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V
BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE
REPORT
OF THE
NINETY-SIXTH MEETING
(NINETY-EIGHTH YEAR)
GLASGOW— 1928
SEPTEMBER 5-12
LONDON
OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W. 1
1929
Ill
CONTENTS.
The Chakter of the British Association v
Statutes xii
Regulations xxvi
Officers and Council, 1928-29 xxxiii
Local Officers, Glasgow, 1928 xxxv
Sections and Sectional Officers, Glasgow, 1928 xxxv
Annual Meetings : Places and Dates, Presidents, Attendances,
Receipts, Sums Paid on account of Grants for Scientific
Pubposes (1831-1928) xxxviii
Report of the Council to the General Committee (1927-28) xlii
Down House xlvii
General Meetings, Public Lectures, etc., at Glasgow liv
Resolutions and Recommendations (Glasgow Meeting) Iv
General Treasurer's Account (1927-28) Ivii
Research Committees (1928-29) Ixii
The Presidential Address :
Craftsmanship and Science. By Prof. Sir William Bragg 1
Sectional Presidents' Addresses :
A.— The Volta Effect. By Prof. A. W. Porter 21
B. — Phosphorescence, Fluorescence and Chemical Reaction. By
Prof. E. C. C. Baly 35
C. — The Palaeozoic Mountain Systems of Europe and America. By
E. B. Bailey ' 57
D. — The Origin and Evolution of Larval Forms. By Prof. Walter
Garstang 77
E. — Ancient Geography in Modern Education. By Prof. John L.
Myres 99
i. 2
iv CONTENTS
PAGE
F. — Increasing Returns and Economic Progress. By Prof. Allyn
A. Young " 118
G. — The Influence of Engineering on Civilization. By Sir William
Ellis 128
H. — The Archaeology of Scotland. By Sir George Macdonald 142
I. — The Relation of Physiology to other Sciences. By Prof. C.
LovATT Evans 150
J.— The Mature of Skill. By Prof. T. H. Pear 168
K. — Sex and Nutrition in the Fungi. By Prof. Dame Helen
Gwynne-Vaughan 185
L. — Education : The Next Steps. By Dr. Cyril Norwood 200
M. — The Live Stock Industry and its Development. By Dr. J. S.
Gordon 213
Reports on the State of Science, etc 237
SECTIONAL Transactions 533
Discussion on the Teaching oe Geography in Scottish Schools 639
On Inbreeding in Jersey Cattle. By A. D. Buchanan Smith 640
Evening Discourse on the Study of Popular Sayings. By Prof.
E. A. Westermarck 656
Evening Discourse on the Mystery of Life. By Prof. F. G. Donnan,
F.R.S 659
Conference of Delegates of Corresponding Societies 667
References to Publications of Communications to the Sections 684
Appendix to Report on Animal Biology in the School Curriculum . . 689
Index • • 693
THE CHARTER
OF THE
British Association for the Advancement of Science
GEORGE THE FIFTH by the Grace of God,
of Great Britain, Ireland and the British
Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender
of the Faith, Emperor of India :
To all to whom these Presents shall come.
Greeting !
TllUbereaS in the year One thousand eight hundred and
thirty-one a Voluntary Association known as the British
, Association for the Advancement of Science was formed to
give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to
scientific inquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who
cultivate Science in different parts of the British Empire
with one another and with foreign philosophers ; to obtain
more general attention for the objects of Science and the
removal of any disadvantages of a public kind which impede
its progress :
Hn& Mbereas the said Voluntary Association hath
through its duly authorised Officers petitioned Us for a
Charter of Incorporation such as is in and by these Presents
granted :
Htlt) MbereaS We are minded to comply with the
prayer of such petition :
IROW, 'Q;berefOre, We, by virtue of Our Royal Pre-
rogative in that behalf, and of all other powers enabling Us
so to do of Our Special Grace, certain knowledge, and mere
motion do hereby, for Us, Our Heirs, and Successors, will,
grant, direct, appoint, and declare to the said Voluntary
Association as follows ; —
Vi CHARTER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
1. The persons now members of the said Voluntary
Association and all such persons as shall hereafter become
members of the Association hereby incorporated shall be
one Body Corporate and Pohtic by the name of " The
British Association for the Advancement of Science " and by
that name shall and may sue and be sued, plead and be
impleaded in all Courts whether of law or equity either in
Our United Kingdom or in Our Dominions, Colonies or
Dependencies and shall have perpetual succession and a
common seal which may be changed or varied by it at its
pleasure :
And We do Hereby Further Grant and Ordain that the
said British Association for the Advancement of Science
(hereinafter called " the Association ") shall have and may
exercise all or any of the powers, rights, authorities, and
privileges and shall be subject to the duties and obligations
hereinafter set forth and shall be entitled to the benefit of
and be subject to the provisions hereinafter contained and
such provisions shall have effect accordingly.
2. The Association shall have power to acquire, take
over and accept by way of gift from the Existing Association
all the property, stocks, funds, securities and other assets of
every description now belonging to the Existing Association
or held in trust for or for the use of the same and to under-
take, execute and perform any trust or conditions affecting
any of such property, stocks, funds, securities or other assets
and to give any trustees in whom the same may be vested a
valid receipt, discharge and indemnity for and in respect of
the transfer of the same to the Association.
3. We do also hereby, for Us, Our Heirs, and Successors,
license, authorise, and for ever hereafter enable the Associa-
tion to purchase, take on lease or hire, accept on loan or as
a gift or otherwise acquire or hold (without any further
licence in Mortmain) any lands, buildings, easements or
hereditaments of any tenure and any real or personal
property of any description whatsoever and to construct,
provide, maintain, repair and alter any buildings for all or
any of the purposes of the Association, or for any purpose
of carrying out the conditions of any trust affecting such
CHARTER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. vii
buildings, but provided as regards any lands, tenements and
hereditaments within Great Britain or Northern Ireland that
the whole thereof shall not exceed the annual value of ten
thousand pounds (to be determined according to the value
thereof at the time when the same are respectively acquired)
and so also that all lands, tenements or hereditaments devised
or bequeathed to or for the benefit of the Association by any
will or codicil or made over to or for the benefit of the
Association by way of gift or any means may be accepted
and held by the Association but only upon the terms that
if and so far as the holding of the same premises may cause
the Association to exceed such limit as aforesaid such premises
shall be sold within one year from the date when the
Association shall have become entitled thereto in possession.
And We do hereby also for Us, Our Heirs and Successors,
give and grant Our licence to any person or persons and
any body politic or corporate, to assure in perpetuity, or
to demise to or for the benefit of the Association any lands,
tenements, or hereditaments whatsoever, so as the same do
not exceed at any one time the annual value aforesaid.
4. The objects and purposes of the Association shall be
as hereinbefore recited as those of the Existing Association
and for that purpose the Association shall have power —
(i) To hold meetings of the members of the Association
or public meetings at such times and in such places in
Our United Kingdom or in Our Dominions, Colonies or
Dependencies or elsewhere as the General Committee of the
Association shall determine for the reading, hearing and
discussing of scientific lectures or communications, and to
hold or promote exhibitions of instruments, specimens and
things and to promote intercourse between persons con-
cerned or connected with Science.
(ii) To compile, print, publish, lend, sell or distribute
reports and proceedings of the Association.
(iii) To enter into any arrangements with any Depart-
ment of Our Imperial Government or of the Government
of any part of Our Dominions or with any local or Muni-
cipal Authority or any Corporation, Company, Society,
viii CHARTER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
Association, body or persons whether incorporated or not
whose objects are similar to any objects of the Association
for the furtherance of those objects.
(iv) To make grants of money or otherwise financially
assist any scientific research or object approved by the
General Committee or the Council of the Association as
within the scope of the objects of the Association.
(v) To accept and take by way of gift and absorb upon
any terms approved by the General Committee and the
Council the undertaking and assets of any Society or body
whether incorporated or not carrying on work similar to any
work for the time being carried on by the Association and to
undertake and add to the expressed objects of the Association
the objects of any other such Society or body.
(vi) To receive and accept donations, endowments, and
gifts of money, lands, hereditaments, stocks, funds, shares,
securities and any other property and assets whatsoever and
either subject or not subject to any special trusts or con-
ditions but so that any powers conferred by this paragraph
shall be subject to the proviso contained in Article 3 of this
Our Charter, and to improve, manage, develop, sell,
exchange, lease, let or otherwise dispose of or mortgage or
otherwise charge or deal with or turn to account all or any
property of the Association, provided that no disposition of
any real property situated in Great Britain or Northern
Ireland shall be made without such consent or approval (if
any) as may be by law required therefor.
(vii) To undertake, execute, and perform any trusts or
conditions aflfecting any real or personal property of any
description acquired by the Association.
(viii) To do all such other acts and things as are or may
be deemed incidental or conducive to the attainment of all
or any of the purposes of the Association or the exercise of
all or any of its said powers.
5. Inasmuch as We have heretofore been Patron of the
Existing Association We do hereby reserve to Ourselves to
be the First Patron of the Association after the granting of
this Our Charter.
CHARTER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. ix
6. There shall be a General Committee of the Association
being the governing body thereof and exercising such powers
and consisting of such members with such qualifications as
the Statutes of the Association shall direct. The first
General Committee of the Association shall be the General
Committee of the existing Association.
7. There shall be a Council of the Association elected by
the General Committee, being the executive body of the
Association and exercising such powers and consisting of
such number of members, to be elected and to hold office
for such period, as the Statutes of the Association shall
direct. The first Council of the Association shall be the
Council of the existing Association.
8. Of the Members of the said General Committee and
Council of the Association one shall be the President of the
Association, one shall be the General Treasurer thereof, and
two or more shall be the General Secretaries thereof. And
the said Officers shall be elected by the General Committee
in such manner, hold office on such terms, and exercise such
powers as the Statutes of the Association shall direct. And
the Association shall have such other Officers and Servants
as the Council of the Association may from time to time
appoint.
9. The terms and conditions of membership of the
Association shall be such as the Statutes of the Association
shall direct.
10. The affairs of the Association shall be managed and
regulated in accordance with the Statutes hereunto scheduled.
Any of the Statutes may from time to time be altered, added
to or repealed in manner provided by the Statutes and any
new Statutes may from time to time be made in the like
manner. Provided that no new Statute and no alteration
of or addition to any of the Statutes shall have any force or
eflTect if it be repugnant to any of the provisions of this Our
Charter or to the Laws of Our Realm and that no such new
Statute, alteration, addition or repeal shall take effect until
the same has been submitted to and approved by the Lords
X CHARTER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION.
of Our Privy Council, of which approval the certificate of
the Clerk of Our Privy Council shall be sufficient evidence.
1 1 . The income and property of the Association whence-
soever derived shall be applied solely towards the promotion
of the objects of the Association hereinbefore expressed or
undertaken in addition thereto, and no portion of the said
income and property shall be paid or transferred by way of
dividend, bonus or otherwise howsoever by way of profit
to the members of the Association or any of them, except in
the case of and as a salaried Officer of the Association, and
provided that nothing in this Article shall prevent the
exercise of the powers granted to the Association under
Article 4 (iv) of this Our Charter. And the debts and
liabilities of the Association shall at all times be discharged
by the Association, provided that the liability of the
members thereof shall not at any time exceed the amount
of the annual subscription and other sums (if any) due
from the said members.
12. The Association shall have power through its
General Treasurer to invest all moneys and funds of the
Association which are not immediately required to be
expended for the purposes thereof and which the Council
think proper to be invested in such investments as may be
authorised by the law for the time being in force for the
investment of trust funds, or to deposit the same with any
bank, and to grant, continue and pay such salaries, wages,
pensions, gratuities, superannuation, retiring allowances or
other sums in recognition of services (whether rendered
before or after the granting of this Our Charter) as may
from time to time be sanctioned by the Council.
13. And We do hereby further declare that if and when
the Association shall cease to be an Association for the
purposes aforesaid and the affairs thereof shall have been
completely wound up and its debts and obligations fully
discharged this Our Charter shall be absolutely void, but
that if on the winding up or dissolution of the Association
there shall remain, after the satisfaction of all its debts.
CHARTER OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION. XI
liabilities and obligations, any property whatsoever, the sum
shall not be paid to or distributed among the members of
the Association or any of them, but shall (subject to any
special trusts affecting the same) be given and transferred to
some other society or societies having objects similar to the
objects of the Association to be determined by the General
Committee at or before the time of dissolution or in default
thereof by a Judge of the Chancery Division of Our High
Court of Justice.
14. The Council of the Association shall provide for the
safe custody of the Common Seal thereof which shall never
be used except by the authority of the Council previously
given and in the presence of two members of the Council
who shall sign every instrument to which the Seal is affixed.
15. And We do hereby for Us, Our Heirs and Successors,
Grant and Declare that these Our Letters Patent or the
enrolment or exemplification thereof shall be in all things
good, firm, valid and effectual according to the true intent
and meaning of the same and shall be taken, construed and
adjudged in all Our Courts or elsewhere in the most favour-
able and beneficial sense and for the best advantage of the
Association, any mis-recital, non-recital, omission, defect,
imperfection, matter or thing whatsoever notwithstanding.
3-n MitnesS whereof We have caused these Our Letters
to be made Patent.
MitneSS Ourself at Westminster the twenty-first day
of April in the year of Our Lord One thousand nine
hundred and twenty-eight and in the eighteenth year of
Our Reign.
3B^ Marrant under The King's Sign Manual.
Schuster
SEAL
THE SCHEDULE
British Association for the Advancement of Science
STATUTES
Chapter I.
Objects and Constitution.
Objects. 1. The objects of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science are : To give a stronger impulse and a more
systematic direction to scientific inquiry ; to promote the
intercourse of those who cultivate Science in diflferent parts
of the British Empire with one another and with foreign
philosophers ; to obtain more general attention for the objects
of Science and the removal of any disadvantages of a public
kind which impede its progress.
The Association contemplates no invasion of the ground
occupied by other Institutions.
Constitution. 2. The Association shall consist of Members and
Honorary Corresponding Members.
The governing body of the Association shall be a General
Committee, constituted as hereinafter set forth ; and its
affairs shall be directed by a Council and conducted by
General Officers appointed by that Committee.
Annual 3. The Association shall meet annually, for one week or
Meetings. longer, and at such other times as the General Committee
may appoint. The place of each Annual Meeting shall be
determined by the General Committee not less than two years
in advance ; and
be entrusted to the Officers of the Association
the arrangements for these meetings shall
Constitution.
Chapter II.
The General Committee.
1. The General Committee shall be constituted of the
following persons : —
(i) Permanent Members —
(a) Past and present Members of the Council, past
and present Presidents of the Sections, and
Recorders of Sections on retirement.
STATUTES. xiii
(6) Members who, by the publication of works or
papers, have furthered the advancement of know-
ledge in any of those departments which are
assigned to the Sections of the Association.
o
(ii) Temporary Members —
(a) Vice-Presidents and Secretaries of the Sections.
(6) Honorary Corresponding Members, foreign repre-
sentatives, and other persons specially invited
or nominated by the Council or General Officers.
(c) Delegates nominated by the Affiliated Societies.
(d) Delegates — not exceeding altogether three in
number — from Scientific Institutions established
at the place of meeting.
2. The decision of the Council on the qualifications and Admission,
claims of any Member of the Association to be placed on the
Genei'al Committee shall be final.
3. The General Committee shall meet twice at least during Meetings.
every Annual Meeting. In the interval between two Annual
Meetings, it shall be competent for the Council at any time
to summon a meeting of the General Committee.
4. The General Committee shall— Functions,
(i) Receive and consider the Report of the Council.
(ii) Elect a Committee of Recommendations.
(iii) Receive and consider the Report of the Committee
of Recommendations.
(iv) Determine the place of the Annual Meeting not less
than two years in advance.
(v) Determine the date of the next Annual Meeting.
(vi) Elect the President and Vice-Presidents, Local Trea-
surer, and Local Secretaries for the next Annual
Meeting.
(vii) Elect Ordinary Members of Council,
(viii) Appoint General Officers.
(ix) Appoint Auditors,
(x) Elect the Officers of the Conference of Delegates.
(xi) Receive any notice of motion for the next Annual
Meeting.
Chapter III.
Committee of Recommendations.
L The ex officio Members of the Committee of Recom- Constitution.
mendations are the President and Vice-Presidents of the
Association, the President of each Section at the Annual
Meeting, the President of the Conference of Delegates, the
XIV
STATUTES.
General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, and the Presidents
of the Association in former years.
An Ordinary Member of the Committee for each Section
shall be nominated by the Committee of that Section.
If the President of a Section be unable to attend a meeting
of the Committee of Recommendations, the Sectional Com-
mittee may appoint a Vice-President, or some other member
of the Committee, to attend in his place, due notice of such
appointment being sent to the Secretary of the Associa-
tion.
Functions. 2. Every recommendation made under Chapter IV. and
every resolution on a scientific subject, which may be sub-
mitted to the Association by any Sectional Committee, or by
the Conference of Delegates, or otherwise than by the Council
of the Association, shall be submitted to the Committee of
Recommendations. If the Committee of Recommendations
approve such recommendation, they shall transmit it to the
General Committee ; and no recommendation shall be con-
sidered by the General Committee that is not so trans-
mitted.
Every recommendation adopted by the General Committee
shall, if it involve action on the part of the Association, be
transmitted to the Council ; and the Council shall take such
action as may be needful to give effect to it, and shall report
to the General Committee not later than the next Annual
Meeting.
Every proposal for establishing a new Section, for altering
the title of a Section, or for any other change in the consti-
tutional forms or statutes of the Association, shall be referred
to the Committee of Recommendations for their consideration
and report.
Chapter IV.
Research Committees.
1. Every proposal for special research, or for a grant of
money in aid of special research, which is made in any
Section, shall be considered by the Committee of that Section ;
and, if such proposal be approved, it shall be referred to the
Committee of Recommendations.
In consequence of any such proposal, a Sectional Com-
mittee may recommend the appointment of a Research
Committee to conduct research or administer a grant in aid of
research, and in any case to report thereon to the Association ;
and the Committee of Recommendations may include such
recommendation in their Report to the General Committee.
STATUTES. XV
2. Every appointaient of a Research Committee shall be Constitution,
proposed at a meeting of the Sectional Committee and adopted
at a subsequent meeting. The Sectional Committee shall
settle the terms of reference and suitable Members to serve
on it, which must be as small as is consistent with its efficient
working ; and shall nominate a Chairman and a Secretary.
Research Committees shall have power to add to their
numbers.
3. The Sectional Committee shall state in their recommen- Proposals by
dation whether a grant of money be desired for the purposes Sectional
of any Research Committee, and shall estimate the amount
required.
i. Research Committees are appointed for one year only. Tenure.
If the work of a Research Committee cannot be completed
ill that year, application may be made through a Sectional
Committee at the next Annual Meeting for reappointment,
with or without a grant — or a further grant — of money.
5. Every Reseai'ch Committee shall present a Report, Reports.
whether interim or final, at the Annual Meeting next after
that at which it was appointed or reappointed, and may in the
meantime present a Report through a Sectional Organising
Committee to the Council. Interim Reports, whether in-
tended for publication or not, must be submitted in writing.
Each Sectional Committee shall ascertain whether a Report
has been made by each Research Committee appointed on their
recommendation, and shall report to the Committee of
Recommendations .
6. In each Research Committee to which a grant of money Gkants.
has been made, the Chairman is the only person entitled to call ^'?^ Drawn by
. , Chairman.
on the General Treasurer for such portion of the sum granted
as from time to time may be required.
Grants of money sanctioned at the Annual Meeting (*) Expire at
expire at the close of the financial year of the Association gjai^ygar °^"'
following, to wit, on June 30, or on such other date as the
General Committee may appoint. The General Treasurer is
not authorised, after that date, to allow any claims on account
of such grants.
A Research Committee, whether or not in receipt of a ('") <^'««'''a*-
grant, shall not raise money, in the name or under the auspices
of the Association, without special permission from the General
Committee.
Chapter V.
The Council.
1. The Council shall consist of ex officio Members and of Constitution.
Ordinary Members elected annually by the General Committee.
XVI
STATUTES.
Functions.
Elections.
(i)
The ex officio Members are — Past Presidents of
the Association, the President for the year, the
President and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing
Annual Meeting, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General
Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local
Secretaries for the Annual Meetings im mediately-
past and ensuing.
(ii) The Ordinary Members shall not exceed twenty-five in
number. Of these, not more than twenty shall have
served on the Council as Ordinary Members in the
previous year.
2. The Council shall have authority to act, in the name and
on behalf of the Association, in all matters which do not con-
flict with the functions of the General Committee.
In the interval between two Annual Meetings, the Council
shall manage the affairs of the Association and may fill up
vacancies among the General and other Officers, until the next
Annual Meeting.
The Council shall hold such meetings as they may think
fit, and shall in any case meet on the first day of the Annual
Meeting, in order to complete and adopt the Annual Report,
and to consider other matters to be brought before the General
Committee.
The Council shall nominate for election by the General
Committee, at each Annual Meeting, a President and General
Officers of the Association.
The Council shall have power to appoint and dismiss
such paid officers as may be necessary to carry on the work
of the Association, on such terms as they may from time to
time determine.
3. Election to the Council shall take place at the same
time as that of the Officei-s of the Association.
(i) At each Annual Election, the following Ordinary
Members of the Council shall be ineligible for re-
election in the ensuing year :
{a) Three of the Members who have served for the
. longest consecutive period, and
(6) Two of the Members who, being resident in or near
London, have attended the least number of meet-
ings during the past year.
Nevertheless, it shall be competent for the Council, by
an unanimous vote, to reverse the proportion in the
order of retirement above set forth.
STATUTES. j^^.jj
(ii) The Council shall submit to the General Committee,
in their Annual Report, the names of twenty-three
Members of the Association whom they recommend for
election as Members of Council,
(iii) Two Members shall be elected by the General Com-
mittee, without nomination by the Council ; and this
election shall be at the same meeting as that at which the
election of the other Members of the Council takes place.
Any member of the General Committee may propose
another member thereof for election as one of these two
Members of Council, and, if only two are so proposed,
they shall be declared elected ; but, if more than two
are so proposed, the election shall be by show of hands,
unless five Members at least, present at the meeting of
the General Committee, require it to be by ballot.
Chapter VI.
The President, General Officers, and Staff.
\. The President shall assume office on the first day of the ihe Presi-
Annual Meeting, when he shall deliver a Presidential Address, flent.
He shall resigii office at the next Annual Meeting, when he
inducts his successor into the Chair.
The President shall preside at all meetings of the Associa-
tion or of its Council and Committees which he attends in his
capacity as President.
2. The General Officers of the Association are the General General
Treasurer and the General Secretaries. Officers.
It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Association, in any matter of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.
3. The General Treasurer shall be responsible to the The General
General Committee and the Council for the financial affairs i'reasurer.
of the Association.
4. The General Secretaries shall control the general The General
organisation and administration, and shall be responsible to ' *^*''^ anes.
the General Committee and the Council for conducting the
correspondence and for the general routine of the work of
the Association, excepting that which relates to Finance.
5. The Secretary of the Association shall hold office during 'i'''e
the pleasure of the Council. He shall act under the direction
of the General Secretaries, and in their absence shall repre-
sent them. He shall also act on the directions which may
I !t2H //
x^•iii .STATUTES.
be given him by the General Treasurer in that part of his
duties which relates to the finances of the Association.
The Secretary shall be charged, subject as aforesaid :
(i) with the general organising and editorial work, and
with the administrative business of the Association ; (ii) with
the control and direction of the Office and of all persons
therein employed ; and (iii) with the execution of Standing
Orders or of the directions given him by the General Officers
and Council. He shall act as Secretary, and take Minutes, at
the meetings of the Council, and at all meetings of Com-
mittees of the Council, of the Committee of Recommendations,
and of the General Committee.
Financial
Statements.
Audit,
Kxpenditure.
Investments.
Cheques.
Caveat.
Chapter VIT.
Finance.
1. The General Treasurer, or his representative, shall
receive and acknowledge all sums of money paid to the
Association. He shall submit, at each meeting of the
Council, an interim statement of his Account ; and shall
prepare and submit to the General Committee, at the Annual
Meeting, a balance-sheet of the funds of the Association
completed to the close of the financial year.
'1. The Accounts of the Association shall be audited,
annually, by Auditors appointed by the General Committee.
3. The General Treasurer shall make all ordinary pay-
ments authorised by the General Committee or by the
Council.
4. The General Treasurer is empowered to draw on the
account of the Association, and, with the authority of the
Council, to invest on behalf of the Association part or all of
the balance standing at any time to the credit of the Asso-
ciation in the books of the Association's bankers, in such
investments as may be authorised for the investment of
trust funds.
5. In the event of the General Treasurer being unable,
from illness or any other cause, to exercise the functions of
his office, the President of the Association for the time being
and one of the General Secretaries shall be jointly empowered
to sign cheques on behalf of the Association.
6. No gift, bonus, dividend, or division in money shall be
made out of the funds of the Association, to or between any
of its members.
STATUTKS.
XIX
Local Orti-
cers and
Commit tee>
Chapter VIII.
The Annual Meetings.
1. Local Coniiiiittees shall be formed to assist the General
Officers in making arrangements for the Annual Meeting, and
shall have power to add to their number.
2. The General Committee shall appoint, on the recom-
mendation of the Local Reception or Executive Committee for
the ensuing Annual Meeting, a Local Treasurer or Treasurers
and two or more Local Secretaries, who shall rank as officers
of the Association, and shall consult with the General
Officers and the Secretary as to the local arrangements
necessary for the conduct of the meeting. The Local Treasurers
shall be empowered to enrol Members, and to receive
subscriptions.
3. The Local Committees and Sub-Conmiittees shall under- Functions
take the local organisation, and shall have power to act in the
name of the Association in all matters pertaining to the local
arrangements for the Annual Meeting other than the work of
the Sections.
4. The Council, in consultation with the Local Bxecutivt^.
Committee of the Association for the Annual Meeting, may
provide evening or other lectures during the meeting, to which
the public, other than meml.ers of the Association, shall be
admitted free, and shall appoint lecturers for this purpose,
having regard to the scientific and educational needs and
interests of the place of meeting and its neighbourhood.
Chapter IX.
The Work of the Sections.
1. The scientific work of the Association shall be trans- XHt)
acted under such Sections as shall be constituted from time Sbctioss
to time by the General Committee.
It shall be competent for any Section, if authorised by the
Council for the time being, to form a Sub-Section for the
purpose of dealing separately with any group of communica-
tions addressed to that Section.
2. There shall be in each Section a President, two or
more Vice-Presidents, and two or more Secretaries. They
shall be appointed by the Council, for each Annual Meet-
ing in advance, and shall act as the Officers of the Section
from the date of their appointment until the appoint-
ment of their successors in office for the ensuing Annual
Meeting.
6 ^
Sectional
Officers.
Sectional
comjiii'tees
Constitution
Co-optation.
Additional
Vice-Presi-
dents.
BXIiCUTlVE
Functions,
Of President
and of
Recorder.
Orgauisiug
Committee.
XX STATUTES.
Of the Secretaries, one shall act as Recorder of the Section,
and one shall be resident in the locality where the Annual
Meeting is held.
3. The work of each Section shall be conducted by a
Sectional Committee, which shall consist of the following : —
(i) The Officers of the Section during their term of office,
(ii) All past Presidents of that Section,
(iii) Such other Members of the Association, present at
any Annual Meeting, as the Sectional Committee,
thus constituted, may co-opt for the period of the
meeting :
Provided always that —
(ffl) A Sectional Committee may co-opt members, as above
set forth, at any time during the Annual Meeting,
and shall publish daily a revised list of the members.
[h) A Sectional Committee may, at any time during the
Annual Meeting, appoint not more than three persons
present at the meeting to be Vice-Presidents of the
Section, in addition to those previously appointed
by the Council.
1. The chief executive officers of a Section shall be the
President and the Recorder. They shall have power to act on
l^jehalf of the Section in any matter of urgency which cannot
be brought before the consideration of the Sectional Com-
mittee ; and they shall report such action to the Sectional
Committee at its next meeting.
The President (or, in his absence, one of the Vice-Presi-
dents) shall preside at all meetings of the Sectional Committee
or of the Section. His ruling shall be absolute on all points
of order that may arise.
The Recorder shall be responsible for the punctual trans-
mission, to the Secretary of the Association, of the pi-ogrannne
of his Section, of the recommendations adopted by the
Sectional Committee, of the printed returns, abstracts,
reports, or papers appertaining to the proceedings uf his
Section at the Annual Meeting, and for the correspondence
and minutes of the Sectional Committee.
5. The Sectional Committee shall nominate, before the
close of the Annual IMeeting, not more than six members of the
Association who, together with the sectional officers and past
Presidents of the Section, shall form a Sectional Organising
Committee from the close of the Annual Meeting until
the conclusion of its meeting on the first day of the ensuing
Annual Meeting.
STATUTES. xxi
Each Organisinj^ Committee shall hold such meetings as
are deemed necessary for the organisation of tlie ensuing
Sectional proceedings, and may at any such meeting resolve
to present a report to the Council upon any matter of interest
to the Section, and shall hold a meeting on the first
day of the Annual Meeting : to nominate members of the
Sectional Committee, to confirm the Provisional Programme of
the Section, and to report to the Sectional Committee.
Each Sectional Committee shall meet daily, unless other- Sectional
wise determined, during the Annual Meeting : to co-opt °™™' ^^'
members, to complete the arrangements for the next day, and
to take into consideration any suggestion for the advance-
ment of Science that may be offered by any member of the
Association, or may arise out of the proceedings of the Section.
No paper shall be read in any Section until it has been Papers and
accepted by the Sectional Committee and entered as accepted Reports,
on its Minutes.
It shall be within the competence of the Sectional Com- Recommen -
mittee to review the recommendations adopted at preceding
Annual Meetings, as published in the Annual Reports of the
Association, and the communications made to the Section at
its current meetings, for the purpose of selecting definite
objects of research, in the promotion of which individual or
concerted action may be usefully employed ; and, further, to
take into consideration those branches or aspects of knowledge
on the state and progress of which reports are required : to
make recommendations and nominate individuals or Research
Committees to whom the preparation of such reports, or the task
of research, may be entrusted, discriminating as to whether,
and in what respects, these objects may be usefully advanced
by the appropriation of money from the funds of the Associa
tion, by reference to local authorities, public institutions, or
Departments of His Majesty's Government, or otherwise. The
appointment of such Research Committees shall be made in
accordance with the provisions of Chapter IV.
No proposal arising out of the proceedings of any Section
shall be referred to the Committee of Recommendations unless
it shall have received the sanction of the Sectional Committee.
6. Papers ordered to be printed in extenso shall not be Publication
included in the Annual Report, if published elsewhere prior
to the issue of the Annual Report in volume form. Reports of
Research Committees shall not be published elsewhere than in
the Annual Report without the express sanction of the Council.
7. The copyright of addresses and papers ordered by the Copyrisi^hi.
General Committee to be printed in extem^o in the Annual
XXn STATUTES.
Report shall be vested in the authors ; and the copyright
of the Reports of Research Committees appointed by the
General Committee shall be vested in the Association.
Applications.
Obligations.
Expulsion.
Conditions
and Privileges
of Member-
ship.
Chapter X.
Admission of 31 embers.
1. No technical qualification shall be required on the
part of an applicant for admission as a Member of the
British Association ; but the Council is empowered, in the
event of special circumstances arising, to impose suitable
conditions and restrictions in this respect.
The Council shall also have power to refuse any application
for membership.
Every person admitted as a Member shall conform to
the Statutes and Regulations of the Association, and for any
infringement thereof shall be liable to exclusion by the
Council, who have also authority, if they think it necessary,
to withhold from any person the privilege of attending any
Annual Meeting or to cancel a ticket of admission already
is.sued.
If it shall appear to the Council that it is not desirable that
a person shall continue to be a Member of the Association,
the Council shall direct the General Secretaries to ascertain
whether that person is willing to resign his membership.
If that person do not, within a time to be fixed by the
Council, either resign or appeal in writing to the General
Committee, the Council may declare such person to be no
longer a Member. Upon the appeal, the General Committee
may make the like declaration by a majority of two-thirds of
those present and voting.
It shall be competent for the General Officers to act, in
the name of the Council, on any occasion of urgency which
cannot be brought under the consideration of the Council ;
and they shall report such action to the Council at the next
meeting.
2. All Members, except as hereafter provided, are eligible
to any office in the Association.
(i) Every Life Member hereafter admitted shall pay, on
admission, the sum of Fifteen Pounds.
(ii) Every Annual Member shall pay, on admission, the
sum of One Pound, and in any subsequent year
the sum of One Pound,
(iii) Persons not exceeding twenty-three years of age,
being students of universities or of any educational
STATUTES. xxiii
institution recognised by the Local Executive
Committee or the General Officers of the Associa-
tion, may obtain ' Students' Tickets ' for the Annual
Meeting on payment of 10s. Holders of such
tickets shall not be entitled to any privilege
beyond attendance at the Annual Meeting,
(iv) Transferable tickets, admitting one person tu any
meeting or function during the Annual Meeting,
shall be issued at the price of £\ 5s. Holders of
such tickets shall not be entitled to any pri\ilege
beyond such admission. No other tickets issued
by the Association shall be transferable.
3. Honorary Corresponding Members may be appointed Honorary
by the General Committee, on the nomination of the Council. 5J,g''jj^°'J,er<,.
They shall be entitled to all the privileges of Membership.
4. Subscriptions are payable at or before the Annual Annual Sub-
Meeting. Annual Members not attending the meeting may scnptions.
make payment at any time before the close of the financial
year of the Association.
(i) Evei-y Life Member, whether admitted before or after The Annual
theadoptionof these Rules,shall be entitled to receive Report.
gratis,on demand, the Annual Reports of the Associa-
tion issued in and after the year of admission.
(ii) Annual Members attending an Annual Meeting
shall be entitled to obtain the Report of that
Meeting for an additional payment of lOi-. made
before or during the Annual Meeting, or of 12s. Gd.
made after the Annual Meeting within a period
not extending beyond the close of the financial
year of the Association.
Provided that Annual Members who have paid
the annual subscription of £\ without intermission
from a date anterior to September 14, 1919, and con-
tinue to do so, shall be entitled to receive the Annual
Report, on demand, without further payment.
(iii) Annual Members who pay the annual subscription
of ^1, but do not attend the Annual Meeting, shall
be entitled to receive the Annual Report, on
demand, without further payment.
(iv) Holders of Students' or tran.sferable tickets .shall not
be entitled to receive the Annual Report on the
terms above stated,
(v) Subject to any statutory rights, or other considera-
tions in the discretion of the Council, libraries and
XXIV STATUTES.
institutions shall be entitled to purchase the Annual
Volume at a subscription rate of 12s. Qd. per annum,
(vi) The publication price of the Annual Report shall be
determined from time to time by the General
Committee,
(vii) Volumes not claimed within two years of the date of
publication may be issued only by direction of the
Council.
Chapter XI.
Corresponding Societies : Conference of Delegates.
Affiliated 1, Corresponding Societies shall be constituted as follows :
Societies, /.^ . o • i ■ i i i i i . •/. •
(i) Any bociety which undertakes local scientific inves-
tigation and publishes the results may become a
Society affiliated to the British Association.
Each Affiliated Society shall have the right to
appoint a Delegate to attend the meetings of the
Conference of Delegates. He shall be or become
a Member of the Association, and shall be ex officio
a Member of the General Committee.
AsBociated ^jj^ ^^^ Society formed for the purpose of encouraging
the study of Science, which has existed for three
years and numbers not fewer than fifty members,
may become a Society associated with the British
Association.
Each Associated Society shall have the right
to appoint a Delegate to attend the Annual Con
ference. Such Delegates, provided that they are or
become Members of the British Association, shall
have all the rights of Delegates appointed by the
Affiliated Societies, except that of membership of
the General Committee.
Correspond- 2. A Corresponding Societies Committee shall be an-
Societies nually nominated by the Council and appointed by the
Committee, General Committee, for the purpose of keeping themselves
generally informed of the work of the Corresponding Socie-
ties. This Committee shall make an Annual Report to the
Council, and shall suggest such additions or changes in
the list of Corresponding Societies as they may consider
desirable.
Conference 3. The Delegates of Corresponding Societies, being Mem-
or Delegates, foers of the Association, shall constitute a Conference, of
STATUTES. XXV
which the President and other officers shall be appointed
by the Council, and which shall hold meetings under such
conditions as the General Committee shall determine.
Chapter XII.
Amendments and New Statutes.
Any alterations in the Statutes, and any amendments
or new Statutes that may be proposed by the Council or
individual Members, shall be notified to the General Com-
mittee, and referred forthwith to the Committee of Recom-
mendations ; and, on the report of that Committee, shall be
submitted for approval at a further meeting of the General
Committee.
REGULATIONS.
Admission to Membership of the General Committee.
1. Claims for admission to permauent membership of the General
Committee must be lodged with the Secretary of the Association at least
one month before the Annual Meeting, either by claimants themselves or
by Eecorders on behalf of sectional Organising Committees desiring to
make recommendations for admission.
2. Claims for admission as a Temporary Member of the General Com-
mittee may be sent to the Secretary at any time before or during the
Annual Meeting.
Committee of Recommendations.
3. All proposals sanctioned by a Sectional Committee shall be forwarded
by the Recorder to the Secretary of the Association, who shall give
previous notice of the hours at or before which such proposals must be
received by him, for presentation to the Committee of Recommendations.
4. The Committee of Recommendations shall hold at least one meeting,
and shall submit a report to the General Committee at the final meeting
thereof, during the Annual Meeting of the Association.
Research Committees.
5. Research Committees shall be composed of Members of the Associa-
tion, provided that it shall be competent for the General Committee to
appoint, or for a Research Committee to co-opt, as an assessor or con-
sultative member, any person, not being a Member of the Association,
whose assistance may be regarded as of special importance to the research
undertaken.
6. The Chairman of a Research Committee must, before the Annual
Meeting next following the appointment of the Research Committee,
forward to the General Treasurer a statement of the sums that have been
received and expended, together with vouchers. The Chairman must then
return the balance of the grant, if any, which remains unexpended ;
provided that a Research Committee may, in the first year of its appoint-
ment only, apply for leave to retain an unexpended balance when or
before its Report is presented, due reason being given for such application.
When application is made for a Committee to be reappointed, and to
retain the balance of a former grant, and also to receive a further grant,
the amount of such further grant is to be estimated as being sufficient,
together with the balance proposed to be retained, to make up the amount
desired.
REGULATIONS. xxvii
7. If any payment of travelling expenses be contemplated out of a
grant to a Research Committee, tlie amount to be so allocated shall be
stated in the application for such grant, and such payment shall be
expressly recommended by the Committee of Recommendations and
approved by the General Committee (or in the event of subsequent
emergency, by the Council), and shall be confined to railway or other fares.
8. Members and Committees entrusted with sums of money for
collecting specimens of any description shall include in their Reports
particulars thereof, and shall reserve the specimens thus obtained for
disposal, as the Council may direct.
Committees are required to furnish a list of any apparatus which may
have been purchased out of a grant made by the Association, and to state
whether the apparatus is likely to be useful for continuing the research in
question or for other specific purposes.
All instruments, drawings, papers, and other property of the Associa-
tion, when not in actual use by a Committee, shall be deposited at the
Office of the Association.
Nomination of President of the Association by Council.
9. Suggestions for the Presidency shall be considered by the Council
at the meeting in February, and the names selected shall be issued with
the summonses to the Council meeting in March, when the nomination
shall be made from the names on the list.
Assistant to the General Treasurer.
10. The General Treasurer may depute the Secretary or other salaried
ofiicer to carry on under his direction the routine work of the duties of
liis ofiice. Such officer shall be charged with the issue of membership
tickets and such other work as may be delegated to him.
Travelling Expenses, etc.
11. The General Treasurer shall be authorised, subject to approval,
and within limitations defined, by the Council, to defray travelling and
other expenses of officers as follows : —
(i) Railway fares and postages incurred by the President and
General Officers in connection with the Annual Meeting, the
meetings of the Council, and other meetings involved by the
discharge of their official duties.
(ii) Railway fares and subsistence expenses incurred by members of
the Staff in connection with attendance at the Annual Meeting
and otherwise in the discharge of their duties.
(iii) Railway fares incurred by Recorders and Secretaries of Sections
in connection with the Annual Meeting, and with the preceding
joint meeting of the Organising Sectional Committees.
xxviii REGULATIONS.
(iv) Postages and essential clerical expenses incurred by the
Recorders (or their sectional secretaries on their behalf) in the
discharging of their duties, provided that no claim exceeding £5
under this heading by any Recorder in any one year shall be
allowed without the express sanction of the Council.
It shall be competent for the Council, if they think desirable, to
authorise payments in respect of travelling expenses to Members appointed
by them to represent the Association at meetings of other bodies, for
which formal invitation has been received.
The Sections.
12. The Section Rooms and the approaches thereto shall not be used
without sanction for any notices, exhibitions, or other purposes than those
of the Association.
13. The Organising Committee of any Section may elect as a member
of the Sectional Committee for its first meeting any Member of the Associa-
tion who has intimated his intention of being present at the Annual
Meeting.
The Sectional Committee may elect to the committee any Member of
the Association in attendance at the Annual Meeting.
14. Any report or paper read in any one Section may be read also in
any other Section.
15. No paper or abstract of a paper shall be printed in the Annual
Report of the Association imless the manuscript has been received by the
Recorder of the Section before the close of the Annual Meeting.
Membership.
16. It shall be competent for the Council to nominate, and for the
General Committee to elect, any person to honorary membership for
eminent services to the Association.
17. It shall be competent for the General Treasurer, or the Secretary
of the Association duly authorised by him, to issue complimentary
membership tickets for any one Annual Meeting to : —
(i) Honorary Corresponding Members attending the Meeting, and
distinguished men of science from foreign countries or from the
British Dominions overseas, invited by the Council to attend the
Meeting as guests, on the nomination of the Organising Sectional
Committees or otherwise,
(ii) The local secretaries, local treasurers, and local sectional secre-
taries for the Meeting, and any other persons resident in the
locality of the Meeting whose services in connection with the
local organisation thereof shall, in the opinion of the local
secretaries after consultation with the Secretary, entitle them to
honorary membership for the Meeting.
REGULATIONS. xxix
The General Treasurer shall bring to the notice of the Council, for
consideration and action if desirable, any other proposal for the issue of
complimentary tickets, save as provided in Regulation 17 below.
18. The Council may before each Annual Meeting (other than meetings
overseas), with the assent of the local executive committee, invite
Universities and University Colleges in Great Britain to nominate each
one or more students in science, not above the standing of B.Sc, as
•' British Association Exhibitioners."
Such Exhibitioners shall receive complimentary students' tickets for
the Annual Meeting and their travelling expenses (fares) incurred in
attending the Meeting shall be met or assisted out of the funds of the
Association in accordance with a scale determined by the Council, and the
Council shall consult with the local executive committee as to the defray-
ment of their subsistence expenses during the Meeting. The Council shall
also have power to enter into arrangements with university and other
authorities respecting the attendance of other selected students whose
expenses shall not fall upon the funds of the Association.
19. It shall be competent for the Organising Sectional Committees to
invite or accept communications at any Annual Meeting from persons not
already Members of the Association, and the attention of such persons
(if not entitled to complimentary tickets) shall be called to the terms of
membership ; but if any such person shall be unable to attend the Meeting
except on the day on which he is to deliver his communication, the
Secretary shall have power to issue to him a card of admission to his
Section for that day.
20. It shall be competent for the General Treasurer, if desired by the
local executive committee for any Annual Meeting, to enter into an arrange-
ment with such committee under which each subscriber of five guineas or
other agreed sum or upward to any fund raised to defray local expenses of
the Meeting shall receive a membership ticket for that Meeting, the sum
of fifteen shillings instead of one pound being payable from the local fund
to the Association for each such ticket ; and it shall be competent for
the Council to consider and adopt any proposal by a local executive
committee for a special fee for such tickets for local members.
21. An Annual Member subscribing in any year shall receive notices
of the Annual Meetings in the four succeeding years ; but if during that
period he shall not have resumed membership his name shall be removed
from the current membership list to a suspense list.
Annual Members being Members of the General Committee shall in
like manner be entitled to receive notices of any special meetings or other
business of the General Committee during the period of four years after
the payment of their last subscriptions ; but their names shall thereafter
be transferred to a suspense list ; provided that if any member whose
XXX REGULATION.S.
name has been so transferred shall subsequently resume his subscription,
he shall continue in membership of the General Committee.
22. It shall be competent for the Council, on the occasion of an Annual
Meeting overseas, to require from members proposing to attend such
meeting an expression of their intention to participate in the scientific
transactions of the meeting.
Printed Matter.
23. Presidents shall be entitled to receive one hundred copies of their
addresses without charge, and additional copies at the cost of reproduction.
One hundred copies of reports of Research Committees printed in advance
of the Annual Meeting shall be provided for use thereat ; additional copies
at the discretion of the General Officers. Authors of communications
ordered to be printed in exlniso in the Annual Report shall receive
twenty-five copies of their communications without charge, and additional
copies at the cost of reproduction.
Corresponding Societies : Conference of Delegates.
24. Application may be made by any Society to be placed on the list
of Corresponding Societies. Such application must be addressed to the
Secretary of the Association on or before the 1st of June preceding the
Annual Meeting at which it is intended it should be considered, and nmst,
in the case of Societies desiring to be affiliated, be accompanied by
specimens of the publications of the results of local scientific investigations
recently undertaken by the Society.
25. Each Corresponding Society shall forward every year on or before
June 1, if requested to do so by the Secretary of the Association, such
particulars in regard to the Society as may be required for the information
of the Corresponding Societies Committee.
26. The Conference of Delegates shall be summoned by the Secretary
to hold one or more meetings during each Annual Meeting of the Associa-
tion, and shall be empowered to invite any Member to take part in the
discussions.
27. The Conference of Delegates shall be empowered to submit
Resolutions to the Committee of Recommendations for their consideration,
and for report to the General Committee.
28. The Sectional Committees of the Association shall be requested to
transmit to the Secretary for reference to the Conference of Delegates,
copies of any recommendations to be made to the General Committee
bearing upon matters in which the co-operation of Corresponding Societies
is desirable. It shall be competent for the Conference of Delegates to
invite the authors of such recommendations to attend the meetings of the
REGULATIONS. j^^^j^j
Conference in order to give verbal explanations of their objects and of the
precise way in which they desire these to be carried into effect.
29. It shall be the duty of the Delegates to make themselves familiar
with the purport of the several recommendations brought before the
Conference, in order that they may be able to bring such recommendations
adequately before their respective Societies.
30. The Conference may also discuss propositions regarding the
promotion of more systematic observation and plans of operation, and of
greater uniformity in the method of publishing results.
Amendments to Regulations.
31. Any alterations in the Regulations, and any amendments or new
Regulations that may be proposed by the Council or individual Members,
shall be notified to the General Committee at its first meeting during the
Annual Meeting, and referred forthwith to the Committee of Recommenda-
tions ; and, on the report of that Committee, shall be submitted for
approval at the last meeting of the General Committee. Provided that
the Council may bring into operation in the interval between Annual
Meetings any amendment within the scope of its functions, and shall
report the same to the General Committee at the ensuing Annual Meeting.
§ritislj |^ssactati0n for live g^bbanr^ment
0f Sritnct.
OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1928-29.
PATRON.
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
PRESIDENT.
Prof. Sir William H. Bragg, K.B.E., D.Sc, D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT ELECT FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN MEETING.
Sir Thomas H. Holland, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE GLASGOW MEETING.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Provost of
Glasgow (Sir David Mason, O.B.E.).
His Grace the Duke or Montrose,
C.V.O., C.B.
The Rt. Hon. the Earl of Home.
The Rt. Hon. the Earl of Glasgow,
D.S.O.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Blythswood,
K.C.V.O., D.L.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Belhaven and
Stenton.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Invernairn.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Weir, LL.D.
The Rt. Hon. the Lord Maclay, LL.D.
The Rt. Hon. Sir John Gilmotjr, Bt.,
D.S.O., M.P.
Sir Donald Macalister, Bt., K.C.B.,
LL.D., D.L., Principal of the Univer-
sity of Glasgow.
Sir John Maxwell Stirling-Maxwell,
Bt., D.L., LL.D.
Sir James Bell, Bt., C.B., D.L., LL.D.
Sir D. M. Stevenson, Bt., D.L., LL.D.
Sir Archibald McInnes Shaw, C.B.,
D.L.. LL.D.
Sir Matthew W. Montgomery, D.L.,
LL.D.
Prof. F. 0. Bower, LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE SOUTH AFRICAN
MEETING.
H.E. the Governor-General.
The Prime Minister of the Union of
South Africa.
The Minister for Education.
Lt.-Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C,
C.H.
The Administrator of the Cape
Province.
The Administrator of the Natal
Province.
The Administpatok of the Orange
Free State.
Tlie Administrator of the Transvaal
Province.
The Vice-Chancbllor of the Uni-
versity OF South Africa.
The Vice-Chancellor of the Uni-
versity of Cape Town.
The Vice-Chancellor of the Uni-
versity OF Stellenbosch.
The Vice-Chancellor of the Uni-
versity OF THE WiTWATERSRAND.
The Mayor of Johannesburg.
The Mayor of Cape Town.
1928
The Mayor of Pretoria.
The Principal of the University of
THE WiTWATERSRAND.
The President of the Transvaal
Chamber of Mines.
The President of the Associated
Chambers of Commerce.
The President of the South African
Federated Chamber of Industries.
Sir F. Drummond Chaplin, K.O.M.G.,
M.L.A.
Sir William Dalrymple, Chairman of
Council, University of the Witwaters-
rand.
Hon. J. W. Jagger, M.L.A.
Prof. J. A. Wilkinson, Chairman of the
General Committee of the South
African Association.
The President of the Associated
Scientific and Technical Societies
OF South Africa.
Ai.PHEUS F. Williams, General Manager,
De Beers Consolidated Mines, Ltd.
Acting Chief Justice Jacob de Villiers.
XXXIV
OFFICERS AND UOUNCIL.
GENERAL TREASURER.
Sir JosiAH Stamp, G.B.R., D.Sc.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Prof. J.L.Myrbs, O.B.E., D.Sc, F.S.A., 1 F. E. Smith, C.B., C.B.E., D.Sc, F.R.S.
F.B.A. I
SECRETARY.
0. .1. R. HuWABTH, O.B.E., M.A., Burlington House, London, W. 1.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Prof. J. H. AsHWOKTH, F.R.S.
Dr. F. A. Bather, F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe, K.B.E.
Prof. A. L. Bowley.
Prof. C. BtniT.
Prof. E. G. CoKEK, F.R.S.
Prof. W. Dalby, F.R.S.
Dr. H. H. Dale, Sec. R.S.
Prof. C. LOVATT l']VANS, F.R.S.
Sir J. S. Flett, K.B.E., F.R.S.
Sir Henry Fowler, K.B.E.
Sir R. A. Gregory.
Prof. D.amo Helen Gwynne-Vaughan,
D.B.E.
C. T. Heycock, F.R.S.
A. R. HiNKS, C.B.E., F.R.S.
Col. Sir H. G. Lyons, F.R.S.
C. G. T. MoRisoN.
Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S.
Prof. T. P. NuNN.
Prof. A. O. Rankin E.
C. Tate Regan, F.R.S.
Prof. A. C. Seward, "F.R.S.
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. N. V. SiDGWicK, F.R.S.
Dr. G. C. Simpson, C.B., F.R.S.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Past-Presidents of the Association, the President for the j'ear, the President and
Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present General Treasurers
and General Secretaries, past Assistant General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers
and Local Secretaries for the Annual Meetings immediately past and ensuing.
PAST-PRESI DENTS
the Earl of Balfour, CM.
Rt. Hon
F.R.S.
Sir E. Ray Lankestee, K.C.B., F.R.S,
Sir J. J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S.
Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer, F.R.S.
Sir Oliver Lodge, F.R.S.
Sir Arthur Schuster, F.R.S.
Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S.
Hon. Sir C. A. Parsons, O.M.. K.C.B.
F.R.S.
OF THE ASSOCIATION.
, I Prof. Sir C. S. Sherrington, O.M.,
I G.B.E., F.R.S.
I Sir Ernest Rutherford, O.M.,Pres.R.S.
; Major-Gen. Sir David Bbucb, K.C.B.,
F.R.S.
Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R.S.
I H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S.
PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Sir E. Sharpey-Schafer, F.R.S.
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S.
Dr. J. G. Garson.
Major P. A. MacMahon, F.R.S.
Prof. H. H. Turner. F.R.S.
Dr. E. H. Griffiths, F.R.S.
Prof. A. Bowlky.
HON. AUDITORS.
I Prof. A. W. Kibkaldy.
XXXV
LOCAL OFFICERS
FOR THE GLASGOW MEETING.
LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES.
Prof. Magnus McLean, D.Sc, LL.D., F.R.S.E.
Prof. J. Graham Kerr, M.A., F.R.S.
LOCAL HON. TREASURER AND ACTING SECRETARY.
Sir John S. Samuel, K.B.E., D.L., F.R.S.E.
SECTIONAL OFFICERS.
A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
President.— Ptoi. A. W. Porter, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Proi. W. L. Bragg, F.R.S. ; Prof. E. Taylor Jones , Prof. T. M.
MacRobert : Prof. John Miller ; Prof. James Muir ; Prof. R. A. Sampson,
F.R.S.
Recorder. — Prof. A. M. Tyndall.
Secretaries.— Ca,Tpt. F. Entwistle ; W. M. H. Greaves ; Prof. E. H. Neville.
Local Secretary. — Dr. R. A. HousTOUN.
B.— CHEMISTRY.
President.— Proi. E. C. C. Baly, C.B.E., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Prof. G. G. Henderson, F.R.S. ; Dr. N. V. Sidqwick, F.R.S. ;
William Rintoul.
Recorder. — Prof. C. S. Gibson.
Secretaries. — Prof. J. C. Drummond ; Dr. E. K. Rideal.
Local Secretaries. — Prof. F. J. Wilson ; Dr. S. H. Tucker.
C— GEOLOGY.
President. — E. B. Bailey, M.C, Leg. d'Hon.
Vice-Presidents. — Ernest J. Edwards ; Dr. Gertrude Elles ; Sir John Flett,
K.B.E., F.R.S. ; Prof. J. W. Gregory, F.R..'^. : Prof. F. E. Suess : Dr. Herbert
H. Thomas, F.R.S.
Recorder. — I. S. Double.
Secretaries. — H. C. Veesey ; Dr. A. K. Wells.
Local Secretary. — Dr. G. W. Tyreell.
D.— ZOOLOGY.
President. — Prof. W. Garstang.
Vice-Presidents. — Dr. G. P. Bidder ; Prof. J. Graham Keer, F.R.S. ; Prof. L. A. L.
King.
Recorder. — Prof. F. Balfoue Beowne.
Secretary. — G. Leslie Puesee.
Local Secretary. — Dr. G. S. Carter.
e 2
Xxxvi OFFICERS OF SEOTION.S, 1928.
E.— GEOGRAPHY.
President. — Prof. J. L. Myees.
Vice-Presidents. — Dr. R. N. Rudmose Browm ; Prof. Douglas Johnson ; S. Mayor :
A. Stevens ; Sir D. M. Stevenson.
Recorder. — W. H. Baekee.
Secretary. — R. H. Kinvig.
Local Secretary. — P. R. Ceowe.
F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
President. — Prof. Aixyn Young.
Vice-Presidents.- — C. R. Gibson ; Prof. D. H. Macgbegoe ; G. A. Mitchell ; P. D.
Ridge-Beedle ; Prof. W. R. Scott.
Recorder. — R. B. Foeeestee.
Secretaries. — Dr. J. A. Bowie ; Dr. K. G. Fenblon.
Local Secretary. — J. W. Nisbet.
G.— ENGINEERING.
President. — Sir William Ellis, G.B.E.
Vice-Presidents. — Prof. J. D. Coemack, C.M.G., C.B.E. ; Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson ;
Prof. A. L. Mellanby.
Recorder.— Plot. F. C. Lea.
Secretaries. — Prof. G. Cook ; J. S. Wilson.
Local Secretary. — Dr. R. M. Beown.
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
President. — Sir Geoege Macdonald, K.C.B., F.B.A.
Vice-Presidents.— rroi. T. H. Bryce, F.R.S. ; Dr. V. Christian ; Prof. F. G.
Parsons ; Prof. E. Westeemarck.
Recorder. — E. N. Fallaize.
Secretary. — L. H. Dudley Buxton.
Local Secretary. — T. NicoL.
I.— PHYSIOLOGY.
President. — Prof. C. Lovatt Evans, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.— Proi. E. P. Cathcart, C.B.E., F.R.S. ; Dr. C. G. Douglas, CM G ,
F.R.S. ; Prof. J. J. R. Macleod ; Prof. D. Noel Paton, F.R.S. ; Prof. H. e!
ROAF.
Recorder. — Dr. M. H. MacKeith.
Secretary. — Prof. B. A. McSwiney.
Local Secretary. — R. C. Gaeey.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY.
President.— Pioi. T. H. Pear.
Vice-Presidents.— Br. W.Bb.owi<i ; Dr. J. Drever ; Dr. J. L. McIntyee ; Dr C S
Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S. ' ' "
Recorder. — Dr. S. Dawson.
Secretaries. — R. J. Bartlett ; Dr. Maby Collins.
Local Secretary. — Dr. R. H. Thouless.
OFFlCERiS OF SECTIONS, 1928. XXXvii
K.— BOTANY.
President. — Prof. Dame Helen GwYNNE-VAuaHAN, D.B.E.
Vice-Presidents. — Prof. J. M. F. Drummond ; Prof. David Ellis ; Prof. F. E.
Fritsch ; Sir John Stirling -Maxwell, Bt.
Chairman, Dept. of Forestry. — Rt. Hon. The Earl of Home ; Vice-Chairman. —
Sir John Stirling-Maxwell, Bt.
Recorder. — Prof. J. McLean Thompson.
Secretaries. — Prof. A. W. Borthwiok (Dept. of Forestry) ; Dr. H. S. Holden ; Prof.
W. Robinson.
Local Secretaries. — Dr. John Thomson ; T. W. Hamilton (Dept. of Forestry).
L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
President. — Dr. Cybil Norwood.
Vice-Presidents. — The Duchess of Atholl, D.B.E. , M.P. ; Dr. William Boyd ;
George A. Burnett ; John Clark, C.B.E.
Recorder. — G. D. Dunkerlby.
Secretaries.— R. E. M. Icely ; E. R. Thomas.
Local Secretary. — Dr. D. MacGillivray.
M.— AGRICULTURE.
President.— Dt. J. S. Gordon, C.B.E.
Vice-Presidents.— G. G. T. Morison ; Principal W. G. R. Paterson ; Sir David
Wilson, Bt.
Recorder. — Prof. G. Scott Robertson.
Secretary. — Dr. B. A. Keen.
Local Secretary. — Prof. R. A. Berry.
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING
SOCIETIES.
President. — Dr. Vaughan Corvtsh.
XXXVIU
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
TABLE OF
Uate of Meetiug
Where held
Presidents
1831, Sept. 27 ,
1832, June 19..
1833, June 25 ..
1834, Sept. 8 ..
1835, Aug. 10 ..
1836, Aug. 22..
1837, Sept. 11..
1838, Aug. 10 .,
1839, Aug. 26 .,
1840, Sept. 17.
1841, July 20 .
1842, June 23.
1843, Aug. 17 .
1844, Sept. 26.
1845, June 19
1846, Sept. 10.,
1847, June 23 .
1848, Aug. 9 .
1849, Sept. 12 .
1860. July 21 .
18B1, July 2....
1852, Sept. 1 .
1853. Sept. 3 .
1864, Sept. 20
1855, Sept. 12 .
1856, Aug. 6 .
1857, Aug. 26 .
1858, Sept. 22 .
1859, Sept. 14 .
1860, June 27
1861, Sept. 4 .
1862, Oct. 1 .
1863, Aui. 26 .
1864, Sept. 13
1865, Sept. 6 .
1866, Aug. 22 .
1867, Sept. 4 .
1868, Aug. 19
1869, Aug. 18..
1870, Sept. 14.
1871, Aug. 2 .
1872, Aug. 14.
1873, Sept. 17.
1874, Aug. 19
1875, Aug. 25
1876, Sept. 6 .
1877, Aug. 15 .
1878, Aug. 14 .
1879, Aug. 20
1880, Aug. 25
1881, Aug. 31
1882, Aug. 23 .
1883, Sept. 19 .
1884, Aug. 27
1885, Sept. 9
1886, Sept. 1
1887, Aug. 31
1 888, Sept. 5
1889, Sept. 11
18!tO, Sept. 3
1891, Aug. 19
1892, Aug. 3
1893, Sept. 13
1894, Aug. 8 .
1896, Sept. 11 .
1893, Sept. 16
1897, Aug. 18 .
1898, Sept 7
1899, Sept. 13
York
O.xford
Cambridge
Edinburgh
Dublin
Bristol
Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Tyne..
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymoutli
Manchester
Cork
York
Cambridge
Southampton
Oxford
Swansea
Birmingham
Edinburgh
Ipswich
Belfast
Hull
Liverpool
Glasgow
Cheltenham
Dublin
Leeds
Aberdeen
Oxford
Manchester
Cambridge
Newcastle-on-Ty ne. .
Bath
Birmingham
Nottingham
Dundee
Norwich
Exeter
Liverpool
Edinburgh
Brighton
Bradford
Belfast
Bristol
Glasgow
Plymouth
Dublin
ShefBeld
Swansea ..
York
Southampton
Southport
Montreal
Aberdeen
Birmingham
Manchester
Bath
Newcastle-ou-Tyne.
Leeds
Cardiff
Edinburgh
Nottingham...
Oxford
Ipswich
Liverpool
Toronto
Bristol
Dover
Viscount Milton, D.O.L., F.R.S.
The Rev. W. Buckland, F.K.S
The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.O.L., F.R.S.
The Rev. Provost LIoyd.LL.D., F.R.S
Tbe Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S
The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S,
The Rev. W. Verm .nHarcourt, F.R.S.
The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S,
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R.S
The Lord Francis Egerton, P.G.S.
The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.
The Rev. 6. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S.
Sir John P. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R.
Sir Roderick I.Murehison,Bart.,F.R.
Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S.
TheMarquis of Northampton,Pres.R,
The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.,F.R.
Sir David Brewster, K.H., F.R.S...
G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S,
Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R!s
William Hopkins, F.R.S.
The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
The Duke of Argyll. F.R.S.
Prof. 0. G. B. Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.
The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F.R.S.
Richard Owen, M.D., D.O.L., F.R.S.
H.R.H. The Prince Consort
The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S.
William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S.
The Rev. Professor WiUi3,M.A.,F.R.S,
SirWilliam G. Armstrong.O.B., F.R.S
Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S
William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S.
The DukeofBuccleuch, K.O.B.,F.R,
Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S.
Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.O.L., F.R.S.
Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R.S.
Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S.
Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.
Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.
Prof. T. Andrews, M.D., F.R.S.'
Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S.
W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S.
Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.'"
A. 0. Ramsay, LL.D., F.R.S
Sir John Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S.
Dr. 0. W. Siemens, F.R.S. .
Prof. A. Cayley, D.O.L., F.R.S. ..'.'.'.'.
Prof. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S. [
Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir J. W. Dawson, O.M.G., F.R.S. "
Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.O.L., F.R.S.
Sir F. J. Bramwell, F.R.S.
Prof. W. H. Flower, O.B., F.R.S.
Sir F. A. Abel, O.B., F.R.S.
Dr. W. Huggins, F.R.S
Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S
Prof. J. S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S
The Marquis of Salisbury,K.G..F.R,S
Sir Douglas Galton. K.C.B., F.R.S.
Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. R.S.
Sir John Evans, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Sir W. Orookes, F.R.S '..',',',
Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec.E.S.
Old Life
Members
169
303
109
226
313
241
314
149
227
235
172
164
141
238
194
182
236
222
184
286
321
239
203
287
292
207
167
196
204
314
246
245
212
162
239
221
173
201
184
144
272
178
203
236
225
314
428
266
277
259
189
280
201
327
214
330
120
281
296
New Life
Members
65
169
28
160
36
10
18
3
12
9
8
10
13
23
33
14
15
42
27
21
113
15
36
40
44
31
25
18
21
39
28
36
27
13
36
36
19
18
16
11
28
17
60
20
18
25
86
36
20
21
24
14
17
21
13
31
8
19
20
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.
t Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
\_Continved on p. xl.
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
NXXIX
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
f
A mniinl
Sums paid 1
ow
Annual
New
Annual
Asso-
ciates
Ladies
Foreigners
Total
received
for
Tickets
on account 1
of Grants i
Tear
Members
Members
1
'or tjcieutiflC'
Purposes
1
~ 1
353
1331
—
—
—
—
— -
—
—
1832
—
—
—
—
900
—
1
—
1833
—
—
—
—
1298
—
£20
1834
—
—
—
—
—
—
107
1835
—
—
—
—
1350
—
435
1836
_
—
—
—
1840
—
922 12 6
1837
—
—
1100*
—
2400
—
932 2 2
1833
—
—
34
1438
_
1595 11
1839
—
—
40
1353
_
1546 16 4
1840
46
317
—
60*
—
891
—
1235 10 n
1841
76
376
33t
331*
28
1316
—
1449 17 8
1842
71
186
—
160
—
—
—
1565 10 2
1843
46
190
9t
260
_
_
—
981 12 8
1844
94
22
407
172
35
1079
—
831 9 9
1845
66
39
270
196
36
857
—
685 16
1846
197
40
495
203
63
1320
—
208 5 4
1847
64
26
376
197
16
819
£707
275 1 8
1848
93
33
447
237
22
1071
963
159 19 6
1849
128
42
610
273
44
1241
1085
345 18
1850
61
47
244
141
37
710
620
391 9 7
1851
63
60
510
292
9
1108
2085
304 6 7
1852
66
67
367
236
6
876
903
205
1853
121
121
765
524
10
1R02
1882
380 19 7
1864
142
101
1094
543
26
2133
2311
480 16 4
1855
104
48
412
316
9
1115
1098
734 13 9
1856
156
120
900
569
26
2022
2015
507 15 4
1857
111
91
710
609
13
1698
1931
618 18 2
1858
126
179
1206
821
22
2564
2782
684 U 1
1859
177
69
636
463
47
1689
1604
766 19 6
1860
184
125
1589
791
16
3138
3944
nil 5 10
1861
150
57
433
242
25
1161
1089
1293 16 6
1862
154
209
1704
1004
25
3335
3640
1608 3 10
1803
182
103
1119
1058
13
2802
2965
1289 15 8
1804
215
149
766
508
23
1997
2227
1591 7 10
1865
218
105
960
771
11
2303
2469
1750 13 4
1866
193
118
1163
771
7
2444
2613
1739 4
1807
220
117
720
682
45J
2004
2042
1940
1808
229
107
678
600
17
1856
1931
1622
1809
303
195
1103
910
14
2878
3096
1572
1870
311
127
976
754
21
2463
2575
1472 2 6
1871
280
80
937
912
43
2533
2649
1285
1872
237
99
796
601
11
1983
2120
1685
1873
232
85
817
630
12
1951
1979
1151 16
1874
307
93
884
672
17
2248
2397
960
1875
331
185
1265
712
25
2774
3023
1092 4 2
1876
238
59
446
283
11
1229
1268
1128 9 7
1877
290
93
1285
674
17
2578
2615
725 16 6
1878
239
74
529
349
13
1404
1425
1080 11 11
1879
171
41
389
147
12
915
899
731 7 7
1880
313
176
1230
614
24
2557
2689
476 8 1
1881
253
79
516
189
21
1253
1286
1126 1 11
1882
330
323
952
841
5
2714
3369
1083 3 3
1883
317
219
826
74
26 & 60 H.{
1777
1855
1173 4
1884
332
122
1053
447
6
2203
2256
1385
1885
428
179
1067
429
11
2453
2532
995 6
1886
510
244
1985
493
92
3838
4336
1186 18
1887
399
100
639
509
12
1984
2107
1511 5
1888
412
113
1024
579
21
2437
2441
1417 11
1889
368
92
680
334
12
1775
1776
789 16 8
1890
341
152
672
107
35
1497
1664
1029 10
1891
413
141
73:^
439
50
2070
20O7
864 10
1892
328
57
773
268
17
1661
1653
907 15 6
1893
435
69
941
451
77
2321
2175
683 15
1894
290
31
493
261
22
1324
1236
977 16 6
1895
383
139
1384
873
41
3181
3228
not 6 1
1896
286
125
1 682
100
41
1362
1398
, 1059 10 8
1897
327
96
1 1051
639
33
2446
2399
1212
1898
324
1 68
548
120
27
1 1403
1328
1430 14 3
1899
X Including Ladies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for tbis Meeting
[ Continued on p. xli.
xl
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
Table of
Date of Meeting
Where held
Presidents
Sir William Turner, D.O.L., F.R.S. ...
Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc, SecJl.S. ...
Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S
Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S.
Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M.P., F.R.S.
Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ...
Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S.
Sir David Gill, K.O.B., F.R.S
Dr. Francis Darwin, F.R.S
Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S
Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S
Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.O.B., F.R.S.
Prof . E. A. Sohafer, F.R.S
Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S
Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S
Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S
1 Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S \
Hon. Sir 0. Parsons, K.O.B.,F.R.S....
Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S.
Sir T. E. Thorpe, O.B., F.R.S
Sir 0. S. Sherrington, CI.B.E.,
Pres. R.S
Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S.
Sir David Bruce, K.C.B., F.R.S
Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R.S
H.R.H. The Prince of V.^ales, E.G.,
F.R.S
Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S
Sir William Bragg, K.B E., F.R.S. ...
Old Life
Members
267
310
243
250
419
115
322
276
294
117
293
284
288
376
172
242
164
235
288
336
228
326
119
280
358
249
260
New Life
Members
1900, Sept. 5
1901, Sept. 11
1902, Sept. 10
1903, Sept. 9
1904, Aug. 17
1905, Aug. 16
1906, Aug. 1
1907, July 31
1908, Sept. 2
1909, iug. 25
1910, Aug. 31
1911, Aug. 30
1912, Sept. 4
1913, Sept. 10
1914, July-Sept....
1915, Sept. 7
1916, Sept. 6
1917
1918
1919, Sept. 9
1920, Aug. 24
1921, Sept. 7
1922, Sept. 6
1923, Sept. 12
1924, Aug. 6
1925, Aug. 26
1926, Aug. 4
1927, Aug. 31
1928, Sept. 5
Bradford .
13
37
21
21
32
40
10
19
24
13
2S
21
14
40
13
19
12
47
11
9
13
12
7
8
9
9
10
Glasgow
Belfast
Southport
Oambridge
South Africa
York
Leicester
Dublin
Winnipeg
Sheffield
Portsmouth
Australia ... ...
Manchester
Newcastle-on-Ty ne . . .
(No Meeting)
(No Meeting)
Bournemouth
Cardiff
Edinburgh
Hull
Liverpool
Toronto
Southampton
Oxford
Leeds
Glasgow
' Including 848 Members of the South African Association.
" Including 137 Members of the American Association.
' Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
Report, 1914, p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of
L'Association FranQaise at Le Havre.
* Including Students' Tickets, 10s.
■ Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge.
ANNUAL MEETINGS.
xli
Annual Meetings — (continued).
ow
Annual i
New !
Annual
1
Asso-
ciates 1
Ladies
foreigners
Total
Amount
received
for
Tickets
£1801
Sums paid
on account
of Grants
Year
Members
Members .
1
1
or Scientific
Purposes
61072 10
297
46
801
482
9
1915
1900
374
131
794
246
20
1912
2046
920 9 11
1901
314
86
647
306
6
1620
1644
947
1902
319
90
688
365
21
1754
1762
845 13 2
1903
449
113
1338
317
121
2789
2650
887 18 11
1904
937'
411
430
181
16
2130
2422
928 2 2
1905
366
93
817
362
22
1972
1811
882 9
1906
339
61
659
251
42
1647
1561
757 12 10
1907
466
112
1166
222
14
2297
2317
1157 18 8
1908
290'
162
789
90
7
1468
1623
1014 9 9
1909
379
67
563
123
8
1449
1439
963 17
1910
349
61
414
81
31
1241
1176
922
1911
368
95
1292
359
88
2504
2349
845 7 6
1912
480
149
1287
291
20
2643
2756
978 17 1
1913
139
4160»
639=
—
21
6044"
4873 1861 16 4«
1914
287
116
628*
141
8
1441
1406
1569 2 8
1915
260
76
261*
73
—
826
821
985 18 10
1916
677 17 2
1917
326 13 3
1918
264
102
688*
153
3
1482
1736
410
1919
Annual Membe
rs
Old
Transfer*
Students'
Annual
able
Hegulat ,
Members
Meeting
and
Beport
Meetl
onli
„g Tickets
Tickets
136
192
67
42
120
20
1380
1272 10
1251 13 0'
1920
133
410
1394
121
343
22
2768
2599 15
618 1 10
1921
90
294
75'
r 89
235»
24
1730
1699 5
772 7
1922
Compli-
mentary.
123
38U 143
( 163
550
308'
3296
2735 15
777 18 6'
1923
37
520 186
; 41
89
139
2818
3165 19'»1197 5 9
1924
97
264 87
i 62
119
74
1782
1630 6
1231
1925
101
453
233
i 169 225
69
3722
3542
917 1 6
1926
84
334
148
7 82 264
161
2670
2414 5
761 10
1927
76
554
183
5 64 201
74
3074
3072 10
1259 10
1928
* Including grants from tlie Caird Fund in tbis and subsequent years.
' Including Foreign Giiesta, Exhibitioners, and otliers.
■ Tlie Bournemouth Fund tor Kesearoh, initiated by Sir 0. Parsons, euftbled grants on account of
scientific purpo.ses to be maintained.
• Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in rndinaotivity in this and subsequent years
"'" Subscriptions paid in Canada were .f 5 for Moeting only and other? pro rata ; there was some
L'ain on exchange.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1927-28.
I. The Council desires to congratulate the General Committee upon
the success of the petition to H.M. the King in Council, made on the
Committee's instruction by the President and General Officers, for the
grant of a Royal Charter of Incorporation to the Association. The grant
was approved on March 22, and the Charter was received on April 27.
The Council conveyed to Mr. A. A. Campbell Swinton its warm thanks
for his generous donation of £200, covering the costs of the Charter and
expenses incidental to its acquisition.
The Council has caused the Association's securities, hitherto in the
hands of Trustees, namely Major P. A. MacMahon, Sir Arthur Evans, and
the Hon. Sir Charles Parsons, to be transferred to the Association itself.
The Council commends the generous services of the Trustees to the General
Committee for an expression of their appreciation.
The Council has had under consideration those of the former Rules of
the Association which have not been embodied in the Statutes appended
as a schedule to the Charter, has amended and added to them, and submits
them to the General Committee and the Committee of Recommendations
for consideration and adoption as Regulations supplementary to the
Statutes.
II. The Council tendered its grateful thanks to H.R.H. the Prince of
Wales for his gift of a signed portrait as a memento of his presidency.
III. The President sent to the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Balfour, K.G., O.M.,
F.R.S. (President, 1904), a telegram expressing good wishes, on behalf of
the Association, on the occasion of Lord Balfour's eightieth birthday.
IV. The Council has had to deplore the loss by death of the following
office-bearers and supporters : Dr. C. Chree, Lt.-Col. Allan Cunningham,
Dr. H. F. Gadow, Dr. D. G. Hogarth, Dr. J. Home, Prof. A. Liversidge,
Mr. W. C. F. Newton, Sir A. E. Shipley, Sir A. Strahan.
The Council forwarded to the Linnean Society a message of condolence
on the death of Dr. Daydon Jackson.
V. Sir Thomas Holland, K.C.S.I., K.C.I.E., F.R.S., has been unani-
mously nominated to fill the office of President of the Association for the
year 1929-30 (South African Meeting).
In accordance with the practice usual in connexion with an overseas
meeting, the Council has appointed a committee, consisting of the President
and General Officers, Lord Bledisloe, Sir William Bragg, Sir Richard Gregory
and Sir Thomas Holland (with power to add to their number), to assist
it in making arrangements for the South African Meeting. The Secretary
of the Association has visited South Africa to confer with the authorities
there on the arrangements, and has reported to the Council. The principal
points in his report, which has been approved and adopted by the Council,
are as follow :
He was in consultation with the local executive at Johannesburg, appointed by
the South African Association for the Advancement of Science (the inviting body)
to arrange the meeting ; he also met the local Committee at Cape Town, and
university, municipal, and other authorities at both these cities and at Pretoria. He
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1927 28. xliii
found everywhere enthusiasm for the visit ; and the list of tliose members of the
(loticral Committee who indicated in April last the possibility that they would visit
South Africa gave much satisfaction (and has since been published in the Press).
The Secretary found cogent reasons for amending the proposed date of the meeting,
so that it may begin in Cape Town on July 22, 1929 (instead t)f Julj^ 29), and he took
the responsibility of fixing this (as he was asked to do) on behalf of the Association.
The Council is satisfied with his reasons for thus anticipating the decision of the
General Committee, and desires to endorse them. They are :
(i) A general preference in South Africa for the earlier date, and, in particular,
the greater convenience of the Universities of Cape Town and the Witwatersrand
(Johannesburg), where most of the meetings will be held.
(ii) Opportunity for co-operation with the International Geological Congress at
Pretoria, July 29- August 7.
(iii) Opportunity for co-operation with a Government Departmental Agricultural
Conference, and a Pan-African Agricultural and Veterinary Congress, beginning on
August 2 in Pretoria, the latter being transferred from Rhodesia to that city in view
of the Association's visit.
Expected steamer sailings from England are more convenient with the earlier date.
The general outline of the Meeting is as follows :
Cape Town, July 22-July 28-29. Inaugural meeting, July 22, at which it is
proposed that the president of the South African Association should address the
meeting first, and that the new president of the British Association should then be
installed, and reply. Sectional meetings, mornings only, July 23-26. Evening
discourse, public lectures, excursions, &c.
Call at Kimberley, July 29-30.
Johannesburg, July 30-31-August 4. Presidential Address, July 31. Sectional
Meetings, mornings only, July 31-August 3, and other arrangements as above.
Pketokia, sectional transactions, &c., as appropriate in connexion with the
co-operating congresses indicated above ; continuing to August 7.
After the meetings, extended tours through the Union, to Victoria Falls, Rhodesia,
Lourengo Marques, &c., as to which members wUl be afforded opportunity to indicate
their preference.
It is proposed that in consideration of a grant by the South African Association
to the British Association of a sum not exceeding £500 and reckoned at £1 per head
of the number of persons involved, the British Association should admit to membership
members of the South African Association in good standing down to June 1929,
entitling them to attend the meeting and receive the report if desired. From 300 to
400 members are expected under this category, and the arrangement resembles that
made in 1905.
The report entered into many details of arrangements, wliich the
Council, through its committee mentioned above, has already taken in
hand. Particulars are expected to be available at the Glasgow Meeting.
It should be added that the Secretary, in making the journey, was the
guest of the South African Association ; and the Council, in gratefully
accepting the invitation to him, offered to meet the costs incurred if a
representative of the local executive should attend the Glasgow Meeting.
The gratifying intimation has since been received that IVIr. James
Gray, of Johannesburg, will do so in that capacity.
An offer has been received from the Rhodes Trustees, and has been
gratefully accepted by the Council, to make a grant of £200 toward any
further authoritative investigation at the ruins at Great Zimbabwe under-
taken in connexion with the South African Meeting.
A generous invitation has been received from L' Association franyaise
pour I'Avancement des Sciences, and from the City of Le Havre, for
members unable to take part in the South African Meeting, to attend that
of the French association in Le Havre, as was done in 1914.
xliv REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1927-28.
VI. Representatives of the Association have been appointed as
follow : —
Institute of Chemistry, Jubilee Celebration . Prof. E. C. C. Baly.
Royal College of Physicians, Tercentenary
of William Harvey . . . .Sir Charles Sherrington.
Toronto University, Centenary Celebration . Sir Charles Sherrington.
International Etruscan Congress . . Dr. Randall-Maclver.
University College, Nottingham, opening of
ne.T buildings Prof. J. L. MjTes.
National Association for the Prevention of
Tuberculosis, Congress .... Dr. J. G. Garson.
Meetings convened by the Management
Research Groups to consider rationalisa-
tion in industry The President and Secretary.
On the report concerning the meetings last mentioned, the Council resolved to
welcome the proposal for management research groups ;i3 a step toward greater
freedom in the interchange of information with a view to establishing mutual con-
fidence and encouraging mutual service between enterprises of all kinds v.hich depend
for their efficiency on the methods and results of scientific investigations.
VII. The Council, in pursuance of instruction received from the General
Committee, communicated to the British Science Guild the report of the
joint committee, with a general approval of the conditions therein suggested
upon which a union of the Guild with the Association might be
effected.
Further action by the Council of the British Science Guild is awaited.
VIII. Resolutions referred by the General Committee at the Leeds
Meeting to the Council for consideration, and if desirable, for action, were
dealt with as follows :
(a) Information has been requested as to the proposed content of the
republished reports of the Mathematical Tables Committee in collected
form, with other tables, with a view to arriving at an estimate of cost.
A first and provisional estimate has been made, indicating a cost of £350
for an edition of 1,000 of such a volume as is contemplated, or of £430 for
an edition of 2,000. (Resolution of Section A.)
(6) The Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, on being consulted
as to the publication of the survey of the St. Kilda islands, informed the
Council of his willingness to undertake the publication, and subsequently
that publication had taken place. (Resolution of Section E, supplemented
by Sections C, D, H, K.)
(c) A resolution inviting the inclusion of geographical work in the
programme of the proposed Great Barrier Reef Expedition was i -ferred
to the Great Barrier Reef Committee. The Council is informed that
expert geographers are included in the staff of the expedition. (Resolution
of Section E.)
(d) A letter ' was received from the Scottish Board of Education in
answer to representations made on the teaching of geography in Scotland
(Resolution of Section E).
( ) In regard to the resolution authorising the Council to })ublish a
new edition of ' Notes and Queries on Anthropology,' the Council has made
an interim grant of £50 toward incidental expenses of the work of compila-
tion, and awaits an estimate of the cost of publication. (Resolution of
Section H.)
' Fur letter and discussion in Section E, see p. 639.
REPORT 0¥ THE COUNCIL, 1927-28. xlv
(/) A resolution dealing with the low percentage of productive forest
area in Great Britain was adopted with the addition of a reference to the
rapid depletion of forests in other parts of the Empire, and was com-
municated to the Empire Forestry Association and the Empire Marketing
Board. (Resolution of Section K.)
(g) In regard to resolutions from the Conference of Delegates of
Corresponding Societies, dealing with the preservation of British wild
flora, the Council caused a circular letter to be addressed to 311 education
authorities in England and Wales, inviting their support in strengthening
and extending the movement toward this object, and received from some
fifty of these authorities replies indicative of a realisation of the importance
of the matter. The Council acknowledges with gratitude information
placed at its disposal by the Home Ofl&ce, and has remitted further con-
sideration of the question to the committee nominated by Section K
(Botany) to deal with it.
IX. The attention of the Council was drawn to the full account of
the special sessions on textile subjects at the Leeds Meeting issued as a
number of the Journal of the Textile Institute, Manchester, and to the
warm appreciation of the action of^the Council, therein expressed, in
arranging these sessions.
X. The Council in its report for 1926-27 recorded its unsatisfactory
negotiations with Government authorities on the subject of the introduc-
tion of cinematograph films into this country for scientific purposes and
not for commercial use. The Council is glad to learn that the difficulty
encountered has now been overcome by the action of H.M. Government
in undertaking to accept the certificate of the Royal Society as to films
stated to be illustrative of scientific investigations.
XI. The Council has received reports from the General Treasurer
throughout the year. His accounts have been audited and are presented
to the General Committee.
The Council made the following grants to research committees from
the income of the Caird Fund :
Naples Table .. £100 Seismology.. .. £100
A sum of £10 10s. was voted toward the expenses of the Inquiry into
the relationship of Technical Education to other forms of Education and
to Industry and Commerce, upon which the Association was represented
by Sir Robert Blair.
The Council has been informed that under the will of the late Lt.-Col.
Allan Cunningham a legacy will accrue to the Association for the purpose
of continuing the work of preparing new mathematical tables.
The Association, like the great majority of scientific societies, has been
unable to recover income tax previously remitted upon income from
invested funds. The cases regarded by the Inland Revenue authorities
as test cases upon the liability of societies to taxation (Geologists' Associa-
tion ; Midland Counties Institution of Engineers) have been decided
against the societies by the Special Commissioners and in the High Court
of Justice. The Council is informed that appeals against these decisions
have been lodged.
XII. The Corresponding Societies Committee has been nominated as
follows : The President of the Association {Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T.
xlvi
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1927-28.
Sheppard (V ice-Chairman), the General Treasurer, the General Secretaries,
Mr. C. 0. Bartrum, Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, Sir David Prain,
Sir John Russell, Mr. M. L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney.
The Council conveyed its congratulations to the Cardiff Naturalists'
Society on the occasion of the Society's diamond jubilee.
XIII. The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are Mr. E. N.
Fallaize, Prof. J. P. Hill, Sir Thomas Holland, Prof. A. Smithells, Prof.
T. B. Wood.
The Council nominates the following new members : Prof. C. Burt,
Mr. C. G. T. Morison, Sir Josiah Stamp, leaving two vacancies to be filled
by the General Committee without nomination by the Council.
The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :
Prof. J. H. Ashworth.
Rt. Hon. Lord Bledisloe.
Prof. A. L. Bowley.
Prof. C. Burt.
Prof. E. G. Coker.
Prof. W. Dalby.
Dr. H. H. Dale.
Sir J. S. Flett.
Sir Henry Fowler.
Sir R. A. Gregory.
C. T. Heycock.
A. R. Hinks.
Col. Sir H. G. Lyons.
C. G. T. Morison.
Dr. C. S. Myers.
Prof. T. P. Nunn.
Prof. A. 0. Rankine.
C. Tate Regan.
Prof. A. C. Seward.
Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
Dr. N. V. .Sidgwick.
Dr. G. C. Simpson.
Sir Josiah Stamp.
XIV. The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as
follows :— ■
General Treasurer :
General Secretaries .
Sir Josiah Stamp.
Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. F. E. Smith.
During its present session the Council has again been deprived of the
presence of Dr. E. H. Griffiths, General Treasurer, owing to ill-health, but
it is gratefully recorded that he has not allowed this to deprive the Council
of his valuable advice and reports on the finances of the Association, which
have been presented on his behalf by Dr. F. E. Smith as acting treasurer.
Nevertheless Dr. Griffiths has felt it necessary again to tender his resigna-
tion, and the Council, with the deepest regret, feels that he cannot again
be pressed to withdraw it. In accordance with precedent, the Coimcil has
consulted a committee consisting of the President, General Officers and
ex-Presidents, in considering the nomination to be made in the room of
Dr. Griffiths.
XV. The following have been admitted as members of the General
Committee : Dr. T. F. Chipp, Mr. Thurkill Cooke, Dr. Donald Patton,
Mr. A. Lennox Stanton.
XVI. Consultation has taken place with authorities in York as to the
possibility of holding the Centenary Meeting of the Association there in
1931. The Council, though appreciating the powerful sentiment which
would attract the Association to its birthplace on this occasion, cannot but
foresee difficulties associated mainly with the problem of housing a large
number of visiting members at places distant from the city. The matter
will be brought to the consideration of the General Committee at the
Glasgow Meeting, and a possible alternative will be put forward.
DOWN HOUSE.
The following important announcement was made' to the General Com-
mittee of the Association, meeting in Glasgow on September 5. regarding
Darwin's home, Down House, in the County of Kent. Mr. George
Buckston Browne, Fellow of the Royal College of Surgeons of England
and of the Society of Antiquaries, London, having acquired the property
from Prof. Charles Galton Darwin, F.R.S., grandson of the naturalist,
has transferred its possession to the British Association under the most
liberal conditions and with an endowment amply sufl&cient for its
niaintainance and preservation for all time.
At present Down House serves as a private school. When the tenant's
lease falls in or is acquired, the donor desires that the property be regarded
as a gift to the nation and opened to visitors every day of the week between
the hours of 10 and 6, without charge. He also desires that the Association
should use Down House and grounds for the benefit of science. The donor
has also suggested that certain of the rooms — particularly the old ' study,'
in which the Origin of Species was written — should be furnished, as near
as may be possible, as they were when Darwin lived in them. The donor
has already taken steps to secure this end and has obtained the willing
co-operation and greatest assistance from various members of the Darwin
family. Indeed, without the generous co-operation of the Darwin family
the transfer of ownership could not have been effected. The late Mrs.
Litchfield, the third daughter of Charles Darwin, bequeathed for Down
House her father's study chair and letter-weighing machine. Thanks also
to the generosity of other members and friends of the Darwin family —
Major Leonard Darwin, Prof. Charles G. Darwin, Mrs. Perrero, and Mrs.
Berkeley Hill, together with acquisitions made by himself, Mr. Buckston
Browne has already got together the nucleus of a Darwin collection for
Down. He has commissioned the Hon. John Collier to paint replicas of
his well-known portraits of Darwin and of Huxley to be hung at Down
House ; these commissions are already completed. It is hoped that the
shelves of the old study may be filled with all editions of Darwin's works,
and that Down House may become a repository of Darwiniana where
students will have an opportunity of consulting all original documents
concerning Darwin and his writings. Such an end can be attained only if
the British Association succeeds in enlisting the sympathetic co-operation
of all who may be the fortunate owners of articles which were in the
possession of Darwin or were associated with his life.
The Donor.
Mr. George Buckston Browne was born in Manchester in 1850. the only
son of a well-known medical man — Dr. Henry Browne, physician to the
Manchester Royal Infirmary and Lecturer on Medicine to the Manchester
Medical School. Dr. Henry Browne represented the fourth generation of
a medical dynasty where son had succeeded father, the founder of the
family having been Dr. Theophilus Browne of Derby who was townsman
1 By Prof. Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S.
xlviii DOWN HOUSI'L
and coutem2)orary of Dr. Erasmus Darwin, grandfather of Charles Darwin.
Mr. Buckston Browne continued the family tradition, representing the
fifth medical generation. In 1866, at the age of sixteen, he matriculated
as a student of London University, entered University College, was
awarded medals in Anatomy, Chemistry and Midwifery, gained the gold
medal for practical chemistry and the Liston gold medal in surgery. He
became a member of the Royal College of Surgeons in 1874 and gained in
open competition the house-surgeoncy to his hospital (University College
Hospital) where he served imder Sir John Erichsen. He also taught
anatomy under Prof. Vines Ellis. No one ever trained himself more
thoroughly for his profession.
