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BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


FOR THE ADVANCEMENT 
OF SCIENCE 


REPORT 


OF THE 


ANNUAL MEETING, 1932 
(102np YEAR) 


YORK 
AUGUST 31—SEPTEMBER 7 


LONDON 


OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1 


1932 


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CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

PSHICERS AND COUNCIL, 1932-33 cic csccecccncccacccvcseceeilpae Vv 

SECTIONAL OFFICERS, YORK MEETING, 1932 .....---.eeeeeeceees ix 
ANNUAL MEETINGS: PLACES AND DaTEs, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES, 
REcEIPTS, SuMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC 

PURPOSES (TSZT—TO32)y «Ge, Leieen sperunivencomnp ofe}o SE eveiear svar saipes xii 

NARRATIVE OF THE YORK MEETING ..........0eeeeceevececccces Xvi 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE (1931-32)  XvViii 


GENERAL 'TREASURER’S ACCOUNT (1931-32) se. se ee eee ee cee eeeee XXVii 
RESEARCH COMMITTEES (1932-33) .---ceceececctceceececeecees XXXVili 
RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (YORK MEETING) .......... xliii 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS : 
An Engineer’s Outlook. By Sir ALFRED EWING.............- I 


SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES : 
Some aspects of Applied Geophysics. By Prof. A.O. RANKINE 21 


Some aspects of Stereochemistry. By Dr. W.H.MuILts ...... 37 
The contacts of Geology : the Ice Age and early man in Britain. 
By; Prof..P. 'G: i. BOSWELL 4s de ot ene 8 isle) ayavate aps 57 
The pioneer work of the Systematist. By The Rt. Hon. Lorp 
ROMHSCHIE Dy eft. hata ne erexars Ste welts aes siete tere sere ara teeta 89 


The geographical study of Society and World Problems. By 
Brotsaiie. Via CRURE ptertiiste.. |< « srekucactstaiens «, 5 Ade aielt eae 103 


Britain’s access to Overseas Markets. By Prof. R. B. FoRRESTER 119 


The Call to the Engineer and Scientist. By Prof. MILes 
NVIATORGE co) cose n ahah ras spans. «:Suspaye ls 5:5, 9) epaine) wutgn a Katina ice (A Na Raia Reb lense 131 


The place of Archeology as a science, and some practical 
problems in its development. By Dr.D.RANDALL-MAcIVER 147 


Current constructive theories in Psychology. By Prof. B. 
IBioteicti, eae Oreo, Gt eI eECRR Ss Re eer Aner ire a eae 169 


1V CONTENTS 


PAGE 
The growing Tree. By Prof. J. H. PRIESTLEY................ 185 
The Advancement of Science in Schools: its magnitude, direc- 
tion and sense. By W. M. HELLER ....... aman 209 
Sheep Farming : a distinctive feature of British agriculture. By 
ProtyRieG,.WiIRTTENs 2 serters sitet aiieslencs-auase i TateNelo cahetn take pane Ren O) 
REPORTS ON) LHE STATE OF SCIENCE, BIC 5 «1... suelo bite feel ach ERE 7. 
SECTIONAL URANGAGTTONSH dictsigesi-teiniciny eictcie cee cetera erento Ben bee) 
Tue British ASSOCIATION STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932. 
By Sir RicHarp T. GLazeBRooK and Dr. L. HARTSHORN.... 417 
EVENTING DISCOURSES eine tmriait aeieisbl ire sienetanel atone eich sareiet eee “ig cee bgfed 
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES ...... sa odlegy 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 451 


APPENDIX. 
A SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT .............0.00s I-100 
TIN TEXAY 4 5) 5 oaks avaveh ss 2 SMEAR era Bune. We» doobtul Ne! Saarsisies av LOL 


Hritish Association for the Adoancement 
of Science. 


OFFICERS. & COUNCIL, 1932-33. 


PATRON. 
HIS MAJESTY THE KING. 


PRESIDENT, 1932. 
Sir ALFRED Ewine, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc., F.R.S. 


PRESIDENT, 1933. 
Sir F. GowLanp Hopkins, LL.D., D.Sc., Pres.R.S. 


VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE YORK MEETING. 


The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mayor oF 
YorRK, 1931-32 (Alderman R. H. 
VERNON WRAGGE, J.P.). ; 

The RECORDER OF YORK (the late Rt. 
Hon. Sir HERBERT NIELD, K.C.). 

The SHERIFF OF YORK, 1931-32 
(ARNOLD S. ROWNTREE). 

His Grace the Lorp ARCHBISHOP OF 
YorK (The Most Rev. WILLIAM 
TEMPLE, D.Litt.). ; 

The Very Rev. the DEAN oF YORK 
(Dr. H. N. Bate). 

The Most Honourable the Marquess 
OF ZETLAND, P.C., G.C.S.I., G.C.1.E., 
F.B.A. 


The Rt. Hon. the EArt oF CHESTER- 
MeLeD, KG, PCy Gicev.o0, 

The Rt. Hon. Lorp Irwin, K.G. 

The Rt. Hon. Lorp DANEsFoRT, K.C. 

The Lorp LIEUTENANT OF THE WEST 
RIDING OF YORKSHIRE AND THE 
City oF York (The Rt. Hon. the 
EarL oF HarEwoon, K.G., D.S.O., 
T.D.). 

The Lorp LIEUTENANT OF THE EAST 
RIDING OF YORKSHIRE (The Rt. 
Hon. Lorp DERAmoRE, T.D.). 


The Lorp LIEUTENANT OF THE NORTH 
RIDING OF YORKSHIRE (The Hon. 
GEOFFREY Howarp). 

The HiGH SHERIFF OF YORKSHIRE 
(Major F. H. Fawkes, J.P.). 

General the Hon. Sir J. F. GATHORNE- 
Harpy, iC. B:, GM:G.,D:S:0: 

RoGER LuMLEy, M.P. 

F. G. BurRGEss. 

J. W. CouLtTHurRstT. 

Sir WILFRID THomson, Bt., J.P. 

W. Hz. Sr. Quintin, D.L., J.P. (Presi- 
dent of the Yorkshire Philosophical 
Society). 

FRANK GREEN. 

The Rt. Hon. the Lorp Mayor or 
YORK, 1930-31 (Alderman Sir W. A. 
ForsTER Topp, J.P.). 

The SHERIFF OF YORK, 
(WILLIAM COOPER). 

The VicE-CHANCELLOR OF LEEDS UNI- 
verRsSItTy (Sir J. B. BarLuig, O.B.E., 
i. DY ee.) 

The VicE-CHANCELLOR OF SHEFFIELD 
University (A. W.  PICKARD- 
CAMBRIDGE, D.Litt.). 

The PRINCIPAL, HuL~L UNIVERSITY 
CoLLEeGE (Prof. A. E. Morcan). 


1930-31 


vi OFFICERS AND COUNCIL 


VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE LEICESTER MEETING, 1933. 


The Lorp LIEUTENANT OF LEICESTER- 
SHIRE (Sir ARTHUR HAZLERIGG, Bt., 


sl23)5 

The Rt. Worshipful the Lorp Mayor 
oF LeIcEsTER (Councillor A. 
Hawkes, J.P.). 

The Lorp BisHor oF LEICESTER (The 
Rt. Rev. C. C. B. Barpsiey, D.D.). 

The H1GH SHERIFF OF LEICESTERSHIRE 
(Major E. G. GILLILAnN). 

His Grace the DUKE OF RUTLAND. 

The Rt. Hon. the EARL FERRERS, 
F.S.A. 

The Rt. Hon. LorD BELPER. 

The VISITOR OF UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, 
LEICESTER (Prof. GILBERT MURRAY, 
M.A., LL.D., D.Litt., F.B.A.). 


The PRINCIPAL OF UNIVERSITY COL- 
LEGE, LEICESTER (F. L. ATTEN- 
BOROUGH, M.A.). 


The PRESIDENT OF THE LEICESTER 
LITERARY AND PHILOSOPHICAL 
Society (H. Percy GEE, J.P.). 


C. J. Bonn, C.M.G., F.R.C.S. 


Councillor AstLEY V. CLARKE, M.A., 
M.D., D.L., J.P. 


GEORGE FARNHAM, F.S.A. 
Lt.-Col. R. E. Martin, C.M.G., D.L., 
M.A. 


Alderman Sir JoNATHAN NortH, D.L., 
P 


The Rev. BERNARD UFFEN, A.T.S. 


GENERAL TREASURER. 
Sir JostauH Stamp, G.B.E., D.Sc. 


GENERAL SECRETARIES. 


Prof. P. G. H. BoswE Lt, O.B.E., D.Sc.,| Prof. F. J. M. Stratton, D.S.O., 
FE.R.S. O.B.E., M.A. 
SECRETARY. 


O. J. R. Howarru, O.B.E., Ph.D. 


ASSISTANT SECRETARY. 


H, WooLpRIDGE, B.Sc. 


ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


Dr. F. A. BATHER, F.R.S. 

Sir HENRY Date, C.B.E., F.R.S. 

Prof. J. DREVER. 

Dr. A. FERGUSON. 

Prof. R. B. FoRRESTER. 

Sir HENRY Fow Ler, K.B.E. 

Prof. W. T. Gorpon. 

Prof. Dame HELEN GWYNNE-VAUGHAN, 
G.B.E. 

Sir DanIEL Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S. 

Dr. H. S. Harrison, 

Dr. H. S. HELE-SHAw, F.R.S. 

Sir JamMES HENDERSON. 

A. R. Hinks, C.B.E., F.R.S. 


Dr. C. W. KimmMIns. 

Col. Sir H. G. Lyons, F.R.S. 

Sir P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, C.B.E., 
F.R.S. 

Prof. E. B. Poutton, F.R.S. 

Dr. C. TaTE ReGAN, F.R.S. 

Sir JoHn RussEtLt, O.B.E., F.R.S. 

Prof. A. C. SEWARD, F.R.S. 

Dr. N. V. Stpewick, F.R.S. 

Dr. G. C. Simpson, C.B., C.B.E., F.R.S. 

Prof. J. F. THorrpe, C.B.E., F.R.S. 

H. T. Tizarp, C.B., F.R.S. 

Prof. A. M. TYNDALL. 

Prof. F. E. Weiss, F.R.S. 


OFFICERS AND COUNCIL Vii 


EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL. 


Past-Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the President 
and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present General 
Treasurers and General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries 
for the Annual Meetings immediately past and ensuing. 


PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., F.R.S. H.R.H. The Prince oF WALES, K.G., 
Sir E. SHARPEY-SCHAFER, F.R.S., DiGi. ERS, 
Sir OLIVER LopGE, F.R.S. Prof. Sir ARTHUR KEITH, F.R.S. 
Sir ARTHUR SCHUSTER, F.R.S. Prof. Sir Witt1am H. Brace, O.M., 
Sir ARTHUR Evans, F.R.S. KBE, ERS: 
Prof. Sir C. S. SHERRINGTON, O.M., | Sir THomas H. Hoxiianp, K.C.I.E., 
G.B.E., F.R.S. KIC SE RS: 
Prof. the Rt. Hon. LorRD RUTHERFORD | Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. 
oF NELson, O.M., F.R.S. Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C., 
Prof. Sir Horace Lams, F.R.S. CHe BRS: 


PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


Sir E. SHARPEY-SCHAFER, F.R.S. Sir Frank E. SmitH, K.C.B., C.B.E., 
Dr. D. H. Scott, F.R.S. Sec. R.S. 
Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.S.A., F.B.A. 


