gradual shedding of the coarser wholly pigmented fibres, 
and the lengthening of the finer fibres without further inclusion of pigment. It is 
possible to estimate the rates of change of gross coloration of extremities and body, 
and certain bases for selection for the ultimate freedom of the fleece from coloured 
fibres according to the changes in early life have been obtained. 


Al4 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—TEXTILES. 


Friday, September 2. 


Visit to the Department of Textile Industries, University of Leeds. 
Papers :— 


Dr. F. W. Dry.—Mendelian Breeding with Wensleydale Sheep. (Preceded 
by exhibition of sheep illustrative of the paper.) 


The main features in colour inheritance in the Wensleydale breed of sheep follow 
simple Mendelian lines. The occurrence of black lambs in white flocks therefore 
offers a favourable opportunity for applying Mendelism to a breeding problem in a 
large domestic animal. The successive steps in this undertaking are described, and 
certain practical considerations discussed. An attempt is now being made by the 
University of Leeds to build up a flock of pure whites. 


Prof. A. F. Barker.—Race and Environment as affecting the Type of Sheep 
and the Wool Supplies of the World. 


Three fairly distinct lines of adjustment of race to environment may still be noted 
in making a survey of the sheep of the world. The first line is the most natural, that 
in which man has played no part, Nature only having taken the adjustment in hand. 
In the second line of adjustment, man has accidentally or incidentally interfered with 
Nature, but has consciously taken no part in deciding the line of evolution. In the 
third line, man has consciously and deliberately adjusted the race of sheep to the 
environment, and in some few cases has actually created the environment necessary 
for the evolution of a required type of animal. 

If extent of distribution is some sort of a measure of the antiquity of a given type,! 
then it may be taken that the wild double-coated sheep of the Moufflon-Urial type is 
our primitive sheep, having representatives, more or less adjusted to the environment, 
in Asia, Europe and America. 

It is, however, exceedingly difficult to find any large number of sheep in a perfectly 
open country which have not been interfered with by man—even the Soay and the 
Shetland sheep, although very near to the wild type, show traces of such interference. 
But the best example of the second line of adjustment is that now in evidence in 
Peru. The Spanish merino and the Spanish Park sheep (piebald) have there been intro- 
duced, as incidental to conquest, and for hundreds of years have been adjusting 
themselves to the table-lands some 12,000 to 14,000 feet up the Andes, with character- 
istic results which the wool manufacturer knows how to utilise in the production of 
his fabrics. 

The third line of adjustment is practically in evidence in every wool-producing 
country in the world: New South Wales may be selected as a typical example. 
Here four zones, from the coast to the plains beyond the Blue Mountains, are to be 
noted, and for each of these zones the sheep-breeder has evolved a particular type of 
sheep yielding the best return possible in wool and mutton. 

The conditions under which the several types of sheep have been reared are still 
reflected in the ‘make-up’ of particular breeds. Thus, the merino, accustomed to 
“follow-my-leader’ in the narrow valleys of Spain, still retains this character and 
often will not spread out over quite open pasture lands; while the English sheep— 
probably descended from a sheep brought across the central plain of Europe by 
nomadic tribes—naturally spreads out and forages to advantage. Merino ewes when 
grouped together hold their heads down in a characteristic fashion, and may transmit 
this peculiarity to their crossbred offspring. These and other characteristics are 
being observed in sheep and, properly understood, may enable the sheep-breeder to 
make the best possible adjustment of race to environment. 

The Australian, South African, and other sheep breeders, acting on the lines of 
mass selection, have attempted to evolve the type of sheep best fitted to the 
environments with which they have to deal and, upon the whole, have been wonder- 
fully successful. It is now being recognised that Mendelian characters, which so far 
have been the despair of the unscientific breeder, may now be reshuffled or readjusted, 
frequently just on the lines desired, and thus the required type of sheep produced. 
Type of coat, the casting of the outer hair (kemp), and retaining of the under coat 


Dr. Willis and Mr. G. Udny Yule on The Plants of Ceylon. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. —TEXTILES. 415 


(wool), colour, horns, length of ears and of tail, and other less defined characters— 
sometimes probably linked together—may now often be treated as characters subject 
to normal Mendelian inheritance and, consequently, by suitable breeding procedure, 
a most useful adjustment of race to environment ensured. 


Mr. J. B. SpeaAkman.—The Intracellular Structure of the Wool Fibre. 


The gel structure of the wool fibre has found elucidation through a study of the 
stress-strain relationships of single fibres under varying rates of loading at various 
temperatures and humidities. 

The relative positions of the constituent cells remain unchanged during the 
extension of single fibres so that the behaviour of the fibre as a whole is that of the 
single cell. The fibrillar structure within this cell is not arranged haphazardly, for 
the extension-load curves show a sharp bend towards the load axis at 30 per cent. 
extensions with finite rates of loading. There is, therefore, a tendency for the fibrille 
to lie along the axis of the fibre. 

Fibres extended in water at 18° C. remain perfectly elastic even up to 70 per cent. 
extension, but such once-extended fibres are permanently more extensible at low 
tension. The point of incidence of permanent alteration of single fibres depends on 
the rate of loading, a fact which suggests plastic flow of fibrille under stress. This 
hypothesis has been confirmed in several independent ways. The permanent 
alteration of wool fibres by extension is due, therefore, to the rupture and plastic 
flow of fibrillae. Perfect recovery is governed by the elastic cell wall and elastic 
fibrille ; these draw back those fibrille which have taken permanent set and cause 
them to fold up within the cell. 

Increasing humidity at constant temperature and increasing temperature at 
constant humidity both produce increased solvation of the wool substance. With 
increasing solvation, more and more fibrille become capable of showing plastic flow 
until the fibre as a whole is able to acquire permanent set. If extended wool fibres 
are cooled in the stretched position after immersion in water at a temperature above 
60° C., they fail to return to their original length. The permanent set realised in this 
way is not due to a solution and redeposition of fibrille, but to plastic flow of all 
parts of the constituent cells, including the cell wall. Re-immersion of the released 
fibres in hot water invariably causes contraction. Even at 100° C. this contraction 
occurs to a marked degree, but the return to the original length is incomplete. In all 
cases contraction is due to a species of recrystallisation within the fibrille. 

A comparative study of different wools, mohair, and human hair, showed that they 
differ considerably in plasticity. These differences have been measured and serve to 
explain the ease of manufacture of yarns and fabrics from merino as opposed to the 
coarser crossbred wools. The elastic strains imposed on fibres during manufacture 
are readily converted to plastic flow in the case of merino wools, whereas they persist 
in the case of crossbred wools, making them more wiry and difficult to control. The 
ability of wool fibres to dissipate elastic forces by plastic flow at constant length in the 
way here described has not hitherto been contemplated. 


Monday, September 5. 


Dr. T. Ortver.—Predetermination of Wool Cloth Prices. 


Predetermination of cloth price must be based upon reliable costs. To fix a price 
on the basis that our competitors are likely to quote a certain figure is out of date. 
Without true costs the stability of a business must be uncertain. A manufacturer, 
with sound costing system, will never be afraid to quote a bed-rock price. Lowest 
cost per yard is no longer associated with lowest wages. A satisfied worker has a 
high economic value. Although estimates of cost cannot be absolutely exact, yet 
past experience will enable us to predetermine cost within narrow limits of error. 
A price-fixing system should be simple, net burdened with detail. Convenient to 
divide costs into (a) inanimate materials, (b) animate labour, (c) dead charges. Costs 
of materials and piece-work are easily ascertained. Manufacturing charges vary as 
{1) weight, (2) sett, (3) length, (4) value. 

Initial processes (sorting, scouring, carbonising, dyeing, teazing, scribbling, comb- 
ing) and wool oil entail pure weight charges; condensing, mixed weight-length 
charge ; spinning-twisting introduce pure length variables. 


416 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—TEXTILES. 


Cost of yarn-making per finished ounce of cloth =a-+-be. 
(Where a and b are constants, c= yarn number.) 

Cost of yarn-making per yard=aw-bew. 

But w=he/c, or cw=he, where h is a constant, e=sett, w=weight per yard. 

Substituting, the cost of yarn-making per yard=aw- bhe, 1.e. the sum of a weight 
charge and of a sett charge. 

Warping, healding, sleying, winding, and weaving are mainly proportional to sett. 
For fancy cloths, a small constant term is usually added to the statement to make-up 
for extra work on coarse setts, 

.'. cost of weaving department, per yard=f-+-ge. 
The mending department should be paid a percentage of the weaver’s wages (say 
70-75 per cent.). Cloth scouring, milling, finishing, and warehousing entail mixed 
length-weight costs. Scouring materials, water, steam, packing, carriage are costs 
proportional to weight. Commercial charges (selling, commission, patterns, interest 
on working capital, discount, insurance of stock, claims, &c.) are mainly relative to 
value. 

So net price of cloth per yard=Aw-+ Be+C. 

But usually w=q/e (A, B, C, g, are constants). 

Substituting and differentiating, we find that when w= //¢gB+.A will be found the 
cheapest cloth, in the range of weights of a quality. 


Example of Synthesis of a Selling Price Formula. 


Cost of yarn per lb... - = 50 + 4c 
53 a oz. fin. cloth = 3:5 + -046c 
55 > yd. Pe = 3:5w-+ -046cw 
Fy) a yd. 3 = 3-5w-+ -2le 
43 cloth manufacturing. = *25e 
dyeing-finishing = -b6w +6 
Net mill cost g E = 41lw+ -46e+6 


Selling price 4 ‘ : 4-4w+ -6e +6:5 
(w= 4-6e/c, 14-4 oz. fin. per lb. yarn. Price = Mill cost+73 per 
cent.+--le profit) 


Manufacturing profit is a variable circumscribed by very wide limits, because the 
factors assumed to control it seldom do. The usual way of assessing profit is by 
percentage on cost, which tends to make high-priced cloths too dear, and lower-priced 
cloths under cost. The best method of basing profit is on ‘the productive hour,’ 
because time is the chief controlling factor in business. A manufacturer has more to 
sell than his visible product. He places technical ability at his customer’s disposal, 
i.e. service in the highest sense of the word. 


Mr. E. KE. Cannry.—Cotton-growing Policy: the Influence of Climate on 
Staple Quality. 


The finest cotton crops ever produced were grown in the islands off the coast of 
8. Carolina under singularly equable and genial climatic conditions during an 
abnormally long season. Taking these as the optimum conditions for cotton staple 
production as a whole, and examining the conditions under which other types of 
commercial importance are grown, gradients of severity down to excessively wet, 
dry, cold and cloudy margins and to variability extremes are clearly discernible. 
Parallel with them run varietal adaptations from the most delicately nurtured Sea 
Island variety to the distinct hardy varieties, producing corresponding ranges of 
staple quality trom the finest Sea Island down to the coarse staples of poorest spinning 
quality. The harsher the conditions, i.e. in divergence from the old Sea Island 
optimum, the hardier the appropriate type and the lower the staple quality appear 
the universal rule. 

Neglect of this law largely explains the disappointingly slow rate of cotton- 
growing expansion in the new areas, where a bias for long staple production, irrespective 
of environmental considerations, has been consistently shown. Such a policy would 
be obviously inadvisable for the U.S.A. cotton belt, for instance, where it is plain 
that the disproportionately great loss in yield, in grade and crop security that 
excessive-staple policy invariably entails, would be to the advantage of neither the 
Lancashire spinner nor the growers. Yet the American cotton belt is much more 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—TEXTILES. 417 


favourably situated, with respect to climatic conditions for cotton growing, than the 
majority of the new areas, where the penalty for the long-staple bias is the more 
serious. 

The long-staple bias has hitherto had the support of the scientific plant breeders, 
who have held that staple quality is independent of climatic limitations and that, 
given the necessary experimental fagilities in hybridisation and selection, the finer 
staples are producible in any area. After many hundreds of experiments the world 
over, and covering over twenty years of work, the results do not uphold their con- 
tention ; and it is apparent that they are subject to the same climatic limitations that 
restricted the possible lines of development to the old plant breeders. 

A change in staple policy to one that is sensitive to natural limit ations is, therefore, 
urged as conducive to the best interests of the cotton trade and to the security of the 
growers in the new areas. 


Dr. Barr and Miss Haprietp.—Nature of the Action of Sunlight on Cotton. 


Mr. F. T. Perrce.—Problems of Textile Testing : (a) Variability ; (b) Time 
Effects. 
Tuesday, September 6. 
Mr. A. L. WyKes.—Quantitative Determination of the Physical Properties of 
Artificial Silk and their Relationship to Textile Manufacture. 

After outlining the method of making artificial silk, it is shown that success in 
weaving, knitting, and braiding depends on a proper understanding of the physical 
properties of the yarn concerned. In the main, the numerous troubles met with in 
the manufacture of fabrics are due to the treating of artificial silk as if it were a 
simple substance, while, in fact, it is a complex of two substances with different 
physical properties. The two are described in this paper as ‘locked’ cellulose and 
* dispersed ’ cellulose, and the general properties with load-extension and elasticity 
curves are described for each form. It is pointed out that these two substances are 
contained in ordinary viscose artificial silk in varying proportions, and that it is easy 
to convert one form into the other with consequent modification of the characteristics 
of the yarn. The effect of friction on an artificial silk thread is shown. 

Common weaving and knitting faults are explained with reference to the theory 
advanced. Finally, recent improvements of commercial artificial silk are noted, and 
suggestions are made for its future development. 


Mr. J. A. Marrnew.—Extensibility of Flax Yarns. 


A review is made of the work which has been done on the extensibility of flax yarns. 
-The different experimental methods are described, and compared. The characteristics 
of stretch-load diagrams for flax yarns are described, and the methods of quantitative 
expression of these characteristics used by New and by the author are detailed and 
compared. The latter are concluded to be preferable since they cover the former 
with a fewer number of figures, the behaviour over the whole diagram is represented 
and the results from yarns of different sizes are directly comparable. 

A method of analysis is described, based on the detection of irregular manu- 


Total (yt) 


facturing conditions by means of the value of the ratio Permanent Stretch ¥p" The 


Perc t 
characteristics of the diagram are expressed by the values te Young’s Modulus of 
Elasticity of the yarn (HZ); the equation to the total stretch-load curve y= 


1 
Ut p logio = where y,=total stretch recorded on the diagram due to a load 
t i 
x ounces. 

x;=initial tension on the yarn in ounces. 

x,=a+a;.; and a factor K which may be determined by measurement whence 
E may be calculated for any desired conditions from the relation 

e 
a 64 (K—l}) K (a7) 2 log *t) where Su The ratio ¥ is a measure 
K by x «x Dp Yp 

of the effects of tensions experienced by the yarn before testing, and the effect on the 


1927 HE 


418 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—TEXTILES. 

stretch-load diagram is shown by the relation b =k (% Fa) which is used to cor- 
Yp 

rect the experimental measurements for irregularities in manufacture. 

The relations between the equation constants and the size of yarn, twist, length 
of specimen and rate of loading have been worked out. These may be used for 
correction of the effects of variants in yarn structure and so allow the effects of 
different kinds of fibre on the characteristics of the stretch-load diagrams to be 
determined. The constant 6, is definitely shown to measure the effect due to slip 
of the fibre in the yarn, and large differences in this respect are shown to exist between 
different kinds of flax and hemp. 

The general conclusion is that the longitudinal extension of flax yarns is a com- 
bination of several effects, the chief of which are indicated as a tightening up of the 
fibre strands on one another, the slip of the fibres past one another, elastic stretch of 
the fibre, and possibly permanent elongation of the fibre. The diagrams are similar 
in type for all kinds of flax yarns tested in the air dry condition, and there is no 
evidence of an increased rate of extension before breakage, so it is inferred that yarn 
breakage is mainly attributable to rupture of the fibre and fibre bundles and not 
excessive slippage. The conclusions drawn from tests employing a low constant rate 
of loading are confirmed by tests in which repeated applications of small stresses were 
employed. The bearing of these conclusions on the investigation of important 
practical problems is discussed. 

REFERENCES. 


G. F. New, J. Text. Inst., 1922, 13, No. 2; 1926, 17, No. 9. 
G. F. New and A. L. Greeson, J. Text. Inst., 1923, 14, No. 11. 
J. A. Matruew, J. Text. Inst., 1922, 13, No. 2; 1926, 17, No. 3; 1927, 18, No. 6. 


Dr. Ezer Grirritus, F.R.S.—‘Air Conditioning’ eiioee = and some 
Special Forms of Hygrometers. 