After his term in hospital, Mr. Buckston Browne was invited by Sir
Henry Thompson, one of the most distinguished and accomplished
surgeons of the Victorian era, to become assistant and afterwards
collaborator. In 1884 he began practice on his own account and became
very closely, and very successfully, engaged in work. Indeed, his
application to his profession was such that for twenty-seven years, in the
earlier period of his career, he had neither a free day nor holiday. Mr.
Buckston Browne has contributed important articles to the literature of
his profession, but it was his practical ability, unerring insight, and skilled
hand which gained him his success and the esteem of his colleagues and
of his patients. In 1926 the Council of the Royal College of Surgeons
conferred on him the diploma of Fellow in recognition of his services to
surgery.
The donor of Down House has had, as his many friends well know,
not only a successful life but also a very happy one.
Mr. Buckston Browne's only daughter is the wife of Mr. Hugh Lett,
C.B.E., Surgeon to the London Hospital, and brother of a distinguished
artiste, Miss Phyllis Lett. In the Lett family Mr. Buckston Browne
possesses three charming grand-daughters.
But since the war death has laid a heavy hand upon his family. In
1919 he lost his only son, Lt.-Col. George Buckston Browne, who was
awarded the Distinguished Service Order for action in the field. Lt.-Col.
Buckston Browne left an only son. He also was struck down in 1924,
dying from typhoid fever in South Africa. A long line was thus brought
to a sudden end. In 1926 Mrs. Buckston Browne died, a devoted
partnership of fifty-two years being thus ended. Mrs. Buckston Browne
rests in the churchyard of her native village, Sparsholt, Hants. Here her
husband has endowed an almshouse for aged villagers in her memory.
The History of Down- House.
It may not be amiss to recount some of the circumstances which led
up to the appeal for the preservation of Darwin's home. Some years
before his death the late Sir Arthur Shipley, Master of Christ's College,
Cambridge, where Darwin was an undergraduate, wrote to a member of
the British Association as follows : ' It seems to me that Down House
■^ On the Ordnance Survey maps the spelling is Downe, but as Darwin always
wrote Doum without an ' e ' the latter spelling has been adopted.
DOWN HOUSE. xlix
ought to be a national possession. Do you know of any means by which
this can be brought about ? ' On the eve of the Leeds Meeting of the
British Association on August 31, 1927, the Council of the Association
considered this matter and empowered the then President (Sir Arthur
Keith) to make a public appeal at the close of his presidential address to
the assembled Association. An urgent S.O.S. was sent out with the happy
result which all now know. It was with as much surprise as satisfaction
that Sir Arthur Keith learned that the man who answered the call was a
Fellow of his own College. Indeed, he knew Mr. Buckston Browne as a
generous benefactor to that College and to the Harveian Society, but was
unaware of his love for Darwin and for Down. It was later that he
learned that Darwin's friend Huxley had long ago exerted an abiding
influence on the donor of Down.
Darwin's Association with Down House.
Darwin was born at Shrewsbury, February 12, 1809. Down House
was purchased for him by his father, Dr. Darwin, and he took up his
residence there on September 14, 1842. Darwin was then in his thirty-
fourth year ; three years previoiisly he had married his cousin, Emma
Wedgewood. His two eldest children, William and Anne, were born in
London ; the third, Mary, was born and died just after arrival at Down.
Then followed in 1843 Henrietta, who became Mrs. Litchfield ; in 1845
George, who became Sir George Darwin, F.R.S., and whose son, Prof.
Charles Darwin, F.R.S., succeeded to the ownership of Down and is the
fifth of a succession of father and son who have been elected Fellows of
the Royal Society — an unique record ; in 1847 Elizabeth was born ; in
the following year Francis, who became Sir Francis Darwin, F.R.S. — a
distinguished botanist and president of the British Association. His son,
Bernard Darwin, is known to all as an exponent as well as an authority
on golf. Leonard followed in 1850 — Major Leonard Darwin, scientist,
philanthropist and the founder and still active supporter of the Eugenics
Society. Then came Horace, now Sir Horace Darwin, F.R.S. , happily
still alive. And last number 10, Charles "Waring Darwin, who died in
childhood. Down was thus the home of a large and happy family,
perhaps the most gifted family ever born in England. There the great
naturalist died on April 19, 1882, in his seventy-fourth year. He worked
continuously at Down for almost forty years.
In that period he made his first draft of the Origin of Species (1842), he
wrote his researches on the Zoology of the Beagle, on Coral Reefs, and
prepared a new edition of a Naturalist's Voyage. Before he settled down
to work at Barnacles, to which he gave seven years (1847-54), he
prepared his papers on Volcanic Islands and on the Geology of South
America. Preparations for the Origin of Species, which did not receive
its final form until 1858-59, went on continuously from 1842 onwards.
Then followed his inquiries into Fertilisations of Orchids (1862), Variations
of Animals and Plants under Domestication (1868), Descent of Man (1871),
the Expression of the Emotions (1872), Movements and Habits of Climbing
Plants (1875) ; Insectivorous Plants appeared in the same year ; Cross
and Self Fertilisation in 1876, and his last work of all, one which was
begun Boon after he settled at Down, The Formation of Vegetable Mould
1928 d
DOWN HOUSE.
N
THE
SANDWALH
DOWN HOUSE.
d2
]ii DOWN HOUSE.
through the Action of Worms. No single home in the world can show
such a record. Truly from Down Charles Darwin shook the world and
gave human thought an impress which will endure for all time. Down
is a priceless heirloom not only for England but for the civilised world.
One of the greatest men of all time lived there.
As to the character of Down House, much is to be learned from the
account which Sir Francis Darwin has given in his father's biography : —
' On September 14, 1842, my father left London with his family and
settled at Down. In the autobiographical chapter his motives for moving
into the country are briefly given. He speaks of the attendance at
scientific societies and ordinary social duties as suiting his health so
" badly that we resolved to live in the country, which we both preferred
and have never repented of."
' The choice of Down was rather the result of despair than of actual
preference ; my father and mother were weary of house-hunting, and the
attractive points about the place thus seemed to them to counterbalance
its somewhat more obvious faults. It had at least one desideratum —
namely, quietness. Indeed, it would have been difiicult to find a more
retired place so near to London. ... It is a place where newcomers are
seldom seen, and the names occurring far back in the old church registers
are still known in the village.
' The house stands a quarter of a mile from the village, and is built,
like so many houses of the last century, as near as possible to the road — a
narrow lane winding away to the Westerham high road. In 1842 it was
dull and unattractive enough ; a square brick building of three storeys,
covered with shabby whitewash and hanging tiles. The garden had
none of the shrubberies or walls that now give shelter ; it was overlooked
from the lane, and was open, bleak, and desolate.
' The house was made to look neater by being covered with stucco,
but the chief improvement effected was the building of a large bow of
three storeys. This bow became covered with a tangle of creepers, and
pleasantly varied the south side of the house. The drawing-room, with
its verandah opening into the garden, as well as the study in which my
father worked during the later years of his life, were added at subsequent
dates.
' Eighteen acres of land were sold with the house, of which twelve acres
on the south side of the house form a pleasant field, scattered with fair-
sized oaks and ashes. From this field a strip was cut off and converted
into a kitchen garden, in which the experimental plot of ground was
situated, and where the greenhouses were ultimately put up.'
To fill in some further details of this picture of Down we may also draw
upon the description given by Mrs. Litchfield, in the life of her mother,
Mrs. Darwin — {Emma Darwin, privately printed 1904).
' For some time there had been a growing wish on the part of my
parents to live in the country. Their health made London undesirable
in many ways, and they both preferred the freedom and quiet of a country
life. They decided to buy a country house, but out of prudence resolved
upon not going beyond a moderate price, and as they also wished to be
near London, there was a weary search before they found anything at all
suitable. In her little diary, under July 22, 1842, I find the entry " went
DOWN HOUSE. liii
to ' Down,' " and this I think must have been the first sight of her future
home. It was bought for them by Dr. Darwin for about £2,200, and the
purchase was quickly completed, for they moved in on September 14, 1842.
' Down was then ten miles from a station, and the whole neighbourhood
was intensely rural and quiet, though only sixteen miles from London
Bridge.'
The two accompanying plans, the data for which were obtained throug
the kindness of Major Leonard Darwin, will give a precise idea of the
extent of the property and of the plan of Darwin's home. Fig. 1 shows
the arrangement and extent of the grounds ; the figures indicate the
acreage of each part. Down House is seen to be situated at 565-7 feet O.D.
The plantation with the sand walk round it— Darwin's ' thinking path '—
with the dry chalk valley beyond, are depicted ; so, too, are the orchard,
gardens and hot-houses. In Fig. 2 is given a plan of the ground floor of
Down House, the dimensions of each room being indicated in feet. It will
be seen to be a commodious house, and remains just as Darwin lived in
it. He added a new wing— that which includes the ' New Study and the
New Drawing Room.'
dS
liv GENERAL MEETINGS. PUBLIC LECTURES. &o.
GENERAL MEETINGS, ETC., IN
GLASGOW.
The Inaugural General Meeting was held on Wednesday, September 5,
1928, at 8.30 p.m., in the St. Andrew's Hall. After the Lord Provost of
Glasgow and the Principal of the University of Glasgow had welcomed
the Association, Prof. Sir William Bragg, F.R.S., assumed the Presidency
of the Association, in succession to Prof. Sir Art,hur Keith, F.R.S., and
delivered an Address (for which see page 1) on ' Craftsmanship and
Science.' A vote of thanks was proposed by Sir Henry Fowler, K.B.E.
On Thursday evening, September 6, a Reception and Dance were
given by the Lord Provost and Corporation of the City of Glasgow, in
the City Chambers. On Monday evening, September 10, a Reception
was given by the Local Committee in the Kelvinside Art Gallery.
Evening Discourses.
Prof. E. A. Westermarck: 'The Study of Popular Sayings.'
8.30 p.m., September 7, Royal Technical College ; being the Frazer
Lecture on Social Anthropology (see p. 656).
Prof. F. G. Donnan, F.R.S. : ' The Mystery of Life.' 8.30 p.m.,
September 11, Royal Technical College (see p. 659).
Public Lectures.
The following were delivered under the joint auspices of the British
Association and the Workers' Educational Association : —
Sir Josiah Stamp, G.B.E. : ' The Influence of Money on Civilisation.'
7 p.m., September 6, The University, Glasgow.
Mr. D. Ward Cutler: 'Food Chains in Nature.' 7.30 p.m.,
September 6, Public Library, Coatbridge.
Mr. W. H. O'K Manning : ' The Psychological Study of the Worker's
Environment.' 7.30 p.m., September 7, Museum Hall, Paisley.
Mr. A. Rex Knight : ' Psychology in the Workshop.' 7.30 p.m.,
September 7, St. Mungo's Hall, South York Street, Glasgow.
Prof. Henry Clay : ' Post-War Unemplovment Problems.' 7.30 p.m.,
September 7, Town Hall, Motherwell.
Prof. H. H. Turner, F.R.S. : ' Our Sun.' 7.30 p.m., September 7,
The University, Glasgow.
Prof. 0. H. T. Rishbeth : ' The World's Surface re-made by Man.'
7.30 p.m., September 10, Co-operative Memorial Hall, King Street,
Tradeston.
Concluding General Meeting.
The Concluding General Meeting was held in the Fore Hall of the
University on Wednesday, September 12, at 12 noon, when the following
resolutions were adopted with acclamation : —
The British Association most warmly thanks the Citizens and Corpora-
tion of the City of Glasgow, through the Right Honourable the Lord
CONCLUDING GENERAL MEETING— RESOLUTIONS. Iv
Provost, for the City's generous hospitality on the occasion of the Meeting
of the Association in 1928. The Association acknowledges the unremitting
labour of Sir John Samuel and his able staff, to whose admirable organisa-
tion the success of the meeting is so largely due ; and the especial gratitude
of the Association is accorded to Sir John and his colleague Prof. Magnus
Maclean for having again devoted their time to the work of local organisa-
tion as they did in 1901.
The British Association most gratefully acknowledges through the
Principal the generous co-operation and hospitality of the University of
Glasgow, on the occasion of the Meeting in 1928. The Association
especially appreciates the comfort and smooth working of the Meeting
which have resulted from having the magnificent buildings and resources
of the University placed unreservedly at its disposal.
The British Association deeply appreciates the facilities afforded to
its members to acquaint themselves with the manifold economic, industrial
and other scientific interests of the city and vicinity of Glasgow, by the
Royal Technical College, the Clyde Trust, and other public institutions,
manufacturers and civic authorities, and thanks all these for their kindly
hospitality.
RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS.
The following resolutions and recommendations were referred to the
Council by the General Committee at Glasgow for consideration and, if
desirable, for action : —
From Section E.
To recommend to Council that the British Association for the Advancement of
Science call the attention of the Governments and Departments concerned to the
urgent importance of securing as soon as possible the cohesion of surveys in the East
African Dependencies, with a view to the early completion of the thirtieth meridian
arc, which offers the best means of providing the essential unified framework iipon
which the whole of the surveys of East Africa — geodetic, topographical and geological- —
may be based without waste of effort.
From Section E.
To recommend to Council that the British Association represent to His Majesty's
Government the desirability of completing as soon as possible the uniform map of
Africa, published by the Geographical Section (General Staff), on the scale of
1 : 2,000,000, a maj) which forms the only satisfactory base for various distributional
studies in Africa ; and further, that on each sheet of the map to be issued in the
future a diagram be inserted to indicate the I'elative reliability of different areas of
the map.
From Section E.
To call the attention of His Majesty's Government to the need for supplementing
the periodical revision of Ordnance Survey maps by emergency revisions of areas
transformed by industrial or urban development, and to suggest that by making
available, at the cost of reproduction, the data collected by the Ordnance Survey,
both economy and efficiency would result in the planning and development of such
areas.
From Section H.
That the Council be asked to take cognisance of the present high cott of foreign
scientific publications with a view to ascertaining whether, or by what means, some
reduction in cost may be secured.
Ivi RESOLUTIONS, ETC.
From Section H.
That, in view of the urgent need for systematic study of the Australian aboriginal
languages, the Commonwealth Government of Australia be approached with a view
to afscertaining the j)ossibility of pressing on with such study before it is too late.
From Section H.
That the Government of the Dominion of Canada be asked whether, in view of
the interest of anthropologists in the available field work of the Anthropological
Division of the Geological Survey of Canada, it would be possible to expedite the
official publication of the results.
From Section H.
That the financial arrangements authorised after the Leeds Meeting in connection
with the publication of a new edition of Notes and Queries on Anthropology be
continued.
From Section H.
That the financial arrangements authorised after the Leeds Meeting in connection
with anthropological research in South Africa be continued.
From Section J.
That H.M. Treasury be urged to relieve from key industries duty all apparatus
intended for employment in research in laboratories in universities and other purely
educational institutions.
From Section K.
That the importance of increased research in the methods of preservation of
timber be urged, and that a determined effort be made to secure increased funds for
this purpose.
From Section L.
That the Committee of Recommendations urge upon the General Committee and
the Council the advisability of reprinting sufficient copies of the report on Science
in School Certificate Examinations to enable the recorder to have available 200 copies
for distribution to teachers, associations, educational journals and other authorities
interested in the matter.
From Section L.
That the Committee of Recommendations urge on the General Committee and
he Council of the Association the advisability of adding the words 'and past
recorders' to Statute IX, 5, immediately following the words 'and past presidents.'
From the Conference of Delegates of Corresponduig Societies.
That it appears desirable that the British Association for the Advancement of
science should urge His Majesty's Government to stimulate the employment by local
authorities of the powers already conferred upon them by Parliament for the preserva-
tion of scenic amenity in town and country.
BEITISH ASSOCIATION FOK THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE.
GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT
July 1, 1927, to June 30, 192H.
NOTE BY THE GENEEAL TEEASUEEE.
I take this opportunity of calling the attention of Members of the
British Association to the loss we have sustained by the decisions of
the Treasury and the judgment of the High Court in regard to the
non-return of Income Tax. We are thus deprived of one-fifth of the
income from our Investments.
I hope that, unless the judgment referred to should be reversed,
Members of the Association and all workers in Science throughout the
country will join in an effort to obtain special legislation on this
matter.
Our Investments are of two kinds : those made out of the funds
of the Association and those given us by generous benefactors. It was
hoped by this means to obtain an annual sum which would be of real
value for the promotion of research, and at no time was it contemplated
to devote so considerable a portion of the resulting income as a tribute
to the national Treasury.
As regards the past session's Accounts it will be seen that we are
carrying over a credit balance of £476 5s. Id., and this may appear
satisfactory.
It should be remembered, however, that had it not been for
Sir Alfred Yarrow's generous and timely gift this credit balance would
have been converted into a deficit.
By the conditions of that gift, however, we are each year diminishing
our capital, and it is to be hoped that future benefactors will bear this
in mind.
In conclusion I beg to thank the General Committee, the Council
and the Members of the Association for the consideration they have
shown me during my tenure of office and to express my regret that
physical disabihty has made my resignation inevitable.
E. H. GRIFFITHS.
July 23, 1928.
IVlll
GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.
Balance Sheet,
Corresponding
Figure?
June 30,
1927.
£ s. d.
10,640 IS 2
9,5S2 16 3
634
52
69
10,000
10,000
1,128 12 2
1S2 1 i
NU
Nil
6,027
43,317 9 11
634 16
80
LIABILITIES.
£ «. d.
To Capital Accounts —
General Fund —
As at July 1,1927 10,640 IS 2
Caird Gift — Radio -Activity Investigation —
As atJtdy 1,1927 52 3 11
As per contra
(Subject to Depreciation iu Value of
Investments)
„ Caird Fund —
As per contra ......
(Subject to Depreciation in Value of
Investments)
,, Caird Fund Revenue Account —
Balance as at July 1, 1927 ....
Add Excess of Income over Expenditure
for year .....
As per contra
Caird Gift — Radio-ActivUy Investigation
Sir T. Bramwell's Gift for Enquiry into Prime
Mover.9, 1931 —
£50 Consols now accumulated to £145 Is. 3(Z.,
as per contra .....
Sir Charles Parsons' Gift — as per contra
Sir Alfred Yarrow's Gift —
Balance at July 1, 1927 ....
Less Transferred to Income and Expendi-
ture Accoimt imder the terms of the Gift
As per contra
Life Compositions —
As at July 1, 1927
Add Received during year
As per contra
Toronto University Presentation Fund —
Asat July 1, 1927
Add Refund in respect of third Medal, 1927
Dividends .....
Less Awards given
As per contra
Prof. A. W. Scott's Legacy —
As per contra ....
Royal Charter Expenses —
Donation — A. A. Campbell-Swinton
Less Expenses incurred to date
As per contra
Sundry Creditors
Income and Expenditure Accovmt —
Balanceat Jvdy 1, 1927 . . ie6,027
Less Proportion of purchase of
War Loan (Sir A. Yarrow's
Gift) last year representing
accrued interest
s. d.
10,692 19 1
9,582 16 3
10,000
300
1,128 12
180
2
182 1
17
8 l.'>
4
6
191 13
8 15
10
200
152 9
145 15 7
Add Excess of Income over Ex-
penditure for the year
169 7
5,857 14
4
476 5
1
715 1 6
72
10,000
13 8
9,700
1,308 12 2
182
250
18 10
47 19 3
6,333 19 5
6,479 15
£49,032 15 9
I have examined the foregoing Accounts with the Books and Vouchors and certify the same
Approved,
ARTHUR L. BOWLEY,) j-.^uart
A. W. KIRKALDY, \ Auditor*.
July 13, 1928.
GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.
lix
June 30, 1928.
Corresponding
B'iarurcs
June 30,
1927.
£ s. d.
ASSETS.
10,640 la
8,5S2 16 3
634 16 6
52 3 11
I 69 3 3
\10,000
10,169 7
l,m 12 2
1S2 1 i
Nil
6,SS7 14 4
48,317 9 11
ny
s. d.
Invfstmeuts on Capital Accounts —
General Fund —
£4,651 10s. 5d. Consolidated 2J percent. Stock
at cost 3,942 3 3
£3,600 India 3 per cent. Stock at cost . 3,522 2 6
£879 14s. Od. £43 Great Indian Peninsula
Railway ' B ' Annuity at cost . . . 827 15
£5212s.7d.WarStock(Po9tOfficeIssue)atcost 54 5 2
£83416s.6(i.4ipercent.ConversionIjoanatcost 835 12 4
£1,400 War Stock 5 percent. 1929/47 at cost 1,393 16 11
£84 National Savings Certificates, now £94 7s.
4* per cent. Conversion Stock, 1940/44 . 62 15
Cash at Bank . . . . . 54 8 11
s. d.
£7,931 19s. lid. Value of Stocks at date,
£8,188 lis. id.
C'aird Fund—
£2,627 Os. lOd. India 3 i percent. Stock at cost 2,400 13
£2,100 London Midland and Scottish Railway
Consolidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock
at cost . . . . . . .
£2,500 Canada 3i per cent. 1930/50 Regis
tered Stock at cost ...'..
£2,000 Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per
cent. Preference Stock at cost .
£.7,116 lis. lOd. Value at date, £7,342 6s. 8(/.
Caird Fund Revenue Account —
Cash at Bank . . . . . -
C'aird Cfift —
Cash at Bank ......
Sir T. Bramuell's Gift —
£138 14 11 Self-Accumulating Consolidated
Stock as per last Balance Sheet
Add Accumulations to Juno
6 6 4 30, 1928
10,692 19 1
2,190 4
3
2,397 1
6
2, 594 17
3
9,582 16
3
715 1
6
69 3
3 10
£145 1 3
175 5s. 4d. Value at date, £81 4s. 8d.
Sir Charles Parsons' Gift —
.£10,300 4i per cent. Conversion Loan
i9,S8S. Value at date, £10,145 10s.
Sir Alfred Tarroiv's Gift —
£10,000 5 per cent. War Loan, as per last
Account 10,169 7
Less Accrued Dividends now transferred to
Income and Expenditure Account . . 169 7
72 13 8
10,000
10,000
iessSaleof Stock vmder the terms of the Gift 300
Value at date, £9.857 12«. 6d.
Life Compositions —
£1,921 12s. lOrf. Local Loans at cost . 1,245
Value at date, £1,249 Is. 5d.
Cash at Bank 63 12
Toronto University Presentation Fund —
£175 5 per cent. War Stock at cost
&lT6 10s.7d. Value at date, £177 16s. lid.
Cash at Bank ....
178 11
4 7
Prof. A, W. Scott's Legacy —
£326 9s. lOrf. 3i per cent. Conversion Stock at cost
Value at date, £255 Is. Sd.
Royal Charter Expenses —
Cash at Bank .....
Revenue Account —
£2,098 Is. 9(Z. Consolidated 2i per cent.
Stock at cost .....
£4,338 6s. 2d. Conversion 3 J per cent. Stock
at cost .......
£400 5 per cent. War Loan Inscribed Stock at
cost ......
Value at date, £4,970 14s. 8d.
Simdry Debtors ....
Cash at Bank .....
Cash in Hand .....
9,700
1,308 12 2
182 18 10
250
47 19 3
1,200
3,300
404 16
380 9
1,139 1
55 8
7
2
3
£49,032 15 9
to be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers and the Investments.
W. B. KEEN,
Chartered Accountant.
Ix
Corresponding
Period
June 30,
1927.
£ s. d.
20 16 8\
65 IS 5
10
ISO 2 11
149 11
30 10 6
205 2 91
GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.
Income and
FOE THE Year Ended
652 12
S
1,254 17
75
1,566 S
3,54S 17 S
661 10
1,032 2 10
5,142 10 6
EXPENDITURE.
To Heat, Lighting and Pow
,, Stationery
,, Rent .
,, Postages
„ Travelling Expenses
,, Exhibitioners
,, General Expenses .
Salaries and Wages
Pension Contribution
Printing, Binding, etc.
The Secretary's Travelling Expenses to South
Africa, recoverable as per contra
IJr. Klercker's Research Committee, Donation
per contra ......
Grants to Research Committees —
Quaternary Peats Committee
Macedonia Committee
Plymouth Committee
Derbyshire Caves Committee
Bronze Implements Committee
Egyptian Peasants Committee
Vasoligation Committee
Zoological Record Committee
Pigment in Inseota Committee
Medullary Centres Committee
Vocational Tests Committee
Kiltorcan Committee
Oxfordshire Villages Committee
Transplant Committee
Rose Hybrids Committee .
Ductless Glands Committee
f.'ritical Sections Committee
Taxation Committee
Sex Physiology Committee
Upland Bog -waters Committee
Phytogeography of the Balkan Peninsula
Committee .
Great Barrier Reef Committee
Ultra-Violet Light Committee
Zoological Bibliography Committee
Absorption Spectra Committee .
Population Map of Great Britain Committee
Balance, being Excess of Income over Expendi-
ture for the year .....
£
,?.
rf.
24
2
1
58
Ifi
3
1
191
12
165
19
1
91
13
8
8. d.
212
3
11
745
7
1,335
9
ll
75
1.385
16
11
3,541
12 11
145
2 2
22
90
50
35
50
100
(1
100
(1
10
(1
50
15
(I
17
14
10
15
25
10
30
30
20
10
(1
22
1
50
iOO
60
(1
1
10
25
1 fliU
1
476 5 1
£5,234 1 2
£ s. d.
100
100
Nil
164 11 a
384 11 8
EXPENDITURE.
To Grants Paid —
Seismology Committee . . . .
Naples Tables Committee . . . .
Technical Education Committee .
,, Balance, being Excess of Income over Expendi-
ture for the year .....
100
100
10 10
Gaird
£ s. d.
210 10
80 5
= 1
£290 15
GENERAL TREASURER'S ACCOUNT.
Expenditure Account
June 30, 1928.
Ixi
Corresponding
Period
June 30,
1927.
t 8. d.
16S 10
1,669 Id
^^6S
1-53 i.5
91
70 S S
621 i 6
463 6 II
ISl 13
27 12 11
3 3 4
INCOME.
1,224 S 2
By Annual Members (Including £60, 1928/20)
„ Annual Temporary Members (Includiug£362 10s..
1928/29)
„ Annual Members with Report (Including £207,
1928/29) . . . • • ^ •
„ Tran.sfcrable Tickets (Including £7 10s.,
1928/29) ■ •
„ Students' Tickets (Including £14, 1928/29)
(Total Tickets as above, issued in advance for
1928/9 Glasgow Meeting, £651)
„ The Secretary's Travelling Expenses to South
Africa, recoverable from the South African
Association, per contra
,, Donation— Dr. Klercker, per contra
,, Lift Rent .....
„ Interest on Deposits
,, Sale of Publications
,, Advertisement Revenue
,, Income Tax recovered ...
,, Unexpended Balance of Grants returned
„ Liverpool Exhibitioners
,, Dividends —
i£i35 Consols ....
I S6 S India 3 per cent. Stock
! 26 11 6 Greatlndian Peninsula Rly.'B' Annuity
30 1 2 4 i per cent. Conversion Loan .
370 16 Ditto, Sir Charles Parsons' Gift
73 S 9 Zl per cent. Conversion Loan
\ 43 7 3 Local Loans .
1 58 12 6 War Stock
iOO Ditto, Series ' A,' Sir A. Yarrow s Gift
s. a.
13.-.
S6
26
30
370
130
.53
68
388
8
13
1
16
12
11
12
4
10
6
By Sir Alfred Yarrow's Gift —
Proceeds of Sale of £300 War Loan, in accord-
ance with terms of the Gift ....
Profit on Sale . . . . .
300
7
£ s. d.
185 10
1,508 5
,523 10
108 15
131
145 2 2
22
5
47 7 6
705 17 6
223 15 3
8 13 5
22 10
1,289 15 1
307 3
i,U2 10 6
£5,234 1 2
Fund.
INCOME.
s. d.
By Dividends — , ,
173 11 I India 3 i per cent. Stock .
~ " ' " Canada 3 i per cent. Stock -
London Midland and Scottish Railway Con-
solidated 4 per cent. Preference Stock
Southern Railway ConsoUdated 5 per cent
Preference Stock
290 la
73 16 S By Income Tax recovered
364 11 S
£ s. d.
70
67
4
SO
73
70
11
67
4
80
290 15
£290 15
Ixii RE.SEARC'H COMMITTEES.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc.
APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN
GLASGOW, 1928.
Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected
xcith researches are indicated in heavy type.
SECTION A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
Seismological Investigations. — Prof. H. H. Turner {Chairman), Mr. J. J. Shaw
{Secretary), Mr. C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison,
Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. H. Lamb, Sir J.
Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H.M. Macdonald, Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell,
Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Rev. J. P. Rowland, S.J., Prof. R. A.
Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker, Dr. F. J. W.
Whipple. £100 (Caird Fimd grant).
Tides. — Prof. H. Lamb {Chairman), Dr. A. T. Doodson {Secretary), Dr. G. R.
Goldsbrough, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Prof. J. Proudman, Prof. G. I. Taylor, Prof.
D'Arcy W. Thompson, Commander H. D. Warburg.
Annual Tables of Constants and Numerical Data, chemical, physical, and technological .
— Sir E. Rutherford {Chairman), Prof. A. W. Porter {Secretary), Mr. Alfred
Egerton. £5.
Calculation of Mathematical Tables. — Prof. J. W. Nicholson {Chairman}, Dr. J. R.
Aircy {Secretary). Mr. T. W. Chamidy, Dr. L. J. Comrie, Dr. A. T. Doodson,
Prof". L. N. G. Filon. Dr. R. A. Fisher, Dr. J. Henderson, Prof. E. W. Hobson,
Mr. J. 0. Irwin, Profs. Alfred Lodge, A. E. H. Love, and H. M. Macdonald, Dr.
J. F. Tocher, Dr. J. Wishart.
Investigation of the Upper Atmosphere. — Sir Napier Shaw {Chairman), Mr. C. J. P.
Cave {Secretary), Prof. S. Chapman, Mr. J. S. Dines, Mr. L. H. G. Dines, Dr.
G. M. Dobson. Capt. F. Entwistle, Commr. L. G. Garbett, Sir R. T. Glazebrook,
Col. E. Gold, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Dr. H. Knox-Shaw, Sir J. Larmor, Mr. R. G. K.
Lempfert, Prof. F. A. Lindemann, Dr. W. Makower, Mr. J. Patterson, Sir J. E.
Petavel, Dr. L. F. Richardson, Sir A. Schuster, Dr. G. C. Simpson, Prof. H. H.
Turner, Sir G. T. Walker, Dr. F. J. W. Whipple.
SECTION B.— CHEMISTRY.
To consider the possibilities of publishing a compilation of recent materia] on the
subject of CoUoid Chemistrj'. — Prof. F. G. Domian {Chairman), Dr. W. Clayton
(Secretary), Mr. E. Hatschek, Prof. W. C. McC. Lewis, Dr. E. K. Rideal, Sir R.
Robertson.
Absorption Spectra and Chemical Constitution of Organic Compounds. — Prof. I. M.
Heilbron (Gliairman), Prof. E. C. C. Baly (Secretary), Prof. A. W. Stewart.
SECTION C— GEOLOGY.
To excavate Critical Sections in the Palaeozoic Rocks ot England and Wales. — Prof.
W. W. Watts (Chainrmn), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Mr. W. S. Bisat,
Dr. H. Bolton, Prof. W. S. Boulton, Mr. E. S. Cobbold, Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr.
E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Prof. H. L. Hawkins,
Prof. V. C. Illiug, Prof. O. T. Jones, Prof. J. E. Marr, Dr. F. J. North, Mr. J.
Pringle, Dr. T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. A. E. Trueman, Dr. F. S. WaUis.
£25.
The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Geo-
logical Interest.^Prof. E. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds (Secre-
tary), Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. A. S. Reid, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. R. Welch.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES. 1x111
To iuveatigate the Quaternary Peats of the British Isles. — Prof. P. F. Kendall {Chair-
man), Mr. L. H. Tonks {Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Miss Chandler, Prof.
H. J. Fleure, Dr. E. Greenly, Prof. J. W. Gregory, Prof. G. Hickling, Mr. J. de W.
Hinch, Mr. R. Lloyd Praeger, Mrs. Reid, Dr. K. S. Sandford, Mr. T. Sheppard,
Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. A. W. Stelfox, Mr. C. B. Travis, Dr. A. E. Trueman, Mr.
W. B. Wright. £10.
To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary Rocks of the London Area. To
tabulate and preserve records of new excavations in that area. — Prof. W. T.
Gordon {Chairman), Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), Miss M. C. Crosfield, Prof.
H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling. £10.
To consider the opening up of Critical Sections in the Mesozoic Rocks of Yorkshire. —
Prof. P. F. Kendall {Chairman), Mr. M. Odling {Secretary), Prof. H. L. Hawkins,
Mr. F. Petch, Dr. Spath, Mr. J. W. Stather, Mr. H. C. Versey.
To assemble information regarding the Distribution of Cleavage in North and Central
Wales. — Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Chairman), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell and Mr.
W. H. Wilcockson (Secretaries), Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. I. S. Double, Dr. Gertrude
Elles, Prof. 0. T. Jones, Dr. E. Greenly, Mr. W. B. R. King, Prof. W. J. Pugh,
Dr. Bernard Smith, Dr. A. K. Wells, Dr. L. J. Wills.
SECTIONS C, D, E, K.— GEOLOGY, ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, BOTANY.
To organise an expedition to investigate the Biology, Geology, and Geography of the
Australian Great Barrier Reef. — Rt. Hon. Sir M. Nathan (Chairman), Prof. J.
Stanley Gardiner and Mr. F. A. Potts (Secretaries), Hon. John Huxham
(Treasurer), Sir Edgeworth David, Prof. W. T. Gordon, Prof. A. C. Seward, and
Dr. Herbert H. Thomas (from Section G) ; Mr. E. Heron Allen, Dr. E. J. Allen,
Prof. J. H. Ashworth, Dr. G. P. Bidder, Dr. W. T. Caiman, Sir Sidney Harmer,
Dr. C. M. Yonge (from Section D) : Dr. R. N. Rudmose Brown, Sir G. Lenox
Conyngham, Mr. F. Debenham, Admiral Douglas, Mi\ A. R. Hinks (from
Section E) ; Prof. F. E. Fritsch, Dr. Margery Knight, Prof. A. C. Seward
(from Section K). £200.
SECTION D.— ZOOLOGY.
To aid competent Investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite pieces
of work at the Zoological Station at Naples. — Prof. E. S. Goodrich (Chairman),
Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Secretary), Dr. G. P. Bidder, Prof. F. 0. Bower, Prof.
Munro Fox, Sir W. B. Hardy, Sir Sidney Harmer, Prof.E. W. MacBride. £100
(Caird Fimd grant).
Zoological Bibliography and Publication. — Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairman), Dr. F. A.
Bather (Secretfin/), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. T. Caiman, Dr. P. Chalmers
Mitchell, Mr. W.' L. Sclater.
To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the Marine
Laboratory, Plymouth. — Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Chairman and Secretary), Prof.
W. J. Dakin, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, Prof. S. J. Hickson. £50.
To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for
the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record. — Sir Sidney Harmer
(Chairman), Dr. W. T. Caiman (Secretary), Prof. E. S. Goodrich, Prof." D. M. S.
Watson. £50.
On the Influence of the Sex Physiology of the Parents on the Sex-Ratio of the Offspring.
— Prof. W. J. Dakin (Chairman), Mrs. Bisbee (Secretary), Prof. Cari-Sannders,
Miss E. C. Herdman. £10.
Investigations on Pigment in the Insecta. — Prof. W. Garstang (Chairman), Dr. J. W.
Heslop Harrison (Secretary), Prof. A. D. Peacock, Prof. E. B. Poulton. £6.
To consider the po.sition of Animal Biology in the School Curriculum and matters
relating thereto. — Prof. R. D. Laurie (Chairman and Secretary), Mr. H. W.
Ballance, Dr. Kathleen E. Carpenter, Prof. W. J. Dakin, Mr. O. H. Latter, Prof.
E. W. MacBride, Miss M. McNicol, Miss A. J. Prothero.
A Preliminary Survey of Certain Tropical Lakes in Kenya in 1929. — Prof. J. Stanley
Gardiner (Chairman), Miss P. M. Jenkin (Secretary), Dr. W. T. Caiman, Prof. J.
Graham Kerr, Mr. J. T. Saunders. £50.
Ixiv RESEAECH COMMITTEES.
SECTIONS D, I, K.— ZOOLOGY, PHYSTGLOGY, BOTANY.
Nomenclature of Cell Structures. — ^Prof. C. Lovatt Evans {Chairman),
(Secretary), Prof. H. E. Roaf (for Section T), Dr. K. B. Blackburn,
Dr. Margery Knight (for Section K).
SECTIONS D. K.— ZOOLOGY, BOTANY.
To consider the means to be adopted for the establishment of a suitably equipped
fresh-water biological station. — Prof. F. E. Fritsch {Chairman), Prof. F. Balfour
Browne {Secretary), Dr. B. M. GrifiSths, Dr. Gumey, Prof. H. S. Holden.
Dr. W. H. Pearsall, Dr. E. S. Russell, Mr. J. T. Saunders.
SECTION E,— GEOGRAPHY.
To report further as to the method of construction and reproduction of a Population
Map of the British Isles with a view to the census of 1931. — Mr. H. 0. Beckit
(Chairman), Mr. J. Cossar (Secretary), Mr. J. Bartholomew, Mr. F. Debenham,
Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr.R.H. Kinvig, Mr. A. G. Ogilvie, Prof.
0. H. T. Rii?hbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby, Mr. A. Stevens, Col. H. S. L. Winterbotham.
£50.
To inquire into the present state of Knowledge of the Human Geography of Tropical
Africa, and to make recommendations for furtherance and development. — Mr.
J. McFarlane (Chairman), Mr. A. G. Ogilvie (Secretary), Mr. W. H. Barker. Mr.
Francis R. Rodd, Prof. P. M. Roxby, Col. H. S. L. Winterbotham. £25.
SECTIONS E, L.— GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION.
To report on the present position of Geographical Teaching in Schools and of Geography
in the training of teachers ; to formulate suggestions for a syllabus for the teaching
of geography both to Matriculation Standard and in Advanced Courses and to
report, as occasion arises, to Council through the Organising Committee of
Section E upon the practical working of Regulations issued by the Board of
Education (including Scotland) affecting the position of Geography in Schools
and Training Colleges. — Prof. T. P. Nxmn (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Barker (Secre-
tary), Mr. A. B. Archer, Mr. L. Brooks, Mr. C. C. Carter, Mr. J. Cossar, Prof.
H. J. Fleure, Mr. O. J. R. Howarth, Mr. H. E. M. Icely, Mr. J. McFarlane, Rt. Hon.
Sii- Halford J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. Marion Newbigin, Mr. A. G.
Ogilvie, Mr. A. Stevens {from Section E) ; Mr. C. E. Browne, Sir R. Gregory,
Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss 0. Wright (from Section L). £5.
SECTION F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
To investigate certain aspects of Taxation in relation to the Distribution of Wealth. —
Sir Josiah Stamp (Chairman), Mr. R. B. Forrester (Secretary), Prof. E. Cannan,
Prof. H. Clay, Mr. W. H. Coates, Miss L. Grier, Prof. H. M. Hallsworth, Prof.
D. H. Macgregor, Prof. J. G. Smith, Mr. J. Wedgwood, Sir A. Yarrow, Prof.
Allyn Young. £25.
SECTION G.— ENGINEERING.
Earth Pressures.— Mr. F. E. Wentworth-Sheilds (Chairman), Dr. J. S. Owens
(Secretary), Prof. A. Barr, Prof. G. Cook, Mr. T. E. N. Fargher, Prof. A. R. Fulton,
Prof. P. C. Lea, Mr. R. V. Southwell, Dr. R. E. Stradling, Dr. W. N. Thomas,
Mr. £. G. Walker, Mr. J. S. Wilson. Unexpended balance.
Electrical Terms and Definitions. — Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson (Chairman), Prof. F. G.
Baily and Prof. G. W. 0. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Dr. W. H. Eccles,
Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Prof. E. W. Marchant, Dr. F. E. Smith, Prof. L. R.
Wilberforce, with Dr. A. RusseU and Mr. C. C. Wharton.
Stresses in overstrained materials. — Sir Henry Fowler (Chairman), Mr. J. G. Docherty
(Secretary), Prof. B. P. Haigh, Mr. J. S. Wilson. £5.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES. IXA'
SECTION H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements. — Prof. J. L. Myres {Chair-
man), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour.
Prof. T. H. Brvce, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Mr. 0. G. S.
Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. Cyril Fox, Mr. G. A. Garfitt. £50 and
unexpended balance.
To conduct Explorations with the object of ascertaining the Age of Stone Circles. —
Sir C. H. Read (Chairman), Mr. H. BaKour (Secretary), Dr. G. A. Auden, Mr.
0. G. S. Crawford, Sir W. Boyd Dawkins, Dr. J. G. Garson, Sir Arthur Evans,
Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake.
To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia. — Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Mr. S.
Casson (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Mr. M. Thompson. £50.
To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments.— Mr.
G. A. Garfitt (Chairman). Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. 0. G. S. Crawford,
Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. C. Fox, Mr. G. Marshall, Prof. J. L.
Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Rev. Canon Quine.
The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of Anthro-
pological Interest.— Mr. E. Torday (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary),
Dr. G. A. Auden, Dr. H. A. Auden, Mr. L. J. P. Gaskin, Mr. E. Heawood, Prof.
J. L. Myres.
To report on the probable sources of the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians. —
Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. G. A. Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour,
Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Prof. C. H. Desch, Prof. H. J.
Fleure, Prof. S. Langdon, Mr. E. Mackay, Sir Flinders Petrie, Mr. C. Leonard
Woolley. £100.
To conduct Archaeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete. —
(Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Sir A.
Evans. Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
The Investigation of a hill fort site at Llanmelin, near Caerwent.— Dr. Willoughby
Gardner (Chairman), Dr. Cyril Fox (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Prof. H. J. Fleure,
Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Prof. H. J. Rose, Dr. R. Mortimer Wheeler.
To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent's Cavern. —
Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Dr.
R. V. Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Prof. W. J. SoUas, Mr.
Mark L. Sykes. £10.
To conduct Anthropological investigations in some Oxfordshire villages. — Mr. H . J . E .
Peake (Chairman), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. Vaughan Cornish,
Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. F. G. Parsons.
To report on the present state of knowledge of the relation of early Palaeolithic
Implements to Glacial Deposits.— Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E. N.
Fallaize (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour. Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. M. Burkitt, Prof.
J. E. Marr.
To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the explora-
tion of Caves in the Derbyshire district. — ^Mr. M. Burkitt (Chairman), Mr. G. A.
Garfitt (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Mr. E. N.
Fallaize, Dr. R. V. Favell, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Dr. A. C.
Haddon, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Dr. L. S. Palmer, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Mr. H. J. E.
Peake. £25.
To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering DifierenceB
due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences in Women. — Sir
A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton,
Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall.
To report on proposals for an Anthropological and Archaeological Bibliography, with
power to co-operate with other bodies.— Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N.
Fallaize (Secretary), Dr. T. Ashby, Mr. W. H. Barker, Mr. 0. G. S. Crawford,
Prof. H. J. Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. H. J. E. Peake. Dr. D. Randall-Maclver,
Mr. T. Sheppard.
Ixvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES.
To report on tlie progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present centurj'. —
Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure,
Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman.
To investigate certain Physical Characters and the Family Histories of Triplet Children.
— Dr. F. C. Shrubsall(C'Aat»"w?a7j.), Dr. R. A. Fisher (/Secretory), Mies R. M. Fleming,
Dr. A. Low.
To conduct explorations on Early Neolithic Sites in Holderness. — Mr. H. J. E. Peake
(Chairman), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Mr. M. Burkitt, Dr. R. V.
Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Mr. Wilfrid Jackson, Prof. H. Ormerod, Dr. L. S.
Palmer.
To investigate the antiquity and cultural relations of the Ancient Copper Workings
in the Katanga and Northern Rhodesia. — Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. E.N.
Fallaize and Mr. G. A. Wainwright (Secretaries), Mr. H. Balfour, Mr. G. A. Garfitt,
Dr. Randall-Maclver.
To arrange for the publication of a new edition of ' Notes and Queries on Anthro-
pology.' — Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. E. N. Fallaize (Secretary), Mrs.
Robert Aitken, Mr. H. Balfour, Capt. T. A. Joyce, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mrs. Seligman,
Prof. C. G. Seligman.
To consider the lines of Investigation which might be undertaken in Archaeological and
Anthropological Research in South Africa prior to and in view of the meeting of
the Association in that Dominion in 1929. — Sir H. Miers (Chairman), Dr. D.
Randall-Maclver (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, Dr. A. C. Haddon, Prof. J. L. Myres.
To co-operate with Dr. Klercker's archaeological laboratory in Scania in research. —
Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Mr. A. LesUe Armstrong (Secretary), Prof. H. J.
Fleure, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. E. K. Tratman.
SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.
The Investigation of the Medullary Centres. — Prof. C. Lovatt Evans (Chairman),
Dr. J. M. Duncan Scott (Secretary), Dr. H. H. Dale.
Colour Vision, with particular reference to the classification of Colour-blindness. —
Sir C. S. Sherrington (Chairman), Prof. H. E. Roaf (Secretary), Prof. E. N.daC.
Andrade, Dr. Mary Collins, Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, Prof. H. Hartridge.
Ductless Glands, with particular reference to the efiEect of autacoid activities on
vasomotor reflexes. — Prof. J. Mellanby (Chairman), Prof. Swale Vincent
(Secretary), Prof. B. A. McSwiney. £30.
SECTION J.— PSYCHOLOGY.
Vocational Tests. — Dr. C. S. Myers (Chairman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C.
Burt, Mr.F.M.Earle, Dr. Ll.Wynn Jones, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof.C. Spearman.
£50.
SECTION K.— BOTANY.
The effect of Ultra-violet Light on Plants. — Prof. W. Neilson Jones (Chairman), Dr.
E. M. Delf (Secretary), Prof. V. H. Blackman. £20 and unexpended balance.
The Chemical Analysis of Upland Bog Waters. — Prof. J. H. Priestley (C^irmaM), Mr.
A. Malins Smith (Secretary), Dr. B. M. Griffiths, Dr. E. K. Rideal. £10 and
unexpended balance.
The Status of a series of naturally occurring British Rose-hybrids. — Prof. J. W.
Heslop Harrison (Chairman), Dr. Kathleen B. Blackburn (Secretary), Miss A. J.
Davey.
Transplant Experiments.— Dr. A. W. Hill (Chairman), Mr. W. B. Turrill (Secretary),
Prof. F. W. Oliver, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Prof. A. G. Tansley. £35.
Breeding Experiments as part of an intensive study of certain species of the British
Flora.— Sir Daniel Hall (Chairman), Mr. E. Marsden Jones (Secretary), Dr. K. B.
Blackburn, Prof. R. R. Gates. Mr. W. B. Turrill, Mr. A. J. Wilmott. £50.
The Ecology of Selected Tributaries of the River Trent, with a view to determining
the effect of progressive pollution.— Prof. F. E. Fritsch (Chairman), Prof. H. S.
Holden (Secretary), Miss D. Bexon, Mr. H. Lister. £20.
The Flora of Northern Rhodesia.— Prof. D. Thoday (Chairman), Dr. J. Bnrtt Davy
(Secretary), Prof. R. S. Adamson, Prof. J. W. Bews. £25.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES. Ixvii
To consider the organisation of a body to further the protection of British Wild
Plants.— Dr. A. W. Hill {Chairman), Dr. H. H. Thomas {.'Secretary), Dr. G. C.
Druce, Prof. J. W. Heslop Harrison, Mr. H. A. Hyde, Prof. F. W. Oliver. Sir D.
Prain, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Mr. C. E. Salmon, Mr. A. J. Wilmott, Dr. T. \V.
Woodhead.
To consider and report on the provision made for Instruction in Botany in courses of
Biology, and matters related thereto. — Prof. V. H. Blackman (Chairman), Dr.
E. N. M. Thomas {Secretary), Prof. F. E. Fritsch, Prof. S. Mangham, Mr. J. Sager.
SECTION L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
To consider the Educational Training of Boys and Girls in Secondary Schools for over-
seas life. — Sir J. Ru.ssell (Chairman), Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Major A. G.
Church, Mr. H. W. Cousins, Dr. J. Vargas Eyre, Mr. G. H. Garrad, Rev. Dr.
H. B. Gray, Sir R. A. Gregory, Mr. O. H. Latter, Miss E. H. McLean, Miss Rita
Oldham, Mr. G. W. Olive, IVIiss Gladys Pott, Mr. A. A. SomerviUe, Dr. G. K.
Sutherland, Mrs. Gordon WOson. £10.
The bearing on School Work of recent views on formal training. — Dr. C. W. Kimmins
{Chairman), Mr. H. E. M. Icely (Secretary), Prof. R. L. Archer, Prof. Cyril Burt,
Prof. F. A. Cavenagh, Miss E. R. Conwav, Sir Richard Gregory, Prof. T. P.
Nunn, Prof. T. H. Pear, Prof. G. Thomson. ~
Science in School Certificate Examinations : To enquire into the nature and scope
of the science syllabuses prescribed or accepted by examining authorities in
England for the First and Second School Certificate Examinations, and to make
recommendations relating to them ; particularly m regard to their relation to
Matriculation and other University Entrance Examinations and their suitability
as essential subjects of instruction in a rightly balanced scheme of education
designed to create an intelligent interest in the realm of nature and in scientific
aspects of everyday life. — Sir Richard Gregory (Chairman), Mr. W. H. Cousins and
Mr. G. D. Dunkerley (Secretaries), Mr. C. E. Browne, Dr. Lilian Clarke, Mr.
G. F. Daniell, Mr. J. L. Holland, Mr. 0. J. R. Howarth, Dr. J. Wickham
Murray, Prof. T. P. Nunn, Jlr. E. R. Thomas, Dr. H. W. T. Wager, Mrs. U.
Gordon Wilson, Miss von Wj'ss. £15.
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
Corresponding Societies Committee.— The President of the Association (Chairman
ex-officio), Mr.T. Sheppard {V ice-Chairman), the General Secretaries, the General
Treasurer, Mr. C. 0. Bartrum, Dr. F. A. Bather. Sir Richard Gregorj-, Sir David
Prain, Sir John Russell, Mr. Mark L. Sykes, Dr. C. Tierney ; wilh authority to
co-opt representatives of Scientific Societies in the locality of the Annual Meeting.
i '11 iMAR 29
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
CRAFTSMANSHIP AND SCIENCE.
BY
PROFESSOR SIR WILLIAM BRAGG, K.B.E., D.Sc, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S.,
President of the Association.
Down Uoufe : Errata.
Page xlvii, line 25, for ' Perrero ' read ' Terrero.'
Page xlviii, line 11, for ' Vines ' read ' Viner.'
Page xlix, line 19, for ' Wedgewood ' read ' Wedgwood.
justification for doing so the fact that in the last few years scientific
inquiry has advanced at a rate which to all is amazing, and to some is
even alarming. On the one hand, the application of science to industry
has become increasingly important and obvious, as was so clearly shown
by our honoured President of two years ago. Especially at the present
time when our country is struggling to free itself from distress due partly
to the war and partly to violent changes in economic conditions is it of
interest and importance to consider what science is doing and can do to
accelerate recovery. On the other hand, in the less material realms the
applications of recent research have aroused wide interest, as may be
exemplified by the influence on philosophic thought of the new discoveries
in physical science, or by the effect of last year's remarkable Address from
this chair.
I cannot deal in the time allotted to me with all the issues that arc
suggested by these considerations. I propose to limit myself in a manner
which my choice of title will suggest, and in speaking of ' craftsmanship
and science ' to pay attention more particularly to the relations between
science and the craftsmanship of our own country. I shall not, however,
1928 B
%1 MAR 29
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
CRAFTSMANSHIP AND SCIENCE.
BY
PROFESSOR SIR WILLIAM BRAGG, K.B.E., D.Sc, D.C.L.,
LL.D., F.R.S..
President of the Association.
When, nearly a century ago, the founders of our Association drew up a
statement of purposes and rules they gave prominence to the words * to
obtain more general attention for the objects of Science.' Since that
time we have tried continuously to fulfil our self-imposed task, not, I hope,
unwisely nor untactfully, nor without success. For this purpose we have
on many occasions and in many ways endeavoured to describe the
progress of our researches, and to present the consequences of discoveries
as they appeared to the discoverers. With your permission, I would like
this evening to add something to the story. I would claim as my
justification for doing so the fact that in the last few years scientific
inquiry has advanced at a rate which to all is amazing, and to some is
even alarming. On the one hand, the application of science to industry
has become increasingly important and obvious, as was so clearly shown
by our honoured President of two years ago. Especially at the present
time when our country is struggling to free itself from distress due partly
to the war and partly to violent changes in economic conditions is it of
interest and importance to consider what science is doing and can do to
accelerate recovery. On the other hand, in the less material realms the
applications of recent research have aroused wide interest, as may be
exemplified by the infiuence on philosophic thought of the new discoveries
in physical science, or by the effect of last year's remarkable Address from
this chair.
I cannot deal in the time allotted to me with all the issues that arc
suggested by these considerations. I propose to limit myself in a manner
which my choice of title will suggest, and in speaking of ' craftsmanship
and science ' to pay attention more particularly to the relations between
science and the craftsmanship of our own country. I shall not, however,
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be able to confine myself strictly within these limits because the entrance
of science into our most material businesses cannot be considered without
reference to the part that science plays in the whole range of our thoughts
and actions.
The term craftsmanship requires definition. I am supposing it to
mean the skill which is exercised in the production of whatever is wanted
for human welfare. Imagine an island so cut off from the rest of the
world that its inhabitants must depend on themselves for the satisfaction
of all their desires, for their food, even if they have no more to do than
pick fruit from a tree, for their clothing, for their housing, and other
material things. They must also find their own means of satisfying less
material cravings : for if they have intelligence they will look for means of
studying themselves, their neighbours and the world round about them.
Their eyes and ears will ask to be used for the satisfaction of a sense of
beauty in form and colour and sound, and their minds will try to reach
out beyond what can be seen and heard. It is impossible to proceed to
the satisfaction of these desires without the handling of materials, and
craftsmanship begins with the skill exercised in the handling.
What the islanders succeed in achieving by their craftsmanship may
justly be described as their wages, they being their own employers. If
their wages are to be raised they must somehow increase one or more of
the factors on which their success depends. They must be more diligent
in the discovery of materials for which a use can be found ; they must
become better acquainted with the properties of those materials; they must
develop their constructive skill. If they are too primitive to have
developed the use of mechanical power they must do everything with
their own hands, guided by their own intelligence and their own feeling
for what is beautiful and fitting. At every step enter the qualities that
go to make craftsmanship, as I would interpret the term. There is
knowledge of materials, there is imagination, there is technical skill ;
perseverance is wanted, love of the work itself, sympathy with the use
that is to be made of it, and with the user. Clearly, on the craftsmanship
of the islanders will depend whether they have enough food to go round,
enough clothes to wear, whether they have leisure for anything beyond
the labour that satisfies their barest necessities.
And, of course, this isolated group of people will have some
characteristic estimation of what kind of wages they want. Their energies
may conceivably be devoted only to the production of things that satisfy
bodily desires, or they may be bent also on nobler things. I need not
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3
consider that point as I am not trying to picture Utopia. All that this
image is meant to convey is the idea of craftsmanship and its fundamental
importance. Nor is the account yet complete ; far from it. It is not only
that the products of craftsmanship are a necessity if the islanders are to
live at all : craftsmanship has a value in itself. There is in men, more in
some, less in others, the natural desire to use what faculties they possess.
It is a fact that love of good work and delight in successful accomplishment
are powerful motives, and when satisfied are sources of real happiness.
Of all the motives that sway the world these are among the purest and best.
The power to produce in plenty what is wanted is, of course, only one
of the great problems that a community has to consider. There is also
the endlessly difficult question of distribution, of the manner in which
each working individual is to receive his share of the wages. The two
problems cannot be separated entirely : the means directed to the
solution of one contribute to the solution of the other. But I must not
attempt too much : science is in the first instance concerned with the
production problem ; the distribution problem follows.
Let us extend our image a little ; let our island be discovered and put
into communication with the outside world. An exchange of craft work
sets in : the islanders discover new wants that must be satisfied and they
pay for the necessary imports by exporting what they make themselves.
But the exports must be made to satisfy the tastes of the outside peoples
or there will be no trade. So the islanders now find that they must no
longer consider their own tastes entirely : they must accommodate them-
selves to a more general conception which is only in part their own. It
may happen that under the new conditions they become less and less
self-contained. Some things which are necessary to life, such as food or
clothing, may become imports, being no longer produced, at any rate in
sufl&cient quantity, within the island itself. And now the people are very
firmly tied to the rest of the world; they must give that they may receive,
and they must please in order that others may be willing to take. We
may say that their craftsmanship is now judged more critically ; and
more than ever it becomes fundamental to well-being, even to existence.
The conclusion I would draw from this very simple little analogy is that a
•people lives on what it makes or earns and that its success depends on its
craftsmanship. A people cannot expect to be provided for : it has no
rights.
I would ask you presently to consider the difference between the
craftsmanship of an early civilization and that of our own more com-
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4 THE PRESIDENTIAL I'ADDRESS.
plicated times. But before doing so, let me say yet one or two words
about the older forms.
We have a profound feeling for any example of an old craft, and for
very good reasons. Among them I do not include the sentimental regret
that, in some cases, a past time skill seems to have disappeared. We
may be sorry, but after all it is but a receipt that has been lost and may be
found again any day, if proper search is made for it. Modern knowledge
and methods of analysis are at least good for that much. Nor is the
collector's pride of rarity the worthiest feeling that the old specimen
inspires.
Our affection for it, and the reverential care with which we handle it are
due to the fact that it represents to us the labour of a people, labour into
which knowledge, imagination, love of beauty, technical skill have all
entered. The most of what was once used in every-day life has long
disappeared ; even such more durable things as houses and ships, roads and
cultivations may have ceased to be. The few objects that survive must be
taken as examples of what has been lost. And on the showing of the
student a spirit will emerge from an old vessel as great as that which
issued when the fisherman of the Arabian Nights unsealed the pot that
had long been lying at the bottom of the river. It is the spirit of the
bygone people that takes shape before us.
The Greek gave exquisite form to his vase and decorated its surface
with equal art. He copied from the growing things of Nature the adjust-
ment of lines and surfaces which give the sense of fitness for a purpose.
The outlines of his vases are so perfectly adjusted that their representation
in a drawing will not bear alteration by the width of a line. That the
Greek should with so much skill take lessons from what his perception
made clear to him, and should with so much care choose his materials and
mould them to his purpose is what we should expect from a nation that
shows also in its literature a passion for justice and harmony. The fine
accuracy of his line is in agreement with his delicate sense of differences
in thought and words.
The Roman developed the principle of the arch, and enough remains
of what he built to show the daring and the power of his work. The
great arches that spanned his public buildings seem to stand for the.
Roman rule and law under which the whole world might find shelter and
be at peace.
The sword of the Indian workman was gradually brought to its temper
by an infinite series of local applications of heat alternating with the few
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5
blows that could be skilfully given while for a moment it was in the
workable state. The poverty of the craftsman's appliances, the meagre-
ness of his little fire and the scantiness of the tools with which he made
his way bit by bit to his final achievement are in consonance with his life
of small details ruled by overmastering ideas.
I need not illustrate further. It is indeed well known to you all that
the craftsmanship of a people is an expression of the best of its very self.
It is to the underlying reason that I would draw your attention now.
The mind of a nation is so expressed because its craftsmanship, interpreted
in its widest sense, represents its efEorts to live. Under this strong com-
pulsion the nation produces results which range from pots to poetry, and
all its products are stamped alike. That which we do ourselves is as
representative as a Greek vase or a Roman aqueduct or a suit of armour
from Milan. The craftsmanship of a nation is its very life. Even if we
consider it only in relation to the production of material things, the state
of a nation's craftsmanship is an index of its health.
As a people departs from its primitive condition so also does its
craftsmanship. I would ask you to consider the nature of the change.
The elements of craftsmanship in its original form centre round the
individual. In his brain is the knowledge and imagination, in his hands
is the skill, and round about him lie the materials and the tools of his
craft. But as the years go by it becomes impossible that all the knowledge
and all the technical skill should be found in one person, and all the tools
be owned by him. The craftsman becomes an association of men, a great
manufacturing firm, even, we might say, a nation, if all the members of
the nation contribute through Government intervention and control to
the maintenance of some industry. Many hands, working in an alliance
which is often unconscious, are employed in bringing a product to its
finished form. It is a long step from the simple workshop of the old
single-handed craftsman to the vast complex factory of modern industry.
If now we ask ourselves what has brought us to this new kind of
modern craftsmanship, this dependence on machinery with its wealth ot
production, its clattering, bustling activity, and its compelling influence
on the lives of all of us, we find that one simple cause has been continuously
operative. It is nothing more nor less than the urgent wish of the
individual to better his own condition : and, in his disinterested moods, the
condition of his neighbours. The change could never have been prevented.
When Hargreaves thought that by a mechanical arrangement he could
manipulate several spinning wheels at one time, and succeeded, so that he
6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
had more wages to spend on hia wife and children, he was obeying a
universal and natural impulse. Hargreaves' neighbours being left behind
in the competition for wages, pulled his house about his ears. But in the
end, they, too, found themselves to be turning many spinning wheels
where formerly they had only handled one. Then they, too, had more
money to spend. What other turn could things have taken under the
circumstances ? What happened in this isolated incident is repeated
again and again in every craft, and in sequence change and change marks
the road that stretches far from its beginnings.
Quite apart from all considerations as to whether the new is better or
worse than the old, more beautiful or less beautiful, whether it calls out
the best in man as well as the older ways, or whether it fails to do so,
apart from all comparisons of this kind stands the fact that the change is
due to natural impulses which will not be gainsaid. The results have to
be accepted. We cannot put the clock back. We cannot, let us say,
wipe away the great steelworks of the world and replace them by
thousands of individuals each with his single anvil and single hammer.
We cannot replace the great ships of Glasgow by a multitude of little
sailing boats. The plain truth is that modern craftsmanship with all its
noise and ugliness is giving food and clothing, warmth and interest to
millions who otherwise must die. It is ungrateful to find fault except with
sympathy. Let us try in all possible ways to mend its offences and soften
its hardships, but in all honesty let us recognise that we live on modern
craftsmanship in its modern form. We are each and every one of us
responsible for the present conditions as long as we insist on spending
money to the best advantage.
At this point it is convenient to refer to a matter which would be of
little importance if it did not seem sometimes to put modern craftsmanship
in a wrong light. We are continually discovering instances of the
marvellous skill of the craftsman of thousands of years ago. There is
here, however, no disheartening implication, as has sometimes been
asserted, that men can no longer do what was once in their power. To
those who look into what goes on in a factory or a mine, in the field or on
the sea, there are innumerable instances of beautiful craft work, beautiful
because of their fitness for their purpose, their balance of design, their
ingenuity, their history, their growth under human perseverance and
thought. Every one of us can bring to mind instances of technical skill
demanding imagination and intelligence as well as manipulative power
which could be set alongside any instance in history. Let me name only
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7
one : could anything surpass the drawing of fibres of quartz, finer by far
than a human hair, by means of the bow and arrow ? It was a feat to
imagine that it could be done, to anticipate that when done it would
fill so perfectly an urgent need in the construction of many important
instruments, and finally, to do it.
Now we come to the point at which I would ask you to consider the
relation of science to the craftsmanship which I have been trying to define.
I would draw your attention to the manner in which, under the urgent
drive of self-preservation, the craftsman has called scientific knowledge
to his aid. Sometimes the moment has been dramatic on account of the
great need of the occasion and the prompt effectiveness of the reply.
When, for example, coalmining was at a low ebb because the mines were
becoming waterlogged and no available power was strong enough to clear
them, Savery and Newcomen made use of the new discoveries respecting
the pressures of gases and vapours which Torricelli and Pascal, Papin and
Hooke, had just been examining and trying to explain. The steam engine
thus came into being and saved the situation. And when, at a somewhat
later date, your own citizen, James Watt, by further application of the
same physical laws, added fresh powers to the engine, the modern steam
engine came into view, with all its applications to railways and steamships
and many other marvels of to-day. In 1831 Faraday, in the course of
certain systematic searchings, found out the way in which one electric
current could bring another into being, the so-called electromagnetic
induction. With that single day's work began the whole development of
electrical engineering in its innumerable forms. I need not increase the
number of my illustrations.
More often it happens that scientific knowledge enters with less
instantaneous and startling effect into the history of a craft. It is only
when you Come to consider the various details of some modern product of
craftsmanship that you suddenly realise how closely every detail is con-
nected with the advance of science, and indeed, Do be more particular,
with the scientific laboratory. Let us think for a moment of one of those
magnificent ships for which the Clyde is famous. Let us survey its various
parts in our minds. Its hull of steel recalls the great forges of Britain,
and the wealth of research that has been spent in works and metallurgical
laboratories on the nature and qualities of steels of all kinds, research
which is still in progress. Within are the engines, turbines perhaps, or
reciprocating, or it may be internal combustion engines, Diesel or others .
What a range of inquiry and trial and development lies in every detail,
8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
depending always on principles of physical and chemical science, tested
at every stage by instruments which are a craft in themselves ! You may
think of the screw and of its design. You picture the curious and most
efficient thrust-block by which the force of the screw is brought to bear
upon the ship, and remember that Michell lately designed it on the basis
of the physical laws of liquids. You look aloft and see the wireless and
are reminded that this sprang directly from the physical laboratory.
Your sounding apparatus is based on your own Kelvin's designs ; it may
be that you have fitted your ship with the wonderful and still more recent
apparatus for sounding by echo, which enables her to find the depth of
water, shallow or deep, even when she is travelling at high speed. The
war forced this adaptation of the laws of acoustics. She is sure to carry
some form of refrigerating apparatus, and now we are reminded of all the
investigations into the production of cold by students of science like the
Frenchmen Cailletet and Pictet, by Onnes in Holland, and by Dewar,
whom, as befits the occasion, I will call a Scotsman rather than an English-
man. And so on, from one great feature of the ship to another, and
presently from detail to detail ; and you find that the whole structure is
linked by innumerable ties to the research work of the laboratories.
Craftsmanship in its urgent need has called upon scientific knowledge for
aid, and the mighty growth is due to the response. Indeed, it is not only
craftsmanship that has grown, but science itself.
If you hinder the growth of science in any way you hinder the growth
of craftsmanship. Now it is an important fact that science advances
over a wide front, and the various branches of it move on together : not
absolutely keeping step with each other, but preserving a general line.
It has been suggested that science might refrain from development in
some directions or, even as our good friend the Bishop of Eipon said at
Leeds last year, we might proclaim a ten years' holiday. But you cannot
prevent interested men from making inquiry. You cannot prevent the
growth of knowledge, ■'you cannot even make a selection of those points
of advance which will lead to certain select classes of results. No one
knows what is over the hill. The vanguard moves on without any thought
of what is before it. That is why, if the march of science is to be con-
ducted in an effective and orderly way, were it only for the purposes of
industry, there must always be'a certain number of laboratories or parts
of laboratories where scientific research has no immediate thought of
possible applications.
If I read modern industrial conditions rightly the closeness of the
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9
connection between craftsmanship and science may be illustrated in yet
another way. It is, I think, a fact, and a remarkable fact, that the most
active of our modern industries are those which are founded on recent
scientific research. The most notable is, of course, that of electrical
engineering. The year that sees the celebration of our Association's
centenary will witness also the ceremonies that commemorate the basic
experiment of Faraday. It is diJ0&cult to sketch in a few words the great
edifices that have been built upon the discovery of electromagnetic induc-
tion. We might look upon it financially and picture, as some of my hearers
can do, the amount of capital involved in electrical undertakings through-
out the world, electric lighting, electric transmission of power, cables and
now wireless, not to mention all the minor uses to which electricity is put.
The transference of matter, of intelligence, of thought, of sound, even of
vision, is largely dependent on electromagnetic action. If we are not
familiar with financial quantities, let us just think for a moment of the
change in our lives if every electric current ceased to run ; and let us
realise that the whole mechanism of modern intercourse would fail and
that populations born to use it would be brought to dire distress.
Though the electrical engineering industry with all its branches may
be said to have its source in a single laboratory experiment, yet it has
grown by the continuous adaptation of fresh streams of knowledge. The
huge American corporations maintain research laboratories costing
millions of pounds annually, and find that the financial return justifies
their policy. The General Electric Company found that a costly research
into the structure of the electric lamp repaid itself over and over again.
The very important technical discoveries of Langmuir and Coolidge were
consequent upon an attempt to find out what happened on the surfaces
of the glass bulb and of the glowing filament. The point is that the
electrical industry was not merely launched by a single discovery ; it is
continually guided, strengthened and extended by unremitting research.
Consider the very active motor industry. The most important of all
the problems connected with the internal combustion engine is that of
the nature of the explosion, the efEects of varying the mixture, the move-
ment of the gas in the cylinder before the ignition, the actual occurrences
at the moment of ignition, the movement of the subsequent explosion
wave. The problems are exceedingly intricate. They have been and are
the subject of intense research in various laboratories in this country.
The research is new and the industry is new. The construction of the
engine depends on the use of alloys_^possessing the most remarkable
10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
properties, all of which were practically unknown until recent researches
of the metallurgists brought them to light. The motor car is connected,
too, with the laboratories in which chemistry and physics are applied to
the study of rubber. Here again is a whole story in itself, which would
tell of the work done on the intricate consequences of various kinds of
mixings and of treatment, of the vulcanising and of the use of ' fillers.'
Not many know the story ; they are only aware that motor car tyres last
longer than was once the case.
The aeroplane, like the motor car, has become possible because of the
advent of the internal combustion engine ; but it has a unique feature —
its element of romance, its motion through the air. The laws of aero-
dynamics are becoming better known, and with every advance in their
knowledge the efficiency of the aeroplane increases. Their intricacy is
gradually resolved, but the process demands, in the first place, mathe-
matical skill, and in the second the fascinating research that is carried
on in the wind channels of our laboratories. On this splendid work the
progress of the aeroplane depends. I saw not long ago in a London
shop window a coloured print of a flying machine. From across the
street it might easily have been taken for a drawing of a modern aeroplane ;
a closer view showed still the same general spread of wings, the same
whirling screws, the same discharge from the exhaust, a boat not at all
untrue to modern design, and wheels to bear it when on land. Moreover
the proportions were quite familiar. Yet the date was 1843. For all
its resemblance to the modern aeroplane, how far it was from flying not
only in time but in capacity ! The difference between old and new in
the form and materials of the wings may not be obvious to the casual
observer, but in reality a wealth of trial and calculation lies between the
crude projections of the old invention and the modern machine that flies.
The turn of a line in the sectional outline of the wing may make the
difference between success and failure, though it is only one of innumerable
and equally essential details. The scientific worker grasps the meaning
of that turn, and the airman tries it out, and that is the combination which
brings success at last. The point is that the construction of the flying
machine is a new industry based directly on knowledge recently acquired
in the laboratories and continually growing under laboratory experiment.
Everything depends on this careful, well-informed concentration on
essential details.
If we enter the chemical province we find that there are thriving
industries based on recent scientific discovery ; instances at least as
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11
remarkable as those possessing a more physical basis. The chemical
industries are so many and various that even a brief summary is beyond
me ; yet the whole of them are of comparatively recent origin. Quanti-
tative chemistry is little more than a century old. And the more modern
and more vigorous of the chemical industries depend on very recent
chemical research, as, for example, those which deal with dyes, explosives,
fertilisers, rubber, artificial silk and many other things. It is the same
story : the craft is based on science, and in this case very obviously so.
Chemical industries are based on scientific discovery, and lean on it the
whole time.
It is natural to compare the condition of the newer industries with the
older industries known as basic because they have long constituted by
far the major portion of the country's industrial effort and are still pre-
eminent : coal and steel, cotton and wool. In some of these industries
there is serious depression. What has the fact to do with science and
scientific research ?
It is obvious that we cannot say of any industry or craft that its
condition depends only on scientific knowledge and imagination. The
difl&culties of the coal trade are due in large part to the powerful cause of
competition. We had a good start in the knowledge of the existence of
our coal deposits and in the practice of working them, in the means of
distributing coal and in methods of making use of it. We reaped our
harvest. But as time went on other nations gathered way in pursuit of
us ; they also found coal deposits, they learnt how to work them and could
even improve on our practice because they could profit by our mistakes
to a greater extent than we ourselves. They had not so much old
machinery to scrap. Means of transit were developed in these countries ;
in fact we helped to develop them, as also the industries that used the
coal. Such conditions must inevitably have tended to diminish our lead.
The war acted suddenly and violently in the same direction. It is reason-
able, though deplorable, that the industry should find itself in diflSculties.
The situation is not wholly irremediable, though the older conditions can
never completely return. But at least a partial retrievement is possible,
and we know that various research organisations, some instituted by the
State and some due to private enterprise, are grappling with the question
involved. It is deeply interesting to see in what way the necessary efforts
are being made, and indeed must be made.
Now, whatever is done, and in whatever way it is done, the results
of such endeavour, whether related to the coal or to any other industry,
12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
depend on those relations between craftsmanship and science which I
have been trying to define. I would now consider these relations from
one or two separate points of view. In the first instance let nie say a
word concerning the general connection between science and that condition
in industry which is known as mass production.
It must always be the aim of an industrial organisation to devise and
set going one of those systems of manufacture on a large scale with which
we have become familiar in recent years. With the aid of suitably designed
macliiuery and methods, great numbers or quantities of some article in
general demand can be produced at a comparatively small running cost.
Generally, however, the initial cost is heavy, for the designing of the
machinery and the planning of the methods call for great experience and
skill, and they demand much time spent in the acquirement of the necessary
knowledge and its utilisation in design. Once the process is under way
it may be possible, and it seems to happen on a sufficiently attractive
number of occasions, that a smooth and peaceful running of the machinery
brings in the wished-for returns. But every such phase of production
comes to a natural end. An improved process is devised, and the new
displaces the old. Or it may be a factory is set up in another country
where labourers can be hired more cheaply ; they may be intrinsically
inferior, but that will not matter if they can be drilled into the mechanical
process ; and, as long as the machine runs true, the standard will not fall
below a certain value. The event is in accord with expectation because
men will always try to improve their productivity by the use of new
knowledge or more favourable conditions, so that those who fail to recognise
the principle will be left behind by those who do not. The stereotyping
of some process can only be fruitful for its allotted time. Mass production
is in its way splendid, ministering to the necessities and conveniences of
many who must otherwise have gone without. But, if it is brought to
8uch a pitch that its processes call for little intelligence in their working,
then cheap people of little intelligence will be found, in the end, to be in
charge.
The relation of science to mass production is therefore both that of
builder and that of destroyer. Mass productions are temporary lulls in
the movement of imagination and knowledge. Much skill and thought
and care may be required to arrange for one of those quiet and profitable
times ; the machine is set going and for a while goes by itself. But new
applications of scientific knowledge, new ideas, new processes, new machines
umst always be in preparation. In the parks the gardeners are always
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 18
nursing fresh plants to take the place of the old, and preparing them for
their useful time of flowering. And so we see the meaning of the various
research organisations which have been set up in the basic industries,
such as the Fuel Research Board, the Cotton, the Woollen and the Silk
Research Associations, the research laboratories of the steel masters at
Sheffield. Much of our hope for the future is built upon their work.
If craftsmanship, to fulfil its task of providing for the people, must be
continually improving its processes, then the nation that is to be successful
must possess the means and the will to improve, and here we come, I
think, to a notable point. May it not be said that in this country the
means exist even to a remarkable degree ? Our craftsmen as a whole,
including all grades, are possessed of qualities, intelligence, skill, accuracy,
and so on, which make improvement possible. How could our enterprises
in the past have been so often siiccessful if this had not been so 1 How
can we be succeeding so well in respect to the new industries of the present
if the capacity is not there 1
Should it not, therefore, be our policy to take advantage of our country's
qualities by continually seeking for fresh industries or fresh adaptations
of the old ? We should not surely cling unduly to older activities when
they have reached the stage in which many others have learnt to do them
with equal efficiency, and when we can go on to something new and, it
may be, more difficult. We can, of course, bolster up old industries by
political methods, and I have no wish to decry such methods as always
incorrect. But clearly the best protection of all is the knowledge and skill
which can enable us to produce what others must ask us for because they
cannot so well make it themselves.
These considerations lead naturally to a second aspect of the relations
between craftsmanship and science. The improvement of craftsmanship
depends in large part on the absorption and adaptation of scientific
discovery. How is the process to be encouraged ?
We here come to a point which must be emphasised with all possible
vigour, because its importance is not always realised. Scientific knowledge
and experience if it is to be of full service must be in direct practical
contact with the problem that is to be solved. This must be clear to every
one of us from actual experience. If you have expert knowledge on any
subject and your advice is asked, your first instinct is, as you all know,
to ask to be allowed to see for yourself. It is only when all the circum-
stances are clear to you in their relation to the difiiculty that the solution
is likely to suggest, itself. And it may take much watching and patient
14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
observation before you are successful. It is the combination of actual
experience witli scientific knowledge that is essential. As the principle is
so fundamental, I may be allowed to illustrate it by an actual experience : —
It was in the early years of the war that a body of young scientific
students from our Universities was assembled for the purpose of testing
on the battlefield the value of such methods of locating enemy guns as
were already known. In their mutual discussions and considerations it
became clear to them that the great desideratum was a method of
measuring very exactly the time of arrival of the air pulse, due to the dis-
charge of the gun, at various stations in their own lines. If the relative
positions of the stations were accurately known it would then become a
matter of calculation to find the gun position. But the pulse was very
feeble : how could it be registered ? Various methods were considered,
and among them was one which no doubt seemed far-fetched and unlikely
to be successful. A fine wire is made to carry an electric current by which
it is heated. If it is chilled, for example, by a puft' of cold air, the resistance
to the passage of the current increases, and this is an effect which can be
measured if it is large enough. If, then, the hot wire could be made to
register the arrival of the air pulse from the gim a solution of the problem
was in hand. No doubt this method occurred to several members of the
company ; it was certainly turned over in the mind of one of them who
had had considerable experience of these fine heated wires. They had
been in use about thirty years, having been employed for the measurement
of temperature in many circumstances where their peculiar characteristics
gave them the supremacy over thermometers of the ordinary form. But,
and this was the important point, was it to be expected that the effect,
though it must be there, would be big enough to see ? Could the faint
impulse from a gun miles away produce an obvious chill in a hot wire ?
On first thoughts it did not seem likely, and the suggestion lay in abeyance.
But it happened that one summer morning an enemy aeroplane came
over at daybreak on a patrolKng expedition. The officer of whom
I have spoken lay awake in his bunk listening to the discharges of the
anti-aircraft guns and the more distant explosions of their shells.
Every now and then a faint whistling sound seemed to be connected with
the louder sounds. The wall of the hut was of felt ; it was in poor
condition and there were tiny rents close to his head as he lay. The
gun pulses made a feeble sound as they came through. This set the
officer thinking : if the pulse was strong enough to make a soimd, it might
be strong enough to chill a hot wire perceptibly. So the method was
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15
proposed to the company as worth trying. It was tried, and proved to
be a complete success. The sound ranging of the British armies was based
upon it, with results which have already been described and are fairly
well known.
It is clear that the all-important suggestion could only have been made
by a man who had had scientific training and experience. That is one
point of the first significance. The second is that it could only have been
made by such a man actually on the spot. He could not have realised the
details of the problem if he had been anywhere else.
It is worth while to consider this last point a little more closely. What
precisely was the difficulty which could only be resolved by a combination
of knowledge and of being on the spot ? It was really the difficulty of
making a true estimation of quantities. It was a question of magnitudes
and measurements. Anyone possessed of scientific knowledge could have
said, if asked, that a gun must make an air pulse, and that an air pulse
would chill a hot wire to an extent which might or might not be
measurable. But there is all the difference in the world between such
vague general knowledge on the one hand, and, on the other, the realisation
that such a method is likely to work and give the desired result. It is the
difference which so often escapes attention, but everyone of experience
knows that it is to be reckoned among the essentials. It is so easy to talk
generalities or to think of them, and so difficult to get down to the details
which make the effort a success. It may be the last little adjustment of
magnitudes that turns the scale, and the last step the one that counts.
Are we, then, in this country, putting our scientific knowledge into the
position where it is really effective ? I would draw your attention to a
most interesting and important movement which is attaining a notable
magnitude.
A new class of worker is growing up among us consisting of the men
engaged in research associations and industrial research laboratories
throughout the country. We must place a high value on their services,
for they are actually and personally bringing back with them into
craftsmanship the scientific knowledge which is one of its essentials. They
bring the interest and the outlook of scientific inquiry into touch with
both employer and employed, and I cannot but think that they may be to
some extent the flux that will make them run together. For they can
speak with the employer as men also trained in University and College,
exchanging thought with ease and accuracy. And, at the same time,
they are fellow workers with those in the shops and can bring back there
16 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
some of the interest and enthusiasm which springs from the understanding
of purposes and methods. It is to be remembered always that personal
contact has, on the whole, thanks to the better qualities in human nature,
a marvellous effect in smoothing out differences. I do not think it is
unduly optimistic to welcome the growth of this new type of industrial
worker because it can, being in personal intercourse with both capital
and labour, supply to each a new outlook on their whole enterprise,
especially as that outlook is naturally illuminating and suggestive. For,
after all, this is but going back to first conditions. The primitive craftsman
has been replaced by separate persons or groups of persons who have slipped
away from each other almost without our realising the fact. In the most
recent times the separation has become more obvious and more dangerous,
and that is why in so many directions efforts are being made to stem it.
Can it be good that the workman has a part demanding little intelligence,
merely the capacity to repeat ? Can it be expedient that mere manipula-
tion should be left in the shop, while design and imagination have gone
into the drawing office and shut the door behind them ? Can it be right
that the factory directorate should not be in immediate contact with the
vast body of scientific knowledge ?
The present number of industrial research workers is relatively small ;
it seems likely to increase, however, in proportion to the extent to which
the province of science is better understood. The better understanding
I think of as manifesting in the first place in industry itself. I am sure
that here it is happily on the increase. There is also a broader view to
be taken. There is a pubUc estimation of the value of any calling which
affects the numbers and the quality of those who respond.
I doubt if there is in the first place sufficient appreciation of the interests
and rewards in the life of a student of industrial research. The pioneers
have suffered unnecessary restrictions and discouragements, but their
followers will be in better case. Surely it does not need much imagination
to realise the splendid side of such work ? The succession of fresh
difficulties to be overcome, and of new and interesting views into the nature
of things and ways of the world ; the unforeseen value of results, some-
times an immediate prize, sometimes the clearing of an obstacle in a
manufacturing process, never less than the discovery of facts which may
some day be of use ; the personal association with a living enterprise and
with the human spirit behind it. And when it is realised that this kind
of work is wanted badly, that it is really serviceable to the community,
that there is opportunity for devotion, that it is in touch at once with
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 17
human needs and with the furthest stretches of thought and imagination,
it surely takes on to us the final touch of nobility.
We must remember also that the road of the student of science is still
none too clear. The very methods of teaching science are a constant
subject of discussion. I will say no more now than this : that the best
methods must take time to elaborate, and cannot be expected to have
arrived at their final form. The difficulty is increased by the fact that
science itself grows rapidly, and the extent of its application is only now
revealing itself. That the knowledge of the immensity of nature and the
study of the natural laws have an educative value is well recognised. That
science can be used as an educational drill is also known and made use of.
But there still remains the human side ; the continuous effect of the
growth of knowledge upon thought and enterprise ; the realisation of the
immense part that science is playing in modern life and is likely to go
on playing. Education by scientific instruction is still apt to lack the
comprehension of the human side, without which the classroom is a
dull place.
There are even some who think that science is inhuman. They speak
or write as if students of modern science would destroy reverence and
faith. I do not know how that can be said of the student who stands daily
in the presence of what seems to him to be infinite. Let us look at
this point a little more closely.
The growth of knowledge never makes an old craft seem poor and
negligible. On the contrary it often happens that under new light it grows
in our interest and respect. Science lives on experiment ; and if a tool
or a process has gradually taken shape from the experience of centuries,
science seizes on the results as those of an experiment of special value.
She is not so foolish as to throw away that in which the slowly gathered
wisdom of ages is stored. In this she is a conservative of conservatives.
What is true of a tool or process is true also of those formulae in which
growing science has tried to describe her discoveries. A new discovery
seems at first sight to make an old hypothesis or definition become obsolete.
The words cannot be stretched to cover a wider meaning. By no means,
however, is that which is old to be thrown away ; it has been the best
possible attempt to express what was understood at the time when it
was formed. The new is to be preferred for its better ability to contain
the results of a wider experience. But in its time it will also be put aside.
It is by a series of successive steps that we approach the truth : each
step reached with the help of that which preceded it.
1028 C
18 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
Notliing in the progress of science, and more particularly of modern
science, is so impressive as the growing appreciation of the immensity of
what awaits discovery, and the contrasted feebleness of our ability to
put into words even so much as we already dimly apprehend. Let me
take an example from the world of the physical sciences. There is a
problem of which the minds of physicists have been full in recent years.
The nineteenth-century theory of radiation asks us to look on light as a
series of waves in an all-pervading ether. The theory has been marvel-
lously successful, and the great advances of nineteenth-century physics
were largely based upon it. It can satisfy the fundamental test of all
theories, for it can predict the occurrence of effects which can be tested
by experiment and found to be correct. There is no question of its truth
in the ordinary sense.
In the last twenty or thirty years a vast new field of optical research
has been opened up, and among the curious things we have found is the
fact that light has the properties of a stream of very minute particles.
Only on that hypothesis can many experimental facts be explained. A
wave theory is of no use in the newer field. How are the two views to be
reconciled ? How can anything be at once a wave and a particle ? I
do not believe that I am unjust to any existing thinker if I say that no
one yet has bridged the gap. Some of you who were present at the
Liverpool meeting may remember that Bohr — one of the leading physicists
of the world — doubted if the human mind was yet sufficiently developed
to the stage in which it would be able to grasp the whole explanation.
It may be a step forward to say, as we have been saying vaguely for some
years, that both theories are true, that there are corpuscles and there
are waves and that the former are actually responsible for the transference
of energy in light and heat, and for making us see ; while the latter guide
the former on their way. This is going back to Newton, who expressed
ideas of this kind in his ' Opticks,' though he was careful to add that they
were no more than a suggestion.
We are here face to face with a strange problem. We know that there
must be a reconcilement of our contradictory experiments ; it is surely
our conceptions of the truth which are at faidt, though each conception
seems valid and proved. There must be a truth which is greater than
any of our descriptions of it. Here is an actual case where the human
mind is brought face to face with its own defects. What can we do ?
What do we do ? As physicists we use either hypothesis according to
the range of experiences that we wish to consider. To repeat a phrase
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19
which I employed a few years ago in addressing a University audience
familiar with lecture time-tables, on Mondays, Wednesdays and Fridays
we adopt the one hypothesis, on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays the
other. We know that we cannot be seeing clearly and fully in either
case, but are perfectly content to work and wait for the complete under
standing.
And when we look back over the two centuries or so during which
scientific men have tried systematically to solve the riddle of light, or
even go further back to the surmisings of philosophers of still older time,
we see that every conscientious attempt has made some approach to the
goal. The theories of one time are supplanted by those of a succeeding
time, and those again yield to something more like the first. But it is
no idle series of changes, no vagaries of whimsical fashion ; it is growth-
The older never becomes invalid, and the new respects the old because
that is the case.
Surely it is the same in regard to less material affairs. The scientific
worker is the last man in the world to throw away hastily an old faith or
convention or to think that discovery must bring contempt on tradition.
There is a curious parallelism here to a relation between science and
industry of which I have already spoken. Just as any particular case of
mass production can be regarded as a temporary condition which the
growth of knowledge brings about, and in the end supersedes, so also it
may be said of any law or rule or convention or definition that knowledge
is both the parent and eventually the destroyer. Time devours his own
children. Even if a statement retains its outward form, its contents
change with the meanings attached to its terms : and change moreover
in different directions when used by different people, so that constant
re-definition is necessary. How much more is this the case when the
contents themselves have to be added to. The distinction between truth
itself and attempts to embody it in words is so constantly forced upon the
student of science as to give his statements on all matters a characteristic
form and expression. And this is, I think, one of the reasons why men
are often needlessly alarmed by the new announcements of science and
think they are subversive of that which has been proved by time.
To this consideration I may add yet one more, which may be illustrated
by the same analogy. Scientific research in the laboratory is based on
simple relations between cause and effect in the natural world. These
have at times been adopted, many of us would say wrongly, as the main
principle of a mechanistic theory of the universe; That relation holds in
c2
20 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
our experimental work ; and as long as it does so we avail ourselves of it,
necessarily and witli right. But just as in the case of research into the
properties of radiation we use a corpuscular theory or a wave theory
according to the needs of the moment, the two theories being actually
incompatible to our minds in their present development, so the use of a
mechanistic theory in the laboratory does not imply that it represents all
that the human mind can use or grasp on other occasions, in present or in
future times.
The proper employment of scientific research is so necessary to our
welfare that we cannot afford to allow misconceptions to hinder it ; and
the worst of all are those which would suppose it to contradict the highest
aims. Science, as a young friend said to me not long ago, is not setting
forth to destroy the soul of the nation, but to keep body and soul together.
And some perhaps might say that in considering science in relation to
craftsmanship I am pressing the less noble view ; that I am not con-
sidering knowledge as its own end. It is said that uselessness in science
is a virtue. The accusation is a little obscure because it may justly be
said that knowledge is never useless. If I have thought of science in
relation to craftsmanship it is because I have tried to set out the vast
importance of what craftsmanship means and stands for. I have not
forgotten that there are other aspects of the inquiry into the truths of
Nature. Indeed, I could not carry out the lesser task without con-
sidering the whole meaning of science. And no clear line can be drawn
between pure science and applied science : they are but two stages of
development, two phases which melt into one another, and either loses
virtue if dissociated from the other. The dual relation is common to
many human activities and has been expressed in many ways. Long ago
it was said in terms which in their comprehensiveness include all the
aspirations of the searcher after knowledge : ' Thou shalt love the Lord
thy God with all thy heart and with all thy soul and with all thy strength ' ;
and ' Thou shalt love thy neighbour as thyself.' In the old story every
listener, from whatever country he came, Parthians and Medes, Cretans
and Arabians, heard the message in his own tongue. A great saying
speaks to every man in the language which he understands. To the
student of science the words mean that he is to put his whole heart into
his work, believing that in some way which he cannot fully comprehend
it is all worth while, and that every straining to understand his surround-
ings is right and good ; and, further, that in that way he can learn to be
of use to his fellow-men.