HON. AUDITORS. 
Prof. A. L. BowLry. | Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. 


HON. CURATOR OF DOWN HOUSE. 
Sir BucKsToN Browne, F.R.C.S., F.S.A. 


LOCAL OFFICERS 
FOR THE YORK MEETING, 1932. 


CHAIRMAN OF LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


The Rt. Hon. the LorpD Mayor or YORK 
(Alderman R. H. VERNON WRAGGE, J.P.). 


LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES. 


WALTER: E. CorLiIncE, D.Sc., F.S.A., F.L.S. 
Percy J. SPALDING, B.A., LL.M. 
Col. PETER WARREN, C.M.G., C.B.E. 


LOCAL HON. TREASURER. 
Sir WiLFrrip THomson, Bt., J.P. 


Vili OFFICERS AND COUNCIL 


LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Rev. CHANCELLOR AUSTEN. 
Ald. W. H. Bircu, J.P. 

H. E. Bioor. 

J. L. BRocKBANK. 

Major S. BRoox. 

G. Laycock Brown. 

The Very Rev. CANon CHADWICK. 
Councillor F. W. CHAPMAN. 
J. A. COOPER. 

Councillor J. W. Dow: 

C. E. ELMHIRST. 

D. Gray. 

Mrs. Epwin Gray, J.P. 
Sir JAMES HAMILTON. 

Rev. F. HARRISON. 

G. S. HUGHES. 

Sir Joun J. Hunt. 

A. Hurst. 

Ald. J. B. InGc.Is. 


G. JOHNSON. 

Lt.-Col. KirBy. 

S. MELMORE. 

Ald. J. B. MorrE LL. 

Mrs. J. B. MorrELL (Lady Mayoress). 
J. R. F. RoBinson. 

A. S. ROWNTREE (Sheriff). 
Mrs. A. S. RowNTREE, J.P. 

B. S. ROWNTREE. 

Ald. C. W. SHIPLEY. 

S. H. SMITH. 

Sir W. A. ForstER Topp, J.P. 
S. M. Toyne. 

P. J. VINTER. 

S. WALKER. 


| Miss WALLER. 
| Councillor A. WILKINSON. 


H. J. WILKINSON. 
G. WILson. 


SUB-COMMITTEES OF LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Rooms and Buildings. 


Chairman.—Major S. Brook. 
Secretary —F. W. SPuRR. 


Excursions. 
Chairman.—Councillor J. W. Dow. 


Lodgings and Hospitality. 
Chairman.—C. E. ELMHIRST. 
Secretavies.—GEOFFREY THOMPSON. 

“ Councillor A. WILKINSON. 


Finance. 


Secretary —P. A. HARVERSON. Chairman.—Sir WILFRID THOMSON, Bt. 


LOCAL OFFICERS 
FOR THE LEICESTER MEETING, 1933. 


CHAIRMAN OF LOCAL EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 
Alderman Sir JONATHAN Nortu, D.L., J.P. 


LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES. 


F. P. ARMITAGE. 
Corin D. B. ELLts. 


ASSISTANT LOCAL SECRETARY. 
H. Purr. 


LOCAL HON. TREASURERS. 


H. A. PRITCHARD. 
C. T. A. Sapp. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1932 ix 


SECTIONAL OFFICERS. 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


President.—Prof. A. O. RANKINE, O.B.E. 


Vice-Presidents.—Prof. L. S. PatmEerR; Prof. G. C. StEwarp; Prof. R. 
WHIDDINGTON, F.R.S. 


Recordey.—Dr. ALLAN FERGUSON. 


Secretaries.—Capt. F. ENTWISTLE; W. M. H. Greaves; Dr. EZER GRIFFITHS, 
F.R.S.; Prof. E. H. NEVILLE. 


Local Secretary —C. R. FEATHERSTONE. 


B.—CHEMISTRY. 


President.—Dr. W. H. Mutts, F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—Prof. H. M. Dawson; Prof. C. S. GiBson, O.B.E., F:R.S. ; 
Prof. R. WHyTLAw Gray, F.R.S. ; Brig.-Gen. Sir HAROLD HarTLeEy, C.B.E., 
Behe.) Dr, KR. BE. SLADE. 


Recorder.—Prof. T. S. Moore. 
Secretaries—Dr. J. Masson GuLitanp; Dr. F. G. Mann. 
Local Secretary.—C. E. L. LivEsEY 


C.—GEOLOGY. 


President.—Prof. P. G. H. BosweEtt, O.B.E., F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents.—C. E, N. BROMEHEAD ; Prof. W. G. FEARNsIDES; Prof. P. F. 
KENDALL, F.R.S.; Prof. P. Pruvost; Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. 


Recorder.—l. S. DOUBLE. 
Secretaries —Dr. H. C. VErsEy; Dr. A. K. WELILs. 
Local Secretary.—S. MELMORE. 


D.—ZOOLOGY. 


President—Rt. Hon. Lord Rotuscuitp, F.R.S. 


Vice-Presidents —Dr. W. E. CoLLincE ; Prof. J. E. DuERDEN; Dr. K. JorDAN : 
Prof. E. B. Pourtton, F.R.S. 


Recorder.—G. L. PurRsER. 
Secretary.—Prof. W. M. TaTTERSALL. 
Local Secretary.—A. J. A. Woopcock. 


E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


President.—Prof. H. J. FLEuRE. 


Vice-Presidents.—Prof. C. B. FAwcETT ; DoNALD Gray; Rt. Hon. Sir HALForD 
J. MackinpeEr, P.C.; Brig. H. S. L. WintEersotHam, C.M.G. 


Recordey.—R. H. Kinvic. 
Secretaries —H. Kine; Prof. A. G. OGILVIE. 
Local Secretary —Dr. H. D. ANTHONY. 


x OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1932 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


President.—Prof. R. B. FORRESTER. 

Vice-Presidents—Prof. G. C. ALLEN; JENKIN Jones; Prof. J. H. Jones; 
NoeEL TERRY. 

Recordey.—Dr. K. G. FENELON. 

Secretaries —Dr. J. A. BowlE; P. Forp. 

Local Secretary.—A. A. HARROWER. 


A Department of Industrial Co-operation—Chairman, Dr. J. A. BowlE; Secretary, 
R. J. Mackay—arranged a special programme in connection with this and 
other Sections. 


G.—ENGINEERING. 


President.—Prof. MILES WALKER, F.R.S. 

Vice-Presidents —Lt.-Col. E. Kirson CLarkK; Dr. J. MILLER; W. B. Woop- 
HOUSE. 

Recorder.—J]. S. WILSON. 

Secretaries —Dr. S. J. Davies; J. E. MONTGOMREY. 

Local Secretary—H. R. Lupton. 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


President.—Dr. D. RANDALL-MACIVER. 

Vice-Presidents—Dr. AXEL BortHius; L. H. DupLEY Buxton; Capt. T. A. 
Joyce; I. A. RicumMonp; Prof. V. Sux. 

Recordey.—Miss R. M. FLEMING. 

Secretavies.—Dr. S. BRYAN ADAms; V. E. NASH-WILLIAMS. 

Local Secretary.—Rev. A. E. BAKER. 


I.— PHYSIOLOGY. 


(There were no meetings of Section I (Physiology) at York in view of the 
XIVth International Physiological Congress at Rome.) 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


President—Prof. BEATRICE EDGELL. 

Vice-Presidents—Dr. W. Brown ; Dr. S. Dawson ; Prof. J. DREVER; Prof. W. 
McDouGa tt, F.R.S.; Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. C. W. VALEN- 
TINE; Prof. R. H. WHEELER. 

Recordey.—Dr. Mary COLLins. 

Secretary.—R. J. BARTLETT. 

Local Secretary—Dr. V. MoorREEs. 


K.—BOTANY. 


President.—Prof. J. H. PRIESTLEY. 

Vice-Presidents.—Prof. T. G. Hitt; T. B. Ponsonsy. 
Recordey.—Prof. H. S. HoLpEN. 

Secretaries —Dr. B. BARNES; Dr. E. V. Laine; Miss L. I. Scott. 
Local Secretary —A. W. PING. 


OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1932 xi 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 


President.—W. MAYHOWE HELLER. 

Vice-Presidents.—Sir J. B. BatLiie, O.B.E.; J. H. Hattam ; Dr. A. W. Pickarp- 
CAMBRIDGE; His GRACE THE LORD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK. 

Recorder.—G. D. DUNKERLEY. 

Secretaries —H. E. M. Icrty; E. R. THomas. 

Local Secretary—J. L. BROCKBANK. 


M.—AGRICULTURE. 


President.—Prof. R. G. WHITE. 


Vice-Presidents.—Prof. N. M. ComBer; T. S. Dymond; Major F. H. Fawkes ; 
Sir E. JoHN RussELt, O.B.E., F.R.S.; Prof. R. S. SEton. 

Recordery.—Dr. E. M. CROWTHER. 

Secretary.— W. GODDEN. 

Local Secretary.—J. STRACHAN. 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING 
SOCIETIES. 


President.—Lt.-Col. Sir Davip Prain, C.I.E., C.M.G., F-:R.S. 
Secretary.—Dr. C, TIERNEY. 