An account is given of various researches bearing on ‘air conditioning.’ One 
problem was to devise means of controlling the humidity i in rooms for the storage of 
fruit and eggs when the temperature was below normal atmospheric. The system 
employed was to circulate the air through brine spray and, since the density of the 
brine solution determined the vapour pressure, an automatic arrangement was 
devised to maintain the concentration within narrow limits. 

Another investigation was concerned with the study of the cooling effect obtained 
with ducts placed on the external wall of a fruit stores: the air being circulated 
through the ducts either by natural convection or by forced air circulation. A duct 
whose surface was covered with moistened cloth gave a fourfold cooling effect com- 
pared with an uncovered duct. Ducts of various sections were also investigated. 

Since the control element in several types of air-conditioning appliances is a 
material whose length varies with changes of humidity, a convenient form of 
apparatus has been devised for testing ten ‘specimens simultaneously, and the results 
of tests are given in the paper. 

A number of hygrometers are described which have been devised to meet special 
requirements. (a) The ‘fog formation’ hygrometer is based on the principle that — 
fog forms in an atmosphere which is adiabatically expanded: the amount of — 
expansion necessary for a fog which is just visible is a function of the humidity. 
(6) The resistance thermometer form of wet and dry bulb hygrometer described has — 
an extremely small time lag. Cotton-covered wire carried on a glass frame is 
periodically dipped in water. The difference in temperature between wet and dry 
bulb is recorded by a string galvanometer. (c) The portable dew-point apparatus is 
a differential air thermometer, one bulb of which is so designed that it can be cooled — 
by a stream of cold CO,; the dew is observed on a polished portion of the bulb 
surface. (d) The ‘cellophane’ hygrometer is based on the change in weight with 
humidity of thin cellophane sheet. (e) The hygrometer for timber seasoning kilns is 
a wet and dry bulb hygrometer employing mercury in steel thermometers with both 
pointers indicating on the same dial. Arrangements are made for drawing air past 
the bulbs and for maintaining the covering over the wet bulb saturated with water. 

The appendix to the paper contains a description of some typical air-conditioning 
installations of the water spray type. 


Dz. L. L. Luoyp.—Raneidification and Oxidation of Olive Oil. 


ie 


a i i ee ee ee eens 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF 
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


ADDRESS BY 
Smr FRANCIS G. OGILVIE, C.B., LL.D., 
PRESIDENT OF THE CONFERENCE. 


I am not qualified to speak with authority on any one of the specialist 
studies to which individual members of the Corresponding Societies give 
ardent and continued attention. I am among those who maintain an 
outsider’s acquaintance with some of these studies, and who find, even 
in that, a source of many pleasures in daily life. We outsiders enjoy the 
byways of science. Your active members tread the highways and 
secondary roads from and to which the byways lead. The Corresponding 
Societies include members of all shades as to interest in science—from 
keen investigators who render frequent service in the advancement of 
science to those who merely toy with a hobby. 

Yet all of us feel that these societies are a valuable national asset, 
and we wish to see a good annual return from that asset. Our aim is to 
promote life within our societies. Each wishes to promote his own 
society's usefulness to its members, its growth and its influence in its 
home area. In addressing you to-day I propose to discuss some matters 
that affect success in these aims. 


Team Work. 


My predecessor in this chair, Sir John Russell, addressed you on 
‘Regional Surveys,’ and most matters of general interest to the Corre- 
sponding Societies of to-day are pertinent, directly or indirectly, to 
regional surveys. Indeed the aim of these surveys is to bring together 
in compact form and in reasoned relation considerations which emerge 
in the work of these societies. Thus the co-operation of every society, 
however specialised its aims, is most desirable for the progress and value 
of a regional survey. 

Regional Survey is a fine field for team work, and within our several 
local societies team work is widespread—even if the ‘team’ has but 
two or three members. Group working is of the essence of our constitu- 
tions. In all the subjects in which we take interest comparative records 
are generally the result of the grouping of observations. For ready 
application this calls for, at least, a general agreement as to maver and 
method. 

Vegetation Surveys. 

Let us consider this in one particular matter of study. The pre- 
paration of a Vegetation Survey of an area gives added interest to the 
observations of members who make themselves responsible for individual 
sections of the work. 

EE2 


420 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES, 


As a matter of fact the pioneer work in this matter—so far as the 
British Isles are concerned—has been carried out by single observers or 
by pairs, and it may be useful to remind you of some of these :— 

1900.—R. Smith, then of University College, Dundee, published 
vegetation maps on a scale of 2 miles to 1 inch for— 

I. The Edinburgh district ; and 

II. North Perthshire. 
Continued in 1904 by— 

III. Forfar ; and 

IV. Fife. 

1903.—Mr. C. EH. Moss, of Leeds University, with Mr. W. M. Rankine, 

dealt similarly with—- 
I. Leeds and Halifax; and 
Il. Harrogate and Skipton.? 
Mr. Moss also wrote a separate paper on The Peat Moors of the 
Pennines ;? and in 1913 he published ‘ The Vegetation of the 
Peak District.”4 

1906.—Marcel Hardy carried out a general Botanical Survey of the 
Highlands of Scotland, recorded on maps on the scale of 2 miles to 1 inch, 
copies of which are deposited for reference in “ Outlook Tower,’ Edinburgh. 
His account of this survey was published in the Scottish Geographical 
Magazine. 

1911.—Sir Daniel Hall and Sir John Russell published their survey 
of Kent, Surrey and Sussex. 

All these publications are replete with interest, and there are now not 
a few more which deal with other sections of the country. Each of those 
which I have seen is the work of one or two observers. Most of these 
observers have been in a position to devote continuous attention to it. 
I see, however, no reason why a group of men who concert as to method 
and record should not carry out such work in successive shorter or longer 
periods of ‘ spare-time study.’ 

To judge by publications, ‘ vegetation’ mapping has made but little 
progress since the war. The Ecological Society has published many 
valuable papers, so that, all in all, there is no lack of well-informed 
guidance available for any local society setting itself to explore the matter 
with definite relation to its own area. Geologist and entomologist 
members might take part in the preparation of a particular local study; — 
each would find fresh interests in relating their own particular observations 
to those of their botanical confréres. A study of this kind might concern — 
quite a small area—even but a single field or wood ; it might deal with — 
conditions at different seasons of the year, and if so the meteorological 
conditions of the year and of the season should be noted; these affect — 
many aspects of the area—not least the life and influence of insects, 
helpful or harmful. 


1 Scottish Geographical Magazine, vol. xvi, 1900; xx, 1904; xxi, 1905. 
2 Geographical Journal, vols. xxi. and xxii., 1903. 

8 Geographical Journal, 1904, vol. xxiv. 

4 Cambridge University Press. 

» Scottish Geographical Magazine, 1906, vol. xxii. 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. 421 


Such considerations as arise in local studies of the types suggested 
afford examples of the special value that attaches to co-operative records 
made by groups of observers working on concerted or well-recognised lines. 


Maps and Plans. 


Not only in studies of the types I have heen discussing, but in many 
other departments of science that come under review here, maps and 
plans play a part—in some a large part. In many sections of field work 
it happens that the record of an observation is—to say the least of it— 
greatly facilitated by the use of a map or by making a rough sketch of a 
position with well-marked points of reference. Again, a good map can 
give a great deal of information to one who can read it fully. There are, 
however, many who understand the map in a general way, but have 
stopped their understanding of it just short of the point at which they 
could get from the map all the assistance it can give. The progress in 
map-reading required for this is really a very small thing. I therefore 
suggest that it would be worth while for a society to arrange to give 
guidance in map-reading to any of its members who wish to have it. J 
can say with confidence that a small measure of help would go a long 
way to fit a man to mark on the map exactly the point on which he stands, 
and to read accurately what the map can tell of his immediate surroundings. 
Once so equipped he could, if he wished, advance rapidly in map work. 

With or without such a start I suggest that every active member of 
a scientific society should possess at least one ‘ quarter sheet’ of the 
‘ 6 inches to a mile’ Ordnance Survey Map of a part of his area with 
which he is familiar. The possession of that single small sheet would be 
a pleasure, its study on the ground a delight, and the amount of clearness 
and interest with which it clothed his previous general idea a revelation. 
I would press upon those who really know maps that they have an oppor- 
tunity of being real benefactors to others who have only a nodding 
acquaintance with them, or, let us say, have used them only in an 
elementary way for motoring. 


Records. 


I wish to draw attention to the keeping of local society records, and 
as I have been speaking of maps I may point out that some categories 
of records ought, as a matter of course, to be registered on the appropriate 
‘6 inches to a mile map.’ Of this kind are observations which are or 
may become of use on any question of precise locality, as for local distribu- 
tion maps—for instance: botanical maps ; old habitations, ruins, founda- 
tions, lines of track, and indeed any object of antiquarian interest ; local 
photographic records, noting, in the case of these, the position of the 
camera and the direction of view—these records should also include local 
phenomena of interest, whether they are fleeting, recurring or continuing. 

I am aware that the importance of such local photographic records is 
now generally appreciated, but it is left for local societies to make sure 
that some central list of them is maintained with a set of record copies. 

After all, when one speaks of the records of a scientific society, the 
reference is generally to written and printed records. This reference at 
once brings on the stage that great bugbear—the cost of printing. This 


4.22 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


I am afraid, will long be with us, and we must help ourselves, so far as we 
can, by cultivating some skill in the writing of summaries. It behoves 
every contributor to the paper harvest of a society to see to the prepara- 
tion of a fair summary statement of his paper in as compact a form as 
possible. Even a brief summary, available for reference, will suffice to 
bring the work to the knowledge of others working on the same subject 
or on one for which the investigation detailed may be helpful. It will 
thus have its chance of bringing together workers who may be mutually 
helpful. 


Preservation of Records. 


Whether printed or only recorded in MS., ‘ minutes’ and other filed 
documents, the records of local scientific societies ought to be scrupu- 
lously preserved. It is not always easy to secure the preparation of good 
records, but these can be secured if the secretary or the editor is sufficiently 
persistent. Some of the difficult members may be landed by the bait of 
a draft which is obviously—it may be knowingly—inadequate. Once 
secured, records must be preserved intact. 


Preservation of Examples. 


The preservation of valuable or interesting specimens is no less 
important than that of documents. In the case of specimens it is of course 
desirable to secure their early or ultimate deposit in a permanent institu- 
tion, where they will be effectively preserved, while continuing to be 
available for reference or other study. In any event, alike for specimens 
and for documents, provision for preservation should take account of the 
possibility of temporary or permanent discontinuance of a society or—and 
this applies particularly to material examples—death or lapse of care of 
interested holders. 

One case of such lapse of care is worth mentioning as a warning. 
Many interesting examples of work of prehistoric man had been diligently 
collected by an able collector resident in an area of special interest in this 
respect. ‘The owner of the land took much interest in the collection and 
erected on the margin of a loch which was the centre of the area a delightful, 
small permanent museum for the preservation and exhibition of the 
collection. The collector died. The estate was sold, and with it the 
museum and al] it contained. The museum building was put to other 
uses, and of the objects collected part only were passed to safe custody. 


The List of Papers. 


We all regret extremely that the publication of the ‘ List of Papers” 
prepared under the auspices of the Corresponding Societies Committee — 
has been interrupted. This publication is of very definite national value. 
It is in effect a general index to a mass of good, honest work by a great 
body of enthusiastic devotees of science, many of whom have both 
exceptional opportunities and great ability. Collectively their interests 
include many diverse subjects of study. In effect they form an army of 
voluntary workers whose services throughout the field outlined by the 
Corresponding Societies have a high potential value. 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES, 423 
Now what is necessary to secure this value for science ? Obviously, 
first, a record of the additions to knowledge obtained by their work, and 
secondly, an accessible announcement of that record. This is the minimum 
of publication required. The first of these requirements has to be met 
locally. For a large proportion of the investigators concerned the local 
society is the only obvious avenue of publication, and the possibility of 
publication is a very definite incentive to accuracy of investigation and to 
definiteness in statement. The second requirement cannot be met more 
effectively than by the continued publication of the * List of Papers.’ 
Succinect records in the Reports of Local Societies and clear national 
lists are both essential. The obstacle in the way in the case of each is 
the cost of printing. We are doing our best to grapple with it locally ; 
but this is no easy task, and we hope that its difficulty will not be increased. 
In particular we hope that a way will be found to ward off the threatened 
charge of income-tax on our Society funds. These are meagre indeed, and 
so serious a reduction would be practically prohibitive of due publication. 


*“The Locality’? in School Work. 


In addressing you from this chair two years ago Sir Daniel Hall made 
an admirable appeal for the enrichment of the education provided in our 
schools—Elementary Schools and Grammar Schools. Now, as it has 
happened, a great part of my work has been concerned with the extension 
of the use of science as an element in education. Therefore I am fain to 
hope that you will not grudge me a few minutes to put to you one small 
suggestion in this connection. 

Sir Daniel put in the forefront of his address the value of using as a 
definite element in the education provided in a school the lessons suggested 
by a knowledge of its environment. He spoke especially with reference 
to country schools. Now I believe that both teachers in towns and those 
in the country do recognise this value and aim at using the local environ- 
ment to good purpose. Many of them have valued highly the suggestiors 
made in that address. We know, however, that subjects of study are 
numerous, and that among teachers, as among other men and women, 
tastes differ. Many teachers—schoolmasters and schoolmistresses—have 
the geographical outlook well developed, and those are no doubt interested 
and very helpful members of local scientific societies. Obviously, 
however, there must be many whose personal leanings are not in this 
direction. 

Might not some individual members of our societies make a start in 
this matter, say, by presenting to a school maps or other things that 
would help to make instructive those of the elements in the make-up of 
the locality that are more obvious to young people ?_ Even as a beginning, 
at any rate, a copy of the 6-inches-to-a-mile quarter sheet, suitably coloured 
for roads, streams, houses, woods, etc., and with any well-defined slopes 
indicated by shading. I feel sure that there is many a school where the 
home map is not now thus exhibited. I believe that such a present would 
not be declined; and that, with it on the schoolroom wall, the head of 
the school would soon wish for more. I should like to see in every 
school and public reading-room several local maps representing aspects of 
the environment bearing on its most marked interests. In thinking out 


424 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


these, and in taking part in their preparation, active members of local 
societies would find an attractive sphere of interest. 

They would, however, be doing better than that—they would be 
lending a useful hand in encouraging studies that would inevitably extend 
interest in ‘ natural knowledge’ generally. They would help to increase 
the number who would find their lives enriched by such studies, and who 
might in after years become working members of a local scientific society. 


The Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies met at Leeds 
on Thursday, September 1, at 2 p.m. The delegates present were forty- 
four in number, representing fifty-nine societies. Two representatives 
were also present from Section K. (Botany). 

The President of the Conference, Sir Francis Ogilvie, C.B., LL.D., 
delivered an address, which is printed above. Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice- 
Chairman) proposed a cordial vote of thanks to the President, which was 
carried by acclamation. 

A proposal that the delegates should lunch together before the adjourned 
session was not adopted. It was recommended, on the motion of Sir 
George Fordham (Hertfordshire Natural History Society) that agenda of 
the Conference should be circulated in advance to delegates. 

The report of the Corresponding Societies Committee was submitted, 
dealing with (1) the lability of scientific societies to income-tax, which 
is the subject of test cases selected by agreement between the British 
Association, the Society of Antiquaries and the Treasury, and now sub 
judice ; (2) the hability of scientific and educational films to import duty, 
as to which the Treasury is not willing to make any concession; (3) the 
revision of the Register of Corresponding Societies, which the Council of 
the British Association had postponed until after the Leeds meeting. Out 
of a total of 161 societies, only from 35 to 50 have sent delegates to recent 
Conferences ; and in 1923 the Committee recommended to the Council 
that any society which does not send a delegate to the Conference during 
five successive years should be deemed, unless there is reason to the 
contrary, to have ceased to be a Corresponding Society. 

Sir George Fordham (Herts N.H.S.) addressed the Conference on 
the Preservation of British Wild Flowers, and moved ‘ that it is desirable 
that information should be obtained as to the number of Local Govern- 
ment areas in the United Kingdom and the Irish Free State, in which 
bylaws, relating to the destruction of wild flowers and plants, at present 
exist ; as to the terms of such bylaws ; and as to the prosecutions which 
have taken place thereunder.’ After discussion this recommendation was 
adopted ; but a motion recommending the circulation of a descriptive 
list of rare plants was rejected, on the ground that such a list would draw 
undesirable attention to the rarity of such plants, and accelerate their 
disappearance. A motion proposed by Dr. E. M. Delf (Section K, Botany) 
was adopted: ‘That it is desirable to approach educational and other 
public bodies with a view to securing their co-operation in the protection 
of wild flowers and forest or woodland trees from fire or other damage.’ 