SECTION A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
THE VOLTA EFFECT.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. ALFRED W. PORTER, D.Sc, F.R.S.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
Since the last annual Meeting the Association has lost one who on more
than one occasion took part in the discussions of Section A. We had
hoped that he would be present also at this meeting. I refer to Hendrik
Antoon Lorentz, who passed away on February 4, 1928, in his seventy-fifth
year. Lorentz had long been regarded as one upon whom the mantle of
Clerk-Maxwell had fallen. For his character as a scientist and as a man
I may make reference to the columns of ' Nature ' for February 25, 1928.
From the group of appreciations there recorded I select the following
quotations : ' For many years Lorentz naturally and by general consent
took the leading place in every European conference of physicists.' ' His
name recalls especially the Lorentz transformation, the culminating point
of one phase of electrodynamical theory and the foundation stone of the
next.' ' To British investigators Lorentz was ever a most sympathetic
figure. This was due partly to his mastery of our language, partly to
his keen admiration of the work of the great English leaders of his time,
and above all to the transparent kindliness and charm of his character,
with its strict integrity and the engaging candour with which he always
admitted and even emphasised such difficulties as he had not been able to
surmount.'
We have also to record the regretted death of Dr. Charles Chree on
August 12 at the age of sixty-eight. Dr. Chree was superintendent of the
Kew Observatory from 1893 to 1925. He was a leading authority upon
terrestrial magnetism, atmospheric electricity and related subjects.
The subject that I have chosen for this address is the Volta eficct.
Volta's discovery was made towards the end of the eighteenth century
(1792). One form of experiment is as follows : —
A zinc rod attached to a copper rod is held in the hand. The copper
rod is brought into contact with the lower plate of a condensing electro-
scope, the top plate of which is touched by the other hand. If the con-
nexions are broken and the top plate is raised the gold leaves diverge with
negative electricity. This proves that the copper rod was at a negative
potential, since the zinc was held in the hand and at the potential of the
earth, that is at zero. If the experiment is repeated, but with the copper
rod held in the hand and the zinc rod touched to the lower plate, no
charge appears, there being a rise from the copper to the zinc accompanied
22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
by an equal fall from tlie zinc to the lower plate of the electroscope. In
this description it is tacitly assumed that the hand brings the metal
touched to its own potential, and that that is the earth (or^zero) potential.
Volta's own explanation was that there existed in'metals an inherent
power of separating the two electricities ; that is, that each metal possessed
what Helmholtz later spoke of as a specific attraction for electricity.
But an alternative explanation made the effect depend upon the accidental
circumstance that the rods are in air, that there is incipient or potential
chemical action, between the air (or moisture in it) and the rods, which
creates a drop of potential (of different amounts) between the air and each
rod ; and that consequently when the twin rods are brought together,
their potentials being equalised by a flow of electricity between them,
there is still a difference of potential between them and the air. It has
further to be supposed that the oxidising properties of the fluids on the
hand are not very different from those of the air, and consequently the
observed drops of potentials are between the metals and the hands, and
not between the metals themselves. The two theories are known as the
contact theory and the chemical theory.
The subject from the beginning proved to be a very controversial one.
The time was not ripe in Volta's days properly to discuss it. In its
more modern form discussion may be said to have begim soon after the
acceptance of the two principles of thermodynamics in 1850. The
principle of energy and that of entropy put an entirely new complexion
upon it.
Early in the nineteenth century a^second^mode'of obtaining a flow of
electricity was discovered by Seebeck (1822) which depended on creating
differences of temperature in a circuit of two metals. This was the
discovery of the thermoelectric circuit. It was inevitable that the two
discoveries should become associated with one another, for the thermo-
electric electromotive force might be simply due to the temperature
variations of the other. The Seebeck effect is very small. A hundred
degrees difference of temperature pro^ddes an e.m.f. of the order of
millivolts at most, while the Volta effect for copper and zinc is of the
order of one volt. Whether the two phenomena are intimately related
or otherwise it is necessary to discuss them both. It is convenient to
give first place in the discussion to the thermoelectric circuit.
Thermoelectric Circuits.
Two wires of different materials are joined so as to form a loop with
the two junctions at different temperatures, Tj and T.^. The elementary
facts about such a circuit are, in general : —
A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 28
(1) A current flows round the loop (Seebeck efiect).
(2) Heat is taken in or given out at each junction (the Peltier eSect :
= nQ).
(3) Heat is taken in (or given out) at each portion of each wire in
amount <t per unit charge per unit rise of temperature (the Thomson
effect).
I
Cold -r
M
Energy is required to drive the currents ; the electromotive force (E)
of the complete circuit is the energy required to pass unit charge across
any section arbitrarily cut across either conductor. The principle of
energy requires that round the complete loop this shall equal the total
heat taken in ; or
/•Ta rTi
E=7c,-7t,+ a'dT- \a"dT.
J Ti J Ti
All the coefficients refer to unit charge. It should be noted that if
the integration be carried out it will give E as a function of T._, and T^.
TTj and TTi are the Peltier heat coefficients at the temperatures T.^ and T,.
a' is the Thomson heat coefficient in one metal and is sufficiently
defined by the equation ; cr" is the corresponding quantity for the second
metal.
There is, of course, nothing in this equation to show how the e.m.f.
is localised. It is an equation for a complete circuit and for such a circuit
the equation shows that the total e.m.f. depends only upon the tempera-
tures of the two junctions.
Let us now take a second circuit, different only in the fact that the
higher temperature T.^ is slightly greater. A similar equation holds good
for it, and the difference between the two equations is
d'E,=dTZ,+{G,'-a.;')dT,
The suffix 2 indicates that the symbols denote values corresponding to
the temperature T.,. This equation is not an equation for one circuit ;
it connects the properties of two circuits differing only infinitesimally
in the temperature T.^.
At first sight the equation has rather an uncanny (i.e. unphysical)
appearance because all the symbols, except E, refer to the neighbourhood
of the temperature T.„ while E is the e.m.f. round a complete circuit.
24 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
One might precipitately come to the conchision that the events at either
of the junctions were influenced by the events at all other points of the
circuit.
It is, however, only the rate of change of E due to changing the
temperature T., with which we are concerned, and it might more logically
/'dJ^ \
be written ( — ) because T, must be left unchanged.
\'^,'T2/Tl
In the same way, by changing T, instead of T^ we may obtain
in which everything refers to the lower temperature T,.
Sir Oliver Lodge has always insisted that E is invariably the e.m.f.
round a complete circuit. This is perfectly correct, but we are only
concerned with the contribution to its value arising infinitesimally near
to either of the extreme temperatures of the circuit, and p. „- is thus
seen to be identical with ^ where V., is the potential-difference at the
junction whose temperature is T.^.
We can obtain further information from considerations of entropj'.
Strictly speaking we are entitled to use the principle of entropy only for
reversible cycles, while in several respects the circuits we are using may
be irreversible. Several ways are known by which the irreversibility
may be diminished to zero in the limit, but no change is thereby made in
the conclusions which we come to by ignoring the irreversibility altogether
— which we accordingly do.'
The entropy change at any part of a cycle is obtained by dividing any
heat entry by the absolute temperature at which it enters. The sum of
all the changes must be zero for a complete cycle.
The two circuits give
^ T,
T, + d% T,
f
^ -^dT=0
Ti
whence ^ f^A+^^-^^- =
0T2VT2/ T,
' By increasing the lengths of the wires the conduction of heat along each may be
indefinitely diminished. By surrounding them with conductors having the same
temperature as the wire near to it the loss by radiation, &c., can be diminished. A
reverse e.m.f. can be superimposed (by electromagnetic induction or otherwise) so
as to reduce the current to zero and thereby diminish the value of the ohmic heat;
and so on. Ignoring the irreversibility is equivalent to taking for granted that such
precautions have been taken.
A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SClKxXCES. 25
Bv oliminating a.,' — cr," we obtain
all of which symbols are related to the temperature T.^ (T, being kept
constant).
Similarly, by making the change at the lower temperature,
Also, by eliminating tt., (or tt,)
All this leads one to realise that ( ^_ | is identical with ^^'^ where
v., is the loc:l e.m.f. contributed by the junction itself ; and that
Controversialists may be divided between those who believe that the
difference of potential (V) at any junction is measured by the heat taken
in thereat and those who do not consider that this assertion is justified, but
that it must be replaced by the above equation. It of course does not
folJoiv that there is any difference between the two assertions in particular
cases ; it remains to be found out whether there is any difference between
them or not.
Though this is so, yet of course it may not be assumed ab initio that
heat entry and external work done are equal to one another. This is the
assumption that is actually made by those who write 7r.j--V.,, both being
expressed in terms of the same units.
It is instructive to enquire what the relation connecting these quantities
ie for other phenomena.
- Example : — It is found that in many cases E is given by a parabolic equation
which can be written
E = a(T,-T,)
rp T, + T,
whence by keeping Tj constant and differentiating with respect to '£.,
7T3 = aT.,(To-T.,).
Similarly, by differentiating with respect to Ti, the heat removed at Ti is found
to be
_ Ki = aTi(T„-Tj).
■ Also a/- 02"= aT.,
and O]' — Oi" = aTi.
Tliese are terminal values onlj' and are consistent with taking
o' —a" = aT at any intermediate temperature,
or o' = a'T and a" = a'T
where a = a'— a".
26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
The general equation which is applicable in any particular group of
cases is obtained by applying the principles of energy and entropy to
reversible transformations. By taking both these quantities as depending
only upon the state of a system the following equations are obtained : —
Group I, Case I. — Perfect gas under uniform pressure.
Heat entry = dH = G,dT -\-pdv. Work done = dW = pdv.
In this case, at constant temperature, dil = dW.
Case II. — Any fluid under uniform pressure,
dR = C,dT+T:% dv; dW^pdv.
oTjf
Thus, at constant temperature
rfH-dW = (T5-Si -p)dv.
Hence dH^tdW unless Tf ^^ j — p remains zero ; that is, unless
p=T:f(v)
where f{v) means any function of the volume alone.^
Take the case of steam formed at a constant temperature of 100° C.
Per gram we have
AH =540 cal/gram
, .1650X10'^ ,n 1,1
^ ^^ 42><iO«"' roughly.
Hence AH=-t^AW.
40
This is an example in which AH is much greater than AW.
Group II. — Surface tension, a.
dll=CJT-T^^ dA, dW=—adA.
For water ^ 4-m^.L at 300'^ Abs.
CT dT 500
„ dB. 300 3
Hence jxij~£n^~i,-
dW 500 5 •
Group III. — Magnetism,
.9/*
dR=CidT-T^L dl. dW=—}idI.
aT.i
■^ Van der Waal's equation is p = — _
T^' =^ =■»+ "
c7l\v v-b ^ ifi
Hence dH — dW = --dt) at const, temp.
|;2
A— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 27
Group IV.— Electric condensers,
rfH=C,rfT-T|^ dq. dW=-Ydq.
di-9
In neither Group III nor Group IV is dH. = dW.
These equations are all derived in the same way as for Group I — or
alternatively they can be written down at once by analogy. Work can
take various forms, but heat and work are always related in the same
way thermodynamically.
Surely a contemplation of these cases should act as a deterrent against
assuming the equality of heat entry and external work done.
Only in a particular case of Group I is the heat entry a measure of the
isothermal work. Hence those who claim that in the thermoelectric
case 7C is a measure of V must show that the conditions are analogous to
those of a perfect gas, or at least of a fluid whose characteristic equation
isp=T/(i').
In all the literature on this subject I find no realisation by the
combatants that both sides might be asserting the same thing.
Now does electricity behave as a perfect gas when it flows through a
conductor — through a copper wire, for example ?
Attempts have been made to calculate the conductivity of a wire by
assuming that the electrons constitute a perfect gas ; but, as is well
known, all these attempts have broken down. The answer to the question
can, however, be found in another way. When Kelvin, in conjunction
with Joule, wished to find the difference between real gases and the ideal
gas he passed the gas through a porous plug. If the gas became warmer
or cooler in passing through (although no heat was admitted) he knew
that the gas was not perfect. Experimentally, air became cooler and
hydrogen hotter. The difference of behaviour depends entirely upon the
value of T^— r for the gas. No heating or cooling would be obtained
if this expression is zero ; or, writing it in an integral form, if v=Tf{p).
Now every time that you pass electrons through a conductor you are
conducting a porous plug experiment. The electrons pass through the
mesh of atoms like molecules of fluid through a porous solid, and in every
case warming takes place (the Joulean heat). It is true that in the
electrical case when conducted adiobatically the temperature goes on
rising ; i.e. it is never possible to reach the stationary state for which easy
calculation becomes possible. But in principle the same thermodynamics
applies to all these phenomena, and the fact that warming occurs is
sufficient to prove that the electrons do not flow as a perfect gas.
This being so we are obliged to conclude that the isothermal heat
entry at a junction between two metals is not equal to the external work
done at the same junction, i.e. that the Peltier coefficient is not a measure
of the voltage drop at that junction.
The Electron considered as a Solute.
The developments in our knowledge of the electron since 1895 have
placed the subject on a new footing. When Sir William Thomson (Kelvin)
first gave an explanation of thermoelectric phenomena he spoke of a as
28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
being the specific heat of electricity. There is no clear evidence that he
used the term in anything but an analogical way. To Maxwell the idea
of the corporeality of electricity was exceedingly distasteful. He assumed
that such a phrase as the specific heat of electricity ' was not intended
by Thomson, and must not be understood by up, to imply that electricity
either positive or negative is a fluid which can be heated or cooled and
which has a definite specific heat.' He shelved the question by talking
of change of entropy instead. Maxwell's conceptions in regard to the
non-corporeality of electricity almost won the day when Hertzian waves
were found to be transmitted in free space where no electricity was. But
the bodily nature of electricity came to be a real thing in the years
succeeding 1895. Negative electricity was isolated as electrons, while
positive electricity has not yet been separated from the rest of the atom,
and may consist of all of the atom which is not electrons. There is now
no difiiculty in thinking of electricity as a receptacle of energy which may
be communicated to it in the form of heat ; that is, it has come fully
within the thermodynamical scheme. The question is, which is the best
picture that can be given of its position in that scheme ?
Now, firstly, when an electric current passes across a junction between
two metals, say copper and zinc, it is quite certain that no detectable
amount of metal is carried by it across the junction. We are not concerned
with the formation of brass (as probably Sir Oliver Lodge has already
said). The only things that pass are the electrons which are responsible
for conveying the current in each metal. These are tolerably free to move
under the influence of an electric force. [They are not set free by the
force, for otherwise Ohm's Law would not hold good.] The copper or
zinc serves merely as a framework through which their motion occurs.
The electrons can get across a boundary between the metals, but the
fact that heat-changes occur thereat is evidence that they may need to be
helped over — there is a rise (or drop) of potential there, though not of an
amount equal to the heat entry. It is convenient to think of this
potential, V, as a pressure arising from electrical forces, or more strictly,
since V refers to unit charge, a pressure divided by the charge on the
electron.
It is clear that thermodynamically we may regard the metal as a
solution or binary system, the electrons being the solute. The boundary
between the zinc and copper acts as a semi-permeable membrane, since the
electrons, and nothing else, can get through it. FitzGerald spoke of the
free surface of a solution as the most perfect semi-permeable meml;rane,
but the boundary surface between two metals in regard to electrons runs
it very close. There is a difference of pressure (or potential) between the
two sides. This is an osmotic pressure. The electrons can also escape
to some extent from the sides of the wire ; they have a vapour pressure.
If the temperature is raised this becomes very conspicuous as thermionic
emission. The copper also has a vapour pressure, but much smaller.
We have then to deal with a volatile solute dissolved in a practically
involatile solvent — at least at moderate temperatures.
This being so, and thermodynamics being superior to the idiosyncrasies
of individual mechanisms, we can at once transfer all that we know about
the thermodynamics of solutions to the thermoelectric circuit.
A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCTENCES.
OSMOTIC^CONSIDERATIONS .
29
.2 I
o
T,
n §
o
02
Osmotic
Osmotic pressure at 'Y^ir=Vi='p{' —Vi •
T, = P,=i),"-i','.
Heat of dilution at T.2=( '^iTf^' )»,•
T,= T,
.'^
>.)T,>
T
Theemoelectric .
Potential difference at T.2 = V.. = V,"— V./.
Ti=V,=V,"-V,'.
7t2=Heat entry at T.,=To-=^ per
unit charge.
/V,
7ri=
T,=T,^
T, ^
unit charge.
Now although the fact that both cases are sohitions enables oue to
write down the general expressions for both, it does not follow that there
ia precise numerical correspondence. Nevertheless it is instructive to
enquire what is found to be true for ordinary solutions.
It is found in practice for solutions such as sugar in water that P can,
with fair accuracy, be represented by a simple equation such as
P=«RT/(1— «6).
With this equation the
Heat of dilution=T^J^=P.
Hence the heat taken in is nearly equal to the external work done.
Recent measurements of it have been made by Miss D. Hunter and
by Perman and Downes, and deviations from this statement have been
determined.
On the other hand, in the thermoelectric case
7r = aT(To-T]
for many pairs of metals. At temperatures remote from the neutral
temperature (To) this is of the same form, but in general since
n9V
7r=T'
aT'
=a(To-T) or V-V2To=KT„T-
There seems to be nothing in the osmosis of solutions to indicate what
the value of the integration constant V2T(, may be.
The second property of solutions is that of vapour pressure or, as it
is called, thermionic emission. We have two solutions, Zinc + E and
30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Copper-f-E. Eacli has a vapour pressure for electrons. When equi-
librium exists between the metals the vapour pressure must be the same
for both.
Now there is a theorem which deals with such cases of equilibrium.
This is Margules' theorem. If [i^ is the molar fraction of the volatile
component and p the vapour pressure,
(i.1— -log j9=a symmetrical function of iXi and 1— pt,.
This theorem is not quite exact, but at temperatures remote from
the critical value the error is one part in a million or less, and may be dis-
regarded. A simple case is that for which the right-hand side can be
written aH-2P(j,,(l— [j.,), and when integrated it gives
log ^=a log (x,+p(l— (Xjf .
Po
An equation of this kind fits exceedingly well many binary mixtures
(even when both components are volatile), the value of p varying in
difierent cases from plus three or four to minus six, and a being often
equal to one. The form of the equation indicates that [3 is the coefficient
of mutual action between the components. Its value varies neajly
inversely as the absolute temperature, and since the equation may be
written
p=Poliie T
it is seen to have a close connexion witFBoltzmann's equation. But the
general form of Margules' equation has, I believe, much wider validity
than Boltzmann's equation.
Now when copper and zinc with their electrons are in contact-equi-
librium with each other they must have the same vapour pressure for
electrons— i.e. p is the same for both. Hence
This is an equation for determining the concentrations ([x) of the free
electrons in copper and zinc respectively.
Our present knowledge about the numbers of free electrons in metals
requires that [i^ and [i. be small. Hence approximately
or 3i-P'=log&.
Now ^^ — p,. is certainly proportional to the work done in the escape of
an electron, but we do not know enough about the concentrations (fx) of
the free electrons in the metals to make any use of this equation, which
is of such importance in connexion with the properties of ordinary
solutions. I give it in order to call attention to it as an equation which
may some day be of use in elucidating the Volta effect.
More hopeful in giving information is the equation for the latent
A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
31
heat of the solution in terms of the specific heats. For a substance like
water changing phase
dTKTJ^ T
For the electrical case we obtained the equation
The quantity L I have called the latent heat of dilution. It is con-
nected, however, with the latent heats of evaporation from the two metals
at the junction temperature. These latent heats of evaporation are those
that come into play in thermionic emission. Prof. 0. W. Richardson
has measured such latent heats, and concludes that they support the
existence of large thermionically excited voltages. Whatever their
magnitude it must not be forgotten that tt is a measure of the difierential
latent heat at a junction and tt is certainly very small.''
^ I am accustomed to put the matter thus :
Assume that the emitted electrons behave as a perfect gas in the vapour state,
having pressure, volume, and temperature connected thus :
V
Now, any latent heat is given by
L=T:{v.,-v,)^ (Clausius).
The internal latent heat is
But Vi (the volume in the solid) is exceedingly small compared with v; hence very
nearly
Li T, T d fp\ d I p\
T^ = ^ ^ (iT\T j = ^ dT ^""^ \t) '
whence, by integration
or putting p = wRT (re = concentration in the vapour state)
n = reJ»'^'''
IT.
If we consider a second metal in equilibrium with the first
re' = re„J^^*''
But things which are in equilibrium with the same thing are in equilibrium with one
another ; therefore re = re' and
Li — Li* is the internal latent heat of dilution. This equation is Kirchhoflf's equation.
Now though the latent heats may be large their difference is usually a small quantity,
and it is their difference which is nearly represented by tt.
32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
The actual measured value for a for copper at 150° C. is about
2-5 micro-joules per deg. C. per coulomb. Since the electric charge of
an electron is about 1-57 X 10~''' coulombs, the value of a for an electron
in copper would be 2-5 X 1-57 X 10"-'' X 10 ergs per deg. C, or 3-9x10-"
ergs per deg., while the corresponding quantity for a gas molecule is about
2 X lO""' ergs per deg. The measured value is considerably less than the
usual molecular value. We know, however, that for some metals it is
actually negative. This is no doubt due to the fact that, being a negative
charge, it gives up energy as it goes up potential at constant temperature,
and consequently less heat is needed to raise it one degree at any given
temperature. If only the Thomson effect could be reliably measured
important information could be obtained of clY'dT in each metal.
Electrolytic Regions.
I must now pass on to consider electrolytic regions, i.e. voltaic cells.
Volta's own theory was that the driving force was situated at the metal-
metal junction. His view was afterwards adopted by Lord Kelvin.
This is a sjiecially interesting fact because Kelvin was one of the first to
show that the energy of the current was supplied by the chemical actions
in the cell. This was afterwards slightly corrected by Helmholtz, who
showed that strictly E was a measure of the free energy per unit charge
and not of the total energy.'^
We can in fact no more ignore the heat taken in in this case than we
had a right to ignore the internal work done when dealing with the thermo-
electric circuit.
We must be prepared to find that the osmotic conditions in voltaic
cells are different from those in metals. Consider the circuit of a Daniel)
cell : Zn—ZnSo^sol"— Membrane— CuSojSol"—Cu— outside circuit— Zn.
The first difference is that it is not merely electrons that move. What
happens at the Zinc-Liquid junction ? We are not certain. Physical
chemists under the influence of Debye are revising their conceptions in
regard to solutions. The old dissociation theory assumed that positive
and negative ions moved about quite freely unless appropriate collisions
occurred, when combination might take place, the amount of combination
being calculable from the law of mass action. The theory was exceedingly
useful, but there was an outstanding difficulty in regard to ' strong '
■"' For a reversible action d\J = rfH — dW
= T(/9 - Xrfa;
or (f{U - Tcp) = - 9rfT - X^dx.
The quantity U — T9 is the free-energy, F, 9 = entropy, U = internal energy, X a
' force ' doing work in the ' displacement ' x.
Hence — dF = X.dx or the work done at constant temperature = decrease of F.
Now F depends onl\- on the state of the system, hence dY is a perfect differential,
and we have y^ = — 9, so that
F = U+ Tl^l
,)T la;
or -U = T34(?
Mt
The expression for the internal latent heat on p. 31 is an example of this relation.
A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 33
electroljrtes. These do not follow the law of mass action. Debye assumes
complete dissociation, but with electrical attractions between the ions due
to their positive and negative charges. These forces give rise to what
may be called potential combination following, however, a different law
from that of mass action, and the difficulty in regard to ' strong ' electro-
lytes is removed, though only for dilute solutions. The important fact,
however, is that some of the zinc goes into the solution, carrying positive
charges with it. It goes in not merely by evaporation, as in Nernst's
theory, but it is in part pulled in by the SOj-ions carrying negative
charges. Again at the copper plate copper is deposited not freely as a
vapour might condense, but is retarded by the attractions of the SO^-
ions in the solution. Both plates act as semi-permeable membranes,
passing selected substances and stopping others. So far as we know, no
electricity gets through either of these membranes except as a rider on
an ion. At any rate this must be so as long as Faraday's laws of electrolysis
hold good.
On the other hand the membrane (porous pot, &c.) separating the two
solutions acts as a membrane more nearly of the metallic kind. Electrons
that were riding on SO^-ions get through, leaving their mounts behind.
Few membranes will act in precisely this way, and considerable variety
may therefore exist in the voltage changes at this membrane. It is not
unlikely that the voltage there may be of the same order as that at the
outside copper-zinc junction, but of opposite sign ; for in both cases
electrons alone are passing. If this is so, then the electromotive force
of a circuit may, at least approximately, be the sum of those arising at
the metal-liquid junctions.
From what I have said it will be clear that my opinion is that it is
still necessary to be cautious and to avoid dogmatism on this question.
Much more detailed experimental knowledge is required before the electric
circuit is really understood. The electronic theory in metals still has its
difficulties, which it is useless to ignore. It is only by recognising the
difficulties that advance is made. On the other hand the experimental
difficulties in connexion with the direct measurement of Volta effect are
also very great, as all who have made experiments on it must know.
I had hoped to be able to present to you some new experimental
data. I am not satisfied, however, that I understand the meaning of the
vagaries that often occur, and I do not mean to publish anything now.
I wish to say, however, that I am impressed by the excellent and novel
work that is being done by Millikan and by 0. W. Eichardson on this
question.
Both the experiments and the theory are associated with great
difl&culties. My own opinion is that, though the voltage at the metal-
metal junction is likely to be much larger than the chemical school
demanded, there is nothing to justify one in going to the opposite extreme
and expecting that the whole of the electromotive of a circuit is located
at that junction. Opposing schools may both take comfort in the thought
that in some respects they are both right.
Of course no difficulty is introduced if it is concluded that the contribu-
tion of an element of the ciicuit to the total e.m.f. is not measured by the
heat taken in locally thereat. On both sides of the controversy it is well
1928 D
34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
realised that energy may be introduced at one point of a mechanism and
utilised at another. Transmission of energy along rods and belts and
across wheels is familiar to everybody ; and though some of the modes
of transmission may appear curious (e.g. through a belt it is transmitted
in the opposite direction to that in which the tight part of the belt is
moving) yet the modus operandi presents no difficulty when it is thoroughly
analysed.
The object of this address has been to try to clear up some of the
causes of dissension. If I have succeeded in making clear any matters
about which any of you had experienced difficulties, I shall be well
rewarded.
SECTION B.— CHEMISTRY.
PHOSPHORESCENCE, FLUORESCENCE
AND CHEMICAL REACTION.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. E. C. C. BALY, C.B.E.. M.Sc, F.R.S.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECT ON.
The phenomena associated with chemical reaction, and in particular the
mechanism of chemical change, form a subject of peculiar interest. The
story of the development of ideas from the birth of modern chemistry to
the present day is one which to my mind forms the most attractive chapter
in the history of our science. It may be that to some of those who earn
undying fame by the determination of the constitution of most wondrously
complex molecules, to some of those who go down to posterity as masters
of synthesis and wizards of organic method, it may be that to these this
chapter presents an interest that is languid. On the other hand there
are many to whom it makes a great appeal because the subject matter is
the fundamental basis of chemical knowledge. I confess my own
allegiance with the latter, but it is in a very humble spirit that I venture
to speak upon this subject. I do so not with any confident assurance of
being able to put forward a theory of chemical reaction which will embrace
all the known facts and embody all the views that have from time to time
been enunciated, but rather in the hopes of collecting together a number
of observations which have been made in fields allied to chemistry and
appear to be worthy of consideration by those who seek to find an explana-
tion of the mechanism of chemical reaction.
The allied fields to which I refer are those of phosphorescence,
fluorescence and absorption spectra, fields which have been enriched by
observations of high accuracy. These observations are of special signifi-
cance in that they are concerned with the physical properties of molecules
in contradistinction to those of atoms. The phenomena of chemical
reaction are essentially associated with the absorption and radiation of
energy, and it thus seems somewhat strange that little attempt has hitherto
been made in considering the mechanism of reaction to invoke aid from
the many investigations in these allied fields which obviously deal with
the energy changes undergone by molecules. It will be my endeavour
to show that the evidence that has been obtained from the study of
luminescence and absorption spectra has a very direct bearing on the
phenomena of chemical reaction,- and that the hypothesis of activated
molecules which forms the basis of the modern theories of the latter can
be rigidly tested and examined by the former.
One of the most important theories brought forward during recent
years is that known as the radiation hypothesis, which was developed
d2
36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
independently by Perrin and by W. C. McC. Lewis. Briefly stated in an
elementary way, this theory postulated that molecules in general have
no chemical reactivity, and that they become reactive after they have
absorbed energy. In order that a specific reactivity be induced, a definite
quantity of energy must be supplied to bring each molecule from its
initial stage to its reactive state, this quantity being called the critical
increment of energy characteristic of the specific reaction.
The fundamental basis of the radiation hypothesis was the extension
of the Einstein photochemical equivalent law to include thermal radiation
as well. The Einstein law states that in a photochemical reaction the
absorption of the radiation takes place in the form of quanta, and that
each molecule requires for its activation one single quantum hv^, where v,,
is the characteristic absorption frequency of the molecule in the visible
or ultra-violet region of the spectrum. The conception that a single
quantum of energy must be absorbed before a molecule can become
activated was not only extended but also intrinsically modified in the
radiation hypothesis. W. C. McC. Lewis developed from the Planck
radiation formula the expression
(flog;fc/(^T = NAv/RT^ . . . . (1)
where k is the velocity constant of the reaction and N is the Avogadro
constant. By treating the problem from the point of view of statistical
mechanics, J. Rice, following the example of Marcelin, obtained an expres-
sion which, with a small simplification, may be written
(ZlogK/(ZT = E/Rr . . . . (2)
where E is the amount of energy necessary to bring one gram molecule
of a gas into its reactive state. If the like terms in these expressions be
equated we have
E/N = ;iv,
that is to say the amount of energy that has to be supplied to a single
molecule to cause it to react is one single quantum of absorbable radiation.
Although Lewis says that this is simply a statement of the Einstein law
which is now applied to thermal or infra-red radiation, it is much more
than that. The Einstein law merely states that in a photochemical
reaction a molecule absorbs one quantum of radiant energy, Avg, and then
becomes activated, no assumption being made as to the difference in
energy content of the initial and reactive states. The radiation hypothesis
states that the difference in energy content of the initial and reactive
states, or the critical increment of activation, is a single quantum which
can be absorbed from infra-red radiation. The critical increment of
energy characteristic of a reaction is neither expressed nor implied in the
Einstein law.
It is a simple matter to calculate the critical increment of a reaction
from the observed change of the velocity constant with temperature, and
by dividing this quantity, expressed in ergs, by the product N/(, to obtain
the critical frequency v. Not only must this frequency be one character-
istic of the reactant molecules, that is to say one that can be observed by
absorption spectra measurements, but the radiation hypothesis also
B.— CHEMISTRY. 37
demands that exposure of the inactive molecules to radiant energy of
that frequency should cause the reaction to take place. As a matter of
experimental fact, molecules in their inactive states do not show any
evidence of being characterised by frequencies equal to those calculated
from the critical increments. This in itself is sulficiently significant to
arrest attention, but when it was proved first by Lindemann and then in
most elegant fashion by G. N. Lewis that molecules do not react when
exposed to radiant energy, not only of the calculated frequency but of a
very large range of infra-red frequencies, it was felt on all sides that the
radiation hypothesis had been efltectively and completely disproved.
The situation thus reached is one of considerable interest. There
exist on the one hand large and increasing numbers of photochemical
reactions which are obviously stimulated by the absorption of radiant
energy. If the Planck theory stand fast, the reactant molecules must be
activated by the absorption of the energy quanta Avo, since it is well
known that the frequency v^ is characteristic of them. On the other
hand the radiation hypothesis is based on premises which appear to be
theoretically sound ; nevertheless it has been proved to be untenable. As
a result the general consensus of opinion has swung over to activation by
collision in thermal reactions. It must, however, be confessed that the
present position is very far from being a satisfactory one. In the case of
true photochemical reactions it is not possible to believe that activation of
the reactant molecules is not produced by the direct absorption of radiant
energy. In the case of thermal reactions the evidence disproves the
activation by the direct absorption of radiant energy, and activation by
collision has been substituted. There are, therefore, two accepted methods
of activation, but the fact remains that these two have as yet not been
properly married together, the general hope apparently being that any
offspring will be legitimised when the union has been scientifically
canonised.
When the obsequies of the radiation hypothesis had been sung, it was
felt that the corpse had received decent burial. In sympathy with its
parents in their bereavement, I venture to point out that this hypothesis
may be divided into two parts. The first part is concerned with the
critical increment of energy of a reaction, that is to say the minimum
quantity of energy, or rather the exact quantity of energy, which is
required to bring a molecule from its initial state to its reactive state.
Unless the whole conception of different molecular states be dropped,
this conception of a critical increment stands on a sure and firm basis.
The second part of the hypothesis, namely, that the critical increment
can be absorbed as a single quantum of energy by a reactant molecule, is
a pure assumption and one that would only be justified by a knowledge
that the properties of molecules are in this respect identical with those
of elementary atoms. The uncertainty which attaches itself to this
assumption impresses me so strongly that I propose to exhume the body
in order that the cause of death may be more fully investigated. There
exists a considerable amount of evidence which was not before the court
and this evidence is worthy of the most serious consideration.
So far as the phenomena of chemical reaction can help us, our know-
ledge of the physical properties of molecules, and in particular their
38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
change from one to otlier state of energy content, is singularly meagre,
and it would seem that little more can be gained in this direction even
by the most intensive study of purely chemical processes. I venture to
stress this point of view because I believe that the necessary evidence can
only be gained from sources of information which are independent of the
processes we wish to explain. Such independent sources of information
may be found in the phenomena of phosphorescence, fluorescence and
absorption spectra of compounds. Observations in these three fields are
sufficiently differentiated from those of chemical reaction to be trusted
to give evidence which is free from any bias. I myself believe that these
observations when interpreted on the energy quantum theory constitute
a mine of information which can render signal service in the quest for a
comprehensive theory of chemical reaction.
The term phosphorescence is a broad one and includes both photo-
luminescence and cathodoluminescence, together with certain subsidiary
phenomena. The only one of these that can serve our present purpose is
photoluminescence, since a knowledge is essential of the frequency of the
activating radiation as well as that of the emitted radiation. It is not
possible to give here any detailed account of the many observations,
both qualitative and quantitative, of the phenomenon of photoluminescence,
but particular attention may be directed to one or two of these which have
a special significance in the present connection.
It would perhaps be advisable first to describe very briefly the principal
facts which have been established. In the first place the molecules of the
phosphore are brought into a state of higher energy content, or the
activated state, by the absorption of radiant energy. The phosphorescent
emission is the radiation of energy during the change of the molecules
from the activated state to the original state, and this energy is equal in
amoimt to that gained during the activation. The persistence of the
phosphorescence, that is to say the period of the time during which the
luminescence persists, is a measure of the stability of the activated state.
The more stable is the activated state, the longer is the persistence, and
vice versa. The intensity of the luminescence is in inverse ratio to the
persistence. After a definite quantity of energy has been absorbed by
the phosphore, then in the radiation of that quantity in the form of
phosphorescence the velocity must affect the persistence and intensity in
opposite senses. Since the phosphorescent emission is the integration of
the individual radiation of a number of molecules, the intensity decreases
with time as the number of molecules in the activated state becomes smaller.
If the intensity at any time t be measured in relation to the initial intensity
(t=0) then
l—^=a-\-bt
and in the majority of cases n=2.
The stability of the activated state is determined both by the tem-
perature and by the concentration of the phosphorogen in solid solution
in the diluent. The higher is the temperature, the less stable is the activated
state, and there always exists an upper temperature limit, characteristic
of every phosphore, above which no phosphorescence can be observed.
The stability of the activated state is the greatest with a pure substance,
B.— CHEMISTRY. 39
and in order to observe phosphorescence at temperatures below the upper
limit, it is necessary that the phosphorogen be in dilute solid solution in
some diluent. This was first observed by Lenard and Klatt with their
alkaline earth sulphide phosphores, and more strongly emphasised by
Urbain and Bruninghaus in the case of the rare earths.
The foregoing is a brief account of the characteristics of photo-
luminescence, and we may now consider in detail one or two of these,
selecting as the first the relation between the frequencies of the exciting
radiation and the emitted radiation. In the alkaline earth sulphide
phosphores the phosphorescent radiation is very often complex in the
sense that it consists of several separate emission bands. Lenard and
Klatt, however, satisfied themselves that each emission band is character-
istic of a single activated state, since each has its own frequency of activa-
tion and its own upper temperature limit. The relation between the
absorption band at which activation takes place and the emission band
after activation is an intimate one, and it has been shown by later work
on less complex phosphores that the absorption and emission bands have
structures which are analogous.
Now Lenard and Klatt established the very important fact that
phosphorescent emission is not a truly reversible process. It is not in
any way possible to activate a phosphore by exposing it to radiation of
the same frequency as that which it emits when it has been activated.
It is only possible to activate a phosphore by means of radiant energy
of the same frequency as that of its characteristic absorption band which
lies on the short wave-length side of the characteristic emission band.
In short, these investigators proved the complete validity of Stokes' law,
and as the result of later work on true phosphorescence this law has been
proved invariably to hold.
The importance of this may at once be recognised if the facts be stated
in more scientific phraseology. When an activated phosphore is emitting
its characteristic luminescence each activated molecule radiates a single
quantum of energy in passing from the higher energy state to the lower
energy state, the total luminescence being the sum of all these radiated
quanta. In the process of activation the change from the lower to the
higher state is caused by the absorption of that same quantity of energy
by each molecule, and in view of the radiation as a single quantum it is
legitimate to assume that it is absorbed as a single quantum, nothing
being expressed or implied as to the mechanism of the absorption. Each
molecule, therefore, requires for its activation a critical quantum of energy
Avj, and the value of Vj may be directly obtained from the measurement
of the luminescence. The proof given by Lenard and Klatt and by others
that Stokes' law is valid indicates that it is impossible to activate a
phosphore by means of radiant energy of the frequency Vj, and that the
critical quantum of activation cannot be supplied to a molecule by a
singular absorption process. There exists, therefore, in this respect a
sharp difterentiation between the physical properties of molecules and
atoms.
The lethal dose of criticism which killed the radiation hypothesis was
based on the experimental proof that molecules are not able to do this
very same thing, namely, absorb their critical quanta of activation Av,
40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
at the calculated frequency v^. The radiation hypothesis was killed
because the assumption of the second part was made in ignorance of what
molecules can do and cannot do.
It may be argued that the activated molecular states which are
responsible for phosphorescence must be essentially different from those
which function in chemical reaction, because their life periods are enormous
compared with those of chemical processes. The fact, however, remains
that in a series of different energy levels the uplift from a lower to a higher
level cannot be achieved by the absorption of radiant energy of the
frequency corresponding to the energy difference. The stability of the
activated states in the field of phosphorescence and its remarkable varia-
tion with temperature are matters of great importance, but too much
stress need not be laid upon them at this stage of the argument. A
possible explanation will be given later.
It may be pointed out that there is a close similarity between the
effective methods of activation in the fields of photoluminescence and
photochemistry. In each the activation is achieved by exposing the
inactive molecules to radiant energy of a frequency equal to that of a
characteristic absorption band of the inactive state, and this frequency
is invariably greater than that calculated from the quantum of activation.
Stokes' law, therefore, may be said to apply to photochemistry as well as
to photoluminescence.
In view of the mechanism of activation which is common to photo-
luminescence and photochemistry, it is legitimate to inquire into the
destination of the excess of the energy absorbed over the critical quantum
of activation. The energy quantum absorbed by a single molecule may
be denoted by hv^, and the critical quantum of activation by hv^, where
V(, is greater than v,, and the question is what happens to the energy
difference expressed by /iVg— /iVj. In the case of photoluminescence there
is no doubt of the value of hv^, since this may be calculated from the
observed emission band, and hv„ is also known from measurements of the
absorption band or activating frequency. The course of events during
activation may be represented by the diagram shown in fig. 1, where
energy content is expressed on the ordinates and time on the abscissae.
The initial level of a molecule is represented by A and the energy level
of the activated state by the horizontal line C. The difference between
the two levels is ^v,, and this quantum is radiated when the activated
molecule returns to its initial state A. When the molecule in its initial
state absorbs the quantum h\ it is raised to the level B, which is higher
than the level C. Since the phosphorescent emission is that of the
quantum hv^, the molecule after being initially raised to the level A must
immediately fall to the C level with the radiation of the energy h^^—h/i.
If the initial level A is a definite energy state of the molecule, it is legitimate
to assume that the energy difference is radiated as a single quantum hv.^.
It may be suggested that this radiation during activation by light of
frequency greater than that corresponding to the critical quantum of
activation is the origin of fluorescence. Apart from any other argument
it is necessary that the radiation of some energy must accompany the
activation of a molecule by light if Stokes' law is generally valid, and
the view now brought forward is that under certain conditions this energy
B.— CHEMISTRY.
41
can be radiated as a single quantum of fluorescence. The really essential
condition for this to take place is that the molecule can exist for a finite
period of time at the energy level C.
In all cases of photoluminescence the criterion exists for the radiation
of excess energy as a quantum of fluorescence, since the phosphorescent
emission gives direct evidence for the existence of the molecule in the
energy level C in fig. 1. Fluorescence, therefore, should always be
exhibited during the photo-activation of a phosphore. Lenard and Klatt
in their investigations of photoluminescence recorded the fact that in
general the intensity of the luminescence showed a sudden and marked
diminution at the instant the exciting radiation was removed. It will
B
^
f^i
kV-hy^^hV.
T"
kv,
JL
Jj£.
k
Fig. 1.
be remembered that they defined two ' instantaneous ' states, characteristic
of each emission band, when the luminescence vanished completely at the
instant the activation was stopped. These two states are determined by
the temperature, and there lies between them an intermediate state when
true phosphorescent emission with measurable persistence is observed.
There is no doubt that in the lower instantaneous state the stability of the
activated molecules is so great that the phosphorescent emission is too
small to be observed. There is also no doubt that in the upper instan-
taneous state, which has a very small temperature range immediately
below the upper temperature limit, the stability of the activated state is
so small that the whole of the phosphorescent emission takes place within
a fraction of second after activation has ceased. In the intermediate
42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
region the stability is such that the luminescence can be observed and
measured without difficulty.
The sudden and complete disappearance of luminescence in the lower
instantaneous state when the excitation is stopped must be entirely due
to fluorescence, since no phosphorescence is visible. The energy of
activation remains stored up and can only be released by raising the
temperature. In the intermediate state phosphorescence is always visible
to a greater or less extent and in consequence the presence of fluorescence
will be recognised by a sudden fall in intensity at the instant when the
exciting radiation is cut off. Both these phenomena have been established
by Lenard and Klatt's work.
It must be remembered that the one essential criterion for fluorescence
is the existence with a finite stability of an energy level intermediate
between the initial level and the super-activated level to which the molecule
is raised by absorbing the quantum /(V^. It is by no means necessary that
the stability of the intermediate level be sufficiently great for delayed or
phosphorescent emission to be visible when the molecule changes from
this level to its normal level. The conditions for phosphorescence are
far more restricted and rigid, one of these being that the phosphore must
be in the solid state. It is, therefore, not surprising that fluorescence is
of far more frequent occurrence than phosphorescence.
Attention has already been directed to the close similarity between
the activation processes in photoluminescence and in photochemistry.
The principle of fluorescence radiation must also apply to photochemical
reactions, in all of which the activating quantum is greater than the
actual energy of activation. The course of events must again be that
shown in fig. 1, with the simple difference that in photochemistry the
existence of the molecule in the energy level C will be established by the
occurrence of a chemical reaction, the critical increment of which is hv^.
Here again, therefore, the relation should hold that
where JiWg is the quantum of energy absorbed at the characteristic molecular
frequency in the ultra-violet, hv^ is the critical increment and v.^ is the
frequency of the fluorescence. It would seem, therefore, that the
suggested explanation of fluorescence may be put to a very severe test by
the quantitative study of photochemical reactions. Some preliminary
observations have been carried out at Liverpool by Mr. Leathwood and
these give definite support. The examples selected were not chosen from
known photochemical reactions ; rather was it considered desirable to
determine whether photochemical reactions take place under conditions
when fluorescence is visible and do not take place when fluorescence is not
visible. Gas reactions have not been investigated owing to the difficulty
of observation of the fluorescence of gaseous systems.
Some years ago F. 0. Rice investigated the sulphonation of certain
phenolic ethers and at the same time he observed the absorption spectra
of these substances. A typical instance of the phenomena observed is
given in fig. 2, which shows the absorption spectra of anisole. The
absorption band A is that exhibited by the ether in alcoholic solution,
whilst the absorption band B is that exhibited by the ether in solution
B.— CHEMISTRY.
43
in concentrated sulphuric acid. The shift in the absorption band towards
the longer wave-lengths on change of solvent is very marked. The
addition of a little (4 eq.) strong sulphuric acid to the alcoholic solution
makes no measurable difference in the absorption curve, and no sulphona-
tion takes place in that solution. On the other hand the ether undergoes
sulphonation in the concentrated sulphuric acid solution, the reaction
velocity being very slow indeed at 15° and rapid at 50°.
Now the alcoholic solution of anisole is strongly fluorescent, the
emission band having the same frequencies as the absorption band B in
fig. 2, that is to say, the frequency of the fluorescence of the alcoholic
solution is the same as the frequency of the characteristic absorption band
of the sulphuric acid solution. The suggestion may at once be made that the
final activated state produced when the ether in alcoholic solution absorbs
its characteristic quantum h)^, is that activated state which enters into
1
/
A
c
/
\A
3
/
\
-^
."^
r
\
/
\
1
1
\
f—
\
/
V
_y
/
\
L
/
V
^ 1/
2.200 24 26 28 3,000 32 34 36 38 4,000 42 34 36 38 4,000 4 2
WAVE -NUMBERS
Fig. 2.
the sulphonic acid reaction. In other words, the irradiation of the alcoholic
solution, to which a little sulphuric acid has been added, by light of the
frequencies of the absorption band A should induce the formation of the
sulphonic acid. This was proved to be the case. The acidified alcoholic
solution of anisole was irradiated with the light from a quartz mercury
lamp for 96 hours, after which the solution was diluted with water and
neutralised with barium hydroxide. After filtration from the insoluble
barium sulphate, the solution was extracted with ether in order to remove
any unchanged anisole. None, however, was recovered. On evaporation
the barium salt of the sulphonic acid was obtained in approximately
quantitative yield and there was no evidence of the formation of ethyl-
sulphuric acid.
In fig. 2 the curve C represents the absorption curve of the sulphuric
acid solution of anisole after it has been allowed to remain at 50° for a
44 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
few hours and is the absorption curve of the sulphonic acid. It was
found that the sulphonic acid prepared photochemically gave an absorption
spectrum almost identical with that represented by curve C.
Exactly similar experiments were carried out with para- and ortho-
nitroanisole, the absorption curves of which in alcoholic and sulphuric
acid solution are very analogous to those shown in fig. 2. Both of these
ethers in strong sulphuric acid solution on remaining at 50° react to give
their sulphonic acids. These nitro compounds, however, differ from the
parent anisole in the fact that in alcoholic solution they exhibit no trace
of fluorescence. This suggests that the super-activated states produced
when they absorb light at their characteristic absorption bands do not
pass into the activated state required for the sulphonation reaction.
Acidified solutions of each nitro compound were irradiated by the
light from the quartz mercury lamp for 96 hours and the solutions were
treated in exactly the same way as described above in the case of anisole.
The results were, however, entirely different. The nitro compounds were
recovered from the ether extract, no barium salt of a sulphonic acid was
found, and barium- ethylsulphate was obtained in considerable quantities.
Although no more can be claimed for these observations than that
they are preliminary, yet the evidence they afford is in, striking agreement
with that obtained from the photoluminescence phenomena. In the
photochemical reaction the radiation of the fluorescence quantum Av.^
during activation gives an independent proof of the formation of the
activated state, and also indicates that the critical increment of activation
of a molecule is numerically equal to hi^—liv.^. In the case of photo-
luminescence the radiation of the critical increment of activation as a
single quantum of phosphorescence per molecule indicates that this
critical increment of activation is in fact a single quantum per molecule.
It would thus seem that independent evidence has been obtained in
favour of the first part of the radiation hypothesis, although it has now
been shown that the supply of the activating quantum to the reactant
molecule cannot under any circiimstances be achieved by a simple process
of absorption.
The theory of fluorescence now advanced may be considered as being
a reasonable one, but it is advisable, before the main argument is pursued
further, to examine it in more detail. In the first place the question may
be asked as to the course of events when phosphorescence is absent and
no chemical reaction takes place. All that the theory states is that any
molecule on exposure to radiant energy of its characteristic frequency Vg
in the visible or ultra-violet region absorbs a single quantum Avo and is
raised to a high energy level which has a very short life period. This
super-activated state tends to return to its initial state with the radiation
of energy numerically equal to lv\)^. Under conditions not yet defined there
can exist an intermediate level with a finite stability, and then the
molecule falls from the high level to this intermediate level, and in so
doing radiates the energy difference between these two levels as a single
quantum of fluorescence. The intermediate level may be sufiiciently
stabilised by the conditions to exhibit the phenomenon of phosphorescence
when the final fall to the initial level takes place, or, alternatively, the
intermediate level may have a very short life period and may be recognised
B.— CHEMISTRY. 45
by virtue of its chemical reactivity. If this intermediate level does not
exist, then neither fluorescence nor phosphorescence will be exhibited,
and since optical resonance is unknown with compound molecules, the
energy numerically equal to /iVg is radiated in the infra-red. If the inter-
mediate level exists, then fluorescence will be exhibited as the molecules
fall to that level from the' high level first produced. If the molecule when
in the intermediate level undergoes no chemical reaction, the critical
increment of activation of the intermediate level will also be radiated
when the molecule finally reaches the initial level. It may be noted that
in all cases of gases and liquids, where phosphorescence never occurs, the
difference between the frequencies of the activating and fluorescence
radiations is small. The critical quantum of activation, which is the
difference between the absorbed and fluorescence quanta corresponds to
a frequency in the infra-red.
As already stated, the theory involves the view that the activated
states responsible for phosphorescence are similar to those which enter
into chemical reaction, and it might be argued that they must be of
markedly different type, since the life-periods of the former may be very
long, whilst those of the latter are known to be very short. Such an
argument, however, is based on the assumption that it is not possible to
vary the life-periods of these intermediate states of activation by change
of conditions. There is no justification for this assumption ; and indeed
the evidence is against it, since remarkable variations in the life-period
can be produced by change of temperature alone. For example, Lenard
and Klatt showed that by raising the temperature the life-period of the
activated state in a phosphore could be reduced from days or hours down
to an exceedingly small fraction of a second. Then again von Kowalski
showed that many substances in alcoholic solution, which only exhibit
fluorescence at room temperatures, develop marked phosphorescence
when cooled in liquid air.
Attention may be directed once again to the absorption spectra
observations which were recorded in fig. 2 on page 43, and in particular
it may be noted that the critical increment of the sulphonation reaction
^Vj, is given by the product of the Planck constant into the difference
between the central frequencies of the absorption bands shown by the
anisole in solution in alcohol and in strong sulphuric acid. This follows
at once from the fact that the fluorescence quantum of the anisole in
alcoholic solution is equal to the quantum absorbed by the anisole in
sulphuric acid solution. The conclusion would seem to be obvious that
the absorption band of the anisole in sulphuric acid solution is that
characteristic of the activated state which in some way has been stabilised
by the sulphuric acid. The stabilisation is proved by the fact that no
measurable sulphonation takes place when the solution is allowed to
remain at ordinary temperatures. At 50°, however, the sulphonation
takes place with measurable velocity.
Two points of interest may be mentioned which arise from this. In
the first place it would seem that the raising of a molecule from a lower
to a higher energy level is accompanied by a shift in the characteristic
absorption band in the visible or ultra-violet region towards the longer
wave-lengths. This also occurs when phosphores are activated, for the
46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
absorption bauds of the inactive materials lie in the ultra-violet, and
those of the activated substances lie in the visible region.
In the second place it follows that the same super-activated state is
produced when the inactive molecule absorbs the quantum Avg at its
characteristic frequency, and when the chemically reactive molecule
absorbs the quantum /iv., at its characteristic frequency. In this way a
possible connection with the radiation hypothesis is indicated. W. C.
McC. Lewis developed a relation whereby the observed heat of a reaction
may be calculated from the critical increments of activation. As stated
on page 36 he obtained the expression
d log A;/RT=N;iv,/RT2
where hv^ is the critical increment of activation and k is the velocity
constant. If the reaction be monomolecular and reversible then
d log F/RT=N/iv„/RT^
where hv,j is the critical increment of the resultant of the forward reaction
and k'- ia the velocity constalnt of the reverse reaction. It follows that
d log Z/(iT=N7i(v,-v„)/RT2
where K is the equilibrium constant. Comparing the last expression with
the van't HofE isochore
(llogK;OT=:-Q,/RT^
Lewis concluded that the heat absorbed per stoichiometric quantity of
the reactant transformed is given by
-Q=N/i(v,-vJ,
that is to say, the heat involved in the reaction is equal to the critical
increment of the resultant minus the critical increment of the reactant.
In this argument there is involved the view that in a reversible mono-
molecular reaction the activated reactant and activated resultant molecules
are indistinguishable from one another. Applying this to a mono-
molecular photochemical reaction which is reversible it follows from
what has gone before that the photochemical quanta may be substituted
for the critical increments in Lewis' expression. The observed heat of
the reaction will be given by
Q=N/Kv,.-Vo)
where v,. and v^, are the characteristic ultra-violet frequencies of the
resultant and reactant molecules, respectively. A near approximation
to a monomolecular photochemical reaction is afforded by the conversion
of oxygen into ozone, which is reversible. The central wave-lengths of
the characteristic ultra-violet absorption bands of these two substances
are very near to 185 [xjjl and 2.50 [i.[j,, respectively, the corresponding
frequencies being V(,=l-622xlC and v,=l-2 xlO'\ The observed heat
of reaction will be
—Mx4-22xW ergs or —36,400 calories.
This is very near to the accepted heat of formation of ozone.
It may be concluded from the foregoing that a definite position has
been reached which is of some interest. The radiation hypothesis states
that the first stage of a chemical reaction is the activation of each moelcule
I
I
B.— CHEMISTRY. 47
of the reactaut by the absorption of one quantum of energy, which has
been called the critical quantum of activation. Evidence gained from the
experimental investigation of the phenomena of photoluminescence gives
strong support to the reality of this critical quantum of activation, but
entirely disposes of the possibility of a molecule gaining this quantum by
a single absorption process. The photochemical activation of molecules
has been discussed in the light of the evidence gained from the fields of
photoluminescence and absorption spectra and the destination of the
whole of the energy gained by a molecule when it absorbs its photo-
chemical quantum has been traced. Lastly, the connection between
the observed heat of a reaction and the critical increments of activation,
derived by the radiation hypothesis, has been extended to the photo-
chemical quanta, which is an advantage, since the photochemical fre-
quencies can be directly observed by spectroscopic methods. It may
even be considered that the exhumation of the radiation hypothesis has
been partly justified.
There is no doubt, however, that this partial justification raises the
question of thermal reactions in a form which is even more acute than was
the case at the inception of the radiation hypothesis. The inability of a
molecule to gain its critical quantum of activation by means of a single
absorption process has been demonstrated in a far wider field than was
covered by the experiments of Lindemann and G. N. Lewis, which as a
matter of fact were devised ad hoc. Unless some mechanism exists whereby
a molecule can gain its critical quantum of activation from a source of
infra-red radiation, photochemical activation must be viewed as an
abnormal event and the exhumed radiation hypothesis must be re-interred
at once and for all time. It is only fair to ask that the question of thermal
reaction be approached and discussed entirely without prejudice, and this
is all the more necessary because it has generally been felt that not a
single hope remained for the Itypotliesis and men's thoughts have turned
to activation by collision with a tendency to exclude any other possibility.
I have been led to re-open this question by some recent observations
which appear to throw new light on the problem. These observations
encourage me to suggest a possible mechanism of activation by infra-red
radiation. Some justification may be found in the fact that it offers an
explanation of many of the difficulties that have been met with in inter-
preting the phenomena observed in absorption spectra.
Mr. Hood at Liverpool has succeeded in determining the temperature
coefficient of the reaction whereby carbohydrates are photosynthesised
from carbonic acid in the presence of pure nickel carbonate. The experi-
mental method consists in the irradiation of a suspension of the carbonate
in pure water, maintained by a stream of carbon dioxide, by the light from
an ordinary tungsten filament lamp. The yield of the carbohydrates at
various temperatures between 5° and 46° has been determined with con-
siderable accuracy. The investigation only became possible when a
satisfactory method had been devised for the preparation of pure nickel
carbonate. The method consists in the electrolysis of pure water,
saturated with carbon dioxide, with nickel electrodes. The carbonate is
collected, dried at 100°, and then heated at 140° for thirty minutes. It is
then powdered and passed through a 100-mesh sieve, after which it is
48
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
activated by irradiation with white light for 18 hours. The powder must
be used very soon after it has been activated.
In fig. 3 is shown the relation between the temperature and the yield,
and it may be seen to be linear between 5° and 31°. This result is of some
interest in view of the fact that pure photochemical reactions have a
temperature coefficient of unity.
In seeking for an explanation of the temperature coefficient it is-
necessary to review all the known facts. It has previously been shown that
1 . Carbonic acid in aqueous solution is not acted on by white light ; •
2. Carbonic acid when adsorbed on a coloured surface does not react
in the dark ;
3. Carbonic acid when adsorbed on a coloured surface and irradiated
by white light reacts to give carbohydrates.
0-08
0-07
006
Q
ui 005
004
003
002
01
/__
'' ' I I I I \
8 12 16 20 2^ 28 32 36 ^0 44 48
TEMPERATURE °n
Fig. 3.
It follows as a necessary conclusion from the facts that the complete
activation of the carbonic acid must take place in two stages, namely,
partial activation by adsorption with the formation of a molecular state
capable of absorbing some rays within the visible spectrum, whereby
the activation is completed by photochemical means. Furthermore, the
number of partially activated molecules which are able to enter into the
final reaction is in linear proportion to the temperature. It is this first
stage of partial activation which is of interest in our quest, since it is
evident that the adsorption process alone is not sufficient to bring the
molecules into a state which enables them to react photochemically under
the influence of visible light, the supply of heat energy being necessary to
add the finishing touch to the partial activation.
B.— CHEMISTRY. 49
There is a striking analogy here with anisole and the other phenolic
ethers and their nitro derivatives in solution in concentrated sulphuric
acid which were referred to above. There can be no doubt that the ether
molecules in the acid solution have gained their critical quanta of activa-
tion, and yet their activated states must be stabilised in some way, since
no measurable sulphonation takes place at ordinary temperatures. When
the solution is warmed at 50° the expected reaction proceeds. This
stability of the activated states has placed great difficulty in the way of
explaining many observations of absorption spectra.
Now it is very probable that there is one factor which is common to
the two sets of observations, namely the existence of a complex, that is
to say an adsorption complex of carbonic acid and nickel carbonate in
the one and an addition complex or solvate of the ether and sulphuric
acid in the other. If the mechanisin of complex formation be considered
it would appear that two methods are possible whereby a complex can
be stabilised. The most usual case is when two components form a
complex with a loss of energy, and such a complex will only be resolved
into its components by the supply of energy equal to that lost in its
formation. As an example of this type of complex the salt of an organic
base such as aniline may be instanced, this type having a positive heat of
formation.
On the other hand it may be suggested that another possibility exists,
namely the formation of an addition complex of two components, one of
which yields a definite amount of energy to the other. Such an energy
transference, so far as external evidence is concerned, will be an isothermal
process. It may further be suggested that the amount of energy given
up by the first component to the second component is equal to the critical
quantum of activation of the second component. Such complexes will
not be formed between any two molecules, but only between two which
satisfy the conditions, the criterion being that a molecule of one compound,
possibly by loss of rotational energy, can give to the molecule of another
compound, energy equal to the critical quantum of activation of that
molecule. A complex of this type may be denoted by the symbol A~B*,
where B has gained its critical quantum of activation at the expense of
the rotational energy of A.
Let it be accepted that such complex formation is possible in order
that the properties of these entities and their probable influence on the
phenomena under discussion may be critically examined. It may first
be concluded that, even though the molecule B has become activated,
the reaction characteristic of the activated state will not take place until
the energy defect of the molecule A has been restored. In other words
the activated state of the molecule B has become stabilised. In the
second place the resolution of the complex into a normal molecule of A
and an activated molecule of B will be secured by making good the defect
in the rotational energy of the molecule A. The formation of a free
molecule of B in the activated state is no longer a process of direct activa-
tion by radiant energy, which has proved to be impossible, but an increase
in the rotational energy which, as is known, can be efiected by means of
infra-red radiation.
This hypothesis may in the first instance be applied to the phenolic
192S E
50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
ethers, all the relevant facts of which have already been stated. The
quantitative relation between the absorption bands of these substances
leaves little or no doubt that each ether in concentrated sulphuric acid
solution has in some way gained its critical increment of activation, and
in spite of that fact the ether does not undergo sulphonation at ordinary
temperatures. It has always been very difficult to understand why this
activated state is a stable one and why the reaction characteristic of that
state does not take place unless the solution is warmed. The explanation
is simple enough on the present hypothesis. The entity present in
sulphuric acid solution is a complex or solvate of the ether and sulphuric
acid, in which the ether molecules have gained their critical quanta
of activation at the expense of the rotational energy of the sulphuric acid
molecules. The reaction to give the sulphonic acid and water cannot
take place within that complex, since the photochemical experiments
prove that the reaction takes place between the activated molecules of
the ether and free sulphuric acid molecules. The complex molecule,
therefore, will be stable below a certain temperature. On raising the
temperature the defect in the rotational energy of the sulphuric acid
molecules will be made good and the sulphonation will then take place.
The hypothesis also offers an explanation of the temperature coefficient
of the photosjTithesis of carbohydrates from carbonic acid, referred to
above. In this case the complex is the adsorption complex of carbonic
acid and nickel carbonate, in which the carbonic acid molecule has gained,
at the expense of the rotational energy of the nickel carbonate molecule,
its critical quantum of activation to the intermediate level. So long as
the complex exists the carbonic acid will not undergo reaction when it is
irradiated by white light, and in consequence no measurable reaction
takes place at the lower temperatures, even though the carbonic acid
molecule may be raised by the absorption of light to its higher energy
level. When the temperature is raised the energy defect of the nickel
carbonate is made good and the activated carbonic acid molecules are
set free. Two alternatives exist as regards the final activation of the
partially activated carbonic acid molecules by their absorbing light.
Either the partially activated molecule gains its second increment of
activation by absorption of the photochemical quantum when it exists
in the complex, in which case the increase in temperature will set free
the fully activated molecule, or the second increment of activation is
gained by the absorption of the photochemical quantum at the instant
the partially activated molecule is set free by the rise in temperature.
In either case the fully activated molecules react to give activated
formaldehyde and oxygen, this being mmediately followed by the
polymerisation of the activated formaldehyde to give the hexoses. The
evidence is strongly in favour of the first alternative, as will presently be
explained.
It must be emphasised that the temperature is a most important
factor, and there must be for every complex a characteristic temperature
limit, below which it is completely stable. In the case of the phenolic
ether complexes with sulphuric acid it happens that this temperature
lies above 15°, since the sulphuric acid solutions of the ethers undergo no
measurable change when allowed to remain at that temperature for
B.— CHEMISTRY. 51
some weeks or even months. The ether may be quantitatively recovered
when the solution is poured on to crushed ice. In the case of the adsorp-
tion complex of nickel carbonate and carbonic acid the characteristic
temperature limit lies at 1-2°, as shown by the dotted extension of the
straight line in fig. 3.
When the temperature is progressively raised above the characteristic
limit an increasing number of complexes will be resolved in unit time,
and the reaction velocity will increase. It may be said, therefore, that
the stability of the complexes progressively decreases as the temperature
is raised above the temperature limit, and it follows that there must be
an upper temperature limit above which the complex will have no
measurable stability, and at this temperature the reaction velocity of a
simple chemical reaction will reach a maximum and will indeed be
instantaneous, if such a word can be applied to a process involving the
mixing together of the reactants. The photosynthesis reaction is
differentiated by the fact that it consists of two stages, and the tempera-
ture limits concern only the stability of the adsorption complex character-
istic of the first stage.
The hypothesis of complex formation also offers an explanation of
the phenomena of photoluminescence. There is one outstanding fact in
connection with the activation of the phosphorogen in a phosphore which
indicates the presence of a complex of the type we are deabng with. In
all cases where the activating wave-lengths have been measured, these
are longer than those which are characteristic of the phosphorogen in the
free state. This at once leads to the view that each phosphorogen molecule
has formed a complex with a molecule of the diluent, and within that
complex the phosphorogen exists at a level of higher energy content than
the normal. The stability of the complex will be determined by the
temperature as it can only be resolved into its components by the supply
of infra-red radiation to make good the defect in the rotational energy of
the diluent molecule. Even though the phosphorogen component is
raised to a still higher level by absorption of its characteristic quantum
at the ultra-violet frequency, the complex will remain in its stable state
provided that the temperature is below the lower limit characteristic of
the complex. An instance of an exactly analogous phenomenon is the
very striking fluorescence of benzaldehyde in concentrated sulphuric acid
solution. In this case the aldehyde within the complex absorbs and
radiates energy without its stability being affected. It may therefore be
suggested that even after the phosphorogen has been raised to a higher
level of activation than that which it reaches in the actual formation of
the complex, the new state is no less stable than the complex itself. If
that be so the whole of the phenomena of photoluminescence which have
been previously described will find a simple explanation. There will be
a lower temperature limit below which the activated complex will be
completely stable, that is to say no phosphorescence will be observed.
When the temperature is raised above the lower limit the region of partial
stability will be entered and phosphorescent emission will begin, and
progressive rise of temperature will progressively increase the number
of complexes that are resolved and the intensity of the phosphorescence
will increase. Since there are present a finite number of complexes the
E 2
52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
total persistence of the emission will decrease. At any constant tempera-
ture between the lower and upper limits the intensity will have a definite
rate of decay. Just below the upper temperature limit where the stability
is vanishingly small the persistence will be vanishingly small and the
intensity will be the maximum. Up to this stage the phenomena will
be identical with those of a chemical reaction, the criterion of intensity
of phosphorescence being substituted for the criterion of reaction velocity.
When the upper temperature limit is passed the complex will no longer
have any stability and will no longer exist. No phosphorescence or
fluorescence will be possible, since these depend on the stable existence
of the complex with its power of retaining the energy which it absorbs
at its characteristic frequency in the ultra-violet. These phenomena are
identical with those observed by Lenard and Klatt.
One further piece of evidence, which has hitherto not been mentioned,
may now be brought forward. The hypothesis of complete formation
demands that the defect in the rotational energy of the ' catalyst ' or
diluent component may be absorbed as infra-red radiation. In all that
has gone before this defect has been supplied by raising the temperature,
and the hypothesis cannot be considered as entirely justified unless it
be proved that resolution of the complexes can be achieved by exposure
to infra-red radiation. The fact that the most effective method of
deactivating an activated phosphore and of releasing the whole of its
phosphorescence is by exposing it to infra-red radiation adds a conclusive
argument in support of the hypothesis.
It will be noted that there is a marked difference between the
phenomena in photoluminescence and chemical reaction at temperatures
above the upper limit, since in the former phosphorescence is no longer
possible, and in the latter the reaction velocity is a maximum. This
difference is due to the fact that a chemical reaction is the result of a
single process of activation, and when the activated molecules are set
free by the resolution of their complexes the reaction takes place
immediately. The phenomenon of photoluminescence is the result of a
two-stage process of activation, the second stage only taking place so
long as the complex is in being. When the complex is no longer stable
the second stage can no longer be achieved.
It has already been pointed out that in the photosynthesis of carbo-
hydrates the activation to the high energy level necessary for the chemical
reaction is effected in two stages, namely, partial activation in the
absorption complex and completion by absorption of an energy quantum
at a frequency in the visible spectrum. There is therefore a close analogy
between this and the activation of a phosphorogen. Since there exists
in the latter an upper temperature limit above which the second stage of
activation does not take place, so it is to be expected that there n,ust
be an upper temperature limit above which no photosynthesis can take
place. This is actually the case, since, as was shown in fig. 3, there is a
rapid decrease in the yield of carbohydrates as the temperature is increased
above 31° and the reaction falls to zero at about 48°.
This decrease in efficiency is a very remarkable fact, and, as is well
known, it is observed also in the living leaf. It has long been a source
of difficulty to plant physiologists and the generally accepted explanation
B.— CHEmSTRY. 53
is that of F. F. Blackman, who postulates a second reaction due to an
enzyme, superimposed on the first. In the laboratory experiments the
Blackman reaction must obviously be absent, and in spite of this the
results are remarkably analogous to those found in the living plant.
The analogy is made still closer by the fact that the linear relation shown
in fig. 3 gives the temperature coefficient of the laboratory photosynthesis
between 20° and 30° as 1-54, whereas the value found in the plant is 1-6.
This, however, is by the way, for the analogy that is particularly
striking is that between photosynthesis and photoluminescence, both of
which have been found to have an upper and a lower temperature limit.
The success that has attended the application of the hypothesis of
complex formation to three widely differing phenomena justify its
general application to all thermal chemical reactions. This naturally
leads to the view that every such reaction depends on the presence of a
catalyst. There seems little objection to this because it is a fact familiar
to everyone that chemical reactivity suffers a most remarkable decrease
as all impurities are removed. It is perhaps a sweeping statement to
make that no thermal reaction can take place in the complete absence of
a catalyst, but the fact remains that in every case which has been accurately
examined the reaction velocity is zero. In inorganic chemistry the most
effective catalyst is water and H. B. Baker's work on the absence of
reaction between dry substances is classical. It may be that this power
of water is connected with its great ionising power towards inorganic
salts, for it is possible that ionisation itself is the result of a complex
between solvent and solute.
In general, it must be remembered that every chemical reaction has
its own critical increment of energy, and this means that the reactant
molecules must be raised to a definite energy level which is specific for
the reaction required. The catalyst molecule must, therefore, be one
which by forming a complex with the reactant molecule raises it to that
energy level and no other. The possibility of the same molecules being
raised to different energy levels has been established by absorption
spectra, since by the use of different solvents it is possible in the case of
many compounds to obtain them in different physical states a'^ evidenced
by different absorption bands. The integral relation has been suggested
in photochemical reaction, namely
where 7(v„ is the quantum absorbed at the visible f»r ultra-violet frequency
characteristic of the reactant molecules in their initial state, /.Vj is the
critical quantum of activation, and /.Vois a quantum of fluorescence and
also the quantum absorbed at the characteristic frequency of the activated
molecule. If this relation be fully confirmed by further work, the
different molecular states of one compound, proved by absorption spectra
methods to exist in different solvents, will be directly linked up with the
different chemically reactive states of that compound. The difficulty in
postulating a series of catalysts which can induce different reactions of
the same substance will then disappear.
We may now turn once again to the radiation hypothesis and take
stock of the position. The protagonists of this theory, after enunciating
54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the principle of a single quantum of activation, took a further step and
assumed that this quantum /(Vj could be absorbed when the reactant
molecules in the absence of all catalysts were exposed to radiation of the
frequency Vj. They had no justification whatever for this assumption
and it is germane to ask why the fact that no substance showed an
absorption band at the critical frequency v, was considered to be of no
great importance. The phenomena of photoluminescence afford very
convincing evidence of the existence of molecules in different states of
activation, each with its own critical quantum of activation. They also
establish the fact that although this critical quantum can be radiated as
phosphorescence, the molecules cannot absorb it at the critical frequency.
Although the activated states responsible for phosphorescence are
characterised in general by their very long life periods, the fact that the
activation cannot be achieved by a simple absorption process may be
accepted as a proof of the incorrectness of the assumption made in the
second part of the radiation hypothesis. This evidence is independent of
the ad hoc criticism by Lindemann and by G. N. Lewis. At the same
time the evidence is in favour of the reality of the critical quantum of
activation, which is the fundamental tenet of the radiation hypothesis.
An enquiry into the possible methods of activation whereby a reactant
molecule can gain its critical quantum was made necessary, because the
theory of activation by collision has not met with complete success, as
no proper relation with photochemical activation has been established.
Photoactivation of a molecule results from the absorption of a single
quantum of energy at a frequency Av^ in the visible or ultra-violet which is
specifically characteristic of the molecule in its initial state. This
quantum Av^ is invariably larger than the critical quantum of activation
/(v,, and this is the explanation of Stokes' law in photoluminescence. The
difference between the two quanta is radiated during the activation
process as a single quantum of fluorescence, so that
The same relation has been found to hold in a photochemical reaction and
fluorescence is an indication of the formation of an activated state of the
molecules. In the absence of fluorescence the expected photochemical
reaction does not occur, and it may be deduced from this that the quantum
efficiency will approximate to unity (in the absence of the chain
mechanism) when fluorescence is fully developed, and very small indeed
or zero in the absence -of any measurable fluorescence. The expression,
given by W. C. McC. Lewis, for the observed heat of a reaction
Q_N//(V,-Vj,
where 7;v,, and /(V^ are the critical quanta of activation of the reactant
and resultant molecules, respectively, has been extended to photochemical
reactions. In a monomolecular reaction which is photochemical and
reversible the observed heat of reaction is given by
Q=NAK-Vo),
where Vg and v, are the characteristic ultra-violet frequencies of the
reactant and resultant molecules, respectively.
B.— CFIEMISTRY. 55
A second method of activation has been suggested, namely the forma-
tion of a complex between a molecule of the reactant and a molecule of
a catalyst, in which the former has gained its critical quantum of activation
at the expense of the rotational energy of the latter. Such a complex
will be stable and will only be resolved into its components when the
defect in rotational energy of the catalyst molecule has been restored,
this being possible by the absorption of infra-red radiation. The result
of this resolution will be the setting free of the reactant molecule in the
activated state. It follows that the complex will only be stable below a
certain definite temperature. As the temperature is progressively raised
the stability will be progressively decreased, until a second temperature
limit is reached, at which the complex has no stability. At this upper
temperature the reaction velocity will be a maximum. The observations
of absorption spectra afford strong support to this hypothesis of complex
formation. The particular case of the phenolic ethers has been examined
in detail, and it has been found that in concentrated sulphuric acid solu-
tions a stable state exists at 15°, in which the ether molecules have received
their critical quanta of activation. A progressive increase of temperature
causes a progressive increase in reaction velocity.
In applying this hypothesis to all thermal reactions it is necessary to
assume first that no reaction can occur in the absence of a catalyst. This
assumption seems to be justified by the known effect of the removal of
all impurities on the reaction velocity. In the second place it is necessary
that the catalj^st activate the reactant molecule to the energy level required
and no other. That this is possible is established by absorption spectra
observations, which show that the same molecules can be raised to different
energy levels within the complexes formed with different solvents. In
inorganic chemistry the problem is less complicated, since in the great
majority of cases only one activated state is indicated ; this activated
state exists in general within the complexes formed with water.
In the field of photoluminescence the activation is a two-stage process,
since phosphorogen molecules are already partially activated in their
complexes with the molecules of the diluent. The existence of these
complexes is proved by the absorption frequencies of the phosphorogen,
which are nearer the longer wave-lengths than those of the same substance
in the free state. By photo-activation the phosphorogen molecule within
the complex is raised to a higher energy level, the process being attended
by the radiation of a quantum of fluorescence. This higher energy state
is stable since the complex still exists. It follows that there will be a
temperature limit below which no phosphorescence can take place. As
the temperature is progressively raised above this limit the intensity of
the phosphorescence will progressively increase and the persistence will
progressively decrease. When, by further increase in temperature, the
region of complete instability is entered, the conditions for the special
photo-activation no longer exist and all luminescence ceases. Not only
are the two temperature limits of photoluminescence explained by the
hypothesis of complex formation, but also the stability of the activated
states.
The reaction whereby carbohydrates are photosynthesised from
carbonic acid may be compared with the photo-activation of a phosphore,
56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the initial complex being an adsorption complex of carbonic acid and
nickel carbonate. There should exist, therefore, a lower temperature
limit below which the reaction will not take place ; an intermediate
temperature zone in which the reaction will take place with a definite
temperature coefficient ; and an upper limit of temperature at which all
reaction again ceases. These three phenomena have been observed, and
the photosynthetic and photoluminescent processes proved to be analogous.
In the one the highly activated molecules undergo chemical reaction, in
the other they emit their critical quanta of activation as visible radiation.
It may be claimed that the evidence brought forward from the three
fields of photoluminescence, absorption spectra and chemical reaction
constitutes a story that is not without interest. The one dominating
influence in this story is the critical quantum of activation which has
found its experimental verification. In laying down the pen of authorship
I do so in the confident hope that a definite step has been gained towards
a radiation theory of chemical reaction.
SECTION C— GEOLOGY.
THE PALEOZOIC MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS
OF EUROPE AND AMERICA.
ADDRESS BY
E. B. BAILEY, M.C., L^g.d'Hon.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
Foreword : Geological time is so long that non-technical readers cannot hope to
carry in their heads even the main elements of its chronology. The following
memorandum is supplied for reference in connection with the present address.
The major time divisions are of very unequal value. They run as follows,
beginning with the oldest:
Precimbriai: Primxry or Palaeozoic; Secondary or Mesozoic ; Tertiary or
Cainozoic ; Quaternary, in which we find ourselves living.
Palseozoic time is divided, beginning with the oldest, into: Cambrian; Ordo-
vician ; Silurian; Devonian (including Old Red Sandstone); Carboniferous; Permian.
Ordovician time is subdivided, beginning with the oldest, into : Arenig ;
Llandeilo : Caradoc (including Ashgill).
Silurian time is subdivided, beginning with the oldest, into: Llandovery;
Tarannon ; Wenlock ; LuQow; Downtotiian.
Devonian time is subdivided, beginning with the oldest, into: Lower; Middle;
Upper Devonian.
Carboniferous time is subdivided, beginning with the oldest, into: Carboniferous
Limestone: Millstone Grit : Coal Measures.
In wliat may be called the Bertrand time-classification of folded mountain
sj'stems :
Caledonian includes all folded mountains developed in early Palaeozoic times,
not later than Devonian. The name is derived from Scotland.
Uercynian in "ludes all foMe I raouatai'is developed in later Palaeozoic ti-nes, that
is Carboniferous, extending into Permian. The name is derived from the Harz in
Germany.
Alpine includes all folded mountains developed in Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
The name is derived from the Swiss Alps.
G'^OLOGiSTS attach a deeper and more lasting significance to mountains
than do geographers. They can dispense with such attributes as mere
height and form, and can recognise as geological realities mountains that
no "longer show above the general surface of the ground. There are
extensive districts in Belgium and France where the mountains of
yesterday peer up at us through the valley bottoms of to-day ; or where
these same mountains have been visited only by miners who have sunk
shafts to them, in search of coal, through ovcrlj-ing formations.
The mountains to which I am directing your attention are folded
mountains, a product of lateral compression ; and it is the contorted
and ruptured condition of their component strata which stamps them
with their enduring character. We find this character in the relatively
58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
modern mountains of Switzerland, combined with elevation. We meet
witli it in tlie much more ancient and less exalted mountains of our own
country, combined with unconformity. Such unconformity speaks to us
of elevation brought low by erosion, coupled in many cases with actual
subsidence. The evidence, carefully considered, justifies us in restoring
to the ruined heights an original grandeur comparable to that of their
proud successors.
I have just referred to two of the fundamental conceptions involved
in our subject — lateral compression and unconformity. Their significance
was early appreciated in the study of the Southern Uplands of Scotland.
In 1812 James Hall suggested lateral compression as the cause of the
' convolutions ' of the Silurian strata visible in the coastal cliffs of Berwick-
shire. He spoke of ' horizontal thrust,' and imitated the observed effect
by the sideways crumpling of a pile of cloths. As for unconformity, its
critical discussion represents one of the main achievements of Hall's
master, James Hutton, Father of Modern Geology. Unconformity is a
comprehensive word used by geologists to express an erosional gap in the
stratigraphical sequence. Some unconformities are obscure and debatable ;
but unconformities that succeed periods of mountain folding furnish most
impressive spectacles. Hutton long searched the Southern Uplands for a
contact of the fiat Old Red Sandstone and the steeply folded Silurian
greywackes. His scientific imagination pictured in advance the relation-
ship of the two formations, and he felt that its demonstration ' would
add great lustre ' to his Theory of the Earth. In 1787 he found his
expectations fully realised in the banks of the River Jed, where horizontal
Old Red Sandstone covers an eroded surface that truncates the steep
bedding of underlying greywackes.
Hutton saw in the Jed exposures a buried mountain chain in process
of disinterment. The mountain rocks have just been reached by the river,
and are therefore restricted to the valley bottom ; but they possess an
inherent quality which will presently lead to a reassertion of something
of their old predominance in landscape. The compressional forces
responsible for mountain building tend to indurate the materials upon which
they operate. They therefore exercise a potent though indirect influence
upon the development of scenery, wherever and whenever folded mountains
appear at the surface. Let us always remember that the beauty which
characterises the mountain exposures of Britain has more to do with
resurrection than survival. Most, if not all, of the folded mountains of
our islands have been beneath the sea and covered by unconformable
deposits at some period since the day of their plication. They owe their
partial reappearance to subsequent upheaval and denudation. Erosion,
busy at first, has stripped away much of the comparatively unresistant
cover ; now it lingers and permits the re-exposed mountain rocks to stand
for a while as uplands overlooking adjacent plains.
The same general story holds in countries other than our own.
Accordingly, certain old mountain areas, such as the Highlands of
Scotland and the Harz of Germany, were recognised by their inhabitants
without help from geologists ; but when Suess and his disciples came to
synthesise mountain chains from exposed fragments, they naturally had
to supply names for their discoveries.
H
o
-d n
60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Two factors are involved in the geological classification of folded
mountains, namely date and position. One half of the surface of Europe
has escaped mountain deformation since the dawn of the Cambrian.
This stable area, which we may call Baltica, has roughly the form of an
equilateral triangle. Two of its boundaries diverge from South Wales :
the one follows approximately the Norwegian-Swedish frontier ; the
other, highly complex in its development, passes south of London and
Berlin and north of the Crimea and Caucasus. The third side of Baltica
is furnished by the Urals, but of this I do not propose to speak.
Let us look a little more closely at Baltica, because it will repay us
when presently we cross the Atlantic. On the north and west sides of the
Baltic Sea the prevalent rocks exposed at the surface are Precambrian
and most of them are crystalline. This part of Baltica, Suess has called
the Baltic Shield, to convey the idea of a gently convex surface. Its
immunity from Cambrian and later folding movement is inferred from
the uniform testimony of its girdle of almost undisturbed Palaeozoic
outcrops. The rest of Baltica lies cloaked in sediments ranging from
Cambrian to Tertiary. It has been named the Russian Platform, and its
western continuation probably extends through Denmark into the English
Midlands.
Two Palaeozoic mountain chains meet in South Wales about the western
angle of Baltica. In 1887 Suess named the older of them Caledonian,
out of compliment to Scotland. It runs north-east and its folded, cleaved
and broken rocks appear at the surface in many parts of the British Isles,
in most of Norway and along much of the Swedish frontier. They
frequently include marine representatives of the Cambrian, Ordovician
and Silurian ; but the Devonian, where developed within the Caledonian
belt of Britain and Scandinavia, and often in adjacent districts, is of
continental or, in other words, of Old Red Sandstone facies ; and is later
than the more violent of the mountain disturbances.
Great Britain is unique in being crossed by both margins of this
Caledonian Chain. Under the North Sea the old mountains are com-
pletely submerged, and where they reappear in Scandinavia it is with their
north-western edge still hidden off the coast of Norway.
In Shropshire and Radnor, where England and Wales meet, Lower Old
Red Sandstone follows conformably on Downtonian that forms the top
of the Silurian ; and the important unconformity of the district s between
Silurian and Ordovician. It is an unconformity that is rather more
striking upon a map than in field exposure, for here we stand at the south-
east margin of the Caledonian Chain, and there has been comparatively
little folding of Palaeozoic rocks.
Proceeding north-westwards, we soon enter a mountain element
characterised by intense post-Silurian unconformity. On the far side
this element is bounded by an ill-determined north-east line that passes
close to Girvan and Edinburgh, so that its cross-strike measurement is
about 180 miles. Eastwards its rocks are hidden beneath comparatively
undisturbed Carboniferous and later formations that occupy the surface
from Shropshire to Northumberland. Westwards they delight our eyes in
Wales, the English Lake District and the Southern Uplands of Scotland.
C— GEOLOGY. 61
Silurian is widespread in this mountain element and shares in the
intense corrugation and frequent cleavage of its Ordovician substratum.
Lower Old Red Sandstone occurs in Anglesey and the Cheviots and
between Girvan and Edinburgh, and is markedly later than the major
deformation of the Silurian. Still, both in Anglesey and near Girvan,
Lower Old Red Sandstone has suffered pronounced deformation, and in
the former locality has actually been cleaved.
Near Girvan we find, in addition to the post-Silurian unconformity,
another of intra-Ordovician date, sufficiently important to bring Upper
Llandeilo conglomerates on to Arenig plutonic intrusions. This earlier
unconformity disappears with amazing rapidity towards the south-east ;
but north-westwards it increases in scope, while in the same direction the
post-Silurian unconformity fails.
The evidence for these propositions lies partly in the Southern Uplands
and partly in exposures to the north-west. The interpretation of the
Southern Uplands is one of the miracles of Science. We owe it to Lap-
worth, an English schoolmaster attracted to Galashiels by the charm of
Scott's romances. During the seventies of last century Lapworth demon-
strated that the hitherto despised graptolites furnish an extraordinarily
sensitive time-scale for Ordovician and Silurian stratigraphy. This led
him on to the discovery that many of the rock groups that pass with
broken complication through the tightly compressed steep isoclinal folding
of the district change profoundly in thickness and character from south-
east to north-west. The total thickness of the Upper Llandeilo, Caradoc,
and Llandovery at Moffat in the centre of the Southern Uplands is given
by Peach and Home as 220 feet, consisting of black graptolitic shale and
unfossiliferous mudstone. At Girvan, which is only 25 miles to the
north-west in cross-strike measurement, these same formations are
reckoned as more than 4,800 feet thick, and their constituents include con-
spicuous conglomerates, grits, flags, grey shales, shelly beds and one 60-foot
limestone, in addition to subordinate intercalations of black graptolitic
shales. Careful examination of many intermediate exposures, afiorded
by folds one behind another, has allowed the details of this transformation
to be deciphered. The coarse deposits mark an apj^roach to a coast line
lying to the north-west, and their material contains much recognisable
debris of Arenig cherts, lavas and intrusions that must have formed part
of a land surface in that direction. At each successive period, starting
with Upper Llandeilo, the coarse sediment pushed farther and farther
south-eastwards across the sea bottom. In Tarannon times it had reached
beyond Moffat ; and to find exposures of a complete black graptolitic
representation of this particular period one has to travel to the English
Lake District.
When it is remembered that this variation of facies is combined with
incessant isoclinal packing and accompanying dislocation, and that the
grassy Southern Uplands are as devoid of geological features as are the
Chalk Downs of Sussex, Lapworth's triumph fully exonerates the failure
of his predecessors.
From the great thickness of shallow-water marine sediments, deposited
during Ordovician-Silurian time near the northern edge of the Southern
Uplands, we may deduce a corresponding long-continued subsidence of
62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the sea bottom. Subsidence preparatory to mountain upheaval is a widely
recognised phenomenon, and further instances will be considered in the
course of this address. Meanwhile let us resume our journey north-
westwards across the Caledonian Chain.
According to limited evidence at Lesmahagow in Lanarkshire, on the
Girvan-Edinburgh line, and at Stonehaven, on the Highland Border, we
immediately pass into a distinct mountain element characterised by
absence of post-Silurian unconformity. At both localities, which unfortu-
nately lie some forty miles apart in cross-strike measurement, the base
of the Lower Old Red Sandstone is seen to rest conformably on Downtonian.
At Lesmahagow this Downtonian is followed downwards by Ludlow and
Wenlock ; and then exposures cease. At Stonehaven the Downtonian,
2,750 feet thick, reposes with violent unconformity on greatly disturbed
Cambrian, or possibly Arenig. This Stonehaven unconformity may
reasonably be regarded as an exaggeration of the intra-Ordovician uncon-
formity already encountered at Girvan.
The Cambrian, or perhaps Arenig, rocks at Stonehaven belong to the
well-known Highland Border series of pillow-lavas, cherts and shales.
They have become doubly interesting of late years since Peach and
Campbell and Jehu have made known their fossils. Barrow had previously
interpreted the Border series as steeply overthrust by the generally
schistose Dalradian rocks of the Southern Highlands ; and such a view
seems reasonable in the type section of the North Bsk. On the other
hand, Gunn has practically demonstrated its superposition on the
Dalradians in the Island of Arran. Here no sharp line of metamorphic
difierence has been detected ; but Gregory claims an unconformity based
on identification of pebbles.
Having reached the Highland Border we are confronted with many
difficulties. Following Teall, I am prepared to say that we do not know
how far the Highland Schists are Precambrian. Most observers, like
Home, Barrow and Gregory, regard even their metamorphism as Pre-
cambrian ; but this view was always strongly combated by Peach.
Whatever their age, the Highland Schists admittedly lie within the
Caledonian mountain belt, for they are bordered on either side by intensely
moved Cambrian (perhaps Ordovician) fossiliferous rocks. They also
received additional elevation a little before and during Lower Old Red
Sandstone times, as is witnessed by a south-eastern fringe of tilted Lower
Old Red Sandstone (with Downtonian) conglomerates that remind one
irresistibly of the nagelfluh of the Swiss Mollasse. Moreover they were
the site of great volcanoes and of granitic intrusions during Lower Old
Red Sandstone times in a manner that co-ordinates them with the folded
Ordovician-Siluriau areas of the South of Scotland and the Wicklow
Mountains of Ireland.
I do not propose to occupy this address with a recitation of our Highland
problems, but venture to touch upon three topics of particular interest.
(1) Barrow, beginning in 1893, has drawn contours of metamorphic
intensity across much of the south-eastern Highlands. His has been a
pioneer's task and has anticipated anything of the kind attempted in
other countries. To-day it is finding very valuable application in the
south-western Highlands at the hands of Tilley and Elles.
C— GEOLOGY. 63
(2) Clough, Cramptou and Flett have described a wonderful aureole
of contact-metamorphism partially surrounding the Inchbae augcn-
gneiss of Ross-shire. The history of the district is as follows : A great
thickness of sediments accumulated ; a large mass of porphyritic granite
intruded into these sediments and hornfelsed them for a considerable
distance from the contact ; the whole, at some later period, became
involved in conditions of stress and temperature suitable for high-grade
regional metamorphism ; the unbaked sediments yielded and were altered
to para-gneisses ; even the porphyritic granite was for the most part
changed to augen-gneiss ; but the hornfelsed sediments in large measure
moved en masse without internal deformation, so that, though crystalline,
they retain to this day many of the minutiae of their original structure,
such as grains, bedding, ripple marks and suncracks.