Xil 


ANNUAL MEETINGS 


TABLE OF 


Date of Meeting | Where held Presidents eevee weerte 
1831, Sept. 27...... WORE rccseacsnss- saad Viscount Milton, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...... —_ — 
1832, June 19__...| Oxford ...| The Rev. W. Buckland, RES 9 oseee _ — 
1833, June 25 .| Cambridge . .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R.S. ......... _— — 
ESSA SEDE. Slavs sec Edinburgh . ....| Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L., F.R.S. ... _— — 
1835, Aug. Io...... Dublin....... ...| The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D., F.R.S. _ —_— 
1836, Aug. 22...... Bristol....... .| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S. .. —_ _— 
1837, Sept. 10. <<<. Liverpool The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S.......... — — 
1838, Aug. Io...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S. —_ — 
1839, Aug. 26...... Birmingham . .-.| The Rey. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S. _ —_— 
1840, Sept. 17 ....| Glasgow ....... ...| The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.R.S. _ — 
1841, July 20...... Plymouth . --.| The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R. Gime 169 65 
1842, June 23......| Manchester. -.-| The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S. 303 169 
1843, Aug. 17...... Cork... -.-| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S. .........2.000+ 109 28 
1844, Sept. 26......| YOrK, ..5s.<- -| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.S.... 226 150 
1845, June 1g_ ...| Cambridge.... Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.R. Sh 313 36 
1846, Sept. Io...... Southampton --.| Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart.,F.R.S. 241 10 
1847, June 23 of OxfOrdse us. cence ...| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S. ... 314 18 
1848, Aug. 9 ...... Swansea .. -| The Marquis of Northampton, Pres.R. ‘Ss. 149 3 
1849, Sept. 12...... Birmingham . .| The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S. 227 12 
1850, July 21...... Edinburgh .... ...| Sir David Brewster, K. H., F.RS.. 235 9 
TOS Ts MUL Z) cen Ipswich .... .| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.RS. 172 8 
T8525 sept. I --.... Belfast..... ...| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S. ......... 164 Io 
1853) SePt..3.«<-<.- Je Quill Eas eae ...| William Hopkins, F.R.S........... I4I 3 
1854, Sept. 20...... Liverpool . ...| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S. . 238 23 
E855) Sept. T2...006 Glasgow ....... -| The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ............ 194 33 
1856, Aug. 6 ...... Cheltenham ...| Prof.C.G.B.Daubeney, M.D.,F.R.S. . 182 I4 
1857, Aug. 26...... Dublin.......... .| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F. RS se! 236 15 
1858, Sept. 22 Leeds . -| Richard Owen, M:D., D. (es L., F.R. Ss. 222 42 
1859, Sept. 14 Aberdeen .| H.R.H. The Prince Consort \.......... 184 27 
1860, June 27 Oxford ....... ...| The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F. 286 2r 
186r, Sept. 4 ...52. Manchester.... -| William Fairbairn, LL.D. ,F. R. 321 113 
T8621 OC. Lis vcnens Cambridge ............ The Rev. Professor Willis, "M.A. 239 15 
1863, Aug. 26...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | Sir William G. Armstrong, C. B. 203 36 
1864, Sept. 13....-. Bath ores siccsssasreses Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., 287 40 
1865, Sept. 6 ...... Birmingham .........| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., ar ‘Dis 292 44 
1866, Aug. 22...... Nottingham .........| William R. Grove, Q. CG spittle 207 31 
T867, Septs.4 cass Dundeess..cees-s -| The Duke of Buccleuch, (eushs 167 25 
1868, Aug. 19...... Norwich Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. 196 18 
1869, Aug. 18...... Exeter Prof. G. G. Stokes, D. Gis api RISE 204 21 
1870, Sept. 14...... Liverpool Prof. T. Hi. Huxley, LL.D., F.R.S. 314 39 
1871, Aug. 2. ...... Edinburgh .| Prof. Sir W. Thomson, LL.D., F.R. Ss. 246 28 
1872, AU. 14 ...+-. Brighton Dr. W. B. Carpenter, F.R.S. .........0+. 245 36 
1873, Sept. 17...... Bradford Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S.. : 212 27 
1874, Aug. I9...... Belfast Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.. 162 13 
1875, Aug. 25......| Bristol Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S. 239 36 
1876, Sept. 6 ...... Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, M.D. -» F.RS S.. 221 35 
1877, Aug. I5...... Plymouth ............ Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S. 173 19 
1878, Aug. 14 Dublin..... -| W. Spottiswoode, M.A., F.R.S... 201 18 
1879, Aug. 20......| Sheffield .. .| Prof. G. J. Allman, M JD ER Sa 184 16 
1880, Aug. 25......| Swamsea ............006 A. C. Ramsay, LL. iD} TRUS: lecanceeue 144 II 
1881, Aug. 31 MORK owcactiaesasaveee Sir Joba Lubbock, Ba art. og ERR s 272 28 
1882, Aug. 23...... Southampton ...... Dr. C. W. Siemens, PRIS oaeeeeeee 178 17 
1883, Sept. 19...... Southport ...... oe A. Cayley, D.C.L., 203 60 
1884, Aug. 27...... Montreal Prof. Lord Rapley, F.R.S 235 20 
1885, Sept. 9 ...... Aberdeen ... Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B 225 18 
1886, Sept. 1 ...... Birmingham . Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G, 314 25 
1887, Aug. 31...... Manchester Sir H. E. Roscoe, DiCTs s F.RS. 428 86 
1888, Sept. 5 Bathivsesres-e2 Sir F. J. Bramwell, BUR Spies 266 36 
1889, Sept. 11... Newcastle-on-Tyne Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B.) F.R:S. 277 20 
1890, Sept. 3 .. CROS icontnaa aes sucuten Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S. 259 21 
1891, Aug. 19 Gardut icreseecccre, Dr. W. Huggins, EER IGe ee oe 189 24 
1892, Aug. 3 ...... Edinburgh .........:.. Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F.R.S. ............ 280 14 
1893, Sept. 13 -| Nottingham . -.-| Prof. J.S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S. 201 17 
1894, Aug. 8 ...... ‘Oxford! <i... -| The Marquis of Salisbury, K. G, F.R.S. 327 21 
1895, Sept. I1...... Ipswich . -| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., FRS.. 214 13 
1896, Sept. 16...... Liverpool ...| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres. RS... 330 31 
1897, Aug. 18...... Toronto . ..-| Sir John Evans, K, Cc B. pi opel 120 8 
1898, Sept. 7 ...... Bristol -| Sir W. Crookes, BERS cscs 281 19 
1899, Sept. 13...... Dover..... ae arod Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B., Sec. 296 20 


* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843. 


+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only. 
[Continued on p. xiv.© 


ANNUAL MEETINGS Xiil 


ANNUAL MEETINGS. 


Sums paid 
Old New Wecae snes on account 
Annual | Annual tite Ladies | Foreigners| Total Pec of Grants Year 
Members| Members| “!4*®S Tickets for Scientific 
Purposes 
= = — = = 353 = = 1831 
_— — _ _ — = _ _ 1832 
_ — —_ —_ — goo _ _— 1833 
— _ ae — —_ 1298 —_ £20 0 0 1834 
_ — _ = — _ — 167 0 0 1835 
— — — — a 1350 — 435 0 0 1836 
_ _ _ — — 1840 — 922 12 6 1837 
_ — —_ I1t00* —_— 2400 _— 952.2 ig 1838 
=a = = == 34 1438 == 1595 II 0 1839 
_— = — = 40 1353 — 1546 16 4 1840 
46 317 -= 60* — 891 —_— 1235 10 II 1841 
75 376 33t 332" 28 1315 = 1449 17 8 1842 
71 185 — 160 _ _— —_ 1565 10 2 1843 
45 190 gt 260 -- — — 981 12 8 1844 
94 22 407 172 35 1079 = 831 9 9 1845 
39 270 196 36 857 — 685 16 o 1846 
40 495 203 53 1320 — 208 5 4 1847 
25 376 197 15 819 £707 0 0 295 5. & 1848 
33 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0} 15919 6| 1849 
42 510 273 44 1241 1085 0 o| 345 18 o 1850 
47 244 I4I 37 710 620 0 0 BOER Oey: 1851 
60 510 292 9 1108 1085 0 o 304 6 7 1852 
57 367 236 6 876 903 0 Oo 205 0 O 1853 
I2I 765 524 10 1802 1882 0 0 380 19 7 1854 
I0I 1094 543 26 2133 Z23it, -G) 16 480 16 4 1855 
48 412 346 9 III5 1098 0 Oo 734 13 9 1856 
120 900 569 26 2022 2015 0 0 507 15 4 1857 
gi 710 509 13 1698 I93I 0 O 618 18 2 1858 
179 1206 821 22 2564 2782. -O. G\)', -6B4' IX. r 1859 
59 636 463 47 1689 1604 0 Oo 766 19 6 1860 
125 1589 79r 15 3138 3944 0 O/] IIII 5 IO 1861 
57 433 242 25 I161 1089 0 ‘0 | 1293 16 6 1862 
209 1704 1004 25 3335 3640 0 o| 1608 3 10 1863 
103 111g 1058 13 2802 2965 0 o| 128915 8 1864 
149 766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0} 1591 7 IO 1865 
105 960 771 II 2303 2469 0 0} 175013 4 1866 
118 1163 771 iz 2444 2613 (@ 0.1 -E7aG) “ASO 1867 
117 720 682 45t 2004 2042 0 0| 1940 0 0 1868 
107 678 600 17 1856 193I 0 oO | 1622 0 0 1869 
195 II03 gio 14 2878 3096 0 oO} 1572 0 0 1870 
127 976 754 21 2463 2575, O © | T4972 & 6 1871 
80 937 gi2 43 2533 2649 0 0] 1285 0 o 1872 
99 796 601 II 1983 2120 0 o]| 1685 0 o 1873 
85 817 630 12 I95I 1979 0 O| II5I 16 oO 1874 
93 884 672 17 2248 2397 0 Oo 960 0 o 1875 
185 1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 O|] I092 4 2 1876 
59 446 283 II 1229 1268 0 o/ 1128 g 7 1877 
93 1285 674 17 2578 2615 00 725 16 6 1878 
74 529 349 13 1404 1425 0 Oo] ro80 II Ir 1879 
41 389 147 I2 915 899 0 Oo Catt Pea, 1880 
176 1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 Oo 476 8 i 1881 
79 516 189 21 1253 1286 o o| 1126 1 11 1882 
323 952 841 5 2714 3369 0 oO} 1083 3 3 1883 
219 826 74 26 &60H.§| 1777 1855 0 0] 1173 4 0 1884 
122 1053 447 2203 2256 o o| 1385 0 o 1885 
179 1067 429 Ir 2453 2532 0 O 995 0 6 1886 
244 1985 493 92 3838 4336 o o| 118618 o 1887 
100 639 509 12 1984 Z107.-0: 6) / 15xr "oO 5 1888 
113 1024 579 21 2437 2441 O O| 1417 O11 1889 
92 680 334 12 1775 1776 0 O 789 16 8 1890 
152 672 107 35 1497 1664 0 o| I029 I0 o 1891 
I4I 733 439 50 2070 2007 0 0 864 I0 o 1892 
57 773 268 17 1661 1653 0 oO 907 15 6 1893 
69 941 451 77 2321 | 2175 0 oO} 58315 6 1894. 
3r 493 261 22 1324 1236 0 Oo 977 15. 5 1895 
139 1384 873 41 3181 3228 o o|] 1104 6 I 1896 
125 682 100 41 1362 1398 0 oO | 1059 10 8 1897 
96 IO51 639 33 2446 2399 O O| 1212 0 oO 1898 
68 548 120 27 1403 1328 o oO] 1430 Ig 2 1899 


t IncludingLadies. § Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting. 
b [Continued on p. xv. 