Prof. E. I. Hawkins (Geologists’ Association) addressed the Conference 
on the preservation and scientific record of geological sections, of historical 


—— 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. 425 


interest, and the protection of natural features, as well as ancient buildings 
under an amended ‘ Ancient Monuments Act.’ It was explained that 
the Council of the Association already had this matter under consideration. 

At the adjourned meeting on Tuesday, September 6, Mr. T. Sheppard, 
in the Chair, a letter from the Director of the International Institute of 
Intellectual Co-operation was read, calling attention to the drawbacks 
of ‘mixed’ scientific publications by societies, etc. This letter, which 
had been referred to the Conference by the Council of the Association, 
was received without comment. Its discussion led to reference by Sir 
George Fordham and Dr. C. Tierney to the question of the size of scientific 
societies’ publications, but it was decided that no further action should 
at present be taken on this matter. 


Mr. T. Sheppard, Vice-Chairman of the Corresponding Societies Com- 
mittee, opened a discussion on Natural Reserves with the following 
communication :— 


Nature Reserves in Yorkshire. 

CERTAINLY no county in the British Isles has such an extraordinary variety of 
scenery and conditions for the preservation of animal and plant life as has the Broad- 
acred Shire. On the east is the sea coast, with its wealth of cliffs, bays and pro- 
montories; immediately to the west are the Cleveland Hills and the Yorkshire 
Wolds; then the great Central Valley of York, and beyond that the Pennine Chain, 
with its variety of mountain, mere and marsh. Each of these areas is suitable for 
bird life in one form or another, and fortunately Yorkshire still possesses broad-minded 
landowners who are interested in the preservation of our fauna and flora. 

In some parts of England we hear much of the fact that certain districts have 
been set apart as sanctuaries, but in Yorkshire for generations different landowners 
have given strict instructions that the animals and plants on their properties shall 
be preserved. Even quite close to Leeds and the centre of the county, where 
apparently collieries and factories are contaminating the atmosphere, quite a large 
number of well-wooded districts exist in which the birds, mammals and the wild 
flowers receive shelter and freedom. While these areas may be looked upon as 
sanctuaries, they are to a certain extent unofficial, but fortunately Yorkshire pos- 
sesses on its eastern side three distinct sanctuaries in which the fauna and flora are 
well represented and at present well preserved. These are Spurn Point, Hornsea 
Mere, and Flamborough Headland. 

The well-known precipitous cliffs of Bempton and Flamborough harbour 
Guillemots, Razorbills, Puffins, and birds which usually lay one egg on a ledge and 
hatch the young one therefrom. In the south-east corner of the county is the 
magnificent sand tract of Spurn Point, where a totally different aspect ot sea-bird 
life, which bring its young up in nests made in holes in the sand, thrives. ’ 

Between the two is Hornsea Mere, where the secluded woods and the protection 
afforded by the landowner entice certain Grebes and other interesting species to 
breed. 

Thus, in the three sanctuaries, quite a large proportion of the important birds of 
the British Isles may be seen at one time or another. : 

The Yorkshire Wild Birds and Eggs Protection Committee contributes funds for 
the payment in each of these areas of watchers who, during the breeding season, do 
their best to prevent wanton destruction among the birds and their eggs. 

Unfortunately, we cannot claim absolute sanctuary for the birds in either of these 
areas, each of them is visited by trippers and others, who do harm more by thoughtless- 
ness than by mischief; but by the aid of our watchers the damage is considerably 
lessened. 


Spurn Point. 
Perhaps the most interesting of the areas is Spurn Point, which has been a bird 


" paradise for a considerable time, possibly aided by the powerful lighthouse, the beams 


from which attract great quantities of migrating species. The isolated sandbank at 


426 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


Spurn has produced an enormous number of rare forms at one time or another. Birds 
arriving in this country in the spring migration, or departing from it in the autumn, 
assemble at Spurn. 

The lighthouse is an attraction—a powerful light atnight seems to have a fascination 
for birds of passage, some even dashing themselves against the glass in their anxiety 
to get near the light, many being killed in this way. In recent years, however, through 
the efforts of the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, the lighthouse has had 
placed upon it a number of perches upon which the birds can rest. 

Unfortunately, during the war, many drastic changes had to be made in this 
otherwise secluded region, and species which ordinarily bred there in great numbers 
were disturbed, and in some instances disappeared. However, the district is still 
one of the few breeding colonies of the beautiful Sea-Swallow, or Lesser Tern, the 
Ringed Dotterel, and other rare birds, while occasionally the Oyster-Catcher and 
similar interesting forms are known to nest here. 

Formerly, great destruction occurred among the eggs by trippers from Grimsby 
and other places, who deliberately threw them about or threw stones at them, and in 
addition harm was done by indiscriminate collectors who gathered the eggs in large 
numbers for sale. Now the watcher does his best to prevent this destruction, and the 
eggs are marked with indelible ink, so that they cannot very well be sold. 

Probably in no part of England is the question of protective coloration, as applied 
to both birds and their eggs, so pronounced as on the Spurn Peninsula. I have seen 
within a small area twenty or thirty different clutches of eggs of the Lesser Tern, and 
yet a stranger unfamiliar with the eggs would probably not see one; in fact, I have 
been with parties when members have actually stepped upon the eggs before realising 
what they were doing. The bird does not make any nest, as usually known, but 
merely scoops a slight hollow in the sand. 

But an even more striking example occurs in the young birds themselves. So 
soon as they are hatched they resemble little balls of fluff, again spotted and streaked 
like sand. The last time I was at Spurn I walked along the sands to the Point, and 
I pointed out a single chick of a Lesser Tern to a friend. This was running about 
on the sands some distance away, but on a warning note from the parent birds flying 
above it immediately flattened itself at full length and remained absolutely motion- 
less. My friend could not see it. We walked slowly towards it. I very quietly 
stooped down and picked the bird up in my hand, it making no attempt to get away. 
It was, of course, immediately released, and we left it to be joined by its parents. 

Quite apart from the ordinary species which one meets with in a place of this 
character, occasional rare forms arrive, even Flamingoes, Great Bustards and other 
semi-tropical birds being recorded, and, I much regret to say, frequently have been 
shot. However, in recent years. there has been a great change among naturalists 
with regard to our wild birds. Formerly a naturalist was more after the manner of 
a collector, and delighted in surrounding his walls with all the rare species he could 
possibly shoot. To-day he takes more interest in watching the birds through a 
telescope, or in photographing them. 


Hornsea Mere. 


With the help of the owner of the Mere, and a paid watcher, the interesting species 
of birds breeding in this vicinity are not showing any decrease. There is a heronry 
at the Mere, and the herons can often be seen perched on stumps round the water 
keeping a look-out for the fish upon which they live. The Mere is generally known 
to ornithologists, however, as the breeding ground of the Great Crested Grebe, a 
species which only has a few breeding grounds in the British Isles. Other Grebes, 
various forms of ducks, etc., occur, and the woods surrounding the Mere shelter an 
enormous number of our most interesting songsters. While water-bird life is common, 
the birds of prey—the Owls, Hawks, Buzzards, etc.—also are present. 

_Among the other interesting visitors to Hornsea Mere may be mentioned the 
Cormorant (a species which for many years nested on the wreck of the Beaconsfield, 
a ship which was stranded off the shore at Aldbrough); Purple Heron, Bittern, 
Glossy Ibis, Golden Eye, Spotted Crake, Stone Curlew, and others. é 

Hornsea Mere is the last of many meres and marshes which once existed in East 
Yorkshire, and doubtless at one time gave it the appearance of the Norfolk Broads, 
which are so well known for the quantity of birds living there to-day. One of the 
most beautiful and interesting of the birds of Norfolk is the Bearded Titmouse, a 
species which builds its nest among the reeds, the male bird having curious dark 


Ne eee ES =e rll 
= LS ——— = — 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. 427 


patches on the sides of its face, somewhat resembling the old ‘ Dundreary ’ whiskers 
of years ago, hence the name ‘ bearded ’ Titmouse. 

‘A few years ago some pairs of these species were brought to Hornsea Mere and let 
loose among the reeds in the hope that they would establish themselves, and give 
an added charm to the fauna of the district. From reports which were received it 
seemed clear that for a year or two they did actually survive and nest around the 
Mere, but their numbers grew fewer and fewer, and eventually the species disappeared 
altogether. 

The third sanctuary to which I refer is that of the famous 


Flamborough Headland, 


Standing on the high cliffs at Bempton one can see, to the north Filey, snugly 
sheltered in Filey Bay, with the treacherous Brig to the right ; and on a fine day 
Scarborough, with its castle-crowned hill, appears on the sky-line beyond Filey 
cliffs. Immediately to the south are the Flamborough Lighthouse and the cave- 
worn clifis; beyond, Bridlington Bay and Bridlington ; and in the dim distance can 
be seen the low cliffs of the interesting district of Holderness. In front is the North 
Sea, the brilliant blue waters of which are washing the cliff foot, over 400 feet below ; 
in some places the sea never recedes from it. Quite apart from their charming 
surroundings, the cliffs themselves cannot but strike the visitor with awe and wonder. 
At Bempton and Speeton they rise in a perpendicular wall: indeed, in some parts 
are overhanging, to a height of nearly 450 feet. They consist of pure chalk, the 
brilliant whiteness of which is softened by time, and the whole effect is enhanced by 
the appearance, here and there, of streaks of green, where vegetation has found a 
footing. 

But apart from the sea, the scenery and the surroundings, the birds of Bempton 
cliffs are world-famous. 

The ledges and crannies on that great wall of rock are crowded with myriads of 
sea-fowl. ‘These can easily be seen, particularly with the aid of a field-glass, their 
dark colour contrasting well with the background formed by the chalk. An enormous 
multitude, row upon row, tier upon tier, can be identified. In addition to those on 
the ledges, which are occupied in domestic affairs, the air is alive with the croaking 
and screeching of tens of thousands of them; and the surface of the water deep down 
below is dotted with floating birds. At times the sound made by this whirl of feathered 
life is almost deafening. 

Here at Flamborough we have one of the principal breeding grounds of sea-fowl 
in the British Isles; and every visitor to the cliffs must be impressed by the 
extraordinary profusion of bird life which occurs. The chief occupant is the 
Guillemot, a quaint bird in brown and white, harlequin fashion; the Razorbill and 
Puffin also occur in numbers, while more rarely the Kittiwake, Herring Gull and 
Cormorant can be identified. In recent years the Fulmar Petrel has joined the throng : 
Kestrels, Carrion Crows and Jackdaws are there also, and, as might be expected, thrive 
well. Among smaller birds, the Stock Dove, Rock Dove, Pipit, and House Martin 
share with their larger confréres the hospitality which these cliffs afford. 

The Guillemot is unquestionably the main item in the calendar on Flamborough 
Headland. It arrives on the cliffs in May, and soon after begins to take its place on 
the ledges and lay its eggs and bring forth its young, finally quitting the neighbourhood 
about the end of August. Only one egg is laid by each bird, and it is remarkable 
for being almost the largest egg, in comparison with the size of the bird, that is known, 
weighing on an average a quarter of a pound, or one-eighth of the weight of the bird. 
This egg is markedly pear-shaped, and its inability to roll prevents it from falling 
off the cliffs, being placed, as so many of them are, on exceedingly narrow ledges, 
many of which slope seawards. But the shape of the egg is of little moment com- 
pared with its colouring and decoration. In no other area is such a variety of marking 
to be met with as in the Guillemots’ eggs on Flamborough Headland. They can be 
obtained in almost every possible shade of green; blue, red, purple, or brown, and they 
are marked by blotches, streaks, pencillings, or in other ways, to a degree which 
can only be appreciated by an examination of the specimens themselves. No two 
eggs are exactly the same, consequently here of all places can the question of variation 
be investigated. There are definite types of eggs, most of which can be secured at a 
very small cost. Collectors, however, in order to add uncommon forms to their series, 
contest for any unusual colouring or marking, and an exceptionally * good’ egg 
consequently realises a high price. 


428 CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


One collector has made a special point of securing eggs of unusual shapes and 
sizes, irrespective of their ornament, and in this way has obtained a series, varying 
in size from a double-yolked Guillemot egg weighing 6 oz. to a small example the size 
of the egg of a blackbird. In shape he has specimens assuming extraordinary out- 
lines, resembling sausages, bottles, and other’ unusual forms. 

To obtain the eggs it is necessary to climb the cliffs by means of ropes. This is 
accomplished by gangs of ‘climmers,’ and their operations are a sight not soon 
forgotten. There are four or five gangs, consisting of four men each, and a gang 
restricts its operations to a definite part of the cliffs. The outfit of the climmer 
consists of two stout hemp ropes, two hempen loops or ‘ breeches,’ an iron spike 
surmounted by a pulley, two linen bags which are hung from the sides of the climmer 
and crossed over to the opposite shoulder, and last, but not least, a good hat, which 
is stuffed with hay or other padding. This latter item, which formerly took the form of 
a ‘ billy-cock,’ a superannuated top-hat, or a soldier’s helmet, since the war has 
given place to a ‘tin hat,’ is a very important item in the ‘rig’ of a climmer, who 
knows no fear beyond that of falling pieces of chalk, which sometimes are dislodged 
and drop upon him. Broken Head, a name given to one part of the cliffs, indicates 
the spot where the padding was not sufficiently effective. Accidents, however, are 
ot exceedingly rare occurrence ; in fact, by no means so common as they are in what 
might be looked upon as much safer occupations. 

The method of climbing is as follows :—The climmer places his legs through the 
two loops fastened te the end of a lowering rope, which is inserted in an iron pulley 
stuck in the ground near the cliff edge. His mates sit on the grass above with their 
heels firmly implanted in the soil, and with the rope wrapped round them, a broad 
leather belt preventing the sliding rope from doing harm. The climmer backs 
towards the cliff edge, slides over, and is lowered. A second or guide rope hangs down 
by means of which he can signal and inform those above whether he wishes to be 
pulled up or lowered. His hands are filled with grass as a protection from the chafing 
of the rope, and as he descends or ascends he collects the eggs from the ledges and 
places them in the bags at his sides, a hooked stick enabling him to reach any awkward 
positions. The dexterous manner in which the climmer can seize the eggs and skip 
along the ledges is the result of years of practice, and viewed from the cliff top the 
sight of a mere speck of humanity, swaying to and fro as he throws himself from ledge 
to ledge, is memorable. In one part, where the cliffs considerably overhang, a steel 
rope has been secured to the face, by means of which the operator is able to draw 
himself under until loaded, when he swings back to the perpendicular. When his 
linen bags are fairly full of eggs a signal is given, one hears the command ‘ Oop,’ and 
hand over hand the rope is hauled in, until the head of the climmer appears over the 
ledge of the cliff. He is then able to take his weight from the rope and assist himself 
up the slope. The eggs are placed in a basket, unusually ‘ pretty ’ or rarely marked 
eggs being put on one side, the remainder being sold at twopence or threepence each. 

The season commences in the third week in May, and finishes at the end of June, 
or, at the latest, the first week in July, during which period, according to Mr. E. W. 
Wade’s calculations, each gang collects from 300 to 400 eggs daily, or, allowing for 
wet weather, an average of 130,000 eggs per season. These are sold to collectors, 
and are also made use of in other ways. Notwithstanding this enormous draw upon 
the eggs, there appears to be no diminution in the numbers of the birds; in fact, 
according to some authorities, they increase annually. 

The Peregrine Falcon within recent years made its appearance on these cliffs, 
selecting its nesting place near Danes’ Dyke in 1907 and 1908, and subsequently near 
Raincliffe (Buckton), where the cliff rises to 436 feet, the highest point of the Flam- 
borough range. It was hoped that this magnificent bird would continue to nest 
here. It was strictly protected by the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, but it only 
remained for a few years. 

As a contrast between the conditions which prevailed at Flamborough about 
a hundred and fifty years ago and those which now obtain, I quote an account of 
a visit to Flamborough on July 3, 1769. It is extracted from Pennant’s ‘A Tour 
in Scotland,’ which was printed in Cheshire in 1771. Pennant visited Scotland via 
the East Coast, and called at Flamborough on his way. 