(3) Continuing the work of Clough and Maufe, I have been fortunate
enough to trace out refolded recumbent folds in several districts of the
Southern Highlands. These folds are many miles in cross-strike extent,
and their limbs have suffered inevitable disruption with the production of
fold-faults or ' slides.' The investigation of these structures was begun
at Ballachulish and has since proceeded far across the country. The
available evidence has not in any way been exhausted, and the promise
of future discoveries is extremely bright, especially towards Banffshire
where Read is at present working.
The Caledonian portion of the Scottish Highlands is 120 miles broad
in the east, but narrows greatly towards the west. Its north-west border
is furnished by the Moine thrust-zone. It will be convenient to defer
consideration of this great structure-line until we have taken a brief look
at the Scandinavian development of the Caledonian Chain, for in many
respects the Moine thrust-zone and its foreland belong rather to American
geology than to European.
The most impressive geological phenomenon in Scandinavia is the
marginal over-riding of Baltica by the Caledonian mountains. In Britain,
where the Welsh Border shows the contact of these two structural elements,
it is a mere matter of foot-hills grading into foreland, it is an affair of
outposts. True, the Carmel Head Thrust of Anglesey is an important
structure of post-Llandovery pre-Devonian date — Greenly gives it three
miles of displacement as a minimum and twenty miles as a probability —
but this thrust is separated from Baltica by the Welsh zone of folding. In
Scandinavia the mountains often appear with startling abruptness, thrust
far out over the edge of Baltica.
The type district for studying the great Scandinavian overthrust is
the province of Jamtland. Here comparatively wide exposures of fossili-
ferous Cambrian, Ordovician and Silurian pass north-westwards below the
over-riding mountains. In the south-eastern part of their outcrop, the
Cambrian and Ordovician total only about 300 feet in thickness, of which
the greater part is Orthoceras-limestone of Middle Ordovician age ; and
the Silurian also is of very moderate dimensions. North-westwards, that
is towards and under the moimtains, the Cambrian and Ordovician swell
mightily, and show an accession of sandy material which is reminiscent of
the north-westward facies-change traced by Lapworth in the Southern
Uplands of Scotland, although, of course, the position relative to the
Caledonian margin is very different.
64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
The Jamtland Cambrian rests upon crystalline rocks, mainly granite
or porphyry. To the south of the province, however, there is a great
development of a fl t-lpng Precambrian formation (sandstone, &c.) called
Sparagmite, which is of later date than the granite and porphyry and
is often compared with the Torridonian of the Scottish North-west
Highlands.
The Cambro-Silurian succession of the Jamtland foreland is undisturbed
in the south-eastern part of its exposure. Gradually, north-westwards,
this tranquillity is replaced by isoclinal folding, small-scale thrusting, and
intense distributed shearing, unaccompanied by any marked development
of metamorphic minerals. Above lies the great Scandinavian thrust-
mass or ' nappe,' the cause and origin of all the trouble.
The contents of this over-riding ' nappe ' are various ; in the main
they consist of metamorphosed sediments, which have been somewhat
provisionally divided into (1) Precambrian, correlated with Sparagmite,
overlain by (2) early Palaeozoic. In both sets of rocks the metamorphic
grade increases strongly towards the north-west, but there is good, though
not undisputed, evidence that much of the crystallisation of the Pre-
cambrian part of the ' nappe ' is of Precambrian date. An important
detail, that everybody admits, is the frequent occurrence of recognisable
scraps of crushed Precambrian granite and porphyry along the actual
thrust.
The ' nappe ' lies with broad undulations that make it virtually flat
over a vast stretch of country. In consequence, erosion has given an
extremely sinuous eastern margin to the portion that remains connected
with the ' root region ' to the north-west. Moreover, in front of this
intricate margin there are great outliers or ' klippes,' the largest of which
measures 30 by 10 miles ; while behind there are elongated anticlinal
' windows ' of comparable magnitude, in which we obtain circumscribed
exposures of the buried foreland. Altogether we are furnished with a
wonderful opportunity for measuring the distance that the mountain
region has been driven forward over Baltica. When, in 1888, Tornebohm
first propounded his overthrust theory of the Scandinavian Chain, he
mentioned sixty miles as a minimum displacement and compared this
estimate with the half-mile of overthrusting previously described by
himself from Dalsland and with Peach and Home's ten miles from the
North-west Highlands of Scotland. In 1896, by which time he had
received important help from Hogbom, he was able to demonstrate that
the Scandinavian thrusting exceeds eighty miles. One is amazed by the
scale of the phenomenon thus elucidated practically single-handed.
Tornebohm built upon his own explorations and corrected his own initial
mistakes. Jamtland as regards area is comparable with Switzerland, but
in Tornebohm's field of inquiry it occupied merely the position of a
province. A big man in body and mind, he was faced with a task that
required exceptional equipment. Hogbom, writing shortly after Torne-
bohm's death in 1911, recalled ' how sometimes his assistants ran away
from him because they could not endure the fatigues or follow him when
with his great strides he rambled over the mountains.' These words read
strangely like a parable, for to-day Scandinavian geologists have turned
back to experiment for themselves with all the philosophies of double-
C— GEOLOGY. 65
folding and the like. Tornebohm stands out the Giant of the North, of
such a stature that the generation that has succeeded him has been unable
to maintain his conquests.
The interior of the Norwegian mountains must not delay us, \ntally
interesting though it be. We can only mention that a little west of
Jamtland lies the great Trondhjem field of folded early Palaeozoic rocks,
locally eighty miles broad. These rocks have yielded Ordovician and
Lower Silurian fossils, but differ profoundly in original characters from
the contemporaneous formations of the Jamtland foreland. They are
moreover in many instances highly metamorphic, with actinolite, garnet
and biotite. On this point there seems to be complete agreement among
Scandinavian geologists. In our own country there is a tendency to
associate the idea of metamorphic schists with a Precambrian date ; but
it should be remembered that in the Alps it is well established that
belemnites and other resistant Mesozoic fossils can be hammered out of
garnetiferous mica-schist.
On returning to the North-west Highlands of Scotland, we arrive at the
opposite margin of the Caledonian Chain to that studied by Tornebohm in
Jamtland. A British audience knows full well the history of discovery in
this wonderful region. At an early date Murchison and Geikie recognised
schists as superimposed on the fossiliferous Durness succession and con-
sidered them to be a later conformable deposit, metamorphosed in situ.
Nicol, however, thought that a steep dislocation separated the two sets
of rocks. Callaway at last, in 1883, realised an ' overthrow ' locally
' more than a mile in width,' while Lapworth in the same year published
his in many ways illuminating Secret of the Highlands. It is necessary, in
common justice, to recall that this paper was merely a preliminary account
and that subsequent exposition of his views was prevented by a breakdown
in health caused by the excitement of discovery. In 1884 Peach and
Home were able to show that the Moine Thrust-mass or ' Nappe ' has
travelled north-west through a minimum distance of ten miles. Their
report produced a profound impression, the more so because it was accom-
panied by a candid recantation on the part of Archibald Geikie, which
proved as helpful to tectonic science in 1884 as Heim's somewhat com-
parable letter on the Alps in 1902.
Peach and Home, it may be added, worked in an atmosphere of
detachment. Most Alpine geologists of the day, Rothpletz excepted, had
rather exaggerated the idealisation of thrusts as vanished limbs of overfolds
— and in this respect they were followed by Lapworth. The generalisation
is undeniable ; but insistence upon it often leads to artificial presentations
of comparatively simple phenomena. Peach and Home merely reproduced
what they saw in Nature, and left it at that. Their lucid and beautifully
illustrated descriptions, dating from 1884, 1888, and 1907, have, in Suess'
words, ' rendered our northern mountains transparent.'
The fossiliferous sediments of Durness, over which the Moine crystalline
schists are thmst, rest upon a flat-lying Precambrian sandstone formation
known as the Torridonian, and this in turn upon Lewisian Gneiss. The
Durness sediments are of Cambrian and probably Lower Ordovician age.
They are essentially a quartzite-limestone (largely dolomite) succession,
and in lithological character and fossil content they belong much more
1»2S P
66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
nearly to North America than to the rest of Britain. This fact was
recognised in the fifties of last century by Salter when he described C. W.
Peach's collections from the Durness Limestone. He had already had the
good fortune of familiarising himself at first hand with Canadian material.
There is no chance of unravelling the original relations of the American
and British facies of the early Palseozoic in Scotland, or even in Norway,
where Holtedahl has recently recognised the American facies of the early
Ordovician on the Island of Smolen, west of Trondhjem. Let us
therefore set sail for America.
The Atlantic seaboard of North America,' southwards from New-
foundland, is constituted of Palaeozoic mountains, partially concealed, it
is true, from New York to the Gulf of Mexico beneath a coastal spread of
Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks. American geologists call their ancient
mountains the Appalachian System. To European eyes they appear as
a complex of two systems, rather than as a single system ; but for the
moment we may let this pass. Beyond the Appalachian Mountains lies
an enormous interior region, the Laurentia of Suess, that, like Baltica,
has remained unaffected by folding since late Precambrian days.
Laurentia, again like Baltica, has two main elements ; a vast exposure
of Precambrian rocks, the Canadian Shield, recalls at once the Baltic
Shield ; while the Great Plains, with their cover of Cambrian and later
formations, correspond with the Russian Platform, and are bounded on
the south-west by a Mesozoic-Tertiary cordillera. The comparison^ may
be pushed to matters of detail, for a narrow offshoot of flat Palseozoic
rocks extends from the Great Plains along the St. Lawrence Lowlands
to separate the Canadian Shield from the Appalachians, just as a strip of
flat Palseozoic rocks runs up through Jamtland to separate the Baltic
Shield from the Scandinavian portion of the Caledonian Chain.
With so many points of comparison, it is not surprising to find that we
can go farther still. The age and relations of the portion of the Appalachian
complex, which borders the St. Lawrence Lowlands, justifies our grouping
it with the Caledonian System. It was Marcel Bertrand who, in 1887,
saw that the Appalachian Mountains, as a whole, could be partitioned among
the two great Palaeozoic systems that, on our side of the water, meet in
South Wales. In Newfoundland, Canada and northern New England the
Appalachian Mountains belong to the Caledonian System, in the sense
that their main movements were completed before the close of the
Devonian period. We may quote from Young in his Geology and Economic
Minerals of Canada published by the Canadian Geological Survey in 1926 :
' Before the close of the Devonian period,' he says, ' the Appalachian and
Acadian regions were uplifted and the strata folded and faulted, and
1 Last year I had the privilege of sharing, with my friend Collet, in the Princeton
Summer School excursion organised by Field, and anything I have to say on American
Geology is directly or indirectly the result of this experience.
2 When in Nature, November 5, 1927, 1 developed the idea that ' the North
American Continent is, broadly speaking, a magnified mirror image of much of
Europe,' I was unaware how closely I was following 0. Holtedahl in ' Some points of
Structural Resemblance between Spitsbergen and Great Britain, and between Europe
and North America,' Aihandl. Norske Videnskeps-Akad., Oslo, I, 1925, No. 4.
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68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
invaded by granite batholiths ' ; and again : ' The major part of the folding
and faulting of the Palaeozoic and late Precambrian strata took place
during the Devonian interval of orogenic disturbances.'
There is, it must be admitted, a minor, perhaps only an apparent,
delay in the Caledonian history of Canada as compared with that of
Britain. In Canada certain important marine limestones that are
involved in the mountain folding are, according to present-day termino-
logy, referred to the Lower Devonian ; while the Gaspe Sandstone, that
seems to play a role comparable with that of our Lower Old Red Sand-
stone, is generally spoken of as Middle Devonian. Perhaps, as already
said, this lack of harmony may be only apparent, for the Gaspe Sandstone
agrees closely in its flora and fish fauna (if we include the Campbellton
fishes) with our own Lower Old Red Sandstone. Indeed, not many years
ago, the Gaspe Sandstone was treated by Williams and others as Lower
Devonian. It was transferred from Lower to Middle by Clarke and Kayser
on the basis of comparisons between the marine successions of America
and Rhineland. Possibly we shall some day regain the correlation of the
Gaspe Sandstone with our ' Lower ' Old Red Sandstone by accepting
Barrois' transference of our Downtonian from Silurian to Devonian.
Let us now go back for a moment to 1843, when Logan started the
Geological Survey of Canada. By this time Hall and his colleagues had
already determined the main stratigraphical features of the flat-ljdng
Palaeozoic rocks of Laurentia as exposed in the western portion of New
York State. The succession there starts with Potsdam Sandstone of
Upper Cambrian date, and continues upwards through a long quasi-con-
formable sequence into the Carboniferous of Pennsylvania. Logan had
no difficulty in applying Hall's classification to the rocks of the St. Lawrence
Lowlands ; but at the south-eastern margin of these lowlands, along the
course of the Champlain and St. Lawrence, he saw the familiar Ordovician
of Laurentia passing beneath folded mountain-rocks, that at first seemed
unidentifiable, whether on the score of lithology or fossils. Faced with
this difficulty he was, for several years, content to date the mountain
formations by the law of superposition. So long as they yielded only a
few scattered fossils, this seemed quite reasonable. Barrande, looking
from across the Atlantic, might claim an occasional trilobite as of Cambrian
date ; but, naturally, local observers could not understand the sanctity
that Barrande attached to trilobite successions, remembering the theory
of ' colonies ' which he himself had introduced to account for graptolite
recurrences. In 1860, however, fossils were rediscovered in abundance
in the Levis exposures that overlie the top of the Ordovician in the
neighbourhood of Quebec. Many of these fossils were of Cambrian,
others of early Ordovician types. The number of forms was so great
that to apply the theory of ' colonies ' to account for their position would
have been tantamount to throwing to the winds all faith in palaeontological
stratigraphy. Accordingly Billings, the Palaeontologist of the Canadian
Geological Survey, transferred the Levis rocks to a low position in the
Ordovician, where they remain to this day.
Billings was working in close touch with Logan, who thoroughly
appreciated the significance of this stratigraphical revolution. On
December 31. 1860, Logan addressed a long letter to Barrande, and told
C— GEOLOGY. 69
him how he had been forced to recognize a zone, situated on the mountain
front, where older rocks are habitually overthrust upon younger. His
knowledge of the country was so thorough that he did not merely indicate
the position of the postulated thrust near Quebec, but laid down its
course all along its Canadian outcrop from Lake Champlain to the
extremity of Gaspe. On this account the Champlain-St. Lawrence thrust-
zone is often spoken of as the Logan Line.
Logan was, of course, only applying a familiar principle ; for, in the
States, thrusts had been described by the brothers Rogers as early as 1842,
and, in the Alps, by Escher in 184L Still there can be no question that
Logan's 1860 letter to Barrande furnishes one of the main landmarks of
tectonic science.
Almost as soon as Logan recognised the north-westward frontal
thrusting of the Caledonian Mountains of Canada he realized that it
followed a much older line of slope, leading down south-eastwards from
the platform of Laurentia to tne comparative depths of the Caledonian
sea bottom. He based this conception on the fact that the thrusts often
bring forward thick developments of fossiliferous Palaeozoic sediments
that are older than anything in the local unmoved Palaeozoic succession
of the over-ridden foreland. For instance, near Quebec the thrust-masses
include thick Lower Ordovician sediments, and very probably Cambrian
as well, whereas the unmoved Palaeozoic succession commences with Middle
Ordovician resting directly on Precambrian gneiss.
Logan gave his theoretical slope a double function. First of all it
had to act as a boundary to early sedimentation, and then as a guide to
later thrusting and folding : —
' The resistance offered by the buttress of gneiss,' said he, ' would not
only limit the main disturbance ; but it would probably also guide or
modify, in some degree, the whole series of parallel corrugations, and
thus act as one of the causes giving a direction to the great Appalachian
Chain of mountains.'
There is, however, another aspect of Logan's Slope that has not, I
think, attracted sufficient attention. This slope, when completely sub-
merged, seems to have furnished a dividing line between clear-water
Ordovician limestones (American facies), that grew on its top to the north-
west, and muds and sands (Caledonian facies), that, creeping from the
opposite direction, came to rest at its foot. The fossils of the two sets
of deposits are as distinct as the rocks themselves, and this has led certain
distinguished palaeontologists to postulate continuous land barriers, or
isthmuses, separating the two fields of accumulation. On the other hand
I think it can be established that the limestone of the one field has
repeatedly landslipped down upon the mud of the other ; in which case
the division cannot have been an isthmus, but merely a submarine slope.
The conception of the Logan Slope that I am now about to present is
a slight modification of Logan's original. Let us picture the slope, not
as a rigid feature of Precambrian date, eventually obliterated by
Palaeozoic sedimentation, but as tectonic in origin and intermittently
renewed by hinged subsidence. Earthquakes connected with the inter-
mittent renewal were probably responsible for the landslips to which I
have just alluded. It is well known that most of the major earthquakes
70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
of to-day originate on submarine slopes, and that important submarine
landslips precipitated by such earthquakes have been described, for
instance, in connection with the Tokyo disaster of 1923. Of late years
Kendall has reawakened British students to the possibility of recognising
earthquake phenomena in the records of the past. I believe that a story
of recurrent earthquakes is written in the submarine landslip-deposits of
the Logan Slope. These deposits show the following characteristics : —
(1) Through a succession of geological ages (Cambrian to Middle
Ordovician) they repeatedly occur along a particular tectonic zone.
(2) They are often interbedded among shales of Caledonian facies,
whereas their material consists mainly of limestone^ blocks and isolated
shells of American facies.
(3) Walcott has shown that in many instances the fossils contained in
the blocks are identical with the isolated fossils of the matrix ; the deduc-
tion is that the blocks are often little older than the containing deposit.
(4) The internal arrangement of the deposits is tumultuous and un-
bedded.
(5) Some of these boulders are gigantic. I have seen one 60 feet long
that has ploughed deep into underlying shale. Other boulders have been
described 150 feet long.
Various authors have attempted to explain these deposits as glacial,
but Ruedemann has stated in regard to an example of Trenton date
(Middle Ordovician) that ' the action of coast ice may, in the writer's
judgment, be excluded here on account of the presence of the Trenton
fossils, including corals, in the matrix.' Ruedemann's judgment may be
applied on similar grounds to many instances of earlier date. It is abso-
lutely certain that most of these tumultuous deposits accumulated
spasmodically during the growth, close at hand, of the great Ordovician
limestone of Laurentia. Geographical exploration, in keeping with
chemical physiology, assures us that important limestones are products
of warm seas. It seems incredible that this Ordovician limestone platform,
during its life-history, should have been intermittently exposed to the
ravages of ice-floes, or have become the temporary site of an actual ice-
sheet.
If now we cast our minds back to the change of facies that Lapworth
recogni'^ed in the Southern Uplands of Scotland we find it on the whole
of more gradual type than that characteristic of Canada. In the Southern
Upland sea mechanical sediment travelled down a tectonic slope, and
change of facies depended upon the arrest of coarse material by deep
water. In the Canadian sea mechanical sediment reached the foot of a
tectonic slope up which it was unable to climb. In both cases we notice
subsidence preceding mountain elevation. This has long been a favourite
idea with tectonists. It had its beginnings in a publication of Hall's on
the Appalachians, dated 1859. Its subsequent development is due more
especially to Dana and Haug.
We must now recross to Europe, there to get in touch with the later of
the two great Palaeozoic chains that meet in South Wales. In 1887 this
later chain received a double name from Suess, who distinguished along
its course a couple of congruent mountain arcs with an inflectional junction
C— GEOLOGY. 71
of their fronts (syntaxis) near Valenciennes on the Franco-Belgian border.
The eastern arc he called Variscan, the western Armorican. The names
are based on the Latin for the Bavarian town of Hof, Curia Variscorum,
and for the French province of Brittany, Armorica. The meeting of the
two arcs near Valenciennes is closely comparable with the meeting of the
Carpathians and Alps near Vienna.
The date of the Armorican and Variscan folding varies somewhat
according to locality, but lies either within, or at latest shortly after the
close of, the Carboniferous. Bertrand, publishing the same year as
Suess, classed these mountains on a purely age basis, as part of his
Hercynian System (called after the Harz). Unfortunately Bertrand's
name Hercynian was preoccupied ; but I propose to use it in his sense in
the present description.
The Hercynian Mountains of Western Europe are on the whole less
continuously exposed than the Caledonian. The eastern front of the
Variscan Arc is traceable at the foot of the Sudetes bordering the Upper
Silesian coalfield that lies north of the Carpathians. From this point it
is lost sight of for a long stretch, but reappears, from beneath the North
German Plain, in the Ruhr coalfield of Westphalia. Westwards its
continuation passes along the Belgian coalfield, where it is very well
known, partly in surface exposures, partly in mining operations. Across
the French border it joins the front of the Armorican Arc which has been
traced, mostly underground, as far as the Pas de Calais coalfield. It is
still buried south of Dover, but comes to the surface again in the Somerset
and South Welsh coalfields, and is clearly exposed across the south of
Ireland.
The course of this Hercynian front, where hidden, can often be inferred
from trend lines in some neighbouring exposure of the interior. The main
gap in the evidence, as a whole, is due to the Mesozoic and Tertiary cover
that reaches from near Bristol, by the Isle of Wight, the Channel and the
Paris Basin, onwards to the Juras. There is, however, no doubt that the
Palaeozoic and older exposures of South Wales, Devonshire, Brittany and
the Central Plateau, on the one side, belong to the same mountain system
as those of the Ardennes, the Vosges and the Black Forest on the other.
In between the mountains are buried, not discontinuous.
The interior of the European Hercynian Mountains developed earlier
than their northern periphery. At the close of Dinantian times, that is
a little earlier than our Millstone Grit, much of the interior region yielded
freely, for the last time, to mountain deformation ; whereas in the peri-
pheral belt the main folding took place at some date towards the end of
Coal Measure times. The contrast between the two portions of the chain
is particularly striking if we compare the Saar Coalfield, on the south side
of the Ardennes, with that of Belgium, on the north. The Coal Measures
at Saar belong to the Hercynian interior region and are violently uncon-
formable to folded Devonian ; whereas those of Belgium complete a
conformable sequence extending up from the Devonian, and have shared
in the corrugation and overthrusting of the latter. This condition of
affairs reminds us of the two stages in the Caledonian folding of southern
Scotland, where the date of folding depends upon position with reference
to the Girvan-Edinburgh Une.
72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
A further complication is encountered in the Variscan Arc, if we look
behind the commencement of Carboniferous time. We then find that
the frontal line of the Variscan Arc occupies a median position as regards
a local Caledonian arc that is recognisable in much of Belgium and southern
Germany. Actually within the breadth of this early arc there is a great
unconformity between Silurian and Devonian ; whereas in the concavity
to the south there is conformity, as exemplified in Bohemia. The limits
of the Belgio-German Caledonian arc are very imperfectly known. It
may, for instance, connect westwards, through Cornwall, with the main
Caledonian Chain of Britain and Scandinavia.
The Franco-Belgio-German coalfield at the northern front of the
Hercynian Mountains has long provided a favourite theme among
tectonists. As far back as 1832 Dumont published a map with sections
elucidating the isoclinal folding, but not the thrusting, of the Li^ge district
in Belgium. He emphasised that ' one cannot employ dip to establish
the relative age of primordial rocks.' He understood the position so
clearly that he defined ' basins ' and ' saddles,' not by the inclination of
their marginal exposures, but by the downward or upward direction of
their convexities. Having satisfied himself of the basin arrangement of
the Coal Measures of his district, he worked outwards into the older rocks,
and made substantial progress in zoning what we now call the Lower
Carboniferous and Devonian. The referees who crowned his memoir
for the Brussels Academy remarked that his work demonstrated violent
folding with reversal, and that it suggested the effect that would follow
from ' the gliding of a section of the earth's crust down an inclined plane
with resultant lateral pressure ' upon the country standing in the way.
I do not think that any other country can boast of so advanced a tectonic
study of such early date.
In 1849 H. D. Rogers was able to point out that the district presented
' precisely analogous features ... [to those] which had been observed
[by himself] in the Appalachians.' In 1877 Cornet and Briart, and in
1879 Gosselet, announced large-scale over-thrusting, the first of the kind
to be recognised in European Palaeozoic chains. Peach and Home, it
will be remembered, published on Scotland in 1884, and Tornebohm on
Scandinavia in 1888.
A peculiar interest attaches to Gosselet's paper, for Bertrand in 1884
made it the basis of his famous comparison between Belgium and the
Alps, and derived from it conceptions of much more extensive thrusting
in the latter region than had hitherto been imagined. Bertrand's boldness
has since been justified by Schardt's 1893 interpretation of the Prealps
and all the marvellous consequences that have flowed therefrom.
I do not propose to go into detail regarding the marginal northward
thrusting of the Hercynian Chain. It is of the same type, though not, in
my opinion, so extensive, as the Caledonian thrusting of Jamtland,
Scotland and Canada. Of recent years much the most delightful addition
to our knowledge of the ground has been afforded by Fourmarier's 1905
interpretation of the Window of Theux, south of Lifege. The frame of
the ' window ' consists entirely of Cambrian and Lower Devonian, whereas
the * window ' exposure, some eight miles broad, shows, in addition, every
group from Middle Devonian to Middle Carboniferous. The boundary of
C— GEOLOGY. 78
the Theux outcrops is manifestly a dislocation, and early workers
explained the local occurrence of the relatively late formations (Middle
Devonian to Carboniferous) as due to preservation within an incomplete
cauldron-subsidence. Fourmarier, however, by careful comparison of
facies showed that the rocks of the surrounding country have travelled
northwards relatively to those of the Theux exposure. To account for
this horizontal displacement he necessarily interpreted the boundary
dislocation at Theux as a low-angled thrust, cut through by erosion. He
also identified the newly recognised thrust with the Eifel Thrust, well
known in the country to the north. Before long Fourmarier's views were
dramatically established by boring. The Carboniferous outcrop at
Theux is separated by Devonian hills, three miles wide, from the exploited
coalfield to the north. This separation has been proved to be merely
superficial. Two deep bores, put down on Fourmarier's advice, pierced
the Devonian and penetrated far into underlying Carboniferous. No coal
seam was discovered, but the result was very justly hailed as a signal
triumph for geology.
The preparatory hinged subsidence that we have met with in the history
of the Caledonian Chain, in southern Scotland and again in Canada, re-
appears in the Hercynian record of western Europe. Broadly speaking,
the Devonian of the Hercynian Foreland is continental (Old Red Sand-
stone), while that of the Hercynian Mountains is marine. Two main
regions can be distinguished in the foreland, an eastern and a western.
In the eastern. Lower Devonian is generally absent, while Middle and
Upper Devonian are locally developed — in Belgium and the Baltic, but not
in Orcadia, the upper division of the Middle Devonian is frankly marine.
In the western region of the foreland, which includes England, Ireland and
the south and west of Scotland, Lower and Upper Devonian are widely
represented, in both cases as Old Red Sandstone, while Middle Devonian is
unknown. The Devonian of the mountain land is fairly complete and
predominantly marine, both in the east and the west ; and it seems to
have derived much detrital material from the north. Evidently this
marine Devonian gathered on a tectonic slope that, descending south-
wards to the site of the future mountains, was constantly renewed by
subsidence. The contrast between the foreland and the mountain region
is particularly striking along the Franco-Belgian front of the chain. It
has been exaggerated, as is so often the case, by overthrusting of regions
previously separate ; but even so the pre-thrusting contrast must have
been thoroughly noteworthy. The Lower Devonian and the lower part
of the Middle Devonian of the thrust region sometimes total 17,000 feet,
while both divisions are absent in the over-ridden foreland to the north.
The line at which this great mass of sediment fails is known as the Condroz
Crest, and was familiar to Cornet and Briart when they wrote their cl ssic
paper of 1877. To-day its course has been followed for 200 miles along
the strike. I prefer to speak of it, when concerned with its prc-thrust
character, as the Condroz Slope.
During Lower Carboniferous times, marine transgression submerged
the Hercynian Foreland far and wide. A northern continent persisted,
but its waste was retained along a deltaic belt that stretched through
southern Scotland and northern Ireland. Accordingly, clear shallow
74 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
waters covered mucli of tlie foreland, for instance the greater part of
Belgium, England and Ireland, where it encouraged the growth of
Carboniferous Limestone. At the same time, the interior Hercynian
zone, lying to the south, showed signs of mountain development, and
uplifted portions furnished sand and mud to the contiguous sea. The
contrast of the limestone facies of the foreland and the mud facies of the
mountain belt is very reminiscent of what one has already described in
connection with the Ordovician rocks of Canada. It is almost certain that
the northward travel of the Hercynian mud was checked by a successor
of the Condroz Slope leading down from the shallow waters of the sub-
merged foreland to the foredeep of the growing chain.
Without attempting to sketch this history even in outline, let us pass
on to Millstone Grit times, when a slackening in the general subsidence
of the foreland allowed deltas from the persistent northern continent to
join with others from the growing southern mountains. They met upon
the site of the erstwhile Carboniferous Limestone Sea and thereafter
placed Scotland in frequent communication with contemporary land
regions in France and Germany. Just at this critical time, as Kidston
and Traquair have shown, the land flora and estuarine fish fauna of Scotland
underwent a remarkably sudden alteration ; whereas the fauna of the
open sea showed no corresponding change. The new flora, that all at
once appeared in Scotland, is one that has been demonstrated by Potoni6
and others to have arisen in a normal gradual fashion on the deltas
fronting the nascent Hercynian Mountains ; and I attribute its abrupt
introduction into Scotland to migration across the confluent southern
and northern deltas of the Millstone Grit. The contemporaneous renova-
tion of the estuarine fish fauna of Scotland can also be explained by the
meeting of the deltas, since this event made Scottish rivers tributary to
the general drainage system of western Europe. Hitherto these rivers
had enjoyed biological isolation through emptying directly into the
CarboniJFerous Limestone Sea. Henceforward their doors stood open to
migration from the South.
There is another aspect of the deltaic apron of the Hercynian Mountains
which used to appeal insistently to the imagination of Marcel Bertrand.
This deltaic accumulation gathered in the frontal depression of the growing
Hercynian Chain, and to-day it furnishes the greatest belt of coalfields in
the whole of Europe. We know it in Upper Silesia and again in the Ruhr,
Belgium, North-east France, Dover, Somerset, and South Wales. It is
also represented in Ireland, but, as everyone knows, widespread denudation
of Coal Measures is one of the admitted injustices that have been dealt
out to our sister island.
Let us now turn to a very interesting feature of tectonics, of which
there are two independent illustrations along the course of the Hercynian
Mountains of western Europe : I refer to the crossing of mountain chains.
In Upper Silesia the front of the Hercynian Chain emerges from beneath
the Carpathians, while in the British Isles it obliterates for the time being
the south-westward continuation of the Caledonian Chain.
Where the Carpathians and Alps have trespassed upon the domain of
the Hercynian Mountains the latter had already been buried beneath an
unconformable cover of Mesozoic and Tertiary marine sediments. This
C— GEOLOGY. 75
relation is particularly clear in certain anticlinal re-exposures of the old
mountains furnished by the Alpine massifs of the Aar and Mt. Blanc.
Where the Hercynian front crosses the Caledonian Chain in Ireland the
new mountains, at the present level of denudation, consist of Devonian
and Carboniferous sediments ; and the old mountains can only be seen
to the north of them, uncovered by denudation along gentle anticlines
developed in the foreland. In South Wales the crossing of the Caledonian
Chain by the Hercynian does not proceed very far, for the strike of the
older structures veers round into approximate parallelism with that of
the modern chain at the line of mutual contact. It is not known whether
this curvature is original or superinduced.
We may recall that the crossing of the two Palaeozoic mountain chains
of south-west Britain is one of the topics dealt with by De la Beche in
1846, in the first volume of memoirs published by our Geological Survey.
' This,' says Suess in his Anilitz der Erde, ' I cannot mention without an
expression of deep gratitude to the author, now long since dead, since it
exercised many years ago a decisive influence on my own views as to the
structure of great mountain ranges.' If I were to continue the quotation
it would lead on to the subject of granite intrusions in relation to folded
mountains — but space absolutely forbids touching upon this side of the
subject.
For the last time let us take boat across the Atlantic, there to visit
the American representative of the Hercynian System. We know exactly
where to go. From New York southwards, the north-west front of the
Appalachian complex consists of folded and often overthrust Palaeozoic
eediments that extend upwards into Coal Measures. This belt it was
that gave the brothers Rogers material for their ever-famous address
delivered in 1842 before the American Association of Geologists. We
need only recall how the two brothers demonstrated to a spell-bound
audience the asymmetry, isoclinal packing, steep thrusts and general
travel of the Appalachians ; and how their work was immediately recog-
nised as of international importance.
It has been said above that Coal Measures are affected by the folding
of the portion of the Appalachians now under consideration. The last
great movement seems to have been in the early Permian. Accordingly
Marcel Bertrand, in 1887, placed this frontal Pennsylvanian belt of the
Appalachian Complex in his Hercynian System.
The most interesting peculiarity of the Hercynian System in America
is ite penetration to Laurentia, to the north-west foreland of the Caledonian
System. The crossing of the chains, begun in the British Isles, is com-
pleted in New England. The actual front of the Hercynian Chain cannot
be mapped with precision in the American part of the zone of crossing,
because the critical district has been largely denuded of its Carboniferous
rocks. At the same time important Carboniferous outliers do occur in
the southern States of New England and are strongly folded ; whereas, it
will be remembered, the Carboniferous spreads of the maritime provinces
of Canada are toleralaly undisturbed. The best known of the New England
outcrops crosses Rhode Island, and its prevailing rocks are conglomerate,
arkose and slate. There are also a few beds of graphitic coal, the Upper
76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Carboniferous age of which is shown by associated plant remains. Though
folded, cleaved and cut by granite and pegmatite, the Rhode Island
Carboniferous agrees with that of Canada in being unconformable to the
Caledonian disturbances.
Where at last the Hercynian Mountain front steps clear of its Caledonian
predecessor, one encounters a sedimentary superposition of facies that is
quite unknown in Europe. In Pennsylvania there is an immense con-
cordant succession from Cambrian to Carboniferous. In the cores of
anticlines we find our Durness (Beekmantown) Limestone, because we
stand on the north-west foreland of the Caledonian Chain. In the hearts
of synclines we discover Upper Carboniferous Coal Measures (Penn-
sylvanian) derived from the waste of the growing Hercynian Mountains,
and we tollow Bertrand in our thoughts to South Wales, the Ruhr and
Upper Silesia.
The study that we have made of mountain chains with their folds and
their thrusts, which individually may be of the order of 100 miles, involves
a recognition of some type of continental drift. Of late years Wegener
has developed this idea on a particularly grand scale. He has accounted
for many recognised correspondences in the geology of the two sides of
the Atlantic by supposing that the ocean has flowed in between the Old
World and the New, as the two continental masses, with geological slow-
ness, drifted asunder. One cannot help feeling that Wegener may perhaps
be telling us the truth. The available evidence is crude and ambiguous ;
but it is certainly startling to be confronted on the coasts of Britain and
America with what read like complementary renderings of a single theme :
the crossing of Caledonian Mountains by Hercynian.
SECTION D.-ZOOLOGY.
THE ORIGIN AND EVOLUTION OF
LARVAL FORMS.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.So.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
The transformations, or metamorphoses, of animals have always provided
one of the most fascinating chapters of Descriptive Zoology. Their
significance in relation to the doctrine of Evolution was a subject of
animated debate by previous generations of zoologists, and figured largely
in several Presidential Addresses to Section D, notably in those of the
late Prof. Milnes Marshall, in relation to the theory of Recapitulation, at
the Leeds Meeting in 1890, and of the late Prof. Miall, from the standpoint
of Adaptation, at the Toronto Meeting in 1897. The conclusions arrived
at by these two distinguished predecessors of mine were by no means
concordant, and I hope I am not wrong in thinking the time ripe for
reopening the subject. I propose, however, to take it from a third
standpoint, distinct from theirs, yet related, which I may broadly define
as the part played by larval forms in the course of evolution.
If we take any large class of marine Invertebrates the members of
which can be seen to have made substantial progress along one or more
lines of descent, a comparison of their larval forms shows that on the
whole a larval evolution has taken place more or less parallel to that of
the adult evolution, but subject to conspicuous deviations. Primitive
types of larvae are limited to the lower or more primitive sections of the
class, and secondary larval characters become more and more pronounced
in the higher and more recent members. In this general statement I am
thinking of classes like Mollusca and Crustacea, in which the metamorphosis
is gradual and continuous, and is not subject to sudden and radical changes
of plan, such as are exhibited for example by Echinoderms and Polyzoa.
In Mollusca the primitive type of larva is obviously a Trochosphere,
closely resembling that of Annelids in its pear-shaped body, praeoral
ciliated ring or prototroch, apical tuft, and absence of special Molluscan
features such as shell and foot. It is found in each of the main sub-classes
of Mollusca, except the Cephalopoda, viz. in Chiton (Amphineura), Patella
and Acmcea (Gastropoda), Dentalium (Scaphopoda), and Nucula and
Yoldia (Lamellibranchia or Bivalvia). All these are genera which, either
in Mollusca as a whole, or in their respective sub-classes, retain a distinct
preponderance of archaic characters — Patella and Acmcea belonging to the
lowest section of Gastropoda (Zygobranchia, in spite of loss of the original
78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
gills !), Nucula and Yoldia to the lowest section of Bivalvia (Proto-
brancliia). But in the course of their career as free larvse, these
Molluscan trochospheres all acquire new and divergent features : the
trochosphere of Chiton lengthens out and develops a dorsal series of
cuticular, partly calcified, plates ; that of the Limpet acquires a shell
which is successively plate-like, cap-like, and nautiloid, its body under-
goes the Gastropod torsion, and it then develops an operculum ; the
Dentalium trochosphere develops a pair of mantle-folds and a saddle-
shaped shell, t which becomes tubular by ventral concrescence of its
edges ; the larval Yoldia acquires a hinged bivalved shell, and both it,
Dentalium, and Patella, but not Chiton, develop a foot.
A B B
Fig. 1. — Larvse of Chiton.
A, G. marginatus ; B, C. polii.
It is readily Been that almost all "these characters which the trocho-
spheres acquire during their pelagic free-swimming career are in the
direct line towards their respective adult characters. As soon as the
rudiments of the shell have made their appearance, the larva of Nucula is
definitely a Bivalve, that of Dentalium a prse-Solenoconch, that of Patella
a Univalve, and that of Chiton Polyplacophorous. The secondary
characters which appear are essentially adult characters in the making.
They have mostly no relation to a pelagic career (e.g. the shell-plates of
a Chiton larva), and may even be an encumbrance — witness the useless
digging foot of the Dentalium larva — yet they appear. They can also be
no heirlooms from pelagic ancestors, since shell and foot speak unequivo-
cally of the ground— the archi-Mollusk was a benthic, not a pelagic
animal. These secondary larval characters then are mainly anticipations
of adult characters.
But they are not entirely of this nature, for among the examples
mentioned the larva of the Limpet develops an operculum which is not
present in the adult stage. The early trochospheres of Dentalium and
Yoldia also show features which are both absent in the larva of Chiton and
have no direct relation to their adult characters. Let us examine these
cases a little more closely.
The trochosphere of Chiton has a simple prototroch consisting of two
parallel rows of cells. As its body elongates the rudiments of six shell-
plates arise behind the prototroch, apparently in metameric order from
before backwards. During the pelagic career of the larva these plates
remain cuticular and uncalcified ; but, as growth proceeds and weight
increases, the larva swims less and less freely, and takes to gliding along
D.— ZOOLOGY. 79
the bottom by means of its pedal cilia. Calcification of the plates then
sets in, again in order from before backwards. Simultaneously the
creeping sole becomes enlarged by the development of muscles, and these
effect attachment above to the developing plates. A cephalic plate in
front of the prototroch, and an anal plate behind, are added, thereby
completing the typical eight. The prototroch is then absorbed, and the
adult life begins. The larval history is thus very similar to that of a simple
Polychsete, although segments, in the strict sense of the term, are absent.
As in Polychsetes, also, the adult characters are not completed until the
creature has descended to the bottom.
I In the case of Dentalium ' the trochosphere starts with a much more
powerful prototroch of three rows of ciliated cells, and goes much further
than that of Chiton in its development of adult characters during its free-
swimming career, for it not only establishes the complete form of its
tubular shell — which is much more elaborate than that of Chiton — but
also develops its characteristic digging foot. There is plainly an adaptive
connection between these two features : development of the additional
adult characters has been conditioned by the greater ability of the larva
Fio. 2. — Larvae of Dentalium.
to carry them. The ciliated prototroch is actually extended over'part
of the surface of the larval body by means of an internal duplicature of
the skin behind it, the locomotive girdle projecting freely over the front
of the body, like a collar over a coat.
This adaptive modification is carried to an even greater extent in the
Protobranch Bivalves Nucula and Yoldia? The collar becomes a great
ciliated cloak or overall, and the duplicature is so deep and precocious
that the whole post-trochal region is developed under cover of its five
rows of ciliated cells, the middle three of which bear powerful flagella.
At the end of the larval period a diminutive adult, fully formed, is de-
posited on the bottom by disruption of the prototrochal envelope or ' test.'
Quick-change artistes are obviously not limited to the human species.
Embryologists are familiar with many other illustrations of this kind
of development, e.g. the North Sea Pohjgordius, Sifuncidus. It shows by
easy steps how the more dramatic metamorphosis of Pilidium into a
' Dentalium, Kowalevsky, Ann. Mvs. HlH. Nat., Marseille, T, 1883. According
to the earlier account by Lacaze-Duthiers, the young trochosjihere has no less than
seven ciliated girdles, four of which give rise to the prototroch by a process of concen-
tration, but their relation to the rows of cells was not described {Ann. Sci. Nat.
(4) VII. 18.57).
» Nttcula and Yoldia, Drew, Q.J.Micr. Set., XLIV, 1901.
80 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Nemertine may have arisen. However, without ranging further afield,
these few examples may perhaps sufiice to illiistrate several important
propositions ;
(1) the larva has a double task to perform, viz. to distribute the species
and to grow up into the adult ;
(2) of these tasks the first is essential, and the second subsidiary — to
be undertaken only so far as the larval resources permit ;
(3) the performance of the two tasks together requires the maintenance
of an equilibrium between the locomotive efficiency of the larva and the
adult weight to be carried ;
(4) the locomotive adaptation of the larva may proceed on new
lines, paying no respect to phylogeny, and culminating in some kind of
metamorphosis ;
(5) the modification of the larva in this way need not affect the
organisation of the adult, since the casting of the most hypertrophied of
ciliated girdles involves only slight processes of subsequent repair.
When we pass from the more primitive and ancient groups of Mollusca
to the more modern ones, the larva no longer hatches as a simple
trochosphere, but is provided with a shell and foot from the first, and the
simple girdle of cilia which constituted the prototroch is replaced by a
much more powerful organ, the velum. This applies to all except the
lowest members of the Azygobranch Gastropodaand to all Filibranch
Fig. 3. — Larvse of Bivalves.
A, Yoldia {Protobranch) ; B, Ostrea, and C, Dreissensia (Eulamellibraneha),
and Eulamellibranch Bivalves. The velum is only a special development
of the prototroch, but by being stretched out at the edge of an extended
disk or bi- or tri-lobed frill, the locomotive cilia of the girdle are greatly
multiplied in number and power. The larva is the familiar Veliger, though
it would be well to restrict this term to the Gastropod larva, and to
distinguish the Bivalved form of it by a separate name, e.g. Rotiger, from
the wheel-like form of its ciliated disk. Both the ciliated arms of the
Veliger and the disk of the Rotiger can be protruded freely from the
shell and as easily and completely withdrawn inside it.
There are of course many Gastropods and Bivalves in which, even
under marine conditions, the free-swimming larval stage has been
secondarily reduced in association with a marsupial or incubatory mode
of development. Under these conditions the velum or ciliated disk never
D.— ZOOLOGY. 81
attains its full size and is often arrested in a very vestigial condition.
Finally, the pelagic stage may be suppressed altogether, and the Whelk
emerges from the confinement of its brood-chamber as a diminutive
adult, ready at once to pursue its definitive career.
The absence of any larval stage throughout the whole class of
Cephalopoda is doubtless due to the locomotive agility of the adult which
renders a distributive larval phase unnecessary. Although this explana-
tion applies to few other cases of suppression, the fact seems from one
standpoint to furnish the climax of the evolutional sequence we have
been considering. For the larval phase, like the seed of a plant, is
essentially distributive, and in the evolution of Mollusca we have to some
extent seen it shift along the steps of the life-history from a very early,
simply organised, shell-less stage, the Trochosphere, to an intermediate
shell-bearing stage, from this to the highly adapted Veliger or Rotiger,
and finally (if we may here include the Cephalopod and the Whelk) to the
adult stage itself, the lower stages of development having been successively
relegated to the embryonic period. Broadly speaking, this sequence
corresponds with an increase in the yolkiness of the eggs, a very simple
and widely distributed means of postponing the hatching period to a more
advanced stage of development.
It is probably not without significance that this progressive shift
corresponds with a time-sequence observable in the order of appearance
of the groups concerned, the groups with free Trochospheres, viz.
Zygobranch Gastropods and Protobranch Bivalves dating from the
Lower or Middle Cambrian, while the groups with Veliger and Rotiger
larvae, the Pectinibranchs, Opisthobranchs, and Eulamellibranchs, appear
to be unknown before the late Silurian. A curious exception, urgently
calling for further investigation, is the alleged occurrence of Capulids in
the Lower Cambrian.
Although, with fuller knowledge of the facts and of the bionomical
conditions, it may be possible to explain the cases of reduction or oblitera-
tion of the larval stage in terms of adaptation, it seems more probable
that there has been a secular change tending to depreciate the value of
dispersal as the seas became stocked with an increasing number and
variety of specialised inhabitants. When the adults have become highly
adapted to the conditions of a particular kind of terrain {e.g. rock-life) a
prolonged larval life would be of doubtful advantage which regularly
carried a large percentage of the larvae away from the rock zone altogether
and landed them in an area of sand and mud.
On the other hand we cannot overlook Prof. Tattersalls Littorina,'
which, not content with all the conventional larval stages, has started a
new distributional device of its own by setting adrift the egg-case as well,
remarkably adapted to that end.
It is with larval origins, however, not suppressions, that I am now
concerned. To some zoologists this question does not arise, or at least
presents no serious difficulties. With them larval stages represent fore-
gone ancestors, and all they have to do is to account for discrepancies.
As the chain of adult ancestors is drawn out, at each new evolutional
■'■ Littorina, Tattersall, Fisheries, Ireland, Sci. Invest., 1920, 1-
1928 G
82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
advance the former adult is succeeded by a new one, and slips back into
the ontogeny as a developmental stage. Let me briefly state why I am
unable any longer to accept this theory. Firstly, it assumes that new
steps in evolution are first manifested at the end of the ontogeny, i.e. in
the ordinary course of adult life. I can find little or no evidence which
supports this proposition, and an overwhelming mass of evidence which
points against it. An example or two in Mollusca will be brought before
you for consideration. Yet this assumption has even been used to support
the theory of the inheritance of functional modifications acquired during
the active life. Secondly, it is inconsistent with the actual course of
development, which often preserves ancestral modes of development of
individual organs, but as often as not introduces difierent organs at periods
independent of any probable phyletic time-scale. The totality of an
ontogenetic stage is thus normally different from the tout ensemble of any
ancestor. Thirdly, it ignores what I regard as the chief outcome of
modern Genetics. When this subject was last discussed in Section D,
Mendel's principles had not been heard of, and Galton's Law of Ancestral
Inheritance was the only generalisation in the field. There was nothing
then to prevent us from assuming, and much to persuade us, that some-
how or other the successive stages of growth were the expression of
successive inheritances. To-day, on the other hand, such a phrase seems
an anachronism. I feel bound to assume that development is the expres-
sion of a single inheritance. I take it that, whatever I may think as to
the resemblance between this ontogenetic stage and that extinct ancestor,
I may not assume any inheritance of the ancestral stage itself. My boy
may be like his maternal great-grandfather and his sister like her paternal
grandmother, but, as the phylogeny has been the same, the ancestral
stages as such have obviously not been inherited ; and we now know why,
or rather how, that comes about.
Viewing development then as the sequential expression of a single
inheritance, Science confirms Wordsworth's observation of more than a
century ago (1802) that
' The Child is father of the Man,'
and, subject always to the influence of environing conditions, our stages
of development are ' bound each to each ' by a necessitarian chain of
progressive differentiations, each stage depending on its predecessor
and determining its successor. The bearings of this doctrine on the
problem before us do not appear as yet to have been fully appreciated,
but squarely faced, they present issues which are of fundamental
importance.
We have seen in the life-histories of Dentalium and Yoldia that a
particular larval organ, the prototroch, can undergo considerable adaptive
changes with great advantage to the race, and after serving its purpose
can be absorbed, if small, or cast aside, if large, without leaving even a
scar. You will note that the unity of the inheritance, and the necessitarian
sequence, are not broken by this phenomenon. The prototroch is not a
preliminary stage in the formation of any adult organ. If you regard the
adult as the final complex resulting from a number of differentiating cell-
lineages, the prototroch is only a little subsidiary twig near the base, on
D.— ZOOLOGY. Hli
which nothing else depends : it can be pruned ofi without injury to the
rest of the series.
But we have also seen that the cell-lineages leading to certain adult
organs may differentiate so quickly as to make the rudiments of these
organs manifest in the trochosphere of which originally they did not form
a part. What will happen if these partly differentiated rudiments should
be capable of useful modification subservient to larval as distinct from
adult ends ? They will, ex hypothesi, be subject to the unity of the
inheritance, and if the modification be irreversible, i.e. incapable of
subsequent rectification, the adult form of the same organ will inevitably
be affected. Thus some modifications of adult characters may be the
result of larval mutations. Is there any evidence that such is ever the
case ? I believe such evidences are widespread, and that it is only the
dominance of an erroneous hypothesis which has prevented us from
recognising them before. Let me submit one or two examples in Mollusca
for your consideration.
The systematic study of Mollusca has resulted, like that of other
groups, in the production of a classification based on the principles of
' adult seriation.' Groups and sub-groups are defined ostensibly by their
possession of certain combinations of positive characters ; but the real
basis is the occurrence of gaps, some large and deep, others slight, in the
series of adults available for examination. As knowledge increases, these
gaps are often reduced or filled up, and the positive characters defining
the groups are then altered accordingly. But some gaps in the seriation
remain obdurate : the more we know the sharper they become.
The main lines of Molluscan classification have long reached a stable
condition : the gaps between the main sub-classes have undergone no
reduction in the time of any of us here, in spite of an immense outpouring
of new species and genera, trimmings and rearrangements of families and
orders, recent and fossil, and in spite of a considerable increase in our
knowledge of their comparative anatomy and embryology. I take the
following scheme from Prof. Naef's recent and admirable revision' of the
Morphology of the group (1926), changing it only by omitting a
problematic group of ancient cone-shells {Hyolithes, Conularia, &c.),
usually classed as Pteropoda, but which Prof. Naef raises to the rank of
an order and terms Odontomorpha, apparently to suggest a relationship
with Dentaliiim. In brackets I have aclded certain synonyms which may
be more familiar than the primary terms actually adopted.
MOLLUSCA.
{Sub-classes and Orders) (Examples)
1. Amphineuba
1. Placophora e.g. Chiton
2. SoLENOGASTRA e.g. Neomenia
II. CONCHIFERA
1. Cephalopoda e.g. Nautilus
2. Heteroneura (==Prorhipidoglo8somorpha)
i. Gastropoda e.g. Patella
ii. Scaphopoda (=Solenoconcha) e.g. Dentalium
iii. BrvALViA (=Lamellibranchia) e.g. Nucula
^ Spengel's Ergebniase u. Forlschritte, III, 1913, and VI,2, 1926.
G 2
84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
The gap between Amphineura and Conchifera is absolute : the shell
in the former consists of a series of plates (or spicules), in the latter
of a single plate (calcified from two lateral centres in Bivalvia). No
Amphineuran, living or fossil, approaches the Conchifera by showing an
enlargement of one of its plates as the possible predecessor of a single
shell, and no Conchiferan, living or fossil, approaches the Amphineura by-
showing any signs of a duplication or segmentation of its shell into
metameric plates.
Similarly in Conchifera, whether the Nautiloid or the conical shell be
regarded as primitive, no Cephalopod shows any signs of a lateral torsion
approaching the Gastropod twist, and no Gastropod exists with paired gills,
auricles and kidneys without also displaying a complete torsion of its
mantle-cavity and shell through 180° from back to front. The same
peculiarity marks off the Gastropoda absolutely from the Scaphopoda and
Bivalvia, although in other respects the morphological agreement between
these three orders is extensive and detailed and their relationship must
be exceedingly close.
Now let us turn to the larval history of a primitive Gastropod, say
Patella' or Trochus,^ and see how this torsion is accomplished. The
Fig. 4. — Larval Stages of Patella,
trochosphere develops a cap-like shell upon its back, and swims about
with it. As the mantle grows more rapidly behind than in front, the
additions to the shell are also more extensive behind than in front, so
that, relatively to the newer and broader part, the original ' cap ' is slowly
and steadily pushed upwards and forwards as the apex of a commencing
coil. This coil of the larval shell is not quite median in existing forms,
but there is reason to believe that it was so in the earliest Gastropods, as
shown by the symmetry of the shells in practically all Gastropods known
from Cambrian and Ordovician strata (e.g. Cyrtolites, Sinuites, Salpingostoma,
Bellerophon). Thus the larval shell grows like that of the Pearly Nautilus
and is at first orientated in the same way : the apex of its coil is directed
upwards and forwards over the larval head (exogastric), and a gill-chamber
is developed beneath it behind, corresponding to that of Chiton and
Nautilus. At this stage the foot projects freely but carries no operculum ;
and it is easy to see from the arrangement of parts that an operculum on
the foot would be meaningless. For the head is separated from the gill-
chamber behind by the whole length of the foot, and, when the body
° Patella, Patten, Wien Arbeiten, VI, 1886 ; Acmoea, Boutan, Arch. Zool. Exp.,
(3) VII, 1899.
^ Trochvs, Robert, Arch. Zool. Ea-p., (3) X, 1903 ; and Zoologie Descriptive
II, 1900, fig. 508.
D.— ZOOLOGY. 85
contracts, it is the foot, not the head, which can safely withdraw into it,
leaving the head, the most vital part of the body, exposed to attack.
This vulnerability of the head in the Nautiloid stage of a Veliger is
obviously a defect, but it is not long in being remedied. Head and foot
as a whole rotate round through 180° until their relations to the mantle-
cavity are exactly reversed. According to Boutan, the whole process of
torsion is accomplished in Acmcea in two or three minutes, so that, as
Prof. Naef has pointed out, it is difficult to believe that the change
is accomplished by ordinary processes of growth alone. A certain
amount of true twisting by muscular contractions would seem to be
involved. In Trochus (Robert, 1903), the first of all Azygobranchs, the
torsion requires six to eight hours. In both forms the shell has already
begun its Nautiloid exogastric coil before there is any sign of torsion. In
still less primitive forms (e.g. Paludina), as Miss Drummond ' was one of
the first to show, the torsion takes longer than in Trochus, and starts at
a much earlier embryonic stage, before the shell has begun to coil. It is
thus probable, as Prof. Naef maintains, that the slow achievement of the
torsion by growth-processes spread over a considerable portion of the
ontogeny is a secondary modification.
The immediate effect of the change, when completed, is to bring the
gill-chamber to the front of the larval body, thus enabling the head, with
its all-important velum, to be safely withdrawn into it at the first onset
of danger. The foot lastly develops an operculum on its hinder surface,
which closes the entrance on contraction.
In the Limpet this rotation is effected during the free larval life,
probably as quickly as in Acmcea, its next of kin ; but in Trochus
and all subsequent types of Gastropods (Azygobranchia) it takes place
in the embryonic phase, so that the Veliger has already undergone
torsion before hatching. There can be no two opinions as to the great
advance in efficiency shown by the new type of larva as compared with
the old. Unfortunately information about the Nautiloid larva of the
Limpet and its post-torsional successor is still limited to Patten's observa-
tions on specimens reared from artificial impregnations, and neither
Patten nor Boutan say much as to the habits of the larvae. It is also
difficult to say whether in its retention of a simple prototroch the larva
of the Limpet is primitive or secondarily simplified, but the curious
changes and variations which have been described in the structure of
its prototroch point rather strongly towards the latter conclusion.
The larva of Acmcea shows signs of even greater redu tion of its proto-
troch, since the ciliary girdle, though composed of two rows of cells,
carries only one row of flagella (Boutan). In Fissurella" there can be
little doubt on this point, for the larva creeps out of its egg-shell,
instead of swimming, and settles down with the least possible delay to its
sedentary rock-life, at once proceeding to absorb the prototroch which it
has never used in the open sea, and casting the operculum which it has
never used at all. The development of Pleurotomaria may some day
' Paludina, Drummond, Q.J. Micr. Sci., XLVI, 1892 ; Bcutan, I.e., 1899 : Naef,
1913, p. 102.
" Fisaurella, Boutan, Arch. Zool. Exp., (2) III, 1886.
86
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
reveal the original larval type of a less specialised Zygobranchiate
Gastropod.
But the fully developed post-torsional Veliger of au ordinary Azygo-
branch is thoroughly adapted to an active pelagic career. Its prototroch
having now grown out into a pair of velar lobes, the larva no longer rotates
like a trochosphere, but directs its movements up, down, or straight ahead
on a perfectly even keel. Its velum is so powerful that it can easily
sustain the added weight of its partly calcified shell. When suddenly
disturbed it reacts in characteristic fashion : its head and velar lobes are
immediately withdrawn into the now adjacent gill-cavity, the foot smartly
follows suit, and the door is automatically closed by its horny operculum.
Owing to its weight the larva falls vertically downwards in the water the
moment it stops swimming. As an obscure prae-Georgian poet has some-
where described it : —
' The Veliger's a lively tar, the liveliest afloat ;
A whirling wheel on either side propels his little boat ;
But when the danger signal warns his bustling submarine,
He stops the engine, shuts the port, and drops below unseen.'
A
B
Fig. 5.— Veligers of Azygobranchs.
A, Nassa ; B, Dolium ; C, Opisthobranch.
Now il 1 have succeeded in my description of the principal points, I
think you will agree that whatever significance may be attached to the
twist of its body in an adult Gastropod, there is no doubt about its value
to the larva. As to the origin of this torsion, all previous attempts to
explain it have been based on the assumption that it arose during the
adult life of some early type of Mollusk. I do not propose to go into all
these theories, instructive as they are, since their divergences merely
illuj^trate the difficulty of any solution on those lines. Like the asymmetry
of Amphioxiis and the one-sided preponderance of Echinoderms, the
torsion has remained a standing puzzle. It has been hardly attempted
to assign a utilitarian value to the initial and intermediate stages which
must have been required to effect the change in a series of adult ancestors.
I will deal later with the further point as to the failure of any of these
intermediate links to persist.
D.— ZOOLOGY. 87
In any case I venture to suggest that the torsion of Gastropods arose
in the first place very much as you see it develop to-day, as a larval
adaptation, in response to larval needs ; and that it was perpetuated
because, once accomplished, it was of immediate advantage both to
larva and adult. It transformed the earlier Nautiloid type of larva into
the much more effective Veliger ; and the Veliger, settling down to
resume the benthic life of its sire, foimd no serious obstacle to growth in
the new arrangement. Lastly, the adult, whose head had previously had
little or no protection, was now able to withdraw it on disturbance into
complete safety. I assume that the ancestor had a muscular creeping
foot, neither so simple as that of Chiton, nor so complex as that of a
Cephalopod, but definitely suctorial, though capable of progression.
The only mutation required to start the torsion in the assumed ancestral
prse-Gastropod larva was an asymmetry in the development of the retractor
muscles, thus bending the head and foot round during contraction ; but
it remains for further investigation to show whether or not the rotation
in Patella and Acmcea is actually determined in this way, as indicated by
the rapidity of its accomplishment. The ideal muscular arrangements for
bringing about complete rotation would consist of a right-sided cephalic
retractor with posterior attachment and a left-sided pedal retractor with
an attachment in front of the other, the two crossing one another more
or less at right angles. Patten's figures show that these conditions are
realised in the prse-torsional stage so far as the right side is concerned
(see fig. 4, second figure from the right), but unfortunately leave us in
the dark as to the arrangement of muscles on the left side. It is manifest,
however, that, owing to the small size of the larval body, any muscular
disparity between right and left sides in the direction indicated would
conduce towards a reversal of the relations of head and foot to the mantle-
cavity at every contraction, while fixation of the organs in the reversed
position would be a simple matter at this stage of development, when the
body-muscles are just beginning to be actively differentiated, and their
connections have yet to be established. Thus, although the theory of a
larval origin of the Gastropod torsion cannot be established on our present
data, we can at least claim that rotation may have been accomplished in
the way suggested, and that the ease and rapidity with which it could be
achieved contrast favourably with the difficulties besetting any theory
of progressive torsion through a long series of adult ancestors. In the
larva the smallest twist would produce a favourable change.
In his own ingenious theory of 1913 Prof. Naef has suggested a novel
way out of some of these difficulties. He regards the ancestor of
Gastropods as a free-swimming Mollusk, not unlike a small Nautilus in
appearance and habits, but with a more flexible ' neck ' or stalk connecting
the anterior combination of head and foot (or Kopffuss) with the visceral
or mantle sac behind ; and he associated the origin of Gastropods with
a change of habits from swimming to creeping. The Nautiloid position
of the shell with the coil forwards and the aperture behind is regarded as
convenient for swimming (Prof. Naef does not note that this is only true
of backward swimming !), but is assumed to have been incompatible with
creeping, owing to pressure of the coil on the animal's head and neck.
A ' correction ' of these arrangements was therefore needed, which has
88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
been achieved by the actual torsion. The greatest novelty of Prof. Naef's
theory now comes in. He supposes that the earliest Gastropods and their
immediate predecessors, owing to the flexibility of their ' necks,' were
able to twist their shells round, from back to front, or vice versa, at will
— as freely, he adds, as a bird can turn its head. On this theory the
difficulty as to intermediate stages disappears. A snail that has under-
gone torsion has not acquired something entirely new : it has merely
reversed what may be called the resting attitude of its shell. The power
of twisting its neck was not entirely lost until the process of reversal was
completed. By that time, however, the snail had given up swimming
altogether, no longer needed the Nautilus poise, and had settled down to
the monotony of a creeping life. As an intermediate stage it is suggested
that the symmetrical shells of Cambrian snails (e.g. Bellerophon) may have
rested sideways, i.e. with the spire over the left side of the body and the
open end over the right — a position from which it would require, as it
were, only half a pull on the left side to bring the shell back to the Nautilus
position for swimming, or half a pull on the right side to bring the open
end forwards into the position most suited to creeping.
For the rest I ought perhaps to add that Prof. Naef explicitly rejects
the theory of the Veliger which I have adopted here, viz. that it is a
Trochosphere transformed by the incorporation of Molluscan characters,
and regards the Veliger as a ' phylogenetic reminiscence ' of the pelagic
ancestor of Gastropoda, which was adapted for swimming like a Pteropod
by means of an expanded and bilobed foot.
You thus have before you two theories in explanation of the same
facts, and the only tests by which you can judge between them are the
degree to which they conform to well-established facts, and their con-
sistency with the order of events revealed by a wider survey. As I have
put before you a rival explanation, I may perhaps point out in what
respects Prof. Naef's theory seems to me to be lacking in cogency : (1) We
know that the morphological relations, both anatomical and embryo-
logical, of Gastropods to Scaphopods and Bivalves are much closer than
to Cephalopods, and we are on sure ground when we conclude that the
pree-torsional ancestor of Gastropods resembled primitive Scaphopods
and Bivalves more closely than it resembled any Cephalopod. This is,
in fact, what Prof. Naef's own classification means. By this test two of
Prof. Naef's principal assumptions fall to the ground : the adult prse-
torsional Gastropod did not possess a narrow flexible ' neck,' or the special
muscles required by his theory, or a highly coiled Nautiloid shell. At the
point when Gastropods diverged from Scaphopods, and Bivalves, the
shell can have been little more than a flat plate. The difference between
the two came in with the assumption of a lateral position of the gills in
the Scaphopod-Bivalve line and a posterior position in the Gastropod
line, thus leading to a preponderating lateral growth of mantle and shell
in the former, and a dominating posterior growth in the latter. This
entailed an anteriorly directed apex of the shell in prse-torsional Gastropods,
as in Nautilus, though the resemblance must have been one of simple con-
vergence, since the separation of the whole stock of Prorhipidoglosso-
morpha from that of Cephalopoda had taken place at an earlier stage,
when the shell was presumably still flat. It is apparent from his
D.— ZOOLOGY. 89
discussion and diagrams that the tubular shell and elongated body of
Dentalium have exercised an undue influence upon Prof. Naef's mind as
furnishing a kind of connecting link between Gastropods and Cephalopods.
They are, of course, indubitably secondary features. Prof. Naef's com-
parison between the apical slit in the shell of Dentalium and the marginal
slit of the lower Gastropods will be dealt with at a later stage. (2) Having
concluded on these grounds that the common ancestor of Gastropods,
Scaphopods and Bivalves possessed a flat shell and no narrow waist
capable of rotation between Kopffuss and visceral dome, it is easy to see
that the phyletic linkage of this group to still lower forms of Mollusca
must be with forms of the Placophoran rather than the Cephalopod type.
I do not mean that the Conchifera do not form a natural assemblage, but
simply that the first Conchifera must have been essentially Chiton-like
in organisation except for the simplicity of their shell : the conversion of
the discoidal shell of the earliest Conchifera into cones, tubes, and spires
has taken place independently in Cephalopods, Scaphopods, and
Gastropods, in relation to very different habits of life.
If these considerations are well based, there can be no presumption in
favour of a pelagic ancestry of Gastropods, and the attempt I have made
to explain the evolution of the Veliger larva without regard to such
' phylogenetic reminiscences ' can be submitted without anxiety as to
objections on that account. The only pelagic feature of a Veliger is its
velum, and that, as we have seen, comes down from a Trochosphere, not
from a pelagic Mollusk. The bilobed origin of the foot in Patella and
Trochus admits of various alternative explanations.
It will be noted that Prof. Naef's argument in support of the sudden
and muscular character of the original process of torsion remains un-
affected. He constructed his case from the observation of larval behaviour,
but applied it to the behaviour of hypothetical primaeval adults, which
could not possibly have behaved like larvae if they had existed. On the
other hand, if you prolong backwards into the Cambrian the larval
sequence which is demonstrable to-day, and project into it a con-
tinuation of the train of modifications in the mode of development of the
torsion which we have also seen to be operating, step by step, and
sub-order by sub-order, there appears to be neither speculation nor
hypothesis in the conclusion that torsion in Gastropods arose as a larval
mutation : the logic is that of simple mathematical extrapolation, or of
projecting a curve the equation of which is known.
Of course I cannot tell whether you consider my proposition reasonable,
or not, on the evidence I have put before you, and I have sought to base
it entirely on positive grounds which are open to verification. Let me,
however, now draw your attention to the secondary or corroborative
evidence. At the outset of my discussion I remarked on the sharpness of
the gap which separates Gastropoda from all other groups of Mollusca.
The one thing, i.e. the only thing of importance, that distinguishes
Gastropoda from other Conchifera is their torsion, and that is complete
from the start. Torsion makes the Gastropod, and it appears in the
systematic sequence as a true saltation. Now if torsion arose in the
first instance by gradual modifications of adult form, each step fitted to
some particular combination of external conditions or internal functionings,
90 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
surely somewhiere over the wide earth we ought to have found a
Zygobranchiate snail with its torsion incomplete. There are, I believe,
180 degrees in a half-circle. Allowing 10 degrees as a reasonable range
for each successive stable position in a series of adult modifications,
we have eighteen different positions in which some snail or other might
reasonably be expected to have made a halt in the orthogenetic advance.
In the Opisthobranchiate MoUusca there is abundant evidence that an
evolutional process of detorsion has actually occurred. Anus, gill, and
kidney, at first in their mantle-chamber, have travelled back again along
the right side of the body, reversing the original order of events. There
can be no confusion between the stages of retreat and those of advance
because all of these unwinding snails have come back without certain
organs of the original left side with which they went forward. Every
possible stage from complete torsion through partial to complete detorsion
— far more than the eighteen grades which I assumed — is represented
to-day by families, genera, and countless species — Actceon, Bulla, Philine,
Aplysia, Eolis, Doris, &c., not to speak of the Pteropods derived from them.
Their variety shows us what must have occurred on the forward march
of the prse-Gastropods if it proceeded by comparable stages ; and although
many that went forward would certainly fall out in the long lapse of time
owing to changed conditions, yet there must have been opportunities for
adaptations capable of preserving the essentials of one or more of these
eighteen advancing types. We know this from facts. In each minor
group of primitive snails, possessing clear remains of the original bilateral
symmetry of gills, auricles, and kidneys, there are genera which have come
down to us unchanged from Silurian times at least, e.g. Patella and Acmcea,
Pleurotomaria, Turbo and Trochus ; and scores of other Zygobranchiate
genera exist which only difier from their Cambrian ancestors in trifling
details of shell sculpture. Yet not one of these snails falls short of complete
torsion through 180°.
It seems impossible to avoid the conclusion that the gap in the adult
succession between normal symmetrical MoUusca and Gastropoda is due
to some cause other than natural extinction or the imperfection of the
' biological record ' to be read in the existing fauna. The gap marks an
evolutional saltation. The Gastropod accordingly is a ' sport,' and is
the consequence of a sudden jump in the evolution of the Veliger larva in
Cambrian, possibly earlier, times. With its ^asceral dome reversed this
new larva settled down and grew to maturity, the general course of growth
being unaffected by the change. When its growth fimished, the first
Gastropod had been created. How far the fiirst Gastropod differed in
other respects from its predecessor would require a long argument to tell,
except as regards one character to be dealt with in a moment. There
could be no trouble over its reproduction, since in Chiton and the Zygo-
branchs eggs and sperms are shed into the sea. The new characters were
presumably dominant : the recessives, if any are now left, are apparently
non-viable. Whether a gene was added, or dropped, I leave to geneticists.
At this stage I dare say the thought may be crossing the minds of some
of you that snails always have been queer-looking things, with something
abnormal about them, and that defiinitely to label them as ' sports ' will
not seriously disturb any cherished convictions. Even if the abnormality
D.— Z00L0C4Y. 91
first appeared in a Veliger, that is merely to say that one larva went
wrong, whereas most larvae behave properly. Let the Gastropod go into
the same pen with Darwin's Niata cattle, and its veliger with the abnormal
embryo that produced the La Plata race — what then ? Stands not
ScotLmd where it did ?
Yon will note, however, that Gastropods form no inconsiderable section
of Mollusca, and that MoUusca constitute one of the nine large phyla into
which the animal kingdom is di^'ided. A few years ago I brought a case
very similar to this, but without any touch of abnormality about it, to the
notice of the Linnean Society, and claimed that the carapace of Crustacea
was also in the first instance a larval adaptation in some primitive Trilobite.
If that case holds too, as I firmly believe, and as I hope before long to
establish in full detail, the whole phylum of Crustacea must be added to
Gastropoda and the Niata cattle. Last year, at Leeds, I put forward some
new grounds, now published with fuller details, for the conclusion that
Appendicularians are not primitive Tunicates, to be acknowledged by
Ascidian tadpoles as their ancestors, but Doliolids gone astray in their
development. The larval form in this case has ousted the adult from its
supremacy in the life-history and has created a free-swimming pelagic
creature out of originally sessile ancestors.
In short the Gastropod and its Veliger loom large in this address, not
as ends in themselves, but as an additional example of a wide-ranging
phenomenon. The man in the street scoffs at the idleness of the question
' Did the hen come first, or the egg 1 ' He thinks it one of Nature's
insoluble mysteries, but admits the priority of the egg when it hatches
into a monster with two heads or three legs. In a sense I have looked
around for a convenient monster, have found it in the snail, and now seek
to show that ' the exception proves the rule.' I stick to snails because
we are dealing with a problem which requires a certain amount of concen-
tration, and one point assists another.
We left the ancestral Veliger creeping on its rock and growing up into
the first Gastropod, and we are to ask if the new position of its visceral
dome, twisted round through half a circle, was not attended by some
inconveniences. Before the torsion the gill-chamber lay behind, as in
Chiton and Nautilus. It was a more definite chamber than in Chiton,
but not so big as in Nautilus, and its ca^^ty opened downwards behind
the foot, not forwards as in Cephalopods, because its wails were not
specialised to propel the animal backwards through the water. This is
where bionomics comes in to help morphology. When Prof. Naef treats
the ancestor of Gastropods as a kind of Nautilus, he is putting the cart
before the horse, or, more exactly, the specialised condition before the
unspecialised, the higher before the lower. Before the mantle-cavity of
Nautilus was used as a locomotive organ, it must have been what it still
is in Gastropods, a simple shelter for the gills, and a passage for the
products of anus, kidneys, and gonads. This curious combination of
cloaca and respiratory chamber, easily explained by its evolution from
the condition seen in Chiton, implies arrangements for maintaining a
through circulation of water, as well as for preventing contamination of
the respiratory water by waste products. In Cephalopods the respiratory
current is maintained by muscular pulsations, in Gastropods by ciliated
92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
tracts, and there can be no question as to which of these methods is
primitive. Not only is the respiratory mechanism of Nautilus more
advanced than that of any Gastropod, but its use as a locomotive device is
also secondary, being but a further elaboration of the breathing movements.
The inferences we drew from the shells of Mollusca are thus confirmed by
a consideration of the gill-chambers. It is not Nautilus but Chiton that
shows us most nearly the form of Gastropod (and indeed Conchiferan)
ancestors. In Chiton the gill-chamber is hardly established as such : the
groove between mantle and foot is open at all points, being merely a
little deeper behind than in front. Water flows in at the sides, bathes
the gills hanging from the roof, and escapes behind where the anus lies
between the symmetrical pores of the kidneys, everywhere overhung by
the projecting mantle-frill.
And now suddenly these excellent sanitary arrangements have been
turned round from back to front through the efforts of a pree-Veliger to
get its head into the hole before its foot (the Lamarckism may be excused !),
and by the persistence of the larval adaptation. Before the torsion the
gill-chamber opened freely behind ; after the torsion the free exit of water
and waste products was impeded by the snail's head and neck. There
were two possible solutions of this dilemma : either the snail must die,
and so wipe out the larval mutation altogether — in which event, had it
happened, there would have been no order of Gastropoda to perplex the
Zoological student — or a new exit must be provided. The latter alternative
was followed. Every member of the most primitive section of Gastropods
to-day, i.e. every snail which possesses paired gills and auricles (Zygobran-
chia), has in one form or another a slit or a hole piercing mantle and shell
where these overhang the gill-chamber in front. It is not present in the
larva ; it does not appear until the larva has settled down to its permanent
life on the bottom. It is an insignificant notch in the simpler cases, and
yet it is to the development of this ' breathing hole ' that the survival of
the whole order of Gastropoda must be ascribed. Bearing in mind the
direction of the ciliary currents in Chiton — in at the sides, and out at the
middle — we must picture the young snail with these arrangements, but
reversed now from back to front, and at the outset of its life on the bottom,
possibly with one of Dr. Bidder's Torridonian tides swirling over it. Also
we must recognise the effects of continuing growth and differentiation —
increase of size and gill-surface, multiplication of muscles between shell
above and foot-surface beneath, contractions of these muscles pulling the
shell down on to the animal's neck, increasing metabolism and output
from rectum and kidneys — all demanding increased ciliary activity, and
greater outpouring of waste water beneath the middle point of mantle
and shell. If I could start again as an Experimental Biologist I would
greatly like to try the effect on a growing epithelium of a continued stream
of deoxygenated water charged with a suitable quantity of metabolic
waste. Would it or would it not inhibit growth at the point affected ?
In any case, whatever the chain of cause and effect, that is what happens
now in the development of every young Zygobranch at the outset of its
adult life. Beginning with the intact edge of the larval mantle and shell,
the mantle grows less and less freely at the middle point where the waste
water is poured out and grows freely everywhere else, with the resultant
D.— ZOOLOGY.
93
formation of this so-called ' marginal slit,' which of course is also manifested
by a corresponding gap in the shell. As growth proceeds the viscera
behind occupy an increasing proportion of the space below the shell, and
the gill-chamber itself shifts forwards, so that continual readjustment of
slit to cavity is required. In Emarginula the mantle maintains the slit
at its edge throughout life. As the mantle extends, the slit extends ; but
the intact part of the mantle behind also extends, and seals up with a
secondary deposit the older parts of the slit in the shell. Thus arises a long
seam in the shell, the so-called ' slit-band,' which marks the track along
which the slit has travelled. In Fissurella, the Key-hole Limpet, a
different arrangement prevails : as soon as a slit of sufficient size has been
Fia. 6. — Post-larval Development of Fissurella.
produced, the edges of the mantle meet in front of it and fuse, the'mantle
thus regaining its original integrity. The shell now goes on growing as
intact as a Limpet's, leaving a hole near the summit which retains com-
munication with the gill-cavity throughout life, and is enlarged from time
to time by absorption. In Haliotis the mantle goes on splitting and
closing throughout life, thus adding to the number of holes instead of
enlarging the first one. The first and its successors are sealed up, one
after the other, as the mantle-chamber grows forwards into new
positions.
These various arrangements of slit and pores, with numerous inter-
mediate conditions, are adaptive to minor differences of body-form and
habits. In some the gills are equal and symmetrical, in others unequal
and squeezed to one side ; the body may be tall and pyramidal, or flat
and broad, the shell accordingly conical or spiral, and carried above the
foot or brought down to the substratum. In all, whether symmetrical
or asymmetrical, the slit or series of holes lies in the morphological median
line, between the two gills, and is associated with a persistence of the
original bilateral arrangement of the inhalant respiratory currents. To
its presence beyond all doubt the Zygobranchia owe the preservation of
their original pair of gills in the reversed mantle-chamber. As soon as the
right gill goes (Azygobranchia) the slit goes too, and a new current,
oblique in direction, but simple instead of complex, is set up through the
chamber, water entering in front on the left side, bathing the persistent
(left) gill, then crossing to the right side to which the anus is diverted,
alongside the persistent (right) kidney. Entrance and exit are each
defined by special folds of the mantle-edge, which may be drawn out into
94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
long spouts in front and behind. The evolutional changes in the gill-
cavity are somewhat complicated morphologically, but physiologically
can be summed up in a single word, sanitation. The various readjust-
ments amount to a series of experiments in the more efficient separation
between the respiratory and excretory arrangements, and finally result
in the substitution of a simple system which cannot go wrong for one so
intricately balanced that it will only work if its owner keeps perfectly
still. It is no accident that Zygobranchism is associated with a sedentary
rock-life, and that Azygobranchism is distinctive of the snails with
versatile and wandering habits.
The true Limpets (Docoglossa) of course gained the same end by
different means, sacrificing first one, then both gills in the mantle-chamber,
and substituting for them an entirely new system of marginal folds outside
the primitive gill-chamber altogether.
From this survey of the facts it seems to be a legitimate inference that
the reversal of the mantle-chamber did in fact introduce some serious
difficulties into the adult life of the first Gastropods. Retention of the
complete ancestral organisation was rendered impossible except by an
immediate modification of the mantle margin, and even this permitted
no deviation from a very restricted mode of life. ' Radiation ' into other
environments requiring greater activity was inhibited by the delicacy of
the respiratory adjustments, consequent on the partial blocking of the
branchio-cloacal aperture. Had the torsion taken place by instalments in
successive generations, some of the modifications which were subsequently
introduced (with the Azygobranchia) would almost certainly have been
accomplished en route, and would not have been deferred until the rotation
was complete. The nature of the earliest post-torsional modifications
thus corroborates the more direct evidence that torsion was, so to say,
imposed upon the adult stage, and not primarily developed in its
interest.
But the marginal slit has bearings on the general jjroblem which are
direct as well as corroborative, since it provides us with a test case of
the origin of a typical adult character. We know from Boutan's account
of the development of Fissurella that there is not a sign of the slit before
the sedentary stage is entered upon, and his figures show that an area of
shell is produced equal to that of the whole embryonic coil before the
marginal slit begins. This area is a mere trifle compared with the ultimate
size of the adult shell, but it is enough to show that the slit is a purely
adult character and arises at the outset of the adult life.
Now the history of the slit is engraved upon the face of every Zygo-
branchiate shell, and the date of its commencement in the adult life is
to be got by following the ' slit-band ' to its source. In every Zygo-
branchiate living to-day the ' slit-band ' begins, like the hole of Fissurella,
near the apex of the shell in front of the larval coils. Moreover the
inscription on the shell is so distinct, and the shell so durable, that it can
be read on the shells of the earliest Cambrian and Silurian fossils. Here
also in every case, even in the primaeval Bellerophon, which retains perfect
bilateral symmetry in its nautiloid coil, the slit-seam runs up from the
margin of the shell nearly to the apex of the coil. There has accordingly
been no change from first to last in the period at which the slit develops.
D.— ZOOLOGY.
In the first Cambrian Gastropods it must have arisen as a marginal notch
almost immediately after the beginning of the adult life, just as it develops
Fig. 7. — Shells of Adult Zygobrauchs.
A, BeUerophon (Cambrian) ; B, Pleurotomaria {Silurian onwards).
now ; while there is every indication that torsion took place, as it takes
place now, during the embryonic or larval, and not the adult, stage.
Prof. Naef has indeed attempted to trace a homology between the
apical hole of Fissurella and that of Dentalium, which, if it could be
sustained, would make the slit a pree-torsional instead of a post-torsional
modification. He even figures the slit as a feature of the shell before, as
well as after, torsion in his diagrams of this process. There is of course
a certain correspondence in the position of these two apertures or slits,
since both are morphologically median and posterior. But whereas the
hole in Dentalium is simply a remnant of the original gap between the
paired mantle-flaps of the larva, that of Fissurella is formed post-torsionally
at the extremity of a free median outgrowth of the mantle which has no
representative in Dentalium or the Bivalves. Moreover, in Gastropods the
slit is at right angles to the main mantle-edge : in those Scaphopods which
possess a slit as well as a hole, this slit, like the hole itself, is merely a
gap between the mantle-folds themselves. These differences are quite
sufficient to distinguish the two holes as examples of simple convergence.
Having now put before you all the salient facts as to the history and
function of this Zygobranchiate slit, I need scarcely point out to you how
admirably these facts serve to disentangle the elements of truth and error
which Haeckel so confused in his ' Biogenetic Law.' Fissurella has an
apical hole which develops by fusion of the lips of a transitory marginal
slit. Emarginula retains a marginal slit throughout life. It is a statement
of simple fact to say in a general way, and with regard to this character,
that Fissurella goes through an Emarginula-sta.ge in its development.
But does it follow that the Emarginula-st&ge of Fissurella represents an
adult ancestral condition ? On this evidence clearly not, for the adult
ancestral condition, ex hypothesi, is that of Emarginula itself, and
Emarginula when definitely adult possesses a long ' slit-band ' which is
completely lacking in Fissurella. Let us condense the facts of the two
ontogenies symbolically and assume, as is not improbable, that one haa
been derived from the other. If this assumption is disputed the case for
96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
adult recapitulation naturally falls with it. On the Haeckelian hypothesis
the inheritance runs like this : —
Emarginula : Egg — Larva — Adult
I X (with slit)
Fissurella : Egg — Larva — Neanic stage — New Adult
(with slit) (with hole)
Fissurella is regarded as inheriting all that Emarginula has to give, and
as then adding a new stage to the series. This differs from the previous
adult stage, but is built up out of a Neanic stage, which is claimed to
represent the previous adult.
But we have seen that the complete adult ancestral stage is not
inherited : the whole of the post-Neanic ontogeny which includes a ' slit-
band ' is absent from the ontogeny of Fissurella. We must therefore
distinguish like from unlike, and represent the two ontogenies differently :
Emarginula : Egg — Larva — Young Adult — Old Adult
X -i- (with slit) (with slit-band)
Fissurella : Egg — Larva — Young Adult — Old Adult
(with slit) (with hole)
From this analysis it results, so far as this one particular character
is concerned, that the ontogeny of Fissurella repeats the ontogeny of
Emarginula up to the Neanic stage of the latter, but no further, and then
deviates. There is thus no ' compression ' of the whole adult stage of
Emarginula into the Neanic stage of Fissurella. It is much the same with
regard to all other characters, with this qualification, that the point at
which divergence takes place may be quite different for different organs
(e.g. character of gills, kidneys, &c.). One ontogeny is derivable from
another, but when modification is introduced, it is not by the addition
of a new total ' stage ' at the end of the previous life-history, but by
interstitial changes, so to say, either in individual organs or in parts of
organs, and usually in quite early stages of growth and differentiation.
I have claimed that torsion arose in the free-swimming larval stage of
Gastropod ancestors, and that by so arising it created the order Gastropoda;
also that the marginal slit arose in an early post-larval creeping stage
to meet respiratory difficulties then first encountered as a result of the
mutation. I now claim that the hole of Fissurella arose by a modification
of the marginal slit at a stage of development scarcely later than that of
the slit itself, but at a later period in the phyletic history. By this I mean
that the immediate adult ancestor of Fissurella was to all intents and
purposes an Emarginula with marginal slit and long slit-band ; and that
the slit was transformed into a hole very much as it is transformed to-day
and at the same stage of the life-history.
We have an irresistible tendency when considering the evolution of
living things to look for gradual changes — ' By Nature's gradual processes
be taught ! ' to requote Wordsworth — , but there is no getting over the fact
that the conversion of a slit into a hole sooner or later involves an act of
discontinuity, — a mutation. At the critical period in the evolutional
process one generation had a migrating slit, and the next generation, or
some individuals in it, changed the slit into a permanent hole. Now in an
D.— ZOOLOGY. 97
organism provided with a free mantle wliicli goes on growing through life,
and preserves a slit margin as long as it grows, the mutation to form a
hole must be justthe same in later as in earlier stages of the migration,
and no greater if it occurs at the beginning than if it occurs at the end.
We never can be present throughout an act of evolution, for the simple
reason that, until countless generations have passed, the mutation is an
individual peculiarity, or a local variety, or something not yet sufl&ciently
widespread to ensure our recognition of its significance. Nature's ' gradual
processes ' of evolution lie not so much in the absence of mutation as in
the spreading of a mutation through the community. The nearest approach
to witnessing such a process in our time has been the observation by
entomologists of the spreading of melanism in moths.
In this address I have sought to keep morphological facts clearly
distinguishable from interpretations, but I have also attempted to show
that morphological facts require bionomical facts to elucidate their
significance. On purely morphological grounds I attempted to show that
we are under no intellectual necessity of concluding that everything new
must arise late in the life-history, and the development of Fissurella shows
us that to-day at any rate the marginal slit is converted into a hole at
the very outset of the adult life. I am well aware of the fact that there
are many other stable conditions of Zygobrancliiate holes, and that in
Rimula, for example, the hole, instead of being apical, is halfway between
the apex and the margin. It therefore furnishes to superficial appearances
a halfway house between Emarginula and Fissurella, and renders it
perfectly possible, some would say probable, that the immediate ancestor
of Fissurella was a Rimula, with a short slit-band, and not Emarginula
with a long one. I submit that the existence of Rimula makes no difference
to the problem of recapitulatory development as evidenced by Fissurella.
There is a stage in the development of Fissurella when its hole is also in
the middle, and it is commonly claimed that Fissurella on that account
goes through a Rimula stage after its Emarginula stage. But it is equally
true of Rimula as of Emarginula, that it possesses something which
Fissurella at the corresponding stage does not possess, viz. a ' slit-band,'
BO that any representation of the definitely adult stage of Rimula is absent
from the life-history of Fissurella as completely as is that of Emarginula
itself. All that these three genera possess in common is a short transitory
post-larval stage with a slit and no band, and it is at this stage that the
slit is converted into a hole in Fissurella.
Under heredity we cover a multitude of things, and it seems to become
increasingly clear that half the things which constantly occur in a given
ontogeny, i.e. half the links in the necessitarian chain, are not pre-
determined by intrinsic structure so much as dependent on the operation
of influences from surrounding or adjacent parts of the developing organism.
At an earlier stage I suggested that the marginal slit itself may have been
determined originally— and, I now add, may still be determined— by the
pouring out of a horizontal stream of deoxygenatcd and poisonous water
against the growing mantle-edge. Suppose now that in the series of
generations between Emarginula and Fissurella the changing conformation
of the body, associated with perpetual downgrowth of the mantle-edge
and elevation of the visceral cone, should have gradually involved a
1928
98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
relative upward movement in tlie direction of the exhalant stream. Here
without a doubt Rimula may find its real significance as a connecting link.
The stream is horizontal in Emarginula, oblique in Rimula, vertical in
Fissurella. The stream would then continue to play upon one point only,
in Rimula halfway down the old slit-band, in Fissurella at its earliest base.
So playing, it would keep the slit open at the same spot throughout and
continue to discharge through the same gap. But the mantle, going on
with its general growth, would soon prolong the edges of the slit beyond
the range of any inhibiting influence from the cloacal stream. The edges
would necessarily meet below it, and would there tend to resume their
interrupted continxiity. The mutation I have spoken of would thereby
be accomplished, and its adaptive character would need no separate
explanation : adaptation itself would have made the hole, and would
have simultaneously ceased to make a migratory slit.
There is an old German proverb which needs to be hung over the
mantelpiece of those of us who have a bent for speculation : Behaupten ist
nicht beweisen. Nevertheless, if art is long, science is much longer, and
of all sciences Zoology makes the greatest drafts on time for securing
synthetic results. By ourselves in this field we can do nothing. We must
critically assimilate the work of our jiredecessors and co-operate whole-
heartedly with our colleagues, or v.e plough the sands. I trust that I have
not misused the presidential opportunity and privilege by this mingled
play of criticism and suggestion, and that it may help to clarify some of
our evolutional problems. Even if every conclusion it expresses should
turn out to be untenable, there are times when it is useful to throw the
windows of the mind wide open.
SECTION E.— GEOGRAPHY.
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY IN MODERN
EDUCATION.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. JOHN L. MYRES, O.B.E., F.B.A.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
When the Geographical Association met at Oxford last spring it was
welcomed, by one who knows the University well and has served it long,
with a retrospect of geographical studies there, of which the theme was
this : that geography, though in its modern guise it ranked among those
' new subjects ' which an ancient institution was expected to tolerate, if
not to embrace, was nevertheless of old standing there, and good repute ;
and that, while other branches of nineteenth-century science had estab-
lished themselves in almost aggressive self-sufficiency, as additions — some
might say accretions — to academic structure, geography had expressed
itself rather in a modification of the whole point of view from which
traditional studies were surveyed, and on which humanistic education was
based.