Xiv ANNUAL MEETINGS 
Table of 


Date of Meeting Where held Presidents’ aod pie 
1900, Sept. 5 .....- Bradtordagensse-stexes Sir William Turner, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...| 267 13 
1gor, Sept. Glasgow ... ..| Prof. A. W. Ricker, D.Sc., Sec. R.S. 310 37 
1902, Sept. Belfast Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......0.5 243 21 
1903, Sept. Southport .. ..| Sir Norman Lockyer, K. CBr ieee 250 21 
1904, Aug. Cambridge ..... ..| Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M. P.E-RGS, ses) 4x9 32 
1905, Aug. South Africa .. ..| Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ... II5 40 
1906, Aug. Ai} Merd ean yenemegeod ..| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F. RS. 322 Io 
1907, July .| Leicester Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. .....00 276 19 
1908, Sept. Dublin..... Dr. Francis Darwin, F-R.S.eeseeees 294 24 
1909, Aug. Winnipeg ...| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. . 117 13 
1g10, Aug. Sheffield ........ ...| Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. wa 293 26 
rgiz, Aug. Portsmouth ..| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., F. RS. 284 2I 
1912, Sept. Dundee ....... lL eror ee. As Sebater, seus. | Jossscesss0s 288 14 
1913, Sept. 10...... Birmingham ‘"|| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. .. evel” 3g 40 
1914, THisssene. Australia....... ...| Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. ..... 172 13 
IQ15, Sept. 7 sees. Manchester ......... Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S. 242 19 
1916, Sept. 5 »...2. Newcastle-on-T yne 164 12 
1917 (No Meeting) Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S. ............ — —_ 
1918 (No Meeting) —_— — 
I919, Sept..9 ...... Bournemouth......... Hon. Sir C. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S.... 235 47 
1920, Aug. 24...... Gali chitin: ivapmnene teiacee Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S. 288 II 
TOZU,. Sept, 7° paavxe Edinburgh ............) Sir T. E, Thorpe, C.BPer.R. oe ate 336 9 
TO22,, Sept, Ore .ccas PETAL tees w ahacetiaictes acc Sir C. S. Sherrington, G. ’B. E., Pres. RS] 228 13 
1929) Sept. 2....0. Liverpool Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. ......... 326 12 
1924, Aug. 6 .:.... Toronto ..] Sir David Bruce, K.G.B., FoR.Ss jos:0.. 119 vg 
1925, Aug. 26...... Southampton ......]| Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R.S. ............ 280 8 
TQz6y, Alps. 4 fd. ch @ORIOLA GD Fo keegess ss seer H.R.H. The Prince of Wales, K.G., 

BORE. Qeseacseans mares wets | 358 9 
TO27 jf AUP SS Tis. ot Sir Arthur Keith, F.R.S........ -| 249 9 
1928, Sept. 5 «..... ..| Sir William Bragg, K.B.E., F.R.S. ... 260 Io 
1929, July 22...... Sir Thomas’ Holland, K.C.S.1., 

Ke CAL Behe. > csesanaeace aedeascend 81 I 
1930, Sept. 3 ....:. BarASHOL SS 0. cepth aw sleoece Prof. F. O. ” Bower, HESS. decaseanees sual 221 5 
1931, Sept. 23...... DUOUGOM) << vaseunest'ca op Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C., 

GJEI ee Ha Saisdeestescancsssdeneeeedirs cag 487 14 
1932, AUBi/3I 400s DViGLK suns otagideteee ve 08 Sir Alfred Ewing, K.C.B., F. R. Sst 206 I 


1 Including 848 Members of the South African Association. 

2 Including 137 Members of the American Association, 

3 Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see 
Report, 1914, p. 686, The numbers include 80 Members who joined in o1der to attend the Meeting of 
L’Association Frangaise at Le Havre. 

* Including Students’ Tickets, ros. 

* Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge. 


ANNUAL MEETINGS XV 


Annual Meetings—(continued). 


Sums paid 
Amount 
Old New Reca: } \ eoeived on account 
Annual Annual not ae Ladies |Foreigners) Total for ; Pi ctioete4 Year 
F or Scientific 
Members | Members Tickets Sm 
801 482 9 1915 |f1801 o o |f1072 10 © | 1900 
a4 os 794 246 20 IgI2 2046 0 O 920 9 Ii | Igor 
314 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0 947 0 O | Ig02 
319 90 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 0 845 13. 2'| 1903 
449 113 1338 317 121 2789 2650 0 oO 887 18 I1 | 1904 
9377 411 430 181 16 2130 2422 0 0 26° 2°*'2''! 905 
356 93 817 352 22 1972 18II 0 oO 882 0 9g | 1906 
339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 O 757 I2 10 | 1907 
465 112 1166 222 14 2297 2317 0 O| 1157 18 8 | 1908 
2907 162 789 90 7 1468 1623 0 O| 1014 9 9Q } 1909 
379° 57 563 123 § 1449 1439 © O} 96317 © | Igr0 
349 61 AI4 81 31 I241 1176 0 Oo 922 0 OQ | IgII 
368 95 1292 359 88 2504 2349 0 O 845, 7.6 | 1912 
480 149 1287 291 20 2643 2756 0 oO 978 17' I | 1913 
139 41608 539° = 21 5044° | 4873 0 o | 1861 16 4®| 1914 
287 I16 6284 I4I 8 1441 uae oo ee 4 8 7985 
é = 826 2I 0 0} 985 18 10 | 191 
Peers a6 sb?) assy. wdaww\fh oF swo/solda yeailo s1\b8 oreraylhaor® 
—_— _ _— = — — — 326 13. 3 | 1918 
254 102 6884 153 3 1482 1736.0 0 410 OQ 0O|} I919 
Annual Members 
Old 
Annual ee kee Miranafer- cinders 
R 1 eeting i Oe Tickets 
Members| and. | Meeting | Tickets | T! 
Report 
136 192 571 42 120 20 1380 | 1272 10° 0 | 1251 13 0° r920 
133 aro 1394 121 343 22 2768 | 2599 15 0 | 518 1 10] 1927 
Se sole 737 89 235° 24 1730 | 1699 5 0| 772 © 7 | x922 
Compli- 
mentary ? 
123 380 1434 163 550 308 3206 2735 15 0 777 18 6°) 1923 
a? 520 1866 41 89 139 2818 | 3165 19 0 1197 5 g | 1924 
97 264 878 62 I19 74 1782 | 1630 5 0 | 123 0 © | 1925 
zOX 453 2338 169 225 69 3722 3542 0 0| 917 1 6 | 1926 
84 334 1487 82 264 I6r 2670, | 2414 5 0 | 76r 10 0 | 192 
76 554 1835 64 201 74 3074 | 3072 10 0 | 1259 10 0 | 1928 
24 177 12274 | — 161 83 1754 1477 15 o | 1838 2 1x | r929 
310 1617 97 267 54 2639 | 2481 15 0 | 683 5 7 | 1930 
656 2994 157 454 449 570272 | 4792 10 0 | 1146 7 6] 1931 
226 1163 45 214 125 2024 1724 5 0} 1183 13 11 | 1932 


® Including grants from the Caird Fund in this and subsequent years. 
7 Including Foreign Guests, Exhibitioners, and others. 


® The Bournemouth Fund for Research, initiated by Sir C. Parsons, enabled grants on account of 
Scientific purposes to be maintained. 


* Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years 
to 1926. 


10 Subscrip 
on. exchange. 

* Including 450 Members of the South African Association. 

%2 Including 413 tickets for certain meetings, issued at 5s. to London County Council school-teachers. 


tions paid in Canada were $5 for Meeting only and others pro rata ; there was some gain 


NARRATIVE OF THE YORK 
MEETING. 


On Wednesday, August 31, at 8.30 P.M. the Inaugural General Meeting 
was held in the Exhibition Hall, when the Rt. Hon. the Lord Mayor of 
York (Alderman R. H. Vernon Wragge) welcomed the Association to 
York, and the President of the Association, Sir Alfred Ewing, K.C.B., 
F.R.S., delivered an Address (for which see p. 1), entitled An Eygineer’s 
Outlook. 

On Friday, September 2, in the Co-operative Hall, at 8 p.M., Sir Arthur 
W. Hill, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., delivered an Evening Discourse on Plant 
Products of the Empire in relation to Human Needs (for an abstract of 
which see p. 432). 

On Monday, September 5, in the Co-operative Hall, at 5.30 P.M., 
Mr. H. E. Wimperis, C.B.E., delivered a Public Lecture on Speed in 
Flight. 

On Tuesday, September 6, in the Co-operative Hall, at 8 p.m., Mr. C.C. 
Paterson, O.B.E., delivered an Evening Discourse, with demonstrations, 
on The Uses of Photoelectric Cells (for an abstract of which see p. 435). 


¥* * * * * * 


On Thursday, September 1, at 8.30 P.M., the Lord Mayor and the 
Sheriff (Mr. Arnold S. Rowntree) held a Reception in the Exhibition 
Buildings. 

On Monday, September 5, the Directors of Messrs. Rowntree & Co., 
Ltd., received Members at a garden-party and tour of the Cocoa Works. 
Numerous other works in the city and neighbourhood were visited. 

Among institutions which offered facilities to Members, the Yorkshire 
Philosophical Society (the mother-society of the Association) gave the 
free use of the Yorkshire Museum and Museum Gardens to Members 
during the day-time. In the evenings the grounds and buildings were 
flood-lighted by gas. 


* * * * * * 


A special service was held in the Minster on Sunday morning, 
September 4, when Officers and other Members accompanied the Lord 
Mayor, the Sheriff and the City Council in state from the Guildhall. 

The palace at Bishopthorpe was open to Members by kind permission 
of His Grace the Lord Archbishop of York. 


* * * * * * 


On Saturday, September 3, general excursions took place to Ripon, 
Fountains Abbey, and Aldborough; Knaresborough, Harrogate, and 
Nidderdale ; Wensleydale; Scarborough and Whitby; Coxwold, 
Byland Abbey, Helmsley, and Rievaulx Abbey ; Castle Howard and 
Kirkham Abbey ; and Members were officially received at many of 


NARRATIVE OF THE YORK MEETING xvii 


these points. Among other general excursions, marly Members took 
advantage of the extension of the period of flood-lighting Fountains 
Abbey by electric light until Sunday, September 4, which was kindly 
arranged for their benefit. ‘The numerous sectional excursions are 
mentioned among the Sectional Transactions in later pages. 


* * * ¥* * * 


At the final meeting of the General Committee, on Tuesday, 
September 6, it was resolved ‘ That the General Committee do thank the 
City of York for its hospitable reception of the Association.’ 

On Wednesday, September 7, the President and General Secretaries 
waited upon the Lord Mayor of York at the Mansion House, in order to 
take formal leave of him and other local officers for the Meeting. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931432: 


OBITUARY. 


I—The Council has had to deplore the loss by death of the following 
office-bearers and supporters :— 


Prof. A. Barr Dr. E. H. Griffiths (ex-General 
George Barrow Treasurer) 
Dr. W. Briggs Dr. Victoria Hazlitt 

oe Lc; ‘dB _ Col. Sir Duncan Johnston 
began hae Bae David Bge Ne prof. Wc) WHIKitkalephaaaaaditer) 
Dr. G. Claridge Druce Dr. J. af Klercker 


Prof. Carveth Read 
Sir Harry Reichel 

Sir William Somerville 
Sir Thomas Stanton 


Dr. H. T. Ferrar 
Dr. J. G. Garson (ex-Assistant- 
General Secretary) 


Prof. Sir Patrick Geddes Sir Richard Threlfall 
Dr. J. Graham Sir Alfred Yarrow (benefactor and 
Prof. J. W. Gregory honorary member) 


The Association was represented at the memorial service for Sir David 
Bruce by Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, General Secretary ; at that for Sir Alfred 
Yarrow by Sir Alfred Ewing, President, and Prof. J. L. Myres, General 
Secretary ; at the funeral of Dr. E. H. Griffiths by Sir Alfred Ewing, and at 
that of Dr. J. G. Garson by Prof. W. W. Watts. 