‘Went to Flamborough Head. The town is on the north side, consists of about, 
one hundred and fifty small houses, entirely inhabited by fishermen, few of whom, 
as is said, die in their beds, but meet their fate in the element they are conversant in. 
Put myself under the direction of William Camidge, Cicerone of the place, who 


—  ——— 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES. 429 


conducted me to a little creek at that time covered with fish, a fleet of cobbles having 
just put in. Went in one of these little boats to view the Head, coasting it for 
upwards of two miles. The cliffs are of a tremendous height, and amazing grandeur; 
beneath are several vast caverns, some closed at one end, others are pervious, formed 
with a natural arch, giving a romantic passage to the boat, different from that we 
entered. In some places the rocks are insulated, are of a pyramidical figure, and soar 
up to a vast height ; the bases of most are solid, but in some pierced thro’ and arched ; 
the colour of all these rocks is white, from the dung of the innumerable flocks of 
migratory birds, which quite cover the face of them, filling every little projection, 
every little hole that will give them leave to rest ; multitudes were swimming about, 
others swarmed in the air, and almost stunned us with the variety of their croaks and 
screams ; I observed amongst them Cormorants, Shags in small flocks, Guillemots, a 
few black Guillemots very shy and wild, Auks, Puffins, Kittiwakes, and Herring Gulls. 
Landed at the same place, but before our return to Flamborough, visited Robin 
Leith’s hole, a vast cavern to which there is a narrow passage from the land side ; it 
suddenly rises to a great height, the roof is finely arched, and the bottom is for a long 
way formed in broad steps, resembling a great, but easy, staircase ; the mouth opens 
to the sea, and gives light to the whole.’ 


The discussion was continued by Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S., who dealt 
particularly with nature reserves in Kast Anglia, and by other speakers. 

Votes of thanks to Mr. Sheppard and Prof. Oliver concluded an 
interesting session. 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF 
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 


AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS. 


The names of readers of papers in the Sections (pp. 314-418), as to which publica- 
tion notes have been supplied, are given below in alphabetical order under each 
Section. 

References indicated by ‘ cf.’ are to appropriate works quoted by the authors of 
papers, not to the papers themselves. 

General reference may be made to the issues of Nature (weekly) during and 
subsequent to the meeting, in which summaries of the work of the Sections are 
furnished. 


Section A. 


Aston, Dr. F. W.—-Cf. Bakerian Lecture, ‘ A new Mass-spectrograph of the Whole- 
number Rule,’ Proc. Roy. Soc. A 115, p. 487; ‘The Constitution of Ordinary Lead,’ 
Nature 120, p. 224. 


Barkla, Prof. C. G.—Cf. series in Phil. Mag., May 1925-Oct. 1927; further papers 
to appear. 


Berwick, Prof. W. E. H.— The Arithmetic of Quadratic Number-Fields,’ to appear 
in Math. Gaz. Cf. ‘The Classification of Ideal Numbers that depend on a Cubic 
Irrationality,’ Proc. London Math. Soc. ser. 2, 12, pp. 393-429; Integral Bases 
(Cambridge Univ. Press, 1927). 


Davidson, Dr. C. R.—Cf. Greaves and Davidson, ‘ Preliminary Note on the 
Determination of Effective Stellar Temperatures,’ Monthly Notices R.A.S., Nov. 1925 ; 
Greaves, Davidson, and Martin, ‘ The Relative Effective Temperatures of Twenty-two 
Stars of early Type,’ ibid. March 1927. 


Heisenberg, Dr. W.—‘ Ueber den anschenlichen Inhalt der quantentheoretischen 
Kinematik und Mechanik,’ Zeitsch. f. Physik 48, 172 (1927). 


Kolhérster, Dr. W.—Cf. Phys. Zs. 14, 1066, 1153 (1913); Abh. d. Naturf. Gesell- 
schaft zu Halle a.S., Neue Folge Nr. 4 (1914); Verh. d. Dt. Phys. Ges. 16, 719 (1914) ; 
Jahrbuch d. Hamb. wiss. Anstalten Beiheft (1914/5), Seite 323 ; Die Naturwissenschaften 
7, 412 (1919); Zs. fiir Phys. 5, 107 (1921), 11, 379 (1922); Berliner Bericht 34, 366 
(1923) ; Die durchdringende Strahlung in der Atmosphire (Hamburg 1924); Zs. fir 
Instrumentenkunde 44, 333, 494 (1924) ; Berliner Bericht 7, 120 (1925); Phys. Zs. 26, 
654 (1925), 27, 62 (1926); Die Naturwissenschaften 14, 290, 313 (1926); Zs. fiir Phys. 
36, 147 (1926); Berliner Bericht 11, 92 (1927); Zs. fiir Phys. 44, 754 (1927). 


Menzies, A.—Probably to be dealt with in Proc. Roy. Soc. 


Milne, Prof. W. P.—Cf. ‘Sextactic Cones and Tritangent Planes of the same 
System of a Quadri-cubic Curve,’ Proc. London Math. Soc. ser. 2, 21, pt. 5; ‘The 
Tritangent Planes of the same System of the Curve of Intersection of a Cubic Surface 
and a Quadric Cone,’ ibid. 25, pt. 3; * The 7-tangent Quadrics of the same System of 
the C3,’ ibid. 26, pt. 2; ‘ The 5-tangent Conics of the Plane Quintic Curve,’ J. London 
Math. Soc. 2, pt. 2. 


Nolan, Prof. J. J—Cf. Nolan, R. K. Brylan, and G. P. de Lachy, in Proc. Roy. 
Irish Acad. 37, p. 1 (1925); Nolan and de Lachy, ibid. 87, p. 71 (1927). 

Turnbull, Dr. H. W.—Offered to Math. Gaz. Cf. ‘On differentiating a Matrix,’ 
Proc. Edinburgh Math. Soc. ser. 2, 1 (1927-8); ‘The Matrix Square and Cube Roots 
of Unity,’ Journ. London. Math. Soc. 2 (1927). 

Wilson, B. M.—Cf. Collected Papers of Srinivasa Ramanujan, ed. G. H. Hardy, 
P. V. Seshu Aiyar, and B. M. Wilson (Cambridge Univ. Press, shortly). 


Section B. 


Dawson, Prof. H. M.—Chemistry and Industry, 1927, p. 897. Cf. ‘ Acid and Salt 
Effects in Catalysed Reactions,’ by H. M. Dawson and J. S. Carter, Journ. Chem. Soc., 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 431 


1926, 2282; ‘The Minimum Reaction Velocities for Acid-salt Mixtures,’ by H. M. 
Dawson and N. C. Dean, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1926, 2872; ‘ Dependence of the Charac- 
teristics of the Minimum-velocity Mixture on the Concentration of the Acid and the 
Application ot Minimum Velocity to the Determination of Catalytic and Ionisation 
Constants,’ by H. M. Dawson and C. R. Hoskins, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1926, 3166 ; 
* Derivation of a General Equation for the Catalytic Activity of Acids: the General 
Catalytic Catenary,’ by H. M. Dawson, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1927, 213; * Isohydric 
Solutions and the Velocity of Chemical Change,’ by H. M. Dawson and C. R. Hoskins, 
Proc. Leeds Phil. Soc., 1926, 1, 108; *‘ The Early Stages of an Autocatalysed Reaction : 
Generalised form of the simple Autocatalytic Catenary,’ by H. M. Dawson, Journ. 
Chem. Soc., 1927, 458; ‘The Tridimensional Co-ordination of Catalytic Variables : 
Relations between the Data for pure Acids and the corresponding Minimum-velocity 
Mixtures,’ by H. M. Dawson, Jowrn. Chem. Soc., 1927, 756; ‘The Determination of 
Hydrolytie Velocity Coefficients from Isocatalytic Data: Reaction Velocities in 
Buffer Solutions and Compound Catalytic Catenaries,’ by H. M. Dawson, Journ. 
Chem. Soc., 1927, 1146; ‘A General Kinetic Method for the Determination of the 
degree of Dissociation of Water,’ by H. M. Dawson, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1927, 1290 ; 
‘ The Significance of Iso-Catalytic Data and the so-called Protion Theory of Chemical 
Reactivity,’ by H. M. Dawson, Journ. Physical Chemistry, 1927, 31, 1400; ‘The 
Hydrolysis of Ethyl Acetate with Acetic Acid as Catalyst,’ by H. M. Dawson and 
W. Lowson, Journ. Chem. Soc., 1927, 2107. 


Read, Prof. J.—Journ. Soc. Chem. Ind. 46, no. 39. 


Wardlaw, Dr. W.—Cf. Wardlaw and Wormall, Journ. Chem. Soc. (1927), 130, 
1087; Bucknall, Carter and Wardlaw, ibid. (1927), 512; James and Wardlaw, zhid. 
(1927), 2145. 


Wightman, W. A.—Cf. Journ. Chem. Soc. (1925), p. 1421; (1926), p. 2541. 


SEecTIon C. 


Davison, E. H. (Cornish Granites and Tin Lodes).—T rans. Roy. Geol. Soc. Cornwall 
15, pt. viii, p. 576. 
Davison, E. H. (Cornish Pegmatites).—Geol. Mag., May 1924, pp. 225-7. 


Slater, Dr. G.—Cf. following papers which form connected series under general 
title of the first: ‘Glacial tectonics as reflected in disturbed drift deposits,’ Proc. 
Geol. Assoc. 37, pp. 392-400 (1926); ‘The structure of the disturbed deposits in the 
lower part of the Gipping valley near Ipswich,’ ibid. 38, pp. 157-182 (1927); * The 
structure of the disturbed deposits of the Hadleigh Road area, Ipswich,’ ibid. 38, 
pp- 183-216 (1927); ‘Glacial observations in the Wallasey district,’ Proc. Liverpool 
Geol. Soc. 14, pp. 143-157 (1925); ‘A new section in the upper drift deposits of 
Toronto,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, sec. iv (1927); ‘The structure of the disturbed 
deposits of Méens Klint, Denmark,’ Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. 55, pt. ii, no. 12 (1927) ; 
‘The disturbed glacial deposits in the neighbourhood of Lénstrup, near Hjérring, 
north Denmark,’ ibid. no. 13 (1927); ‘The structure of the Mud Buttes of Alberta, 
Canada,’ Bul. Geol. Soc. Am. pt. iv (1927); ‘The structure of the drumlins on the 
south shore of Lake Ontario, Canada,’ Bul. N.Y. State Museum (1927); ‘ Observations 
on the Nordenskidld and neighbouring glaciers of Spitsbergen (Oxford U. Exped. 
to §., 1921), Journ. of Geol. 33, no. 4 (1925). 


Trueman, Dr. A. E.—Probably to be published in Proc. S. Wales Inst. Engineers. 
Cf. J. H. Davies and Trueman, ‘A Revision of the non-marine Lamellibranchs of 
the Coal Measures, and a Discussion of their Zonal Sequence,’ @.J. Geol. Soc. 83, 
pt. ii, pp. 244, 259 (1927). 


Tyrrell, Dr. G. W., and B. H. Barrett.—To appear in Trans. Glasgow Geal. Soc. 


Section D. 
Bruce, J. R.—To appear in Journ. Marine Biol, Assoc. 
Cutler, D. Ward.—To be published in Journ. Exper. Biol. 3, no. 2. 
Grove, Dr. A. J—To appear in Q. Journ. Microsc. Sci. 


432 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


Manton, Miss S. M.—To appear in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B. 


Pantin, C. F. A.—CF. ‘On the physiology of amoeboid movement,’ in Journ. 
Marine Biol. Assoc. 18, 1 (1923); Brit. Journ. Exper. Biol. 1 (1924), 3 (1926); further 
work to be published in B.J.H.B. 


Ridley, H. N.—Cf. (on the voices of apes) Illustrated London News, Sept. 17. 


Taylor, J. W.—Cf. ‘The Geographical Distribution of Mollusca,’ Monograph of 
British Land and Freshwater Mollusca of the British Isles 1, pt. 7 (Aug. 1900) ; 
‘ Dominancy in Nature,’ Trans. Yorks. Nat. H., 1913, pp. 1-40; ‘ Geographical Distri- 
bution and Dominance in relation to Evolution and Phylogeny,’ Trans. Second 
Entomol. Congress, 1912, pp. 271-294; also Journ. Conchology, passim. 


Wells, G. P.—To be included in paper for Brit. Journ. Exper. Biol. 


Section E. 
Fordham, Sir G.—To appear in Geog. Journ. 
Garnett, Miss A.—To appear in Scot. Geog. Mag. 


Harris, Miss S.—For section of paper dealing with Alderney, see Sociol. Kev., 
Oct. 1926, pp. 265-278; to appear more fully in Rep. and Trans. Soc. Guernesiaise. 


Nathan, Sir M.—To be published in Geog. Journ. Cf. presidential addresses, 
1923-25, to Roy. Geog. Soc. of Australasia (Queensland branch). 


Reynolds, J. H.—Cf. ‘Iceland in 1872 and 1926,’ Geog. Journ., July 1927. 


Srection F. 
Florence, P. Sargant.—To appear in Archiv fiir Sozial-Politik (Bonn). Cf. 
Economics and Human Behaviour (Kegan Paul, 1927). 
Yarrow, Sir A.—The Times, Sept. 6. 


Section G. 
Bulleid, Prof. C. H.—Expected to appear in Engineering. Cf. ibid., Oct. 1, 1926. 
Burness, H. H.—To appear in Engineering. 
Clothier, H. W.—HElectrical Review, Sept. 9, 16; Engineering, Oct. 7. Cf. * The 
Design of Electrical Plant, Control Gear, and Connections for Protection against 
Shock, Fire, and Faults,’ Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. 63, nos. 341, 346 (1925); 


‘L’Appareillage Cuirasse et Elimination des Defauts d’Isolement du Reseau,’ 
Report Paris High-tension Conf., 1925. 


Cobb, Prof. J. W.—Engineering, Sept. 9, and elsewhere. Cf. Gas Research Fellow- 
ship reports, 1925-6-7, and Reports of Joint Gas Research Sub-committee of Univ. 
of Leeds and Inst. Gas Engineers, 1926-27, in Trans. Inst. Gas Eng. 


Cramp, Prof. W.—Engineering, Sept. 2, 9. 
David, Prof. W. 'T.—Engineering, Sept. 16. 


Dunsheath, P.—Hngineering, Oct. 14. Ct. * Dielectric Problems in High-voltage 
Cables,’ Journ. Inst. Elec. Eng. 64, p. 97 (1926); *33 KV. Cables with metal-sheathed 
Cores, with special reference to the 8.L. Type,’ ibid. 65, p. 469 (1927). 


Gilchrist, J.—To appear in Engineering. 

Hartmann, J.—Hngineering, Sept. 9,16. Ct. Nye Ensrettere og periodiske Afbrydere 
(Gjellerup, Copenhagen, 1918). 

Lander, Dr. C. H.—Engineering, Sept. 9. 


Lupton, H. R., and J. H. W. Gill.—Water and Water Engineering, Oct. 1927. 
Cf. Gill-‘ Helivane’ and Helivane Pumps, Hathom Davey & Co., Leeds; Patent 
specifications 268037, 210841, 163178, 142713, 140985, 257111. 


Matthews, R. Borlase.—Hngineering, Sept. 16 ; Electro-Farming Journ., Nov. 1927. 


: 


———— Oe 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 433 
Murgatroyd, F.—The Electrician, Sept. 16; Electrical Review, Sept. 30; to be 
published in full in Engineering. 


Naylor, T. M.—Engineering, Oct. 7. Cf. ‘Whirling and Vibrating Speeds of 
Loaded and Unloaded Shafts,’ Inst. Civ. Eng. selected engineering papers, no. 36. 


Stanton, Dr. T. E.—Engineering, Sept. 2. 
Swift, H. W.—Engineering, Sept. 30. 
Turner, F. C.—Hngineering, Sept. 16; to be published in full in the same. 
Wheeler, R. V.—Engineering, Sept. 9. Cf. Journ. Chem. Soc. 97, 1917; 99, 649; 
105, 131; 109, 707; 121, 2345; 127, 1412, 2236; (1926) 1410; (1927) 700. 
Section H. 
Ashby, Dr. T.—Cf. Ashby, Roman Campagna in Classical Times ; further material 


to appear in Platner & Ashby, Topographical Dictionary of Ancient Rome (Oxford, 
1928), and intended to appear in Bulletino Comunale (Rome, 1928). 