Without any disparagement of the systematic training offered to
those who desire it by the Oxford School of Geography, or of the con-
spicuous services of its first two directors. Sir Halford Mackinder and the
late Dr. Herbertson, to geographical teaching in general, it may be claimed,
I think, that this estimate of the place won for geography in a great
university is of more than local significance. In the British Association
(we do well to remember) geography, though not quite one of our original
sections (as was the history of science), shared Section C with geology
from 1835 to 1851 ; it was a great geologist. Sir Roderick Murchison, who
advocatec^ a separate geographical section, and became the first president
of Section E ; and it was in the friendly shelter of Section E that
anthropological studies took shape in the next generation, till they
matured into Section H in 1884. And such co-partnership is in accord
with the profession of geographers themselves, that their subject is the
coherent application of the methods and conclusions of other sciences,
within regional limits, and- — to be quite precise — within certain chrono-
logical boundaries also.
It is this claim for geography that it co-ordinates regionally the results
and conclusions of other sciences in respect to the natural phenomena of
each and every region, and that, including as it must Man's activities
among the factors with which it is concerned, it stands in a peculiarly
intimate relation with history, that brings it under the special notice of
the art and applied science of education, but at the same time has made
it so difficult in practice to assign to geographers their proper place and
H
100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
function in educational schemes. And having had now about a genera-
tion's experience of some aspects of this problem, I am about to submit
some reflections and a few proposals in regard to those aspects of geo-
graphical research, and applications of them to educational uses, with
which I have been personally concerned. They are not those which have
hitherto received the widest attention, and to some people they may not
seem of the widest utility or significance. But for this very reason, if I
succeed in making good any suggestions in this special department, they
may serve a fortiori to commend more liberal recognition of other geo-
graphical studies, of which the value and utility are admitted by common
consent outside the syllabus and the time-table.
The ' Nest Phase ' in Geographical Teaching.
We begin to hear rumours about the ' Next Phase in Education,' and
my colleague in Section L will no doubt tell us just what that means.
Now whatever else it means — and involves, when it comes to pass — it is
at all events an occasion for revising old estimates of what is practicable,
in the light of new notions of what is desired, with the help of immemorial
ideas of what is desirable because essential to citizenship. And as the
' Next Phase in Education ' means at all events this — to quote ' Circular
1397 ' of the Board of Education — that schools are to be reorganised
' to secure for all pupils a break at eleven, and a fresh start at that age
on a definitely new stage in education,' it is clearly urgent that those who
have views as to what geographical training that ' new stage in education '
shall offer should express them without delay.
A generation ago — and perhaps even less — the establishment of a
' break at eleven ' for all pupils would have meant serious risk that in the
' new stage ' little would be taught except subjects of obvious and
immediate utility : — ' science and art ' subjects certainly ; stenography
probably, but as a ' practical ' alternative to music, or by way of ' physical
drill ' for the fingers ; modern languages, perhaps, but treated linguistically
and conversationally, as vehicles of information or ' orders ' rather than
ideas. That risk is still real ; but I think it is less insistent than it was,
mainly because the facilities already offered for a high type of secondary
education to children from all kinds of homes, and still more for retrieving
omissions through adult classes, and (may we not add ? ) the humanising
devices of wireless transmission and mechanical record, for disseminating
first-rate and first-hand guidance and stimulus to lonely souls, and mere
parents, have gone far to break down obstacles and remove misconceptions
as to the methods, objects and significance of relatively advanced studies.
And this is a change of outlook which has conspicuously affected those
subjects and aspects of education which suffered most severely in the
past from defective exposition — from ' the second-rate at second-hand,' as
an Oxford satirist of ' extension ' put it.
It is, if I am rightly informed, to be one of the principles of the ' Next
Phase in Education ' that from the age of eleven onwards the programme
of studies shall be progressively differentiated in accordance with the
faculties and proficiency of individual pupils. This on the one hand
should mean that for those whose natural bent is towards handicraft
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 101
there shall be more liberal recognition of the dignity and potential excellence
of craftsmanship, with all that is implied in the adaptation of what used
to be called the ' liberal arts ' to widen appreciation and deepen sensibility
in the craftsman-to-be, by familiarity with the masterpieces of his own
and kindred crafts. That the advent of the ' Next Phase ' should have been
signalled by the establishment of a Koyal Commission on National Museums
is of good omen in this respect, for there is much room for correlation of
studies and differentiation of teaching practice here. On the other hand
we may hope for, and claim, greater freedom of treatment for literary,
historical and scientific studies alike ; opportunity for fresh combinations
and closer interlock between related subjects ; less formal class-work
and mass-distribution of knowledge, but more team-work and ' mutual
improvement ' (to revive a gracious memory) among the students them-
selves ; less observance of time-table and syllabus, wider range and more
spontaneous choice of individual reading. In geography let us hope for
greater familiarity with the writings of the great travellers, less dependence
on textbook pemmican. As Mrs. Beeton says of another kind of chicken
broth, ' the best fresh meat only should be used.' And as main cause
and (in turn) inevitable effect of all this, let us insist on sincere relaxation
of the tyranny of external examiners and deliberate confidence in the
considered estimate of the teacher, as to the results of all this on the
child.
In the years before eleven, too, may we hope for changes which in
fact, if not in name, may do something to obliterate the divergence between
what have hitherto been only too truly contrasted as ' elementary ' and
' preparatory ' kinds of education. And herein the mere geographer will,
I think, demand two things : first, in ' preparatory ' schools, hitherto
so-called, such recognition of the ' preparatory ' value of geography as
has already been accorded in many of the best ' elementary ' schools ; in
particular, correlation between a coherent programme of geographical
teaching and those literary and historical studies which have in the past
been one of the best features of ' preparatory ' schools, though at some
cost to the preparation of their scholars for transference to any but the
conventional ' public schools.' Secondly, in ' elementary ' schools, which
will now be indeed ' preparatory ' to the ' new stage of education,' may
we not ask for careful reapportionment of the principal groups of studies
and aspects of learning ; elimination of technical elements and wage-
winning considerations altogether ; and concentration on the rather small
number of really ' primary ' studies, with the maximum of interplay
between them all ? For it is at this stage that we have most chance of
accustoming a child to ' see life whole ' as well as ' steadily ' ; and the
fewer the compartments into which it is found necessary to disintegrate
education, the greater the security that nothing really important has
failed to fall into some one of them.
Now somewhere within those principal groups of studies which make
up the programme of education, geography — and ancient geography in
particular — has its reasonable place ; and the question to which I am
trying to frame an answer is as to the principles on which that just place
is to be assigned, and in what working association with other subjects.
If I digress at this stage into what will seem to some to be platitude, and
102 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
to others rather remote speculation, my reason is that, as long as such
differences of opinion about it are possible, the subject is not exhausted,
perhaps not even defined ; though I have no expectation of doing more
than to make my own point of view intelligible.
The Place of Geography among Aspects of Learning.
Geography, as its name indicates, is the systematic description of this
earth of ours. But description is not an end in itself. The end, to which
it is the means, is a science of the earth, an understanding and interpreta-
tion of its meaning. Like all other departments of science, it presumes
two things : an intelligence to which this significance is interpreted,
and what I will only describe now as intelligibility of the facts of observa-
tion in relation with each other. In geographical science the relation of
these facts with each other is their relation in space ; the geographer
ascertains, records, compares and interprets distributions, the arrange-
ment of things on or in relation to the surface of the earth. Geography,
that is to say, asks two questions in respect of each geographical fact :
where is it observed? and why just there?
Obviously, in this general sense, geography is the coequal sister-
science of history, which studies and interprets the relations of events in
time. History originally meant (as its name also indicates) the process
of following or tracking something which has gone before, and left trace
or trail ; and is applied, like the name geography, to the recorded result
of such ' following-up.' Like geography, it begins with description and
proceeds to interpret. But whereas the geographer's observations are
for the most part verifiable at will— for he can go back to a place and see
it again — ^the historian is always to this extent behind the times, that he
can never catch up historical events at all, still less can he have them
repeated, however closely the new devices of phonograph and photograph
may simulate such repetition. It is a notable accident of speech that
' history ' should thus disclaim what ' geography ' achieves, namely,
direct transcription of the facts which it studies. History is always
looking for something that is no longer there ; geography has the earth
ever present, in all its ' young significance.'
But the philosopher is aware — and the geologist and the meteorologist
confirm him — that ' you cannot cross the same river twice.' Every
relation between objects in space is bound up with a relation between
events in time. Consequently every geographical fact has its historical
aspect, and every historical fact its geographical aspect. What we group
together as the ' historical ' sciences, from the most specialised histories
of human achievements — mathematics or music or morals — ^to the most
general study of sequences among events — in astronomy or geology — are
inevitably also ' distributional ' sciences, because all the facts and events
which they study happen somewhere as well as somewhen.
All human history, then, is' regional history, and loses value and
meaning when its geographical aspect is overlooked ; all geography, on
the other hand, and (most obviously) all human geography, depends
for its significance on the consideration that it is contemplating, not
facts only, but events with causes and effects ; processes, of which our
I
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 103
map-distributions are momentary cross-sections, needing to be recombined,
like the microtome-layers of the anatomist or the successive snapshots of
a film, if their significance is to be recovered as phases of an event.
Thus we speak of the historical duration of a glacier as an obstacle to
traffic over a mountain pass ; and of the geographical distribution of
Greek city states or Parliamentary institutions.
It was indeed this coalescence of geographical and historical outlook
and method, late in the eighteenth century, which made possible to
von Humboldt and Ritter our modern geography, the study of the distribu-
tion and interrelation of terrestrial processes ; and reacted, through
Lyell, Darwin, Lubbock and Pitt-Rivers — to give only British names —
on the humanities, by supplying a method of geographical analysis for
what are popularly called historical situations.
No one, I hope, will have been led by any part of this argument to
suppose any intention to ignore those other aspects of science — of intelli-
gence exercised on the intelligible around us — which are concerned neither
with relations in space nor with relations in time, but ultimately and
sometimes quite obviously with quantities and qualities ; all those
observations which go to make up the Physical Sciences ; and all con-
clusions and results of the kind which Aristotle was illustrating when he
said that ' fire burns here as in Persia '—and he might well have added
that ' fire burns now as it burned Persepolis or Troy.' In respect to all
those expressions of hoiv things happen, or Jiow they are composed, the
historical and distributional sciences stand in the relation of applied
sciences to the ' pure sciences ' of physics, chemistry and physiology :
accepting and employing their conceptions and interpretations, like their
vocabulary and notation, as a gunner employs range-finder and explosive
to solve his regional problem of making this projectile here hit that target
over there. This intellectual outlook is quite consistent with the possi-
bility that any occasion of gunnery may suggest fresh problems to the
physicist or the chemist, or offer them significant data ; and may even
do so by reason of local and temporal conditions. It was a sound instinct,
as well as wholesome criticism of somebody's educational technique, that
made the schoolboy bring into class a lump of wayside chalk and beg that
by the method demonstrated yesterday carbon dioxide might now be
made out of this.
Similarly, those aspects of science which are concerned with the
estimation and interpretation of values — with relations, that is, as
irreducible to quantitative expression as they are to conjunctions of
region or period, and wherein the notion even of quality parts company
almost at the outset from anything that has significance for a chemist —
have nevertheless ultimately this point of contact with geographical and
historical science, that all the values with which they are concerned are
values-to-man, and consequently are, as phenomena, characteristic of —
perhaps even peculiar to — terrestrial life, and to a relatively recent phase
of it. Indeed, when we speak of these sciences as the Humanities, we
mark their distributional and historical limitations, even while we
recognise their high rank among aspects of knowledge and their supreme
significance to ourselves.
Now of these three main groups of studies : the Human Sciences and
104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the Natural Sciences, in the stricter sense, are alike systematic, and conse-
quently collateral studies, only touching each other at their margins.
The remaining group, on the other hand, both in its historical and in its
distributional aspect, derives its content and its data from any or all of
the systematic sciences. There is a historical aspect of botanical study,
for example, the palaeo-botany of fossil plants, linked with the field botany
and plant physiology of to-day by survivals of archaic forms of plant
life ; and there is a geographical aspect, the study of plant distributions,
with its intimate bearing on questions of descent and affinity, and its
corollary, cecology, which I take to be the special study of co-distributions.
Similarly, there is a historical aspect of ethics, and aesthetics, and no
less a geographical aspect, brought latterly to some notoriety by current
controversies about the ' diffusion ' of ideas, as well as of techniques,
the latter being but the expression of ideas in the solid, in artefact instead
of behaviour.
And throughout these distributional aspects and treatments of the
data of systematic sciences, both historical and regional considerations
are ever present, ubiquitous, inextricable from each other. At most we
may recognise by an obvious paradox that the geographer is concerned
with distributions which are relatively stable in point of time — land forms,
vegetation types, lines of communication — and the historian with sequences
which are relatively stable regionally — the doings of this or that body of
people more or less permanently sedentary within a- particular complex
of geographical conditions. The geographer, that is to say, leaves the
larger history of his land-forms to the historical geologist, of his vegetation
to the historical botanist, of his lines of communication to the archseologist,
for demonstration in detail ; and devotes himself to the diverse regional
combinations which result from their respective distributions, which are
all inore or less world-wide. The historian similarly leaves the larger
distribution of these same factors to the student of their world-wide
occurrences, and concentrates his attention on the sequence of events in
the ' region ' where those are relatively unchanged in time, and consequently
compose the permanent regional stage on which the processes of history
occur.
But it follows from this, that, in the same way as the geographer fails
of his duty if he overlooks the fact that, from mountains and the tides to
town-planning and aviation, he is in fact dealing with distributions which
are changing, though their rates of change vary almost infinitely, so the
historian fails to appreciate the significance of historical events if he
ignores those historically permanent limitations within which all human
revolutions occur, and to which the most stable of human institutions
owe nearly all the stability they have.
To take an elementary instance. Man, it has been truly said, ' does
not live by bread alone.' Where the lagoons of Ostia and the Via Solaria
stood in the primitive economy of the city of Rome and in its relations
with its inland neighbours, and the salt-mines of Hallstatt in the com-
mercial and cultural relations of the Danubian cultures, there stood
Alexandria's command of the salt-works in Ptolemaic Egypt, the long
significance of Palmyra in the history of the Nearer East, and the gabelle
in the rise and fall of a national monarchy in France ; and it is without
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 105
surprise that a geographer reads in the newspapers that one of the first
public acts of the new Nationalist Government in China is to arrange with
the ' foreign devils ' for the supply of the same ill-distributed but indis-
pensable element in the daily food of its subjects. After five years of
anarchy the salt supply must have run rather low.
That this kind of correlation between historical and geographical
studies is more widely valued and practised than formerly is shown by
the large current output of what are generally described as Outlines of
History or Histories of Civilisation. Of this whole class the characteristics
are three. The first is the very wide range with which these books attempt
to deal, in respect both of area and of period. If they do not always
* survey mankind from China to Peru,' they frequently begin with the
Ice Age and end with the Great War. They deal, that is, with what
Mr. Wells elsewhere describes as Mankind in the Making and Mr. Marvin
as the Living Past or the Unity of Civilisation. Secondly, they are con-
cerned mainly with social, economic and cultural achievements, originating
among, and generally affecting, the population of this or that natural
region as a whole ; and to keep the broad lines of this presentation clear
they pass over much detail the chronological interest of which made it
attractive to those earlier historians whose monuments are the eighteenth-
century Art de verifier les Dates and Clinton's Fasti Hellenici. Thirdly,
they relegate biographical material to biographies, and the details of
political history to the special large-scale histories of particular states and
periods. The focus of human interest has shifted from individuals to
populations. If they have one defect in common, it is that they not only
forswear hero-worship, but obliterate leadership as a historical factor.
Precept and Example : ' Historical and Geographical Instances.'
I set out to speak about ancient geography in modern education ;
and if I seem to have spoken about almost anything else hitherto, it is
with the object of presenting certain considerations in regard to modern
education, and also to ancient geography, which seem to me fundamental,
and also so obvious that if I carry general agreement in regard to them,
what I really wish to submit follows as an easy conclusion.
We boast, and rightly, that we try to make education practical and
useful ; that it is a means to an end ; and that its end is the establishment
of successors to ourselves at least as intelligent, efficient, responsible —
free, in the old Greek sense of freedom (eleutheria) as ' grown-up-ness ' —
as we are ourselves ; and, as we severally hope, a great deal more intelligent,
efficient, responsible and free, than most of our own fellow-citizens. With
this end in view we expose the pupil-that-is and the citizen-that-is-to-be
to a graduated sequence of experiences and occasions, selected to give
appropriate opportunities for that exercise of his natural abilities, that
almost continuous process of reasonable response to his surroundings,
which we call life ; which (short of criminal oppression) we cannot prevent
the growing child from exercising, but which by neglect or mistake or
mere muddle, which is bred of both, can be, so easily, exercised carelessly,
perversely, irresponsibly, with results familiar to us all.
Now those selected sequences of occasions and experiences, which we
106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
call educational courses, are of three clearly defined sorts, corresponding
with the three principal groups of sciences and aspects of all knowledge
with which I began. If I take them now in reverse order it is because
I shall only come down to detailed criticisms and proposals in dealing
with sciences historical and distributional.
In the first place, then, we train the citizen-to-be in citizenship, which
I take to be the modern technical term for what a Roman called civilitas,
and some pioneers of our own Renaissance and Reformation called conse-
quently civility. For a Roman, a man was civis when he was what in
Irish cottages is called ' biddable,' apt to ' take notice ' — as advertisements
to trespassers say — of the fact that he has neighbours like himself, with
reasonable desires, habits, conveniences, like his own ; and that, in brief,
a man gets most out of life as he puts most into it, in his doings among
such neighbours. A man who has the qualities, outlook and will of a
civis is described as civilis, and also as liber — a more difficult word, probably
related to the Greek word for ' grown-up-ness ' already mentioned ; so
that civilitas and libertas were aspects of the same quality of ' citizenship.'
To propagate these qualities was to ' civilise ' ; and from their exercise
resulted — and results — ' civilisation.' To elicit them among the spon-
taneous impulses, efforts, aspirations of younglings who, being bred of
' civil ' stock, have presumably the root of the matter in them, is the
primary task of education ; to confront them with elementary social
facts, in nursery and kindergarten ; to give occasions for estimating values,
duties and rights, for dealing with situations and problems in which
they necessarily comport themselves as ' members of a realm of ends,'
as citizens in a city which grows with their growth.
What the statutes and bylaws, so to speak, of that adolescent com-
munity are to be depends, as we know, only partly on political and moral
principles, and far more largely on custom. But as custom is of necessity
both regional and temporal, it is to historical and geographical considera-
tions that we recur when we are challenged to explain our own code, or
to excuse those inconsistencies in it which are naturally more obvious to
novices and newcomers from the ' next generation ' than to old-stagers
and ' men of the world ' like ourselves. For these purposes we have
recourse to records and traditions, reinforcing or mitigating precept by
historical illustration ; appealing from abstract to concrete, from morality
to hero-worship, as ancient teachers have done before us, in parable or
tragic drama. Of history it is notoriously the besetting sin to moralise
and become didactic ; and against this tendency it is worth while to
consider any reasonable precaution.
Secondly, we have to present analytically the principal factors in the
processes which make up the pageant of external nature and the methods
by which they are detected, measured, controlled, and applied to human
ends. Here, as we have already seen, questions of distribution cannot
arise : ' fire burns here as in Persia.' But from the moment when pure
science passes over into any kind of practical application, considerations
of place and time reappear ; for in wild Nature all processes and all
material resources are regional ; and it is fundamental in human inter-
ference with the order of Nature that it displaces things and disarranges
that order. All agriculture is displacement and replacement of natural
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 107
vegetation — we remember the cynic's definition of weeds as ' God's plants
growing where man doesn't want them '— ; all engineering, displacement
and replacement of the solid earth or its ingredients ; all commerce,
redistribution of natural resources or our rehandlings of them. At every
stage, and more insistently and obviously in each higher stage, we are
called upon to ' think geographically ' ; and most of all when we come
to the consideration of man's dealings with his finest tool and worst
obstacle, his fellow-men. To take an instance from current political
discussion : what do we mean by a ' congested district,' and how do we
propose to deal with the population of a coalfield where there is no more
coal ? It is a question, once again, of redistribution, and it arises from
a fact of redistribution in the past ; for the coal has gone somewhere.
Thirdly, then, it is our business to train inborn faculties of observation
and inference to make their own analysis of actual regional circumstances,
and to present these as the momentary current phase of many interacting
processes, such as the special sciences are concerned to interpret severally,
under the limitations of the relatively stable structure of the given portion
of the earth's surface to which the citizen-to-be has access now ; and
maybe he will never have the chance to deal with any other. Modern
geography accordingly adopts increasingly, and almost inevitably, this
regional method of study and exposition as being at the same time the
most efficient and the most economical in point of time. It is a method
which presents close analogies with the use of ' set books ' in the teaching
of languages. There a brief analytical study of the elements of grammar
leads directly to the exploration— for to the pupil it is nothing less— of
the ' fine confused feeding ' of grammatical constructions as they flowed
from the pen of Ceesar or Xenophon. In the teaching of history it is the
same. The general equipment of needs, motives and aspirations which
actuate ordinary people is presumed to be familiar, and a beginning is
made at once on episodes and periods which exhibit such people working
out their life-history among the resources and restrictions of a homeland,
which is in the first instance that of the pupils themselves.
Ancient Geography of the Homeland.
Yet even at that elementary stage in which the common aim of all
concurrent ' courses ' of instruction is to make the child familiar with
the leading features of the ' homeland,' historical retrospect comes to
play a part of ever-increasing importance ; if only because in our time
those very features are being profoundly modified. Artificial, and for
the most part urban or suburban conditions, are rapidly encroaching on
what was recently rural. Habitual access to unspoiled countryside, and
familiarity with country life, become more precarious and diflicult, and
most of all for small children. Yet what we call ' unspoiled countryside '
in most parts of this island is itself in great measure artificial ; the result
not so much of the centuries of almost unimproved farming, as of those
two past crises — as revolutionary in their effects on the ' countryside ' as
anything that followed until the last hundred years— the Saxon Conquest
with its intense exploitation of the forested lowlands ; and, before that,
the coming of any kind of agriculture at all, restricted though this earlier
108 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
exploitation was to the drier, and for tlie most part therefore to the higher-
lying, districts, oases and natural clearings in the dense overgrowth which
is now so hard to reconstruct even in a trained imagination. Fortunately
in our timbered hedgerows, at all events, the principal elements of that
ancient regime remain accessible to many of us, and English taste in the
treatment of urban open spaces — for example in the London parks and
squares — makes this feature in ancient landscape more familiar still.
Characteristic data, that is, are still available for the reconstruction of
that ' unspoiled countryside ' for each principal period of national history,
without which the familiar episodes of King Alfred at Athelney, Hereward
in the Isle of Ely, the parkland fates of King Edmund and William Rufus
lose much of their historic value, because they are bereft of their geo-
graphical setting.
In many parts of the country, I am gladly aware, I should be preaching
to the converted if I were to elaborate this kind of correlation between
ancient geographical conditions and ancient life. Whether the geographer
or the historian takes the initiative in each instance seems to me to be
matter of indifference, provided first that the other colleague responds ;
and provided also that initiative, response and collaboration occur as
publicly, frankly and naturally as educational good manners allow. Few
things are so stimulating to a class or a whole schoolful of pupils as to
realise that the staff too is a team ; that the divisions between aspects
of knowledge are as arbitrary and artificial as the segregation of children
into classes ; that learning permeates wherever there is an observant eye
or an attentive ear ; that information sought and found sinks deepest
and lasts longest.
If, then, it be our main object in teaching our national history in our
schools, to bring up citizens-to-be with some appreciation of historical
perspective, we cannot forgo that alternative line of approach which
inquires what the homeland was, before it was made homelike as we
know it, and what its part has been in shaping the careers and the outlook
of our people in the past. This, in its simplest illustration, is what I mean
by the function of ancient geography in modern education ; and it will
be seen that there is no phase of instruction so ' primary ' or so ' advanced '
that it can be regarded as superfluous or inopportune.
But it would be a very imperfect preparation for citizenship which
included the history of British people only ; for the appreciation of
our own literature, or for the right enjoyment of leisure — as Greek
educators called it — if the mental horizon so lay as to reveal no drama
before Shakespeare, no epic before Milton, no history before Froissart or
Clarendon. Great as our national literature is, it owes much of its
greatness and originality to the fact that it has been so apt to learn ; that
it has taken into its own texture so much of the best from other great
literatures, from Israel, from Greece and Rome. With our history it is
the same. It stands embraced by the history of Europe, and sustained
on the history of the Mediterranean world and the Nearer East. We
cannot afford to read it or to teach it by itself. It presumes for its
interpretation that the world is wider than these islands and older than
modern history. If we would see life truly we must needs see it
whole.
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 109
Ancient Geography in 'Classical Studies.'
Now it happens that these two cultures, each with its characteristic
ideal of what man's life may come to be, represent supreme achievements
of humanity within natural regions and regimes strongly contrasted both
with each other and with those of the British homeland. Greek life and
all its legacy to us are man's solution of the problem not merely of main-
taining life under Mediterranean conditions, but of realising to the full
what life under those conditions might become. We are only beginning
to know, through the discoveries of Huntington, Antevs, Pettersson, and
Brooks, among others, how exceptional was the conjunction of physical
circumstances which made the Mediterranean region itself, and in
particular the Greek cradlelands round the ^gean Archipelago, unusually
favourable ground for such an adventure ; and how essential it is to re-
construct, from all available sources of evidence, that picture of a region
not only almost unspoiled as yet by man's enterprises, but temporarily
competent to repair his ravages and postpone his worst derangements of
its natural regime. Conversely, as our knowledge of the later symptoms
of decline and disorganisation grows, as we see it pictured in Rostovtseff's
Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, the fact of a general
hardening of the physical conditions — for which there appears to be
sufficient evidence, and full corroboration from the course of events in
North- Western Europe — goes far to explain the perplexing way in which
well-considered remedies failed of their effect, and sometimes even
aggravated that ' distress of nations with perplexity ' which was
imminent already in the last century of the Roman Republic. Both in
its adolescence and in its old age — if we may recur to phrases which no
one here will mistake for arguments— the Greek view of life, and the
Roman too, which was so profoundly influenced by it, are revealed, as
we come to know the circumstances, as the philosophy of a glorious adven-
ture, of experiment in a new phase of exploitation, of co-operation for
fresh social and political ends, of adjustment of inherited technique and
behaviour to unexplored conditions and occasions. If ever man conquered
Nature by stooping to reasoned conformity with Nature's restrictions, it
was here ; if ever invention was the child of necessity, it was in the strict
school of Mediterranean and, above all, of ^Egean environment.
This environment, however, happens to be one which illustrates with
exceptional facility that interaction of geographical factors which makes
all natural regions what they are. Partly no doubt for that reason, but
mainly on account of the special interest and importance of its human
geography, the Mediterranean region has been long and carefully studied ;
and is, I think, recognised by many teachers of geography as one of the
most valuable for analytical study. Further, at almost all periods of
history subsequent to the ' classical age ' the Mediterranean has had
considerable historical significance ; and this significance has varied
widely enough, through the changing relations between the region itself
and its neighbours, to make the comparative study of its economic and
political vicissitudes exceptionally instructive. Most important of all,
though physical conditions have not apparently been quite uniform
throughout, they do not seem to have ever varied sufficiently to modify
110 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the fundamental economic relations between man and natural resources,
or those elementary social units by which the food-quest and other essential
activities have been carried on. A modern Cretan village is amazingly
like its Minoan predecessor, at all points where we can compare their
arrangements and economy. In secluded districts Greek city states have
preserved their corporate life, and even their constitutional structure,
from classical to modern times, and more of those communities have
been first remodelled since their release from Turkish rule than were
disorganised by Turkish conquest.
There is therefore, I think, good reason to urge that at whatever
stage the history of the ' classical ' civilisation is included in the programme
of education, the regional geography of the Mediterranean basin should
be its customary counterpart, and that the two courses should be carried
on with habitual cross-reference to each other. And conversely, when
the proper moment comes for the study of the Mediterranean basin
geographically, the history-course should be planned so as to supplement
it in respect of the more significant achievements of Mediterranean
peoples, and also to illustrate — what can nowhere else be attempted over
so long a range of time — those effects of long-continued human occupancy
which have disfigured some Mediterranean lands beyond repair and
paralysed the later periods of their history.
Ancient Geography in ' Simple Bible Teaching.'
For the earlier periods of history, and for that other great factor of
our own civilisation which is our inheritance from the Ancient East, the
difficulties of correlation, which at first sight might appear greater, are in
fact insignificant. For here we have ready to hand a great textbook
already in compulsory use ; at the same time great literature and great
history ; a great classic of Oriental life and its surroundings, and a master-
piece of English prose ; the historical books of the Hebrew people, in our
own Authorised Version. With this example before us of what is not
only practicable but prescribed irresistibly by public opinion as a funda-
mental element in public education, and with the knowledge we have of
the profound influence which, in this shape, ancient geography, ancient
history, and ancient literature alike have had in the formation of our
national outlook, can anyone fairly say either that ancient geography,
so conceived and illustrated as the regional aspect of great historical
events, is without direct utilitarian value in modern life, or that there is
no room for it in the curriculum of our schools ?
We all know very well that the Old Testament is sometimes taught more
as if it were a collection of parables or allegories than as geography, or
history, or even literature ; but I venture to suggest that it is in proportion
as we teach it as geography, as well as history and literature, that its value
as parable or allegory will be most surely appreciated. The more
impartially and objectively we bring to Hebrew history and literature the
geographical commentary and illustration which we devote as a matter
of course to the records of other Great Peoples, the more thoroughly we
accustom ourselves and our pupils to treat these texts as a current source
for incidents and illustrations of certain phases of human adventure, the
more conspicuously do their remarkable qualities, both as history and
E.— GEOGRAPHY. Ill
as literature, emerge ; the more surely their contents take their proper
place, not as legends of an unearthly wonderland, but as contemporary
record of a peculiar people, confronted, in a region no less remarkable,
with the most momentous crisis that can befall any people, at a crucial
period in the growth of the civilisation which is our own.
If anyone should object that this kind of study is not easy, and propose
to postpone it until (to borrow a familiar phrase) ' he shall be certified
that the child shall well endure it,' I would reply that in some people's
experience neither the Authorised Version nor the classical literatures of
Greece and Rome are easy reading. Yet I do not find that admitted
difficulties and even uncertainties of interpretation, or the fairyland
remoteness of their setting, prevent people from insisting that all children
shall be confronted with the one, and all whose parents can pay for it with
the others as well, at a surprisingly early age, and with the deliberate
conviction that it is (among other things) just this unfamiliarity which
makes acquaintance with them so salutary. And the lavish way in which
popular books on Biblical subjects, and places where Biblical teaching goes
on, are garnished with pictorial reconstructions of Biblical scenes, suggests
to the mere geographer that the need for what is now suggested has been
in some measure anticipated by specialists.
At first sight — or rather, as it has been commonly presented hitherto —
the homeland and the history of the Hebrew people offer less obvious
opportunities for this kind of correlation of historical and geographical
studies. But in two fundamental aspects that people supplies illustra-
tions of the same interplay of factors, with characteristic — indeed almost
unique — results. In Hebrew literature we have what is almost wholly
missing in the Greek instance, an autobiography of an immigrant people
during the whole momentous process of acclimatisation to regional condi-
tions strongly contrasted with those out of which the newcomers came.
Nomad pastoral tribes, compactly organised in one of the most stable of
all known types of community, and austerely habituated to do without
almost all the characteristic resources of the ' good land beyond Jordan,'
a ' land of corn, wine and oil,' ' flowing with milk and honey,' found itself
intruded. into a sedentary agricultural regime, ancient, attuned to those
regional surroundings, already composite, and enriched by habitual
intercourse with highly civilised neighbours and great centres of industry
and organised experience. Confronted with such novelties and such
temptations to ' enter in and possess,' how were such people to behave ?
The story of their experiences is one of the great dramas of the world ;
and the record of it, in our Authorised Version, one of the supreme
achievements of English literature.
That is one aspect of Hebrew history and geography, its domestic
aspect, as an internal reconciliation of Folk with Place. The other aspect
to which I have to draw attention is external : the reaction of acclimatised
Israel to the forces which were shaping the world-history of its times.
From no single standpoint is it more illuminating to survey and take stock
of the great civilisations of the Nearer East than from the miniature
states which centred in Jerusalem and Samaria ; and the fateful separa-
tion of these from each other is itself an early symptom of the distractions
which those giant neighbours caused.
112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Here too, as in the Mediterranean lands, there is the less need to give
illustrations in detail, since the last twenty years have completely
remodelled our equipment for handling these regions and periods in every
degree of elementary and more advanced treatment. The main results
of modern Biblical and Oriental scholarship, of geographical exploration
in the Nearer East and of excavation on ancient sites, are as nearly
common property as the production of popular handbooks can make any
form of scholarship. And, thanks mainly to the value rightly assigned
to these studies in American education, the literature accessible in English
is now of as high quality as in any other language. It is no longer
honest to plead ignorance of German as an excuse for shirking a public
duty. Further, since our own country has incurred the obligations of
its mandates for Babylonia and Palestine, in addition to its responsibility
for the security and well-being of Egypt, we cannot plead that the
geography of these regions lies outside the scope of political duty, or the
daily needs of every one of us. We may not want to understand those
countries or their peoples ; but as things stand, we neglect those studies
at our peril : and, at least, let us provide for our children.
There is another reason why the human geography of the Nearer
East and the Mediterranean region has especial value in education, both
as a separate study and to illustrate by comparison that of the homeland.
Though the Western Mediterranean has an exceptionally pleasant climate
for nearly half the year, and the Eastern for several months, large parts
of the Near East are less fortunate, and some districts have a regime of
Continental severity. Resources in soil and minerals are even more
scantily distributed ; natural communications are difficult by land, the
Mediterranean sailing season is restricted, and the rarity of perennial streams
precludes inland navigation such as Central and North-Western Europe
enjoy : it was as natural marvels that Nile and Euphrates were famous.
Up to a certain point, and in certain highly specialised directions, cultures
could and did mature in such regimes. Beyond this point, however, the
attempt to do more imperilled what was won already : the margin of
safety was never large, and the greater risks were the least well ascertained.
External enemies came and went ; fainine, local if not general, was never
far off. In other words, Man and Nature in these regimes were very closely
matched. Where Nature was locally more bountiful, as in Egypt, or
Ionia, or Campania, or when regional conditions were more favourable
for a while, as seems to have happened in the centuries from about 900 to
250 B.C., and again from about 900 to 1400 a.d., memorable advances in
well-being were made and maintained for a while in face of relapse into
austerity. Each however was achieved, like our own industrialism, at
a terrible cost in ' wasting ' assets, timber and soil in the ancient world,
fuel and other minerals in the modern, more hopelessly irreplaceable still.
Here is a ' lesson of history ' only too likely to be overlooked, if it is
not reinforced as a geography lessun.
Present Discontents.
I am well aware that the correlation which I have proposed will be
regarded as something of a revolution in the teaching of ' classical
subjects,' and also that there are historical reasons for the methods
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 113
actually employed. More than fifteen years ago I had occasion to note
{Geographical Journal, October 1912, p. 358) that certain omissions in the
list of work submitted to the research department of the Royal
Geographical Society ' would probably have been avoided if the study
of geography in the older universities had been more closely associated
with the historical -studies which figure so largely there,' and that 'the
present divorce is probably inevitable so long as the study of historical
and literary subjects is regulated so closely, as it seems to be, by the
requirements of the Civil Service examination ; and as long as those
examinations assign to geography the quite unworthy place to which it
is restricted now.' Since the year 1912 there has indeed been improve-
ment in detail, but no serious reconsideration of policy. If I may judge
from experience both of examinations in history and in geography, and
of informal conference with teachers and taught, what passes for
' historical geography ' is still one of the weaker aspects of the geographical
course, while what has been described as ' geographical history ' is hardly
attempted at all. Questions, rarely set, are still more rarely answered.
Every examiner, and most teachers, know quite well what that means.
What a piece of window-dressing is the familiar rubric that ' sketch-maps
should be added where possible ' ! "What flights of imagination occur,
what skeletons emerge from their cupboards, when such sketch-maps are
' attempted ' !
In discussions of elementary training we hear a good deal of the
co-ordination of brain, eye, and hand. Why is it that as we ascend our
educational ladder this primary necessity seems to be progressively
ignored in the study of the humanities ? With every allowance for the
disciplinary value of games — often so highly ' organised ' that their value
as play or even as recreation begins to be doubtful, and some of us wonder
why they are not frankly included in the time-table as ' alternatives ' to
music, carpentering, and natural history — such lack of manual dexterity
as I have described is a serious defect of scholarly equipment. It is only
not realised as such, because the chief employers of the ' finished ' output
of the humanistic courses in our universities are still themselves so
inexperienced in graphic methods that many of them would have some
difficulty in understanding a fully illustrated report on any regional
topic. Statistics in tabular form have a certain impressiveness, and
persons of vivid imagination claim the ' gift of tongues ' in interpreting
them ; but what would happen to a speaker in Parliament who illustrated
his argument with a map ?
Yet in every other aspect of learning and advanced study, competent
use of its special symbols and notation is an elementary prerequisite. A
Grecian who boggled over and O, a mathematician who misused a
bracket or misread a decimal point, a chemist who confused Mn and Mg,
a botanist who failed to draw recognisably the structures composing a
flower, would, I think, have short shrift. But it is amazing how ill-
equipped are most students of literary or historical subjects when it is
a question of describing anything otherwise than in grammatical long-
hand. It is not merely that they are poor draughtsmen ; it is rather that
they do not do their thinking about regional matters in such fashion that
geographical symbols can express it. Rome, Athens, Paris, Vienna, York
are to them abstractions such as Mn and Mg might be to a bookworm
1928 I
114 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
who ' read chemistry ' in an encyclopaedia, but never handled a test tube.
And this raises a doubt whether that appearance, and even parade, of
accuracy in other parts of their work, in chronology or the technique of
archive-hunting, necessarily presumes that insight into historical processes
which it is often supposed to imply. So too, at the other extreme, there
have been both surveyors and big-game hunters who did not do much
for geography. Yet, considered merely as a test of those qualities of
co-ordinated craftsmanship, accurate observation, and clear concise state-
ment of relevant facts, map-making ranks high. As I have had occasion
to say elsewhere, ' a finished map is a scientific document, but it is also
a work of art ; to its scientific value, its completeness and accuracy, it
adds the value which is given by style, the grace, which in a map, as in
speech or writing, or any art of expression, is perhaps best rendered by its
old Latin name of eloqiientia ; for it is the grace of speaking out. A map,
no less than a despatch or a poem, has to give a message, without parade,
or digression, or confusion ; in the fewest and most unmistakeable symbols,
which have the merits, and also the defects, of all symbols, and are good
servants only in trained and sure hands. And what is true of a map,
the geographical document in its simplest and most purely geographical
form, is just as true of other geographical work, which is all a more or
less explicit commentary on maps, in literary form, or hints for the com-
parison of maps with one another. All work of this kind is a work of art ;
the geographer puts scientific material into it ; but he puts something
of himself into it as well ; it is (as we say) his work ; and we are right,
I think, in taking into account, as geographers, the form into which
he casts it, the geographical style which is his.' {Geographical Journal,
October 1912, p. 363.)
This is one reason why I have concentrated my advocacy of a more
liberal acknowledgment of the geographical aspect of all historical
studies, on the special instance of ancient geography ; for it is in those
compartments of our educational system where ancient history holds the
most honoured and responsible place, that indifference to geographical
considerations has lasted longest and most generally. And so long as a
numerous and influential class of public servants and legislators is recruited
from those compartments, so long will the geographical aspect of historical
study continue to be overlooked, merely because the responsible people
have had little or no personal experience of it. Even so observant a
traveller and so scholarly a statesman as Lord Curzon, already President
of the Eoyal Geographical Society, cut short a discussion of the place
assigned to geography in the Civil Service examinations with the question
what there was to complain of in the questions actually set.
But it is useless to encumber existing programmes of university study
by the addition of formal geography to the subjects already prescribed.
To this extent there is reason in an objection still occasionally heard",
that geography is primarily and properly a school-subject, and that
university teaching may and should assume adequate knowledge of its
essentials. That indeed might be all very well if it were the fact that
adequate geographical study had been tlie birthright, rather than the
good fortune, of candidates for admission to the university, and if
universities took the same trouble to require this prerequisite as they do
with subjects in whose indispensability they really believe. And
i
E.— GEOGRAPHY. 115
meanwhile the contradictory objection finds voice, that geography is (for
this or that reason) sO unsuited to school teaching that it is best postponed
till after leaving school.
Here again let me begin with the thick end of the wedge, and insist
that while very considerable progress has been made in primary and
modern-side-secondary education, in the provision for geographical studies,
and even for their careful correlation with historical and literary courses,
it is in the schools with ' classical ' traditions, and a considerable ' classical
side ' at all events in their upper forms, that geographical teaching most
lags and is least organically connected with the humanities.
A Retrospect and a Remedy.
There are of course, here too, historical reasons for this, and on the
sound tactical principle of stimulating those with whom one disagrees
by explaining that they cannot be expected from their antecedents to
be other than they regrettably are, I propose to look in this direction for
excuses, and also for a remedy. In difficult country, if a man has taken
the wrong road it is safest to avoid short cuts, and bring him back to the
point where he went astray. The right road is often obvious to him then.
In the early days of the Renascence the scholars themselves were
mainly of Mediterranean origin, or at least had made acquaintance with
Mediterranean conditions by pilgrimage to Italian libraries and lecture-
rooms. Moreover, as long as Venice and Genoa held the seas, even the
Levant was familiar to Western society at large, in a way which became
impossible for nearly three centuries, after the evacuation of Rhodes and
Famagusta. There was therefore little need for interpreters of the classics
to dwell on the physical surroundings of the ancient world, for in essentials
they were the same as their own. But when the centres of humanist
activity shifted beyond the Alps, and the Turk, in his decline, laid more
jealous hold on Greek lands, empirical knowledge of the Near East faded,
and classical weather, classical flowers and herbs, and still more those
classical customs and institutions, such as seasonal warfare, a national
outdoor drama, and democracy itself, which depended on Mediterranean
conditions for their realisation, passed, with much else that was incapable
of realisation on the Atlantic seaboard, from common knowledge into
academic oblivion.
The same thing happened elsewhere. Troubadour songs from a land
where the hawthorn really blooms in May, and it is possible for outlaws
to disport themselves ' under the greenwood tree ' without the rheumatic
sequel of our Whit Monday, forged a link between flower and month
which centuries of the ' jocund spring ' of these islands have failed to
break. Or, to take a reverse instance, an occasion
' When shepherds watched their flocks by night,
All seated on the ground,'
is still accepted by many as a credible description of Palestine in December.
What meaning, again, does the normal British citizen attach to that
graphic time-signal (II Samuel xi. 1) : ' And it came to pass, at the return
of the year, at the time when kings go out to battle '? — that is how that
evening is depicted when David first saw Bathsheba. The pendant picture
is Alcman's phrase about spring in early Greece ' when buds grow green
i2
116 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
and you cannot eat enough.' Truly the Christian Church had its reasons,
down there, when it prescribed fasting in Lent.
It was, then, mainly unavoidable ignorance, imposed by the political
situation, that paralysed geographical commentary on ancient history and
literature. But this happened, unfortunately, close to the time when the
great Dutch scholars of the seventeenth century, and thereafter our own
Bentley, gave a new birth to linguistic study, and gave also to ' scholarship '
the narrower meaning which it has unluckily retained so long. It happened,
unfortuTiately also, at a moment when the social cleavage which resulted
in this country from the Civil War, and still more from the behaviour of
the ' Restored ' in matters of faith and citizenship, c\it English education
— I cannot speak for Scottish — into two differently conducted halves.
All that side of the national heritage which descended from the culture
of Israel remained essentially vernacular, with no bogey of ' compulsory
Hebrew ' to repel the beginner, until the need to read Hebrew for himself
overmastered Idm from within. This heritage had been, and remained,
common to all, though for all alike it was divorced, for the reasons already
noted, from its geographical context and background. But, in the trans-
mission of the ' Legacy of Greece ' the Renaissance use of popular transla-
tions in popular education — the chained copy of North's ' Plutarch ' in
the village church, alongside the Authorised Version, as you may see it
at Bicester to-day — gave place to the strict ' classical education ' of the
public schools and older universities, initiated in the ' preparatory '
schools as they arose ; and displaced into the nursery the vernacular
discipline of an ' authorised ' crib. Formal scholarship became indis-
pensable prerequisite to study of Mediterranean culture ; history and
geography, as interpreters of the meaning of great literatures, gave place
to ' gerund-grinding ' and vain ' repetitions,' as you may hear students
crooning the Koran in a Moslem university to-day.
It was more than a century before reaction came : and the new
renaissance in classical and oriental studies came, like the old, very
largely from outside. What the discoverers of America and the outer
Oceans were to the men of 1493, the pioneers in physics, chemistry and
biology were to the generation of 1793. Herder's Ideen zur Philosophie
der Geschichte der Menschheit began to appear in 1784 ; it had been preceded
in 1778 by his Stimmen der Volker in Liedern, the first regional investigation
of popular literature, and in 1782 by Vom Geist der hebniischen Poesie,
which inaugurates the scientific study of the ' Legacy of Israel.' Wolf's
Prolegomena to Homer appeared in the next year, 1795 ; and, speaking
on Scottish soil, more especially am I bound to commemorate the debt
both of Wolf and of Herder to Percy's Reliques and Macpherson's Ossian.
and as an Englishman, Wolf's obligation to Robert Wood's Essay on the
Original Genius of Homer, the first study of Greek literature on Greek seas,
and of Biblical institutions in a Bedawin tent at Palmyra. How close
the beginnings of modern geography lie to this movement in history and
literature needs hardly to be illustrated. But Alexander von Humboldt
was, like Wolf , a pupil of old Heyne atGottingen, and close friend of Heyne's
son-in-law Georg Forster, the naturalist and chronicler of Captain Cook ;
and it was in the same Gottingen circle a little later (1814-19) that Karl
Ritter matured his Erdkunde im Verhallnis zur Natur und zur Geschichte
des Menschen (1817-18), followed by his essay on prehistoric ethnology
E— GEOGRAPHY. 117
in 1820 (Vorhalle europaischer VolkergescMchten vor Herodot). In the
rejuvenation of Prussia it was Hardenberg himself who brought Niebuhr
from Copenhagen to the Finance Ministry in 1806, and von Stein who
entrusted mainly to him, under the direction of Karl Wilhelm von
Humboldt, the reorganisation of classical teaching in the Berlin Uni-
versity ; and while von Humboldt called in Wolf from Halle, on the
fame of his revolutionary Prolegomena, Niebuhr, reserving the recreation
of Roman history for himself, called August Boeckh from Heidelberg in
1811 as the scholar best fitted to apply ancient experience to the training
of a modern ci\al service. The response was the Political Economy of
Athens ; and it was Boeckh's greatest discovery, Karl Otfried Miiller,
whose Hislorieff of the Greek Peoples and Cities (of which the first
section appeared in 1816) brought the new geography and the new history
into partnership. Otfried Miiller in his turn inspired Ernst Curtius to
his epoch-making monograph on the Peloponnese, which was published
in the year of our ' Great Exhibition ' ; and before this, thanks mainly to
George Cornewall Lewis, Niebuhr's Lectures on Roman History, Boeckh's
Political Economy of Athens, and Miiller's Dorians had been vigorously
translated into English, and the new leaven was working briskly already
when George Grote was writing his History of Greece. Of Curtius'
Peloponnese, ' I have spent my life,' said Boeckh, in admitting the author
to the Berlin Academy in 1853, ' testing and sifting details, the necessary
foundation for further research. But you have seen the land itself, the
frame to the picture.' And the aged Humboldt wrote ' I have read your
first volume line by line. Your survey of the country is a masterpiece of
nature painting.'
Well, after seventy years more, the picture begins to be worthy of the
frame. Whom will you allow to enjoy it ? It is not finished, nor will it
ever be. But a man's pupils surely are entitled to a ' private view ' of
his sketches in the studio of ancient geography.
We must start, of course, with things as they are ; and if we are not
satisfied with things as they are — and I hope I may assume that such
dissatisfaction is normal and usual — we must above all things be careful
not to make them worse by overloading with ' new ' subjects an already
congested curriculum. But we are bound, no less, to take every occasion
of change in departments adjacent to our own, for some reduction of the
customary gaps, perhaps unavoidable altogether, when knowledge is
dissected academically into subjects, and courses, and periods of fifty
minutes nominal. And let me repeat here what I hinted at the outset,
that by ancient geography, as by ' geographical thinking ' in general, I
do not mean yet another obstacle to the convenient planning of a time-
table, but an element in the content of many courses of instruction, and
above all a point of view, and a fund of illustrative humanising knowledge
and appreciation, on the part of the teacher. The children are all right —
that, as teachers, we all know. If we can get the teaching right — which
in the first place means getting ourselves, the teachers, right — I do not
very much mind what ancient geography, or any other subject, is called,
in the syllabus or the time-table. That is why ancient geography is so
necessary a part of university equipment ; for it is in the universitie
that we prepare the teachers.
SECTION F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
INCREASING RETURNS AND
ECONOMIC PROGRESS.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. ALLYN A. YOUNG,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
My subject, I fear, may appear alarmingly formidable, but I did not
intend it to be so. The words economic progress, taken by themselves,
would suggest the pursuit of some philosophy of history, of some way of
appraising the results of past and possible future changes in forms of
economic organisation and modes of economic activities. But as I have
used them, joined to the other half of my title, they are meant merely
to dispel apprehensions, by suggesting that I do not propose to discuss
any of those alluring but highly technical questions relating to the precise
way in which some sort of equilibrium of supply and demand is achieved
in the market for the products of industries which can increase their
output without increasing their costs proportionately, or to the possible
advantages of fostering the development of such industries while putting
a handicap upon industries whose output can be increased only at the
expense of a more than proportionate increase of costs. I suspect, indeed,
that the apparatus which economists have built up for dealing eiiectively
with the range of questions to which I have just referred may stand in
the way of a clear view of the more general or elementary aspects of the
phenomena of increasing returns, such as I wish to comment upon in this
paper.
Consider, for example, Alfred Marshall's fruitful distinction between
the internal productive economies which a particular firm is able to secure
as the growth of the market permits it to enlarge the scale of its operations
and the economies external to the indi^^dual firm which show themselves
only in changes of the organisation of the industry as a whole. This
distinction has been useful in at least two different ways. In the first
place it is, or ought to be, a safeguard against the common error of assuming
that wherever increasing returns operate there is necessarily an effective
tendency towards monopoly. In the second place it simplifies the analysis
of the manner in which the prices of commodities produced under condi-
tions of increasing returns are determined. A representative firm within
the industry, maintaining its own identity and devoting itself to a given
range of activities, is made to be the vehicle or medium through which
the economies achieved by the industry as a whole are transmitted to the
market and have their effect upon the price of the product.
The view of the nature of the processes of industrial progress which is
implied in the distinction between internal and external economies is
F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 119
necessarily a partial view. Certain aspects of those processes are
illuminated, while, for that very reason, certain other aspects, important
in relation to other problems, are obscured. This will be clear, I think, if
we observe that, although the internal economies of some firms producing,
let us say, materials or appliances may figure as the external economies
of other firms, not all of the economies which are properly to be called
external can be accounted for by adding up the internal economies of all
the separate firms. When we look at the internal economies of a particular
firm we envisage a condition of comparative stability. Year after year
the firm, like its competitors, is manufacturing a particular product or
group of products, or is confining itself to certain definite stages in the
work of forwarding the products towards their final form. Its operations
change in the sense that they are progressively adapted to an increasing
output, but they arc kept within definitely circumscribed bounds. Out
beyond, in that obscurer field from which it derives its external econoniies,
changes of another order are occurring. New products are appearing,
firms are assuming new tasks, and new industries are coming into being.
In short, change in this external field is qualitative as well as quantitative.
No analysis of the forces making for economic equilibrium, forces which
we might say are tangential at any moment of time, will serve to illumine
this field, for movements away from equilibrium, departures from previous
trends, are characteristic of it. Not much is to bo gained by probing into
it to see how increasing returns show themselves in the costs of individual
firms and in the prices at which they offer their products. _
Instead, we have to go back to a simpler and more inclusive view, such
as some of the older economists took when they contrasted the increasing
returns which they thought were characteristic of manufacturing industry
taken as a whole with the diminishing returns which they thought were
dominant in agriculture because of an increasingly unfavourable pro-
portioning of labour and land. Most of them were disappointingly vague
with respect to the origins and the precise nature of the ' improvements '
which they counted upon to retard somewhat the operation of the tendency
towards diminishing returns in agriculture and to secure a progressively
more eSective use of labour in manufactures. Their opinions appear to
have rested partly upon an empirical generalisation. Improvements had
been made, they were still being made, and it might be assumed that they
would continue to be made. If they had looked back they would have
seen that there were centuries during which there were few significant
changes in either agricultural or industrial methods. But they were
living in an age when men had turned their faces in a new direction and
when economic progress was not only consciously sought but seemed in
some way to grow out of the nature of things. Improvements, then, were
not something to be explained. They were natural phenomena, like the
precession of the equinoxes.
There were certain important exceptions, however, to this incurious
attitude towards what might seem to be one of the most important of all
economic problems. Senior's positive doctrine is well known, and there
were others who made note of the circumstance that with the growth of
population and of markets new opportunities for the division of labour
appear and new advantages attach to it. In this way, and in this way
120 • SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
only, were the generally commonplace things which they said about
' improvements ' related to anything which could properly be called a
doctrine of increasing returns. They added nothing to Adam Smith's
famous theorem that the division of labour depends upon the extent of
the market. That theorem, I have always thought, is one of the most
illuminating and fruitful generalisations which can be found anywhere in
the whole literature of economics. In fact, as I am bound to confess, I
am taking it as the text of this paper, in much the way that some minor
composer borrows a theme from one of the masters and adds certain
developments or variations of his own. To-day, of course, we mean by
the division of labour something much broader in scope than that splitting
up of occupations and development of specialised crafts which Adam
Smith mostly had in mind. No one, so far as I know, has tried to enumerate
all of the different aspects of the division of labour, and I do not propose
to undertake that task. I shall deal with two related aspects only : the
growth of indirect or roundabout methods of production and the division
of labour among industries.
It appears to be generally agreed that Adam Smith, when he suggested
that the division of labour leads to inventions because workmen engaged
in specialised routine operations come to see better ways of accomplishing
the same results, missed the main point. The important thing, of course,
is that with the division of labour a group of complex processes is trans-
formed into a succession of simpler processes, some of which, at least,
lend themselves to the use of machinery. In the use of machinery and
the adoption of indirect processes there is a further division of labour,
the economies of which are again limited by the extent of the market.
It would be wasteful to make a hammer to drive a single nail ; it would
be better to use whatever awkward implement lies conveniently at hand.
It would be wasteful to furnish a factory with an elaborate equipment of
specially constructed jigs, gauges, lathes, drills, presses and conveyors to
build a hundred automobiles ; it would be better to rely mostly upon ■tools
and machines of standard types, so as to make a relatively larger use of
directly-applied and a relatively smaller use of indirectly-applied labour.
Mr. Ford's methods would be absurdly uneconomical if his output were
very small, and would be unprofitable even if his output were what many
other manufacturers of automobiles would call large.
Then, of course, there are economies of what might be called a
secondary order. How far it pays to go in equipping factories with
special appliances for making hammers or for constructing specialised
machinery for use in making different parts of automobiles depends again
upon how many nails are to be driven and Jiow many automobiles can be
sold. In some instances, I suppose, these secondary economies, though
real, have only a secondary importance. The derived demands for many
types of specialised production appliances are inelastic over a fairly large
range. If the benefits and the costs of using such appliances are spread
over a relatively large volume of final products, their technical effectiveness
is a larger factor in determining whether it is profitable to use them than
any difference which producing them on a large or a small scale would
commonly make in their costs. In other instances the demand for
F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 121
productive appliances is more ela&tiC; and beyond a certain level of costs
demand may fail completely. In such circumstances secondary economies
may become highly important.
Doubtless, much of what I have said has been familiar and even
elementary. I shall venture, nevertheless, to put further stress upon two
points, which may be among those which have a familiar ring, but which
appear sometimes to be in danger of being forgotten. (Otherwise,
economists of standing could not have suggested that increasing returns
may be altogether illusory, or have maintained that where they are
present they must lead to monopoly.) The first point is that the principal
economies which manifest themselves in increasing returns are the
economies of capitalistic or roundabout methods of production. These
economies, again, are largely identical with the economies of the division
of labour in its most important modern forms. In fact, these economies
lie under our eyes, but we may miss them if we try to make of large-scale
production (in the sense of production by large firms or large industries), as
contrasted with large production, any more than an incident in the general
process by which increasing returns are secured and if accordingly we
look too much at the individual firm or even, as I shall suggest presently,
at the individual industry.
The second point is that the economies of roundabout methods, even
more than the economies of other forms of the division of labour, depend
upon the extent of the market — and that, of course, is why we discuss
them under the head of increasing returns. It would hardly be necessary
to stress this point, if it were not that the economies of large-scale
operations and of ' mass-production ' are often referred to as though they
could be had for the taking, by means of a ' rational ' reorganisation of
industry. Now I grant that at any given time routine and inertia play
a very large part in the organisation and conduct of industrial operations.
Eeal leadership is no more common in industrial than in other pursuits.
New catch-words or slogans like mass-production and rationalisation may
operate as stimuli ; they may rouse men from routine and lead them to
scrutinise again the organisation and processes of industry and to try to
discover particular ways in which they can be bettered. For example,
no one can doubt that there are genuine economies to be achieved in the
way of ' simplification and standardisation,' or that the securing of these
economies requires that certain deeply rooted competitive wastes be
extirpated. This last requires a definite concerted effort — precisely the
kind of thing which ordinary competitive motives are often powerless to
effect, but which might come more easily as the response to the dis-
semination of a new idea.
There is a danger, however, that we shall expect too much from these
' rational ' industrial reforms. Pressed beyond a certain point they become
the reverse of rational. I have naturally been interested in British
opinions respecting the reasons for the relatively high productivity (per
labourer or per hour of labour) of representative American industries.
The error of those who suggest that the explanation is to be found in the
relatively high wages which prevail in America is not that they confuse
cause and effect, but that they hold that what are really only two aspects
of a single situation are, the one cause, and the other effect. Those who
122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
hold that American industry is managed better, that its leaders study its
problems more intelligently and plan more courageously and more wisely
can cite no facts in support of their opinion save the differences in the
results achieved. Allowing for the circumstance that British industry, as
a whole, has proved to be rather badly adjusted to the new post-war
economic situation, I know of no facts which prove or even indicate that
British industry, seen against the background of its own problems and its
own possibilities, is less efficiently organised or less ably directed than
American industry or the industry of any other country.
Sometimes the fact that the average American labourer works with the
help of a larger supply of power-driven labour-saving machinery than the
labourer of other countries is cited as evidence of the superior intelligence
of the average American employer. But this will not do, for, as every
economist knows, the greater the degree in which labour is productive or
scarce — the words have the same meaning — the greater is the relative
economy of using it in such indirect or roundabout ways as are technically
advantageous, even though such procedure calls for larger advances of
capital than simpler methods do.
It is encouraging to find that a fairly large number of commentators
upon the volume of the American industrial product and the scale of
American industrial organisation have come to surmise that the extent of
the American domestic market, unimpeded by tarifE barriers, may have
something to do with the matter. This opinion seems even to be forced
upon thoughtful observers by the general character of the facts, whether
or no the observers think in terms of the economists' conception of
increasing returns. In certain industries, although by no means in all,
productive methods are economical and profitable in America which
would not be profitable elsewhere. The importance of coal and iron and
other natural resources needs no comment. Taking a country's economic
endowment as given, however, the most important single factor in deter-
mining the effectiveness of its industry appears to be the size of the
market. But just what constitutes a large market ? Not area or popula-
tion alone, but buying power, the capacity to absorb a large annual output
of goods. This trite observation, however, at once suggests another
equally trite, namely, that capacity to buy depends upon capacity to
produce. In an inclusive view, considering the market not as an outlet
for the products of a particular industry, and therefore external to that
industry, but as the outlet for goods in general, the size of the market
is determined and defined by the volume of production. If this statement
needs any qualification, it is that the conception of a market in this
inclusive sense — an aggregate of productive activities, tied together by
trade — carries with it the notion that there must be some sort of balance,
that different productive acti\'ities must be proportioned one to another.
Modified, then, in the light of this broader conception of the market,
Adam Smith's dictum amounts to the theorem that the division of labour
depends in large part upon the division of labour. This is more than
mere tautology. It means, if I read its significance rightly, that the
counter forces which are continually defeating the forces which make
for economic equilibrium are more pervasive and more deeply rooted in
the constitution of the modern economic system than we commonly
i
F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 123
realise. Not only new or adventitious elements, coming in from the
outside, but elements which are permanent characteristics of the ways in
which goods are produced make continuously for change. Every important
advance in the organisation of production, regardless of whether it is based
upon anything which, in a narrow or technical sense, would be called a
new ' invention,' or involves a fresh application of the fruits of scientific
progress to industry, alters the conditions of industrial activity and
initiates responses elsewhere in the industrial structure which in turn have
a further unsettling effect. Thus change becomes progressive and
propagates itself in a cumulative way.
The apparatus which economists have built up for the analysis of
supply and demand in their relations to prices does not seem to be par-
ticularly helpful for the purposes of an inquiry into these broader aspects
of increasing returns. In fact, as I have already suggested, reliance upon
it may divert attention to incidental or partial aspects of a process which
ought to be seen as a whole. If, nevertheless, one insists upon seeing just
how far one can get into the problem by using the formulas of supply and
demand, the simplest way, I suppose, is to begin by inquiring into the
operations of reciprocal demand when all of the commodities exchanged
are produced competitively under conditions of increasing returns and
when the demand for each commodity is elastic, in the special sense
that a small increase in the supply of any one commodity will be attended
by an increase in the amounts of other commodities which can be had
in exchange for it.' Under such conditions an increase in the supply of
one commodity is an increase in the demand for other commodities, and
it must be supposed that every increase in demand will evoke an increase
in supply. The rate at which any one industry grows is conditioned by
the rate at which other industries grow, but since the elasticities of
demand and of supply will differ for diff'erent products, some industries
will grow faster than others. Even with a stationary population and in
the absence of new discoveries^ in pure or applied science there are no
limits to the process of expansion except the limits beyond which demand
is not elastic and returns do not increase.
If, under these hypothetical conditions, progress were unimpeded and
frictionless, if it were not dependent in part upon a process of trial and
error, if the organisation of industry were always such as, in relation to
the immediate situation, is most economical, the realising of increasing
returns might be progressive and continuous, although, for technical
reasons, it could not always proceed at an even rate. But it would remain
a process requiring time. An industrial dictator, with foresight and
knowledge, could hasten the pace somewhat, but he could not achieve an
Aladdin-like transformation of a country's industry, so as to reap the
' This condition is merely that dyldx and dxidy are both positive, where x and y are
the amounts of any two commodities exchanged. If the circumstance that commodity
a is produced under conditions of increasing returns is taken into account as a, factor
in the elasticity of demand for 6 in terms of a, elasticity of demand and elasticity of
supply may be looked upon as difiEerent ways of expressing a single functional relation.
The condition as stated is more rigorous than need be.
2 As contrasted with such new ways of organising production and such new
' inventions ' as are merely adaptations of known ways of doijig things, made practicable
and economical by an enlarged scale of production.
124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
fruits of a half-century's ordinary progress in a few years. The obstacles
are of two sorts. First, the human material which has to be used is
resistant to change. New trades have to be learnt and new habits have to
be acquired. There has to be a new geographical distribution of the
population and established communal groups have to be broken up.
Second, the accumulation of the necessary capital takes time, even though
the process of accumulation is largely one of turning part of an increasing
product into forms which will serve in securing a further increase of product.
An acceleration of the rate of accumulation encounters increasing costs,
into which both technical and psychological elements enter. One who
likes to conceive of all economic processes in terms of tendencies towards
an equilibrium might even maintain that increasing returns, so far as they
depend upon the economies of indirect methods of production and the
size of the market, are offset and negated by their costs, and that under
such simjjlified conditions as I have dealt with the realising of increasing
returns would be spread through time in such a way as to secure an
equilibrium of costs and advantages. This would amount to saying that
no real economic progress could come through the operation of forces
engendered within the economic system — a conclusion repugnant to common
sense. To deal with this point thoroughly would take us too far afield.
I shall merely observe, first, that the appropriate conception is that of a
moving equilibrium, and second, that the costs which (under increasing
returns) grow less rapidly than the product are not the ' costs ' which
figure in an ' equilibrium of costs and advantages.'
Moving away from these abstract considerations, so as to get closer to
the complications of the real situation, account has to be taken, first, of
various kinds of obstacles. The demand for some products is inelastic, or,
with an increasing supply, soon becomes so. The producers of such com-
modities, however, often share in the advantages of the increase of the
general scale of production in related industries, and so far as they do
productive resources are released for other uses. Then there are natural
scarcities, limitations or inelasticities of supply, such as effectively block
the way to the securing of any important economies in the production of
some commodities and which impair the effectiveness of the economies
secured in the production of other commodities. In most fields, moreover,
progress is not and cannot be continuous. The next important step
forward is often initially costly, and cannot be taken until a certain
quantum of prospective advantages has accumulated.
On the other side of the account are various factors which reinforce the
influences which make for increasing returns. The discovery of new
natural resources and of new uses for them and the growth of scientific
knowledge are probably the most potent of such factors. The causal
connections between the growth of industry and the progress of science
run in both directions, but on which side the preponderant influence lies
no one can say. At any rate, out of better knowledge of the materials
and forces upon which men can lay their hands there come both new ways
of producing familiar commodities and new products, and these last have
a presumptive claim to be regarded as embodying more economical uses
of productive resources than the uses which they displace. Some weight
has to be given also to the way in which, with the advance of the scientific
F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 125
spirit, a new kind of interest — which might be described as a scientific
interest conditioned by an economic interest — is beginning to infiltrate
into industry. It is a point of controversy, but I venture to maintain that
under most circumstances, though not in all, and short of the point at
which diminishing returns, in the Ricardian sense, become important in the
aggregate, the growth of population still has to be counted a factor making
for a larger per capita product — although even that cautious statement
needs to be interpreted and qualified. But just as there may be population
growth with no increase of the average per capita product, so also, as I
have tried to suggest, markets may grow and increasing returns may be
secured while the population remains stationary.
It is dangerous to assign to any single factor the leading role in that
continuing economic revolution which has taken the modern world so far
away from the world of a few hundred years ago. But is there any other
factor which has a better claim to that role than the persisting search
for markets ? No other hypothesis so well unites economic history and
economic theory. The Industrial Revolution of the eighteenth century
has come to be generally regarded, not as a cataclysm brought about by
certain inspired improvements in industrial technique, but as a series of
changes related in an orderly way to prior changes in industrial organisa-
tion and to the enlargement of markets. It is sometimes said, however,
that wliile in the Middle Ages and in the early modern period industry
was the servant of commerce, since the rise of ' industrial capitalism ' the
relation has been reversed, commerce being now merely an agent of industry.
If this means that the finding of markets is one of the tasks of modern
industry it is true. If it means that industry imposes its will upon the
market, that whereas formerly the things which were produced were the
things which could be sold, now the things which have to be sold are the
things that are produced, it is not true.
The great change, I imagine, is in the new importance which the
potential market has in the planning and management of large industries.
The difference between the cost per unit of output in an industry or in an
individual plant properly adapted to a given volume of output and in an
industry or plant equally well adapted to an output five times as large is
often much greater than one would infer from looking merely at the
economies which may accrue as an existing establishment gradually
extends the scale of its operations. Potential demand, then, in the
planning of industrial undertakings, has to be balanced against potential
economies, elasticity of demand against decreasing costs. The search for
markets is not a matter of disposing of a ' surplus product,' in the Marxian
sense, but of finding an outlet for a potential product. Nor is it wholly
a matter of multiplying profits by multipljang sales ; it is partly a matter
of augmenting profits by reducing costs.
Although the initial displacement may be considerable and the
repercussions upon particular industries unfavourable, the enlarging of
the market for any one commodity, produced under conditions of
increasing returns, generally has the net effect, as I have tried to show, of
enlarging the market for other commodities. The business man's
raercantilistic emphasis upon markets may have a sounder basis than the
economist who thinks mostly in terms of economic statics is prone to
126 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
admit. How far ' selling expenses,' for example, are to be counted sheer
economic waste depends upon their effects upon the aggregate product of
industry, as distinguished from their efiects upon the fortunes of particular
undertakings.
Increasing returns are often spoken of as though they were attached
always to the growth of ' industries,' and I have not tried to avoid that
way of speaking of them, although I think that it may be a misleading
way. The point which I have in mind is something more than a quibble
about the proper definition of an industry, for it involves a particular
thesis with respect to the way in which increasing returns are reflected in
changes in the organisation of industrial activities. Much has been said
about industrial integration as a concomitant or a natural result of an
increasing industrial output. It obviously is, under particular conditions,
though I know of no satisfactory statement of just what those particular
conditions are. But the opposed process, industrial difierentiation, has
been and remains the type of change characteristically associated with
the growth of production. Notable as has been the increase in the com-
plexity of the apparatus of living, as shown by the increase in the variety
of goods offered in consumers' markets, the increase in the diversification
of intermediate products and of industries manufacturing special products
or groups of products has gone even further.
The successors of the early printers, it has often been observed, are
not only the printers of to-day, with their own specialised establishments,
but also the producers of wood pulp, of various kinds of paper, of inks and
their different ingredients, of type-metal and of type, the group of industries
concerned with the technical parts of the producing of illustrations, and
the manufacturers of specialised tools and machines for use in printing
and in these various auxiliary industries. The list could be extended,
both by enumerating other industries which are directly ancillary to the
present printing trades and by going back to industries which, while
supplying the industries which supply the printing trades, also supply
other industries, concerned with preliminary stages in the making of final
products other than printed books and newspapers. I do not think that
the printing trades are an exceptional instance, but I shall not give other
examples, for I do not want this paper to be too much like a primer of
descriptive economics or an index to the reports of a census of production.
It is sufficiently obvious, anyhow, that over a large part of the field of
industry an increasingly intricate nexus of specialised undertakings has
inserted itself between the producer of raw materials and the consumer
of the final product.
With the extension of the division of labour among industries the
representative firm, like the industry of which it is a part, loses its identity.
Its internal economies dissolve into the internal and external economies
of the more highly specialised undertakings which are its successors, and
are supplemented by new economies. In so far as it is an adjustment to
a new situation created by the growth of the final products of industry
the division of labour among industries is a vehicle of increasing returns.
It is more than a change of form incidental to the full securing of the
advantages of capitalistic methods of production — -although it is largely
that — for it has some advantages of its own which are independent of
F.— ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 127
changes in productive technique. For example, it permits of a higher
degree of specialisation in management, and the advantages of such
specialisation are doubtless often real, though they may easily be given
too much weight. Again, it lends itself to a better geographical distribu-
tion of indixstrial operations, and this advantage is unquestionably both
real and important. Nearness to the source of supply of a particular raw
material or to cheap power counts for most in one part of a series of
industrial processes, nearness to other industries or to cheap transport
in another part, and nearness to a larger centre of population in yet another.
A better combination of advantages of location, with a smaller element
of compromise, can be had by the more specialised industries. But the
largest advantage secured by the division of labour among industries is
the fuller realising of the economies of capitalistic or roundabout methods
of production. This should be sufficiently obvious if we assume, as we
must, that in most industries there are effective, though elastic, limits to
the economical size of the individual firm. The output of the individual
firm is generally a relatively small proportion of the aggregate output of
an industry. The degree in which it can secure economies by making its
own operations more roundabout is limited. But certain roundabout
methods are fairly sure to become feasible and economical when their
advantages can be spread over the output of the whole industry. These
potential economies, then, are segregated and achieved by the operations
of specialised undertakings which, taken together, constitute a new
industry. It might conceivably be maintained that the scale upon which
the firms in the new industry are able to operate is the secret of their
ability to realise economics for industry as a whole, while presumably making
profits for themselves. This is true in a way, but misleading. The scale
of their operations (which is only incidentally or under special conditions
a matter of the size of the individual firm) merely reflects the size of the
market for the final products of the industry or industries to whose opera-
tions their own are ancillary. And the principal advantage of large-scale
operation at this stage is that it again makes methods economical which
would be uneconomical if their benefits could not be dift'used over a large
final product.
In recapitulation of these variations on a theme from Adam Smith
there are three points to be stressed. First, the mechanism of increasing
returns is not to be discerned adequately by observing the effects of
variations in the size of an individual firm or of a particular industry, for
the progressive division and specialisation of industries is an essential part
of the process by which increasing returns are realised. What is required
is that industrial operations be seen as an interrelated whole. Second,
the securing of increasing returns depends upon the progressive division
of labour, and the principal economies of the division of labour, in its
modern forms, are the economies which are to be had by using labour in
roundabout or indirect ways. Third, the division of labour depends
upon the extent of the market, but the extent of the market also depends
upon the division of labour. In this circumstance lies the possibility of
economic progress, apart from the progress which comes as a result of
the new knowledge which men are able to gain, whether in the pursuit
of their economic or of their non-economic interests.
SECTION G.— ENGINEERING.
THE INFLUENCE OF ENGINEERING
ON CIVILIZATION.
ADDRESS BY
SIR WILLIAM ELLIS, G.B.E., D.Eng.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION,
In choosing the subject for my address I had to decide whether to devote
my attention to some branch of engineering in which I have been
actively engaged during my working life, alluding specially to some of
the technical problems involved, or to treat of engineering in a less
technical manner so as to interest any hearers or readers of this address
who may not themselves be actively engaged in the engineering profession.
Knowing that the Engineering Section would be addressed on technical
subjects by very distinguished engineers, I have decided to devote my
address to speaking of the very extensive part which engineering in its
many branches has taken, and is still taking, in connexion with the
amenities which are associated so closely with our domestic life, and
indeed, our happiness. I shall hope in the course of my address to deal
in some detail with the fact that each branch of engineering has added its
quota to the comfort of our lives, and I think it may be claimed that no
other profession has so direct an association with our modern civilization.
The enormous increase in population during the nineteenth century,
coupled with the segregation of that population in industrial centres,
arising out of the extraordinarily rapid development of industry in this
and other countries during that period, h^s introduced new problems in
connexion with health and transport, and it has been the task of
engineering in its many branches to deal with these problems. It must be
admitted that the great advances made in the knowledge of both medicine
and surgery have played a very noble part in connexion with improve-
ments we all welcome- in the health of the population, and in speaking of
the part which engineering has taken in connexion with public health I
have no wish to lessen in any way what we all admire and respect, namely,
the wonderful work of the medical profession in applying for our benefit
the constantly advancing scientific and practical knowledge.
In the early part of the nineteenth century main roads did not exist
in this country to any great extent, and these roads were in a very inferior
condition. Pack horse transport was still in vogue, and up to 1850 a well-
organised system of mail coaches was the principal means of passenger
transport.
The introduction of railways and of steamers during the first half of
that century led the way to an enormously increased demand for coal,
G.— ENGINEERING. 129
iron and steel, and as the inventions of Sir Henry Bessemer and Sir
William Siemens for making steel were developed, the necessity was
evident to engineers and chemists for training schools to deal with the
physical and technical problems involved in engineering and metallurgy,
so as to arrive at a far greater accuracy, both in design and construction,
than had hitherto been considered necessary or possible. I find on
reading the history of those early pioneers, both in engineering and
metallurgy, that they had to meet conditions similar to those which exist
to-day, that is to say, they had to force their ideas on to a rather unwilling
public in order to get them introduced, and in many cases they did not
reap the reward of their enterprise. Boulton and Watt had a desperate
struggle for their existence. Stephenson had great difficulty in even
getting his engine tried amongst those competing for the Liverpool to
Manchester railway, and yet was the only successful survivor of the
trials. To-day the fate of the inventor is little less hard. In many
cases he finds his invention has been anticipated, and in others there is
great unwillingness on the part of engineers and metallurgists to adopt the
ideas because of the risk involved financially in developing the processes.
We have to admit, however, that the progress of industry depends
very largely on the enterprise of deep-thinking men who are ahead of the
times in their ideas. I may quote Dr. Clifton Sorby, F.R.S., as such an
instance. He introduced by his researches the microscopy of steel, and
yet it was many years before this became a recognised method of gauging
the quality of all classes of steel. Another great inventor, whom we all
respect and are delighted to have still in active work, is Sir Charles Parsons.
I look back many years to the early eighties when Sir Charles put in years
of research work in connexion with high speed engines before he success-
fully produced the steam turbine. Since that time he has devoted a large
portion of his life to developing improvements both in the design of the
turbine and the machinery for producing it, which have ultimately
brought about its world renown, and his eminence in the engineering
world was suitably recognised two years ago by the award of the Kelvin
Gold Medal.
The technical societies in this country in the latter part of the last
century realised that special attention would have to be devoted to an
education which would combine a practical knowledge of engineering
with a course of technical education of a high level. This was also associated
with a preliminary examination to ensure that their students should have
a sufficient grounding in general knowledge to enable them to apply
themselves with success to the more intricate technical problems incident
to their profession. This action on the part of these institutions has been
fully rewarded by bringing into existence a body of highly trained
engineers with special knowledge of the different branches of engineering,
and, therefore, well able to lead our profession forward in the great
developments which are still taking place in all branches of engineering.
Although in this address it would be out of place for me to discuss
education in detail, I cannot help feeling that the ground to be covered
in engineering education is now so great that the universities will do well
to apply education in general engineering problems for the first two years
of a university course, and allow an honours degree to be taken in one or
1928 K
130 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
other of the special branches of engineering. I would urge that with
the very short terms existing at our universities, in some cases only three
terms of eight weeks each, it is unreasonable to expect a student to take
an honours degree in three years if this covers all branches of engineering
science. The alternative now being considered of meeting the difficulty
by taking four years for an honours degree is, I think, open to grave
objection, as it is delaying too long the date at which a young engineer is
available to take up his first professional appointment and in fact become
an earner.
Coming back to my original subject, can we say which branch of
engineering has most directly been associated with modern civilization ?
I do not find that any one branch can claim the premier position. It
depends, of course, very much on what we regard as the greatest essentials
in life, and I presume we must admit that the greatest happiness of the
greatest number must be taken as the true gauge. In this case some of
the luxuries and comforts of modern travel do not hold a primary position,
much as we appreciate them. Such questions as purity and sufficiency
of water supply for large cities coupled with a scientific system of drainage,
are the first essentials of health and comfort, especially in areas with
large populations.
I will now turn to the different branches of engineering and illustrate
as far as I can the benefits which these branches of engineering have
introduced into the civilization of our present age. In doing so I would
refer to the definition of engineering given in the Royal Charter of the
Institution of Civil Engineers on its incorporation in 1828. The centenary
of the institution has just been celebrated, and all engineers must be
grateful to the Principal of Edinburgh University, Sir Alfred Ewing, for
the carefully thought out review of engineering progress in the last century,
which formed the subject of the James Forrest address at the centenary
meeting in June. The charter describes engineering as ' a mechanical
science dealing with the art of directing the great sources of power in
nature for the use and convenience of man.' The term ' civil engineering '
is a comprehensive one embracing all branches of the profession, other
than military engineering, but I propose to apply the words ' civil
engineering ' in this address as dealing specially with drainage and
irrigation works, harbours, docks, reservoirs, &c., dealing with railways
under the heading of transport.
The various branches of engineering I propose to allude to shortly in
detail are as follows : —
Civil Engineering, as defined above.
Transport.
Shipbuilding, including Marine Engineering.
Mechanical Engineering.
Mining Engineering.
Electrical Engineering.
Civil Engineering.
The point which appears to me to stand out prominently in this
branch of the profession is the fact that the structures to be dealt with
are in many cases of an enormously costly nature, and have to be carried
G.— ENGINEERING. 131
out with such careful study and comprehension of the varying problems
to be dealt with so as to ensure permanent efficiency and safety in the
future.
The great reservoirs and harbours of the world may be regarded as the
cathedrals of engineering. The varjnng natural problems to be dealt
with involve a very high level of technical education. In the construction
of reservoirs, docks and harbours, a considerable knowledge of geology
is essential, and in harbour construction the varying effects of tides which
have to be studied minutely, have an important influence on the work to
be undertaken. Throughout the world will be found monuments to the
skill of the civil engineer and the very existence of the population in our
large cities in health and comfort is the result of his work, for without an
ample and reliable supply of water of good quality, both for personal
and industrial use, and an efficient drainage control, our death-rate would
indeed be very different from what it is. If we turn for a moment either
to India with its great barrage enterprise, or Egypt, with the noble Assouan
and Sennaar dams, truly outstanding works of the civil engineer, we find
the prosperity of these countries largely resulting from the magnificent
irrigation works which have been carried out there. Special development
of produce growing in many countries is only being limited by the fact
that insufficient irrigation works have so far been carried out. New
Mexico and Arizona are two great provinces with potentially fertile land
available for agricultural development, but they are so short of water
that irrigation is an absolute necessity.
The large increase in tonnage of ocean-going vessels has resulted in
the necessity for larger docks and harbour basins, and the development of
railways all over the world, many of them in difficult moiintainous
countries, has given the civil engineer a great opportunity in designing
bridges for carrying this heavy traffic. Many of my audience will
appreciate the magnitude of the new bridge over Sydney Harbour now
being constructed by British engineers, and the Forth Bridge still holds
its own as a masterpiece of British engineering skill and the construction
was in the hands of a Scotch firm well known in Glasgow. The new high-
level bridge at Newcastle and the new Mersey tunnel are, I suppose, the
most interesting civil engineering works at present in progress of con-
struction in this country, in addition to the considerable dock extensions
now proceeding at Southampton, whilst in Canada a very noble bridge
is now being thrown across the St. Lawrence River at Montreal.
^&
Transport.
It may truthfully be said that the development of the potential wealth
of any country depends mainly on the means of transport, both personal
and industrial. I would allude especially to the great corn-growing countries
where the home consumption bears only a small relation to the possible
production. The knowledge that there is efficient transport both by rail
and for export by sea is the greatest incentive to the farmers to spend
money in extensive cultivation with the certainty of a ready market for
such production. Without mentioning any countries we probably have
instances in our minds where inefficiency of transport facilities is
k2
132 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
absolutely blocking tlie progress of internal wealth in those countries.
On the other hand, where railways are efficient and harbours well equipped
with shipping facilities, we find consequent prosperity.
The comparison of travel to-day, both by land and sea, with my early
journeys in Europe nearly fifty years ago emphasises in my mind how
much we are indebted to the engineer, in the way of personal safety and
comfort and also prompt delivery of our products. A journey in the
Balkans in the winter of 1881 when sleeping cars and restaurant cars were
almost unknown, and when the largest vessel sailing from Mediterranean
ports was in the neighbourhood of 4,000 tons, compares very unfavourably
in speed and personal comfort with the facilities which are available to-day.
The comfort and safety of modern travel is to my mind one of the glories
of modern civilization. The 40,000 to 50,000 tons Atlantic liner,
embracing as it does almost every class of engineering skill, is not only an
example of artistic beauty, but is one of the fijiest instances of human
power combating the forces of nature. To be on one of these vessels
driving into a gale at twenty knots is an experience never to be forgotten,
and we are glad to realize what a large share the shipbuilding firms of
Glasgow have had in the development of these large Atlantic liners.
Railway transport has also made great progress in all measures affecting
personal safety and the efficient carrying of our various products. The
railway engineers have every reason to be proud of their management of
the complex organisation represented by the great railway systems all
over the world. We are personally much safer travelling in an express
train than we are crossing the streets of a great city, and I think we may
justly be satisfied by the fact that in no country do the railways afford
more comfortable or more rapid travelling facilities than in our own. The
railway engineer has still some very interesting problems to face. Heavier
and more powerful locomotives are the natural outcome of the demand
for heavier freight trains. The civil engineer of a railway company
cannot deal with this problem without strengthening bridges and improving
the condition of the permanent way. All these developments involve
large capital expenditure, which it is not convenient for many railway
companies to undertake at the present time.
The question of the railway companies developing motor services to
meet the competition of road transport has been the subject of legislation
during the present year. I think the public acquiesce generally in the
feeling that as the railway companies pay such a large proportion of the
rates of the districts through which they have travelling facilities, it is
only right they should develop road transport in connexion with their
traffic in view of the serious competition which they have to face.
Transport by road has undoubtedly been very much facilitated by the
large sums which the Ministry of Transport has had available for the
purpose of remaking and generally improving our main roads, and careful
study has been devoted of late years to the selection of suitable materials
for this purpose. Consequently in the last ten years there has been an
immense improvement in the quality and design of our main roads, more
so than in any previous decade.
It appears to me that one question which has hardly been touched to
any eoctent at present is the desirability of increasing very largely the
G.— ENGINEERING. 133
number of by-pass roads to divert heavy traffic from passing through
large towns, and even villages, which are now suffering severely from
congestion of traffic in their altogether too narrow thoroughfares.
On looking back a few years to the old system of horse-drawn tramways,
we must surely be grateful for the benefit accruing to many thousands of
our working population arising out of the introduction of electric tramways,
enabling them to live in many cases in much healthier surroundings.
Naval Architecture.
This comprises shipbuilding and marine engineering and represents a
very important part of my subject, dealing, as it does, with the transport
by sea and lakes of food and materials, and with the comfort and safety
of the many thousands of passengers travelling to and from this country.
The wooden vessel in the early part of last century held its own very
stubbornly against the introduction of iron or steel vessels, and the
mechanically propelled vessel had to fight very hard to oust the very
efficient sailing vessels which were then carrying the trade of the world.
I imagine that some of my audience with artistic tastes will not be willing
to admit that the beauty of the present type of mechanically propelled
vessel is comparable with the picturesque five- and six-mast sailing vessels
which we used to see in our earlier days. This country has undoubtedly
been the pioneer in the building of large warships and passenger liners,
also in the development of the very large horse-power therefor. The
considerable increase in the tonnage of ships brought with it the necessity
for a corresponding increase in the mechanical appliances in connexion
with their construction. The trial runs carried out before a new ship is
taken over by her owners are a severe test of the excellence of workmanship.
They are a necessary test to ensure that long voyages of five to six weeks
with machinery running continuously at nearly full power can be under-
taken without fear of trouble arising from heated bearings or other causes.
A new ship may be exposed to such rough weather on her first voyage
that unless her plating and riveting are carried out in a first-rate manner,
she may arrive in her first port in a damaged condition. Some of us still
remember during the war how new ships, built in other countries, were
seriously damaged owing to the workmanship not being of a sufficiently
good character. The handling of thick plates of large surfaces and the
riveting of them satisfactorily to the stanchions still remains a laborious
and trying piece of work for those engaged upon it, although mechanical
means exist to some extent. Glasgow has taken a leading part providing
men who in all weathers and under conditions rendered difficult by the
magnitude of modern vessels, maintain the high level of efiiciency which
is represented in the manufacture of these large hulls. The vessels of the
greatest tonnage built on the Clyde have been the Aquitania (46,000 tons)
and the Lusitania (32,500 tons). Other large vessels built in the British
Isles have been the Olympic (46,439 tons) and the Mauretania (30,696
tons). Since the war there has been a lull in the building of liners of large
tonnage and horse-power caused, no doubt, by financial considerations,
but it is gratifying to know that two large shipowning companies are at
the present time contemplating building vessels up to 1,000 feet in length
with a speed of over twenty knots.
134 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Shipbuilding is especially interesting inasmuch as it combines in one
structure the varied efforts of almost every class of artisan dealing with
both iron and steel and cabinet-making and woodworking generally, in
addition, of course, to the large and varied amount of mechanical
engineering. In marine engineering the last fifty years have, indeed, a
most interesting record of progress, and in very early years such firms as
Humphreys Tennant, Maudslay, Son & Field, and other firms no longer
in existence, introduced a measure of precision into mechanical engineering
probably not then existing in any other branch of the industry. High and
low pressure triple expansion engines held their own for a considerable
period, and it was, I suppose, the interesting trials of the Turhinia which
brought about the first change from this method. It is an interesting
fact that our fellow-member. Sir Charles Parsons, to whom I have already
alluded, should live to see such successful development of his patent, and
a recent paper read by him and his co-workers describes in a very
interesting manner the gradual developments and changes in design in
turbines up to the present time. Such developments range from the
Turhinia, which had a displacement of 44^ tons with 2,100 h.p., to the
battle cruiser Hood of 41,200 tons and over 150,000 h.p.
The introduction of geared turbines, so as to arrive at relatively
efficient speed as between engine revolutions and propeller revolutions,
has brought about valuable economies and helped the turbine principle
to maintain its reputation. The development of internal combustion
engines for marine purposes has made great strides in recent years.
Various types of these engines are already in active service, and a horse-
power of 36,000 on four propellers has already been achieved with
efficiency ; probably the limit has not yet been reached. The use of oil
instead of coal on board ship, especially for passenger purposes, represents
many advantages, and anyone who has visited the stokehold of a large
passenger liner with the hundreds of men stoking with coal must realise
the immense advantage, both physical and otherwise, which results from
oil burning directly on the boilers. All inconvenience caused by dust in
re-coaling is avoided, and the boiler tenting is carried out by young
mechanical engineers, doing away with all the labour required by coal
burning. In a vessel of large tonnage the saving in wages and maintenance
of several hundreds of stokers represents an enormous economy in many
directions. The question of larger horse-power and/or electrically driven
ships is one of the problems which marine engineers are at present turning
their minds to.
A new development which is now being introduced is the use of con-
siderably higher steam pressures in boilers. The first application of this
was the King George V., a boat built last year on the Clyde, and our section
has been favoured with a paper from Mr. Harold Yarrow dealing with
some of the problems which have arisen in introducing high pressures.
As you will have gathered from his paper, these problems are not solely
those of the engineer who has to build the boilers. They are closely
associated with steel and metallurgical questions incident to the special
manufacture of parts of the boilers owing to the much greater strength
required. Many of my audience, no doubt, have been interested in the
valuable information we have received from the paper in question.
G.— ENGINEERING. 135
The defence of our country depends very largely on the efficiency of
our warships, and it is impossible to speak too highly of the wonderful
reliability shown by the vessels of our navy during the late war, thanks
to the efficient engineering service in our navy, and the determination of
the various builders in this country to prodiice vessels representing the
highest standards of engineering efficiency. Our country, I hope, realises
how much we owe to the engineering branch of the navy for the well-proved
efficiency and courage of its officers and men of all ranks in the late war.