Prof. F. O. Bower represented the Association at the funeral of the 
Very Rev. Lionel Ford, Dean of York. 


REPRESENTATION. 


IIJ.—Representatives of the Association have been appointed as 
follows :— 

Wild Plants Preservation Board, Council 

for the Preservation of Rural England Prof. E. J. Salisbury 
York Medical Society, Centenary . . Prof. F. O. Bower 
National Academy of Sciences, Washing- 

ton: One hundredth anniversary of 

electrical discoveries of Joseph Henry Prof. W. F. G. Swann 
Royal Society of Canada: Fiftieth Anni- 

versary : : : : ‘ . Prof. A. B. Macallum 
British Medical Association: Centenary Sir Charles Sherrington 


PRESIDENCY. 


III.—The revision of Statute VI, 1, made by the General Committee 
at the Centenary Meeting, under which the period of the presidency of 
the Association should coincide with the calendar year, duly received the 
approval of H.M. Privy Council, as provided in Article 10 of the Charter 
of the Association. Sir Alfred Ewing therefore assumed the presidency 
as from January 1, 1932. 

IV.—At the Centenary Meeting, the General Committee expressed the 
feeling that it was undesirable that the Council’s nomination to the 
presidency of the Association should be published. The Council there- 
fore resolved that the nomination should not be communicated to the 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 xix 


press, and that it should not be announced in the present report, but 
should be made verbally to the General Committee on the first day of the 
Annual Meeting. This procedure is a reversion to the practice of the 
Association in its earlier years. 


RESOLUTIONS FROM THE CENTENARY MEETING. 


V.—Resolutions dealing with the Council’s nomination to the 
presidency of the Association, and to expenditure in connection with 
the annual meetings, are reported upon elsewhere in this report. 

Resolutions referred by the General Committee to the Council for 
consideration, and, if desirable, for action were dealt with as follows. 
The resolutions will be found in the Report for 1931, p. lix. 


(a) A resolution from Section D (Zoology) dealing with the pro- 
tection of the gorilla in Uganda, was forwarded to the Colonial Office 
as requested. 

(6) The Council received assurance that effect would be given to 
recommendations from Section H (Anthropology) relating to the pro- 
gramme of the International Congress for Prehistoric and Protohistoric 
Sciences, 1932. 

(c) The Council adopted a resolution from Section H (Anthropology) 
relating to the disposal of objects from the Cresswell Caves, Derbyshire. 

(d) The Council, after careful consideration, decided to take no 
action upon a resolution from the Conference of Delegates of Corre- 
sponding Societies, recommending the use of durable paper for scientific 
publications. 


VI—A recommendation from Section E (Geography), advocating the 
publication of population maps in connection with the census of 1931, 
was forwarded immediately, by direction of the General Committee itself, 
to the Registrars-General for England and Wales and for Scotland ; but 
they regretted that they could not advocate the preparation of such maps 
at the present time. 


VII.—The Council adopted a recommendation from the Organising 
Committee of Section I (Physiology), following upon a resolution by the 
Sectional Committee at the Centenary Meeting, that it was not advisable 
to hold an independent meeting of Section I at York this year, in view of 
the Fourteenth International Physiological Congress which is to take place 
simultaneously at Rome. 

Down House. 


VIII.—The following report for the year 1931-32 has been received 
from the Down House Committee :— 


The Committee desire to record their gratification at the conferment 
of the honour of knighthood upon Sir Buckston Browne. 

The number of visitors to Down House during the year ending June 6, 
1932, has been 7,638, compared with 5,210 in the previous year. During 
the week of the Centenary Meeting of the Association, Sept. 23-30, 1931, 
there were 660 visitors. Three special excursions were arranged for 
members, a general excursion on Friday, Sept. 25, when the Hon. Curator, 
Mr. Buckston Browne, was present to receive the party; a visit for the 
Delegates of Corresponding Societies on Monday, Sept. 28, and a visit 
for Section K (Botany) on Tuesday, Sept. 29. On Wednesday, Sept. 30, 


xx REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 


the President of the Association (General the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts) and 
the Hon. Curator entertained a distinguished company to tea at the house. 

The Committee are glad to have in custody at Down House the valuable 
papers relating to early meetings of the Association, collected by John 
Phillips and presented by Professor W. J. Sollas, whose gift the Council 
has already gratefully acknowledged. They form an important addition 
to the historical records of the Association, for which Down House now 
provides a repository. The presidential banners of the Association’s first 
century also are now deposited there. 

A private fire hydrant has been installed in such position as to protect 
the house and adjacent buildings. 

The exemption of the public rooms and the custodians’ apartments 
from rates was secured upon a second appeal to the assessment committee 
for Bromley district, after a structural alteration had been carried out 
with the view of meeting the requirement of a ‘ complete severance’ 
between the resident’s quarters (which are rated) and the rest of the house. 
This question has involved the Association in considerable legal and other 
expenses ; but the saving in rates amounts, under existing conditions, to 
nearly £40 per annum. 

The following financial statement shows (a) receipts on account of Down 
House, and current expenditure (running costs) for the financial years 
ending June 30, 1931 and 1932; (6) ‘ capital ’ or non-recurrent expenditure 
by the Association since its acquisition of the property in 1929. 


Receipts. 1931 1932 
ey Be FE le Seige 2 
By Dividends on endowment fund : : 770 14 10 F4l 4 5 
,, Income tax recovered . re - 5 203 II. a09M22g0r5; 2 
», Rents . ‘ : : : : : TA2.,3,, Anny E37. FQ! 0 
», Donations . : : : 5: ; I Ol! 9 19 I 
,, dale of Postcards and Catalogues. : 10 10 I 33°10 7 
1,128 0 3 1,145 15 3 


,, Balance, being excess of expenditure (run- 
ning costs) as below, over receipts. : LIS \, 545 qedisOmia aie 


£1,243 5 8 1,296 8 5 


Expenditure (running costs). 1931 1932 
s Ls. d 
To Wages and National Insurance . : 788 10 0 840 IO II 
», Rates, Land Tax, Insurances . 3 3 110 8 3 72 4 °0 
», Coal, coke, etc. . F : F 4 119 5 6 125 16 2 
», Water . ; : : : : : ray ey) et 14 10 6 
,, Lighting and Drainage Plants (including 

petrol and oil) . : i j 52 6 6 50 12 1 
,, Repairs and Renewals . : ; 2 Bhi ath 5) 41 1 6 
,, Garden materials . : : ; ; AZ ma 7. jae 
», Household requisites . p ; : 2 MA a 16 5 6 
», Lransport and Carriage . : ‘ ; 5 15 6 4 4 6 

,, Entertainment ; ; ; : ; 6 13 0 —_ 
,, Auditors : : : ‘ j : I3a5 33 10 Oo 
,, Postcards and Catalogues (printing) : A ou 2 44 6 II 
,, Postages, Telephone, Stationery, etc. : 30 11 8 5 19 2 
£1,243 5 8 1,296 8 5 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 Xxi 


* Capital ’ Expenditure, 1929-32. 


TR a 

Compensation to outgoing tenant ; ; ‘ ; 800 0 o 
Redemption of Tithe . : : p : : . T35.ca701 vO 
Purchase of Land : : : 275 10,0 
Renovation of house, cottages, walls, fencing, etc... ; Aaa Ti a7 
Renovation of grounds (eravelling, grass, etc. ) 4 , 186 I9 10 
House equipment ; ; ’ " ; 22S gf 
Garden equipment . ; : TAT O12 
Legal charges (rating appeals, valuations, etc. ) : : 301 16 6 
Transport of library . ; ; : : 1252 uO 
Opening Ceremony (June 7, 1929) : : : : TO 2 OnO 
Cost of Catalogues in stock, June 30, 1932. . : ELON. Os 10 
£3,236 5 8 


Note.—The cost of catalogues will, in course of time, be covered by sales. 


The above phrase ‘ capital expenditure’ is used, for want of a better, to 
cover charges which have fallen upon the Association apart from ordinary 
running costs. They include numerous items of restoration, renovation, 
and equipment, legal charges, etc., as the Council are already aware. The 
figure does not include the second mortgage of £700 granted to the outgoing 
tenant in 1929, which is classified as an asset, not with the Down House 
Fund, but among the general funds of the Association. 

Those works of restoration, etc., which have been, so to say, visible 
liabilities since the acquisition of the property, have been materially ex- 
pedited during the Secretary’s leave of absence from office duties during the 
current year. They, and their cost, would otherwise have been spread 
over a longer period. So far as the Secretary is able to judge, they are now 
within sight of completion. Any subsequent items of restoration and 
renovation ought, on this view, to fall under the heading of ordinary wear 
and tear. 


IMPORTATION OF SCIENTIFIC SPECIMENS AND APPARATUS. 


IX.—As the result of a report by the Association of British Zoologists, 
the Council, in February 1931, appointed a committee to consider action 
with a view to the amelioration of the Customs Regulations affecting the 
importation of scientific specimens and apparatus. Following upon 
discussion between officers of the Association and the Custom House 
authorities, the latter have most kindly supplied the Association with a 
memorandum on the reliefs from Customs duties on scientific instruments 
and cinematograph films, and from the import prohibitions on plumage 
likely to be of use to scientific workers, together with a note on procedure 
in respect of the importation of scientific specimens preserved in spirit. 

The memorandum on scientific instruments and cinematograph films 
was supplied confidentially to enable the Association to advise bona fide 
scientific workers, but not for general publication, since some of the 
relaxations are extra-statutory and liable to modification or withdrawal as 
the interests of the Revenue may demand. 

The note on the importation of scientific specimens in spirit is appended 
hereto. 

b2 


XXii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 


‘ The procedure which will apply in future is as follows :— 


‘It will be necessary that the person by whom the specimens are im- 
ported into this country (or the person or institution to whom they are 
addressed, in the case of specimens despatched by a consignor abroad) 
should be formally authorised to receive spirits free of duty for use in an 
art or manufacture, under the provisions of the Finance Act, 1902, sect. 8. 
Where, however, the importer or consignee does not already hold such 
an authority, the Collector of Customs and Excise at the port of importation 
will grant it, subject to the conditions in the next paragraph. 

‘If the specimens are imported as ship’s cargo, the necessary Customs 
entry must describe them as specimens preserved in spirits, with a sufficient 
description of their nature and the approximate quantity of spirits, and 
must show the name and address of the importer or consignee. With the 
entry must be produced letters or other documents sufficiently establishing 
the status of the importer or consignee and the purposes for which the 
specimens are imported. The Collector of Customs and Excise will be at 
liberty to request further information, if he considers it necessary. Where 
specimens are imported in personal baggage, similar information will be 
asked for. 

‘If these requirements are satisfactorily complied with, the necessary 
authority will be granted forthwith and the specimens admitted immediately 
free of any charge of spirit duty. 