Bryce, Prof. T. H. (On Bones from the North of Scotland).—Ct. Proc. Soc. Antiq. 
Scot. 60 (1925-26), 61 (1926-27). 


Carline, G. R.—To form basis of a forthcoming issue of Bankfield Musewm Notes. 
Cunnington, Mrs.—Wiltshire Gaz., Sept. 8; Antiquity, Mar. 1927, p. 92. 

Daniel, J. E.— Man, Oct. 1927. 

Fisher, Dr. R. A.—Intended for publication by Roy. Soc. 


Frankfort, Dr. H.—To be published in The Antiquaries’ Journal, April, 1928. 
Cf. ‘Studies in Early Pottery of the Near East: Pt. I, Mesopotamia, Syria, and 
Egypt and their earliest Interrelations’ (1924); ‘Pt. II, Asia, Europe, and the 
Aegean and their earliest Interrelations ’ (1927), Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Occas. Papers 
6 and 8. 


Hutton, J. H.—Expected to appear in Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. Cf. J. P. Miles, 
The Ao Nagas, note 3, p. 200, and note 2, p. 225. 


Mumford, Dr. A. A.—See Healthy Growth (Oxf. Univ. Press, 1927). 
Watman, E. K.—Cf. Proc. Univ. Bristol Spelaeol. Soc. 2, iii; 3, 1. 


Section I. 
Bond, C. J.—Brit. Med. Journ., Oct. 8. 


Cramer, Dr. W.—The Lancet, Oct. 8, p. 774. 


Dawson, Dr. E. R.—To be incorporated in paper by Dawson and Platt for sub- 
mission to Journ. General Physiol. 


Edridge-Green, Dr. F. W.—Colowr-Blindness and Colour Perception, 1891-1909. 
Physiology of Vision (Bell & Sons), 1920. 


Hirst, Miss M., and Dr. C. G. Imrie.—Cf. ‘Nitrogenous Metabolism in Post- 
Encephalitis Rigidity,’ Journ. Physiol. 62, i (1926); also Q. Journ. Med., Oct. 1927. 


McLeod, Prof. J. W.—Part expected to appear in Journ. Pathol. and Bact. Cf. 
McLeod and Gordon in Biochem. Journ. 16, p- 499 (1922); Journ. Pathol. and Bact. 
26, p. 322 (1923), 28, p. 155 (1925). 


Platt, B. S—To be submitted to Biochem. Journ. (E. Phillis and Platt). Cf. 
Platt and Dawson, ‘ Factors influencing the action of Pancreatic Lipase,’ Biochem. 
Journ. 19, p. 860 (1925). 


Raper, Prof. H. 8. (and Miss C. E. M. Pugh).—To appear in Biochem. Journ. 
Roaf, Prof. H. E.—To appear in Journ. Exper. Physiol. 
Wadge, Miss W. J.—Expected to appear in Journ. Physiol. 


Wayne, Dr. E. J.—To appear, under authorship of H. 8. Raper and Wayne, in 
Biochem. Journ. 

Wormall, Dr. A.—Cf. papers by Wormall, Whitehead, and Gordon, in Journ. 
Immunol. 10, 587 (1925), 18, 439, 451 (1927) ; Biochem. Journ. 19, 618 (1925), 20, 1028, 
1036, 1044 (1926). 


1927 FF 


434 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


SEcTION J. 


Bartlett, R. J.—Probably to appear in Brit. Journ. Psychol. Ci. ‘Does the 
Psychogalvanic Phenomenon indicate Evition,’ Brit. Journ. Psychol. 18, pt. 1 
(July 1927). 


Drever, Dr. J.—To appear in Brit. Journ. Philosoph. Studies. 
Farmer, E.—Journ. Nat. Inst. Indust. Psychol. 8, no. 8 (Oct. 1927). 


Lowery, H.—Cf. ‘ Cadence and Phrase Tests in Music,’ Brit. Journ. Psychol. 17, 
pt. li, Oct. 1926. 


MacTaggart, Miss M. M.—Cf. * Non-scholastic Tests for Backward Pupils,’ Forwm 
of Education, June 1927. 


Mitchell, Dr. T. W.—To appear in Hibbert Journ. Cf. Presidential Address, Proc. 
Soc. Psychical Res. 33, part Ixxxv. 


Section K. 
Bower, Prof. F. O.—To be incorporated in chap. xlii, Ferns, vol. III, expected 
to appear in 1928. 
Brooks, F. T.—To appear in New Phytologist early in 1928. 
Foster, Dr. A. S.—Thesis for doctorate, Harvard Univ. library. 


Fritsch, Prof. F. E.—Probably to appear in Ann. Bot. Cf. ‘ Contributions to our 
Knowledge of the Freshwater Algae of Africa,’ no. 7, Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Af., 1928. 


Gwynne-Vaughan, Dame H. C. I., and Mrs. H. 8. Williamson.—Cf. “ Germination 
in Lachnea cretea,’ Ann. Bot. 41, p. 489. 


Harris, T. M.—Expected to appear in Meddelelser om Grinalase (Copenhagen) ; 
cf. ibid. 68 (1926). 


Holden, Dr. H. S.—Intended for submission to New Paint 


Lotsy, Dr. J. P.—Material to be published as supplementary volumes to Journ. 
Genetica (Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague). 


Mathias, W. T.—Pubns. Hartley Botan. Lab. Liverpool, no. v (Nov. 1927). 


Smith, A. Malins.—Expected to appear in Journ. Linnean Soc. Cf. ‘ New York- 
shire Algae,’ Naturalist (1927). 


Stirling, J—Pubns. Hartley Botan. Lab. Liverpool, no. v (Nov. 1927). 
Thompson, Prof. J. McL.—Pubns. Hartley Botan. Lab. Liverpool, no. iv (Nov. 1927). 


Walton, J.—Cf. ‘ Carboniferous Bryophyta,’ Ann. Bot. 39 (July 1925); Do., I, 
to be submitted to the same. 


Westbrook, Miss A.—Cf. Delf, Ritson, and Westbrook, ‘ The Effects of Radiations 
from a Quartz Mercury Vapour Lamp on Plants,’ Journ. Exper. Biol., Dec. 1927. 


SuB-SECTION K* (For=EsTRY). 

Brooks, Dr. C. E. P.—To appear in Empire Forestry Journ.; full summary in 
Water and Water Engineering, Sept. 20. 

-Chipp, Dr. T. F.—Expected to appear in Timber Trades Journ. 

Clutterbuck, Sir P.—Hmpire Forestry Journ. 6, pt. ii (1927). 

Dallimore, W.—To appear in Empire Forestry Journ. 

Mukerji, 8. K.—To appear in Empire Forestry Journ. early in 1928. 

Pearson, R. 8.—Timber Trades Journ., Sept. 3, p. 695. 

Robinson, G. W.—Expected to appear in Empire Forestry Journ. 


Sutherland, J.—To appear in Trans. Roy. Scot. Arboric. Soc. Cf. Rep. Brit. Assoc. 
1921, p. 451. 


Turrill, W. B.—To be incorporated in The Phytogeography of the Balkan Peninsula 
(Oxf. Univ. Press). 8 


va 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 435 


Section L. 


Arnold, J. H.—Education, Sept. 23. Cf. Reforms needed in First School Examina- 
tions (Inc. Assoc. of Asst. Masters in Secondary Schools, Jan. 1927) ; correspondence 
in Journ. of Education, July-Sept. 1927. 


Discussion on Education in Tropical Africa.—See, generally, West Africa, Sept. 10, 
1927 ; for Major Church’s paper, Hast Africa, Sept. 15, &c. 


Schofield, H.—To appear in Hducation. 
Watts, E.—Hducation, Sept. 23. 


Section M. 


Fisher, Dr. R. A.—Cf. ‘The Arrangement of Field Experiments,’ Journ. Min. 
Agric. 33, pp. 503-513. 


é McMillan, J. A.—To be published as a bulletin of Dept. of Agriculture, Univ. of 
Leeds. 


Sebelien, Prof. J.—Part to appear in Journ. Min. Afric.; see also Norsk Land- 
mandsblad, Oslo, Sept. 9, 16. 


Taylor, T. H.—Bulletin Agric. Dept. Leeds Univ., to be published. Cf. J. Strachan 
and T. H. Taylor, ‘ Potato Eelworm,’ Journ. Min. Agric., Jan. 1926. 


PaPERS GIVEN AT SPECIAL SESSIONS ON TEXTILES. 


These were published in special issue of Journal of the Textile Institute, Man- 
chester, Sept. 1927. 


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* Indicates that the title only of a communication is given. 


When two references to a paper are given, the second is to a note of its publication el. ewhere, 
or to a note of other publications by the author on the same subject. 


Acid catalysis, ..., by Prof. H. M. 
Dawson, 318*, 430. 

Action of potassium on _ contractile 
tissues, by G. P. Wells, 335, 432. 

Address by the President, Sir A. Keith, 1. 

Agriculture and national education, by 
C. G. T. Morison, 202. 

‘ Air conditioning ’ experiments . . 
Dr. E. Griffiths, 418, 435. 

Arrey, Dr. J. R., on mathematical tables, 
220. 

Aucock, Mrs. N. L., on control of plant 
diseases, 381. 

Alge of a bog . . ., by A. Malins Smith, 
380, 434. 

Amt, Dr. H. M., Recent discoveries at 
Combe Capelle, 358. 

Analytical method in the theory of 
numbers, by A. E. Ingham, 316. 

Ancient metallurgy in Burma, by H. L. 
Chhibber, 330*. 

Anprapbe, Prof. E. N. da C., Molecular 
theory of liquid viscosity, 315*. 

Anthropometric instrument, Demonstra- 
tion of . . ., by Prof. H. J. Fleure and 
Miss R. M. Fleming, 361*. 

Apparatus for oxygen and CO, adminis- 
tration, by Dr. H. W. Davies, 371*. 

Apparatus for regulating pH of solutions 
for smooth muscle experiments, by 
Prof. B. A. McSwiney and Dr. Beren- 
bloom, 371*. 

Appendicularians, Origin of, by Prof. W. 
Garstang, 331*. 

Appreciation of wit, by Dr. Ll. Wynn- 
Jones, 373. 

Arable dairy farming, by J. Strachan, 
404*. 

Arctic Alpine Bryophyte associations in 
Britain ..., by C. V. B. Marquand, 
390*. 

Arithmetic of cubic number-fields, by 
Prof. W. E. H. Berwick, 315, 430. 

ARNOLD, J. H., First school examinations 
in secondary schools, 403, 435. 

Asupy, A. W., Economic situation of 
agriculture, 346*. 


.» by 


Asupy, Dr. T., Roman roads in the valley 
of the Tiber, 358, 433. 

Asuton, T. §., Coalminers of the 18th 
century, 343. 

Astiry, Rev. H. J. D., Cup and ring 
markings, 358. 

Aston, Dr. F. W., New mass spectro- 
graph and the whole number rule, 
315*, 430. 

ATHOLL, Duchess of, Broadening of the 
outlook in education, 191. 


Backwardness, ..., by Miss M. M. 
MacTaggart, 376, 434. 

Backwardness in arithmetic, by Miss E. 
Wheeler, 372. 

Batiarp, Dr. P. B., Art of examining 
children, 402. 

Banta, A. M., and L. A. Brown, Sex in 
Cladocera . . ., 334. 

Barsour, Prof. G. B., Tertiary and 
Quaternary history of North China, 
325. 

Barker, Prof. A. F., Race and environ- 
ment as affecting type of sheep and 
wool supplies of the world, 414, 435. 

Barker, Dr. S. G., Fading of dye-stuffs, 
411, 435. 

Barker, W. H., on geography teaching, 
299. 

Barkua, Prof. C. G., Coherence of X-rays 
and the J phenomenon, 315*, 430. 

Barnes, B., Cultural varieties of fungi 
‘ekasises 

Barnett, R., Geological sections in 
Sladen valley, 329. 

Barr, Dr., and Miss HaprieLtp, Nature 
of action of sunlight on cotton, 417*, 
435. 

Barr, 8., Internal rust spot, 406*. 

Bartiett, R. J., Feeling and psycho- 
galvanic reflex, 374, 434. 

Batuer, Dr. F. A., on zoological biblio- 
graphy and publication, 284. 

BrAVEN, Dr. E.S8., on plot technique, 410. 


438 


Berwick, Prof. W. FE. H., Arithmetic of 
cubic number-fields, 315, 430. 

Best, Dr. 8. E. J., Wheat cultivation in 
relation to soil types on the Yorkshire 
Wolds, 342. 

Boper, Dr. G. P., Ancient history of 
sponges and animals, 58. 

Biological measurements, Report of Com- 
mittee on, 286. 

Biology in the school curriculum, by 
Prof. R. D. Laurie, 335. 

Bionomics and affinities of Archipolypoda, 
by Rev. Dr. Brade-Birks, 323. 

Bisat, W.S., Correlation of carboniferous 
beds of Western Europe, 318. 

— Episodes in the ‘ Millstone Grit’ 
period, 319. 

Junction of ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ 
carboniferous strata, 319. 

Brackman, Miss W.8., Modern Egyptian 
medicine man, 362*. 

Body measurements, respiratory tests, 
and school progress, by Dr. A. A. 
Mumford, 361, 433. 

Bonp, C. J., Effect of certain radiated 
lipoids . . ., 368, 433. 

Bortuwick, Dr. A. W., Forestry in 
relation to water catchment areas, 393*. 

Boswett, Prof. P. G. H., Cleavage-fan in 
Ludlow rocks of Denbighshire moors and 
Clwydian range, 320. 

—— Source of constituents of Lower 
Greensand and other Aptian sedi- 
ments, 323. 

Bowen, E. G., Interpretative map of Dr. 
Bryn’s anthropological observations in 
mid-Norway, 366. 

Bower, Prof. F’. O., Evolutionary changes 
in the superficial sorus, 384, 434. 

BraveE-Birks, Rey. Dr., Bionomics and 
affinities of Archipolypoda, 323. 

British Diplopoda and Chilopoda, 
337. 

Brapvy, R. P., Rural settlements in the 
middle Trent valley, 343. 

BrreRLey, Dr. W. B., on control of plant 
diseases, 382. 

British Diplopoda and Chilopoda, by 
Rev. Dr. Brade-Birks, 337. 

British forest policy, by R. L. Robinson, 
393, 434. 

Broadening of the outlook in education, by 
the Duchess of Atholl, 191. 

Bropetsky, Prof. S., Equations of the 
gravitational field . . ., 315. 

Brooks, (. E. P., Influence of forests on 
rainfall, 392, 434. 

Brooks, F. T., Disease resistance in 
plants, 390*, 434. 

Brown, D., and Dr. E. F. Brett, 
Secondary emission from metallic and 
metallic oxide targets, 315*. 


INDEX. 


Brown, Dr. R. N. RupMmosz, Some 
problems of polar geography, 75. 

Brown, Dr. W., Mental unity and mental 
dissociation, 167. 

Browne, C. E., on educational training 
for overseas life, 309. 

Broucn, J. R., Physical factors on the 
sandy beach, 331, 431. 

Bryce, Prof. T. H., Prehistory of 
Scotland . . ., 364, 433. 

—— Human skeletons from the north 
of Scotland . . ., 360, 433. 

Bucuanan, Dr. D. N., Psychological 
effects of flickering light, 374*. 

Buryess, H., Large low head conduits, 
355*, 432. 

Burstatt, Miss S., Education of the 
African woman, 397. 

Butter, Dr. J. A. V., Effect of Electric 
field on adsorption of ions and neutral 
molecules . . ., 318*. 


Cameron, Prof. A. E., Experimental 
removal of Graber’s organ in Tabanid 
fly larvee, 331. 

Campion, G. G., Organic growth of the 
concept .. ., 379*. 

Canadian land-locked salmon, by Prof. 
K. E. Prince, 337*. 

Canvey, E. E., Cotton-growing policy 
. . », 416, 435. 

Carboniferous succession in central Pen- 
nine area .. ., by D. A. Wray, 329. 
CarRLinE, G. R., Primitive Weaving at 

Bankfield Museum, 363, 433. 

Carpel, Discussion on the, 383. 

CARPENTER, Dr. KATHLEEN E., Survival 
of some ice-age relics in freshwater 
fauna of Cardiganshire, 336. 

Castleford, by E. Hepworth, 340. 

Cave, C. J. P., on upper atmosphere, 
255. 