I believe that no vessel of our enormous fleet failed in action owing to
breakdown of machinery, and the conditions under which the engineering
staff find themselves in active warfare must be a severe strain on their
courage. The response to the sudden call on the two battle crmsers,
which had already been on active service for a considerable time, to make
the voyage at full speed to the Falkland Islands to engage the German
Fleet, represented an engineering feat of a very high order.
In the mercantile marine we have great cause for thankfulness in the
developments which have taken place, resulting in a very much greater
comfort at sea. These efforts are naturally limited by the sizes of the
harbours between which the vessels have to trade, but when we come
to ocean liners the study which naval architecture has given to the produc-
tion of these great vessels has resulted in our being able to visit different
parts of the world with a comfort which is equal to that provided by the
best hotels in any of our great cities. Shipbuilding and marine engineering
have indeed taken a noble part in assisting the march of civilization and
adding to our comforts in every possible way.
I wrote this part of my address on the voyage to New York on the
46,000-tons liner Aquitania. What a triumph of enterprise to the Cunard
Company and to the naval architect and marine engineer such a vessel
represents. I was watching her driving into a north-west gale from the
boat deck during the day, a magnificent battle between nature's power
and human skill, a sight which arouses one's admiration for the great
minds who have raised engineering to so supreme a height and added so
greatly to the advancement of civilization.
' What does this wilderness of sea portray ?
A mighty struggle, constant day by day,
'Twixt human skill and nature's changing mood.
The ceaseless roar of North wind's subtle blow.
The varying power of waves that ever flow.
Such is man's battle 'gainst this angry flood.'
Mechanical Engineering.
It is difficult to regard mechanical engineering literally as a separate
branch of engineering, for although numerically, I suppose, the mechanical
engineers exceed the numbers of any other branch, nearly all their duties
are associated with other types of engineering.
In connexion with civil engineering all the plant occupied in harbour,
dock and railway construction is in the hands of the mechanical engineer.
Also in transport and marine engineering the mechanical engineer is
largely engaged in the engine building of both locomotives and marine
engines and other types of auxiliary machinery for these purposes.
136 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
In electrical engineering, although this branch no doubt includes
engineers without mechanical training, I would venture to say that the
engineer is in an infinitely stronger position if he has received some training
first as a mechanical engineer and specialised in electrical engineering
afterwards.
A further important branch of the mechanical engineer's work is
represented by the maintenance of machinery in the large steel works
throughout the country and in the mills and factories of all descriptions.
The directors of these companies are largely dependent on the advice of
the engineer-in-charge in giving consideration to developments and the
introduction of new types of plant to maintain production on an economic
basis.
In mechanical engineering I must include the very important subject
of machine-tool construction, a branch of engineering which has made
very great strides and introduced many changes of design to meet new
requirements in the last thirty years. Mass production on an economical
basis in many industries has been the direct result of various tool-makers
being able to produce special tools confined to the production of thousands
of identical articles of a complicated design. I refer to articles produced
at a cost of one-tenth to one-twentieth of what would be possible without
machine tools specially designed for the purpose.
The introduction of high-speed tool steel enabling far heavier cuts to
be taken both by lathes and planing machines has rendered obsolete a
large quantity of machine tools throughout the country, and the intro-
duction of the electric drive has also brought about great changes in the
design of machine tools. We hear to-day of some works in other countries
without a single machine tool at work of pre-war date, a most desirable
state of things, but one which, unhappily, the economic circumstances in
this country have rendered impossible up to the present time. In principle
we have to admit that with our relatively high wages and general charges
on industry, taxation, etc., it is not economical to continue to use machine
tools which can be superseded by modern tools doing a greater volume
of work in a given time, but many firms throughout the country are only
able to act on this principle gradually owing to financial reasons.
We hear very strong rumours of the advent of a new type of tool
steel, if it can be called steel at all, which is going to bring about a greater
change in output than was represented by the introduction of high-speed
steel some years ago. If this becomes an accomplished fact it is good
news for the toolmakers throughout the country, although it may not be
equally welcomed by the many large firms already equipped at con-
siderable capital charge with reasonably modern tools. With such keen
competition, however, and the power of over-production at present existing
in the country, no firm can afiord to ignore the march of progress and will
have to recognise the necessity for introducing machine tools of the most
efficient type even at considerable financial sacrifice.
May I make a suggestion to the toolmakers in this country ? When
we are putting down an important new machine tool I find the makers will
give every possible help in meeting our requirements in design and output,
but they rarely follow up and ascertain what the real performance of the
tool has been. To many of them ' no news is good news.' I think this
G.— ENGINEERING. 137
is a mistake on their part. How many improvements and modifications,
probably saving their clients money, could be made if they would
periodically send the designer or chief draughtsman round to the works
where these machines are actually at work and ascertain at first hand
from the foreman and even the workman what criticisms they have to
make, and accept for careful consideration any suggestions that may be
put forward based on personal knowledge of the output of the machine.
Mining Engineering.
In dealing with this section I propose to confine myself to coal mining,
so as to shorten what I have to say, and also to be able to apply myself
more closely to the development of coal mining as affecting civilisation.
Prior to the introduction of modern means of transport and the
development of the iron and steel trade, the production of coal in this
country, both in the aggregate and per colliery, was very small, and,
consequently, the amount of virgin coal face exposed at any one time in a
colliery was quite moderate. Therefore, the effusion of gas was not
sufficiently large as to introduce a serious danger to men working with
naked lights. Ventilation was carried out by means of a furnace in the
bottom of the upcast shaft, the draught being sufficient for ventilating the
moderate area of the workings. Increased production necessitated the
adoption of mechanical means of ventilation and large fans were installed.
Science had a large share in making colliery development on a big scale
possible by the introduction of the Humphry Davy and other safety
lamps. These warned the miners of the presence of gas and consequent
danger. The much heavier tonnage prodxxced in a given time necessitated
the introduction of large horse-power winding engines, and also of wire
ropes which would be sufficiently pliable to pass over the pulleys and
headgear, and also be strong enough to carry, not only their own weight
which in a shaft of 500 yards is not inconsiderable, but, in addition, a
loaded cage involving a weight of thirty tons or more.
A sufficient supply of coal at a moderate price is a matter of interest to
every inhabitant and manufacturer in the country, and, therefore, any
engineering devices which have been introduced to ensure comfort and
safety of the miners and at the same time to give us our coal supply for
manufacturing and domestic purposes at a moderate price, are of interest
to everyone. Although we unhappily know that colliery explosions
occasionally occur with very dire results, and regret the many accidents
to miners arising out of falls of roofs, &c., those of us who are conversant
with coal mining matters realise how much science and engineering have
done to lessen the risk under which the miners work. I believe that
the public feel that one of the great risks is in winding the men up and
down the shaft each day, and yet the careful supervision of winding
arrangements, inspection of ropes, and general regulations for the safety
of the men are such that, so I am informed, it is only one man in forty
millions who suffers an accident from this portion of the miner's duty.
The introduction of vertical ropes as guides to the cages, instead of
wooden or steel guides, affords a safe and smooth running of the cages at
sixty miles an hour with no more vibration than we experience in
travelling in an express train at the same speed. Underground haulage
138 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
has been everywiiere adopted, so tliat tlie use of men for this arduous work,
and, to a great extent, ponies also, has been abandoned. This under-
ground haulage is largely carried out by compressed air engines placed
underground, as in many pits it has not been felt safe to introduce electric
power for the purpose except in the immediate neighbourhood of the shafts.
It is true that the electrical engineer has gone a long way in lessening the
liability to sparking, and in enclosing the motors so as further to lessen
this risk. We are still left, however, with possible danger caused by the
cables along the main roads, which however carefully placed are still
liable to be damaged by unexpected falls of roof, thereby introducing a
potential danger which is difficult to eliminate. At the coal face the
engineer up to the present has not been able to do much to lessen the hard
manual labour of the working miner, but in thin seams, say up to three
feet thick, where manual work on a solid face would be almost impossible,
coal-cutting machinery (in which a well-known firm in this city has
successfully specialised) has been introduced, thereby lessening enormously
the manual work of the miner. I venture the opinion that the introduction
of machinery for this purpose has not yet reached its limit.
I regret that more members of the public do not take the opportunity
of going underground and seeing the men at work at the coal face. On
my various visits I always receive a warm welcome from them, and it is
a real education to see what the engineer has done, and under what con-
ditions the men work in producing an article on which we so much depend
for the comfort of our daily life.
Electrical Engineering.
This branch of engineering covers a very wide range of subjects and
affects our social life almost more intimately than any other type of
engineering, except perhaps the supply of good water and efficient drainage
installations. It is impossible for me to attempt to cover the whole range
of subjects embraced in electrical engineering. Telegraphy, telephony,
wireless, electric lighting, electric heating, electric driving, and electric
power in their various ranges all enter into and affect the comfort of our
domestic life. In considering this branch of engineering as a whole I
find it very difficult fairly to divide the credit for its development between
the pure scientist and the electrical engineer. The researches and experi-
ments in the early part of last century on the part of Wheatstone, Faraday,
and Lord Kelvin, and later, coming to our own time, of Sir Oliver Lodge,
Senator Marconi, and other eminent scientists, have undoubtedly prepared
the road to the later applications of electricity for domestic and engineering
purposes, and no electrical engineer to-day can possibly efficiently carry
out his duties without a greater knowledge of pure science than may be
regarded as essential in other branches of engineering. It is interesting
at this meeting in Glasgow to recall that it was at the British Association
meeting in this city in 1876 that Graham Bell, in conjunction with Lord
Kelvin, brought to the Association's notice the telephone, and, further,
the fact that at the Plymouth meeting of this Association in 1877 I shared
with many eminent members of the British Association the interesting
privilege of telephoning from the saloon to the bridge on the excursion
steamer, with Prof. Graham Bell on board, going to and from the Eddy-
G.— ENGINEERING. 139
stone Lighthouse. I allude to this fact because in those days it was
regarded as a wonderful scientific invention which fascinated the most
eminent scientific men. Yet to-day we take it all for granted, and hardly
realise the comfort and convenience that the introduction of the telephone
has brought into our lives.
I admit that the introduction of wireless telephony and telegraphy has
amazed the world to a greater extent than that of the telephone, and it
is certainly more within the capacity of the pure scientist than of the
engineer to explain the scientiiic problems involved. I am not going to
state whether the introduction of wireless broadcasting into our homes
is an amenity or not, chacim son goiU, but when we turn to the application
of wireless telegraphy we acce])t without hesitation the benefits it has
brought into the world. It is impossible to say what number of lives
have already been saved by boats in distress having been able to secure
help from other vessels by means of wireless communication.
The development of electricity as a mechanical driving power was very
slow up to a certain date. For instance, I went by electric train from
Berlin to Charlottenburg in the spring of 1882. The running of the railway
appeared to be quite satisfactory, and yet it was at least ten, and I think
fifteen, years before any real development took place in the way of electric
railways or trams, the difficulty, I believe, being in producing satisfactory
dynamos on an economic basis. The first electric railways in this country,
so far as I know, were the Liverpool Overhead Railway in February 1893
and the Liverpool to Southport Railway in April 1904. The practicability
of electric driving on main lines is still a matter under discussion. The
only country which has wholeheartedly adopted this system is Switzerland,
a country which has undoubtedly been influenced by the uncertainty of
obtaining a uniform supply of coal at reasonable prices, coupled with the
fact of an efficient and ample supply of water power for their generating
stations. The Barberine reservoir, which has now been completed, and
the large reservoir at the Grimsel Hospice now under construction, are
fine examples of civil engineering work carried out for the purpose of
developing electric current for the Swiss railways.
In this country considerable developments are taking place on the
various main lines, but engineers are at present concentrating on the use
of electric driving mainly for suburban trafiic, and not at present on main
line long-distance expresses. It is probable that the great extension of
high-power installations throughout the country contemplated by the
electricity commissioners will render possible a more extensive use of
electric trains on our main lines.
The application of electricity for driving purposes in the various large
works in this country made very rapid strides as soon as electrical machinery
for the purpose was available. I remember showing to a former president
of this Association, Sir William White, the first set of Belliss and Morcom
engines we had installed in a works in the Midlands, the various machines
in these works at that time being driven by steam engines in different shops
and line shafting. Sir William said to me then, ' Do you realise that
within ten years every machine in these works will be electrically driven ?
I think few engineers realised at that time that electric driving would
replace so rapidly the existing methods. Apart frqm the economy
140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
represented by its introduction the change enabled the management to
register the amount of power used by each type of machine under varying
loads of service, a circumstance which was impossible with belt-driven
machines, when the power varied according to the tightness and width of
the belt. The greater efficiency, however, is really represented by the
fact that in a large works electricity can be produced in bulk at a central
power station at a low rate of cost, and the loss in distributing to the
various departments through high-tension cables and transformers to
lower voltage in the different sections of the works is insignificant compared
with the saving represented by a consumption of coal and a cost of mainte-
nance far below what is possible with direct steam driving. Electricity
has in some measure been introduced into mining engineering, as I have
mentioned in the mining section, electric winding engines have been
adopted with satisfactory results, but as the fuel supply for steam raising
at the various collieries, especially where coke ovens are installed, is much
less costly for providing power than in a works without such auxiliary
facilities, the economy in the use of electric winding versus steam is
naturally not so great.
The public, I think, fails to realise that electric lighting for domestic
purposes, if charged at a reasonable rate, does not represent any real
charge on the household. It is so clean in its application that, in my
opinion, the necessity for cleaning and decorating which is avoided in
many cases represents a greater saving than the amount paid for electric
light. In addition we have the great advantage that it does not burn
oxygen, and therefore we have more healthy conditions in our rooms
compared with any other method of lighting. I feel sure that those who
have introduced electricity into their houses for the purpose of cooking
and hot water supply will never go back to the old system of kitchen fire
for this purpose, owing to the former's efficiency and cleanliness in applica-
tion. It appears to me that all that is wanted for a much larger use of
electricity domestically is a reduced charge by the various supplying
companies and corporations, at least to the level which exists in many of
our cities already. It is hoped that the work of the electrical commis-
sioners in installing bigger units of power throughout the country may
bring down the cost so as to place electricity within the reach of every
householder.
Since I roughed out this address it has been my privilege to make a
journey across America from New York to the Pacific Coast, and return
through the Rocky Mountains and Canada, and throughout my journey
I could not help realising how large a share engineering in its broadest
sense has taken in developing these wide regions. First comes the railway
as a through communication between east and west for 3,000 miles.
Gradually settlers come and farming and lumber work commences, their
progress only being possible with the aid of railway transport. Gradually
small towns spring up requiring the assistance of engineers for water and
drainage. In the torrid provinces of New Mexico and Arizona the water
question is a very serious one, and large irrigation schemes will have to
be introduced. At Grand Canyon, for instance, the water for household
and farm use is broughb nearly 200 miles by train in large special wagons.
Then mineral wealth is discovered, and the mining engineer appears and
G.— ENGINEERING. 141
requires his varied plant to be brought by railway from the manufacturing
centres. In the mountainous parts of the country large hydro-electric
plants are being developed, thus calling on the electrical engineer for his
services, and I might quote many other illustrations of a similar nature.
Yes, ladies and gentlemen, those of us who are spending our lives in
engineering work may justly be proud of the large share the members of
our profession are taking in promoting and advancing the civilization of
the world, and thereby bringing happiness and prosperity to many
thousands of our fellow-countrymen.
I realise that within the limits of this address I have only been able
to touch to a very limited extent on the association of the different branches
of engineering as affecting our civilization. I hope, however, I have
said enough to interest my audience in a side of engineering that is not
often brought out, and that those of us who are actively engaged in
engineering may earn the respect and confidence of our fellow-citizens.
SECTION H.— ANTHROPOLOGY.
THE ARCHEOLOGY OF SCOTLAND.
ADDRESS BY
SIR GEORGE MACDONALD, K.C.B., F.B.A.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
When I was invited to preside over the deliberations of an important
section of tlie British Association, I felt that a great distinction had been
conferred on me. In the interval my appreciation of the honour has not
become less high, but my sense of the responsibilities it brings has
deepened very considerably. It is no light task for an amateur like
myself to endeavour to fill a place that has been occupied by a long line
of men eminent in one department or another of the particular branch of
science with which we are concerned here. Above all, I fear that, in the
scanty leisure which my daily work allows me, it has been hard — perhaps
I should frankly say impossible — to find time to concentrate my thoughts
on the preparation of an address that should be worthy of the tradition
established by my predecessors in the chair. If that does not excuse the
discursiveness into which I have been betrayed, it will at least serve to
explain it.
Nor is my plea of extenuating circumstances yet exhausted. When
I promised to speak to you on ' The Archaeology of Scotland,' I contem-
plated giving you some account of the more recent advances that have
been made by workers north of the Border. Since I chose my subject
I have been forestalled by the publication of Mr. Graham Callander's
paper in the last issue of Archceologia. It would be idle for me to try
to add anything to that admirably comprehensive and lucid summary,
and I can do no more than commend it to your careful attention. The
obvious line of approach being thus barred, I have had to cast about for
a suitable alternative. In the end one after another of the various possi-
bilities that presented themselves has been set aside in favour of some-
thing in the nature of a very general review. To those who are unfamiliar
with our problems in Scotland it may be of interest to learn a little of their
extent and character and of how they came to assume their present form,
while to those upon whom the duty of solving them rests, a backward
glance at the progress already achieved may perhaps bring a measure of
encouragement and stimulus.
The first movement towards an organised study of Scottish antiquities
dates from the last quarter of the eighteenth century. The Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland was founded in 1780, and with it there came into
existence what is now the National Museum. The leading spirit in the
enterprise was David Erskine, eleventh Earl of Buchan. If we may trust
Sir Walter Scott, who characterised him as ' a person whose immense
vanity, bordering on insanity, obscured, or rather eclipsed, very con-
siderable talents,' Lord Buchan was not altogether a promising sponsor
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 143
for the infant science. But at this distance of time we may forgive his
eccentricities and honour his memory for the substantial service which
he rendered to our common cause. In point of fact, it was probably the
first president's very vanity, so severely stigmatised by Scott, that inspired
William Smellie to produce his full contemporary ' Account ' of the origin
of the Society and its Museum with a list, or rather lists, of acquisitions.
Lord Buchan's speeches and letters, which are there to be found verbatim,
show plainly how limited was the archaeological horizon of the age of
Jonathan Oldbuck.
Thus in his inaugural address, which maps out the field of the new
Society's activities, he states explicitly that the starting-point must be
' the period of the Roman attempts to subjugate the northern parts of
Britain.' The monuments which we call prehistoric but which in those
days were called Druidical, ' the Cairn, the Mount of Earth, Four Grey
Stones covered with Moss ' — I am quoting his own words — he attributes
to the time of Ossian, and Ossian and his heroes he supposes to have lived
in the reign of Caracalla. It is quite consistent with such a perspective
that, after a gift of twenty pounds in cash, the first recorded donation to
the Museum should have been ' a quantity of Roman arms, consisting of
twenty-three pieces of the heads of hasta and jaculum, twenty pieces of
the blades, and nine of the handles of the gladius and pugio ; a ring, three
inches in diameter, fastened to the end of a staple ; and a mass of different
pieces of these arms, run together by fire, all of brass.' It is not easy to
realise that the objects masquerading in this classical garb are the contents
of the well-known Bronze Age hoard which was dredged from the marl
at the bottom of Duddingston Loch.
Bronze Age weapons, indeed, are systematically labelled ' Roman ' in
the ofiicial record. Nor was it only to weapons that the epithet was
applied. The relics of a Bronze Age interment figure as ' an antient
sacrificing ax of Roman brass . . . antient Roman cinereal urns . . . and
pieces of burnt Roman bones.' That is typical. The men of the Stone
Age fare even worse. Their bones are not, it is true, subjected to the
indignity of being dubbed ' Roman.' But their relics are sadly to seek
among the
' fouth o' auld nick-nackets :
Rusty airn caps, and jinglin jackets
Wad haud the Lothians three in tackets
A towmont gude ;
And parritch-pats and auld saut-backets
Before the Flood.'
One or two perforated axe-heads of stone do appear in the catalogue, but
they stand cheek by jowl with lusus naturce like ' a chicken, preserved in
•spirits, having two heads conjoined laterally at the back of the skull.'
They are entered, too, under the old-fashioned name of ' purgatory
hammer,' an echo of the popular belief that the purpose of placing such
objects in graves was to equip the spirit of the dead with an instrument
which should be sufficiently heavy to ensure a prompt response to his
knocking at the gate of the after-world. Yet, despite the quaintness of
these first beginnings, the institution thus cradled has developed, within
144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
a century and a half, into one of the finest archaeological collections in
Europe. The Earl of Buchan and his friends had builded better than they
knew.
The story of our National Museum of Antiquities is a parable. It
reflects the process by which, in every European country, the dilettante
was transformed into the scholar, the antiquary into the archaeologist.
There are no general features which can be said to be peculiar to Scotland.
Honoris et pietatis causa, however, mention must be made of one con-
spicuous figure. In retrospect Dr. Joseph Anderson towers head and
shoulders above the whole of his contemporaries. Emphatically a strong
man, alike in intellect and in character, he was endowed with a rare power
of accurate observation, a keen sense of the value of evidence, a disciplined
imagination, and a singular gift of lucid exposition. It is a fortunate thing
for Scottish archaeology that its early footsteps should have been directed
by so competent a guide. He was in charge of the National Museum for
the long period of forty-three years, and the collections as you may see
them to-day are, in large measure, the fruit of his energy and discriminating
zeal. But he did much more than merely stimvdate their growth. He
used them as material for that invaluable compendium of Scottish
archaeology which he embodied in his successive series of Rhind Lectures.
The first of these was delivered as long ago as 1879. The intervening
period has added much to our knowledge, so that, in the light of the
fresh information now available, the details require to be corrected here
and there. More frequently they require to be supplemented. Anderson
lived to see the emergence of Azilian man at Oban' and on Oronsay, as
well as the first discovery of Tardenoisian flints on this side of the Tweed.
He died before we had any hint that human beings might have tenanted
the caves of Sutherland in palaeolithic times. But none of these new
factors affect in the slightest degree the principles which he enunciated
so cogently. The lines which he originally laid down have had to be
produced backwards. Otherwise they remain unchanged. Their perma-
nence is due to the method of treatment he adopted. To him archaeology
was an inductive science in the strictest sense of the term. If its
potentialities were to be fidly realised, it must cut itself ruthlessly adrift
from history. Here is one of his characteristic utterances : ' Archaeology
has no dates of its own — gives no periods that can be expressed in chrono-
logical terms. These belong exclusively to liistory ; and, in point of
fact, it is impossible to obtain such dates or periods except from record.'
There are modern writers to whom that may seem a hard saying. Yet,
on Anderson's view of what archaeology meant, it is fundamentally and
incontestably true. Listen to his summary of how the materials of his
science ought to be dealt with : ' (1) By arranging them in groups possessing
certain characteristics in common ; (2) By determining the special types
of which these groups are composed ; (3) By determining the geographical^
range of each special group ; (4) By determining its relations to other types
within or beyond its own special area ; and (5) By determining the sequence
of the types within the geographical area which is the field of study. The
general outcome of the whole dealing of the archaeologist with his materials
is thus the contruction of a logical history of the human occupation of
the area which he subjects to investigation — that is, a history which is not
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 145
chronological, and can never become so, unless where it touches the
domain of record, and by this contact acquires an accidental feature which
is foreign to its character.' Applying this method rigidly, not merely to
the prehistoric objects in the National Museum and elsewhere, but also
to the widely scattered structural remains, with many of which he was
personally acquainted and some of which he had himself excavated, he
built up, without extraneous aid of any kind, a framework into which
he was able to fit the whole of his materials in such a way that each
appeared in its proper sequence and carried its proper significance.
As might have been expected, it turned out that the pre-history of
Scotland has much, very much, in common with the pre-history of other
areas. But it also turned out that the country contains groups of monu-
ments and classes of archaeological objects, to which no parallel can be
adduced from any other part of the world. Scotland, in a word, has an
archaeology of its own. The Scottish brochs, for instance — those strange
towers of dry-built stone with chambers in the thickness of the wall and
no opening towards the outside save a very narrow doorway — are peculiar
to the area. Hardly less characteristic is one of the principal varieties
of Scottish earth-house. Similarly the so-called ' Pictish ' symbols on the
sculptured stones stand quite alone, as do the heavy silver chains on
which they occasionally appear, and the massive bronze armlets and
carved stone balls of a somewhat earlier age. Finally, as regards the
archaeological material generally, Scotland enjoys in one important respect
a distinct advantage over her southern neighbour. Her mediaeval monu-
ments may always have been relatively few and inconspicuous. Certainly
her castles and her abbeys and her cathedrals have too often suffered
grievously from hands that were bent on malicious and wilful destruction.
But her prehistoric remains are extraordinarily numerous and, ruinous
as the condition of many of them is, they are not seldom sufficiently well
preserved to offer a rich field for scientific investigation.
The first thing needful is a proper survey of the ground. That is
being carefully, if slowly, carried out by the Ancient Monuments Com-
mission, who have already dealt with several of the districts that are of
most interest to the student from the prehistoric point of view. The
reports on Sutherland, Caithness, Galloway, Skye and the Outer Isles
have all been published. Orkney and Shetland are under examination
now. Argyll and Bute, Aberdeen and Kincardine, Peebles and Roxburgh
will follow in due course. When these have been completed a long step
forward will have been taken. But something more than a proper survey
is required. It should be accompanied by systematic and well-directed
excavation. How much we might expect to learn in this way you may
gather from Mr. Callander's account of the harvest that has been reaped
by isolated individual effort. Only in one sector has there as yet been
any approach to an organised attack, but the results obtained there are
surely of good omen. Within the last thirty or forty years, thanks to
the enterprises carried out by the Society of Antiquaries and the Glasgow
Archaeological Society, the story of the Roman occupation of Scotland
has been largely rewritten. Much remains to be done. But to those of
us who can recall the days before 1890, the transformation that has been
wrought is remarkable.
1928 J.
146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
No doubt the conditions in this particular sector were specially favour-
able. The Romans are always popular, and it has never been difficult to
stir up a lively interest in the search for any traces they may have left
behind them. Again, it has been of immense service to have available for
comparison and guidance the fruits of the labours of those who were
simiiltaneously working on analogous problems in England and on the
Continent. Finally, progress invariably tends to be more rapid when
there are visible landmarks by which the rate of advance can be reckoned,
and the Roman period is a period in which archaeology is continually making
contact with history — in which, indeed, the ultimate test of success is the
extent to which the two can be blended into one. In the nature of things
it is impossible that the last of these three advantages should ever be
enjoyed by students of epochs which cannot by any stretch of imagination
be brought into connexion with written record. With the remaining two
it is otherwise. In the first place I believe that public interest would
respond readily to stimulation — and the case of Traprain Law shows that
in such matters nothing succeeds like success. In the second, the oppor-
tunities for comparative study are already considerable, and are multi-
pl)dng under our very eyes. Only the other day we had the pleasure of
welcoming to Scotland as our pioneer professor of Prehistoric Archaeology
a scholar who has won his spurs in the Central European field. Now that
he has made his home in our midst we may fairly venture to ask him :
' Are not Forth and Tweed, rivers of Scotland, better than all the waters
of the Danube ? ' If he can be persuaded to adopt. this point of view, I
am confident that the happiest results may be anticipated when he has
had time to organise research and to train the researchers.
Professor Childe, I understand, has already been exploring Caithness and
the Orkneys. I am sure that, as he extends the range of his voyages of
discovery, he will be more and more deeply impressed with what I singled
out as one of the distinctive features of Scottish archaeology — the richness
of the prehistoric material that is still available for study. It may be
worth while glancing at the reasons for this wealth. In all ages the
distribution of population in a country is determined by economic con-
siderations. It is obvious that men will elect to dwell in the regions where
they can most readily obtain the means of subsistence, and it is equally
obvious that in every country these regions will vary periodically according
to the stage of civilisation that has been reached. To-day, for instance,
the English Midlands are blackened by the smoke of innumerable chimneys,
whereas in Roman times their damp and chilly soil was virtually un-
tenanted. Our prehistoric forefathers found much of Scotland thickly
wooded. The forests and the dense undergrowth must indeed have
rendered it altogether unfit for occupation. Until the use of metal, and
particularly of iron, had been adequately developed, systematic clearing
would be impossible. Consequently, as the survey of the Royal Com-
mission proceeds, it becomes increasingly plain that the prehistoric settlers
tended to congregate in the areas which, for climatic or geographical
reasons, were treeless in prehistoric times. But these are precisely the
areas in which, under modern conditions and judged by modern standards,
the land is least productive. As more fertile districts were opened up by
the felling of trees and the draining of marshes, they became less and less
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 147
worth the trouble of cultivation. Time has, therefore, dealt more tenderly
with the monuments than would have been the case had they been exposed
to constant danger from the plough and the pickaxe. Often the only
damage they have suffered has been through natural decay.
Thus much for their state of preservation. What about their number ?
To the uninitiated this must always seem surprising. It has been calcu-
lated that in Aberdeen and Kincardine alone there are some 200 stone
circles. These, of course, are of the Bronze Age. Equally worthy of
note is the abundance of remains belonging to the Early Iron Age. Thus
the Inventories of the Royal Commission actually register as many as 67
brochs in Sutherland and no fewer than 145 in Caithness. If the pottery
and chambered cairns of the Neolithic Period are less spectacular, they
are hardly less remarkable. In a word, it is not open to doubt that, in
the days before history began, the North of Scotland and the Western and
Northern Islands carried a population that was relatively very numerous.
The contrast with the scene of desolation which they now present is often
very striking. The stone circle of Callanish in Lewis, for instance — in
itself almost as impressive as Stonehenge — -is situated in a veritable valley
of vision. There are seven such circles within four miles of Callanish.
As the eye turns from these gaunt monuments, rising here and there from
the silence of the heather-clad hills, and rests for a moment on the
straggling hamlet by the shore, the words of Isaiah spring to the lips :
' Behold, the Lord maketh the earth empty, and maketh it waste, and
turneth it upside down, and scattereth abroad the inhabitants thereof.'
How can we account for the change ? The solitude of to-day is easy
enough to understand. It is the density of population in prehistoric times
that calls for explanation. Various theories have been put forward.
Only the other day, for example, I saw it seriously suggested that metal
may have been the lure which attracted prehistoric peoples to the Western
Isles. The theory has the glamour of romance, but I am afraid that it will
not do. The Western Isles are not metalliferous and, in any event, we
have got to reckon with a Neolithic population, who would certainly not
go in search of something of whose very existence they were unaware.
I am disposed to believe that the true solution of the problem is much
simpler and that, as usual in such matters, the key will be provided by
geography. That means distribution maps. As yet our supply of these
is far from adequate. Imperfect as it is, however, it may prove sufficient
for our present purpose, more especially as we can fortify ourselves by
an appeal to the sister-science of history.
Nowadays the vast majority of those who invade the Highlands and
Islands approach them by way of Southern and Central Scotland. I
have already indicated that in prehistoric times that avenue was barred.
The Caledonian Forest, which spread far southwards into what we regard
as the Lowlands, must have been an impenetrable obstacle. The early
immigrants arrived by sea and reached the mainland via the Western
Islands. This implies that they came from Ireland, and that it is in
Ireland that the roots of Scottish prehistoric civilisation must be studied.
At the moment, however, we are concerned, not with studying the roots,
but merely with establishing a connexion between them and the full-
grown plant. In other words, all that is necessary is to satisfy ourselves
l2
148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
as to the set of the current of migration. It is significant that as late as
the dawn of the historic period it was flowing strongly towards the north
and east. The Scots themselves were, of course, incomers from Ireland
and, if we can trust Continental analogies regarding the movement of
peoples, we may assume that the foundation of the kingdom of Dalriada
was preceded by a prolonged process of gradual infiltration. I have more
than a suspicion that the troubles which the Romans experienced, and in
particular the restlessness which compelled them to abandon the Forth
and Clyde wall, were in no small measure due to the encouragement which
the turbulent natives received from the passage of a steady stream of
reinforcements across the narrows of Stranraer.
But the case for migration from Ireland in prehistoric times rests upon
a basis more stable than analogy. Further excavation and an ampler
supply of distribution-maps are needed to make it complete, particularly
for the Neolithic Period. The evidence, however, is already considerable
enough to furnish what may perhaps be accepted as convincing proof.
Some years ago Mr. A. 0. Curie, in his Rhind Lectures, drew attention to
the testimony supplied by cup-and-ring markings. Such markings, he
pointed out, are recorded as occurring in twenty counties — Wigtown,
Kirkcudbright, Roxburgh, Berwick, Ayr, Bute, Argyll, Dumbarton,
Lanark, Mid and West Lothian, Peebles, Fife, Clackmannan, Perth,
Forfar, Ross, Aberdeen, Sutherland and Caithness. The Royal Com-
mission's survey of North Uist and Benbecula enables us to add Inverness
to the list. But, for the proper interpretation of the record, Mr. Curie went
on to say, we must have regard to the number of examples that have been
noted in each of the various countries. The poverty of the three shires
that march with England — Berwick a single example, Roxburgh two,
Dumfries none at all — precludes the idea that the folk responsible for
these mysterious sculpturings entered Scotland by crossing the Border.
On the other hand, the area in which the markings are found in greatest
number and with the greatest variation of device and complexity of design
is exactly the region that lies over against Ireland — the coastal districts
of West and South-West Scotland. They abound in Wigtown and
Kirkcudbright, and are still more common in Argyll. As they are also
frequent in Ireland, the inference seems plain.
Cup-and-ring markings, in Scotland at least, must be associated with
the phase of culture that was distinguished by the use of bronze. To
discover what happened during the phase that succeeded it we may turn
to the brochs. At the outset it has to be admitted that the broch was
not imported from Ireland. There are no brochs in Ireland. The broch
is a purely Scottish creation, evolved on Scottish soil. Nevertheless it is
hardly possible to doubt that it was from the shores of Ireland that the
ancestors of the broch-builders originally came. They certainly did not
make their way into Scotland across the Border, any more than did the
men who carved upon the rocks those mysterious cups and rings. There
are no brochs at all in Dumfries or in Roxburgh. It is true that Berwick,
Selkirk and Midlothian can boast of one apiece. But that is a paltry
display compared with Orkney's 70 and Shetland's 75. Nor is it only
their rarity in the south that is significant. The three sporadic examples
I have named seem to show the characteristic features of this type of
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY. 149
structure already fully developed. And the broch did not spring full-grown
from the brain of some architectural genius of the prehistoric period :
it was the outcome of a slow process of evolution. The southern brochs
can only have been built by intruders from the north.
We may go further. Seventeen or eighteen years ago, in surveying
Sutherland and Caithness for the Royal Commission, Mr. Curie noted
certain points which seemed to him to indicate a gradual improvement
in the type as one moved inland from the western coast, and he saw in
this — rightly, as I think — a clue to the drift of the population. His
deduction has received remarkable confirmation from the Commission's
recently published survey of Skye and the Outer Isles, as well as from the
late Dr. Erskine Beveridge's investigations in Tiree. In the insular
region we find brochs in reasonable abundance — 44 are recorded there by
the Royal Commission — but we also find numerous specimens of what can
best be described as the broch in the making. The so-called ' semi-
brochs ' of Tiree, the ' galleried duns ' of the Hebrides and Skye, all alike
appear to represent experiments in the architectural form which was
destined to have its fullest expression on the mainland. As the broch-
builders moved farther north and then farther east, they carried with
them the fruits of their ripening experience.
The facts of early Scottish history and the inferences as to the Bronze
Age and the Early Iron Age are thus in complete accord. They bear out
the view^ — ^in itself a priori probable — that for uncounted generations the
trend of migration was from the direction of Ireland through the islands
of the west coast to the north of Scotland. We may reasonably assume
that an exhaustive examination of the chambered cairns, in continuance of
the work carried out with such marked success by Professor Bryce, would
give a similar result for the Neolithic Period. But, once the set of the
current has been determined, it is not difficult to understand why regions,
where the sheep and the deer now wander at will, should have been thickly
populated in prehistoric times. Although the causes that prompted the
movements of peoples in those far-off days are obscure, one of the most
potent was certainly the demand that would be created for fresh means of
subsistence when the mouths to be fed were multiplied. At intervals a
surplus of humanity would be spilled from Ireland. In front there
stretched but one open road, and that was a cul de sac. For, to those who
followed this route. Northern Scotland was literally the end of the world.
Long afterwards, under the pressure of a similar urge, a similar stream
descended from Scandinavia. But the later immigrants came in stout
ships, and could at need deflect their course, as they did, to the Faroes,
to Iceland, even to Greenland. With the earlier wanderers it was different.
When they had reached Unst, they would scan the horizon in vain for any
sign of land to tempt their frail craft further. The ocean was an insur-
mountable barrier. The flow from the south would be brought to a
standstill on its shore, and the more nearly that limit was approached
the greater would the congestion of population tend to become. This,
I think, is the real secret of the abundance of Scotland's prehistoric remains.
SECTION I.— PHYSIOLOGY.
THE RELATION OF PHYSIOLOGY TO
OTHER SCIENCES.
ADDBESS BY
PROF. C. LOVATT EVANS, D.Sc, M.R.C.S., F.R.S.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
Our subject of physiology has developed so rapidly during the last few-
decades, has taken so definite a place among the sciences, and has such
intimate relations with other subjects, that its position as a branch of
natural knowledge is one of some general interest.
Physiology has a threefold appeal — as the master-key of medicine its
practical value is self-evident, as a science it has now a distinctive position,
while its relations to philosophy command the attention of all thoughtful
men. We will consider it, for convenience sake, from these three stand-
points.
From the earliest times, physiological knowledge, whether known by
that name or not, has had the closest association with medicine. It would
indeed be difficult to imagine any great advance in the one that was not
immediately reflected in the other. Their methods, though necessarily
different, are convergent, their meeting-point being the disclosure of
normal functions. It is the business of the physician to attend to the
urgent call of pain and disease, and to use for their relief such information
as he has at his disposal. As he does so he observes, compares, and draws
conclusions on the basis of which a theory of the causation of the disorder
may be built. The clinical observations and deductions drawn from them
give a basis of rational physiological theory from which we have learnt
that a state of disease is never a thing in itself, but is always a result of
a quantitative change in some physiological process, an increase or
diminution of something that was there to begin with. Reflection upon
the observed bodily states in, say, a fever, jaundice, diabetes, nephritis,
or even mental disorders, reveals only overaction or underaction of some
physiological function as the feature which distinguishes the affected from
the normal individual. It is perhaps easier to speak of the normal than
to define it. In the long run, the normal is the description given by a
majority of individuals of their own build or behaviour. It is abnormal
to have unequal legs, to be eight feet high, or to believe the earth is flat ;
but as no two individuals are exactly alike the definition of normality is
more a matter of a statistical average than of precise definition.
Disease is a departure from the normal which threatens life or which
in some way reduces its value. The physician's duty with regard to it is
a threefold one ; he must diagnose, prognose and treat. In diagnosis and
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 151
prognosis he relies chiefly on past experience, and must also bring great
skill and judgment to bear on each particular case. The symptoms of
disease which enable him to make a diagnosis are very often of an
adaptative or compensatory nature, and the application of physiology to
the problems of medicine is often of considerable value from this point of
view, since it teaches that the mere alleviation of symptoms may be quite
the wrong way to attack the problem. In cardiac or renal dyspnoea, for
example, the exaggerated breathing is of an adaptative nature — the
patient is not ill because of the overbreathing but overbreathes in con-
sequence of the disease and would possibly succumb if he did not. More
usually the meaning of symptoms is less clear, and it is the difficidty in
recognising the underlying causes of disease which makes the practice of
medicine at once so exquisitely difficult and so fascinating.
In treatment, too, two important principles arising from actual
observation receive support from physiological knowledge. One is that
the consequential alterations which take place in the course of the disease
are of the nature of adaptations which tend to restore the function to
normal ; these adaptations take the form of increase or diminution of
some particular factor, of hypertrophy or atrophy often of some definite
organ, always of some function — it is, in fact, the Vis medicatrix of the older
physicians, the underlying principle of expectant treatment. The other
principle is that nearly all positive measures of treatment, including
drugs, produce their effects by augmenting or restricting some function or
other.
The applied aspects of physiological knowledge concern the related
subjects of hygiene and preventive medicine, medicine, surgery, and
veterinary and agricultural sciences in their widest senses.
Investigations on diet, ventilation, industrial fatigue, and on the
contraction of and resistance to infections, soundly based on the fundamental
principles of physiology, have done much to make conditions of life more
tolerable for the present generations than for their predecessors. Few
medical students at the present time become acquainted with those severe
or fatal cases of rickets, scurvy, diabetes or pernicious anaemia which we
all knew could be seen in the wards of any large hospital twenty years ago,
and this gift of life and health to the afSicted is the grateful offering of
physiological research to its respected parent, medicine.
No aspect of scientific activity is so generally misunderstood as that
which concerns the making of discoveries, and in matters of medical
research ignorance is particularly widespread.
The popular idea seems to be that an investigator sets out with the
intention of making a particular discovery, such as a new element, or a
cure for a certain disease, but every scientific worker knows that real
discovery, as distinct from invention, is never achieved in this way. A
discovery is the process by which an idea of new relationships is revealed,
and involves two factors, observation and reflection. The origin may be
a chance observation which suggests a hitherto unappreciated relation,
and leads to the formulation of an hypothesis which, if possible, is then
deliberately tested by experiment. The history of the discovery of
insulin may be given as an illustration. The fundamental discovery here
was made by a chance observation that removal of the pancreas produced
152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
diabetes ; from that time onwards it was evident that if the missing
pancreatic function could be replaced a cure would be possible, and it was
justifiable deliberately to search for some means of doing this. But the
search was in vain until another new idea came into physiology by reason
of the discovery of the existence of autacoids. From this point on all
was clear in theory, and it is no detraction from the merit of subsequent
work to say that the final happy result depended principally upon
inventive technique and manipulative skill, and only in a lesser degree
upon discovery.
Discoveries are infrequent, in a sense fortuitous, and often dependent
on rare qualities of intellect as well as on accurate observations, and they
mostly come out of the fullness of time.
We all feel great pride in recalling that one of the greatest of all dis-
coveries, which has recently been celebrated at the tercentenary of the
publication of William Harvey's famous book " de motu cordis," was made
in our own country. Here was a genuine revelation that put old facts in
a new light. It is of interest to reflect that the hospital at which Harvey
was a physician had been carrying on its work as such for over 500 years
at the time his discovery was made. What fundamental changes in the
outlook of the physician and surgeon has that hospital seen during the
ensuing 300 years in consequence of his revelation ! And what further
mutations in thought and practice will it have witnessed when Harvey
stands as a beacon half-way in its eventful history ? For we are privileged
to live in times pregnant with opportunity for the science of medicine.
Incidentally it has been claimed, with more audacity than insight, that
experiments upon living animals serve no useful purpose, and it has even
been pretended that Harvey had no need for such experiments in the
classical researches which formed the foundations of physiology and gave
reason to physic. Yet we have Harvey's own words. . . . ' At length,
and by using greater and daily diligence, having frequent recourse to
vivisections, employing a variety of animals for the purpose, and collating
numerous observations, I thought that I had attained to the truth, that
I should extricate myself and escape from this labyrinth, and that I had
discovered what I so much desired, both the motion and the use of the
heart and arteries.'
The experimental method, which was revived by Harvey, now forms
the permanent basis of physiological as of medical knowledge, and in
spite of all criticisms must obviously remain so. Riolan, in advancing
against Harvey the criticism that ' it is a mockery to attempt to show the
circulation in man by the study of brutes,' was, as Gley has recently
remarked, ' already employing the argument, if it can be called one,
which is encountered under the pen of the antivivisectionists of all times,
and which illustrates the diuturnity of ignorance and folly.'
Let anyone with sufficient acquaintance with physiology try to write
an account of such of the main facts concerning the functions of the
heart and of the circulation as are most valuable in medicine, without
reference to any fact obtained directly or indirectly by animal experimenta-
tion, and he will find his essay a very sorry one indeed : for no doctor can
use a stethoscope, feel a pulse, take a blood-pressure, administer a
hypodermic, give an anaesthetic or a transfusion, perform any modern
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 153
operations, or indeed take any steps in diagnosis, prognosis or treatment,
without utilising at every turn knowledge derived from the results of
animal experimentation and obtainable in no other way. And every
medical man, even those few who for various reasons prefer the publicity
of an antivivisection platform to the obscurity to which they are properly
entitled, knows these things perfectly well, and if he practises, acts upon
them every day of his life.
Another useful application of physiological knowledge is that of the
science of ventilation, including the use of mine rescue apparatus, which
began to take shape during the eighteenth century in the hands of Stephen
Hales, while a little later Joseph Black, a professor, be it noted, of medicine
and chemistry in this ancient University of Glasgow, discovered carbon
dioxide, and Priestley oxygen. The use of submarines, of oxygen sets
for aviators and mountaineers, of gas respirators and caissons, and the
means for the scientific study of industrial fatigue and of athletic per-
formances, have all descended as practical outcomes of this respiratory
physiology.
To take another example in more recent times one may mention
Joseph Lister, a cherished link between University College, London, and
the University of Glasgow, that indefatigable experimenter who made as
valuable contributions to physiological knowledge as to surgery. The
revolution in surgical technique which we owe to his largely physiological
investigations is as striking as the changes in the outlook of medicine
introduced by Harvey. Erichsen, a teacher of Lister, had said not long
before that operative surgery had reached the limit of its perfection and
that the surgeon's knife would never safely penetrate such parts as the
brain, chest or abdomen.
The subject of pharmacology is very closely connected with physiology
on the one hand and therapeutics on the other. As a branch of physio-
logical work it has the highest scientific as well as practical importance ;
for the study of the mode of action of drugs by providing a means of
studying the effect of definite chemical alterations in the environment on
the reactions of the living cells cannot fail to serve as a powerful instrument
of physiological research. Rational therapeutics, based on the results of
pharmacological study, also will carry into the wards the spirit of true
scientific investigation, and the provision of beds in some hospitals for the
use of the Professor of Therapeutics is an indication that definite progress
is being made in this direction. Such an advance has not come before
it is needed. If the medical practitioner is to compete successfully with
osteopaths, chiropractors and other similar unqualified persons, he is
most likely to do so by only prescribing treatment with proper scientific
basis. He should be able to form some opinion with regard to the claims
of advertisers of remedies who contribute so large a share towards his
daily mail deliveries, and many of whom would be unable to exist were
it not for the fact that the average doctor is often as easily deceived with
their pseudo-scientific puff as any layman.
If physiology may with pride point to the way in which it has con-
tributed to the development of medicine, surgery, hygiene, and veterinary
science, it must with gratitude acknowledge that its inspiration has largely
come from them too. A clinical friend of mine has written that
154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
' physiology can only come to the aid of medicine with becoming modesty,
and without overweening dogmatism. There is no finality about either,
but they can co-operate usefully . . .' and I thoroughly agree with him,
not only because I recognise, as a physiologist, that my subject has been
nourished largely by the problems of the bedside, but also because I think
that modesty is the only attitude compatible with the ignorance of all of
us when we view the handiwork of nature however revealed.
At this point I would like to digress a little to say a few words about
the training of medical students in physiology. This has two objects in
view, first to equip these students with a grasp of physiology such as will
enable them later on to build a proper rational knowledge of medicine
and surgery ; second, to encourage them further to advance medical and
surgical knowledge, and in special cases physiology itself. With certain
reservations, I do not think that these two objects are at all incompatible
at the present time.
A hundred years ago the common portal of entry into the medical
profession was by a preliminary apprenticeship, begun at the age of
about fourteen, to a doctor or apothecary, as often as not in the country.
This lasted for five years, after which it was usual for the student to
' walk the hospitals ' at some great centre, the chief in London being St.
Bartholomew's and Guy's Hospitals. Here he could also attend some
lectures on anatomy (including physiology), botany, medicine, surgery
and midwifery, and there were also courses of dissections. The require-
ments of licensing bodies were, however, fragmentary. The College
of Physicians had no definite curriculum of professional study before
1845. In Scotland physiology was incorporated, as the ' Institutes of
Medicine,' with some teaching of general pathology and elementary
clinical medicine.
The medical students of Dickens — for example. Bob Sawyer, who
' eschewed gloves, and looked upon the whole something like a dissipated
Robinson Crusoe ' — were caricatures of the students of this period.
There were few medical students in England outside London a century
ago ; Oxford and Cambridge together averaged six medical graduates a
year. Edinburgh produced about 100-120. In England it was only the
handful of University men who received anything like a preliminary
education before entering hospital.
A notable step was taken in London with the foundation of University
College, then called the University of London. In his introductory
address at the opening of the University in 1827, Sir Charles Bell said :
' With respect to our students, the defects of their mode of education are
acknowledged on all hands. They are at once engaged in medical studies
without adequate preparation of the mind ; that is to say, without having
acquired the habit of attention to a course of reasoning ; nor are they
acquainted with those sciences which are really necessary to prepare for
comprehending the elements of their own profession. But in this place
this is probably the last time they will be unprepared, for example, for
such subjects as we must touch to-day. In future, they will come here
to apply the principles they have acquired in other class rooms to a new
and more useful science.'
In the first year 165 students entered the new college, and classes were
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 155
held in chemistry, zoology, anatomy (and physiology), and on various
clinical subjects.
Jumping forward now about forty years to 1867, we find the curriculum
has expanded very much. First, there came the influence of Liebig and
chemistry, and by about 1850 or 1860 we find chemistry, mostly inorganic,
a regular requirement by all licensing bodies. A chemical laboratory was
first constructed at St. Bartholomew's for instance in 1866. The University
of London now required at a pre-clinical examination a knowledge of
chemistry, botany, natural philosophy, anatomy, organic chemistry,
physiology and materia medica. A contemporary writer gives an account
of the students of this period from which it appears that the medical
student has since changed more in appearance than in ways, for he says
that the principal aim of some of them was preservation of their glossy
hats and exquisite coat-tails, gloves and sticks, while the throwing of
paper balls was already an established tradition among them.
Although lectures on physiology are mentioned at this time, there was
no separate Chair of Physiology in England until 1874, when Sharpey, who
had been Professor of Anatomy and Physiology at University College, was
succeeded by Burdon Sanderson as the first Professor of Physiology. The
first practical classes in Physiology were held there by a pupil of Sharpey,
Michael Foster, and consisted of histology, experimental physiology and
rudimentary physiological chemistry. To quote Foster's own words,
' What could be done then was very, very little. I had a very small room.
I had a few microscopes. But I began to carry out the instruction in a
more systematic manner than had been done before. For instance, I
made the men prepare the tissues for themselves. That was a new thing
in histology. And I also made them do for themselves simple experiments
on muscles and nerves and other tissues in live animals. That, I may say,
was the beginning of the teaching of practical physiology in England.'
We realise from these dates that Physiology in Britain had fallen very
far behind when compared with the Continent, for Ludwig, in Germany,
who obtained a separate Chair of Physiology in 1865, and Claude Bernard
in France, had raised the subject to a high level by the time that Physiology
in England was being reborn, through the activities of Sharpey and his
pupils Foster and Burdon Sanderson.
The teaching of physiology is, very properly, largely influenced by
contemporary research work, and the exact matter taught must, therefore,
be expected gradually to undergo change as the focus of research interests
shifts.
It was only natural that the new English physiology should receive the
stamp of the men who recreated it, and that histology through Sharpey,
and nerve-muscle physiology through the influence of Burdon Sanderson,
should occupy a prominent place. For about thirty years in fact the nerve-
muscle physiology threatened to eclipse all other branches of experimental
work, and it was this flight into questions which appeared to be chiefly
of academic interest which was, I think, largely responsible for the regret-
table estrangement between the newly liberated science and its parent
subject of medicine which marked that period of its development, and of
which traces still linger to this day in some of the more elderly repre-
sentatives of both subjects. At the present day we must admit that the
156 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
knowledge gathered by those of our predecessors who worked at the
physiology of muscle and nerve has proved of great value in directing
physiological inquiry along scientific lines, from which the science of
medicine has profited as much as physiology itself. The interesting
revival of the study of the same subjects by more accurate methods
within the past few years has further enriched our insight into the
fundamental phenomena of life and vindicated the opinions of our
predecessors as to the value of such investigations.
The development of physiological chemistry, now often called bio-
chemistry, in this country was largely due to the influence of Prof. W. D.
Halliburton, whose ' Chemical Physiology and Pathology ' was for many
years the only comprehensive English textbook on the subject. The
growing importance of organic chemistry led to its introduction into the
medical curriculum, in connexion with biological chemistry, and in
recent years the similar position of physical chemistry has led to its
inclusion in some form or other in the curriculum of most medical schools.
Whereas in the sixties the student's chief study was anatomy with
some botany and chemistry, there have now grown up as special courses
of instruction, each with its professor or other specialised teacher, courses
in the preliminary sciences and in anatomy, neurology, histology,
embryology, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, physiology, experi-
mental physiology and biochemistry, with pharmacology often thrown
in as a makeweight to fill up any spare time the student may have left.
Sometimes even special courses of human physiology are added. Here is
the great dilemma of the medical curriculum : with all these special
departments, each urging that its subject is of prime importance in the
course, how can the poor student rightly direct his steps, and be enabled
to see the wood for the trees 1 Yet, so great is the expansion in each of
these subjects, that unless some at least of them are dealt with by specialists
the student's instruction will unquestionably be obsolete in parts.
The solution to the difficulty lies, in my opinion, in two directions :
first in the extensive modification of the present system of examinations,
and secondly in the exercise of a sympathetic understanding on the part
of specialist teachers of the difficulties of the student and a proper
perspective of the relation of his own subject to the requirements of the
curriculum as a whole. We have a sacred trust : it is the duty of those
of us who are teachers of physiology to hand on to our successors, not the
science as we inherited it, but a science which we and our contemporaries
have ourselves improved and enriched to the best of our ability.
Out of the multitudinous and tumultuous activities of scientific labour
new principles gradually emerge, and the truth appears in a constantly
changing garb. As I have said before, research reflects itself in teaching,
and it is accordingly necessary that teaching should be reviewed from time
to time, that new matter be introduced in so far as it is of general
importance, and old matter rejected as soon as its immediate value
diminishes. I should very much like, for similar reasons, to see profound
alterations in the teaching of chemistry, both inorganic and organic, to
medical students.
It is. in my opinion, quite impossible, and perhaps undesirable, at the
present time to frame instruction in physiology so as adequately to equip
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 157
the ordinary medical student to proceed directly to the prosecution of
research in any of its branches ; this can only be achieved by a further
year or two of study of the subject, such as by a science course for an
honours degree. One of the objects of instruction is to enable the latest
results of physiological investigation to be utilised in the clinic, and it
seems to me that one of the best ways for this to be effected is for some
workers specially trained in physiological methods to enter the staff of
clinical units where facilities for research work are at hand. The opinion
was at one time prevalent among many clinicians that if their problems
required the use of methods similar to those of experimental physiology
these should be farmed out to a physiologist, and although there are
cases where this procedure may be followed with advantage, the rich
harvest which has already been reaped by the importation of physiological
knowledge and methods into, rather than the export of problems from, the
clinic, is adequate justification for the former. It is in any case encouraging
to note the present-day decline of the attitude that experimental investiga-
tion is work of a lower order, which can be put out like so much washing,
for the employment of an inferior caste. We at the present day, however
we may be labelled, are not merely willing to admit, but eager to assert,
that we cannot recognise fundamentally distinct methods of physiology,
of psychology, of medicine, of chemistry, or of physics ; we only admit a
method of experimental inquiry common to all science and slightly modified
to suit particular cases.
The close connexion which is now generally admitted between
physiology and medicine was clearly foreseen by Claude Bernard in 1855.
Medicine, he said, is a science, and physicians who describe it as an art
injure it, because ' they exalt a physician's personality by lowering the
importance of science.' ' True experimenting physicians,' he says, ' should
be no more perplexed at a patient's bedside than empirical physicians.
They will make use of all the therapeutic means advised by empiricism ;
only, instead of using them according to authority and with a confidence
akin to superstition, they will administer them with that philosophic
doubt which is appropriate to true experimenters.' And this attitude,
I venture to think, is the one which is almost universal to-day.
Scientific Aspects.
Physiology takes its place as a science in proportion as its data are
accurate and its principles fall into line with those in the other sciences.
My great teacher Starling said that science has only one language, that
of quantity, and but one argument, that of experiment. The qualitative
observations of one generation tend to become quantitative at a later
stage of development of a science, and the degree of development of a
science can indeed to some extent be judged by the extent to which it
falls into a scheme of the unity of science by giving results which are
capable of mathematical treatment and of expression in broad general
principles.
I recollect that when I first took up the study of chemistry the
acquaintance of most chemists with any of the branches of mathematics
was so slight that there was on the market a book on arithmetical chemistry.
Shortly after that time the progress of physical chemistry on the Continent
158 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
had become so definite that it came to be considered quite a useful thing
for a chemist to acquire some knowledge of the higher mathematics, and
the appearance in Britain of a textbook of higher mathematics for students
of chemistry and physics rendered great service by introducing the kind
of mathematics that was likely to be of value in application to these
subjects.
What has happened in physics and chemistry may be reasonably
expected to happen in biology so soon as it is able by improvement in
the accuracy of its methods, and by progress in the formulation of its
problems, to employ mathematics with profit in the manipulation of data
and in the construction of those generalisations which are landmarks of
progress in all the sciences ; indeed we are, I think, now witnessing the
commencement of such a phase in the development of our own subject.
The many facets of physiological inquiry make it incumbent on all of us
to possess some knowledge of one or more related subjects, and I know
of no more promising collateral subject which a young physiologist could
take up at the present time, as an alternative to chemistry or biology,
than the study of mathematics. But those who do take it up should do
so for the purposes of utilising it in their own experimental work, not
merely for the purpose of surveying results obtained by others, and still
less in order to ' lend an air of verisimilitude to an otherwise bald and
unconvincing narrative.' Mathematics is a most valuable aid to reasoning,
and it can be of no real use to physiology except when it leads to clarifica-
tion of thought both of an author and of his readers.. Under any other
circumstances its introduction into biological literature is, I think, of
extreme danger, because of the superstition, common alike to those who
write and those who read, that anything expressed in mathematical form
must be accepted as correct without any further question.
Mathematics and mathematical physics have been of considerable
use to physiology in increasing the accuracy of its experimental data,
and this in two ways. First, by bringing the accurate experimental and
intellectual methods of physics to bear on the construction and use of the
numerous physical instruments which it employs. It has been said by
Prof. A. V. Hill that many of the early investigations on muscle were in
reality studies of the properties of levers, and it is certain that similar
remarks apply to only too many investigations in which the properties
of the apparatus used have not been suitably investigated. As illustra-
tions of the value of mathematical-physical study of apparatus one may
mention the classical investigations of Frank on hsemodynamical recording
apparatus, the fundamental treatment of string galvanometers and similar
instruments by Einthoven, the correction of capillary electrometer records
by Keith Lucas, and the vast improvements in galvanometer systems
effected by Downing and Hill.
Even when the apparatus at the disposal of the physiologist is un-
exceptionable, however, it is often the fact that, owing to the nature of
the subject, results are not susceptible of repetition with the same ease and
certainty as are those of chemical or physical experiments. The variability
of the results is due in such cases to what are called accidental circum-
stances, a term which in reality means circumstances over which we have
no control, owing either to our ignorance of their nature, or else to our
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 159
inability to alter them. In those cases where further study provides
methods of more fully understanding and therefore more adequately
controlling these circumstances, valuable results follow almost at once.
For instance, certain of the obscure causes of different behaviour under
particular conditions are inborn, and can be controlled by the use of
inbred strains of animals such as those of the standard inbred white rats ;
or again, one may mention the far-reaching results of the observation by
Pavlov that the utmost care must be exercised when studying the con-
ditioned reflexes to exclude all stimuli however trivial they may appear,
except the one under consideration.
Under the most favourable conditions, however, it has up to the
present been usual to find a considerable imavoidable margin of
variation in the results of many physiological experiments. By regarding
these provisionally as ' chance ' variations, considerable help may be
obtained by the application of the theory of errors, based on the theory of
probability. In reality this is an empirical method of which Poiucare
has said that ' everybody firmly believes in it, because mathematicians
imagine that it is a fact of observation, and observers that it is a theorem
of mathematics,' but nevertheless, although it cannot, as seems sometimes
to be assumed, be used to replace accurate observation, it does enable a
result to be brought out which might otherwise be obscured by small
variations beyond our control. Research by such statistical methods
provides a useful method of investigation, as, for instance, in the study
of the toxic or other action of drugs, the data of the oestrus cycle, &c.
An elementary deduction which can be drawn from the consideration
of these facts is that, where only a few experiments of any kind are
performed, important conclusions cannot be drawn unless it can
be shown that the conditions are so controlled, and the accuracy of the
actual observations so high that the sum of the individual ' chance '
variations must be small. Observation of this precaution would, in my
opinion, reduce the bulk of contemporary physiological literature very
materially, with a corresponding improvement in its quality.
Lastly, as a means for evolving generalisations out of experimental
data, and of bringing these into relation with the generalisations of other
branches of science, the use of mathematics is incontestable. One need
only mention as examples the fresh outlook which has been provided for
further investigation by the exact study of the data relative to the segrega-
tion and recombination of hereditary factors, the beautiful investigations
of L. J. Henderson on the equilibria in the blood, the theoretical study
of the phenomena of excitation, the employment of thermo-dynamics
and the numerous other applications of physico-chemical theory.
Certain applications of physics to physiology are quite clear-cut and
need no further comment ; but in many respects conventional physics
has for our purposes serious limitations, which the physiologist must try
to make good by his own investigations. For instance, many hydro-
dynamical problems of a specialised kind are connected with the study of
the circulation. The physical theory of the flow of homogeneous liquids
in wide, rigid, unbranched tubes is fairly well established, though, I under-
stand, somewhat abstruse. But when we come to study the physical
aspects of a pulsatile flow of a heterogeneous mixture like blood along
160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
tubes whicli are branched and of varying degrees of elasticity, of diameters
whicb in the same system range from several centimetres down to a few
microns, and these subject to variations, we can expect little help from
orthodox physics, which is not in the habit of working with so many
independent variables.
It follows that much of our physics, if it is worth calling that, must of
necessity be empirical for the present. This is not a defect in physiology
— ^it is a defect in physical knowledge.
Chemistry and physiology having both originally sprung from the
art and practice of medicine, it is little matter for surprise that such a
rich harvest has been reaped by their reunion in the form of biochemistry.
Although these developments were foreshadowed by the intuition, if not
by the actual achievements, of the iatro-chemists of the sixteenth century,
little advance was possible until chemistry had, by separation from medicine,
established its position as an independent science. So that it was not
until about 1840 that organic chemistry and biochemistry were able,
chiefly owing to the inspiration of Liebig, to make rapid progress, at least
on the Continent. There is probably no branch of chemistry that is
entirely without interest to physiology, but of course preference must
always be given to organic and physical chemistry. It is significant that
at the present time a steadily increasing number of young highly trained
organic chemists consider it worth their while to turn to biochemistry ;
their welcome entry into our ranks gives us fresh hope and faith in our
future, as well as in theirs. Already one can pdint to many achievements
of the organic chemist applying himself to our problems, the work of
Fischer on the carbohydrates, purine bodies and proteins and amino-
acids, the more recent work on adrenaline, the identification of carnosine,
glutathione, the structure of thyroxine and the natural bases, of which
histamine threatens to rival or even to eclipse lactic acid in its importance
to the physiologist. As is usually the case, rapid developments in bio-
chemistry have followed improvements of technique ; the advances in
micro-methods of analysis, without which insulin would probably not have
been discovered, or the constitution of thyroxin made known, have played
a very important part ; the same applies to the whole subject of physical
chemistry, much of which, like colloid chemistry and the theories of buffer
action, has been built up in response to biochemical requirements. Since
the central problems of biochemistry are dynamical, most of its subject-
matter must be treated from that standpoint, and here again the debt
to physical chemistry must be recognised, particularly in regard to
the study of enzyme action, and more recently of iuterfacial and
membrane equilibria, of the molecular structure of surfaces, and of the
phenomena of activation and the thermodynamics of oxidation-reduction
phenomena.
Whether a biochemist should be primarily a chemist or a biologist is
a question which has been much debated in private, though little in public.
Personally I see no reason why he should not be both. If he must have
one label, it is better that of the chemist, provided always that the bio-
chemist works in the closest possible association with the physiologist.
This is most essential if both are not to be deprived of much valuable
interchange of ideas and, on a lower plane, of materials and apparatus.
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 161
In fact, I am convinced that within the limits of administrative possibility
the greater the variety of workers brought together the better the
resxilts.
So much for the exact sciences. Their value to physiology is immense.
They help us to interpret phenomena, but not to predict. In a word
physiology is something more than biochemistry and biophysics ; it is,
and will always remain, a biological subject.
As its nearest neighbour among the biological sciences, zoology should
have the closest relations with physiology, yet it is curious that during
several decades, for reasons which need not now be discussed, these two
subjects were as the poles apart. The newly disinterred subject of com-
parative physiology, however, bears witness to a returning interest of
zoologists in the experimental study of function as against mere morpho-
logical classification, as well as of physiologists in comparative function
as a valuable means of throwing light on their own special problems. For
there can surely be no more fruitful means of studying that response to
altered conditions which we know as structural adaptation, and which
we consider as only a special case of response to a stimulus, than the study
by physiological methods of those examples of homology and analogy
with which zoological science can so abundantly supply us.
With the science of botany, except in its most general principles,
physiology has a less direct connexion, though here too the demonstration
of fundamental points of resemblance in the metabolism of plants and
animals, and the fact of the mutual dependence of the animal and vegetable
kingdoms on each other, reminds us that we cannot afford to ignore the
physiology of any living thing. Nor, in this connexion, should we forget
that many valuable suggestions have arisen from plant physiology — the
discovery of the cell, of Brownian movement, of osmotic pressure, and
the notion of the storage of food materials, for instance.
The relation of anatomy to physiology can best be understood if we
recall the fact that when the time was ripe physiology separated ofi from
anatomy, taking with it all those dynamic problems which concerned
function, and leaving anatomy literally little but the dry bones. The
stationary condition of anatomy during the last decades of the nineteenth
century was similar to that of zoology, and indeed had similar causes, and
was little relieved by the subsequent incorporation of anthropology and
embryology. Histology had in most countries remained with anatomy,
and had for the most part been content, like it, merely to describe the
structure of preserved dead things. In Britain, it is true, histology had
until quite recently everywhere remained with physiology, and had
perhaps fared no better, for although the British, like their Continental
friends, did * nothing in particular,' they did not do it very well, for we
must admit that histology had degenerated into a merely descriptive
subject, supplemented by training in a useful technique, and by the
identification of specimens. Nevertheless, there were rays of hope, and
occasional hints, as in Bowman's researches on the kidney, Hardy's study
of the structure of protoplasm, Langley's investigation of the changes in
glands during secretion, or more recently Herring's careful study of the
pituitary body, that the problems of function had not been entirely lost
sight of, and that the large mass of histological information which had
1928 M
162 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
been collected iniglit become valuable if only the fundamental question
as to the reality of the structures described could be settled.
At the present time some English schools have followed the American
and Continental practice, and handed histology over to anatomy, and
though I am personally not at all convinced of the justification of this
step, yet in view of the indications of quickening in the subject of anatomy
during the past two decades, it no doubt is best to suspend judgment as
to the ultimate result of the transfer. The portents of the approach of
a more live and scientific type of anatomy, of an anatomy of a kind far
more useful to physiology and to medicine, are many. The study of the
relations of organs in the living body, of the functional significance of
structure, the newer experimental histology, as typified by studies with
ultra-violet illumination, ultra-microscopy, micro-dissection of live cells,
tissue culture, micro-chemistry and the remarkable development of
experimental embryology, bring to the physiologist joy and hope, and the
conviction that the artificial line of demarcation between anatomy and
physiology will happily soon be a thing of the past.
The relations of anatomy and physiology to pathology are, or should
be, as close as those with each other. When the separation of
physiology from anatomy took place many methods and problems which
rightly belonged to pathology went with it — such problems of nutrition
as inanition, rickets, diabetes, ketosis and acidosis, or jaundice, and of
the circulation as heart-block, fibrillation, and so forth. These and many
other problems were studied in the physiological laboratory by methods
which physiology had come jealously to claim as its own ; the dead study
of anatomy led to a pathology of the dead in preference to that of the
living, and the euphemism so common in the wards ' when this case
comes to the pathologist,' meaning ' when this patient is dead,' is significant
of this state of affairs. Yet it must be quite apparent that pathology and
medical science can only take as their starting-point the study of the
normal individual as presented by physiology.
Instead of this, the experimental side of pathology has up to the
present been almost entirely directed to the study of bacteriology, which,
though well enough in its way, is too narrow and superficial, because it
gives insufficient information as to the relation between bacteria, their
products and the tissue cells on which either infection or immunity can
be explained. Now that the subject of physiology is so far advanced,
the time is ripe, if not overdue, I think, for the pathologist to come into
his own, and for the subject of experimental pathology, with ramifications
similar to those of physiology, to attract some of the best brains in the
world of biological workers. And, if the knowledge of service rendered
to their fellows be regarded as payment, they will be well paid.
The subject of psychology was until recently included at the British
Association as a sub-section of physiology. As a science psychology must
always retain the closest links with physiology, and I think that in the
future these links will be strengthened rather than weakened. The
researches of Pavlov on the conditioned reflexes will undoubtedly
revolutionise the study of physiological psychology, and I need offer no
further comment on their scientific excellence, or on the general approval
they have won, beyond reminding you that they have already been con-
demned by Mr. Bernard Shaw.
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 163
I have, I hope, said enough to lend emphasis to my principal point,
which is that the subject of physiology has the most intimate and vital
contact with all biological subjects, with the fundamental sciences, and
with medicine. It is, in fact, one of the best possible illustrations of
Herbert Spencer's idea that ' the sciences are arts to one another.' It
has often been said that science knows no frontiers and no nationalities.
If we apply this a little nearer home we shall all look forward to the day
when departments will merely indicate administrative boundaries and
not intellectual compartments. In the meantime it is to be hoped that
increasing numbers of young people specially trained in other sciences
will think it worth their while to try to understand what physiology is
and what it is striving for, and that they will come to our aid with their
own special implements and standpoints.
Philosophical Position.
Although the application of those sciences which are called ' exact '
is of immense value to physiology, we must be under no misapprehension
as to their real relation, which is merely that they enable the phenomena
of life to be described more accurately. They in no way furnish an
explanation of those phenomena or enable us, without direct reference to
physiological facts, to forecast them. The so-called exact sciences appear
to be so because of the simplifications of which they are capable, by reason
of which problems can readily be formulated and attacked. Disturbing
conditions can provisionally be ignored or allowed for, and a first approxi-
mation reached which can be corrected later. In biology this can less
readily be done. It is the failure to appreciate this elementary fact which
leads some of those trained only in the methods of the exact sciences into
the most palpable and unpardonable blunders when they attack biological
problems. To take a simple illustration, no amount of pure physics,
chemistry and mathematics would have enabled the intricate and beautiful
physico-chemical adaptations which have been shown by L. J. Henderson
to happen in blood, to have been predicted, because these adaptations
depend, among other things, on the presence of membranes round the
red cells, fashioned by the living cells and having properties incapable of
prediction. The investigation of the equilibria themselves, in their
physiological significance, was a necessary preliminary to the introduction
of physico-chemical theory. When these phenomena, and deductions
from them, became known, it was possible for the physical chemist to
step in, apply the appropriate theories, and thus enable the phenomena
to be more accurately described in his own language.
But the fact remains that this description turns entirely on the postu-
lated physico-chemical properties of the membranes as deduced from
their actual behaviour under given conditions in what are in reality
physiological experiments. It brings us no nearer to an explanation,
perhaps, but it certainly does enable us to link up some of the phenomena
of life with phenomena in the non-living, and so to describe them in
terms which we think we understand better, because for some reason
we regard physics and chemistry as more fundamental sciences than
biology. Whether they are really more exact, however, is a point which
might be debated.
m2
164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
The process of application of the exact sciences to physiology consists
in reality of studying the phenomena themselves and then adopting the
most plausible explanation capable of formulation in terms of the exact
science. There is no other way. But let us be under no illusion about
finding final explanations of what life is by this or any other methods.
The enormously rapid developments of physics in recent years strike
the uninitiated onlooker dumb with an almost religious awe. Matter
and energy are as fleeting as time, and the ingenuity of man has spanned
the mighty extent of the known universe. Matter, energy, time and space
are in the melting-pot, and out of it will come we know not what of strange
relations of one to another. Of one thing we may be sure — that no final
explanation will follow. Lines of separation previously held to be rigid
will probably fade away, and there will be found to be a continuity between
matter and energy, between living and non-living, between the conscious
and the unconscious. But since philosophy cannot arrive at an explana-
tion of the nature of human understanding, the great mystery of the
origin, nature and purpose of life will, I think, always remain to tease,
stimulate or humiliate us.
Each must decide for himself what view he takes, and as many of our
religious and philosophical beliefs are no doubt unconscious wish-fulfil-
ments, I feel that it ultimately amounts to our decisions being dependent
upon our individual temperaments, or, in other words, on our personal
physiological make-up.
It was pointed out long ago by Claude Bernard that all a priori defini-
tions of life, like those of time, space or matter, are futile, since they
usually themselves imply the thing defined. Let us take one or two
famous definitions of life as examples. Bichat in 1818 defined life as
' the sum total of those functions which resist death.' Here we have
two opposed ideas, life and death. ' All that lives will die ; all that is
dead has lived.' For Bichat life is a struggle of the living thing against
an environment which seeks to destroy it, but it is clear that the idea of
life as opposed to death is implicit in the defijiition. This idea of an
internal teleological principle, of entelechy, runs through all biological
writings back to Aristotle, with whom we believe it to have originated.
The amoeba which encysts itself does so in order to defy adverse conditions
in its environment. The ' calculating intelligence ' postulated by Kant
directs this response.
Another definition of life which has been much favoured of late is the
mechanistic one in various forms ; ' life is a special activity of organised
things.' Here again the definition implies the idea itself. The possession
and maintenance of a definite structure cannot any longer be held to be
an outstanding feature of living matter as commonly understood, for
recent researches in physics show us that, although electrons may come
and go, the atomic structure of matter is relatively stable, even though
under particular circumstances mutations may occur. Nevertheless the
view of life as a mechanism created by and entirely dependent upon its
environment gained strength owing to the developments in other sciences,
particularly by reason of the synthesis of organic compounds, the principle
of the conservation of energy and the introduction of the Darwinian theory
of evolution. According to this view, a revival of that of Empedocles,
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 165
teleological manifestations are accidental. As that thoughtful writer
Hjort remarks, however : ' When we, as human beings, call a thing
accidental, it only means that we give up the hope of understanding
it. . . .' 'In the physical sciences those factors are termed accidental
which we voluntarily disregard in the course of an investigation, or which
we find we have omitted to notice.' Kant, however, in his Kritik of Judg-
ment calls the teleological ' the link whereby our understanding can alone
be supposed to find any agreement between the laws of nature and our
own power of judgment.'
Mechanistic interpretations tend in the long run to become arrogant
and superficial, as vitalistic ones predispose to scientific nihilism. For,
while it is inconceivable that living things do not obey the laws of nature,
yet it is equally unthinkable that a chance encounter of physico-chemical
phenomena can be the explanation of their existence. This being so, how
can we, in Kant's words, ' arrive at an understanding of nature ' ?
It seems clearly impossible to harmonise or to decide between these
opposed views of the nature of life, and I do not think any final conclusion
to be possible or even necessary. To quote Hjort once more, ' Philosophy
has no other starting point than a problem, and the current results of
scientific research ; it never leads to any absolute conclusion. It grows
with the science of nature, since in reality it comprises the most general
results of that science and comprises nothing more. It does not explain
the nature of the human understanding, and provides no means of getting
behind the understanding itself . . . the existence of which is the first
and necessary condition for the existence of science at all.'
Physiologists, in attempting to know what life is, have in my opinion
attempted too much, and I think that a new standpoint is essential. One
of the greatest of contemporary thinkers, L. J. Henderson, has recently
submitted an argument with which I venture humbly to agree. The idea
of adaptation, urged by Claude Bernard, should be adopted by physiology
as its basal principle, as the chemist accepts the conservation of matter
or the physicist the conservation of energy. We need not seek to know
why it is so : that is the province of the philosopher ; all our experience
tells us that it is so. It is not a definition of what life is, but a brief state-
ment of its way, which is valuable, stimulating and true. But we must
treat the organism and its environment as one if we are to gain a proper
insight into the adaptations manifested by the former. Life is conserved
by adaptation, and I venture to think that this conception will be useful
alike to general biology, to physiology and perhaps most of all to pathology.
For there is no fact in biology, pathology or therapeutics which may not
profitably be viewed from this fundamental physiological standpoint. An
essentially similar standpoint has been reached by Haldane, who says :
' We can reach no other conclusion than that it is the very conceptions of
matter and energy, of physical and chemical structure and its changes,
that are at fault, and that we are in the presence of phenomena where
these conceptions, so successfully applied in our interpretation of the
organic world, fail us.' It is the concern of physiology to study the
normal functions, and here the normal must be regarded as a statistical
group. For particular purposes it is convenient to consider normals as
of fixed value ; thus the normal man has a body temperature of 37.5°(.'.,
166 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
a pulse rate of 70, a systolic arterial pressure of 120 mm. Hg, a red cell
count of 5,000,000 per cubic mm. or an alveolar carbon dioxide pressure
of 40 mm. Hg, &c., and we can investigate the means by which this
constancy is reached. But for other purposes it is equally convenient to
regard each of these in turn as variable, to study its variations and find
how they are produced. When we do so we find with increasing clearness
the more deeply the subject is investigated, that the variability and the
constancy are closely related, the fi^ed value of one thing being due to
the interplay of the variables of others. Thus the constancy of the alveolar
00,2 pressure may be regarded as due to the interaction of such variables
as hydrogen ion concentration of blood, body temperature, ventUation
rate, oxygen pressure, &c., by which a state of equilibrium is maintained.
We have in the study of physiology many beautiful examples of this
closely woven texture of interdependent phenomena. Modify any condi-
tion concerning any one of them, and you at once set the machinery moving
in such a way as to counteract what you have done. And this is not what
life is but what it does, which distinguishes it — it adjusts the organism to
its environment.
There is a striking though superficial resemblance between this principle
of biological adaptation and the principle of Le Chatelier of ' the opposi-
tion of a reaction to further change ' which is expressed ' when any system
is in a state of physical or chemical eqmlibrium, a change in one of the
factors of equilibrium will cause a reverse change within the system.'
In living things, however, as Donnan has remarked, ' the activities,
and indeed the very existence, of a living organism depend on its con-
tinuous utilisation of an environment that is not in thermodynamic
equilibrium. A living organism is a consumer and transformer of external
free energy, and environmental equilibrium means non-activity and
eventual death.' Nevertheless, as Claude Bernard believed, and as
Henderson has strikingly illustrated, the internal environment is main-
tained very constant in certain respects, and this constancy is the outcome
of special activities which characterise life.
Glancing now towards the future, what may we say represents in a
few words the trend of modern physiology ? In many ways a great future
lies before it. Utilising the other sciences as its tools and itself reacting
powerfully on them, we can confidently predict progress to undreamt-of
heights, an enormous development of experimental pathology and medicine,
and far-reaching eSects on economic and sociological conditions. Yet,
implicit in these very potentialities, there is another and a gloomier side
to the picture. The rapidly accumulating wealth of detailed knowledge
and of special technique demands an increased specialisation ; unless
there is a periodic intellectual stocktaking there must inevitably be a loss
of perspective and of grasp of great general principles. But how can
this stocktaking be done ? Can team work ever reach that harmony of
action which distinguishes the individual ? Any scientific subject is
capable of indefinite expansion, and with the biological sciences it is hard
to foresee what the ultimate end of mere expansion can be. How will
scientific literature develop ? Will there have to be abstracts of abstract
journals and reviews of reviews ? Will the subdivision of the subject
necessitate in the long run the creation of lectureships or professorships
I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 167
to deal, for example, with the special physical chemistry of heterogeneous
equilibria in biological systems, with intermediary metabolism, with the
problems of hsemodynamics, or growth, or reproduction ? If so, how will
the results of their special investigations be brought to common ground
if no great unifying principles come to light ? Can we expect that such
unifying principles will appear : if they do not, will the progress of science
be brought to an end by the accumulation of its own products ?
The establishment of special research professorships, however profitable .
in isolated cases, cannot in my opinion make good this growing specialisa-
tion, because it will tend to divorce research and teaching and place the
teaching professor on a level of real or apparent inferiority. The idolisa-
tion of research for the sake of the advancement it brings is another of
the dangers which threaten us. If there is one thing worse than ' a
mediocrity who does no research ' it is ' a mediocrity who does.' There
are at the present time a large number of junior research posts available,
but not enough well-trained people adequately to fill them. This is all
to the good provided that those who on trial show no aptitude for the
work can be ruthlessly eliminated. As they often cannot, there are in
consequence a number of young people who drift from one research scholar-
ship to another, perhaps not aimlessly, but with no better objective than
the manufacture of papers designed to justify their employment. The
hapless editors of each of the swelling tide of journals are coaxed, hood-
winked and, if necessary, bullied, to ensure that these papers see the light
of day. In the fullness of time the list of short-time research posts is
exhausted, and the young investigator must now either turn to some
entirely different occupation or else, as one of my friends expressed it,
* subside into a professorial chair ' for which, incidentally, he is probably
entirely unfitted. The pursuit of science is nowadays, perhaps unfortu-
nately, a career, and one in which moreover it pays to advertise. Science,
we are often told, is the cream of civilisation. If we believe this let us
use all our endeavours to ensure that it be not a whipped cream, specious,
puffed up with wind, and presenting a fictitious appearance of solidity.
SECTION J.— PSYCHOLOGY.
THE NATURE OF SKILL.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. T. H. PEAR, M.A., B.Sc,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
Preparing the presidential address to a section in the British Association
offers special pleasures and perplexities. The subject may be partly
familiar to many, almost strange to others. Knowledge of this is apt to
produce in the writer an inner conflict. He tries to be clear to specialists
in his own subject and to those from other sections. Seeing the two
stools only too well he falls heavily between them.
The present theme, ' The Nature of Skill,' is no exception. Most
persons recognise skill when they see it, yet the terms with which they
try to analyse it are often lamentably vague and incommunicable.
The Concept of Skill.
The word ' skill ' is used in many ways. It is therefore reasonable
ihat for scientific purposes its connotation shall be slightly limited. The
following is proposed as a definition : Skill is an integration of well-adjusted
performances.
In such a terse statement all the words need explanation and illustra-
tion. First, it is useful to contrast skills which come within the range of
this definition with that type of adjustment which ij a collection of mere
habits.
The qualification ' mere ' is important. Habit, in some recent writings,
has included virtues, vices, thought, will, ssnsory discrimination, art,
intelligence, routine, plasticity, and sensitive response. This is a con-
comitant (one hopes, not inevitable) of abandoning the word instinct.
I would suggest that the outstanding feature of habit is its specificity.
The experimental work upon transfer of training has made a belief in
general habits untenable.
The Definition of Habit.
A habit may be defined as an acquired specific response to a specific
situation. As soon as we cease to respond specifically, or the situation
loses its specific character, our behaviour ceases to be habitual.
Skill is dependent upon habit, but not completely. The present
suggestion is that, treating the term skill with respect, we should apply it
only to the higher types of well-adjusted performance.
A Misuse of the Term ' Skilled.'
It is undesirable to use the word ' skilled ' to denote, not the workers'
performance, but the potential work waiting to be done. I am aware that
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 169
this is customary in industry. Hence this stricture. Its use hampers
analysis and clouds any presentation of the problems. For since there is
seldom only one way of doing a skilled job, the events occurring in the
bodies and minds of different performers will not be alike.
Possibly, in some metaphysical sense, a job may exist when nobody
is doing it. Yet, especially since May 1, 1926, there is now little enthusiasm
for this type of industrial subjective idealism.
To talk or write ebout the ' skilled job ' rather than the skilled man,
and about the ' skilled trade ' as if a trade were a unit, encourages un-
thinking people to believe (a) that work exists when it is not being done,
and (6) that this non-existent entity ' belongs ' to somebody. Both errors
are costly and stupid.
Skill and Low-Grade Collections of Habits.
Some so-called skills are a fortuitous concourse of habits. And
many of these are bad. Often no single habit in the number is well
adapted to the task, and the whole collection is only a makeshift, though
a makeshift for the whole life of its possessor. Contrast this with the
higher skills ; integrations, not mere collections of responses, and not
necessarily of habits only. Then to describe as skill some industrial
occupations, and some forms of domestic service in England, would be
flattery.
One of the first analyses of skill was made by Mr. Frank B. Gilbreth.
Studying a bricklayer, he found that his eighteen movements in laying a
brick could be reduced to five. One may conclude, therefore, that the
original performance which he analysed could be called skilled only in the
popular sense.
Skill, Capacity and Ability.
Skill must be distinguished from capacity and ability. To possess a
delicately discriminative inner ear and muscles under perfect control is
to have capacity for musical performance. Obviously, such gifts may
exist in a person who as yet has shown no musical ability. For he proves
his ability to do a thing by doing it. Even by failing he does not neces-
sarily demonstrate his lack of capacity. For if untaught he usually will
have tried to do it in the wrong way.
Skill is clearly ability, but ability to do a relatively complicated
series of actions easily and well. A man who can run need not be skilled
in running. But if he has learnt to move his legs well, to regulate his
breathing, to sprint at a particular point or moment, to estimate the time
in which it is wise to run a particular lap, to adapt himself to different
tracks, different lengths of race, different classes of competition, and
different competitors, he possesses skill in running races.
Skill, therefore, implies discrimination of the situation and graduation
of the response. But to this should be added what I suggest as the
essential characteristic of^skill — ^the ability to integrate responses,^ and in
^ Cf. the description and photographs of the modem skilled high-jumper in Prof.
A. V. Hill's Living Machinery, London, J 927, pp. 202 and 208.
170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the highest skills to substitute, instantaneously if necessary, one type of
integrated response for another.
In man, this integration of well-adjusted performances is acquired and
fused with natural aptitude, the nature of which will be discussed in a
moment.
Skill and Reflex Action.
Those reflex mechanisms which contribute to balance, to the main-
tenance of posture, and to the efficient co-ordination of action are an
important basis of skill. In this sphere we honour the famous con-
tributions of Sherrington, Head, Magnus, and Pavlov, to whose great
work. Conditioned Reflexes,- we stand too near to see it in perspective.
Can the physiologist regard skill as entirely an integration of
conditioned reflexes ? Eventually, perhaps. More than that we cannot
say. We are warned not to exaggerate their interpretation.
An impressive fact is that to ensure the certain conditioning of a
reflex the control of external surroundings must be complete. The
necessity, for example, of a sound-proof laboratory, of the absence of the
experimenter, to say nothing of spectators, emphasises the specificity
both of situation and response. Skill, on the other hand, typically shows
itself in the rapid adjustment to a changing environment and to unforeseen
conditions.
It seems premature to speculate whether the ' conditioned response '
formula, valuable as it is, will prove adequate to explain skill as well as
habit. Yet — to pass from conditioned to unconditioned or ' racial ' reflexes
— there seems to be no doubt that neuro-rauscular patterns controlling them
can be inherited. But here the relation of inherited to acquired ability
is complex and subtle. Such a fundamental activity as walking is affected
by race, education, dress, profession and transient fashion. Even if we
confine our consideration to a dominantly reflex event such as the
assumption and maintenance of posture, it is clear that in ourselves the
matter may be partly controlled by consciousness. By taking thought
we can improve balance, assume different types of balance, even plan
balances in advance.
Skill and Instinct.
Comparison of human and animal behaviour has always offered great
attractions — and risks — to members of the British Association. Yet I
believe that the present comparison is not difficult. While many animals
inherit high-grade skills, man does not. Birds inherit skill in nest-building,
the kingfisher making one type, the swallow another, and moreover,
selecting different materials.
At birth, man is spectacularly unskilled. The skills which he sub-
sequently acquires are almost entirely determined by his social and
material environment. But he compensates for his start from scratch
by the number and complexity of the skills which he soon acquires. And
of these, language, whose raw material is speech-habits, is an amazing
example.
» Oxford, 1927,
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 171
An animal may blend acquired with inherited skill. The song-thrush
may learn deftly to break snail-shells upon a stone. Yet in animals the
modification of such inherited skill is relatively small, compared with
improvements made by man.
Human instincts (inherited, general responses to general situations,
characteristic of the species) probably play unimportant r61es in the
final polished expression of human skill. Yet they may powerfully
impel a person to strive to acquire a skill against material and human
obstacles. Tendencies to self-assertion and self-display, pugnacity,
gregariousness, and desire to win the regard of the opposite sex are such
forces. Whether they be regarded as integrations of reflexes or instincts
happens to matter little in the present connexion.
Skill and Habit.
That a congeries of habits ought not to be dignified by the name skill
has already been suggested. Naturally, habits are important components
of any skill. But in skill worth the name they are of a special kind.
They ensure adequate adaptation. Moreover, especially if the conditions
demanding adaptation are complicated and numerous, the habitual
movements interact so that the whole skilled action is more than the sum
of its parts. This may be illustrated from lawn tennis. A player may
acquire useful habits, such as gripping the racket correctly and placing
his feet and body so as to get his weight behind the drive. But if a return
has to be made from outside the side-line, the orthodox position of the
feet and the body must be modified to accelerate the quick assumption of
another position on the court, and another balance. For the ball has
usually been placed there to get him out of position for the next return.
Skill, as distinct from habit, involves the ability to be aware of, and
to correct, imperfect or faulty adjustment. This is implied, for example, in
a surgeon's or automobile driver's skill. While skill employs habits, it
can immediately interfere with, break up or modify any combination of
them. This makes it easier to study in its lower than in its higher forms.
But this fact should not encourage students of skill to draw too wide
conclusions from the observation of its humbler components. It would
be difficult to infer the properties of alcohol from the most complete and
rigidly scientific study of charcoal.
Patterning a Characteristic of Skill.
The term ' pattern ' has appeared frequently in recent psychological
writings. But its meanings have been different and not easy to equate.
It will be used here simply and objectively to mean an arrangement of
human movements in time and space which shows integrated order.
Always in theory, and often in practice, such a pattern could be
recorded, e.g. by Gilbreth's moving, interrupted light fastened to any
salient part of the body. Such a pattern could be left by the shoes of a
dancer, if they were suitably treated. The ice and the snow record
beautifully some movements of the skater and the ski-rimner. But they
receive a trace only of one part of the body. Usually, however, many
other parts are simultaneously moving in unison, in harmony, perhaps
172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
even in counterpoint. All these spatial and temporal characteristics of
pattern could be recorded. But equally important would be the delicate
variations in force, corresponding to accent.