“It is not necessary that scientists proceeding on expeditions abroad 
should take any action before leaving this country. It is, however, advisable, 
with a view to avoiding delay, that scientists returning with specimens 
should have the letters or other documents required to establish the facts 
readily available, and, in the case of specimens which are being received 
from senders abroad, that the forwarding agent who is entrusted with the 
work of clearing the goods should be supplied with the necessary information 
and letters, etc., in good time.’ 


FINANCE.1 


X.—The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer 
throughout the year. His accounts have been audited and are presented 
to the General Committee. 

XI—As shown in the accounts, the Association has been compelled 
to draw upon its capital in order to meet a deficit upon the working of the 
Centenary Meeting. In this connection, however, it should be mentioned 
that the legacy of £2,000 under the will of the late Sir Charles Parsons 
has not yet been received. These considerations, together with the 
difficulties of the present general financial situation, have led the Council 
to review the whole financial position of the Association, and they have 
received from the General Treasurer full memoranda upon receipts and 
expenditure on the basis of the past ten years, and upon future policy. 
The following are extracts from his statement of policy, in so far as it 
deals with grants for research, the figures for the Research Fund and 
Contingency Fund being those adopted by the Council as stated below : 


1 The General Committee adopted this portion of the report with the proviso 
that the recommendation as to quasi-permanent endowment or maintenance 
should not be held to preclude grants to institutions at which successive re- 
searches are to be carried on under research committees of the Association. 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 XXill 


The weakness of the Association’s finance lies in the basis of its grants to 
research, taken together with the fluctuating financial character of its 
meetings. The allocations to research should not be granted on a year-to- 
year consideration of available balances, because those balances do not 
themselves result from a period of adequate length to reflect real availability. 
Allocations on the principle of real availability should be based upon a 
reasonable cycle of the Association’s normal activities and expenses of 
meetings. 

In my judgment, therefore, policy should be shaped upon a provisional 
five-year budget as the minimum period. This leads me to the suggestion 
that for the period of the next five years we should create two definite 
charges on the expenditure side, viz., £400 to the Research Fund (in 
addition, that is, to the Caird Fund) and £500 to Contingency Fund... . 
Expenditure on research [from general funds] should be definitely con- 
trolled by the General Committee on a recommendation from the Council 
in its Annual Report, and might be more or less than that amount in any 
particular year. Council might conveniently add to its recommendation 
a statement of the sum which it is prepared to allocate from the Caird Fund. 
. . . It should be a matter for the Council to lay down whether the true 
function of the Association is not rather the starting, launching or promotion 
of particular pieces of research, than the quasi-permanent endowment or 
maintenance of them. In some respects its past policy has fallen between 
two stools; it has not given those advantages which a really assured 
permanence of funds may confer but it has allowed a perpetuating system 
of old claims to take the bloom off its opportunity for substantial aid to 
pioneer work. 

The Contingency Fund would be definitely regarded as an insurance 
against small, or very unprofitable meetings. . . . The adoption of a policy 
of budgeting ahead for a period of years, and not allowing each year’s 
balances to be fortuitously linked up with the research work, is the essential 
feature of reform. 


The Council have adopted, and recommend to the General Committee, 
the above proposal that for the next five years not more than £400 should 
be spent annually from general funds on grants for research, and that an 
annual sum of £500 should be placed to a contingency fund. 

The Council are of opinion that the true function of the Association, in 
making grants to research committees, is the initiation of particular pieces 
of research rather than their quasi-permanent endowment. ‘The Council 
recall that this view is implicit in the resolution of the General Committee, 
under which grants from general funds in aid of research were first 
established. They desire, however, to elicit the views of Sectional 
Committees on this point, and suggest that these should be reported by 
the sectional representatives to the Committee of Recommendations at 
the York Meeting. 

The Council are impressed with the fact that at each annual meeting 
certain grants are applied for and made on the chance that they may be 
wanted during the ensuing year. The Council feel that money adjudged 
at the Annual Meeting to be available from general funds for grants should 
be made only for purposes for which it is known that money will be 
needed during the ensuing year. The Council, therefore, propose a new 
class of contingent recommendations to be addressed to themselves as 
administering the Caird Fund. This practice should be followed in the 


XXIV REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 


case of any application made at the Annual Meeting for a grant which may, 
but will not certainly, be required during the ensuing year. The Council, 
being in session throughout the year, consider that they can deal with such 
applications with more precision than is possible at the Annual Meeting. 

In order that the Committee of Recommendations, in considering 
applications, may be in full possession of the necessary facts, especially in 
respect of the procedure outlined above, the General Officers have drafted 
and will issue more detailed forms of application to the Committee, and the 
Council request the co-operation of the Sectional Officers in completing 
these. 

It follows from the above expression of the Council’s opinion and 
intentions, that they do not consider that recurrent grants should have any 
prior claim on the Caird Fund over other grants. 

XII.—The stock held on account of the Bramwell Trust, for an 
honorarium to be paid to an appointed speaker at the Centenary Meeting 
on the prime movers of 1931, has been transferred to Sir Alfred Ewing, 
whose presidential address to Section G (Engineering) was also the 
lecture under the trust. This trust has now, therefore, been discharged. 

XIII.—At the Centenary Meeting, the General Committee requested 
the General Officers to report to the Council upon the respective expendi- — 
ture of the Association and of local committees in connection with the 
annual meetings, with the object of reducing the total cost of the meetings, 
and of redistributing liabilities hitherto undertaken by the local com- 
mittees. The Council received and adopted the General Secretaries’ 
Report, in which it was recommended to effect economies by dispensing 
with the presidential banner and elaborate enamelled badges of member- 
ship, by incorporating the local programme with the Association’s own 
time-table, and by reducing the bulk of the local handbook, at the same 
time standardising its format and making the material suitable for inclusion 
in the Annual Report. 


PUBLICATION. 


XIV.—As a natural corollary to questions of publication arising upon 
the financial matters dealt with in the preceding section of this report, 
the Council have investigated the whole field of the Association’s publica- 
tions, and have received the report of a Committee thereon. As a result, 
it is hoped to effect improvements in printing, a more adequate distribu- 
tion of the Annual Report and other publications, and some econom 
in cost. 


GENERAL OFFICERS AND STAFF, COUNCIL AND COMMITTEES. 
XV.—The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as 
follows :— 
General Treasurer, Sir Josiah Stamp. 
General Secretaries, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Prof. F. J. M. Stratton. 
The Council received last year from Prof. J. L. Myres an intimation 


that if then re-appointed as General Secretary, he would not offer himself 
this year for re-nomination. The Council have now placed upon record 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 XXV 


their deep sense of gratitude to Prof. Myres for his services to the 
Association as General Secretary during the years 1919-1932. 

XVI.— Assistant Secretaryship —The Council have established the post 
of Assistant Secretary, held by Mr. H. Wooldridge on probation since 
1930, and have confirmed Mr. Wooldridge in the appointment. 

XVII.—Council—The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council 
are Sir Richard Gregory, Prof. T. E. Gregory, Mr. C. G. T. Morison, 
Prof. A. O. Rankine, and Dr. A. C. Haddon and Dr. H. S. Hele-Shaw 
by resignation. 

The Council have nominated as new members Sir Henry Dale, 
Prof. R. B. Forrester, Dr. H. S. Harrison, and Sir John Russell, leaving 
two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without nomination 
by the Council. 

The full list of nominations of Ordinary Members is as follows :— 


Dr. F. A. Bather Col. Sir H. G. Lyons 
Sir Henry Dale Sir P. Chalmers Mitchell 
Prof. J. Drever Prof. E. B. Poulton 
Prof. R. B. Forrester Dr. C. Tate Regan 
Sir Henry Fowler Sir John Russell 
Prof. W. T. Gordon Prof. A. C. Seward 
Prof. Dame Helen Gwynne-Vaughan Dr. N. V. Sidgwick 
Sir Daniel Hall Dr. G. C. Simpson 
Dr. H.S. Harrison Prof. J. F. Thorpe 
Sir James Henderson H. T. Tizard 

A. R. Hinks Prof. A. M. Tyndall 


Dr. C. W. Kimmins 


XVIII.—General Committee—The following have been admitted as 
members of the General Committee : Dr. S. G. Barker, Dr. P. H. Buxton, 
Dr. G. S. Carter, Dr. R. Gurney, Mr. E. Horton, Mr. T. H. Reade, 
Dr. W. K. Spencer, Dr. J. Stephenson. 

XIX.—Corresponding Societies Committee—The Corresponding So- 
cieties Committee has been nominated as follows : The President of the 
Association (Chairman ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chairman), 
Dr. C. Tierney (Secretary), the General Treasurer, the General Secre- 
taries, Mr. C. O. Bartrum, Dr. F. A. Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, 
Mr. J. V. Pearman, Sir David Prain, Sir John Russell, Prof. W. M. 
Tattersall. 


RATES OF SUBSCRIPTION. 


XX.—The Council have adopted the following report of a Committee 
on rates of membership subscription, the price of the Annual Report, 
etc., and recommend the proposals and consequent changes in the Statutes 
to the General Committee. 


The Committee appointed by the Council to consider the scale of 
subscriptions to the Association, and to recommend amendments thereto if 
any appear desirable, report as follows. 

The Committee recommend no change from the present subscriptions of 
£1 10s. for attendance at the Meeting and receipt of the Report, of £1 5s. 
for transferable tickets (Meeting only), and of ros. for student membership 
(Meeting only). 


XXvi REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1931-32 


They recommend that the present life composition of £15 be reduced to 
£10 10s. This recommendation is based upon the fact that, before 1919, 
when the life composition was £10, 23 new life members were enrolled 
annually on an average over 10 years ; after 1919, when the life composition 
was raised to £15, this average number fell to 8-3. 

A majority of the Committee recommend that the subscription of £1, 
entitling to attendance at the Meeting only, be raised to £1 1s. This 
recommendation is made with a view to balancing any reduction of receipts 
which might result from giving effect to other recommendations of the 
Committee. The class of members paying the £1 subscription is the 
largest; on average figures the proposed increase would yield an addition of 
£70-80 annually, and it is believed that it would not cause any diminution in 
the number of members. 

The Committee consider that the Annual Report is too highly priced, and 
recommend that the prices should be as follows : 


Published price, 15s. instead of £1 5s. 


Library subscription, 1os., if paid regularly, instead of 12s. 6d. now 
charged to approved libraries. 


They further recommend that back numbers of the Report should be 
offered at 10s., and back numbers of the Advancement of Science at 3s. 6d., 
and that this offer should be made known among members and others 
whose names are on the books of the Association. 

Finally, they recommend that it should be similarly made known that on 
regular payment of 1os. on a banker’s order, the Report will be supplied 
(as well as papers relating to forthcoming meetings). 

The Committee make these recommendations concerning the Report 
with a view to ensuring its wider distribution, and giving effect to previous 
recommendations of the Publications Committee. Further, they think that 
the principle of the banker’s order, put forward in the final recommendation, 
should assist in mitigating ‘the insecurity inherent in the Association’s 
finances,’ which, as shown in a memorandum laid before them, is “ connected 
primarily’ with the fluctuating number of subscriptions for annual 
membership. 


DATES OF FINANCIAL YEAR. 