Chemical aspect of wool research, by 
A. T. King, 411, 435. 

Chemistry of coal, by Prof. R. V. 
Wheeler, 349, 433. 

Cunipser, H. L., Ancient metallurgy in 
Burma, 330*. 

Lamprophyres and associated rocks 

of Mokpalin, Burma, 330*. 

Volcanic rocks of Irrawaddy delta, 
330*. 

Curep, Dr. T. F., Forestry in relation to 
climate and erosion, 392, 434. 

CuurcH, Major A. G., on education in 
tropical Africa, 397, 435. 

Circulation rate, Discussion on, 369*. 

Classification of the colour-blind, by Dr. 
F. W. Edridge-Green, 374. 

Cuay, Dr. R. C. C., Overlap of the bronze 
and iron ages, 364. 


INDEX. 


Cleavage-fan in Ludlow rocks of Denbigh- 
shire moors and Clwydian range, by 
Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, 320. 

Climates of the past, Discussion on, 386. 

Close voltage rectifier, by F. C. Turner, 
352, 433. 

Crotuier, H. W., Switchgear for alter- 
nating current, 351, 432. 

CLUTTERBUCK, Sir P., Forestry and the 
Empire, 393, 434. 

Coalminers of the 18th century, by T. S. 
Ashton, 343. 

Coal supplies and their utilisation, Our 
available, by Dr. C. H. Lander, 348*, 432. 

Coal supplies, Utilisation of our, by Prof. 
J. W. Cobb, 348, 432. 

Coss, Prof. J. W., Utilisation of our coal 
supplies, 348, 432. 

Cochlea, Model of, by G. Wilkinson, 371*. 

Coherence of X-rays and the J phe- 
nomenon, by Prof. C. G. Barkla, 315*, 
430. 

CoLttinewoop, R. G., Roman signal 
stations on the Yorkshire coast, 356. 
Coxtins, Dr. Mary, University course in 

experimental psychology, 308. 

Colloidal particles, Discussion on structure 
and formation of, 317. 

Colonisation and development in East 
Greenland, by J. M. Wordie, 338. 

Colour-blindness, First recorded cases of, 
by Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, 370, 433. 

Coloured fibres in the fleece, by J. E. 
Nichols, 413, 435. 

Colour Vision, Report of Committee on, 307. 

Combe Capelle, Recent discoveries at, by 
Dr. H. M. Ami, 358. 

Comsbrr, Prof. N. M., on soil surveys, 
408. 

Teaching and research work on soil 
chemistry, 406*. 

Comparative reliability of intuitive judg- 
ments of men and women, by Prof. 
C. W. Valentine, 379*. 

Complement, Some properties of, by A. 
Wormall, 371, 433. 

Conference of Delegates, Report of, 419. 

Continuation of Prof. Arthur Thomson’s 
and Mr. Dudley Buxton’s ‘ Studies of 
nasal indices in connection with 
climate ’ for Africa, by A. Davies, 366. 

Control of plant diseases, Discussion on, 
381. 

Co-ordination compounds, by Dr. N. V. 
Sidgwick, 27. 

Co-ordination compounds, Dr. 8. Sugden 
on, 316. 

Co-ordination compounds of molybdenum, 
by Dr. W. Wardlaw, 318*, 431. 

CornisH, Dr. Vavuenan, Fixing of 
linguistic boundaries by national 
adoption of Christianity .. ., 338. 


439 


Cornish pegmatites, by E. H. Davison, 
327, 431. 

Correlation of carboniferous beds 
Western Europe, by W.S. Bisat, 318. 

Cotton-growing policy ..., by E. E. 
Canney, 416, 435. 

Cramer, Dr. W., Requirements of the 
population in milk-fat 369*, 
433. 

Cramp, Prof. W., Hydraulic model illus- 
trating behaviour of the are, 347, 432. 

Creatine, Some observations on excretion 
of, by Miss M. Hirst and Dr. C. G. 
Imrie, 369*, 433. 

Crew, Dr. F. A. E., on vasoligation, etc., 
281. 

—— Studies on the thyroid, 335. 

Crorts, Dr. J. M., First and second 


of 


School Certificate Examinations .. ., 
402. 

Cultural varieties of fungi ..., by B. 
Barnes, 388. 


CunnincHamM, J. T., on vasoligation, etc., 
281. 

Cunnineton, Mrs. M. E., 
364, 433. 

Cup and ring markings, by Rev. H. J. D. 
Astley, 358. 

Cutter, D. Warp, and L. M. Crump, 
Effect of food-supply on multiplication 
of protozoa, 335, 431. 

Cytology and development of Aspara- 
gopsis armata, by Prof. N. E. Svedelius, 
380. 

Cytology of Callithamnion, by W. T. 
Mathias, 380, 434. 


* Woodhenge,’ 


Datuimore, W., Minor forest products, 
391, 434. 

Dantett, J. E., Distribution of religious 
denominations in Wales . . ., 366, 433. 

Darwin’s theory of man’s descent as it 
stands to-day, by Sir A. Keith, 1. 

Davin, Prof. W. T., Efficiency of internal 
combustion engines, 353, 432. 

Davipson, Dr. C. R., Stellar tempera- 
tures, 314*, 430. 

Daviss, A., Continuation of Prof. Arthur 
Thomson’s and Mr. Dudley Buxton’s 
‘Studies of nasal indices in connection 
with climate’ for Africa, 366. 

Davies, Dr. H. W., Apparatus for 
oxygen and CO, administration, 371*. 

. . . Hemophilia, 369. 

Davies, W. M., on soil surveys, 409. 

Davison, E. H., Cornish pegmatites, 327, 
431. 

Variation in composition of Cornish 
granites . . ., 326, 431. 

Dawe, C. V., A Yorkshire township . . ., 
406*. 


440 


Dawkins, Sir W. Boyp, on Derbyshire 
caves, 301. 

Place of man in the Tertiary period, 
359. 

Dawson, Dr. E. R., Pancreatic lipase I, 
369, 433. 

Dawson, Prof. H. M., . . . Acid cataly- 
sis, 318*, 430. 

Day, W. R., Forest mycology, 391. 

Dersyr, Prof. P., Polar properties of 
molecules, 315*. 

Detr, Dr. E. M., on illumination of 
plants, 308. 

Demonstration work on scab of potatoes, 
by W. A. Millard, 406*. 

Denudation chronology of south-east 
England, by Dr. 8. W. Wooldridge, 323. | 

Derbyshire Caves, Report of Committee on, 
301. 

Development of human physiology, by Dr. 
C. G. Douglas, 155. 

Dicxtnson, R. E., Zones of influence in 
Leeds, 340. 

Direct and indirect oxydases, by Prof. 
H. 8S. Raper, 368, 433. 

Disability in reading, by Miss G. Hume, 
372. 

Disease resistance in plants, by F. T. 
Brooks, 390*, 434. 

Distribution of religious denominations in 
Wales . . ., by J. E. Daniell, 366, 433. 

Drx, Miss E., and Dr. A. E. Trueman, 
Marine horizons in coal measures of 
South Wales and the north of England, 
319, 431. 

Dogfish in Faroe-Shetland channel, by 
C. F. Hickling, 331. 

Dolgarrog dam disaster, Report of com- 
mittee on, 276. 

Doveuas, Dr. C. G., The development of 
human physiology, 155. 

Drever, Dr. J., Meaning, 373*, 434. 

on university course in experimental 
psychology, 308. 

Dry, Dr. F. W., Mendelian breeding with 
Wensleydale sheep, 414, 435. 

Durrpen, H., Sporangia of Selaginella, 
390. 

Dunsueatu, P., Super tension cables, 
351, 432. 

DwerryuHousk, Dr. A. R., and A. A. 
Miter, Glaciation of Radnorshire 
> eg Os 


Early prehistoric painted pottery of Near | 
and Middle East, by Dr. H. Frankfort, 
363, 433. 

Earth’s internal heat, . . . Utilising the, 
by J. L. Hodgson, 350. 

Economic balance between agriculture | 
and forestry, by Dr. J. D. Sutherland, | 
394, 434. 


INDEX. 


Kconomic situation of agriculture, by 
A. W. Ashby, 346*. 

EpriIpGE-GREEN, Dr. F. W., Classifica- 
tion of the colour-blind, 374. 

First recorded cases of colour- 
blindness, 370, 433. 

Education and industry, Discussion on, 
398. 

Education in tropical Africa, Discussion 
on, 396, 435. 

Effect of certain radiated lipoids.. ., 
by C. J. Bond, 368, 433. 


Effect of food-supply on multiplication of 


protozoa, by D. Ward Cutler and L. M. 
Crump, 335, 431. 

Effect of light on chlorophyll, by Dr. H. 
Wager, 385*. 

Effect of mental stress on man, by Prof. 
R. J. S. McDowall, 370. 


| Effect of one coloured light on another 


with reference to theories of colour- 
vision, by Prof. H. E. Roaf, 370*, 433. 
Efficiency of internal combustion engines, 
by Prof. W. T. David, 353, 432. 
Electric field on adsorption of ions and 
neutral molecules . . ., Effect of, by 
Dr. J. A. V. Butler, 318*. 


| Electron impacts, by H. Jones, 314*. 
| Embryology of a.Mysid crustacean, by 


Miss S. M. Manton, 332, 432. 


| Englishman of the future, The, by Prof. 


F. G. Parsons, 138. 


| Environment and behaviour, by J. T. 


Saunders, 330. 


| Episodes in the ‘ Millstone Grit’ period, 


by W.S. Bisat, 319. 

Equations of the gravitational field . . ., 
by Prof. S. Brodetsky, 315. 

Ethnological survey of Sheffield and 
surrounding district, by Miss M. 
McInnes, 367. 

Everett, J. H., Technical colleges . . ., 
399. 

Evolutionary changes in the superficial 
sorus, by Prof. F. O. Bower, 384, 434. 

Evolution of vertebrates ..., by J. 
Gray, 333. 

Ewine, Dr. J., and Miss E. Rouecuton, 
Influence of Hydrogen-ion concentra- 
tion on swelling of plant tissues, 386. 

Experimental control of introspection, 
by Dr. H. R. de Silva, 379*. 


| Experimental removal of Graber’s organ 


in Tabanid fly larve, by Prof. A. E. 
Cameron, 331. 


| Extensibility of flax yarns, by J. A. 


Matthew, 417, 435. 


| Factors determining ‘natural’ rates of 


mental and physical work, by C. A. 
Mace, 375. 


INDEX. 


Fading of dye-stuffs, 
Barker, 411, 435. 
Farrparrn, Dr. W. R. D., Religion and 

fantasy, 379. 

Fallacies and pitfalls of non-statistical 
economics, by Dr. P. 8. Florence, 344, 
432. 

Farmer, E., Psychological aspects of 
accident causation, 373, 434. 

Farming in industrial area of West 
Riding, by C. G. A. Robertson, 406. 
Fawcett, Dr. C. B., Position and growth 

- of Leeds, 339. 

Frarnsipes, Prof. W. G., on critical 
sections in palzozoic rocks of England 
and Wales, 275. 

Fechner’s Law, by Dr. R. H. Thouless, 
374. 

Feeling and psychogalvanic reflex, by 
R. J. Bartlett, 374, 434. 

Fertility of the sea, by H. W. Hervey, 
330. 

Fifteen years in a tropical zoological 
garden, by H. N. Ridley, 336, 452. 

Fisuer, Dr. R. A., Measurements .. . in 
triplet children . . ., 365, 433. 

on biological measurements, 286. 

on plot technique, 410, 435. 

Fixing of linguistic boundaries by 
national adoption of Christianity . . ., 
by Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 338. 

Friemine, A. P. M., Educational facilities 
offered by industry, 401. 

Furvure, Prof. H. 8., and Miss R. M. 
Fiemine, Demonstration of : 
Anthropometric instrument, 361*. 

Fiorence, Dr. P. S., Fallacies and pit- 
falls of non-statistical economics, 344, 
432. 

Forsss, A. C., Maintenance of permanent 
soft-wood supplies in north-western 
Kurope, 393. 

Forpxam, Sir G., Surveys and maps of 
the Elizabethan period . . ., 341, 432. 

Forest entomology, by Dr. J. W. Munro, 
392.* 

Forest mycology, by W. R. Day, 391. 

Forestry and the Empire, by Sir P. 
Clutterbuck, 393, 434. 

Forestry in relation to climate and 
erosion, by Dr. T. F. Chipp, 392, 434. 

Forestry in relation to water catchment 
areas, by Dr. A. W. Borthwick, 393*. 

Forests of Kashmir, by S. K. Mukerji, 
395, 434. 

Forests of the Balkan peninsula, by 
W. B. Turrill, 394, 434. 

Fossil plants of N.E. Greenland, by T. M. 
Harris, 390*, 434. 

Fostrrr, Dr. A. S., Nodal anatomy and 
morphology of bud-scales in Dicoty- 
ledons, 387, 434. 


by Dr. S. G. 


441 


Franxrort, Dr. H., Early prehistoric 
painted pottery of Near and Middle 
East, 363, 433. 

Fraser, G. K., Wood derivatives, 391*. 

Fraser, J. A., Value of stoppage analysis 
with special reference to weaving, 378. 

Freunpuicu, Prof. H., on structure and 
formation of colloidal particles, 317. 

Frirson, Prof. F. E., Genus Spheroplea, 
390, 434. 

. . . Present-day investigation of 

Protophyta, 176. 


Garritt, G. A., on Derbyshire caves, 301. 

GaRNeETT, Miss A., Capitals of Morocco, 
342, 432. 

Garstana, Prof. W., Origin of Appen- 
dicularians, 331*. 

Garwoop, Prof. E. J., on geological 
photographs, 259. 

Genus Spheroplea, by Prof. F. E. Fritsch, 
390, 434. 

Geographical range of mollusca . 
J. W. Taylor, 336, 432. 

Geographical study of a Yorkshire manor, 
by H. King, 343*. 

Geography teaching, Report of Committee 
on, 299. 

Geological photographs, Report of Com- 
mittee on, 259. 

Geological sections in Sladen valley, by 
R. Barnett, 329. 

Geology of Leeds District, by Prof. A. 
Gilligan, 318*. 

Geometrical figures from Malekula and 
Ambrym, by Dr. A. C. Haddon, 364. 
Germination of fungal spores, by Dame 
H. Gwynne-Vaughan and Mrs. H. 8S. 

Williamson, 388, 434. 

Gucurist, J., Strength of reinforced 
concrete beams in shear, 355, 432. 

GruiegaN, Prof. A., Geology of Leeds 
District, 318*. 

GiyssperG, Dr. M., on innate differences 
and social status, 346. 

Glaciation of Radnorshire ..., by Dr. 
A. R. Dwerryhouse and A. A. Miller, 
328. 

Gray, J., Evolution of vertebrates . . ., 
333. 

Gray, Prof. R. WayTLAw, on structure 
and formation of colloidal particles, 
317. 

Great Barrier Reef, by Rt. Hon. Sir M. 
Nathan, 339, 432. 

Great Barrier Reef expedition, 1928, by 
Rt. Hon. Sir M. Nathan and others, 
333. 

Grerenty, Dr. E., on Dolgarrog dam 
disaster, 276. 


Sey: 


442 


Grirritus, Dr. E., ‘ Air conditioning’ 
experiments .. ., 418, 435. 

Grove, Dr. A. J., Passage of spermatozoa 
into cocoon in the Brandling worm, 
334, 431. 

Growth-promoting substances .. ., 
Dr. F. W. Went, 385. 

GumLLEBAUD, W. H., Sylvicultural sur- 
veys, 392*. 

GWYNNE-VAUGHAN, Dame H.. and Mrs. 
H. S. Wi1amson, Germination of 
fungal spores, 388, 434. 


by 


Happon, Dr. A. C., Geometrical figures 
from Malekula and Ambrym, 364. 

Hapow, Sir H., on work of Leeds School 
of Music and Drama League, 402*. 

Hemophilia, . . ., by Dr. H. W. Davies, 
369. 

Haminton, C. J., Theory of co-partner- 
ship, 346. 

Harris, Miss §., Village Settlements in 
the Channel Islands, 343, 432. 

Harris, T. M., Fossil plants of N.E. 
Greenland, 390*, 434. 

Harrmann, Dr. J., Jet wave rectifier, 
352*, 432. 

Head-hunting in Assam, . 
J. P. Hutton, 362, 433. 
Heart of the larva of the sea-urchin, by 

Prof. E. W. MacBride, 332. 