This integration of the part-actions into wholes usually expresses the
individuality of the performer. It is unlikely, for example, that the
separate steps of a dance are ever fused into a whole without being changed.
Skill and Awareness.
Unless and until a highly skilled action has become really automatic,
the performer is aware of its integral character. This awareness, unclear
though it may be, determines the character of the part-actions. Examples
are stress, accent and intonation in speech. As the sentence is initiated
the whole, of which the speaker is aware, determines the parts. To speak
a foreign language well, one must raise and lower the voice at points quite
different from those which would receive the stress in one's own tongue.
To acquire such skill the learner must attend not so much to the single
words as to the whole sentence.
This patterning, which dominates corresponding bodily and mental
events, acts upon reflex, instinctive and habitual mechanisms. When
it employs habits it usually transmutes them into actions less fixed and
more adapted to the situation.
' Knack.'
A most interesting example of patterning in skill is ' knack.' It would
be unprofitable to quarrel about the exact meaning to be attached to a
popular word, but the definition of Mr. Vivian Caulfeild in his book ' How
to Ski '^ promises to be as useful in theory as it is in practice.
He defines knack as ' the ability to perform easily a rapid and accurate
co-ordinated movement of a number of muscles,' and continues :
If this movement is an unaccustomed one the ability to perform
it properly is only attainable by long practice.
The action of throwing, for instance, requires knack. It is this
which makes it so difficult to learn to throw with the left hand, even
though one already has the ability to move the left arm with quite
sufficient strength and speed, and knows not only how the movement
should be made, but even how it feels, to make it with the other hand.
Writing is another excellent example of knack.
In ski-running nothing which can strictly be called knack comes
into play. In this sport the voluntary muscular movements (as
distinguished from the involuntary ones used in keeping the balance)
are neither complicated nor unusual, and, except in jumping, they
need seldom be rapid. Any difficulty in learning them is due partly
to the disturbing effect on one's clear-headedness^of^the speed at
which one is travelling, and partly to the fact that some of the move-
ments, though simple in themselves, are almost the reverse of those
one's natural instinct would prompt one to make in the circumstances.
This difficulty, of course, diminishes with practice, but an effort of
will goes just as far as, or even farther than, practice towards over-
» London, 1924, pp. 10-12.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 173
coming it. Were it not for this difficulty a man who had been told
the right way to perform the various manoeuvres employed in ski-ing
might very well do them fairly correctly the first time he tried (as
many people actually do), while no amount of strength, activity,
intelligence or confidence would enable him, if right-handed, to throw
or write properly with his left hand without long practice.
Knack, therefore, may be regarded as the ability to impose upon one's
behaviour very rapidly a special well-adapted pattern.
In throwing a ball, it has been demonstrated^ that a number of
muscle-groups must co-operate, simultaneously and successively, very
rapidly. The succession of events which make up the performance is
suddenly accelerated. The leisured semibreves and minims give place to
tense semiquavers and demisemiquavers ; the wide folds in the time-
fabric ruck into pleats.
The Relatioit of Skill to Natural Aptitude.
If such analysis of skill be admissible as a foundation for investigation,
aptitude for a particular form of skill may be regarded as based upon
well-marked and well-co-ordinated reflexes, instinctive tendencies suitable
to the task, adapted habits, and the power, or maybe powers, of patterning.
This power might be partly innate, partly acquired. To produce new
patterns may be a mark of genius in skill. The loss of patterning-power
through fear, fatigue, cerebral injury, drugs or unusual physiological
happenings offers a fascinating series of problems, especially in their
relation to individual differences.
Of high-grade skill there are two types :
(a) Unoriginal. This skill may effect very complex and satisfactory
adjustment. It characterises some — perhaps most — processes in industry,
and many in the army and navy, where predictability of action is a sine
qua lion, and originality may be unpopular, inconvenient or dangerous.
(b) Skill containing something personal, creative, unique and difficult
or impossible to copy.
Psychologically interesting is the adherence of different nations,
different strata of society, and of the same strata at different times to
certain patterns in skill. The antagonism of lovers of the original waltz
to those of the newer kind, and of these latter, one reads, towards those
of the newest, is as instructive as the pained aloofness and amused in-
difference in the mutual regard of the two schools of figure-skating.
The Interference of Skill-Patterns.
Clumsiness, arising in a formerly skilled action, is sometimes due to
the interference of a new recently learnt pattern with an older one, to
which it is partly similar but to which some of its constituents are
antagonistic. A superlatively skilled person may establish the inde-
pendent status of the two patterns. But usually, unless such a separation
be consciously effected, they will interfere.
An example may be taken from ski-ing. In making a certain
■ Christiania swing,' at one point the ski-er must lean away from the
* A. V. Hill, oj). cit., pp. 203 jfif.
174 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
direction of the turn.^ This is unwelcome to most beginners, as it may-
involve deliberately leaning down the hill. But it offers unique difficulties
to any figure-skater who has consciously perfected the habit of leaning
automatically and invariably towards the turn. It is possible, however,
consciously to separate, to recognise and to understand the two require-
ments. Thus a person who skis and skates regularly may effect an
integration which comprises both turns.
A master of only one class of movement-patterns, however perfect,
in a certain sphere of activity may in one sense be less skilled than another
who disposes of several. Yet the first, because of his excellent expression
of that one pattern, may be popularly regarded as the more skilled. It
might be said that his intensive skill is greater, his extensive skill less than
the other's.
And here, remembering the complications in any discussion of a related
subject, intelligence, we may ask : ' Do special skills exist in a person
alongside a general skill ? ' I have discussed this subject, and researches
which bear upon it, elsewhere.^ It is too complicated to be developed
here. But there is reason to believe that though the extensively skilled
person may be jack of all trades and master of none, his skill in some
directions might be brought to a higher level by good teaching and
intelligent learning, events which are becoming commoner every day.
' Propria ' and ' Accidents ' of Skill.
(a) In sport. — One may pertinently inquire if some of the features of
ordinary sport-skills are essential or accidental. Borrowing terms from
logic, we may inquire if skill has its propria and its accidents.
He who would answer this should purge himself of local and topical
prejudices. Many persons assume that skill must consist in the delicate
co-ordination of hand and eye and in the timing of complex actions to
coincide with a momentary combination of external events. Both these
gifts are often indispensable in dealing with a moving ball. But the
hurling of missiles is not the only skill to which man aspires. Certain
skills are proudly possessed by the blind. Delicate timing enters hardly
at all into many kinds of postural skill, and is seldom necessary for
industrial tasks. So probably those subjects which an Englishman would
naturally want to study, moving-ball games, should be put late m the
programme. More may be hoped at present from the study of postural
skills, depending little upon the athlete's ' eye.' Such are swimming,
gymnastics, ski-ing, skating, dancing, and eurhythmies.
Sometimes competition in skill is a proprium, sometimes not.^ The
most obvious kind of competition is destructive, where A tries to spoil the
effect of B's skill, or to prevent it, as in boxing, fencing, football and
hockey. Cricket and tennis involve semi-destructive competition, through
prohibitions of space. Your cross-court shot may merely amuse your
opponent, but at least it lived from your racket to the net.
In many sports the competition is non-destructive. The performances
may even be successive, with every chance for the competitor to do his
5 Caulfeild, op. cit., pp. 178 ff.
6 Skill in Work and Play. London, 1924, pp. 22 ff.
'' Cf. an article ' Physical Culture in Germany,' Manchester Guardian, July 24, 1928.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 175
best. And for this reason I believe they will the sooner repay study.
Smith's six-foot high-jump can never be spoiled by Jones collaring him
low at the take-off.
These distinctions may be obvious. But I have never seen them made
in scientific discussions of skill. A little less obvious, perhaps, is the
thought that different types of competition are excelled in by persons of
different temperaments. Too much of the fighter's spirit and too little
of the artist's and thinker's may lose many games.
In many skills emotion is an ' accident.' Obviously a player should
keep his head. But coolness may be but indirectly related to skill. Some
play better when keyed up, fearing nerves less than stodginess ; some
wilt at the thought of spectators ; others admit, even seek, the inspiration
of a friendly and understanding crowd.
Though emotion as an accidental factor may help or hinder the
expression of skill, yet in music and acting it may blend with and form an
integral part of the expression. Actors, for example, sometimes genuinely
feel the emotion which they are portraying.^
To discuss the problem of what is loosely called ' nerve ' in sport is
impossible here.
(b) In work. — In industry many skilled actions are performed in
unvaried conditions, with little or no emotion. Important exceptions
exist which the public often finds it convenient to forget, as, for example,
in coal-mining. However, it would not be surprising if the problems of
skill in industry, complex though many of them are, proved to be easier
than those of skill in sport.
Thus far an attempt has been made to filter the general concept of
skill and to reject irrelevant meanings. In dealhig with industrial skill
I am indebted to an article by Miss Anna Bezanson.^ She writes :
Considering the glibness with which workmen are pigeon-holed as
' skilled,' ' semi-skilled,' and ' labourers ' in many industries, it is
surprising to find little definition of what constitutes skill or lack of
skill. Everyone takes it for granted that precisely what he means is
understood by referring to a workman as possessed of ' skill.'
We may utilise her collection of ' accidental ' factors in industrial skill.
(1) Accepting responsibility for many independent decisions. — Though
arriving at these decisions may involve skill, the acceptance of responsibility
is due to other factors. When the acceptance is voluntary and congenial,
these factors are domniating sentiments. In our country the more
expensive systems of education successfully inculcate such a ready
acceptance of responsibility. Sometimes, however, their pupils seem
puzzled by the lack of a similar readiness in those who have been schooled
more cheaply. Remedies for this will be gladly suggested by the teachers
concerned. Smaller classes and larger playing fields come early on their
lists.
(2) Learning about the capabilities of materials. — This involves the
ordinary processes of acquiring knowledge. Muscular or kintesthetic
knowledge can only be obtained by doing. But with the progress of
science it is every day easier to get from books knowledge which was
" Cf. W. James's chapter on the Emotions in his Principles of Psychology.
'■> Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. xxxvi, 1921-2, pp. 626-45.
176 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
formerly locked up iu the skill, real or alleged, of the professional. Cookery
supplies many examples. The use of the weighing machine, the clock
and the thermometer will supersede many rules of thumb. A child who
has never made tea, but has read that the water poured on it should be
boiling, knows better than many so-called skilled cooks.
(3) The possession of judgment and knoioledge coiicermng apparently
' outside ' jobs may rank a person as skilled in the primary occupation.
In practice this may be important. Its theoretical meaning is simply
that other things, including intensity, being equal, the greater the extensity
of skill the better.
(4) The ability to transfer knowledge and skill to a different industry and
to different material.— This raises the question of the relation between
general and specific training in a pleasingly concrete and useful form.
Actually it does so twice, once in the realm of knowledge and once in the
realm of power. This will be discussed separately.
In industry a relatively new event may simplify the problem. Trans-
ference of a worker from one type of machine, or even from one type of
industry, to another may be facilitated by deliberately designing the
machine with that aim. A simple operation on a certain machine may
nowadays be a unit in the production of quite different articles. So
successful transference of skill may reflect credit not on the worker but
on the machine designer and on the employer, an example of the portentous
' fractional distillation ' of skill of which more will be said in the joint
discussion with the Section of Economic Science on Monday morning,
September 10.
A special instance of the interrelations between mental abilities (and
bodily ones) is raised in the consideration of
(5) Keenness of Perception. — In theory, keenness of perception, which
means fine sensory discrimination, e.g. of colours and tones, or perceptual
discrimination, e.g. of shapes or patterns (not, of course, visual only),
might or might not be linked to superlative skill. The method of correla-
tion makes it possible to investigate this relationship. Pioneer work has
already been done by Prof. Carl E. Seashore in the investigation of musical
talent." But, while it is unlikely that superlative skill will ever be found
linked to subnormal discrimination, a high correlation between them
cannot be assumed. And the correlation between sensory discrimination
and general intelligence, though usually positive, is very low."
(6) Appreciation of the interrelation of factory processes. — This involves
intelligence rather than skill. But success in appreciating any relations
may depend upon the way in which the data have been vouchsafed, and
the extent to which they are obscured or illuminated by well-meant and
enthusiastic ' explanation.' Explaining complex matters usually requires
a skilled explainer. The skilled performer often does it especially badly.
A General Classification of Skills.
We may now attempt to classify skills, working upwards from the
lowest type.
^o'The Psychology of Musical Talent. Boston, 1919.
'^i Psychological Tests of Educable Capacity. London, 1924. Cf. T. H. Pear,
Skill in Work and Play, p. 23.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 177
(1) Collections of imperfectly adapted responses. — This class includes
much domestic work, the skill of most labourers and of workers in the
semi-skilled trades. (It is true that some apparently simple tasks would
be placed higher in the scale by an expert than by a scientific observer.
It is equally true that an intensively skilled person may honestly over-
estimate the absolute difficulty of his special skill.)
(2) Perfectly adapted responses which do not exhibit personality. —
Such are the movements on parade of the perfectly drilled soldier. Military
skill of this kind may be compared with the skill which would result in
industry if a stereotyped series of actions, however efficient, were rigidly
prescribed to the worker. Its advantages and defects are clear in military
organisation. While the engineer, Mr. Frederick W. Taylor, tried to
prevent ' soldiering ' in the old American sense of that word, i.e. taking
things easily, his own uimiodified system would have produced soldiermg
of a modern type. This is recognised by many of his disciples.^'
(3) Responses resembling habits, but less specific and automatic. — The
importance and distinctive nature of such responses make one doubt
the wisdom of classing them with habits. For habitual actions are
inadequate to the situations which these others meet so very perfectly.
Such responses are exemplified in sport when rapid, delicately effective
complex adjustment is made towards the surface upon which the player
is moving, e.g. wet and dry, hard and grass tennis courts, heavy and light
football grounds, hard, soft, smooth and bumpy ice, and different hard-
nesses and elevations of snow-slopes. Such adjustments appear neither
to the understanding external observer to be mechanical, nor subjectively
to their performer to be unconscious.
This adaptation may be effected to conditions both outside and inside
the body. A performer who is feeling ill, without decreasing control, may
modify his movements so that less strain is put upon his muscles. A first-
class automobile driver's adaptive behaviour in traffic makes the average
motorist look like the bundle of habits which some pessimists declare man
to be.
(4) Responses like those in (3), but exhibiting in their totality a pattern
characteristic of the individual. This pattern may be original or unoriginal.
A style which appears to the spectator to be unique may have been
imparted by a teacher, though to it the pupil usually adds some personal
touches.
Types (3) and (4) shade into each other, though in (4) an aspect implicit
in (3) is emphasised. Probably these are in the minds of the protesters
against the standardisation of industrial tasks. '^
(5) Creative Skill. — This is no place to discuss the psychology of
creative genius. But in this realm two kinds of creation may be dis-
tinguished. One is unconscious, or nearly so, as when a pioneer declares
that his work finds its way out of him. Perhaps we may call it the
artistic kind. The other results from deliberate analysis of earlier attempts,
" Of. H. S. Person, ' Scientific Management." Report of First Triennial Congress
of International Association for the Study of Human Relations in Industry, July 1928,
pp. 29-43 { Javastraat 66, The Hague).
''■■ Of. R. M. Fox, The Triumphant Machine, London, 1928, and list given in Pear,
Fitness for Work, pp. 146-7.
1928 N
178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
satisfactory to the ordinary person (a host of problems are covered by the
word ' complacency '") but provoking to the genius.
Such analysis '' may involve recall in memory (visual, muscular, and
verbal) of various skilled feats, comparison and discrimination between
them, selection of their relevant aspects, re-comparison with some aim
in view, re-combination, and as a result, an unanalysed — perhaps un-
analysable — polish which fuses the movements into a dazzling new unity.
This is inventive creation in skill residting from analysis. It is seen
and will be seen oftener in the world of play and art. It may increase
in the world of industry, if industry desires and deserves it.
Intelligence, Intellect and Skill.
It is necessary to consider the place, in this scheme, of intelligence.
What is its relation to skill ?
Writers have observed that it is easier to_^say who is intelligent than
what is intelligence ; to agree upon what intelligence does than upon
what it is. It seems possible for our purpose to describe intelligence by
its fruits.
Acknowledging the value of certain recent writings which expound a
different view, I still feel that for practical purposes intelligence may be
described as the individual's capacity for adaptation to a new situation.
Summarising Dr. P. B. Ballard's description,'" we may say that
intelligence is more fully manifested in the higher mental processes than
in the lower. It is specially employed in situations- which present points
of novelty, i.e. the solution of problems. It is concerned more with the
dissection, planning, and rearrangement of the data of experience than
with the mere reception of impressions.
None of these assertions conflict with the possibility of a muscular or
' kinaesthetic ' intelligence.''
Intelligence is clearly a capacity, not an ability nor a skill. In
particular it is not the ability to learn, though the two may be closely
related. A learner may supplement low intelligence by the skilful use of
various devices and of good tutors. But to choose the devices, or the
tutors who supply them, is often a sign of great intelligence, though not
necessarily in the learner himself.
It may be useful to summarise the mental powers which operate along-
side and are often confused with intelligence. It is not habit, knowledge,
the ease which comes with practice, interest, capacity for taking pains
or for application.'"
Skill and Intellect.
The use to be proposed of the term intellect is less orthodox. Yet
those who believe that the real meaning of a word necessarily exists in a
dictionary may be reminded that dictionaries occasionally grow out of date.
^* Cf. Baup, Complacency, London, 1928.
*5 It may follow the lines of analytic thinking in general. Cf. Pear, British Journal
of Psychology, 1921, vol. xi., pp. 72-80.
'^ The New Examiner, London, pp. 116 ff.
" Cf. W. F. Dearborn, Intelligence Tests, Boston, 1928, pp. 112 ff.
18 Reasons for this fairly orthodox view are given in Fitness for Work, pp. 53 j^.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 179
For Plato, as Prof. Spearman writes, intellect was the permanent mental
power, intelligence the putting of this power into use. He adds that
' intellect,' which seems to be deliberately avoided by most writers, has
always been essentially characterised by the power of abstraction. '"
Yet the view seems justifiable that ' intellectual,' as used popularly
nowadays, means ' able to express oneself in words ' (spoken or written).
If its meaning be narrowed only slightly it would be very useful in
the present connexion. The successful, deliberate use of any words to
express oneself would be intellectual. Emitting words merely as speech-
habits would not. This use, I submit, allows one to characterise a type
very common in these days of universal reading and writing — the person
who is definitely classed as intellectual though not necessarily -highly
intelligent.
Now many muscular knowledges differ from most other kinds in that
they have almost no proper language. While it is manifestly possible to
be intelligent about them, it is less easy to be intellectual. To describe
skill, one's vocabulary often has to be collected in the grand-stand, the
newspaper ofl&ce, the study and the laboratory, rather than on the field of
action. Perhaps because so many persons, skilled in certain directions,
are inarticulate and almost mute, one tends to consider them as un-
intellectual. Yet their type of muscular knowledge may possess few
words, even if they searched for some. Often they would be the last
persons to make such an effort.
In some spheres and by some exponents skill is becoming rapidly
intellectualised. Yet the die-hards may take comfort in the vast tracts
of untouched desert, both in their skills and in themselvee.
Let us look at ourselves for a moment through the eyes of one who
was in but not of our country. In The Return, Joseph Conrad pictures a
man —
' whose clear pale face had under its commonplace refinement
that . . . overbearing brutality which is given by the possession of
only partly difficult accomplishments ; by excelling in games. . . .'
May it be that such athletes have overcome only the non-intellectual
difficulties in their game ? To them it is just an occasion for the gleeful
exertion of sheer strength, of low cunning, for the permissible indulgence
of pugnacity and other simple instincts. One has met these men. The
intellectual challenge, the exhilarating possibility that undreamed-of
strokes, stances, breaks and swerves may be invented, are neither accepted
nor comprehended. Yet ten years after an innovation has elbowed itself
into the game's structure these men will be sternly teaching it.
To summarise this, a person skilled in work, art or sport, may not be
intelligent or intellectual. Yet he may show one, two or all these qualities
in a characteristic personal fusion. The thrice-blessed intelligent, skilled
intellectual would use his intelligence upon his problems of behaviour.
In this he would be helped by his intellect {i.e. by his power to recall, to
select and to employ words) in formulating the problems, and in abstracting
and expressing the general principles which he discovers or uses in solving
them.
" The Abilities of Man, London, 1926, pp. 28 and 33.
N2
180 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
When the knowledge which he seeks is available in the words of others,
his intelligence and intellect will enable him more easily to understand
and, if necessary, to paraphrase them. If he can visualise pictures, draw
them (these two gifts not being necessarily interdependent), and abstract
their salient features into diagrams, he will more easily communicate his
meaning to certain readers, who in their turn may criticise, destructively
and constructively. In this way he may bring the general principles
derived from his special sphere alongside those obtained from other realms
to which he may not have access. From such confrontations and intelli-
gent comparisons he may enunciate new principles. These, by means of
his skill, he can test in his own world of experience.
More suitable words than ' intellect ' may be found for the mental
power or group of powers described above. After much consideration
I think that ' intellect ' seems to do this best. Its adoption, however,
suggests one disquieting possibility. It might encourage those who
assume, tacitly or noisily, that conceptual intelligence and abstract thmking
cannot be appraised or tested except by the use of words and numbers.
Prof. W. F. Dearborn writes :
The reason why it has been so difl&cult ' to devise tests of the
non-verbal or " performance " type which will bring out intellectual
differences much above the level of the average child of ten or a dozen
. years, ' may be due to the fact that the verbalist and the scholastic
have hitherto been the ones chiefly interested in the development of
intelligence tests, and they have naturally chosen tests in the use of
which their own intellectual powers will not suffer by comparison.'"'
He insists upon respect for the intelligence which thinks in terms of
things rather than with the symbols for things.'^' As an illustration he
quotes Prof. H. H. Turner's account of the way in which apparent changes
in the wind's direction, observed in a boat ' putting about ' on a river,
suggested to Dr. Bradley the cause of the apparent changes in the
direction of a star's light.^^
It is useful to remind readers that abstract thinking is not confined to
the use of auditory and visual symbols.^'' In so far as intelligence tests
are limited to them, so far will the intelligence of an important section of
the population be improperly gauged. For this reason I proj)ose, for
psychological purposes, the use of the word ' intellect ' in the above-
described way. It enables us to emphasise the fact that people who can
do things may or may not be able to analyse and describe their performance.
It would also remind the mute ones that their silence is not more golden
than any other silence.
The Relation between Different Motor Abilities.
Tests of intelligence give results which correlate highly with each other.
But there is no justified single concept enabling us to explain why some
•» Op. cit., pp. 109, 110.
'^1 Cf. Mr. Aldous Huxley on the academic mind, in Proper Studies, London, 1927.
^^- E. Freundlich, The Foundations of Einstein's Theory of Gravitation. English
translation by H. L. Brose. Introduction by H. H. Turner. Cambridge, 1920,
pp. 11, 12.
'■^ Cf. T. H. Pear, Remembering and Forgetting, London, p. 229.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 181
persons seem generally clever with their muscles. While there seems
ample evidence for the existence of general intelligence, the results of
simple tests for isolated motor performances from which intelligence has
been excluded, as far as possible, give extremely low or negative correla-
tions with each other. Moreover, these results do not warrant belief in
any special connexion of simple motor abilities with intelligence.^^
From these results far-reaching deductions have been made by some
writers. One is that there is no general capacity, no ' motor type ' of
person. The conclusion concerning vocational tests has been drawn that
tests for ability in any performance give valid results only when the test-
performance is identical with that for which the test is being administered.
They support the ' sample ' as against the ' analogous ' test.''^
Yet an alternative explanation of Perrin's and Muscio's findings is
possible, based upon a suggestion made by Sir Henry Head to the present
writer. Their tests involve the simplest muscular co-ordinations. Many
of them were confined to limited parts of the body. From the tests used
by Muscio, demands upon intelligence were excluded.
As a consequence, the bodily mechanisms involved may have been
controlled by relatively low levels of the nervous system. The significance
of the test-results, therefore, would not exclude the possibility that in
skilled performances a higher, more complex power might employ and
co-ordmate the simple mechanisms.
Another consideration is important. In intelligence tests, that the
subjects will do their best is (perhaps not quite justifiably) taken for
granted. Yet it cannot be assumed that the motives urging university
graduates and undergraduates (the performers in these motor tests) to
excel in a simple, trivial and often boring motor test are identical with
those producing keenness in a recognised test of intelligence. For to do
very badly in several tests generally agreed to measure intelligence would
cause more shame in university people than proved inability to thread
needles or to loop wool quickly over pegs.
The above tests, therefore, being concerned with simple motor abilities,
are important for the study of skill, rather as suggesting lines of inquiry
than as affording data.
Transfer of training between motor abilities.
Another method of attacking this problem is to re-set it in the well-
known form of the transfer of training.^'' Subjects are intensively trained
in some skilled activity xmtil their curves of practice have shown a marked
rise over a fairly long period. One discovers then if the undoubted ability
gained in the test-activity has been transferred to apparently related or
similar performances. "' Many ' controls ' are needed in such an experiment.
^ F. A. C. Perrin, Jour, of Exp. Psych., 1921, 4, pp. 24-56 ; B. Muscio, British
Jour, of Psych., 1922, 13, pp. 157-84 ; see also Perrin and Klein, Psychology, London,
1927, pp. 356j5f.
*^ This conclusion concerning simple motor dexterity has recently been supported
by the results of experiments. Cf. J. N. Langdon, Edna M. Yates and T. H. Pear,
' The Nature of Manual Dexterity and its Relation to Vocational Testing,' Nature-
May 12, 1928, pp. 773-^.
^' This technique has not been extensively used in the investigation of skill.
182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSE.S.
Recently Dr. C. E. Beeby^' investigated the transfer of ability between
performances involving one or both hands. Subjects were trained,
blindfold, to trace with a metal stylus (connected, to record errors, with
an electric circuit) along strips of metal, shaped in simple geometrical
forms. An initial positive transfer was found. With further practice
it gradually diminished. Finally, it passed over into its antithesis,
interference, or negative transfer. The amount of transfer, both initial
and final, proved to be the same whether it occurred
(a) from one hand's performance to that of the other,
(6) from a double-handed action to one of the single-handed movements
constituting it,
(c) from a single-handed to a double-handed action.
Beeby concluded that the agency of positive transfer was a general
mental attitude. He found no positive transfer of specific manipulative
habits. Indeed, nothing but interference occurred between them. This
interference explains the final negative transfer.
An extensive investigation into transfer of training in a low-grade
skill was recently carried out in the Manchester laboratory by J. N.
Langdon and Edna M. Yates.^" Possibly for the first time in such
experiments a number of conditions were rigidly observed. These were
the domination of the learners' motives, the selection of a really skilled
performance, though a simple one, as the test-activity, the testing of similar
control subjects in strictly comparable conditions, and the simultaneous
provision of ' anal)rtic ' tests, i.e. tests of simple powers which appeared to
be components of the training-activity.
The operation selected for intensive training was modified from one
in the driving-chain industry. The subject sits before a small turntable.
It carries fixed pairs of spindles upon which links have been placed. As
he brings each of these in turn before him, he removes it from the turn-
table, dropping the link into a box at his right hand. Simultaneously he
takes another link from a box at his left and places it upon the pair of
spindles, reinstating the whole upon the turntable. He then rotates the
turntable, bringing the next unit into position, and repeats the whole
operation.
Thirt.y-two unemployed boys aged sixteen, paid at a high piece-rate,
were thus trained, each for two weeks. These constituted the ' trained
group.' Before training, each boy's performance was measured in the
various tests designed to detect the presence of transfer, if any.
These had been selected after a careful observational analysis of the
operation with the links and spindles. Most of them were simple tests
of manual dexterity, such as inserting matches in holes, filling a box with
matches, slijaping curtain-rings over a rod, threading links with twine,
reproducing from memory the angle of an arm-movement, or the force
with which a recording anvil had been struck by the subject's hammer,
'^' Unpublished research in the psychological laboratories of University College,
London, and Manchester University.
'^^ ' An Experimental Investigation into Transfer of Training in Skilled Per-
formances,' British Journal of Psychology, 18, 1928, pp. 422-37. This research was
made possible by financial help from the Industrial Fatigue Research Board and the
Lewis Scholarship in Applied Psychology.
J.— PSYCHOLOGY. 183
static and dynamic steadiness, and — to discover if the training in the
skilled action had affected more purely ' mental ' functions — tests in
mental arithmetic and tests involving the rapid and accurate cancellation
of specified letters in a page of print.
This series of tests was given on three occasions : (1) before training,
(2) at the end of the first week, (3) at the end of the fortnight. They may
be called transfer tests, 1, 2, and 3.
Identical tests were given, in the same order and at the expiration of
the same three periods, to twenty-eight similar subjects who meanwhile
received no training. These were the control group.
Since the trained group contained thirty-two and the control group
twenty-eight subjects, statistical treatment is justifiable. In no instance
was the difference between the trained and the control group, with regard
to their improvement in transfer test 3 as compared with 1, of such a
magnitude as to exclude the possibility of its being due to chance factors.
In some results the brief practice afforded by the test itself was definitely
shown to have had more effect than the intensive training in an apparently
analogous performance.
The experiment supports the view that in such conditions training in
a low-grade skill is specific rather than general. These manual habits
did not transfer.
How may such a clear-cut result be explained ? The following con-
siderations may be suggested :
Writers upon transfer of training'^'' who know the experimental
evidence believe that one of the chief agents of transfer is the formation
of a sentiment. In the present experiment there was no encouragement
to form a general sentiment about the acquisition of skill, which might
spread to other skills.
The conditions were as unsentimental as might be. The workers
were never exhorted to do their best. The only encouragement was the
very real one of immediate personal gain. Conversely, slack work
automatically caused less pay. This was made known to the learner with
little delay. The personal influence of the experimenters was as little
and as unchanged as possible. The workers were paid, and highly paid,
to transfer. Yet demonstrable transfer did not occur.
It may be urged that when practice in a skill has hardened it into a
' habit-unit ' this latter becomes partially dissociated from the rest of the
personality. Examples might be given of the way in which low-grade
industrial skills require minimal attention. Transfer, therefore, might
not be expected between this almost ' insulated ' entity and the rest of
the personality. Hardening the skill into a series of habits may have
decreased the possibility of ' ordinary ' transfer.
Since the test was given three times ; the subjects were not ' saturated
•^0 Ballard, P. B. The Changing School, London, 1925. Fox, C, Educational
Psychology, Cambridge, 1927. Pear, T. H., Skill in Work and Play, Chapter V. Perrin,
F. A. C, and Klein, L. W., Psychology, London, 1927, pp. 280-286. Sandiford, P.,
Educational Psychology, London, 1928, pp. 275-300. Thomson, G. H., Instinct,
Intelligence and Character, London, 1925. Thomdike, E. L., ' Mental Discipline in
High School Studies,' Jour, of Educational Psychology, XV., January and February
1924, pp. 1-22, 83-98.
184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES'
with practice at the second test ; and even at the third, practice was not
at a maximum, data may be obtained concerning this point by comparing
the results of the three tests.
A comment made by Mr. F. C. Bartlett is that, at school or college,
practice in different activities between which transfer is supposed to occur
is not acquired in the manner of this experiment. Pupils do not practise
one task exclusively for days and then turn equally exclusively to another.
During any one day several different activities (at least dix, but at school
often many more) are practised successively. This might facilitate the
transference of attitudes towards the work, ideals, sentiments and
knowledge of methods applicable to different tasks.
To examine these hypotheses the experiment described above is being
continued in a modified form.
This conception of the isolation of a habit has obvious relationships,
which cannot be explored here, to that of the conditioned response.
The evidence seems now to establish that the problem of transfer may
be divided into two parts :
(a) Transfer resulting from and due merely to exercise of any particular
function ;
(6) transfer resulting from extension of attitudes, sentiments, ideals or
knowledge of methods, where the particular function trained was the
vehicle of these mental powers.
It now seems certain that (a) is rare, and that (b) definitely can occur.
But in educational institutions, where subjects or parts of subjects are
taught by different persons, the chances of transfer through common
applicable methods discovered by the learner himself, or through sentiments,
is much less. And the automatic occurrence of transfer can ne^er in the
future be assumed by anyone conversant with the facts.
SECTION K.— BOTANY.
SEX AND NUTRITION IN THE FUNGI.
ADDRESS BY
PROF. DAME HELEN GWYNNE-VAUGHAN, D.B.E., D.Sc, LL.D.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
I THINK all members of Section K know the unhappy reason which prevents
us to-day from hearing an address from the President of our choice, and
I am sure that I may convey to Prof. R. H. Yapp our sincere sympathy
and regret and our cordial hopes for his speedy recovery. I came into
the picture because I had been appointed a vice-president, and that, I
am proud to remember, was largely due to the association of my husband's
name with the University of Glasgow.
At the last Glasgow meeting in 1901 the President of the section was
Prof. Bayley Balfour, whose memorial we shall see unveiled on Saturday.
He referred to the excellent quarters in which we find ourselves as ' this
magnificent Botanical Institute ' opened ' a few months ago . . . with
all the distinction that the presence of our veteran botanist. Sir Joseph
Hooker . . . could give to the ceremony.' Much has changed in the inter-
vening twenty-seven years, but not the hospitality of the Department of
Botany in Glasgow. Some of the changes in botanical outlook are vividly
brought home to a reader of the presidential address on angiosperms in
1901, a period when triple fusion was new and pteridosperms were
unknown.
My first duty is to refer to the botanical losses of the year. Benjamin
Daydon Jackson died, as the result of an accident, after sixty years of
unremitting work on botany ; William Charles Frank Newton was near
the beginning of his scientific career, but had already done enough to make
his loss a heavy one. Edward Francis Linton and Robert Miller Christy
will be remembered for their work on British plants, and Sir Harry
Johnston for his collections and discoveries overseas.
Apart from two brilliant addresses on plant pathology by Marshall
Ward in 1897 and V. H. Blackman in 1924, the fungi have never been
the subject of a presidential address in Section K. Last year the President
dealt with the elementary types of holophytic plant life, and traced their
origin from the pigmented Flagellata ; it is not inappropriate that we
should turn to-day to saprophytic and parasitic forms.
These have often been assumed to be derived in small groups from
diverse phyla of green plants, but increasing knowledge of the fungi has
emphasised the characters that they have in common, and has shown
many of their resemblances to the higher algae to be superficial, examples
of homoplasy rather than homology. There are exceptions to this as to
186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
every generalisation. No one would doubt that such saprophytes as the
Polyblepharidacese are truly algal, and Monoblepharis, though classified
as a fungus, is possibly allied to the filamentous green plants.
It may be hazarded that the fungi as a whole have their origin, perhaps
a common origin, among the Protista, and that they form a line of evolution
parallel with those of animals and green plants, in some sense comparable
to both, butMerived from neither.
Phycomycetes.
The simplest members of the Phycomycetes show biciliate zoospores,
the cilia being lateral and oppositely directed ; in Olpidium?- and
Synchytrium^ sexual reproduction is achieved by the union in pairs of
zoospores which have been retarded in development by dry conditions,
while in Monochytrium Stevensianum^ the fusion of naked, uninucleate
amoebse has been described.
Very early in the development of the fungi, however, appears a more
specialised process, and one which has established itself as characteristic
of the group. In Olpidiopsis^ the individual consists of a single,
multinucleate protoplast surrounded by a delicate wall ; two such
coenocytes of different size, if side by side in the same host cell, may fuse,
the contents of the smaller passing into the larger. Similar union is
accomplished in Zygwhizidium^ by means of a conjugation tube put out
by the smaller individual. In Polyphagus^ the individuals are uninucleate ;
here again the conjugation tube is formed by the smaller cell, but the
contents of this cell do not pass beyond the end of the tube, and are joined
there by those of the larger, so that the wall of the zygote is provided by
the smaller participant, which also develops the tube.
I have called attention to this case because it emphasises the danger
of generalisation in respect of the sexual apparatus of the fungi. Apart
from the retarded zoospores of Olpidium and Synchytrium, the sperms of
Monoblepharis, and perhaps the oospheres of the Saprolegniacese and
their allies, gametes are unknown, and we have to consider the association
of walled gametangia. This renders useless our usual criteria of sexual
differentiation. The male gamete is defined as the smaller and more
active, the female as larger and stored with food, but there is nothing in
our experience of green plants to justify the assumption that the
antheridium need differ from the female organ either in size or activity.
Two criteria remain, the superior activity, not of the antheridium, but of
its contents, corresponding to the activity of the male cells in other plants
and animals, and the production of the zygote wall, characteristically a
function of the female cell or its environment. Bearing these characters
in mind, no difficulty arises among higher forms in distinguishing the
male and female gametangia. Polyphagus may be regarded as still in
the experimental stage in this respect.
Among Oomycetes the contents of the oogonium may form a single,
multinucleate mass, into which enter numerous antheridial nuclei, or one
female nucleus only may be selected while the others disintegrate, or
several uninucleate masses may be formed, as in Saprolegnia, and each
be separately fertilised. In every case the conjugation tube is antheridial
K.— BOTANY. 187
Already among these fungi the development of the contents of the
oogonium without fertilisation has become common, and information is
beginning to accumulate as to the physiological conditions which determine
the appearance of male or female organs or of both. Thus Klebs was
able to maintain Saprolegnia ferox' in a vegetative condition so long as
fresh, unaltered nutriment was provided, but sporangia appeared on
transfer of the mycelium to pure water, and gametangia in the presence
of staling products, especially when the food supply was sufficiently concen-
trated to prevent sporangial development. In nutrient solutions poor in
phosphates parthenogenetic oogonia were obtained, while both Saprolegnia
ferox and Achlya polyandra^ give rise, on protein substrata, to abundant
antheridia and oogonia in the presence of calcium phosphate, and to a
smaller number when provided with phosphates of sodium or potassium.
In Phytophthora erytkroseptica an increase in the proportion of available
carbohydrate has been found by Dr. Barnes to limit the formation of
gametangia, and it is well known that, in nature, the vegetative develop-
ment and sporangial activity of a number of species takes place on the
living host, whereas the sexual organs appear when the host is dead and
the fungus is growing as a saprophyte ; doubtless, under these conditions,
staling products tend to accumulate.
In the great majority the mycelia are capable of bearing both male
and female organs, but Phytophthora Faberi^ and species of Dictyxichus^^
have been shown to be dioecious.
In the Mucorales sexual reproduction has long been known to take
place by the union of large, multinucleate gametangia. These may be
similar in form or recognisably male and female, they develop in contact,
the wall between them is dissolved, and their contents mingle without the
intervention of a conjugating tube. In many species the gametangia can
be obtained with ease, and their appearance is clearly associated with a
suitable provision of food and water. Thus in Sporodinia grandis^^ the
fertile hyphse are rich in glycogen and their formation is conditioned by
the presence of carbohydrates as well as by a saturated atmosphere. In
other members of the alliance, gametangia proved most uncertain in their
development, and it was not till 1904 that Blakeslee^^ was able to show that
they appeared only along the line of junction of two separate mycelia.
There was here a new conception of sexual differentiation ; since the
gametangia were similar both in size and behaviour, it was impossible
to describe one as male and the other as female ; yet they, and the mycelia
which bore them, clearly differed in an essential character, and Blakeslee
applied to them the arbitrary designations of (-f ) and (— ). In some
cases a difference of vegetative luxuriance distinguished the two strains,
in others a (+) or a (— ) strain could only be defined by its capacity to
produce zygospores with the other. It seemed evident that there existed,
in effect, both in the sexual organs and in the thalli which bore them, a
physiological differentiation of sex unaccompanied by morphological
distinction. To species possessing (+) and (— ) strains Blakeslee applied
the term heterothallw, using homothallic for those in which zygospores could
be obtained in single spore culture.
In Mucor Mueedo^^ the power of conjugation may be inhibited by
unfavourable conditions, but so far nutritive or other factors have not
188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
been found which will produce sex intergrades^^ or transform ( — ) into (+)
or (+) into (— ) mycelia.
It is, I think, to be regretted that the term heterothallic has recently
been used to indicate the condition of dioecism in the gametophyte. The
old sex terms are adequate for this purpose and there is a need, which
heterothallism admirably fulfils, for a term appropriate to a thallus having
two or more physiologically distinct but morphologically similar strains,
whether the difference between them be sexual or no. I propose to employ
the word in that sense this morning.
It is a curious point in the Mucorales that, while heterogametangia
are common, these are never found in correlation with the heterothallic
condition. In heterothallic forms the two gametangia of a pair may
differ in size, but both large and small gametangia are borne on the same
mycelium. There is, perhaps, a faint suggestion here that some factor
other than sex may be at work in determining the heterothallic condition.
Basidiomycetes.
When we turn to the higher fungi, which are characterised by the
possession of a septate mycelium, we find one of their most striking
vegetative characters to be a tendency to fusion between the hyphse. A
branch will grow out, wander a little way, turn and fuse with the parent
filament again ; it will e^'en do this two or three times at short intervals.
A hypha will undergo dichotomy, and a cross connection will unite the
diverging branches. Stranger still, germ tubes from several distinct
conidia will flow into one another, and the composite mycelium thus
produced will continue its ordinary development. Presumably the
stimulus responsible for such unions is nutritive, but there is at present no
evidence that they are conditioned by general starvation. Certainly they
complicate the question of what may be regarded as an individual in the
fungi, since, where mycelial fusions have taken place, nuclei from several
sources may be intermingled in the same cell. In the smuts, mycelia from
three or four species have even been described^* as involved in the same
group of fusions, and in Ascomycetes two species may apparently take
part^^.
It is perhaps unfortunate that the suggestion that some of these
mycelial fusions are sexual was first made in the Hymenomycetes, where
sexual organs, the ordinary criteria of sex, are wholly lacking. Kniep^®
from 1915 onwards, and Bensaude^' independently in 1918, described the
union of two mycelia as a necessary preliminary to the formation of the
sporophore in certain species, and characterised such a mycelial fusion as
a sexual act.
On the germination of the basidiospore in, for example, Coprinus
fimetarius, a multinucleate filament is put out and grows for a time, dividing
into uninucleate cells. This is the primary mycelium. All primary
mycelia are similar in appearance, but they are of two kinds, which, here
also, are distinguished as (+ ) and ( — ). Should a (+ ) and a ( — ) mycelium
meet, fusions occur, with the formation of secondary mycelium on which
sporophores may develop, and which is characterised by the presence of
clamp-connections. In Covrinus fimetarius oidia are liberated from the
K.— BOTANY. 189
primary mycelium, and their germinatiuu among hyphse of opposite strain
may initiate the secondary condition.
Even in that incalculable group, the fungi, there are few things more
curious than the formation of clamp-connections and the method of
nuclear division which has been described as associated with them.
The cells of the secondary mycelium are binucleate, one nucleus being
presumably derived from each of the primary mycelia. Simultaneous
division of two or more nuclei present in the same cell is almost universal
in plants, and such a division, with spindles parallel to the long axis
of the filament — the natural position in the narrow cells of a hypha —
would readily separate two freshly formed nuclei from their sisters.
Instead of this, the cell grows out laterally, forming a branch which
at once bends round and fuses with the cell of origin. One of the
daughter nuclei, still attached to its spindle, wanders through this
branch, or clamp-connection, and so rejoins the daughter nucleus of
the other member of the pair. Both in the main cell and in the clamp,
walls appear and the division is complete. It would be of interest
to know either the origin, or the use — if any — of this elaborate procedure ;
it is not a subject on which I feel able to hazard a guess. Whatever their
relation to the nuclei, clamp-connections, when present, form a convenient
means of recognising the secondary mycelium and the associated binucleate
condition. It may be noted that their occurrence is not universal,
Coprmus epJiemerus and G. curtis, for example, developing without them in
mass culture^^.
In many of the Hymenomycetes the binucleate condition does not
arise till the formation of the sporophore is well advanced. In mushrooms
the cap and stem are composed of multinucleate cells, binucleate cells
appearing first in the gills^^. In Boletus granulatus the cells of the stalk
are multinucleate, whereas those of the ring and of all parts of the cap
contain two nuclei-". In other forms, as in Coprinus, the sporophore is
made up wholly of binucleate cells. There is evidence that in nature, in
such cases, the sporophore is derived from two spores in heterothallic
species, and, in homothallic species, from a single spore-^. Where part
of the sporophore consists of multinucleate cells, the species is presumably
homothallic, though the possibility is not excluded that several similar
mycelia may share in the construction of one fructification, or that fusions
may occur between them.
Since Kniep's and Bensaude's discovery a very full study has been
made of heterothallic members of the Basidiomycetes. In some cases the
primary mycelium, if it does not encounter an appropriate strain, appears
to remain permanently sterile ; in others it sooner or later produces
clamp-connections and sporophores. This was observed, for example, in
Coprinus Rostrupianus,^^ where fifty-six per cent, of the single-spore
mycelia became spontaneously diploid in the course of six months.
Similarly Vandendries found that in the wild-fruit bodies of Paneolus
campanulatus and P. separatus,^^ some of the spores were definitely (+)
or (— ), but a considerable number gave positive reactions with strains of
both kinds. Nor is the number of strains limited to two ; in Aleurodiscus
polygonus^^'^ Coprinus lagopus^^ and other species, four strains are found,
only the appropriate pairing being fertile. The character of the strains
190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
appears to depend in these cases on two sets of allelomorphic factors,
A, a and B, b. Each spore, and hence each primary mycelium, carries
a member of either pair, so that they may be AB, Ab, aB or ab. Secondary
mycelium develops only when the combination AaBb has been achieved.
In Coprinus lagopus^^ half the basidia carry the four spores AB, Ab, aB and
ab, while twenty-five per cent, develop two AB and two ab spores, and the
remainder two Ab and two aB. Tins is what might be expected if the
characters A, a, B and b are transmitted on mendelian lines, and if the
allelomorphs A, a and B, b are independently inherited. One cannot but
admire the delicate and persevering work involved in separately collecting
and germinating the spores from so minute an object as a basidium, thanks
to which the mode of transmission of these characters seems to have been
fully established.
Their significance, however, is by no means so clear. It is customary
among the workers in this field, following the analogy of the Mucorales,
to refer to the distinction between (+) and ( — ), or between AB, Ab, aB
and ab strains as a sexual difference ; but, if we accept this point of view,
we must greatly extend our notions of sex. Not only must we accept the
occurrence of four sexes, but we must assume that sex is variable, male
or female strains spontaneously becoming hermaphrodite. And even that
is not sufficient. In a number of species mycelia from all the spores of
distinct ' sexes ' on one sporophore may be perfectly fertile with those
from all the spores on another sporophore^®. In other words, mycelia of
one sex achieve fertile unions not only with mycelia of the opposite sex,
but with mycelia of the same sex, provided that these are derived from a
different source. And yet ' sex ' in these fungi is only recognisable as a
capacity for selective fusion. In plants possessing recognisable sexual
organs, it might be possible to unravel such a tangle, and we may turn,
therefore, with special interest, to groups less remote than the Hymeno-
mycetes from normal sexuality.
In the smuts it has long been known that the basidiospores or their
products fuse readily in pairs ; Dangeard,'^' in 1894, first described the
union of two nuclei in the young brand spore ; later it was realised that
nuclei first became associated in the paired basidiospores and that the
intervening mycelium consisted of binucleate cells. In Ustilago anther-
arum and other species,'^" as in the Hymenomycetes, two or more strains
may exist, and fusions are not indiscriminate but between cells of opposite
strain. The formation of strains between which fusion does not occur may
be induced by cultivation on media rich in albuminous compounds, and,
conversely, the tendency to fuse may be enhanced by an ample supply of
oxygen or by scarcity of food.
In the rusts, thanks to the work of Blackman^' in 1904, Christman^"
in 1905 and subsequent investigators, we have a pretty full knowledge of
the morphology of the reproductive apparatus. In the eu forms, which
possess a complete life cycle, both uredospores — the accessory spores of
the sporophyte— and teleutospores are produced on a mycelium of
binucleate cells. Nuclear fusion takes place in the teleutospore cell, which
is the young basidium, meiosis follows, and four uninucleate basidio-
spores are shed. The basidiospore, on germination, gives rise to a mycelium,
the cells of which contain each a single nucleus, and some of them, forming
K,— BOTANY. 191
a regular layer, serve as the basal cells, or oogonia, of the secidium. The
binucleate condition now supervenes ; in some species a vegetative
nucleus migrates into each basal cell, in others the basal cells unite in
pairs, and jointly cut ofE a binucleate structure which will form
secidiospores.
The secidium may be regarded as a sorus, or group, of spore-producing
cells, comparable to the sorus which gives rise to the uredo- or teleutospores ;
it is, however, the product of the gametophyte and the scene of transition
from the haplo- to the diplophase.
On the same mycelium of xminucleate cells which bears the young
secidia appears a fourth type of sorus, the spermogonium or pycnidium,
consisting of a layer of narrow filaments from the tip of each of which a
series of small oval cells is budded off. These cells, the spermatia or
pycnospores, each possess a large, dense nucleus, scanty cytoplasm and
apparently no reserve material ; they have never been seen to form a
mycelium, though they can be induced to undergo a form of yeast-like
budding in solution of honey or sugar, and Professor Robinson informs me
that he has observed the same thing under natural conditions. As long
ago as 1882 Rathay^^ called attention to the attractive characters of the
spermogonia, their scent in many cases, their sugary secretion, and the
bright colours imparted to the neighbouring host tissue ; he suggested
that insects were responsible for the distribution of the spermatia. The
function of the spermatia, however, has long been a puzzle ; as conidia
they were oddly constructed, as antheridia there seemed little opportumty
for them to reach the basal cells of the secidium ; in either case they
appeared to be vestigial.
A new aspect has recently been given to this problem by two letters
to ' Nature,' -^^ describing the experiments of J. H. Craigie on Puccinia
Helianthi and Pwxinia Graminis. In the former species he found that,
when basidiospores are shed on the leaf of the sunflower, spermogonia
appear in about eight days. Ten or eleven days after sowing, when
mycelia from different infections overlap, aecidia are found in fifty per
cent, of the cases. The remaining infections, whether simple or compound,
do not produce aecidia for three weeks ; later nearly half of them do so.
This seems a straightforward case of heterothallism ; the production of
spore fruits is induced or stimulated by the association of two mycelia
of presumably different strain, but, as in the Hymenomycetes, fructifica-
tions may more slowly develop without such encouragement. In his
second letter Craigie adds a most interesting point ; observing the visits
of flies to his spermogonia, he was reminded of the old suggestion of their
function as distributors, and was induced to mix the spermatia from
several spermogonia and apply the material to his infections. In nearly
every case aecidia were the result. The inference is drawn that the foreign
spermatia served as a stimulus to development. Craigie regards the two
heterothallic strains as of different sex, and the spermatia as conidia.
It is possible that they play the same part as the oidia of Coprinusjimetanus,
but unfortunately microscopic details are not available. It will be most
interesting to know how the spermatium, after landing on the epidermis
of the leaf, penetrates to the endophytic mycelium of the rust. Such
knowledge should decide its antheri(fial or conidial function.
192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
ASCOMYCETES.
In the Ascomycetes the sexual apparatus has in many cases been shown
to be functional, with well differentiated male and female organs. In the
simpler species, among the Plectascales, the gametangia are similar twisted
filaments ; in Eremascus albus these fuse,^^ the contents of both passing
into an enlargement which becomes the ascus directly and gives rise
internally to eight spores. In Endomyces Magnusii^'^ the gametangia
differ in size, the contents of the smaller passing into the larger which
becomes the ascus. In Endomyces Lindneri^^ the product of fusion is not
an ascus, but buds out one or two short hyphse at the end of each of which
an ascus is developed. Here we have the beginning of the vegetative
sporophyte which, in the higher Ascomycetes, forms a considerable mass
of ascogenous filaments bearing numerous eight-spored asci. In the first
two divisions of the nucleus of the ascus meiosis occurs, and the ascospores
give rise, on germination, to the vegetative gametophyte. I do not
propose to discuss the complicated cytology of this stage, but to accept,
for my present purpose, the common ground that, in some cases at any
rate, male nuclei enter the oogonium and sooner or later fuse with the
female nuclei ; while, in other species, or in the same species under
different conditions, more or less marked apogamy prevails, so that the
antheridium may be functionless or missing, the oogonium still giving
rise to ascogenous hyphse, or the female apparatus also may have dis-
appeared, the sporophyte being vegetative in origin.
Proceeding from the simple, intertwined gametangia, we may recognise
a number of forms in which the female apparatus, or archicarp, is differ-
entiated into three parts, a stalk, commonly multicellular, an oogonium,
which may or may not become septate after the fertilisation stage, and a
trichogyne or conjugation tube, which also, strangely enough, is often
septate, the septa, at any rate in some cases,^^ having been shown to
undergo perforation. Evolution seems to have been along two lines : in
one, characteristic of the Pyrenomycetes, the archicarp remains narrow
and elongated, and septation is increased ; in the other, common among
Discomycetes, the oogonium is globose and septa are not developed.
This type is admirably exemplified by that classical subject of
investigation, Pyronema confluens.
Corresponding to the discomycetous type of archicarp, we find a rather
large, stalked, oblong antheridium ; while, in the higher Pyrenomycetes,
the antheridium is reduced in size, and at last appears as a small, uni-
nucleate cell, detached from the end of an antheridial hypha. Such
antheridia have never been proved to function, and have by many been
described as conidia. Craigie's work on the spermatia of rusts indicates
the need of a reinvestigation of such forms.
In both Pyrenomycetes and Discomycetes dioecious species have been
reported. Thaxter,^' in 1896, described the development side by side of
male and female plants of the laboulbeniaceous fungus, Amorphomyces
FalagricB ; in this species the ascus contains spores of two sizes, and these
male and female producing spores are shed in pairs. It is one of the
puzzling aspects, not merely of the fungi, but of plant economy as a whole,
that elaborate morphological provision for exogamy seems so often to be
neutralised by the common origin of the sexual elements or of the plants
J
K.— BOTANY. 193
which bear them. The cases of highly specialised entomophily where the
insect passes from flower to flower on the same inflorescence, and the
formation of dwarf males from the egg-bearing plant of Oedogonium are
examples of the same problem.
Among the Discomycetes Dodge^^ in 1920 reported in Ascoholus
magnijicus the development of antheridia and oogonia along the line of
junction of two mycelia. Though the oogonium is globose, the trichogyne
here is long and septate, and coils round the antheridium ; but details of
fertilisation are not available, nor has it been finally ascertained that the
sexual organs originate only on hyphse of different strains. If the latter
should prove to be the case, simple dioecism is indicated, and this is borne
out by the fact that, as in the Mucorales, the sexual organs do not appear
till opposing mycelia have made contact. The same criterion applies in
the case of Ascoholus carbonarius,^^ where the trichogyne is even longer
and more richly septate, and the antheridium is described as conidial ;
apart from the fact that ascocarps arise where two strains meet, nothing is
known of the dioecism or heterothallism of this form. Ascoholus furfuraceus
and several other species produce fruits in single spore culture.
As early as 1914 Egerton*" described in Glomerella cingulata, one
of the Sphaeriales, a phenomenon which may possibly fall into line with
more recent observations. In this fungus there are two strains which
differ in appearance ; that designated as (+) grows rapidly, develops
white or light grey aerial hyphae and produces a few perithecia which reach
normal maturity. On the ( — ) strain aerial filaments are scanty, while
perithecia are numerous, but asci do not ripen in culture except on acidified
oat agar, and even then are irregular in form. Where the two strains
meet fertile perithecia are abundant. Moreover, the asci in perithecia
on a (+) or a ( — ) mycelium produce only corresponding spores, whereas
those in perithecia along the line of junction have been shown to contain
spores of both kinds. Here it seems evident, not only that some stimulus
is conveyed by the association of two mycelia, but, since the (+) and ( — )
characters are inherited through the ascus, that a mingling and ultimately
a fusion of (+) and ( — ) nuclei can take place. The species is remarkable
for the morphological difference of its (+) and ( — ) strains.
A more orthodox case of heterothallism — using the term in its simplest
sense to indicate the presence of two or more kinds of mycelia — was
described by Derx*^ in 1926 for Penicillium luteum. In this fungus twelve
mycelia were grown from single ascospores ; perithecia were developed
only where two appropriate mycelia met, and these mycelia were further
differentiated by their feebleness or vigour. An energetic mycelium,
growing alone, gave rise to ascocarps, though without asci, liquefied
gelatine, and stained the substratum bright orange ; a feeble mycelium
showed none of these activities. When two vigorous mycelia, one (+)
and one (— ), were brought into contact, large numbers of perithecia
appeared ; when two feeble mycelia met the perithecia were but few,
while one vigorous and one feeble strain gave an intermediate supply.
Evidently, apart from the (+) and (— ) character, some nutritive factor
is here at work.
In Giberella*'^ also, the ascigerous stage of Fusarium moniliforme, and
in Ophiobolus cariceti,^^ a cause of tahe all or whitehead disease on wheat,
1928 O
194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
fertile perithecia have been reported along the line of junction of two
strains, but full details are not available.
In 1926 Shear and Dodge** described a new genus, Neurospora, the
red bread mould, which they classified among the Hypocreales in the
neighbourhood of Melanospora. N. tetrasperma has four binucleate spores
in the ascus ; in N. sitophila each of the eight ascospores contains one
nucleus. Grown in culture N. tetrasperma readily produced ascocarps,
while, in N. sitophila, perithecia appeared only at the junction of (+) and
( — ) mycelia. Further, mycelia from the occasional uninucleate spores of
Neurospora tetrasperma were heterothallic like those from the spores of
the eight-spored species. Dodge*^ and his colleague Wilcox,*® who
studied N. sitophila, concluded that the character distinguishing the
(+) and (— ) strains was carried by the nuclei and found evidence that
its distribution took place in the second division in the ascus. Dodge*''
succeeded in intermingling the mycelium of N. sitophila with that of the
heterothallic form of N. tetrasperma, and in obtaining material with some
of the characters of each. Unfortunately no information is available as
to the sexual apparatus of these fungi, or of the part it plays, if any, in the
relation of (+) and (— ) strains.
This relation is described by Dodge, and by most other workers on
heterothallism in the Ascomycetes, as in the Basidiomycetes, in terms of
sexual difference. I have tried to state their facts without theoretical
implication.
Lately some work has been in progress in my laboratory at Birkbeck
College on the coprophilous species, Humaria granulata, in which Prof.
Blackman and I,** some twenty-two years ago, described the archicarp,
terminating in a globose oogonium, and giving rise to ascogenous hyphse
without the intervention of an antheridium. I am not sure, in adducing
the case of Humaria, whether I am bringing forward that additional
term which sometimes solves an equation, or only making an insoluble
equation more complex.
We found that the mycelia of Humaria, in single spore culture, were of
two kinds, and that ascocarps developed only along the line of junction of
(+) and ( — ) infections. So far the case was an ordinary one of hetero-
thallism, but microscopic examination showed that both (+) and ( — )
mycelia bear well-grown female organs, though these produce ascogenous
hyphse only where (+) and ( — ) strains have met. The contact of the
mycelia is followed by fusions between their branches, and it is in the
neighbourhood of such points of union that successful archicarps are
found. Transverse walls do not at first appear in the archicarp, so that
little difficulty is presented to the passage of nuclei from both mycelia to
the oogonium.
It is impossible to regard as differing in sex these two mycelia
which both bear normal, though apogamous, female organs ; and it is
therefore inevitable, in Humaria at any rate, to seek some explanation
of heterothallism which does not invoke sexual difference. The most
promising alternative appears to be a difference in nutrition. If we can
induce Humaria to fruit on synthetic agars, we hope to make a direct
test of this hypothesis. Meantime there is other work from which indirect
information can be obtained.
i
K.— BOTANY. 195
The Nutritive Requirements of the Fungi.
The life-history of a fungus may as a rule be divided into three stages :
a period of vegetative growth, a conidial phase, and a phase characterised
by the development of the sexual apparatus. The change from the
vegetative condition may be influenced by food, light, temperature,
humidity, aeration or the encounter of mechanical obstacles ; thus
Sporodinia tends to form gametangia when the air is saturated with
moisture, while Polyporus,'^^ Lentinus ^^ and Pyronema will initiate their
fructifications only in the presence of light. Anyone who has grown
Ascomycetes in culture is accustomed to the appearance of ascocarps
near the edge of the dish, where free growth of the mycelium is checked,
and many of these fungi are also encouraged to fruit by a moderate
increase of temperature. It is possible that both reactions may be
referred to nutritive causes, since high temperature, by increasing growth,
uses up the available food, and a mechanical obstacle means that areas
of unstaled substratum can no longer be invaded. Possibly, also, a
nutritive cause may be assigned to the production of ascocarps of
Ascoholus^^ and Aspergillus'' in the presence of bacteria, and to the
more curious case of Lachnea abundans, communicated to me by Dr.
Barnes, This species fruits readily when grown on synthetic media with
scraps of filter paper, but not if the paper is replaced by 0-3 per cent,
glucose ; in contact with Penicillium glaucum, however, it fruits on the
latter medium.
Most fungi are very sensitive to the presence of appropriate carbo-
hydrates. On substrata rich in carbohydrate Phytophthora erythroseptica
fails to form gametangia, but Sporodinia grandis will not produce them in
its absence. Similarly Eurotium herbariorum fruits best on media con-
taining a large percentage of cane sugar, while other fungi, like Pyronema
conjluens,^^ P. domesticum and Lachnea abundans show increased vegetative
development under similar conditions, but remain persistently sterile.
Some of the coprophilous sordarias fruit in culture only in contact with
scraps of filter paper or grass ; others are indifferent to such substances.
The nitrogen relation is more general. The Saprolegniales tend to
form sexual organs in standing water, when the aquatic population is
high and the nitrogen content of the pool increased. Ascomycetes need
some source of nitrogen before gametangia can be formed ; there is
evidence, ^^ however, that these cannot develop till the substratum is
almost depleted of nitrogen compounds. The observation that heavy
nitrogenous manuring prevents the appearance of mushrooms and their
allies is in harmony with this. Nitrogen compounds are essential, but
must not be present in excess.
Information with regard to other food materials is scanty, but phos-
phates, potassium, magnesium and calcium salts, and, in some cases, a
trace of iron have been found to be advantageous. The formation of
staling substances is often important, probably as a means of checking
vegetative growth ; high concentrations of sugar may have the same
effect, an osmotic factor being presumably involved. The evidence
points to specific requirements in a number of forms, and, in all, to the
need of appropriate food before fructifications can be produced.
o 2
196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Saltation.
In this, as in other characters, the fungi are capable of marked varia-
tion. Often the varieties grade into one another ; in some cases they
are dependent on the content of the substratum and revert to the original
form when the original food material is supplied ; in some they return
gradually, even under unchanged conditions, to the character of their
precursors. Stable variants, however, are common, and their sudden
origin in species under observation has often been recorded. Barnes,^*
in Eurotium herbariorum, found that they could be induced by the applica-
tion of heat to the spores, and Brown,^^ in Fusarium, reported their
survival on media which combined high concentration with minimal
staling capacity, so that, growth being long continued, the altered hyphse
had a chance to develop.
It is possible that some of these variants may arise in nature as a result
of conditions which the fungus barely survives, and that some may be due
to mutations comparable to those of animals and green plants. But
account must be taken in the higher fungi of the multinucleate character
of the vegetative cells, and of the occurrence of mycelial fusions which
bring together unrelated nuclei. We are profoundly ignorant of the
effect on development of a nucleus surrounded by unfamiliar cytoplasm,
or of two or more nuclei in an environment to which only some of
them belong. These problems will demand intensive study before the
phenomenon of saltation begins to be understood; but it is already
established that saltation affects both physiological and morphological
characters, that many saltants are stable, and that their peculiarities are
inherited.
Food and Heterothallism.
How, then, is a nutritive explanation applicable to the heterothallism
of Humaria ? We know that the production of fructifications is de-
pendent on appropriate food, and that new strains, differing in their food
relation, readily arise. Suppose that the (-f ) mycelium be a saltant
possessing, as an hereditary character, the capacity of rapidly extracting
from the substratum a food substance. A, essential to ascocarp formation,
but is lacking, or weak, in the power to accumulate the equally necessary
material, B. Suppose, similarly, that a ( — ) strain can obtain B, but not
A. If two (+) or two (— ) strains meet, the nutritive conditions for
fruiting are not fulfilled, but, if (— ) hyphse fuse with (+) hyphse, all
requirements are met, and a row of ascocarps is the result.
In the great mass of work on other heterothallic forms, information is
available which seems to support this hypothesis. In some of the smuts,
fusion does not occur if the mycelia have been grown on media rich in albu-
minous compounds. In Glomerella the ( — ) strain forms fertile spores only on
an appropriate substratum. Both in the rusts and in the Hymenomycetes
species occur which can develop fruits from a (+) or a (—) mycelium alone,
though more slowly than from the combination of both. In such cases,
the hetero-homothallic forms, each mycelium may be inferred gradually to
acquire the material which the other can rapidly obtain.
Again, in the Hymenomycetes, we have species, such as Aleurodiscus
polygomts and Coprinus lagopus, which are described as quadrisexual. It
K.— BOTANY. 197
may be difficult to form a conception of a race with four sexes, but a race
requiring four or more food substances in preparation for the fruiting
period is a matter of common experience. Let the four characters, known
as A, a, B and b, which these fungi have been shown to inherit on mendelian
lines, represent each the capacity of rapidly extracting from the substratum
some essential food, and let every spore contain, as it is known to do,
either A or a and either B or b ; then the requisite food supply is assured
only when AB and ab, or Ab and aB have pooled resources. In other
words, for an AB strain the limiting factors are the scarcity of a and b,
while the development of an ab strain is restricted by poverty in respect
of A and B. If different sporophores develop a different arrangement of
limiting factors, the otherwise astonishing fact that mycelia from all the
spores of one heterothallic sporophore may be fertile with those from
all the spores of another is readily understood.
The higher Basidiomycetes are wholly lacking in sexual organs, and
it is impossible to judge whether the heterothallic condition arose, as in
Ascomycetes, while these were still extant. A further study of the
heterothallic rusts may throw light on this interesting question.
In Ascomycetes account has to be taken of so many peculiar features
that one hesitates to suggest any correlation between them. To those
who accept the observation of Harper^^ and his many successors that a
nuclear fusion in the oogonium is followed by a fusion in the ascus, the
simultaneous occurrence of heterothallism and sexuality is at least
suggestive. But in the present state of our knowledge it is no more,
and the suggestion may lead to another of the blank walls with which the
study of fungi is beset. Particularly to be desired is the full investigation
of a heterothallic form in which the entrance of male nuclei into the
oogonium still occurs. Pyronema confluens and Pyronema domesticum
are uncompromisingly homothallic, male and female organs and normal
fruits being found in single spore culture. There is some hope of Ascobolus
magnificus or Ascobolus carbonarius.
Since heterothallism occurs in all the main groups of Basidiomycetes
and Ascomycetes, it may be inferred that its origin is remote, and the
question arises whether the phenomenon, as elucidated in these fungi,
bears any relationship to the heterothallism of the Mucorales. In Mucor
and its allies the branches of (+) and (— ) mycelia grow towards one
another and become attached, the procedure up to this stage being very
similar to that in Humana and, I should judge, in the Hymenomycetes
also. The result of contact, however, is the development of sexual organs
at the point of union. This differs from Hicmaria, in which only female
organs are formed, and those on a neighbouring branch ; and from the
Hymenomycetes, in which sexual organs are not produced. Moreover,
in the mucors, open communication does not occur between (+) and (— )
strains till their gametangia are mature, and, if the distinction between
them be nutritive, the nutritional deficiencies of each mycel'um must at
first be supplied by diffusion. It is true that the archicarps of Humaria
develop up to a point without mycelial fusion, but in Mucor the presence
of two mycelia is necessary before gametangia appear. As an argument
for the sexual nature of the (+) and (— ) strains in the Mucorales, Satina
and Blakeslee" have lately shown that, with the KMnO., and Manilov
198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
tests, a distinction can be drawn between (+) and ( — ) strains, the former,
like the female plants of dioecious angiosperms, being the stronger reducers.
It may be suggested, as a working hypothesis, that nutritive heterothallism
arose in the ancestors of the higher fungi after their mycelium had become
septate, and was made possible by the prevalence of mycelial fusions
which distinguishes septate forms.
Sex and Nutrition.
But, after all, if heterothallism in these fungi is a nutritive phenomenon,
does it thereby differ from sexual fusion ? Van Rees^^ in 1887 and
Dangeard^^ in 1899 suggested that syngamy first arose as a process of
reciprocal cannibalism or autophagy. Gametes were characterised as
hungry cells which lacked the means to continue their development
unaided, and were able to do so only when two had pooled their resources.
Thus we have the facultative gametes of Ulothrix, which function as zoo-
spores when conditions are good, and the gametes of Synchytrium, which
are zoospores retarded in development. In Reticularia Lycoperdon, Wilson
and Cadman®*^ have shown that, after the union of two gametes, three to
eight similar swarmers are drawn into the mass and coalesce ; their nuclei
degenerate and they serve as food, but the process in its early stages is
very like the gametic union. Syngamy may be, in fact, in some of its
aspects, a form of nutrition, but that is very far from saying that all
forms of nutrition are syngamy. The fungi, in addition to the wide
variety of their sexual process and their many saprophytic and parasitic
means of obtaining food, have given evidence of a special development
which, partaking of some of the characters of each, may possibly throw
light on the peculiarities of both, and, in so doing, may provide a clue
to the significance of the primitive sexual fusion.
REFERENCES.
1. Kusano, S., Journ. Col. Ag. Tokyo, iv, 1912.
2. Curtis, K. M., Phil. Trans., cxx, 1921.
3. Griggs, R. F., Ohio Nat, x, 1910.
4. Barrett, J. T., Ann. Bot., xxvi, 1912.
5. Loewenthal, W., Arch. f. Protistenk., v, 1904-5.
6. Wager, H., Ann. Bot., xxvii, 1913.
7. Klebs, G., Jahrb. f. wiss. Bot., xxxiii, 1899 ; Coker, W. C, The Saprolegniaceoe,
U. of N. Carolina Press, 1923.
8. Coker, W. C, loc. cit.
9. Ashby, S. F., Kew Bull, ix, 1922.
10. Couch, J. N., Ann. Bot., xl, 1926.
11. Robinson, W., Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc, x, 1926.
12. Blakeslee, A. F., Proc. Am. Acad., xl, 1904.
13. Blakeslee, A. F., et al., Bot. Gaz., Ixxxiv, 1927.
14. Kniep, H., Zeit. f. Pilzkunde, v, 1926 ; Dickinson, S., Proc. Roy. Soc, ci, 1927.
15. Dodge, B. 0., Journ. Ag. Pes., xxxvi, 1928.
16. Kniep, H., Zeit. f. Bot., vii-ix, 1915-7.
17. Bensaude, M., Be*, sur la cycle ev. et la sex. chez les Basidiomy cites, Bouloy, Nemours,
1918.
18. Vandendries, R., Bull. Soc. R. de Belg., Iviii, 1925.
19. Hirmer, M., Zeit. f. Bot., xii, 1920.
20. Levine, M., Bull. Torrey Bot. Club, xl, 1913.
21. Brefeld, 0., Untersuchungen,Felix,Leivzig,1887 ; Newton, D. E., Ann. Bot., xl,
1926.
K.— BOTANY. 199
22. Newton, D. E., loc. cit.
23. Vandendries, R., Bull. Soc. R. de Belg., Ivi, 1923.
24. Kniep, H., Verh. d. Physik.-Med. Ges. zu Wurzburg, xlvi, 1920.
25. Hanna, W. F., Ann. Bot., xxxix, 1925.
26. Kniep, H., Verh. d. Physik.-Med. Ges. zu Wurzburg, xlvii, 1922 ; Brunswik, H.,
K. Goebel's Bot. Abhand., Jena, 1924 ; Newton, D. E., Ann. Bot., xl, 1926 ;
Vandendries, R., Acad. R. de Belg., ix, 1927.
27. Dangeard, P. A., Botaniste, iii, 1894.
28. Kniep, B..,Zeit.f. Bot.,xi, 1919; Zeit.f. Pilzkunde, x, 1926; Dickinson, S.,Proc.
Roy. Sac, ci, 1927.
29. Blackman, V. H., Ann. Bot., xviii, 1904.
30. Christman, A. H., Bot. Gaz., xxxix, 1905.
31. Rathay, E., Denkschr. d. Wein. Acad., xlvi, 1882.
32. Craigie, J. H., Nature, July, November, 1927.
33. Eidam, E., Beitr. z. Biol. d. Pflanzen, iii, 1883.
34. Guillermond, A., Rev. Gen. de Bot., xxi, 1909.
35. Mangenot, G., C. R. Soc. Biol, de Paris, Ixxxii, 1919.
36. Eraser (Gwynne-Vaughan), H. C. I., Ann. Bot., xxvii, 1913. »
37. Thaxter, R., Mem. Am. Acad., xii, 1896.
38. Dodge, B. 0., Mycologia, xii, 1920.
39. Betts, E. M., Am. Journ. Bot., xxxi, 1926.
40. Egerton, C. W., Am. Journ. Bot., i, 1914.
41. Derx, H. G., Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc, xxxi, 1926.
42. Wineland, G. 0., Phytopath., xiii, 1923.
43. Kirby, R. S., Phytopath., xiii, 1923 ; Davis, R. J., Journ. Ag. Res., xxxv, 1927.
44. Shear, C. L., and Dodge, B. 0., Journ. Ag. Res., xxxiv, 1927.
45. Dodge, B. 0., Journ. Ag. Res., xxxv, 1927.
46. Wilcox, M. S., Mycologia, xx, 1928.
47. Dodge, B. 0., Journ. Ag. Res., xxxvi, 1928.
48. Blackman, V. H., and Eraser, H. C. I., Proc. Roy. Soc, Ixxvii, 1906.
49. Buller, A. H. R., Journ. Econ. Biol., i, 1906.
50. Buller, A. H. R., Ann. Bot-, xix, 1905.
51. Molliard, M., Bull. Soc. Myc de France, xix, 1903.
52. Sartory, A., C. R. Soc. Biol, de Paris, Ixxxiii, 1920.
53. Robinson, W., Ann. Bot., xl, 1926.
54. Barnes, B., Ann. Bot., xiii, 1928.
55. Brown, W., Ann. Bot., xl, 1926.
56. Harper, R. A., Ber. d. deutsch. bot. Ges., xiii, 1895.
57. Satina, S., and Blakeslee, A. F., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., v, 1925.
58. Rees, Van, Over oorsprongte, Ac, Amsterdam, .1887.
59. Dangeard, P. A., Botaniste, vi, 1898-9.
60. Wilson, M., and Cadman, E. J., Trans. Roy. Soc Ed., Iv, 1928.
SECTION L.— EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
EDUCATION : THE NEXT STEPS.
ADDRESS BY
CYRIL NORWOOD, M.A., D.Lit.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
The chief advance made in the first quarter of the twentieth century has
been that the nation as a whole has been converted to belief in the value
of education. When the century began there were still very many who
had received little or no schooling in their youth, but had won their way,
not without a considerable measure of self-satisfaction, to substantial
positions. That perhaps legitimate pride was based on a certain mis-
understanding of the values of life, and it involved the fallacy vividly
exhibited by a certain local millionaire of my acquaintance, who was asked
to support the movement for the establishment of the local university.
' University,' he said : ' what do you want with a university ? I left
school when I was thirteen, and look at me.' Now it was just because
we were looking at him that we desired the means of higher education to
be at the command of the community, though at that particular interview
it was hard to say so. To-day, nearly a generation later, that particular
type — a type usually of sturdy independence, strong character, and
material outlook — has largely been gathered to its fathers ; there have
been twenty-five years of constantly extending further education ; the
War has taken place. Opposition to education as such, at any rate to
education after the age of fourteen, is now confined to the National
Confederation of Employers' Organisations, and to the farmers, both of
which circles are mostly interested in the continuance of the supply of
young labour under the conditions to which they have been hitherto
accustomed. But they represent now a definite minority of the nation,
which as a whole is unwilling to think of a large mass of its members as
merely raw material to be utilised in its course from the school to the
scrap-heap ; it believes that each boy and girl has a right to be trained
as an individual. There flourishes to-day a living and growing belief in
the value of human personality ; it dominates all that is best in our
education, and I believe it will soon be unquestioned in any quarter.
It must so dominate the general mind if our democracy is to justify itself,
if, indeed, it is to survive.
Anyone who studies the growth of our education during the last
century cannot fail to be impressed by the fact that it has been developed
to meet needs which made themselves felt in practice, and not to satisfy
preconceived theories, or a logical perfection. Its history is that of a
soldiers' battle : it has been the creation of actual combatants, and not
of a general stafi. As a result it has all the vitality which comes from
L.— EDUCATION. 201
springing direct from the national life, so that the life of the schools is
interwoven with that of the people ; but as a system it is not logical, and
it is not complete. There have been remarkable and successful achieve-
ments in some directions, but gaps have been left unfilled in others. It
has been well said that the landscape of English education is one of peaks
and valleys rather than that of a uniform tableland. It is our business
now to think nationally as well as locally, and to apply our minds to the
filling up of those valleys, some of them deep, which still exist, and it is
the purpose of this paper to indicate what, in the opinion of one who has
spent more than twenty-five years in service in one field of our education,
are the next steps which we should take if we are to move towards the
creation of a system which is really national, and will provide for all the
varying and complicated needs of a great nation of the twentieth century.
Right across the path of advance lies a lion, at the moment only
apparently asleep, which has already devoured imprudent wayfarers, and
may devour more : I need not say that I refer to the existing system of
dual control in elementary education. It is as well to know what is the'
size of this problem. According to the last published figures, those for
1926-27, out of 22,629 public elementary schools in England and Wales,
10,478 were Council Schools and 12,151 were Voluntary Schools ; of these
12,151 again 10,457 were Church of England, 135 Wesleyan, 1,196 Roman
Catholic, 12 Jewish, and 351 of other types. Taking it another way, by
the numbers of children in attendance, there were 4,924,102 in the Council
Schools and 2,711,244 in the Voluntary. It is therefore a very large
problem, the solution of which cannot be left to time, as is our national
way when we are in the presence of a difficulty ; for, while it is true that
the number of Council Schools tends steadily to increase, and the number
of Voluntary Schools to dwindle, yet the process is so slow that it would
take very much more than a century before the Voluntary Schools became
negligible. The position is this : that the Act of 1902 left the buildings
of the Voluntary Schools in the possession of the denominations, and the
religious teaching of the schools under the authority of the school managers,
who retain also the right to appoint the teacher. Those who to-day have
to organise the whole of education in any district find themselves hampered
at every turn by the fact that they do not control all the schools. If, on
the authority of the Education Act of 1921, they want to take the older
children from a number of schools and group them for better teaching
into one, they may find that the non-provided schools will not part with
the very children for whom the system is designed. They may desire to
reorganise, re-equip or rebuild a school, and find that the managers may
very probably not possess the means, and in some cases not the will, to
bear the expenditure involved. They may be aware, as in some cases
they are aware, that the buildings to which the children have to go are
ill-equipped, badly planned, far below the standards of the present day,
but there is very little which they can in practice do to remedy this state
of affairs. Even if they are willing to build a totally new school they have
to face the fact that, without the good will of the managers of the non-
provided school, they may fail to obtain the attendance of a proportion
of the children large enough to justify the expenditure. Thus there is at
present neither simplicity, economy, nor efficiency. On the denominations
202 . SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
themselves tlie system plainly imposes burdens whicli are in general be-
yond their means. A settlement of the question is demanded in spite
of the fact that any attempt at a solution brings the solver up against
what some would call religious conviction and others sectarian prejudice.
Nevertheless there is more general good will in the air and a greater spirit
of reason, and we ought to go forward. I submit that advance can go
forward on lines which have been proposed, and found pretty general
support, that the Voluntary schools should be transferred to the local
authorities, who in return should allow at certain times and on certain
days facilities of entry. Religious instruction would be given at definite
periods, during which, if it were desired, certain children could be with-
drawn for denominational instruction to be provided by the denominations.
So far as Church of England and Nonconformist schools are concerned,
I do not believe the withdrawal would in practice prove necessary or
desirable, for I think that a very strong majority of the nation desires
that the basis of all our education should be religious and Christian.
These religious bodies are near enough together to arrive at a concordat
as to the syllabus of religious instruction which should be followed, and
the principles of the denomination could well and fitly be taught in the
Sunday schools. I would submit that the educational enthusiasm and
beneficence of the denominations could from their own point of view be
most usefully directed to the provision of a certain number of schools
for post-primary education and of training colleges for teachers. At any
rate the scheme which I have thus briefly outlined is not one which
disturbs the position and functions of teachers on the one hand, or one
which need create friction between the churches and the local authorities
on the other. But it does give the local authority effective control over
buildings and organisation, and that is a necessary condition if further
advance is to be made.
That further advance is outlined in the Report on the Education of
the Adolescent, which has come to be known as the Hadow Report ; since
its publication it has commanded an unusual amount of support and
interest. I give my unqualified adherence to the proposals which it
makes, though I do not agree with the nomenclature which it suggests.
Primary education should in future be a stage which ends at about the
age of 11-f, and this for the best of reasons, because at about that age
childhood closes and the first beginnings of adolescence set in. A second
stage of education should therefore start at this point, going on for the
majority to 15 + , for many to 16 + , for some to 18 or 19, this stage being
regarded as a single whole, designed to meet the needs of the adolescent,
and therefore containing within itself a considerable variety of type.
This is not simply a question of adding one year to the course as it exists
at present ; it means rethinking the whole of our education on a psycho-
logical basis, and designing the primary course for the years of childhood,
the post-primary courses for the ensuing years. It means as an ideal that
all children would go forward after eleven on parallel lines, following the
course best suited to each. The Hadow Report therefore states in its
second conclusion that, ' while taking the country as a whole, many more
children should pass to " secondary " schools in the current sense of the
term than pass at present, it is necessary that the post-primary grade of
L.— EDUCATION. 203
education should include other types of post-primary schools, with
curricula varying according to both the age up to which the majority of
pupils will remain at school and the different interests and utilities of the
pupils to which the bias and objective of each school will normally be
related.' They envisage, therefore, besides the secondary schools of
literary and scientific type, selective central schools with a four-year
course, and a practical trend in the last two, non-selective central schools,
which may exist either by themselves in some areas, or in other areas
side by side with the selective schools, and a variety of other arrangements,
which I think they only insert in their report because they realise that
there must be a temporary period of makeshifts. Quite rightly, as I
think, they do not believe that this system, if established, would hamper
or cripple our already existing secondary schools, for the desire for educa-
tion, once it is established, grows of itself. Quite rightly they realise
that the education of adolescence is something wider than that which is
given through books alone, and the new schools, while they begin with
their eleven-year-old pupils in much the same way as the secondary
schools, will always seek to develop the hand and the eye, and in their
last two years will develop a practical bias.
There is an immense gap which the promoters of this report seek to
fill, and only those who have studied facts and figures know how large it
is, so large, indeed, that it prevents us from making any claim at present
that we have a system of education which deserves to be called national.
In any one year the total school population is very slightly above 700,000.
At the age of 14+ there are at least 300,000 children who are outside the
system altogether, and receiving no continued instruction ; at the age
of 15 -f this figure has risen to 520,000. This means that the effort and
the money which have been devoted to the training of those children
up to the age of 14 are in very considerable measure wasted ; and though
I have not time to argue it now, or to advance the evidence, here in this
gap may be found the reasons for much of the unemployment, and still
more of the unemployability, which exist within our society to-day. It
is of the most vital importance that those years of adolescence should be
safeguarded by all that is of inspiration and of good report. Which of us
would willingly allow a child of his own to pass to the work of the world
at this age without further help ? Not one of us. It is not a question
of the interest of employers, or of the interest of parents ; it is a question
of the interest of the child, and of the nation, whose main wealth is the
men and women which it produces. And since, if it were a matter of the
interest of our own children, we could only answer that question in one
way, it seems to me a plain matter of social duty to strive to bring it
about that the same safeguards and help should exist for all, and that we
shall not continue to neglect a full half of the children who are born into
our country.
But before I pass from the region of primary education there are a
few further points which I should like to make, though I must make them
briefly. We take our children into school at the age of five, a year earlier
than any other country, and after a good deal of past blundering we have
developed in many of our infant schools institutions which seem to me to
be of peculiar merit. In them the children are active, not passive, happy,
204 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
and not dull : the atmosphere is that which is proper to early childhood, an
atmosphere of freedom, spontaneity, and joy. I should like to see the
policy steadily followed of developing and increasing the number of these
admirable places. I have no doubt, too, that the policy will be steadily
followed of reducing the size of classes in the primary school. I need not
labour this, for to this audience it will be obvious that a teacher confronted
by sixty, seventy or more pupils cannot follow the same methods, or seek
the same ends, as the teacher who deals with thirty-five. The teacher of
the large class can seek only discipline and a certain amount of mechanical
accuracy ; as the numbers fall he can begin to treat his pupils as indi-
viduals. He can develop those methods, for instance, which I believe are
admirably suited to the stage of the primary school, which are associated
with the name of Miss Charlotte Mason, and the Parents' National
Educational Union. Promising experiments have been made on these
lines in Gloucestershire, Kent and elsewhere, and during our sessions we
shall hear more of them. Other experiments also can be tried so long as
the teacher is not overborne by numbers. But of primary education as
a whole — and I am speaking of the stage that ends at 11 + , not at 14 — I
would say that it is no longer the region of the three R's ; it is the region
of another trinity, the hand, the eye, and the voice. It is the business
of the primary school to teach the child to see and observe, to make and
to do, and to speak and to sing. And then the child will be much more
fit to enter into the great inheritance of the world, with more capacity
for true happiness, and more capacity for true intelligence.
In passing from this digression once again to the consideration of
post-primary and secondary education, it is in place not to omit the
mention of one other administrative reform, and that is the rearrangement
of local authorities so that in any given area there should be one authority
for the whole work of education. At present there are 318 authorities
for elementary education and 145 for higher education ; the mere mention
of the fact shows that in many districts it is impossible to organise the
education as a whole. Clearly the areas should be wide, for to-day
communities spread over great distances, and their members sleep in
one place and work in another ; not only in education it is beginning to
be found that units which are too small do not make for cheapness or
eflS.ciency.
To turn to the problems of secondary education proper — by which I
mean education of boys and girls up to the age of 18 — it is advisable first
to survey the present position and to see how that position has arisen.
The public schools and the great day schools of the nineteenth century
were inspired both in regard to curriculum and method by Oxford and
Cambridge, and they were largely classical ; a reaction against this undue
narrowness led to the experiment of the Organised Science Schools of the
last ten years of that century. These in their turn certainly carried the
reaction too far, and produced juvenile chemists and physicists without
culture or general education. In 1907 the Board of Education issued its
first regulations for secondary schools, and sought something broader
than either of these two rival institutions ; they established a four-year
course in which English, geography and history, at least one language
other than English, mathematics, science, and drawing should be studied,
L.— EDUCATION. 205
together with manual work, physical exercises, and, for girls, housewifery.
As that course has been worked in practice in the last twenty-five years,
it has been in the main academic in spirit, and the important subjects
have come to be the native tongue, the foreign language or languages, and
mathematics and science ; the schools have continued to look to the
universities, and to the development of those advanced courses which
lead up to university studies. All this efiort has been directed and
stabilised, and some would say stereotyped, by the setting up of the
system of school certificates, for which in England and Wales eight
university authorities examine. All the secondary schools, therefore, have
in the main the same outlook, which is primarily that each pupil should
at the end of the first stage of the course be able to matriculate at a
university ; the school certificates have been brought into relation with
the matriculation examinations, and the system is now organised in all
its details.
Meantime the number of schools, and the number of pupils at each
school, have greatly increased. In 1904 in England the number of
secondary schools for boys, for girls, and for boys and girls together was
575 ; there are now 1,184 recognised for grant by the Board of Education
and 305 recognised as efficient, but not eligible for grant. In 1904 the
number of pupils was 97,698 ; in October 1927 it was 349,430, and if
you add the 57,655 in the schools not eligible for grant you get a total
of 400,000 boys and girls who are in England pursuing a course of secondary
education. Now the reason why I have troubled you with these figures
is to point out that, while the content of secondary education has not
changed, and remains academic in spirit and outlook, the number of
schools has more than doubled, and the number of pupils has increased
by more than four times. To put it clearly in another way, in the first
year in which the school certificates examination was held, there were
14,232 candidates ; for the last one for which figures are available there
were 54,593, again very nearly an increase of four times.
The result of pouring all this mass of new material into a single mould
has produced a slowly increasing volume of protest, but those who protest
are much more sure in describing the symptoms of the distresses of the
secondary schools than they are in pointing to their cause or in finding
the cure. It is said that there is a good deal of overstrain among the
pupils of the secondary schools, particularly among the girls, and that
for the average the effort of reaching a satisfactory level in English and
English subjects, in a foreign language or languages, and in mathematics
and sciences is too much. That this is so is shown by the fact that when
the examination was established it was supposed that nearly all would
be successful at the end of their course in obtaining a school certificate,
but as a matter of experience less than two out of three have been able
to do so. It is alleged that the examination hampers the freedom of the
teacher, who during the whole four years' course can never turn aside to
browse in the pleasant paths of literature or to pursue interests common
to himself and his class, but must concentrate the attention of his class
and himself wholly upon what will pay in the examination room. Great
schoolmasters of the past are quoted who could never have pursued their
favourite methods with success under present conditions. It is asserted
206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
that for many boys, and for still more girls, the present curriculum is
unsuitable, that they are not all, or indeed comparatively many, of them
going to the universities, and that they ought not to be sacrificed to the
interests of the few who do contemplate that course. The question is
raised whether as a matter of fact this intellectual training of the girl
ought to be the same as that of the boy, and whether the tyranny of
imposing the preparatory curriculum of the university upon the girls is
not even more unreasonable than it is asserted to be in the case of the
boys. On this point the committee which reported on the differentiation
of the curricula as between the sexes spoke with an uncertain voice,
probably because they knew that there were many feminine associations
ready to tear and devour any committee or any individual who said
anything which might be taken to imply that women were not the full
equals of men, and girls of boys.
The practical outcome of all this is the suggestion that boys and girls
should be awarded a school certificate even if they omit a foreign language
entirely, or mathematics and science entirely, so long as they make up
for it by proficiency in subjects such as music, art, handicraft, housecraft
and other subjects of more motley character and more dubious claim.