XXI.—The Council have received from the Hon. Auditors a reasoned 
proposal that the financial year of the Association should run from April 1 
to March 31, instead of from July 1 to June 30, and they recommend this 
change to the General Committee, together with a consequent change 
in the Statutes. 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 
1931-32 


THE expenses of the Centenary Meeting (1931), so far as 
they can be distinguished, are set out separately in the 
following accounts, but ordinary items of expenditure, 
such as stationery, postages, and printing, were also 
necessarily increased beyond the normal. It should 
be remembered that there was no ‘local fund,’ as 
usually there is to meet costs of meeting-rooms, 
entertainment, etc., and the Centenary Fund initiated 
by the Association itself, primarily in order to cover 
the costs of the Meeting, did not do so. It was stated 
in last year’s Report that the general financial situation 
did not admit of pressing the appeal for the Centenary 
Fund as strongly as it might have been pressed in 
favourable circumstances. It has therefore been 
necessary to draw upon the Yarrow Fund, as stated in 
the accounts. The Association’s finances are further 
dealt with in the Report of the Council to the General 
Committee, paragraphs X-XIII. 
J. C. Stamp, 


General Treasurer. 


XXVIII 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 


Balance Sheet, 


Corresponding 
Figures 
June 30, 
1931. 

£ Sand: 


10,942 19 1 


9.582 16 3 
399 II 
84.4 7 


I0,000 0 o 


8,707 0 Oo 


7952 2° °2 


182 18 Io 


2,904 14 9 


44:755 16 9 


LIABILITIES. 
To General Fund— y Rae 
As at July 1, 1931 
As per contra . 
(Subject to depreciation i in value of Investments) 
», Caird Fund— 
As at July 1, 1931 
As per contra 
(Subject to depreciation i in value of Investments) 
», Caird Fund Revenue Account— 2 
Balance at July 1, 1931 . 399 I 
Less Excess of ‘Expenditure over Income for the year as 
per contra 5 - = e = 207. I 
», Sir F, Bramwell’s Gift— 
For inquiry into Prime Movers, 1931 86 6 
Less Transferred to Sir J: Alfred Ewing under terms of the 
Gift . é : e 86 6 
», Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift— ‘ 
As per contra . : 5 3 =, 5 : . 
5, Sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gift— 
As per last Account . 8,707 0 
Less Transferred to Income and Expenditure Account 
under terms of the Gift 5 “ £365 0 o 
Less Transferred towards expenses of Cen- 
tenary Meeting . : P 3 + 2,043 5 4 


», Life Compositions— 


As per last Account 2 c i 3 - 952 2 
Add received during year F : r : wt SEgRRo 


», Loronto University Presentation Fund— 


2,408 5 4 


As per last Account 5 r “ ‘ - 2 » - 582) 58" x0 
Add Dividends . : : 3 5 ‘ 5 * 815 0 
I9I 13 10 

Less Awards given c : : é . A Br a 


», Lt.-Col. A. J. C. Cunningham’s Bequesi— 
For the preparation of New Tables in the Theory of 


Numbers. 
As per last Account . R 5 A e : + 2,904 14 
Add— 
Income Tax recovered . ‘ a 0 1 f 29 5 
Dividends . é - ‘ : é . «°° HOF 29 
037 19 
Less Grantsmade . q ; : : c a 30 oO 


Carried forward 


o°0 


ies Peay 


10,942 19 I 


9,582 16 3 


192 0 0 


10,000 0 oO 


6,298 14 8 


2,087 2 2 


182 18 10 


3,007 I9 0 


£42,294 10 o 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 


XxX1X 
June 30, 1932. 
eecnding 
igures 
June 30, ASSETS. 
1931. 
£ s. d.| By General Fund— £o sivah 24 Ged 
£4,651 tos. 5d. Consolidated 2} per cent. Stock at cost R942 3. 94 
£3,600 India 3 percent. Stockatcost . 3,522 2 6 
£879 14s. 9d. Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘B? Annuity 
at cost 827 15 0 
£52 12s. 7d. War Stock (Post Office Issue) at cost 54. 5 2 
£834 16s. 6d. 44 per cent. Conversion Stock at cost 835 12 4 
£1,400 War Stock 5 per cent. 1929/47 at cost 1,393 16 11 
£94 7S. 44 per cent. Conversion Stock 1940/44 at cost . 62 15 0 
£326 9s. 10d. 3} per cent. Conversion See 1940/44 at cost . 250 0 O 
Cash at Bank . 2 3 54 8 11 
10,942 19 I 10,942 I9 1 
(£8,274 18s. rod. Value of Stocks at date, £9,175 1s. 8d.) 
», Caird Fund— 
£2,627 os. 10d, India 34 per cent. Stock at cost . 2,400 13 3 
£2,100 London, Midland & Scottish Railway Consolidated 
4 per cent. Preference Stock at cost i 2,190 4 3 
£2,500 Canada 34 per cent. Registered Stock 1930/50 at cost 2 307 x 40 
£2,000 Southern Railway coneelaated 5 “ed cent. Preference 
Stock at cost ; kK rn Z - 2,594 17 
9,582 16 3 582 16 3 
(£6,404 rzs. rod. Value at date, £5,565 18s. 4d.) 
», Caird Fund Revenue Account— 
399 I I Cash at Bank . 192 0 0 
», Sir F. Bramwell’s Gift— 
£165 12s. 10d. Self Accumulating Consolidated Stock as Per 
last Balance Sheet . 84i< 4.97. 
Cis ce Add Accumulations to October 5, 1931 Zo Bal 7 
£169 4 3 86 6 2 
oo Less Transferred to = As ere as ed 
contra 86 6 2 
84 4 7 — 


z0,000 0 Oo 


8,707 0 oO 


3,952 2 2 


_ 82 18 I0 


«2,904 14 9 
44,755 16 9 


3, Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift— 
£10,300 44 per cent. Conversion Stock at cost . 
(£10,609. Value at date, £10,918) 
», Sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gift— 
£8,707 5 per cent. War Loan as per last Account - 
Less Sale of £2,408 a 4d. Stock under terms of the 


Gift 
(Value at date, “£6, 408 gs. "4d. Ne 
», Life Compositions— 
£2,949 12s. 4d, Local Loans at cost . 5 n 4 
(£2,064 r4s. 8d. Value at date, £2,300 145. ) 
Cash at Bank 


», Loronto University Presentation Fund— 
£175 War Stock at cost . 
(£z80 5s. Value at date, £178 1 Is. 34.) 
Cash at Bank . 


», Lt.-Col. A. J. C. Cunningham’s Bequest— 
£1,187 6s. tod. 24 per cent. Consolidated Stock 
£300 Port of London 34 per cent. Stock 1949/99 
£100 Commonwealth of Australia 42 per cent. ae 
£100 New Zealand 5 per cent. Stock . : 
£800 India 6 per cent. Stock at cost . fs 5 
£1,274 48. 10d. Local Loans 3 per cent. Stock at cost : . 


(£2,816 r7s. 6d. Value at edi, 43) os 18s. 6d. a 
Cashat Bank . 5 


Carried forward 


8,707 0 Oo 
2,408 5 
1,923 12 2 
163 I0 Oo 
178. Xr 4 
4 7 
653 0 9 
216 0 Oo 
93 0 Oo 
103 0 0 
801 12 0 
836 6 5 
5702 19 2 
304 I9 Io 


6,298 14 8 


2,087 2 2 


182 18 10 


3,007 19 0 


£42,294 10 Oo 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 


XXX 
Balance Sheet, 
Corresponding 
Figures 
ae. LIABILITIES—continued. 
A Sd: £ sv d. va ee 
44,755 16 9 Brought forward , < cs . 5 : . . 42,294 I0 O 
To Down House Endowment Fund— 
20,000 0 O As per contra . : : - 5 . c le S 20,000 0 O 
,, REVENUE ACCOUNT— 
Sundry Creditors. |. 177 13) 17 
Do. Do. (Down House) ci 3r 9 5 
Bank Overdraft— 
Down House Charges on General Fund £3,734 2 10 
Less General Account 4 3,569, 5... 9 
——_—__—— 164 EF ME 
,, Income and Expenditure Account— 
Balance at July 1, 1931 . e : F 9,286 17 10 
Less Down House Income and Expenditure 
Account 
Balance at July 1, 1931 . : 2 . 1,882 0 6 
2 7,494 17 4 
Less Excess of Expenditure over Income 
for the year . 5 i - 387 I2 It 
7,017 4 5 
10,133 17 I ————_ 7,391 4 6 
74,889 IZ 1 £69,685 14 6 
—— ——___— 
I have examined the foregoing Account with the Books and Vouchers and certify 
the Investments, and have inspected the Deeds of Down House and the Mortgage on — 
Approved. 
Pe ae ti Auaitors, 


August 1932. 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXxi 


519081932 “continued. 


Corresponding 
Figures 
June 30, ASSETS—continued. 


1931. 
d. EO Sind £ 


seh: Le Ss. Os 
44,755 16 9 Brought forward 4 : 5 . 4 : r ; Z 42,294 I0 O 
By Sir Buckston Browne’s Gift in memory of Darwin—Down House, 


ent = ; : F Not valued. 

Do. Endowment Fund— 
£5,500 India 44 per cent. Stock 1958/68 at cost . 5 » 5,00L,k7" | 4 
£2,500 Australia 5 per cent. Stock 1945/75 at cost é - 2,468 19 0 
£3,000 Fishguard & Rosslare Railway 3} per cent. Guaranteed 

Preference Stock at cost 5 5 : A, , a», 241139_17.° 3 
£2,500 New South Wales 5 per cent. Stock 1945/65 atcost . 2,467 7 9 
£2,500 Western Australia 5 per cent. Stock 1945/75 at cost . 2,472 I 6 
£2,500 Birkenhead Railway 4 per cent. Consolidated Stock at 


cost. ° Fy j , . . F 5 2,013 9 9 

£3,340 Great Western Railway 5 per cent. Stock at cost - 3,436 7 
20,000 0 Oo ————_— _ 20,000 0 0 
(£17,303 tos. od. Value at date, £19,197 145. od.) 
», REVENUE ACCOUNT— 
Investments :— 

£2,098 1s. 9d. Consolidated 24 per cent. Stock at cost . «,,X,200, 0° 0 
£4,338 6s. 2d. Conversion 34 per cent. Stock at cost . oui 300. 0° XO 
£400 5 per cent. War Loan Inscribed Stock atcost . - 404 16 0 
(£5,358 8s. 4d. Value at date, £5,879 17s. 5d.) 4,904 16 Oo 
Second Mortgage on Isleworth House, Orpington = =; .f00 0 0 


», Down House Suspense Account— 


As per last Account 5 . ° ° . ‘ viii. ao 

Purchase of Land adjoining Down House . ‘ ‘ sinh Oe O 

Stock of Catalogues at Down House . 5 ( F mi 0 0 

Sundry Debtors and Payments in advance f r ehaedQ2 IL 5 

Do. (Down House) P 4 . i ‘ a aa i738 

Cashin Hand . i ; 4 ‘ > rs : 27 12 10 
10,133 17 1 ————_ 7,391 4 6 
74,889 I3 Io £69,685 14 6 


the same to be correct. I have also verified the Balances at the Bankers and 
Isleworth House. 