Henees, Dr. J. J., Moisture relations of 
colloidal fibres, 411, 435. 

HEISENBERG, Dr. W., 
mechanics, 314*, 430. 

HENDERSON, Sir J. B., Invention as a link 
in scientific and economic progress, 120. 

Henopricrk, Prof. J., on soil surveys, 408. 

Herworts, E., Castleford, 340. 

Hervey, H. W., Fertility of the sea, 330. 

Hickirne, C. F., Dogfish in Faroe- 
Shetland channel, 331. 

Higher drafts in worsted spinning, by 
H. Priestman and A. W. Stevenson, 
412, 435. 

Hu, G. E., and A. T. Watraxer, Land 
utilisation in South Leeds, 340. 

Hrrst, H. R., Use of ultra-violet radiation 
in textile analysis, 412. 

Hirst, Miss M., and Dr. C. G. Inete, 
Some observations on excretion of 
creatine, 369*, 433. 

Hopeson, J. L.,. . . Utilising the earth’s 
internal heat, 350. 

Hotpen, Dr. H. S., Structure of the 
endodermis in Aletris farinosa, 382, 434. 

Hormones, Discussion on chemistry of, 
318*. 

Hupson, R. G., Mid-Avonian uncon- 
formity in the Craven Lowlands, 320*. 


“iby lr. 


.. . Quantum 


| Hurron, Dr. J. 


INDEX. 


Human skeletons from the north of 
Scotland ..., by Prof. T. H. Bryce, 
360, 433. 

Hume, Capt. C. W., Slaughtering of 
animals for food, 405. 

Hom, Miss G., Disability in reading, 372. 

Humpnreys, G. N., Ruwenzori, 342. 

P., Head-hunting in 
Assam, 362, 433. 

Huxtry, Prof. J. S., 
measurements, 286. 

Hydraulic model illustrating behaviour 
of the are, by Prof. W. Cramp, 347, 432. 


on biological 


Iceland, by J. H. Reynolds, 342*, 432. 


| Illumination of plants, Report of Com- 


mittee on, 308. 

Influence of anesthetics on action of 
drugs, by Dr. A. D. MacDonald, 369*. 

Influence of forests on rainfall, by C. E. P. 
Brooks, 392, 434. 

Influence of Hydrogen-ion concentration 
on swelling of plant tissues, by Dr. J. 
Ewing and Miss E. Roughton, 386. 

Influence of medium on multiplication of 
cells growing in vitro, by EH. N. 
Willmer, 369*. 

Influence of ultra-violet light on structure 
of plants, by Miss M. Martin, 389. 

Influence of ultra-violet radiation on 
growth of plants, by Miss A. Westbrook, 
389, 434. 

Ineuam, A. E., Analytical method in the 
theory of numbers, 316. 

Inheritance of some colours and patterns 
in sheep, by J. A. F. Roberts, 413, 435. 

Inheritance on distribution, . . . Influence 
of, by J. Wedgwood, 345. 

Innate differences and social status, 
Discussion on, 346. 

Instability of our economic system, by 
Prof. J. Schumpeter, 344. 

Internal rust spot, by 8. Barr, 406*. 

Interpretative map of Dr. Bryn’s anthro- 
pological observations in mid-Norway, 
by E. G. Bowen, 366. 

Intracellular structure of wool fibre, by 
J. B. Speakman, 415, 435. 

Invention as a link in scientific and 
economic progress, by Sir J. B. Hender- 
son, 120. 

Jonization in the lower atmosphere, by 
Prof. J. J. Nolan, 315*, 430. 

Trish fossil gymnosperms, by Prof. T. 
Johnson, 384. 


JansMA, Dr., Land reclamation in 
Holland . . ., 340. 


JARDINE, W. D. D., Warping, 406*. 


INDEX, 


Jet wave rectifier, by Dr. J. Hartmann, 
352*, 432. 

Jounson, Prof. T., Irish fossil gymno- 

_ sperms, 384. 

Jones, H., Electron impacts, 314*. 

Jonnus, Prof. W. Neilson, on illumination 
of plants, 308. 

Junction of ‘upper’ and ‘lower’ 
carboniferous strata, by W. 8. Bisat, 
319. 


Kerra, Sir A., Darwin's theory of man’s 
descent as it stands to-day, 1. 

on Kent's Cavern, 303. 

Kennepy-Fraser, D., Use of elements 
of school-instruction in psychological 
investigation, 376. 

Kent’s Cavern, Report of Committee on, 303. 

Kenya Colony . . ., Excavations in, by 
L. S. B. Leakey and B. H. Newsam, 
357. 

Kine, A. T., Chemical aspect of wool 
research, 411, 435. 

Kine, H., Geographical study of a 
Yorkshire manor, 343*. 

King Arthur’s cave ..., by H. Taylor, 
362. 

Koxuérstrr, Dr. W., . . ., Penetrating 
rays, 315*, 430. 


Latina, E. V., The living tree, 392. 

Lamp, Commissioner D. C., 7'ransplanta- 
tion of boys overseas. 309. 

Lamprophyres and associated rocks of 
Mokpalin, Burma, by H. L. Chhibber, 
330*. 

Lanper, Dr. C. H., Our available coal 
supplies and their utilisation, 348*, 432. 

Land reclamation in Holland .. ., by 
Dr. Jansma, 340. 
Land utilisation in South Leeds, by 
G. E. Hill and A. T. Whitaker, 340. 
Large low head conduits, by H. Burness, 
355*, 432. 

Laurin, Prof. R. D., Biology in the 
school curriculum, 335. 

Leakey, L. S. B., and B. H. Newsam, 
..., Excavations in Kenya Colony, 357. 

Leeds, Position and growth of, by Dr. 
C. B. Fawcett, 339. 

Leeds School of Music and Drama League, 
Demonstration, 402*. 

Lewis, H. P., Zoning of Avonian rocks 
in south of Isle of Man, 322. 

Living tree, The, by E. V. Laing, 392. 

Luoyp, Dr. L. L., Rancidification and 
oxidation of olive oil, 418*, 435. 

Lortsy, Dr. J. P., Natural hybrids, 382*, 
434. 


445 


Lowery, H., Musical ability of school- 
children, 376, 434. 

Low-lift axial flow and _ centrifugal 
pumps, by H. R. Lupton and J. H. W. 
Gill, 353*, 432. 

Lubrication of surfaces under high loads 
and temperatures, by Dr. T. E. 
Stanton, 347, 433. 

Luminous discharge in rare gases, by 
Prof. R. Whiddington, 315*. 

Lupton, H. R., and J. H. W. Git, Low- 
lift axial flow and centrifugal pumps, 
353*, 432. 


McAuuisterR, Miss A. H., Speech dis- 
abilities, 372. 

MacBripg, Prof. E. W., Heart of the 
larva of the sea-urchin, 332. 

MacDonatp, Dr. A. D., Influence of 
anzsthetics on action of drugs, 369*. 

McDowatt, Prof. R. J. S., Effect of 
mental stress on man, 370. 

Macr, C. <A., Factors determining 
‘natural’ rates of mental and physical 
work, 375. 

Macereroor, Prof. D. H., Rationalisation 

of industry, 98. 

Machine speeds and output, by S. Wyatt, 

378*. 

McInvzs, Miss M., Ethnological survey of 

Sheffield and surrounding district, 367. 

McInrosu, A. E. S., Perithecial develop- 

ment in Nectria mammoidea, 387. 


| McLeop, Prof. J. W., Variations in 


respiratory mechanism amongst bac- 
teria, 368*, 433. 

MclLaintock, Dr. W. F. P., and J. 
PuHemistER, Torsion balance survey 
over Swinnerton Dyke, 330*. 

McMurray, J. A., Winter feeding of sheep 
at Garforth, 406, 435. 

McSwiney, Prof. B. A., and Dr. BEREN- 
BLooM, Apparatus for regulating pH 
of solutions for smooth muscle experi- 
ments, 371*. 

Observations on the elasticity of 
arteries, 367. 

MacTaaaart, Miss M. M.,... Backward- 
ness, 376, 434. 

Maintenance of permanent soft-wood 
supplies in north-western Europe, by 
A. GC. Forbes, 393. 

Manton, Miss 8. M., Embryology of a 
Mysid crustacean, 332, 432. 

Marine horizons in coal measures of 
South Wales and the north of England, 
by Miss E. Dix and Dr. A. E. Trueman, 
319, 431. 

Maraquanp, C. V. B., Arctic Alpine 
Bryophyte associations in Britain . . ., 
390*. 


444, 


MarsHatt, Dr. H. Rutgers, Self-con- 
sciousness and the self, 377. 

Martin, Miss M., Influence of ultra- 
violet light on structure of plants, 
389. 

Mathematical tables, Report of Committee 
on calculation of, 220. 

Maruias, W. T., Cytology of Calli- 
thamnion, 380, 434. 

Martuew, J. A., Extensibility of flax 
yarns, 417, 435. 

Marrtuews, R. B., Transport on the farm 
by the aid of electricity, 353, 432. 

Meaning, by Dr. J. Drever, 373*, 434. 

Measurements . . . in triplet children... ., 
by Dr. R. A. Fisher, 365, 433. 

Mechanical strength of metal-filament 
electric lamps, by F. Murgatroyd, 351, 
433. 

Mendelian breeding with Wensleydale 
sheep, by Dr. F. W. Dry, 414, 435. 
Mental unity and mental dissociation, by 

Dr. W. Brown, 167. 

Menthones, Menthols and Menthyl- 
amines, by Prof. J. Read, 318*, 431. 
Menzius, Dr. A. C., Regularities in fuse 

spectra, 314*, 430. 

Metabolic effects of nitrogen, by Dr. 
W. H. Pearsall, 386*. 

Methods for determining H-ion concen- 
tration, by Miss W. J. Wadge, 371*. 
Mid-Avonian unconformity in the Craven 

lowlands, by R. G. Hudson, 320*. 

Mizs, Dr. G. H., Time and motion study 
as employed by the industrial psy- 
chologist, 377. 

Milk production and distribution, Dis- 
cussion on, 406*. 

Minitarp, W. A., Demonstration work on 
scab of potatoes, 406*. 

Mruer, S. N., Roman York: the 
excavations of 1925-26, 356. 

MriiKan, Prof. R. A., Relations between 
Spectra .. ., 314*. 

Minne, Prof. W. P., and F. P. Wurre, 
Noether’s canonical curves, 314, 430. 
Minor forest products, by W. Dallimore, 

391, 434. 

MircHett, Dr. T. W., Phenomena of 
mediumistic trance, 377*, 434. 

Modern Egyptian medicine man, by Miss 
W.S. Blackman, 362*. 

Moisture relations of colloidal fibres, by 
Dr. J. J. Hedges, 411, 435. 

Molecular theory of liquid viscosity, by 
Prof. E. N. da C. Andrade, 315*. 

Montae, E., on Dolgarrog dam disaster, 
276. 

Morison, C. G. 1T., Agriculture and 
national education, 202. 

Morison, Sir T., Educational policy for 
tropical Africa, 396. 


INDEX. 


Morocco, Capitals of, by Miss A. Garnett, 
342, 432. 

Movement in Amceba, by C. F. A. 
Pantin, 333, 432. 

Mud volcano at Shugo, by Dr. F. Oswald, 
330*. 

Moxers, S. K., Forests of Kashmir, 
395, 434. 

Multiplanar rings . . 
man, 318*, 431. 

Moumrorp, Dr. A. A., Body measurements, 
respiratory tests, and school progress, 
361, 433. 

Monro, Dr. J. W., Forest entomology, 
392*. 

—— Needs of economic entomology, 337. 

Moureatroyp, F., Mechanical strength of 
metal-filament electric lamps, 351, 433. 

Murray, J. W., New outlooks and 
tendencies, 398. 

Musical ability of school-children, by 
H. Lowery, 376, 434. ‘ 

Myrss, Prof. J. L., on Kent’s Cavern, 303. 


., by W. A. Wight- 


Natuan, Rt. Hon. Sir M., Great Barrier 
Reef, 339, 432. 

and others, Great Barrier Reef 
expedition, 1928, 333. : 

Natural hybrids, demonstration by Dr. 
J. P. Lotsy, 382*, 434. 

Nature of action of sunlight on cotton, 
by Dr. Barr and Miss Hadfield, 417*, 
435. : 

Nature reserves in Yorkshire, by T. 
Sheppard, 425, _ 

Naytor, T. M., Whirling of shafts, 355, 
433. 

Needs of economic entomology, by Dr. 
J. W. Munro, 337. 

New mass spectrograph and the whole 
number rule, by Dr. F. W. Aston, 315*, 
430. : 

New Red Sandstone rocks of Arran, by 
Dr. G. W. Tyrrell and B. H. Barrett, 
324, 431. 

NicHots, J. E., Coloured fibres in the 
fleece, 413, 435. 

NicHouson, Prof. J. W., on mathematical 
tables, 220. 

Nodal anatomy and morphology of bud- 
scales in Dicotyledons, by Dr. A. 8. 
Foster, 387, 434. 

Noether’s canonical curves, by Prof. 
W. P. Milne and F. P. White, 314, 430. 

Noxan, Prof. J. J., Ionization in the 
lower atmosphere, 315*, 430. 

Non-commutative algebra, by Prof. 
H. W. Turnbull, 314, 430. 

Nunn, Prof. T. P., on geography teaching, 
299. 


INDEX. 


Observations on Bifurcaria tuberculata, 
by Miss E. M. Rees, 379. 

Observations on elasticity of arteries, by 
Prof. B. A. McSwiney, 367. 

Occurrence of monascus on desiccated 
coconut, by J. Stirling, 388, 434. 

Oac, Dr. W. G., Soil profile as basis for 
intensive soil surveying, 409. 

Oaitviz, Sir F. G., Address to Conference 
of Delegates, 419. 

Ourver, Dr. T., Predetermination of wool 
cloth prices, 415, 435. 

Organic growth of the concept .. ., by 
G. G. Campion, 379*. 

Oswa.p, Dr. F., Mud volcano at Shugo, 
330*. 

—— Roman camp of Margidunum ..., 
359. 

Overlap of the bronze and iron ages, by 
Dr. R. C. C. Clay, 364. 

Overseas life, Report of Committee on 
educational training for, 309. 


Oxidation of fatty acids in the body, by | 


Dr. E. J. Wayne, 369, 433. 


Paleozoic Bryophyta ..., by J. Walton, 
385, 434. 

Paleozoic rocks of England and Wales, 
Report of Committee on critical sections 
in, 275. 

Palestine earthquake, 
B. Willis, 339*. 

Pancreatic lipase I, by Dr. E. R. Dawson, 
369, 433. 

Pancreatic lipase II, by Dr. B. S. Platt, 
369, 433. 

Pantin, C. F. A., Movement in Ameeba, 
333, 432. 

Paper pulp from bamboo, by W. Raitt, 
395*. 

Parasites of the Pheeophycece, by Prof. 
J. Lloyd Williams, 379*. 

Parsons, Prof. F. G., The Englishman of 
the future, 138. 

Passage of spermatozoa into cocoon in 
the Brandling worm, by Dr. A. J. 
Grove, 334, 431. 

Pearsatt, Dr. W. H., Metabolic effects 
of nitrogen, 386*. 

Pearson, R. S., Utilisation of soft 
woods .. ., 391, 434. 

Pectoral fin in mackerel sharks . . 
Prof. E. E. Prince, 337*. 

Pemrce, F. T., Problems of textile 
testing . . ., 417*, 435. 

Penetrating rays, by Dr. W. Kolhérster, 
315*, 430. 

Percivat, E., and H. WuHitEHEapD, 
Quantitative examination of fauna of 
some types of stream bed, 336. 


1927, by Dr. 


aGn DY: 


445 


Perithecial development in Nectria mam- 
moidea, by A. E. 8. McIntosh, 387. 

Phenomena of mediumistic trance, by 
Dr. T. W. Mitchell, 377*, 434. 

Phloem necrosis and starch accumulation 
in potato leaf-roll, by Dr. T. White- 
head, 388. 

Physical factors on the sandy beach, by 
J. R. Bruce, 331, 431. 

Physics of psycho-galvanic-reflex phe- 
nomenon, by Dr. R. H. Thouless, 370. 

Place of man in the Tertiary period, by 
Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, 359. 

Sg B. 8., Pancreatic lipase II, 369, 

3. 

Plot technique, Discussion on, 410. 