On this proposal the English teaching profession is divided, the Head-
masters' Conference and the Assistant Masters' Association being against
it, the Headmasters' Association doubtfully in favour, and the Head-
mistresses' Association and the Assistant Mistresses almost as one woman
in favour also. From this state of affairs one can judge where the shoe
pinches most, but there is no doubt that it does pinch, and anyone who
remembers the figures which I have just quoted will quite readily under-
stand why. There are more boys and girls taking the full secondary
course to-day than are either fit for it or fitted by it. The malcontents
are quite right in the criticisms which they level against the system and
its present results, but they are in my opinion wrong as to the nature of
the cure and the method by which they would bring it about.
The standard of secondary education in England is high, and is some-
thing of which we have a right to be proud. Its methods and objects are
the fruit of long experience and of the efforts of several generations. The
boy or girl who has taken a school certificate before the age of sixteen,
followed an advanced course, or specialisation in a sixth form, to the age
of 18+, has reached a level attained in few educational systems other
than our own. I question indeed whether any country is producing boys
and girls of as high a level of intellectual excellence and training as those
hundreds who go up every year to compete for scholarships and places
at Oxford and Cambridge. I believe this to be true of the boys, and it
is certainly true of the girls. This system is now built on the general
education of the school certificate and the specialised education of the
higher certificate, and I hold that it should stand unimpaired, and not be
tampered with ; for it is far easier to relax a standard than ever to recover
it. To say that every boy and girl who goes to a secondary school for
four years should be awarded the same certificate, whatever subjects they
may have studied and offered, is to say that things which are not equal
to one another are equal to the same thing ; it is to say that the boy who
has been successful in English, history, geography, Latin, French, mathe-
L.— EDUCATION. 207
matics and science is prima facie the same article as the boy who has been
successful in English, general elementary science, drawing, handicraft and
shorthand, or the girl who has offered English, botany, music, drawing and
needlework. I am not representing either course as better than the
other ; one may be right for A and the other for B. I hold no brief to
argue that the high-brow is better than the low-brow, or the blue stocking
than the flesh-coloured stocking. All that I maintain is that they are
palpably not the same, that it is illogical therefore to call them the same,
and that nothing but confusion will result from calling them the same.
It may be democratic and in accordance with the spirit of the age to
hold that we are all the same as one another, and ought therefore to be
labelled with the same labels ; but no man who has taught a class for one
term can really hold that nature gives any warrant to such nonsense.
Surely the logical course is to award two kinds of certificate, one which
shall fulfil the academic conditions and maintain unlowered the existing
system which causes no difficulty to the boy or girl of average academic
ability, and the other which shall be a proof that the boy or girl has taken
at school that course of education which in the particular case was the
most fitted.
I would therefore have in any secondary school these two types
definitely recognised to be different, not superior or inferior, the one to
the other, but different. It would be recognised at the school-certificate
stage by the one type sitting for the school certificate awarded as it now
is, and the other for a general certificate which shall show that they have
made good use of a good and sensible type of education. If they stay
at school the one type will continue to go on to the higher certificate,
again organised as it now is, and the other to a second certificate, which
shall again test the subjects of a quite unspecialised education, designed
to meet the individual need in each case. There will then be a good deal
of variety inside secondary education, and when the central schools
become more numerous and more organised, and the modern schools
come into existence in increasing quantity, there will be a good deal of
variety outside the old secondary schools as well. And when you consider
the variety which must exist among that more than half-million boys and
girls with whom we shall have to deal, I think you will agree with me
that the more variety there is the better.
Even so my discussion of the problem of the right curriculum for the
higher forms of the secondary school is not complete. In saying that the
standard should remain unimpaired, and not be tampered with, I have
in mind the work of the best boys and girls. But many more than the
best go on to the universities, and it is right that they should do so ; I
am not convinced that any of these should attempt specialised study
before they enter the classes of the university. On the one hand the
colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, through their open scholarship examina-
tions, enforce on the schools the attempt to reach a very high standard
along narrow lines ; some universities, by allowing their intermediate
examinations to be taken through the higher certificate, confuse the
courses proper to themselves and to the schools ; some universities admit
their students too early ; the higher-certificate courses themselves often
involve specialisation built on a very slender foundation of general
208 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
knowledge. On tlie other hand many professors and university teachers
are loud in their condemnation of the state in which their pupils come to
them, with minds ill-balanced and ill-furnished. I submit that this
region of the last two years of school is insufficiently explored, and the
nature of the work that should be done by the average student not thought
out. I submit further that it is a matter which might well engage the
attention of all the universities of the country in conference. They have
perhaps no common mind, but I do not know that they have attempted
to arrive at one : they have never clearly stated what they want ; they
have never faced the fact that through their scholarships they make
extreme specialisation necessary, and through their professors complain
of the result. I regard the matter as urgent, for as chairman of the
Secondary Schools Examination Council I know that the curriculum and
the examinations proper to this later period of school life stand in great
need of definition, and that in proceeding to the work, which cannot long
be deferred, we have no clear guidance from the universities as to what
they really want.
However, it is not only in the secondary schools that some thinking
needs to be done about the requirements of the immediate future ; there
is also some advance that needs to be made after due thought in that
very complicated field which is known as technical and further education.
There has just lately been issued the second part of the report of the
Committee on Education and Industry in England and Wales, to which
I would commend this audience if they would like to go deeply into the
matter. In this department of education the next steps which require
to be taken are all of them steps to secure better contact with other
branches of the educational system, and with industry and employment.
Technical education is a field which has been developed all by itself, and
in isolation from almost everything else. Each part has grown to meet
a need, and usually a local need. It is cut off from the elementary educa-
tion which precedes it, for elementary and technical education have been
controlled by different departments of the Board of Education, and it
is cut off from the university education, which in the case of the best
students ought to follow. There is frequently a gap of one, two, or even
more years between the end of the elementary course and the beginning
of technical instruction, and that instruction is frequently sterilised by
the fact that students have to come to it tired, late in the evening, and
in the centre of cities. Finally, there is need of much fuller contact, of
more mutual knowledge and sympathy, not only between technical educa-
tion and industry, but also between all forms of industry and commerce
and all forms of education. There ought to be a full inquiry into this
difficult and complicated problem ; educationists ought to know and
consider more thoroughly what is wanted, and employers ought to take
much more trouble to find out what is being done. May I quote in this
connexion a paragraph from the recent report of the Committee on
Education and Industry with which I thoroughly agree ? ' We do not
consider,' they say, ' that educational policy should be determined by
industrial requirements, however legitimate in themselves. What we do
feel most strongly is that in the interests of the boys and girls, quite as
much as in the interests of industry, educational policy, and still more
L.— EDUCATION. 209
important its application in detail, ought not to be settled without full
knowledge of occupational conditions, prospects and needs. It cannot
be said that educational administrators are in as close touch with trade
and industry as they would wish to be at this important stage in educational
history. We are therefore forced to two conclusions. In the first place,
any measures which can be taken to secure the contact which everyone
desires should be taken with all possible speed, before the educational
position becomes so solidified that any modifications, however desirable,
will be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to make. In the second
place, local authorities and all others concerned should obtain, so far as
is possible, the views of representatives of trade and industry, employers
and workers alike, before committing themselves to any reorganisation
which might have direct or indirect effects on industrial conditions. The
connexion between school arrangements and circumstances of employ-
ment are not always apparent at first sight, and too great care cannot he
expended in investigating the industrial implication of educational changes.'
There is a large question of very general interest which I can state,
though I- do not know that I can supply an answer. What is the proper
part which formal and external examination should play in our educational
courses ? Examinations at the present time play a very large part.
In a great many places there is competition and examination for scholar-
ships and for free places at the secondary schools ; some four years later
there follows the school certificate, theoretically for all. One or two years
later follows the higher-certificate examination, and then there are for
some all the university and professional examinations in prospect.
Entrance to the public schools is obtained by an examination known as
the common entrance examination^ which is said in some cases to be
competitive, but in all cases involves the reaching by the candidate of
a certain definite standard. Competitive examination admits to the
Army, Navy, and the Civil Service. The system is so thorough and so
universal that the victim, if that is the right word, may never be out of
the shadow of an examination from eleven years old to twenty-three, or
even later. It is argued, first, that this gives almost inevitably a totally
wrong view of knowledge, and makes a boy or a girl from school days on feel
that his or her object is not to study a subject, but to acquire the capacity
to answer on paper examination questions about it, and that therefore,
once examinations are over, he or she learns no more. It is argued,
secondly, that the teacher's freedom is destroyed, since he has to teach
his subject not in the best way, but in the way which will pay best in the
examination, and that the more inspiring, original, and fresh he is in
presentment, the less he is likely to succeed on a mechanical system.
It is alleged, thirdly, that the system is really unsuccessful, that it picks
out for honour those who have the examination faculty and can write
fast and to the point, but that, judging by what happens in after-life, it
does not really pick the best men and women, and those who will go
furthest in their study.
There is a certain amount of truth, but a good deal of unreasonableness
and lack of practical common sense, in all this attack which is so frequently
made to-day. My own profession, the schoolmasters, are not inconsistent,
though the schoolmistresses dispute the palm with them, for they insist
1928 ?
210 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
on a certificate to mark the successful completion of all their courses,
and do not rest until all the subjects which they teach have been brought,
for instance, within the ambit of the school certificate. The subjects
which of all others ought to be the most free, and are in my opinion in
their own interests least examinable — music and art — are, I suppose, the
means for awarding more certificates by examination than any other,
and the blame for this I lay largely at the door of my professional brothers
and sisters. It is not, I think, seriously true that teachers are cramped
by the examinations ; on the whole examinations follow the school
curricula, and do not control them ; the teachers, moreover, are well
represented on the examining authorities, and can make their voices
heard. It is not possible to say whether a boy or girl knows a subject
save by asking questions ; these must be the same for all, answered under
the same conditions in the same time, and that makes a written examina-
tion necessary. No one suggests that examinations are more than they
are, a very human and sometimes fallible means of finding out whether
a candidate knows what he ought to know, and no one in his senses claims
that they pick out the person who will be ultimately the most successful.
What is true is that in early years they tend to dull the edge of the desire
for true knowledge, and that throughout school life there are plenty who
are quite incapable of showing on paper what they have in their head ;
they are not fools, though they may be written down as such, but they are
bad examinees. Moreover, in any system of examination which is more
or less universal — as is the case with the school certificate — we have to
think of the dull and of the slow developers, who suffer badly when they
are crammed and forced to an unnatural level.
I believe, therefore, though the time is not yet, that the right course
will be to abolish all external examination for the average boy and girl,
though leaving it as the avenue to the universities and the professions.
In the case of the average boy and girl the properly inspected and efi&cient
school will issue its own certificate that A or B has attended for four or
six years as the case may be, and has reached a satisfactory level of per-
formance. The power to make such an award implies a high standard of
professional honour, and perhaps a higher level of efficiency than yet
exists, but it would enable the schools to teach a pupil what he could
learn, to teach him in the right way, and not drive him in the wrong way
to a wrong standard. The mere size and complication of the examination
system will tend to break it down. Doubtless 55,000 candidates have sat
for the school certificate this summer, each doing six, seven, or eight
papers ; the number of qualified examiners free to undertake the work
is very limited. In another twenty years there may be 100,000 candi-
dates, for the Hadow Report asks for a special leaving examination for
all the pupils at those modern schools which it hopes to see established.
Certainly the question will become acute, whether so great an effort will
be repaid by any advantage which can accrue from the issue of tens of
thousands of certificates each year, certificates which state that the
holders have in effect reached a very moderate standard of knowledge,
such as you might expect from an average person of their years. Would
not the issue of a similar statement by a responsible school have a precisely
equal value ?
L.— EDUCATION. 211
To see the examination system at its worst it should be studied in the
common entrance examination to the public schools. This examines four
to five thousand candidates yearly, and is designed to ascertain whether
those thirteen-year-olds know enough English, scripture, history, geography,
Latin, French, arithmetic, algebra and geometry to be admitted to the
bottom form of a public school. Much of the boy's future depends upon
the result of this examination, for the doors to the schools which he desires
will remain locked if he does not qualify. The object, therefore, of what
is a most expensive form of education and of what should be the best,
carried out as it is with small classes and in good buildings, is to enable
little boys to answer questions on paper with great rapidity, and to switch
their small minds with accuracy from Genesis to Ivanhoe, from Henry VIII
to the causes of rainfall, from quotations to problems, from Latin to
French, and so on, for two momentous days. The bright boy finds it
easy, the average boy in many cases, the dull boy in all cases, finds it
terribly hard. The result on the teaching is remarkable, for there is a
handbook issued, which commands a large sale and a free use in many
schools, which has reduced the whole thing to cram by analysis of all
the past papers. I have in my possession a leaflet which bears the inscrip-
tion ' To the Preparatory Schools is dedicated this sample of the Common
Entrance Handbook in the sincere belief that the latter will prove a boon
to all who possess it.' David and Jonathan, Publishers, 60 pages, price 5s.
I turn the page and find all the sovereigns of England ranged in order
according to the frequency of their occurrence in the last thirty- three papers,
from Victoria, ninety-seven, to Edward V, who has failed to score ; the same
with English Literature, from Westward Ho ! with fourteen occurrences to
Eip Van Winkle with one. Idylls of the King, twenty-one, to John
Gilpin, one ; it is very thorough, for it treats languages and geography
in the same way. Truly the preface may well say that the handbook
was written not with a view to publication : it was written to supply a
need. That need was the necessity of cramming, and not educating — a
process degrading to the teacher, hurtful to the taught, and a cause for
hanging the head to all who are responsible for the system which has
produced this travesty of our art. It is no surprise to learn that there
are schools where the boys read no authors, but only do examination
papers ; read no history, but memorise answers about names, and treat
literature and geography in the same way. I conceive that there is no
method of reform save the abolition of so indefensible a system, and I
believe that it is, or ought to be, an educational axiom that there should
never be any examination of a child under fifteen save by his own teachers.
If anyone doubts this I would ask him to estimate the improvement of
elementary education in this country which has taken place since payment
by results was done away with and the inspector's examination was
abolished.
I must draw to a close. Whatever reforms of administration, whatever
changes of curriculum, whatever increase of expenditure are approved, the
last word lies with the teachers, and all depends o.n the spirit which
animates them and the ideals which move them. This country is com-
mitted to the experiment of unrestricted democracy, ideally the highest
form of government if the quality of the citizens is good, in practice
p 2
212 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
capable of being the worst, where the citizens are uneducated and incapable
of discerning the true values of life. Everything seems to me to depend
upon whether the teachers in the next generation rise to the full measure
of their responsibility and opportunity, whether they carry through every
part and parcel of our educational system the highest and truest English
tradition, that education is more than instruction, that character counts
for more than brains and lives more than learning, that the true basis
of life is religious, and the only real values spiritual. I would say that
the main end and aim is to train boys and girls for service to the com-
munity, and to make clear that their lives can be lived in this spirit,
whether they are tradesmen or merchants, engineers or manufacturers,
clergymen or doctors, or followers of any career whatever, and that the
only life deserving of contempt is the life that contributes nothing, or
contributes evil, to the common stock. We have a fine traditional method
to follow, which has been handed down to us from the best of our prede-
cessors ; we can build our school lives on fellowship and the sense of
honour, on the team-spirit and not on individualism. We can point our
pupils forward to the quest of seeking to establish among the citizens of
this country a more equitable division of the things that matter, not by
the self-destructive method of class-war, but by the mutual help of classes.
We can save them from the fallacy that money is the thing that matters
most, for we can show them that the values of eternal life are among us
now, and now can be sought.
There is no nobler calling than that of the teacher, and the hope of
the future lies in this, that none can escape the teacher's influence. The
highest education is the gift of personality to personality, where in freedom
one leads, and others are fired to follow ; and this cannot occur unless
schools are free and individual, and the teachers within them no less free
to develop and give the best of which they are capable. Education can
and must be organised in Whitehall and the county town, but it cannot
there be given ; it can only pass from living men and women to living
boys and girls, where each is known to each. This personal relation
based on freedom is the most precious tradition that has come to us from
the greatest of the past, and any advance of organisation and extended
scope would be too dearly bought if it brought into question, or rendered
impossible, the spontaneity and independence without which no school
can be great.
SECTION M.— AGRICULTURE.
THE LIVE STOCK INDUSTRY AND
ITS DEVELOPMENT.
ADDRESS BY
J. S. GORDON, C.B.B., D.Sc,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
On looking over the Presidential Addresses delivered since the inauguration
in 1912 of the Agricultural Section of the British Association, I noted that
so far the Live Stock industry had not been formally discussed by this
section. As at the moment those engaged in agriculture are giving far
more consideration to the development of the live stock branch of the
industry than at any time previously, and moreover, as Government
departments have awakened to the necessity for providing State assistance
for the improvement of our herds and flocks, I came to the conclusion that
an address on this subject would be not only of interest to the members
of the Agricultural Section but, through the discussion which I hope will
follow, might lead to the making of some practical suggestions for the
further advancement of this, in my opinion, the most important branch of
British agriculture.
The Place of Live Stock in Empire Agriculture.
That the live stock industry occupies a predominant position in our
agricidtural economy is shown beyond question by oflS^cial statistics.
I have examined the statistics of agricultural production in a nuiiiber of
the leading countries of the British Commonwealth, and have divided
them into two classes : (1) live stock and live stock products, and (2) crops.
The first class includes cattle, sheep, swine and poultry, together with
their products, beef, mutton, pork, bacon, milk, butter, cheese, eggs,
wool, &c., while the second class comprises cereals, potatoes, hay, straw,
flax, grass seeds, fruit, vegetables, &c.
In the case of Great Britain and Northern Ireland the census of agri-
cultural production which was taken in 1925 provides a mass of data for
comparing the relative importance of crop and live stock production in
these islands. In England and Wales the estimated value of the agri-
cultural and horticultural produce consumed by farmers and their families
and sold ofi farms and other holdings in 1925 was £225,330,000, of which
no less than £154,650,000, or 68-6 per cent, represented the output of live
stock and live stock products. In Northern Ireland the value of the
output of the agricultural industry in 1925 was £15,058,000, of which
£11,809,000 or 78-4 per cent, consisted of live stock and live stock products.
In passing I may mention the remarkable fact that in Northern Ireland
the value of each of the groups comprised under live stock — live stock,
milk and dairy produce and poultry and eggs — ^exceeded the value of the
214
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
output of farm crops. The results of the census of production in Scotland
have not yet been published, but I feel confident that when they are
available they also will show that the value of the live stock industry
considerably exceeds that of crops. No statistics as to the total agri-
cultural output of the Irish Free State are available, but at the time of
the 1908 Census of Production live stock and live stock products consti-
tuted 85-7 per cent, of the value of the agricultural output of the whole
of Ireland.
In the Year Books of Australia and New Zealand certain figures are
given showing the estimated value of products in those countries.
Separate estimates are given for agricultural production (comprising crops
and fruit), pastoral production (comprising cattle, sheep, wool and hides),
and for farmyard, dairy and bee production (comprising dairy products,
pigs and pig products, poultry and bee farming). In Australia during
the five years 1920-25 the average value of pastoral, farmyard, dairy and
bee products constituted 60 per cent, of the total, while in 1925-26 it
amounted to over 64 per cent, of the total. In New Zealand the corre-
sponding figure for the period 1920-23 was 85 per cent, for live stock and
live stock products (pastoral, dairy, poultry and bee farming).
The following table shows the value of the output of (1) live stock and
live stock products, and (2) crops in the countries mentioned above during
the most recent years for which particulars are available : — -
Live Stock and
Percentage
Country.
Year.
Live Stock
Products.
Crops.
of Live Stock,
&c., to Total.
England and Wales
1925
£
154,650,000
£
70,680,000
68-6
Northern Ireland . .
1925
11,809,000
3,249,000
78-4
Ireland
1908
39,057,000
6,517,000
85-7
Australia . .
1925-26
160,488,000
89,267,000
64-3
New Zealand
1922-23
53,982,501
8,365,530
86-6
It is not possible to show the value of live stock and crop production
in other portions of the Empire on account of the absence of the necessary
statistical data.
Certain general conclusions may, however, be drawn. In Canada
figures are available showing the gross agricultural revenue of the
Dominion. In 1921 approximately 70 per cent, of this revenue was
derived from crops and 30 per cent, from live stock. These figures are,
however, not comparable with those already quoted, for no deduction is
made for crops used for further agricultural production in feeding to stock.
If the net value of crops after deducting the value of the hay, root crops
and other fodder crops fed to live stock were shown, the proportion of
the agricultural revenue attributable to live stock production would be
considerably increased. At the same time, with her large wheat-growing
areas, it may be freely admitted that in many parts of Canada the live
stock industry is probably of secondary importance as compared with
cereal production. Nevertheless it is not without significance that con-
siderable attention is being paid to the improvement of the live stock
of the Dominion. In the eastern provinces, moreover, the production of
M.— AGRICULTURE.
215
butter, eggs and bacon is now one of the principal lines of agricultural
development.
In the Union of South Africa the live stock industry appears to be on
the eve of important developments. The 1924 agricultural census showed
that the numbers of live stock in the Union included over 9,600,000 cattle
and 32,000,000 sheep. Hitherto the principal agricultural exports have
been hides and wool. In 1924 the value of the wool exported was
£15,763,953, while the export of hides and skins was valued at £3,196,959.
These two items constituted almost 58 per cent, of the total exports of
South Africa exclusive of diamonds and gold. On the other hand the
export of meats amounted to only £147,207 in value. South Africa has
its own peculiar difficulties to overcome, but with the improvement of
conditions of animal health together with progress in the methods of
refrigeration and transport there may eventually be great scope for South
Africa to follow in the steps of other Dominions and develop a trade
in meat as well as in hides and wool.
The important position occupied by the live stock industry within the
British Empire is apparent from the previous outline. The dependence
of our home population upon foreign meat supplies may be visualised from
the fact that in 1927 over 700,000 tons of beef and mutton were imported
from South America alone. It is thus clear that great scope exists for
the development of the grasslands of the Empire as sources of meat
supplies competing with both home and foreign producers. Hitherto so
far as beef is concerned our home farmers have had to face the most
severe competition from the estancias of South America. It seems
probable, however, that in the future almost equally severe competition
may be experienced from the Dominions.
It is important, therefore, that no effort should be spared to secure the
adoption of a policy of live stock improvement within these islands which
will enable us to face with confidence both existing and potential com-
petition, alike from the Dominions and from foreign countries.
Let us now consider the position of live stock within the British Isles
from another aspect. Has our live stock population maintained its
numbers over a series of years and how does it compare with the acreage
under tillage for the same period ?
Tilled Area of British Isles.
Between 1871 and 1926 the tilled area of the British Isles declined by
37-1 per cent. The reduction which took place in the different portions
of these islands is shown by the following figures : —
Area under Tillage in 1871 and 1926.
1871.
Acres.
1926.
Acres.
Reduction.
Acres.
Percentage
FaU.
England and Wales
Scotland
Ireland
11,876,723
2,156,954
3,792,393
17,826,070
7,387,335
1,703,431
2,126,073
11,216,839
4,489,388
453,523
1,666,320
37-8
210
43-9
British Isles
6,609,231
371
216
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
This decline was due to the great reduction in the area devoted to
wheat and barley, although the fall in the area under root crops has also
been relatively large.
Area under Wheat, Barley and Oats in the British Isles
between 1871 and 1926.
1871.
Acres.
1926.
Acres.
Reduction.
Acres.
Percentage
FaU.
Wheat
Barley
Oats
3,816,345
2,606,762
4,351,843
1,681,480
1,412,627
3,771,561
2,134,865
1,194,135
580,282
55-9
45-8
13-33
10,774,950
6,865,668
3,909,282
36-28
During this fifty-five year period the area under wheat, oats and barley
in the British Isles has thus fallen by nearly four million acres. Meanwhile,
the importation of wheat and wheat flour (expressed by equivalent weight
of grain) into these islands increased from 2,218,111 tons in 1871 to
6,638,099 tons in 1924 — -an increase of nearly 200 per cent. During the
same period imports of barley increased from 428,450 tons to 1,082,817
tons, an increase of practically 150 per cent.
Hopes have recently been held out that some improvement in the
price for cereals may be experienced in the future. . The increasing con-
sumption of wheat in Eastern countries has been pointed to as
foreshadowing a considerable increase in future demand, while the rapid
growth of the population in the United States and in other countries of
the New World suggests that the exportable surplus of these countries
will be reduced. This may lead to higher prices with increased production
at home. On the other hand, the ability of the plant breeder to propagate
varieties of wheat, which will open up areas of the world's surface at
present incapable of growing this cereal, has to be considered. The recent
experience with ' Marquis ' wheat in Canada indicates the potentiality of
development in this direction.
Live Stock Population.
The number of live stock in Great Britain and Ireland shows, by the
following table, a small increase from 1873 to 1926 : — •
1873.
1926.
Increase or
Decrease.
Cattle
Sheep
Pigs
10,111,651
33,912,155
3,544,713
12,064,570
27,594,688
3,388,000
+ 1,952,919
-6,317,467
- 156,713
♦Stock Units
15,665,187
16,684,268
+ 1,019,081
* These units are cattle units — 7 sheep and 5 pigs being taken as equivalent each
to one cattle unit.
It will be seen from the above table that between 1873 and 1926 the
number of cattle increased by almost 2,000,000. On the other hand the
M.— AGRICULTURE.
217
figures show a decrease in the sheep population of over six millions. A
very large percentage of lambs is, however, sold before the month of June
each year and consequently escapes enumeration. Formerly this trade
was insignificant and lambs were kept until more matured when they were
included in the official statistics, but the production of, and the demand
for, early lamb has steadily increased since 1900.
The figures published thirty years ago are, therefore, hardly com-
parable with those issued now. In other words, the sheep population in
1926 is greater than the official returns represent, but it would be difl&cult
to say to what extent the early lamb would increase the total figure.
The following table, which has been taken from the Report of the
Agricultural Tribunal of Investigation, contrasts the increases which have
taken place in the live stock population of the principal European countries.
In every instance the increases are decided and in some cases, as for
example, Denmark, Holland and Belgium, most striking : —
Live Stock Units.
Germany between 1873 and 1912 shows an increase in stock units of 22 per cent.
»» )» *» y> ^^ »»
44
70
France ,,
1883
„ 1913
Belgium
1880
„ 1912
Holland
1873
„ 1922
Denmark
1871
„ 1922
Great Britain
and Ireland ,,
1873
„ 1926
At first sight the above table might appear to suggest that we were
poor followers. A truer perspective is, however, obtained by considering
the changes which have taken place in the stock population per 100 acres
of crops and grassland.
Per 100 acres of Crops and Grass.
Cattle.
Sheep.
Pigs.
Stock
Units.
France
1883
130
240
6-5
17-7
1913
16-3
17-7
7-7
20-4
Germany
1873
19-5
30-9
8-8
25-7
1913
24-5
70
26-6
30-8
Belgium
1880
28-2
7-5
13-2
311
1912
40-9
4-1
27-5
470
Holland
1873
28-7
18-0
7-2
32-7
1922
37-6
12-2
27-7
44-9
Denmark
1872
18-7
27-8
6-6
240
1922
33-5
6-0
25-3
39-4
Great
1873
19-2
94-6
8-0
34-3
Britain
1926
24-5
79-2
7-7
37-4
It is evident that our live stock population has been maintained in
spite of severe overseas competition which has developed since the
nineties of last century. In 1890, 134,020 tons of beef were imported
into the United Kingdom in addition to 642,596 live animals which,
when expressed in their equivalent weight of meat, gave a total import of
310,734 tons. There was little change in the import of beef throughout
218
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
the decade ending in 1900, and in that year imports amounted to an
estimated total of 378,257 tons. By 1913 they had increased to 499,108
tons, practically the whole of which was imported as dead meat — only
14,743 live cattle entering our ports in that year.
In 1926 imports of beef into Great Britain and Northern Ireland
amounted to 721,358 tons in addition to 79,950 cattle (excluding those
from the Irish Free State), an increase of over 130 per cent, from 1890.
In the case of mutton, imports have increased from 95,702 tons in
1890 to 274,825 tons in 1926, an increase of nearly 190 per cent.
The position of British Agriculture during the past fifty years may be
summed up by saying that arable farming has declined greatly in face
of trans-oceanic competition, while live stock has been maintained in
the face of almost equally severe competition from the Argentine and the
New World.
From the agricultural point of view this indicates that in the British
Isles live stock is the most important economic factor and has always been
the farmers' sheet-anchor, enabling them during periods of agricultural
depression and low prices to pull through until the position improved.
During the present depression certain branches of live stock have been
well maintained, so far as prices are concerned, compared with pre-war
values. I refer chiefly to pigs, sheep, store cattle, dairy products, poultry
and eggs. If we compare the average increase in value of crops and live
stock including their products for the period 1922-26 with the period
1911-13, as shown by the figures published by the Ministries of Agriculture
in England and Wales and in Northern Ireland, we find that in England
and Wales there is an excess of fifteen points in favour of live stock and
live stock products as compared with tillage, the corresponding figure for
Northern Ireland being twenty-six.
Index Figures of Prices of Live Stock and Live Stock
Products and of Crops.
1911-13=100.
1922-26.
Live Stock and Live Stock Products.
1922-26.
Crops.
Product.
England
and Wales.
Northern
Ireland.
Product.
England
and Wales.
Northern
Ireland.
Eggs . .
Butter
Fat Cattle
Fat Sheep
Fat Pigs
Poultry
Store Cattle .
170-3
159-9
150-6
183-3
166-5
171-6
164-9
185-6
150-1
184-0
177-0
160-5
Wheat
Oats
Potatoes
Barley
150-5
136-5
180-7
141-1
162
130-9
139-6
Average
.167-0
170-4
Average
152-2
144-2
Advantage in favour of
Live Stock . .
15 points 26 points
M.— AGRICULTURE.
219
The same trend of affairs is to be seen in imported produce. A com-
parison of the pre-war and post-war prices of Manitoba wheat, Argentine
beef and New Zealand mutton gives the following figures : —
Year.
No. 1 Manitoba
Wheat per 480 lb.
Liverpool.
Argentine Beef
per 112 lb.
London.
New Zealand
Mutton per 112 lb.
London.
1913
s. d.
35 11
s. d.
37 6
s. d.
38 1
1923
1924
1925
1926
45 9
53 6
62 2
58 6
52
64 6
71 2
65 4
85 1
82 5
85 3
67 7
Average 1923-26..
54 llf
63 3
80 1
Increase over 1913
19 Of
25 9
42
Per cent, increase in
price
53 per cent.
68 per cent.
110 per cent.
The strong tendency during a period of agricultural depression for
price levels to rule more heavily against crops than stock and stock
products is not a new feature. It is not without interest and significance
to notice that, during the agricultural depression which followed the
Franco-Prussian war of 1870, the Danes altered their whole system of
agriculture and specialised in dairying, pigs and poultry, because they
realised that the fall in prices of good animal products was considerably
less than the fall in cereals. This change to concentration on animal
products did not, however, reduce the area of land under the plough, but
rather increased it, as the crops were converted into live stock products
instead of being exported. Since 1880 th^ cow population, which was
then 900,000, increased to over 1,300,000 in 1914, and only one-seventh of
the food consumed by the animals — chiefly foods of the protein- rich class —
is now imported. The Danes have given practical recognition to the fact
that arable farming supports more stock than grass farming, and that
stock farming is the real basis of crop farming.
Whilst it is generally realised that as civilisation advances there is a
change in human food from the coarser cereals such as rye and oats to
maize and wheat, it is important to remember that advances in the
standard of living are accompanied by increasing consumption and improve-
ment in the quality of animal products.
Taking, therefore, a wide view of agricultural production, I am
confident that as far as the British Isles is concerned the future lies with
the stock and stock product branch of the industry. I do not for one
moment envisage a ranching country because I am convinced that by
concentrating our energies on stock farming we will bring more and not
less land under the plough. Indeed, I would go so far as to say that we
cannot hope to remain an arable country if we continue to market our
cereal crops as such. If, however, we bend our energies in an organised
manner to the production of stock and stock products, a steady increase
220 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
in our arable acreage will be the inevitable consequence, and Brifcisli
agriculture will not only have a future but will be able to provide a steadily
increasing proportion of our national food requirements.
Changes in the Live Stock Industry.
For many years attention was directed mainly to improvement in
shape or conformity of flesh-producing animals and in the production of
animals which would carry more flesh, especially upon those parts of the
body which yielded meat of the highest value. Great attention has also
of recent years been directed to early maturity and quality in the produc-
tion of beef, mutton and pork.
In the case of dairy cattle, high yields of milk and butter-fat were
the chief aim, and, in poultry, large egg records.
The change in live stock (cattle, sheep and pigs) during the past thirty
years is extraordinary, and is directly attributable to the influence of
pedigree sires in the development of fine quality and early maturing
animals.
In the British Isles during the seventies of the last century cattle—
chiefly 3, 4, 5 and 6 years old — were slaughtered for beef ; from 1890-1910
it was usually 3 and 4 year olds — the 5 and 6 year old cattle having
practically disappeared ; and from this period to 1920 the age became
reduced to 2 and 3 year olds, while now there is a considerable and
growing demand for beef cattle from 12 to 18 months old.
Between 1871-75 and 1921-25 the proportion of store and fattening
cattle in England and Wales under 2 years of age increased from 58-6 per
cent, to 69 per cent.
This great alteration in the age at which animals are slaughtered
is mainly due to the steadily growing demand for small joints of beef which
has arisen since the Great War, and also to the desire for a rapid turnover.
Similar changes have taken place with mutton. Formerly the demand
was for 2 and 3 year old wedders ; now it is almost entirely confined to
lambs and yearling wedders.
The demand for small joints of mutton has increased so much during
recent years that large areas of pasture in Great Britain and Northern
Ireland, which formerly carried 2 and 3 year old wedders are now stocked
entirely with breeding ewes or 1 year old wedders. Two and three year
old wedders are almost animals of the past.
This growing request for small joints of mutton is also influencing
breeders of commercial sheep in their selection of breeds. In certain
areas in Great Britain and Northern Ireland Black-Face ewes have become
extremely popular, even in lowland sheep districts, and are being mated
with Border Leicester rams, because the joints of the progeny, being small
and of fine quality, command a higher price per pound than those of the
larger breeds.
Thirty years ago pigs were usually 12 months old before they were
ready for the bacon curers ; to-day they are being killed at from 6 to 7
months old.
In the United States of America exactly the same changes have taken
place. Mr. Edward N. Wentworth, director of Armour's Live Stock
Bureau, Chicago, writing in the Monthly Letter to Animal Husbandmen,
M.— AGRICULTURE.
221
states that ' 1894 practically marked the beginning of the passing of the
aged range steers, due to the rapid introduction of pure-bred bulls which
contributed the ability to make market weights and finish at increasingly
younger ages.'
Further evidence of this change in the United States of America may
be found in the data from twenty-nine States in the 1920 and 1925 census.
This comparison is shown in the following table : —
Beef Cattle in 29 States.
Year.
Breeding
Cows.
Other
Beef Cattle.
Total
Beef Cattle.
Total Slaughter
in the whole of
the United States.
1920
1925
4,672,841
5,663,275
8,382,972
7,679,672
13,055,813
13,342,947
13,885,000
14,705,986
Increase . .
21-2%
-8-4%
2-2%
5-9%
The significance of the foregoing figures is that the older fattening
cattle decreased by 8-4 per cent., the breeding cows increased by 21-2 per
cent., and the total number of beef cattle increased by 2-2 per cent., while
at the same time the total slaughter for the whole of the United States
increased by 5-9 per cent.
The decrease in average age really increases the effectiveness of. the
live stock population.
Dealing with the change in market ages in the United States, Mr.
Wentworth records that ' from 1895 up to the war there was some reduction
in age due to the rapidly increasing use of pure bred sires in the beef-breed-
ing grounds of the range country. . . . Since 1921 there has been a marked
reduction in the age of cattle slaughtered if we exclude the dairy type and
the breeding cows.' It is estimated that the decrease in the average age
of beef steers at Chicago from 1921 is from 12 to 14 months, although some
authorities put it as high as 18 months. The reduction in age from 1895
must, therefore, be somewhere between 18 and 24 months. Pigs will
average from 4 to 6 months younger than 25 years ago, while sheep
will average a full year younger.
Dr. E. J. McFall of the Massachusetts Agricultural College holds the
view that productivity in cattle, sheep and swine has been greatly
increased, due to the more rapid rate of turnover resulting from the
modern practice of marketing lambs instead of sheep, baby beeves instead
of older steers, increased numbers of calves as veal, and pigs at an age of
from 6 to 8 months instead of 10 to 14 months, as was characteristic
twenty-five years ago.
Market Weight of Live Stock.
The average weight at which cattle are slaughtered in England and
Wales is estimated to have decreased by 6 per cent, since 1913 and
during the last thirty- five years from 10 and 12 cwt. to 8 and 9 cwt.
In the United States the decrease is from 10 cwt. to between 8 and
9 cwt.. in the same period. From an economic point of view the most
222
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
striking feature is that, although the reduction in age is considerable, the
decrease in weight is comparatively small. This is shown in the following
table : —
Age
35 years ago.
Age
at present.
Estimated
average
1 weight
35 years ago.
Estimated
average 1
weight ,
at present.
Great Britain
United States
3, 4, 5 and
6 years old.
4, 6 and
6 years old.
1, 2 and
3 years old.
2 and 3
years old.
' 1,200 lb.
1,100 lb.
950 '
950
Dairy Stock. — The improvement in the yields of milk and butter-fat
in our dairy cattle is equally striking. Less than thirty years ago yields
of from 600 to 800 gallons of milk were considered high. The average
yield of milk per cow throughout the British Isles has been estimated at
or about 450 gallons. To-day an average yield of 1,000 gallons is by no
means uncommon in many herds, and we find that individual animals
have given up to 2,000 and 3,000 gallons in one lactation period. This
has been brought about by improved breeding, better methods of feeding
and management, and by milk recording.
Poultry. — In the case of poultry we have improvements on a similar
scale. The average output per hen was estimated as being under 100
eggs not many years ago, now there are numerous poultry farms showing
returns of an average of over 150 eggs per bird, and the egg-laying contests
held by our Governments and Local Authorities show averages of 180 to
190 eggs per bird.
Baby Beef.— The production and demand for baby beef has been
steadily growing since 1918 in the British Isles and in the United States
of America.
Mr. Wentworth in a letter to me on December 21, 1927, says : —
' It is difficidt also to say just what effect the demand for small joints
in America had in directing attention to baby beef production. Originally
I believe it was a by-product of the general trend toward a quick turnover
in farm finance, but it was unexpectedly intensified by the great changes
in demand which occurred during and just after the World War. This
demand first expressed itself so effectively that light-weight cows and thin
steers brought nearly as much on the market as quality animals. Then
the beef cattlemen discovered they could compete quite effectively and
still produce quality animals through baby beeves. I should say that at
present the demand for small joints is the principal incentive, but originally
it was the stimulus towards a quick turnover.
' Our Beef Department estimates that there were about '5 per cent, of
baby beeves in 1900, about 3 per cent, in 1918, 8 to 10 per cent, in 1920,
and about 20 per cent, for the current year.'
The Ministry of Agriculture in Northern Ireland in the years 1923-24
carried out a series of experiments (devised by Dr. G. S. Robertson) on
the production of baby beef with animals sired by pedigree beef Shorthorns,
pedigree Dairy Shorthorns, pedigree Aberdeen Angus and by the ordinary
M.— AGRICULTURE. 223
cross-bred bulls of the country. These animals were reared in the ordinary-
way followed in Northern Ireland, viz. : for the first six weeks they were
fed on whole milk, and for the next four or five months on separated milk
with concentrates. During the whole period of their growth they were
never allowed to lose their calf flesh. The animals were slaughtered
when from twelve to eighteen months old. The results of these experi-
ments clearly proved that when animals were well bred, the progeny of a
good pedigree sire, the production of baby beef was an economic success,
but when the animals were badly bred it was a complete failure. The
ill-bred calf simply grew but would not put on flesh. These experiments
have induced many farmers throughout Northern Ireland to convert their
calves into baby beef instead of pursuing the ordinary system of producing
stores, with the result that now special sales of baby beef are being held
annually in Northern Ireland and are largely attended by cross-Channel
butchers.
The lesson which these experiments have taught is that unless the
breeding stock of the country is improved and graded up to a high
standard, the progeny will not mature quickly and will never be suitable
for baby beef production. If the demand for small joints of beef con-
tinues to grow and becomes permanent, and if we are to hold our own
against foreign competition, it can be met only by paying far more
attention to the improvement of our stock than we have done in
the past or are doing at present, and this will be chiefly through the
increased use of good pedigree sires. The strongest argument for the
elimination of inferior sires is that there is a growing demand for a higher
quality of meat and, therefore, a high standard of breeding and feeding
is necessary for further development.
Advantages of Early Maturing Stock.
In addition to meeting the market demand for small joints, early
maturity has considerable economic advantages, namely : —
1. It gives a much quicker turnover, and is of material assistance in
eliminating intermediate profits. At present in the case of beef three
types of producers are frequently engaged in the production of the finished
article : the rearer, who sells at the age of nine to fifteen months to the
grazier of store cattle, who in turn, after a summer on the grass, sells to
the arable farmer for stall feeding.
2. The young animal is the more economical converter of food. The
older an animal is, the greater is the amount of food required to produce
1 lb. of live weight gain. Moreover, after a certain weight is reached,
200-240 lb. in the case of the pig, and probably about 800 lb. in the case
of the fattening bullock, the daily live weight gain falls. It follows,
therefore, that as the demand is for small joints and as the consuming
public is paying higher prices for small carcases, it is greatly to the
advantage of the stock feeder to finish his animals off at as early an
age as possible. In this connection may I express the hope that our
Animal Nutrition Research Stations will soon be able to provide the
farmer with badly needed data for the several types of farm animals,
showing the amount of food required at varying weights to produce 1 lb.
of live and dead weight gain. For pigs the information is available. In
224 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
tlie case of beef the classic experiments of Lawes and Gilbert and the
more recent investigations by Haecker at Minnesota on beef production
are all that the practical stock feeder has to guide him. Both of these
investigations apply to the production of heavy mature beef and, although
models of their kind, are of questionable value under modern conditions.
I have found it impossible to obtain figures showing the daily live weight
gains for lambs. Most of the experiments carried out by Agricultural
Colleges on the feeding of sheep relate to the full-grown or nearly mature
sheep and show daily live weight gains of from only J to | lb. per head per
day. On my own farm I have been producing early lambs from heavy
breeds for many years and have made a practice of weighing them every
week. My experience is that when early lambs and their dams are
forced with green fodder and concentrates from the birth of the lambs
until the latter reach a weight of 90 lb., the lambs will gain f to 1 lb. per
head per day, but that after a weight of 90 lb. has been passed the daily
live weight gain decreases.
3. Young animals finished for the butcher realise higher prices per lb.
than older and heavier animals correspondingly finished. Early maturing
or baby beef realises at least 6s. more per cwt. live weight than heavy
beef 10 cwt. or over, and early lamb as a rule from 25 to 50 per cent, more
than mutton.
It is sometimes argued that if all flesh-producing animals were
slaughtered at a much earlier age than at present our live stock population
would be reduced. This is not so. Experience in the United States of
America, which has already been quoted, shows that as the age of
slaughter of the beef cattle on the ranges became less, the number of
breeding females increased and also the number of cattle slaughtered per
annum. The same trend of events would be manifest in this country,
indeed it is beginning, and a rapid extension is badly needed.
The marketing of our stock at an early age enables the farmer to turn
out a finished article at a reduced cost of production for which a higher
price is obtainable and provides him with the only effective means of
holding his own against the best imported beef and mutton.
State Aid to the Live Stock Industry.
Let us now see what is being done in Great Britain, Northern Ireland
and the Irish Free State towards the improvement of live stock by financial
assistance from the State.
Until quite recently all efforts to improve the live stock of the Empire
were left entirely to private individuals — the breeders of pedigree stock —
and this small band of enthusiastic workers have left behind them a
notable monument to their skill and unremitting labours in the formation
of breeds and in the improvement which they effected in the type and
quality of pure bred stock.
It was only at a comparatively recent date that the British Government
considered the agricultural industry to be of suflicient importance to
justify the State in making some financial provision for its improvement
and development.
The first Parliamentary grant for the special purpose of live stock
improvement was voted in 1885. This grant was given to Ireland to be
M.— AGRICULTURE.
225
administered under the auspices of the Royal Dublin Society who adopted
the method of subsidising pedigree sires, and thus Ireland^ was the
pioneer country in the British Empire to undertake live stock improvement
with the help of a State grant.
Since 1914, Parliamentary grants for the improvement of live stock
have been made to the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries and to the
Board of Agriculture for Scotland, and each of these Departments put into
operation schemes somewhat similar to those in Ireland.
The live stock schemes originally devised by the Royal Dublin Society
were continued and developed by the Irish Department of Agriculture
which was established in 1900, and on the formation in 1922 of separate
Parliaments for Northern Ireland and for the Irish Free State still further
extensions of the schemes were made by the Agricultural Departments of
these two Governments.
The latest published figures for each part of the United Kingdom and
for the Irish Free State show the total number of breeding stock, the
total number of bulls and the number of these sires subsidised to be as
follows : —
No. of Breeding o„i,„;j;„„^
Stock (cows and Bulls. Subsidised
in-calf heifers). ^ '
England and Wales
Scotland
Irish Free State . .
Northern Ireland. .
2,790,703 88,405 1,287
460,317 17,578 937
1,332,591 23,275 2,205
270,283 4,662 623
From these figures it will be seen that the proportion of subsidised to
non-subsidised bulls and the number of breeding stock per subsidised bull
vary very considerably in the several parts of the British Isles.
Subsidised.
Non-subsidised.
No. of Cows per
subsidised Bull.
England and Wales
Scotland . .
Irish Free State . .
Northern Ireland . .
1 to 69
1 to 19
1 to 11
1 to 7
2,168
491
604
434
Turning for a moment to the Dominions —
In Canada the improvement of live stock is developed chiefly by two
methods : —
1. The Live Stock Branch of the Department of Agriculture of the
Dominion Government purchases and loans out pure bred bulls to specially
organised associations in newly settled districts and in backward sections
in the older Provinces. This system was commenced in 1913 and 4,692
bulls had been placed out on loan up to 1926, an average of 361 bulls per
annum. By this means the value of pedigree sires has been demonstrated
and farmers have been induced to purchase pure bred sires for their own
use.
2. By grading beef cattle, sheep and lambs according to age, quality
and weight when they are put on the market and by demonstrations and
1928 Q
226 SECTIONAL ADDEESSES.
propaganda, attention is drawn to superior beef and mutton. In tliis
way a growing demand from the consumer for more tender and juicy
joints lias been created. This plan has directly assisted breeders to improve
their stock as considerably higher prices can now be obtained for prime
beef, mutton or lamb than for coarse joints. The Canadian Government
is paying special attention to this side of marketing with remarkably
successful results. The home consumption of meat and eggs per head
has gone up considerably since this sytem of grading was commenced.
Thus, in 1916 the consumption of eggs per head was sixteen dozen. In
1927 it had increased to twenty-eight dozen and all exports had ceased.
Australia (Queensland) in 1925 adopted a scheme by means of which
the Department of Agriculture made available to the approved purchaser
of a pedigree bull a subsidy of 50 per cent, of the cost price, provided the
subsidy did not exceed £50.
In South Africa a scheme for the distribution of pedigree bulls to
farmers in the Transvaal through breed societies came into operation in
1924. These animals are sold to selected applicants at reduced prices.
Several of the Agricultural Schools throughout this Dominion have stud
farms, and young sires raised on these farms are sold and placed out
under the Department's bull distribution scheme.
I have already mentioned that in Ireland the first State-aided live
stock breeding schemes were started over forty years ago, and although the
value of these schemes was clearly shown in the great improvement in the
stock of the country both in quality and in the increased prices obtained,
the results achieved were not anything like what they would have been
if the widespread use of animals totally unsuitable for breeding purposes
had been prohibited. The scrub bull not only inflicted serious damage on
the owners of cows but lowered the reputation and value of Irish live
stock and to a large extent neutralised the good effect of the live stock
schemes.
These were the chief reasons which induced the Governments of
Northern Ireland in 1922 and of the Irish Free State in 1925 to introduce
legislation providing that bulls below a certain standard of merit should
not be used for breeding purposes and that all suitable bulls should be
licensed. By subsidising pedigree sires we have the means of improving
and grading up our stock and by permitting the use of none but licensed
sires we get rid of the inferior animals and prevent them from doing harm.
This ensures that the improvement is continuous and that much quicker
results are produced.
In England and Wales there is only one premium bull to every sixty-
nine non-premium bulls and there are 2,168 cows to each premium sire,
whereas in Northern Ireland, where more than half the number of bulls
are pedigree animals, there is one premium bull to every seven non-
premium bulls and 434 cows to each premium sire. Yet after forty years'
experience of the premium scheme we have found it absolutely necessary
to bring in a licensing system to supplement the former owing to the
progress of improvement being so comparatively slow.
Great Britain has the reputation of having the finest pedigree stock
in the world, and yet probably nowhere else in the British Empire is
improvement in the cross-bred cattle more urgently needed. It is a
M.— AGRICULTURE.
227
strange anoiualy that our pure-bred stock are exported to all parts of
the Empire and to foreign countries for the improvement of the native
stock, while at home our own cross-bred stock are in comparison so inferior
to the pure-bred stock.
In Canada, United States, Australia and South Africa the elimination
of the scrub bull has received attention, and these countries in recent
years have instituted with considerable success campaigns against the
use of inferior sires. Western Australia introduced legislation which came
into operation in 1924 to enable their agricultural department to get rid
of scrub bulls.
Bull Licensing Act and its Administration.
The main features of the Live Stock Breeding Act of 1922, which came
into operation throughout Northern Ireland in January 1924, are : —
1. The licensing of bulls of the prescribed age, and the prohibition,
enforced by penalties, of the use of unlicensed bulls.
2. The granting, as a temporary measure, of permits to owners who
feed bulls for beef.
3. A fee of 5s. is charged for a licence for each animal, and the licence
remains in force during the lifetime of the animal unless revoked or sus-
pended by the Ministry.
4. All bulls passed as up to licensing standard are tattooed on the ear
with a letter and a number.
5. An owner can appeal against the decision to reject a bull for a
licence. When such an appeal is lodged the animal is inspected by an
appeal judge who is a breeder of cattle, and not an official of the Ministry.
To prevent frivolous appeals a fee of £2 2s. must be lodged. This fee is
returned to the owner if the appeal is successful.
6. Inspections are held twice each year — in February and September.
Appeals. — Since the Act came into operation there have been eighty
appeals against the decision to reject bulls for licences. In these cases
the bulls were re-examined as provided in the Act, with the result that
twenty-five of the bulls were
Rejections. — The percentage of bulls rejected for licences at each
into force was as follows : —
icensed and fifty-five finally rejected.
inspection since the Act came
September 1923
February 1924
September 1924
February 1925
September 1925
February 1926
September 1926
February 1927
September 1927
The point of interest in this table is that in the last year the rejections
were less, although the standard for selection was raised. This is due
entirely to better-class bulls having been produced.
q2
5-7 per cent.
• 15-4| ,-„ ,
22. K = 1 ' ^2 per cent.
• 23-0! o„
20.A I = 23 per cent.
20-6 ~^^'^ V^^ cent.
17-6 1 ~^^'^ T?^^ cent.
228 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
In its administration of the Act Northern Ireland has advisedly
adopted a cautious and lenient policy. Beginning with the rejection of
only really low-grade bulls, the Ministry at each subsequent half-yearly
inspection has gradually raised the qualifying standard of bulls eligible for
licences. By this method the small farmer is being educated to the
advantage of using good-class bulls, and consequently it is expected
that in the near future only those bulls which are up to the standard now
required for premiums will be licensed.
Inspections. — Inspections are carried out twice each year, in February
and September, and in order to convenience farmers and simplify pro-
cedure, the Six County area of Northern Ireland is mapped out into a
number of districts in each of which numerous centres are fixed by the
Ministry for the inspection of bulls. In selecting centres the Ministry
endeavours to ensure that owners will not have to bring their animals a
greater distance than three miles. In addition, inspections of bulls are
carried out at the annual spring bull sales held throughout the Six County
area. The officers appointed as inspectors are permanent officials of the
Ministry, and are entirely employed in connection with the Ministry's live-
stock schemes. The method devised of having local centres instead of
inspecting animals on owners' premises was adopted in order to reduce
the cost of inspection. It also enabled the inspectors to compare the bulls
shown and to keep a much more uniform standard than would be possible
in a house-to-house inspection. At first it was frequently asserted that
the administration of such an Act would be extremely expensive, and
would entail the employment of an army of officials, but this has proved
to be quite a misapprehension. The Ministry did not increase its staff,
but carried out the inspections with three of its regular live stock officers,
who devote about one month each year to this particular work. The fees
received cover the cost of inspection.
Assistance to Small Faemers.
It is common knowledge that the quality of our herds varies greatly
from district to district, and it is obvious that the operation of a Live Stock
Breeding Act, such as has been outlined, will bear much more heavily on
the poorer districts where the cattle are inferior. It is in such districts
that the largest percentage of bulls is rejected, and if the real objects of
the Act are to be achieved the State must under such circumstances be
prepared to give practical assistance. In the poorer districts in Northern
Ireland, where a large percentage of bulls was rejected for licence, the
Ministry, through the county committees of agriculture, purchased and
sold pedigree bulls to approved applicants on reduced terms. These are
in addition to those animals which were placed out under the ordinary
premium scheme, where premiums of the value of from £15 to £20 per
annum are awarded.
Animals under the reduced price scheme are sold to selected applicants
at one-third the original cost. The applicant pays the one-third in three
equal instalments, the first when he gets the bull, the second in the following
October, and the third in October of the following year. If the owner
keeps the animal in good condition and complies with the regulations of
M.— AGRICULTURE. 229
the scheme, he receives as a premium each year an amount equal to the
instalment he pays, so that in the end the bull costs him nothing. To
take an example, if a bull costs say £15, it is sold for £15 to the applicant,
who pays £5 when he gets possession of the animal in February or March.
The following October he pays the second instalment of £5 and the third
is paid in October the next year.
The owner receives a premium of £5 in October of the year in which
he purchases the bull, and a second and third premium, each of the value
of £5, in October of the two following years.
Loans are also given for the purchase of premium bulls.
Assistance to Breeders of Pedigree Stock.
One of the most noteworthy features of the Bull Licensing Act is its
indirect effect in increasing the demand for pure-bred sires. The supply
must be forthcoming if progress is to continue and confidence is to be
promoted. In countries such as England and Scotland, where large
pedigree herds are maintained and pedigree stock exported, an increased
demand for pure -bred sires can be quickly met. Pedigree breeders in
Northern Ireland are as a general rule small farmers with very limited
herds, and, however willing, they are financially incapable of competing
for the high-priced pedigree sires.
In order to overcome this difficulty a scheme has been put into opera-
tion whereby if three or four breeders of pedigree stock who have between
them sufficient cows to mate with one bull will co-operate in the purchase
of a high-class pedigree bull, the Ministry will pay two-thirds of the cost
up to £500, and will give a loan for two-thirds of the balance to be paid
ofi in three or more instalments. By this means encouragement is given
to small breeders of pedigree stock who otherwise could not afford to
purchase high-class sires.
Fears not Eealised.
Breeders of pedigree stock were apprehensive that if a licensing scheme
were introduced stock sires not up to the standard in appearance would
be rejected and no attention would be paid to the animal's pedigree.
Since the Act came into operation no pedigree stock bull has been rejected
for a licence. A breeder may have a pedigree stock bull of plain shape,
and perhaps not up to licensing standard, but as this sire may represent
the best obtainable where the choice was narrowed by such considera-
tions as a particular pedigree or a special line of blood related to the
breeder's own herd, the bull is licensed. If, however, the young bulls
produced by this sire are not up to licensing standard, they will be rejected,
and the owner will at once get rid of the stock bull, as no breeder of
pedigree stock will keep a stock bull which is leaving unremunerative
progeny.
The fears expressed at one time that the Act would encroach unduly
on the farmers' liberty of action have likewise proved groundless. In
actual practice the measure interferes only with the farmer who, by keeping
an inferior sire, would counteract the efforts of the State and of local
authorities to improve the live stock of the country.
230 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
Is Further State Aid Eequired ?
Would it be advisable for the State to devote larger funds than are
granted at present to the improvement of live stock ?
My opinion is that, as the money which has already been applied to
this purpose has proved so reproductive, and as the live stock breeding
industry is so important to the whole community, it is questionable if
funds expended in any other way could produce anything like the same
returns.
Here I may quote from evidence given in January 1923 by Mr. T. P.
Gill, who for over twenty years was Permanent Secretary of the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Dublin. He stated before the Commission on
Agriculture, appointed by the Irish Free State, that—
' By the infusion of pure bred blood and better methods of keeping,
feeding and management, producing an animal which matures more
quickly, fattens more cheaply and yields more beef and milk, the intrinsic
value independent of price fluctuations of Irish cattle has been increased
since the department started in 1900 by about £5 per head. This is
based on the estimates of the British Salemasters who handle this import
as well as of the most experienced Irish cattle traders. On the number
of cattle exported last year, counting the exports only, this would mean
an increased annual income of approximately £5,000,000 for an expendi-
ture of £20,000, or a return of 250-fold.'
If we calculate that the increased value was only £3 per head, it means
£3,000,000 per annum, or a return of 150-fold.
Some will think, perhaps, that I have laid too much stress on the
importance of the pedigree sire in the improvement of stock, but the
improvement which has taken place in the stock of the Argentine Republic
gives us food for thought. In 1848 the first Shorthorn bull was imported
into that country. At that time only native breeds existed, animals
which from our standard were of very inferior quality and extremely
slow-growing. The Rural Society founded in 1875 was the chief agency
in bringing about improvement in the live stock of the Argentine chiefly
through the importation of pedigree sires and through the shows of live
stock held by the Society.
In 1895 native cattle constituted 50 per cent, of the total in the province
of Buenos Aires. In 1914 this had declined to 3-5 per cent. The cross-
breds and half-breds increased during this period of twenty years from
49-2 per cent, to 93-9 per cent., and the pure-bred or pedigree cattle from
0-6 per cent, to 2-5 per cent.
Similar progress in the case of sheep has been recorded. In 1895
native breeds constituted 16-5 per cent, of the total ; in 1914 they had
fallen to 2-3 per cent. The cross-breds increased during this period from
83 per cent, to 95-6 per cent., and the pure-breds from 0-5 per cent, to
2-1 per cent.
In the other provinces an equally noticeable improvement has been
efiected.
Between 1895 and 1922, 41,519 pedigree bulls were exported from the
British Isles to the Argentine.
To-day the best quality Argentine chilled beef ranks next to the best
I
M.— AGRICULTURE. 231
home-produced, and in Smithfield Market it commands prices higher
than some of our own home-produced and considerably higher prices than
any other imported beef.
The following figures from the Statist show the prices of home and
Argentine beef for the year before the war, for 1926 and for 1927 :^
Prices per stone of 8 lb.
Class of Beef.
January 30, 1914.
December 2, 1926. December 3, 1927.
Argentine chilled hind-
quarters
Scottish sides
j English sides
3s. 8d. to 3s. lOd.
4s. 6rf. to 5s.
4s. 2d. to 5s. Id.
3s. lOd. to 4s. 4:d. 4s. 8d. to 6s.
6s. 6d. to 7s. id. 6s. 4:d. to 7s.
4s. 8d. to 5s. Qd. is. to 4s. lOd.
1
English sides, it will be observed, have actually fallen in price since
1914, whilst Argentine chilled beef has risen. The substantial difference
in favour of English beef over Argentine chilled beef which existed in
1914 has disappeared. The two principal factors in this revolutionary
change are the use of pedigree sires and marketing methods. Surely no
stronger argument could be put forward for the urgent necessity for the
improvement of the cross-bred cattle of the British Isles.
Need for Extended Kesearch.
Although I consider that the pedigree sire is the best foundation for
the improvement of live stock it is by no means the only way by which
improvement can be brought about. The changes and improvements
already mentioned are largely the results of the ability and judgment of
the breeder himself, but latterly he has been assisted considerably by the
agricultural scientist, chiefly along four distinct lines of research and
experiment :
1. Animal Nutrition.
2. Animal Diseases.
3. Animal Breeding.
4. Marketing.
Animal Nutrition. — Animal nutrition is of the greatest importance
from three points of view —
(a) I am sure that most stock owners will agree that the greatest
mortality in live stock is due either direct' y or indirectly to imperfect
nutrition and not to disease- — probably seven out of every ten deaths
occurring on farms in the British Isles (excluding those caused by
accidents) are due to imperfect nutrition.
(b) Owing to early maturity and forcing young animals forward to an
age when they are ready to be killed, a much more thorough knowledge
of foods and the science of feeding is necessary than under the old system.
In the case of cows with high milk yields and of poultry where high egg
records are being produced such knowledge is specially required.
(c) The practical farmer as a rule has little or no knowledge of how to
form well-balanced rations ; indeed he has a very slight knowledge of the
232 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
composition of foods and of their physiological action. How could it be
otherwise when we consider that it is only of recent date that attention
has been given by agricultural scientists to the necessity for balanced
rations in feeding difierent kinds of stock and how little even they know
about the digestibility of foods, the proper balance of a ration and the
action of minerals in relation to health and disease resistance.
In 1890 the British Government gave Local Authorities (County
Councils) in Great Britain grants to be used either for reducing rates or
for agricultural and technical instruction purposes. Many of the County
Councils from the beginning utilised those funds entirely in developing
agricultural and technical instruction schemes and in later years all the
County Councils expended these grants in this way. From 1890 until a
few years ago practically all the funds made available to Local Authorities
for the development of agriculture were applied to agricultural education,
experimental and research work chiefly in connexion with soils, manures
and crops, comparatively small amounts being devoted to research and
experimental work on live stock problems. Attention has recently been
drawn to this fact by Mr. J. R. Campbell, who in his report (November
1927) on Agricultural Education in Scotland states :
' Owing no doubt to the greater cost and difficulty in carrying out
experiments in the rearing and feeding of stock, this side of farming —
though not wholly neglected — has received comparatively little attention
in the way of experiments outside the College farms. It is to manuring
and cropping that lectures and field work have been chiefly directed.'
While I realise the great advantage to be gained by the application of
science to soil, fertiliser and crop problems, the chief factor in the British
Isles is live stock, and it has been to a great extent neglected. It is, as
I have shown, the chief source of our farmers' income — the hub of the
wheel — and, so long as the production of live stock is an economic success
and crops are utilised chiefly by converting them into live stock products,
more attention should be given to research on live stock problems than to
the experimental side of soils, manures and crops.
This position is, however, being rectified, and we have now research
stations engaged in animal nutrition work at Aberdeen, Cambridge,
Belfast and Dublin, but the funds available are quite inadequate if this
work is to be developed on broad lines and is to be of practical assistance
to the stock breeder in his efforts to overcome many of his difficulties and
losses.
Animal Diseases. — I am sure that no one will question the need for
extended research into the diseases of our farm animals or the necessity
for protecting our live stock industry against epidemics which annually
threaten it so seriously. In connexion with the latter I may refer to the
outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease in Great Britain which have been
almost continuous since 1919, and which have been the cause of the loss
of so many stock through slaughter. During the last nine years, 1919-1928,
no fewer than 162,214 cattle, 114,679 sheep, 71,536 pigs and 256 goats have
been slaughtered, and the compensation paid to farmers amounted to
£5,314,000. This does not by any means cover the full value of pedigree
stock, as only commercial prices are paid in compensation, nor does it
include the administrative expenses incurred in stamping out _each
M.— AGRICULTURE, 233
outbreak of this disease. Moreover, when whole herds of pedigree stock
are slaughtered, it means in many instances the destruction of the life
work of breeders — work which can never be replaced — and for this loss
no sum could ever compensate the breeders or the State.
Here is a field of research which would justify the State in devoting
large sums in order to employ the most skilled scientists obtainable to
ascertain a means of prevention. When we consider the enormous cost
to the nation and the constant danger of losing our best pedigree herds,
as well as the possibility of losing our trade in pedigree stock with other
countries, the justification for further and immediate research in this
direction is apparent.
Considerable loss to our agriculturists is caused by naany other animal
diseases regarding the prevention of which very little is known. Those
which occur to me as being some of the most important are tuberculosis,
abortion, infertility or sterility. The first named not only causes loss
through the death of animals but is a constant source of danger to human
beings through the consumption of milk from tubercular cows. The latter
two diseases are widespread in many areas and affect seriously the pro-
duction of stock. These are only a few of the many animal diseases into
which research is required and for which adequate funds are urgently
needed.
Animal Breeding.— One of the greatest problems which breeders have
to face in the management of their studs, herds and flocks, is the selection
of sires. Both amateur breeders and old experienced breeders have the
same diflEiculty, viz. how to select a prepotent sire. The only way in which
breeders can determine this at present is by the offspring. This means a
delay of two years in the case of beef cattle and from three to four years
in the case of dairy cattle. If, at the end of that time, the sire proves
unsuitable, the owner may have from two to four crops of calves inferior
to their parents and, therefore, of no use in improving the herd, and such
animals have to be sold at an unremunerative price. The owner suffers
a considerable loss in time as well as money and runs the risk of ruining
his herd if he retains animals of this blood.
Owners of small flocks or herds cannot afford to keep more than one
high-priced sire, and therefore are handicapped much more than those
who own large herds or flocks. The latter can afford to keep a number
of sires on trial, mating each with only a few females until each sire is
proved, instead of risking all the herd with one unproved sire, as has to
be done in most cases by small breeders. It may be of interest to mention
that in Scotland most of the herds of pedigree cattle are in the possession
of tenant farmers, many of whom have only small farms. In Northern
Ireland there are 682 pedigree herds and the majority of the owners have
farms under fifty acres. These breeders could not afford to keep more than
one sire or to pay a very high price for a pedigree sire.
Money may enable the breeder to procure a high-class sire of a
fashionable pedigree, but this is no guarantee that the sire will prove to be
a good stud animal, as it has frequently happened that the progeny of
high-priced animals turn out unsuitable and are unsaleable, except at
a low price. Pedigree is a guide, if used properly from a genealogical
point of view, to trace the family and the line of blood. Experience and
234 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
judgment also assist the breeder in his selection, but even the most
experienced breeders and keenest judges often purchase animals which
turn out quite unsuitable as sires. The individual merits or records of
the parents are exceedingly important factors, but by no means can you
rely on these to enable you to select a suitable sire. Luck or chance, up
to the present, seems to outweigh all the other factors combined in the
selection of a sire.
Another problem is how to induce breeders of commercial stock and
even breeders of pure-bred dairy stock to keep their bulls until such time
as the value of their progeny can be determined, and then to retain, so
long as they will produce stock, those sires which are proved to be suitable.
This question is of the greatest importance in dairy herds, where frequently
the bull is dead when his daughters are proved to be good yielders of
milk and butter-fat. Well-bred bulls should be retained until the
daughters have demonstrated their sire's true value, and, by the exclusive
use of such pure-bred bulls, a real advance would be made in the breeding
of dairy stock.
Many pedigree herds and flocks have made names or high reputations
simply as the result of having one prepotent sire, and when that sire died
these herds for years afterwards lost their reputation for high-class stock.
If the animal geneticists could show us how to diagnose a prepotent sire
or how to breed animals with this hereditary trait and make breeding more
of a certainty and less of a gamble, it would encourage and give a stimulus
to the breeding of high-class animals, which would reach much further
than any form of State subsidy given directly to breeders of pedigree
stock, and would be worth millions in money to stock breeders throughout
the world.
Makketing and Grading.
The marketing and grading of animals and their products is a very
wide subject, and one which could only be dealt with effectively by
devoting a special paper to it alone. I will, however, touch briefly on
one or two points.
In Great Britain until recently practically no attention has been paid
to the grading for marketing purposes of animals or animal products, and
those measures which have been taken are entirely voluntary. In Ireland
voluntary schemes have been in operation since 1900, but with such small
success that compulsory measures for the grading of eggs were put into
operation in 1924 by legislation in Northern Ireland, and similar legislation
for the grading of eggs and dairy products was adopted by the Irish Free
State. It is anticipated that, in the near future, further legislation will
be passed in Ireland for the grading of pigs and other products.
In Canada voluntary measures were tried for many years, but both the
Government and the farmers in that country were ultimately convinced
of the necessity for compulsory powers, with the result that laws of the
most drastic character are now in force in that Dominion insisting upon
the grading of all animal products, both for export and home consumption.
New Zealand, Australia, South Africa and many foreign countries also
have passed similar legislation for certain products.
These countries are all competitors of ours, and by means of legislation
M.— AGRICULTURE. 285
they are enabled to put upon our markets animal products so uniform in
quality, so even in weight, &c., that they have obtained a reputation for
a reliable standard article which has won the confidence of the public
to such an extent that consumers frequently insist upon having certain
jiroducts from these countries in preference to similar home-produced
articles. I refer in particular to New Zealand Iamb, New Zealand butter,
Canadian cheese, Argentine beef, Danish eggs, &c.
In the case of all chilled and frozen beef and mutton imported into
Great Britain, the carcases are so graded according to quality and weight
that a retailer can order his precise requirements from a wholesaler by the
mere mention of brand, quality and weight, and so regular is the grading
that a customer can depend on obtaining what he requires without having
to examine the article.
In the Argentine beef is graded into three qualities which enables
them to supply three different markets. The Australian and New Zealand
mutton and lamb are also divided into three grades, and latterly, owing to
the demand for small joints, the second-quality lambs of smaller weights
frequently command a higher price in our market than the heavier first
quality.
By not marketing our home produce properly, that is by not grading,
we are not only receiving inferior prices, but we are losing our position in
our home markets and are permitting imported produce to secure a
position which it could never attain if only our home products were of
high quality, and were placed on the market in a more reliable and uniform
condition as regards quality, weight, appearance, &c. For fresh home-
produced supplies of first quality and of the proper weight the demand in
this country is unlimited, and such supplies will always command prices
considerably in excess of those for imported animal products.
While personally I am opposed to placing any unnecessary restriction
on the liberty of the subject, I must say that, judging from my experience
of the past twenty-eight years in Ireland, and noting that the Dominions,
as well as many foreign countries, have had to resort to legislation, I fear
that it will be found difficult, if not impossible, to secure reform in the
grading and marketing of United Kingdom animal products through
voluntary effort alone.
Conclusion.
To sum up, I should like to emphasise the supreme importance of the
live stock side of our agricultural industry, the immense scope for develop-
ment which exists, and the exceedingly rapid strides which can be made
in its development by the application of our present knowledge along
properly organised lines. It is my opinion that we can, if we choose,
do for stock in the relatively short period of ten to fifteen years what has
been accomplished for crops from 1840 to the present time. Unless we
bestir ourselves and organise our efforts we shall find our home markets
for stock and stock products in the hands of our competitors, who already,
by purchasing the best of our pedigree sires, are placing on our markets
products which are superior to the great bulk of our home-produced
supplies.
The pressing necessity at the moment is for improvement in our
236 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES.
commercial cattle— the great disparity between them and our pedigree
stock is little short of tragic. I make no apology for submitting to you
that the means towards this end are :
(1) The increased use of pedigree sires, and in this direction the State
can with great advantage to itself provide a powerful stimulus by
the rapid extension of the premium scheme ;
(2) The elimination of the scrub bull, which, to my mind, with human
nature as it is, will only be accomplished in an efiective manner
by legislative means.
It must not be forgotten, however, that as progress is made in grading
up our stock by breeding methods, it is imperative that there should be
corresponding developments in our knowledge of nutrition, disease
resistance and elimination, and in animal genetics. Research in these
branches of agricultural science has in the past been starved. The funds
devoted to such work are quite inadequate when viewed in the light of
the importance of the live stock industry, which in England and Wales
alone is worth, approximately, £154,000,000 per annum.
In connexion with this work may I stress the necessity for such
research to apply itself more directly than at present is the case to the
solution of practical problems. No one realises more than I do the need
for fundamental research, or, as it is now called, long-range research, but
the agricultural scientist should be, as his designation implies, essentially
an applied worker. I venture to think that in setting themselves some of
the problems which I have sketched they will meet with sufficient really
fundamental problems to keep them employed for many years to come.
Finally, I would reiterate the necessity for a comprehensive reorganisa-
tion of our methods of marketing stock and stock products. If it can be
accomplished on a voluntary basis so much the better, but I am convinced
that compulsory legislation will eventually be necessary. Much valuable
time will be saved by facing this position at once. There is a future, and
a bright future, for the live stock industry, but only if we are prepared
to tackle the problems which it presents in a live and organised manner.
I have endeavoured in this address to summarise my own experience of
over thirty years of intimate association with animal husbandry, and to
put before you for consideration how, as the result of that experience,
I conceive this great national industry can best be developed.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,
Etc.
Seismological Investigations.— Thirty-tJiird* Report of Committee
(Prof. H. H. Turner, Chairman ; Mr. J. J. Shaw, Secretary ; Mr.
C. Vernon Boys, Dr. J. E. Crombie, Dr. C. Davison, Sir F. W.
Dyson, Sir R. T. Glazebrook, Dr. Harold Jeffreys, Prof. H.
Lamb, Sir J. Larmor, Prof. A. E. H. Love, Prof. H. M. Macdonald,
Dr. A. Crichton Mitchell, Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. H. C. Plummer,
Rev. J. P. Rowland, S.J., Prof. R. A. Sampson, Sir A. Schuster, Sir
Napier Shaw, Sir G. T. Walker, and Mr. F. J. W. Whipple).
[Drawn up by the Chairman except where otherwise mentioned.]
General.
We regret to record the death of Mr. W. E. Plummer, Director of the Bidston
Observatory, who was a member of this Committee from 1900 until his resignation
owing to failing health last j^ear. He set up at Bidston in 1914 the very earliest
seismograph of the Mihie-Shaw pattern, replacing a Milne machine which had been
set up in 1901.
Dr. H. Jeffreys writes : — Prof. Emil Wiechert, Director of the Geophysical
Institute of Gottingen, died on 1928 March 19, at the age of 66. He was the first to
investigate the figure of the Earth on the hypothesis of a rocky shell and a metallic
core ; he initiated the great Gottingen series of papers, " Ueber Erdbebenwellen " ;
and he was the inventor of one of the best known seismographs.
The seismograph basement presented to the University of Oxford by Dr. J. E.
Crombie has now been completed at the University Observatory, and the two Milne-
Shaw seismographs will shortly be transferred to it from the basement of the Clarendon
Laboratory, which has been courteously lent by Prof. Lindemann and his predecessor
since October 1918. The first instrument (E.W.) was set up there by Mr. J. J. Shaw
just in time to catch the big Porto Rico earthquake (1918 Oct. Ud. 14h. 14m. 25s.
epicentre 18-5° N., 67-5° W.).
The salary of Mr. J. S. Hughes has again been provided, half by Dr. Crombie and
half by the University ; and it is hoped that this arrangement may be continued at
least until the next meeting of the Int. Geod. and Geoph. Union in 1930.
Helpful telegrams have been received, on the occasion of important earthquakes,
from Fordham, Helwan, Hyderabad and Perth (W. Australia). Oddly enough, what
was perhaps the biggest shock of the year — the great Mexican earthquake (Oaxaca)
of 1928 June 17d. 3h. 19m. 13s. — brought scarcely any telegrams at all ; perhaps
because it was presumed that the usual information through the Press would suffice.
A large area (extending over nine States) was shaken, but the damage done was less
than in other similar cases. Possibly the focus was deep-seated.
The earthquakes in Bulgaria and at Corinth in April last were less intense,
but caused much damage and naturally attracted much attention. A leader in
The Times of April 24 contains the following sentences : —
Yesterday came the news of the destruction of Corinth. In 1858 the city of Old
Corinth, which had survived the sack by Mummius — who deservedly became the type
of the armed Philistine — and the ravages of Goths, Normans and Turks, received its
coup de grdce from the angry earth. . . . New Corinth had low houses and wide
streets. ... On Sunday their turn came after seventy quiet years. Under the impact
of a long series of shocks house after house went down till only a few new buildings
were left standing.
An earthquake on 1928 Jan. 6d. 19h. 31m. 40s. epicentre 0-2° N., 36-2° E., was
noteworthy from the fact that two Milne-Shaw pendulums had recently been set up
at Entebbe (4'G° from the epicentre) by the officers of the Geological Survey of Uganda,
The instruments were thrown out of action by the violence of the shock, but good
readings of P were available.
* The previous report (1927) was incorrectly numbered: it should have been
given as the thirty-second.
238 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
The value of the Indian and Perth telegrams was most clearly demonstrated on
the occasion of the shocks under the Indian Ocean in March last. The epicentre
maj' be estimated provisionally at 1-0° S., 91-0° E., more than 90° from European
stations.
The illness of Mr. J. J. Shaw required his absence from England for a much longer
term than was at first expected ; but happily he was able to return to West Bromwich
in June and to resume his devoted seismological work.
Miss E. F. Bellamy, owing to the necessity for a serious operation, was absent from
Oxford for a number of months, but has been back at work again since May.
International.
The International Scientific Summary has been continued as below, though it was
feared that, owing to the failure of funds, the printing could not at present be carried
beyond the end of 1924. A timely grant of £150 from the Royal Society has, however,
cleared otf the debt incurred, and we can go forward once more. Altogether the
Royal Society has now contributed £375 towards this printing, which could not be
carried on by means of the international funds provided owing to the fall in the value
of the franc. It is hoped that the new Statutes to be made in 1931 may restore the
resources of the Int. Geod. & Geoph. Union to their original magnitude.
There was a successful meeting of this Union at Prague (1927 September 1-8).
We heard (in the Seismological Section) a very interesting account from Prof. Imamura
of the changes in level which precede earthquakes, and suggest some hopes of antici-
pating them. M. Nikiforov of Leningrad attended as a visitor (since the U.S.S.R.
has not yet joined the Union) and showed a map of numerous actual and proposed
stations extending from Leningrad to Vladivostock. It was also pleasant to have
for the first time a representative from Denmark. Stations are now at work, not
only at Copenhagen (55° 41' N., 12° 27' E.), equipped with Wiechert, Galitzin, Mihie-
Shaw and American torsion seismometers, but at Ivigtut in S.W. Greenland
(61° 12' N., 48° 11' W.) ; and a third will be erected at Scoresby-Sund on theeastcoast
of Greenland at 70° 29' N., 21° 57' W.
A large Committee was appointed to deal with the question of revising the tables
of P, S, and other waves. The former officers were re-elected (President, H. H.
Turner ; Vice-Presidents, E. Oddone, H. Fielding Reid, J. Galbis ; Secretary,
E. Rothe) and Prof. Salamon of Prague was also elected a Vice-President. After
the formal meeting there were two very pleasant excursions, one to the western and
the other to the eastern parts of Czecho-Slovakia.
Instrumental.
Mr. J. J. Shaw wiU make his Instrumental Report at a later date.
The Superintendent of Kew Observatory writes on July 21 : —
It is a well-known difficulty in maintaining a seismograph for recording the
vertical component of the earth's motion that the elasticity of a suspension spring is
liable to considerable changes when temperature is varying. With the Galitzin
vertical pendulum a change oif 1° C. in the temperature of the apparatus was sufficient
to put the instrument out of action. At Strasbourg a spring made of elinvar, an
alloy with a low-temperature coefficient for elasticity, has been in use for some time.
We have been able to obtain, from the Acieries d'Imphy, a spring made to the
specification drawn >ip by Mile Dammann for the Strasbourg installation. After
preliminary tests at the National Physical Laboratory the spring was taken into use
on May 22", 1928. The spring is found to yield continually under the load, but the
effect of such temperature changes as occur from day to day in the seismograph room
is almost eliminated.
Arrangements have been made for the transmission from India through the Air
Ministry of coded messages giving details of important earthquakes recorded at
Bombay. When a report has been received from Bombay it is broadcast with the
synoptic weather report of the Meteorological Office. The additional information
has proved useful in locating earthquakes such as that which occurred in the Indian
Ocean on March 9.
ON SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTlGATIOiNS.
Bulletins and Tables.
239
The International Seismological Summary up to the end of 1924 has been prinffed
and distributed, and the three months 1925 January-March are in the printer's hands.
From the Summary for the seven years 1918-1924 a simple list of epicentres and
times has been prepared which the British Association Council have agreed to publish.
The Summary itself reaches a rather limited public of those actively engaged in
seismological observation ; it is hoped that this list of epicentres and times may reach
and interest a wider public, including geographers and geologists. It seems probable
that seven years' systematic record of this degree of accuracy, now for the first time
available, should provide valuable material for systematic discussion. One or two
points may be mentioned by way of illustration : —
(a) There is not a single day during the whole seven years on which no earthquake
was recorded, though there are one or two cases when a shock was recorded at one
observatory only, and a good many days when shocks were recorded by two observa-
tories only.
(6) The foUowhig are the monthly counts of epicentres determined : —
1918
J.
F.
M.
A.
M.
J.
J.
A.
S.
0.
N
D.
24
37
25
27
23
33
25
37
52
31
26
32
1919
18
17
23
18
31
22
44
38
54
33
13
12
1920
24
33
17
14
33
35
25
17
57
24
21
24
1921
22
15
24
17
33
20
19
16
27
26
23
16
1922
22
21
19
32
26
31
23
33
32
17
22
32
1923
20
33
27
23
40
37
52
46
139
45
49
31
1924
Mean
35
24
23
47
37
46
24
43
32
83
30
34
37
26
26
24
33
29
33
31
63
29
27
26
It will be seen that there is a sudden maximum in September. The effect of
September 1923 is no doubt exaggerated by the numerous aftershocks of the great
Tokyo earthquake ; but if we omit 1923 the mean value for September in the six
other years is 51, still much in excess of other months. So sudden a maximum cannot
be adequately expressed by harmonic analysis unless we use a great number of terms ;
but the phases of the first harmonic for the separate years are consistent, viz. :
245°, 202°, 223", 190", 178°, 232°, 221°. It was shown in the Geoph. Supp. to Monthly
Notices R.A.S., I, 5 (December 1924) that such ' annual ' variations are subject to slow
changes which indicate that the period is not accurately one year.
Deep Focus.
The h pothesis tliat in some cases the focus of an earthquake may lie -05 or perhaps
even -10 of the earth's radius below the earth's surface has been maintained in these
reports and in the International Seismological Summary for some half-dozen jears,
l)ut only recently has any independent testimony been forthcoming in favour of
this view, viz. in the (Tokio) Geophysical Magazine, Vol. I, No. 4 there is a paper
by Mr. K. Wadati on ' Shallow and Deep Earthquakes,' in which he examines
specially the earthquake of 1926 July fGd. 18h. .54m. 45s. epicentre 35-4° N., 136-4° E.,
finding from observations 7iear the epicentre a depth of 343 km. = -054 of the earth's
radius. Most of the observations used by Mr. Wadati had not been made accessible
to us in Oxford until his paper appeared, but we had observations made at more
distant stations, including some near the Antipodes of the epicentre, and on apply-
ing the usual treatment to these observations a focal depth of -055 below normal was
readily deduced, in general confirmation of Mr. Wadati's result. Moreover he
indicates a number of other cases of deep focus, in all of which, mthout exception,
the usual reductions give results accordant with his, e.g. : —
on 1924 April 3d. 2h. 30m. 30s. at 32-0° N., 1390° E.
1925 April 19d. 15h. 46m. 36s. at 33-0° N., 137-5° E.
1925 May 27d. 2h. 29m. 54s. at 36-5° N., 1330° E.
240
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
In some cases Mr. Wadati has suggested or assigned a deep focus when evidence
accessible to us was insufficient. Thus in the Summary we printed
1924 June 3d. 2h. 41m. 42s. epicentre 34-0°, 139-5'^ E. (as on 1924 April 12d.).
A
A3
P
0-C
S
0-C
o
m. 8.
s.
m. s.
Nagoya .
2-4
299
46
+ 9
(1 1)
- 5
Osaka
3-4
278
54
+ 1
(1 36)
+ 2
Kobe .
3-7
282
1 2
+ 4
(1 41)
- 1
Mizusawa
5-3
14
1 25
+ 3
2 23
- 2
Ekaterinburg .
56-2
320
—
el7 4
-32
Pulkovo .
69-8
330
elO 55
-21
il9 48
-36
No suggestion of deep focus was made at the time on this scanty evidence. But
now that Mr. Wadati has made the suggestion, it is easily seen how it will fit in with
the negative residuals at Ekaterinburg and Pulkovo. Moreover there is evidence
of a similar kind for the previous shock on 1924 April 12d.
A paper has been prepared giving details of the cases (nearly a dozen in all) where
independent and accordant results have been reached, and it has been sent to
Mr. Wadati for printing in the Geophysical Magazine if he so wishes.
i
CATALOGUE OF EARTHQUAKES
1918—1924
Seismology owes a very great debt to the British Association, which has in this
instance, as in many others, taken an infant science under its fostering care. Under
the guidance of John Milne a world-wide organisation was started for the use of the
seismograph when it was a new instrument, and lists of earthquakes (epicentres and
times) were pubUshed in the Seismology Reports to the British Association up to the
time of Milne's death in 1913. Other organisations were started, especially the
splendid Russian network of observatories under Galitzin, and the International
Seismological Association which had its headquarters at Strassburg ; but the one
started by MUne and fostered by the British Association was the only one which
survived the war ; though the Russian network has now been revivified, and a new
international organisation has since 1922 had its headquarters at Strasbourg in place
of the one which died with the change of name . Meantime the lists of earthquakes
disappeared from the Reports to the British Association, being replaced first of all
by lists in the Shide Bulletins which gave not only the epicentres and times as before,
but comparisons of the observations with adopted tables. Ultimately the pubUca-
tion of these collated lists was taken over by the Seismology Section of the Inter-
national Union of Geodesy and Geophysics, and became the International Seismological
Summary, of which the annual volumes for seven years (1918-1924)have already been
published, each year in four quarterly parts.
2. These Summaries are distributed to all the contributing observatories and to
various libraries, but do not reach a very wide non-seismological public. It seems
possible that there is such a public (reached, for instance, by the British Association)
which might be interested to have, apart from the technical details, a simple list of
all earthquakes which occur, with their epicentres and times, such as Milne used to
give ; though it is easy to give to-day more information than was possible in the
early years of instrumental seismology. Accordingly the following catalogue has
been prepared from the International Seismological Summary.
3. The first columns give the date of the shock in Greenwich time, the next the
latitude (North -f. South — ) and longitude (East-f , West—). Then follows a column
showing the number of stations which have given recognisable observations of the
shock, thus indicating very roughly which are severe shocks observed at considerable
distances, and which are only slight and local. But this indication is subject to a
serious systematic error. It is clear that a shock in Europe, for instance, even though
slight, may be observed at a number of stations, which cluster round it, while a much
severer shock in the Antarctic might escape notice altogether. It would be better
to attempt some indication which is independent of the distribution of observing
btations ; but this would need a special research for which no time has hitherto been
available. The work of preparing the Summary has already strained such resources
as are available for it. However the Summary itself provides an indication of another
kind. Those shocks for which the preliminary wave P has been observed at a distance
of at least 80° from the epicentre are undoubtedly in a different class from other
earthquakes. The same could not be said of observations of the long waves L, or
1928 »
242 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
the maximum M, which can be observed at great distances for even small shocks ;
but a recognisable P is another matter ; and an asterisk in column 4 marks cases
where P has been observed for A > 80°. But it must be frankly admitted that no
great precision has been attempted in either of these criteria, for they are in any
case rough, and to spend time on refinement would be undesirable if not
impossible.
4. The column headed ' Former Occasions ' is, it is hoped, an addition of some
value. It was left an open question for some years whether earthquakes were apt
to recur at precisely the same epicentre or merely in proximity to it ; and accordingly
independent determinations of epicentre were made for successive shocks in the
same neighbourhood. But it gradually became apparent that the hypothesis of exact
recurrence was often as good as any other, while the convenience of utilising the
calculations of A and azimuth already made was considerable. Accordingly the
habit of using old epicentres became gradually established ; and there is this to be
said in favour of it, that those who doubt the validity of the implied hypothesis may
be glad to have an easy reference to test cases. They may take such a case as that
of epicentre 43°-8 N. ll°-2 E. on 1920 Dec. 27d. 16h., and find the reference
back to 1920 Nov. 13, which again refers back to 1920 Sept. 16, and that (through
a previous shock on the same day) to Sept. 11, and so backwards for a series of
thirty-four shocks in all. To test the hypothesis of identity they must of course go
to the details in the International Summary ; but the present catalogue gives a
fair idea of the tendency to recurrence. A Ust of a dozen good series is given in the
Geophysical Supplement to the Mon. Not. R.A.S., vol. ii.. No. 1 (p. 70).
5. The column ' Minor Ents. ' shows simply the number of observations relegated
to the notes, as cases where there is not sufficient material to give an epicentre. Many
of them are records at a single station only, unsupported by any independent observa-
tion. On some days there are only sporadic observations of this kind, with no serious
shock ; but no day in the seven years is completely blank, though on 1921 July 14
there is only one observation. It will be seen that the number of residual observations
of this kind is given, on days when there are also several considerable shocks, against
the last shock for that day.
6. The daggers (t) in column 4 refer to notes collected at the end. Most of these
show the cases of anomalous focal depth, expressed in fractions of the earth's radius
and counted from the normal focal depth as reference depth. The great majority of
shocks come from approximately the same depth below the earth's surface, but whether
this normal depth is small or large is still somewhat uncertain. Most seismologists
are of opinion that the normal depth is about 50 km. or 30 miles or -008 radius, and it
must be admitted that the evidence in favour of some such figure is very strong. On
the other hand there seem to be cases (such as those on 1918 Sept. 7, 8, 12 ;
1919 May 6 ; 1922 Feb. 5 ; 1922 Oct. 17 ; 1923 Apr. 23) when there is evidence
for a focal height of 0-030 or even 0-040 above normal, so that the normal depth
should be of the order of 0040. The evidence for these cases is not nearly so strong
as that for the deep foci, down to 0-080 below normal, but it cannot be ignored ; and
if the normal depth is small some other explanation must be found for such cases
(suggesting heights above normal).
7. As regards the cases of depth below normal, the case for them has been much
strengthened by an entirely independent investigation in Japan by Mr. Wadati,
published in the (Tokio) Geophysical Magazine, vol. i.. No. 4. Mr. Wadati identifies
the cases of deep foci in Japan from observations close round the epicentre, and
macroseismic information ; and his selection is practically identical with that made
by the observations at greater distances. For details reference must be made to the
International Seismological Summary.
ON EARTHQUAKES, 1918-1924. 243
8. Many matters of interest can be obtained from these data, though they cannot
be treated here. One illustration may be given. In five years out of the seven
September has many more shocks than other months, and in 1921 and 1922, when
this pre-eminence is not so marked, it is only eecond to May in 1921, and ties for
first place with AprU and December in 1922.
H. H. TUENEB.
University Observatory, Oxford.
1928 July 23.
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1918 Mar. 26
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