Polar geography, Some problems of, by 
Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, 75. 

Polar properties of molecules, by Prof. 
P. Debye, 315*. 

Post-carboniferous movements in the 
Northumbrian fault block, by H. C. 
Versey, 327. 

Potato eel worm, by T. H. Taylor, 406*, 
435. 

Poutton, Prof. E. B., on zoological 
bibliography and publication, 284. 

Predetermination of wool cloth prices, by 
Dr. T. Oliver, 415, 435. 

Prehistoric archeology of the Mendips, 
by E. K. Tratman, 361. 
Prehistory of Scotland . . 
T. H. Bryce, 364, 433. 
Prices and price-control in Great Britain 
and the United States, by Miss M. 

Tappan, 345. 

PriestMan, H., and A. W. STEVENSON, 
Higher drafts in worsted spinning, 412, 
435. 

Primitive weaving at Bankfield Museum, 
by G. R. Carline, 363, 433. 

Prince, Prof. E. E., Canadian land- 
locked salmon, 337*. 

Pectoral fin in mackerel sharks 
ee aoT* 

Prince or Waxes, H.R.H. Tue, Message 
from, xviii. 

Problems of textile testing . . ., by F. T- 
Peirce, 417, 435. 

Protophyta . . ., present-day investigations 
of, by Prof. F. E. Fritsch, 176. 

Psychological aspects of accident causa- 
tion, by E. Farmer, 373, 434. 

Psychological effects of flickering light, 
by Dr. D. N. Buchanan, 374*. 

Psychology of special scholastic dis- 
abilities, Discussion on, 372. 


.» by Prof. 


Quantitative determination of physical 
properties of artificial silk ..., by A. L. 
Wykes, 417, 435. 


446 


Quantitative examination of fauna of 
some types of stream bed, by HK. 
Percival and H. Whitehead, 336. 

Quantum mechanics, by Dr. W. Heisen- 
berg, 314*, 430. 


Race and environment as affecting type 
of sheep and wool supplies of the world, 
by Prof. A. F. Barker, 414, 435. 

Rairt, W., Paper pulp from bamboo, 
395*. 

Ramanujan’s work on congruence pro- 
perties of the number of partitions of 
n, by B. M. Wilson, 316, 430. 

Rancidification and oxidation of olive 
oil, by Dr. L. L. Lloyd, 418*, 435. 

Raper, Prof. H. S., Direct and indirect 
oxydases, 368, 433. 

Rapid colorimetric method for measure- 
ment of pH, by Miss W. J. Wadge and 
W. H. Newton, 371, 433. 

Rationalisation of industry, by 
D. H. Macgregor, 98. 

Reap, Prof. J., Menthones, Menthols, and 
Menthylamines, 318*, 431. 

Recent course of prices, by Sir A. Yarrow, 
345, 432. 

Ress, Miss E. M., Observations on... 
Bifurcaria tuberculata, 379. 

Regularities in first spectra, by Dr. 
A. C. Menzies, 314*, 430. 

Regulation of stomatal behaviour, by 
Dr. G. W. Scarth, 385. 

Relations between Spectra . . 
R. A. Millikan, 314*, 

Relativity, Outstanding problems of, by 
Prof. E. T. Whittaker, 16. 

Religion and fantasy, by Dr. W. BR. D. 
Fairbairn, 379. 

Requirements of the population in milk- 
fat ..., by Dr. W. Cramer, 369*, 433. 

Reynotps, J. H., Iceland, 342*, 432. 

Reynoutps, Prof. S. H., on geological 
photographs, 259. 

Ricumonp, I. A., Roman camps at 
Cawthorn, 356. 

Rivtey, H. N., Fifteen years in a tropical 
zoological garden, 336, 432. 

Roar, Prof. H. E., Effect of one coloured 
light on another with reference to 
theories of colour-vision, 370*, 433. 

on colour vision, 307. 

Roserts, J. A. F., Inheritance of some 
colours and patterns in sheep, 413, 435. 

Rosertson, C. G. A., Farming in indus- 
trial area of West Riding, 406. 

oe Prof. G. W., on soil surveys, 

8. 

Rosryson, R. L., British forest policy, 

393, 434, 


Prof. 


«» by Prof. 


INDEX. 


Roman camp of Margidunum .. ., by 
Dr. F. Oswald, 359. 

Roman camps at Cawthorn, by I. A. 
Richmond, 356. 

Roman roads in the valley of the Tiber, 
by Dr. T. Ashby, 358, 433. 

Roman signal stations on the Yorkshire 
coast, by R. G. Collingwood, 356. 

Roman York: the excavations 
1925-26, by S. N. Miller, 356. 

Rural settlements in the middle Trent 
valley, by R. P. Brady, 343. - 


of 


| Russe, Sir J., on educational training 


for overseas life, 309. 
—— on soil surveys, 407. 
Ruwenzori, by G. N. Humphreys, 342. 


SaunpeERs, Miss E. R., on the Carpel, 383. 


SaunpDERS, J. T., Environment and 
behaviour, 330. 
Scartu, Dr. G. W., Regulation of 


stomatal behaviour, 385. 

ScuorreLp, Dr. H., Engineering training 
on production, 400, 435. 

School examinations, Discussion on, 402. 

ScHumPETER, Prof. J., Instability of our 
economic system, 344. 

SEBELIEN, Prof. J., Study and develop- 
ment of agricultural science in Norway, 
404, 435. 

Secondary emission from metallic and 
metallic oxide targets, by D. Brown 
and Dr. E. F. Brett, 315*. 

Seismological investigations, 
Committee on, 215. 

Self-consciousness and the self, by Dr. 
H. Rutgers Marshall, 377. 

Srtron-Karr, H. W., Traveller’s impres- 
sions of physical superiority of so- 
called uncivilised and subject races and 
its causes, 363. 

SEwARD, Prof. A. C., on climates of the 
past, 386. 

Sex in Cladocera ..., by A. M. Banta 
and L. A. Brown, 334. , 

SHaw, J. J., on seismological investiga- 
tions, 215. 

Suaw, Sir N., on wpper atmosphere, 255. 

SHEPPARD, T., Nature reserves in York- 
shire, 425. 

SHERRINGTON, Sir C., on colour vision, 
307. 

Srpewick, Dr. 
compounds, 27. 

Sirva, Dr. H. R. de, Experimental 
control of introspection, 379*. 

Sutater, Dr. G., Structure of disturbed 
chalk and diluvium on east coast of 
Riigen, 320, 431. 

Structure of Mud Buttes and Tit 

Hills of Alberta, 321, 431. 


Report of 


N. V., Co-ordination 


INDEX. 


Slaughtering of animals for food, by 
Capt. C. W. Hume, 405. 

Smira, A. Malins, Alge of a bog .. ., 
380, 434. 

Smirxa, Rivers, Education of the African 
chief, 396. 

Soil surveys, Discussion on, 407. 

Source of constituents of Lower Green- 
sand and other Aptian sediments, by 
Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, 323. 

SPEAKMAN, J. B., Intracellular structure 
of wool fibre, 415, 435. 

Speech disabilities, by Miss 
McAllister, 372. 

Sponges and animals, Ancient history of, 
by Dr. G. P. Bidder, 58. 

Sporangia of Selaginella, by H. Duerden, 
390. 

Stanton, Dr. T. E., Lubrication of 
surfaces under high loads and tempera- 
tures, 347, 433. 

Stellar temperatures, by 
Davidson, 314*. 

Sterility and gigantism in the Lecythi- 
dex, by Prof. J. McLean Thompson, 

382, 434. 

Srieiine, J., Occurrence of monascus on 
desiccated coconut, 388, 434. 

Story, Prof. F., World’s timber supply 
and consumption, 390. 

Srracnan, J., Arable dairy farming, 
404*, 

Strength of reinforced concrete beams in 
shear, by J. Gilchrist, 355, 432. 

Structure of disturbed chalk and diluvium 
on east coast of Riigen, by Dr. G. 
Slater, 320, 431. 

Structure of endodermis in Aletris 
farinosa, by Dr. H. S. Holden, 382, 434. 

Structure of Mud Buttes and Tit Hills of 
Alberta, by Dr. G. Slater, 321, 431. 

Studies on the thyroid, by Dr. F. A. E. 
Crew, 335. 

Study and development of agricultural 
science in Norway, by Prof. J. Sebelien, 
404, 435. 

Suepen, Dr. S., on co-ordination com- 
pounds, 316. 

Super tension cables, by P. Dunsheath, 

- 351, 432. 


AS Hy 


Dre Cok. 


Surveys and maps of the Elizabethan | 


period ..., by Sir G. Fordham, 341, 
432. 

Survival of some ice-age relics in fresh- 
water fauna of Cardiganshire, by Dr. 
Kathleen E. Carpenter, 336. 

SutHERLAND, Dr. J. D., Economic 
balance between agriculture and 
forestry, 394, 434. 


Svepettus, Prof. N. E., Cytology and | 


development of Asparagopsis armata, 
380. 


447 

Swirt, H. W., Transmission of power by 
belts, 354, 433. 

Switchgear for alternating current, by 
H. W. Clothier, 351, 432. 

Sylvicultural surveys, by W. H. Guille- 

baud, 392*. 


Tarran, Miss M., Prices and price-control 
in Great Britain and the United States, 
345. 

Taytor, H., King Arthur’s cave . . ., 362. 

Taytor, J. W., Geographical range of 
mollusca . . ., 336, 432. 

Taytor, T. H., Potato eel worm, 406*, 
435. 

Teaching and research work on soil 
chemistry, by Prof. N. M. Comber, 
406*. 

Tertiary and Quaternary history of North 
China, by Prof. G. B. Barbour, 
325. 

Tertiary Plutonic centres of Britain, by 
Dr. Herbert H. Thomas, 43. 

Theory of co-partnership, by ©. J. 
Hamilton, 346. 

THomas, Dr. H. Hamshaw, on the Carpel, 
383. 

Tuomas, Dr. Herbert H., Tertiary 
Plutonic centres of Britain, 43. 

THompson, Prof. J. McLean, Sterility 
and gigantism in the Lecythidex, 382, 
434. 

Tuou sss, Dr. R. H., Fechner’s Law, 374. 

—— Physics of psycho-galvanic-reflex 
phenomenon, 370. 

Time and motion study as employed by 
the industrial psychologist, by Dr. 
G. H. Miles, 377. 

Torsion balance survey over Swinnerton 
Dyke, by Dr. W. F. P. McLintock and 
J. Phemister, 330*. 

Transmission of power by belts, by H. W. 
Swift, 354, 433. 

Transplantation of boys overseas, 
Commissioner D. C. Lamb, 309. 


by 


| Transport on the farm by the aid of 


electricity, by R. B. Matthews, 353, 
432. 

TraTMAN, E. K., Prehistoric archeology 
of the Mendips, 361. 

Traveller’s impressions of physical superi- 
ority of so-called uncivilised and 
subject races and its causes, by H. W. 
Seton-Karr, 363. 

TURNBULL, Prof. H. W., Non-commuta- 
tive algebra, 314, 430. 

Turner, F. C., Close voltage rectifier, 
352, 433. 

TurNER, Prof. H. H., on seismological 
investigations, 215, 


448 


TurRiLL, W. B., Forests of the Balkan 
peninsula, 394, 434. 

TyrRRELL, Dr. G. W., and B. H. Barrett, 
New Red Sandstone rocks of Arran, 
324, 431. 


University course in experimental psy- 
chology, Report of Committee on, 308. 
Upper atmosphere, Report of Committee 

on investigation of, 255. 

Use of elements of school-instruction in 
psychological investigation, by D. 
Kennedy-Fraser, 376. 

Use of ultra-violet radiation in textile 
analysis, by H. R. Hirst, 412, 435. 

Usuer, Dr. F. L., on structure and forma- 
tion of colloidal particles, 317. 

Utilisation of soft woods ..., by R. 8S. 
Pearson, 391, 434. 


VALENTINE, Prof. C. W., Comparative 
reliability of intuitive judgments of 
men and women, 379*. 

Value of stoppage analysis with special 
reference to weaving, by J. A. Fraser, 
378. 

Variation in composition of Cornish 
granites ..., by E. H. Davison, 326, 
431. 

Variations in respiratory mechanism 
amongst bacteria, by Prof. J. W. 
McLeod, 368*, 433. 

Vasoligation, etc., Report of Committee on, 
281. 

Versey, H. C., Post-carboniferous move- 
ments in the Northumbrian fault block, 
327. 

Village Settlements in the Channel 
Islands, by Miss S. Harris, 343, 432. 
Volcanic rocks of Irrawaddy delta, by 

H. L. Chhibber, 330*. 


Wance, Miss W. J., Methods for deter- 
mining H-ion concentration, 371*. 

—— and W. H. Newron, Rapid colori- 
metric method for measurement of pH, 
371, 433. 
Wacer, Dr. H., Effect of light on 
chlorophyll, 385*. 
White strip on 
390*. 

Wa tis, B. C., Position of the school 
inspector, 403. 

Watts, E., Educational needs of industry, 
399, 435. 

Watton, J., Paleozoic Bryophyta . 
385, 434. 

Warp.Law, Dr. W., Co-ordination com- 
pounds of molybdenum, 318*, 431. 


leaf of Crocus, 


*9 


INDEX. 


Warping, by W. D. D. Jardine, 406*. 

Watts, Prof. W. W., on critical sections 
in palewozoic rocks of England and 
Wales, 275. 

Wayne, Dr. E. J., Oxidation of fatty 
acids in the body, 369, 433. 

Wepewoop, J., . Influence of inheri- 
tance on distribution, 345. 

Wetts, G. P., Action of potassium on 
contractile tissues, 335, 432. 

Went, Dr. F. W., Growth-promoting 
substances . . ., 385. 

WEsTBROOK, Miss A., Influence of ultra- 
violet radiation on growth of plants, 
389, 434. 

Wheat cultivation in relation to soil 
types on the Yorkshire Wolds, by Dr. 
S. E. J. Best, 342. 

WHEELER, Miss E., Backwardness in 
arithmetic, 372. 

WHEELER, Prof. R. V., Chemistry of coal, 
349, 433. 

Wuippineron, Prof. R., Luminous dis- 
charge in rare gases, 315*. 
Whirling of shafts, by T. M. 

355, 433. 

WHITEHEAD, Dr. T., Phloem necrosis and 
starch accumulation in potato leaf- 
roll, 388. 

White strip on leaf of Crocus, by Dr. 
H. Wager, 390*. 

Wairttaker, Prof. FE. T., Outstanding 
Problems of Relativity, 16. 

Wicrtman, W. A., Multiplanar rings 

.» 318*, 431. 

Wu xtson, G., Model of Cochlea, 371*. 

Witutams, Prof. J. Luoyp, Parasites of 
the Phceophycece, 379*. 

Wis, Dr. B., Palestine earthquake, 
1927, 339*. 

Wuumer, E. N., Influence of medium on 
multiplication of cells growing in 
vitro, 369*. 

Wuson, B. M., Ramanujan’s work on 
congruence properties of the number of 
partitions of n, 316, 430. 

Winter feeding of sheep at Garforth, by 
J. A. McMillan, 406, 435. 

Wood derivatives, by G. K. Fraser, 
391*. 

‘ Woodhenge,’ by Mrs. M. E. Cunnington, 
364, 433. 

Woo.tprince, Dr. S. W., Denudation 
chronology of south-east England, 323. 

Wornrg, J. M., Colonisation and develop- 
ment in east Greenland, 338. 

World’s timber supply and consumption, 
by Prof. F. Story, 390. 

Wormatt, A., Some properties of comy le- 
ment, 371, 433. 

Wray, D. A., Carboniferous succession in 
central Pennine area .. ., 329. 


Naylor, 


INDEX. 


Wyatt, S., Machine speeds and output, 
378*. 

Wykes, A. L., Quantitative determina- 
tion of physical properties of artificial 
Bie. «9 417, 430. 

Wynn-Jones, Dr. Ll., Appreciation of 
wit, 373. 


Yarrow, Sir A., Recent course of prices, 
345, 432. 


449 


Yorkshire township, A, . .., by C. V. 
Dawe, 406*. 

Youna, N., Problems and personalities at 
the Accra Teachers’ Training College,397. 


Zones of influence in Leeds, by R. E. 
Dickinson, 340. 

Zoning of Avonian rocks in south of Isle 
of Man, by H. P. Lewis, 322. 

Zoological bibliography and publication, 
Report of Committee on, 284. 


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