W. B. KEEN, 
Chartered Accountant, 


XXXII GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 


Income and 


FOR THE YEAR ENDED 


Corresponding 
Figures 
e 30 
TE Be EXPENDITURE. 
ets of £ 's..'d. Ei Sta ue 
2419 JI |To Heat, Lighting and Power. : : 5 2 é é 2 20) 75 
T57 0 -Ouliyy Stationery = . - . ; f 5 a AEX JOON8 
© 0:0) } 5 )keent : 5 5 - f as 2 é 2 “ - ri oo 
263 1m 8&8 | ,, Postages. x ol ‘ : 7 . ; Bae eee ho 
216 5 8|,, Travelling Expenses s : 6 c 4 4 i a LOS ads LO 
37 14 11 | ,, Exhibitioners . s ; : “ ; é : oo ae Ones 
278 6 1r|,, GeneralExpenses . 2 é : - = - Aol Ay ae ares is 
978 18 2 T150) 4.0 
1,794 7 0 | ,, Salaries and Wages : i : 5 3 A 3 - 1,908 16 6 
75 0 0o|,, Pension Contribution ° ‘ 5 7} 836 
1,638 2 11] ,, Printing, Binding, Contributors and Editorial Fees : : . 2,650 18 3 
5,784 19 6 
4,486 8 I 
m22 Ir 5| ,, Zimbabwe Loan Exhibition > A : ~ 4 6 3 —_ 
, Grants to Research Committees :— 
Paleozoic Rocks Committee 5 : - : : 20° 0-6 
Llanmelin Committee . 6 F A 6 : 25) (0: Oo) 
Transplant Experiments Committee - : : ~ 3 Io 0 oO 
Kharga OasisCommittee . : * ; : 20 0 0 
Sex Physiology of Parents Committee | : ;: : + Io 0 0 
Western Desert of Egypt Committee . j fs, - * -~tOO OY iG 
Seismology Committee A c F I50 0 0 
Parachors of Chemical Compounds Committee : : A Ix oO 
Mycorrhiza in relation to Forestry Committee ‘ . m 25 0 0 
Teaching of Biology Committee . : 4 . . : 5 00 
Macedonia Committee . 3 4 A 5 25 00 
Plymouth Laboratory Committee . : : - : ° 50 0 O 
Mechanical Ability Committee 6 “ 2 A 5 : 2 (0) 76 
Derbyshire Caves Committee : F : E 50 0 Oo 
Freshwater Biological Station Committee 5 5 b : 75, 0 1G 
Human Geography of Tropical Africa Committee 20 10 9 
Vocational Tests Committee 5 c 5 & os 
731 7 6 MER Dre ee 


5,339 17 0 Carried forward : ¢  OAI2 5 


JUNE 30, pee 


Bete on dingl 
Figures 
June 30, 

1931. 
eS 
58 o 

1,898 5 
634 Io 
138 I5 
I50 Io 


eo000= 


I5 0 
Zo 


9 
578 I5 I 
275 7 
227 17 
3I 13 
22 Io 


SHHUSOOOSD 


3,340 8 5 


g6r 6 
27 2 


aN 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXXili 
Expenditure Account 
INCOME. 
Lwin 85:8 £ Sie 
By Annual Regular Members, including £37 for 1932/3. 122 0: © 
,, Annual Temporary Members, including £394 for 1932/3 " 2,781 9 3 
,, Annual Members with Report, including £154 tos. for 1932/ 3 809 9 II 
,, Transferable Tickets, including £13 15s. for 1932/3 i 173, 0 0 
», Students’ Tickets, including £13 10s. for meu 3 216 0 Oo 
», Leachers’ Tickets (L..G.c:) 103 5 0 
», Life Compositions, Amount transferred _ 
,, Donation = 2 F —_ 
,, Interest on Deposit . 5 16 8 
,, Sale of Publications . 614 18 3 
,, Advertisement Revenue 424 18 7 
,, Income Tax recovered 256 911 
», Unexpended Balance of Grants returned 5 00 
,, Liverpool Exhibitioners 22 10 Oo 
», Dividends :— 
Consols r : 5 5 . : 2 ; . 320KEH' -2 
India 3 per cent. é : " 81 0 Oo 
Great Indian Peninsula Railway ‘ B’ Annuity F c . ap 7 2 
4% per cent. Conversion Loan a e ‘ , ge 8 5 
Ditto Sir Charles Parsons’ Gift A ‘ 5 5 » 3947 312 .6 
Local Loans : é c ' a 2 65 g II 
War Stock . . 5 : 74 5 0 
War Stock (Series A), Sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gift A : hy Hiaar 8. 6 
34 per cent. Conversion Loan - ° . a), RSES4 Stew 
— 1,267 11 9 
,», Sir Alfred Yarrow’s Gift— 
Proceeds of sale of £ 365 War Loan in accordance with the terms 
of the Gift A : j - « 365 ‘0° 6 
Less Loss on Sale r : . , ; : A : 613 0 
ais 358 7 0 
,, Interest on Mortgage A 3 : “ . A 26 5 0 
Carried forward - £7,187 1 4 


5,870 18 6 


XXXIV GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 
Income and 
FOR THE YEAR ENDED 
Corresponding 
Figures 
June '3e; EXPENDITURE—continued. 
193%. 
4 d. i) Sons £ Sod. 
5,339 e oO Brought forward 6,412 5 3 
To Special Expenses of the Centenary Meeting as far as can be dis- 
tinguished— 
,, Grants to Overseas Delegates— 
As per last Balance Sheet . £1,500 0 O 
Paid during year I,540 0 0 
———————- 3,040 0 O 
», Hospitality and Entertainment 29a ig od 
,, Ditto (Secretariat) . 236 14 It 
,, Printing, Binding, Contributors’ "and Editorial Fees 5 1,319 5 10 
», Meeting Rooms, including Bauipment, Attendants and Gratuities— 
As per last Balance Sheet . 5 £31 I0 0 
Paid during year 948 5 7 
en OLE COR aa 
», Travelling Allowance I00 0 O 
», Excursions 139) rt 44 
», Presidential Banner 44 3 6 
», Badges . 57 5 10 
», Salaries and Wages— 
As per last Balance Sheet . £96 I0 o 
Paid during year 503 13 II 
——__ 600 3111 
», Advertisements— 
As per last Balance Sheet . £13 gave 
Paid during year “ar “oro 
54 ° 
6,896. 33 
531 1 6) ,, Balance, being excess of Income over Expenditure for the year —- 
5,870 18 6 £13,248 6 6 
eae SES = 
To Balance brought down 1,895 12 5 
», Down House “Income and Expenditure Account— 
Balance, being excess of Expenditure over Income for the year 
transferred— 
Current Expenditure . 150) 139 2 
Equipment, etc. 366 14 4 
—— 517 7 6 
£2,412 19 11 


Corresponding 
Figures 
June 30, 

1931. 
fas. as 


Caird Fund, 


EXPENDITURE. 


To Grants paid— 

Seismology Committee 

Bronze Age Implements Committee 
Mathematical Table Committee 
Zoological Record Committee 
Naples Table Committee . 


,», Balance, being excess of Income over Expenditure for the year 


a 


oo M00 


= 


looxnoo 


£) Sie! 
561 8 2 
£561 8 2 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT XXXV 


Expenditure Account 
JUNE 30, 1932—continued. 


Corresponding 

igures 

be INCOME—continued. 

im eecne a. E* Sided Af aes a: 
5,870 18 6 Brought forward : 4 p : ; 7,187 1 4 


By Sundry Donations, Centenary Fund— 
As per last Balance Sheet . ‘ . : 4 . 2,208 5 6 


Received during year = E - - . i arixido7zes7t 43 
————— 4,115 12 9 
,; Subsidy from the London County Council towards cost of eased 
Education in London. 50 0 Oo 
, Balance, being excess of Expenditure over Income for. the year 
carried down 2 d : 4 1,895 12 5 
5,870 18 6 £13,248 6 6 
Se a 
By transfer of £2,043 5s. 4d. 5 per cent. War Loan towards expenses of 
Centenary Meeting from Sir A. Yarrow’s Gift . é - » 2,043: 5 4 
Less Losson Sale . 5 : - a 1 ‘ A 1718 4 
——————_ 2,025 7 0 
,, Balance transferred to Balance Sheet ; £ & : P < F 387 12 I1 
£2,412 I9 II 


June 30, 1932. 
a 
Corresponding 
F igures 
une 30, 
ian. INCOME. 
eS. \-d. EAS a, EAS. 1a 
| By Dividends— 
India 3} per cent. Stock é 5 r f 3 ‘ 68 19 1 
Canada 3} percent. Stock . 65 12 6 
London, Midland & Scottish Railway Consolidated 4 per cent. 
: Preference Stock 7 63 0 0 
Southern Railway Consolidated 5 per cent. Preference Stock : 75 0 0 
. 28r rz 2 ——__— 272 TL 
. 72 13 8 | ,, Income Tax recovered c: . . * < 81 15 6 
95 I 9 | ,, Unexpended Balance of Grants returned. a — 
,, Balance, being excess of Expenditure over Income for the year , 207.5 1 
449 8 7 {561 8 2 


XXXVi GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 
Down House, 
Corresponding 
Figures 
at EXPENDITURE. 
fi isis | Larseha, £°' sds 
788 ro o \To Wages of Staff (net) 840 Io II 
IIo 3 | ,, Rates, Insurance, etc. 3 72 4 °0 
182 12 5 | ,, Heat, Light and Drainage 188 6 3 
31 I5 7 | ,, Repairs and Renewals 41 I 6 
36 16 5 | ,, House and Garden Sundries 4115 I 
69 14 Ir | ,, General Expenses 68 3 9 
2b ¢ 7 |g) Primting — 
2 3 6 | ,, Catalogues, Postcards, etc. 44 611 
—- 1,296 8 5 
1,243 5 8 £1,296 8 5 
Im5 5 5 |To Balance brought down 150 13 2 
,, House and Garden Equipment, Repairs, Renewals and Alterations 
767.9 4 to Buildings, etc. ‘ r * < 287 4 4 
7 19 ©o | ,, Costs re Rates Appeal, etc. : 56 18 o 
25 2 9g | ,, Cost of Inventory and Valuation _ 
», Valuation and Transport of Darwin's ‘Library 22 12 ‘o 
7, eno 
315 16 6 | Esty 7. 10 


GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT 


June 30, 1932. 


Corresponding 


315 16 6 


», Dividends— 


», Donations 


By Rents Receivable 
», Income Tax recovered 


44 per cent. India Stock c : 
Fishguard & Rosslare Railway 3h] per cent. Stock . 
New South Wales 5 per cent. Stock a 
Great Western Railway 5 per cent. Stock 
Australia 5 per cent. Stock 1945/75 
Western Australia 5 per cent. Stock 
Birkenhead Railway 4 per cent. Stock . 


», Sale of Postcards, etc. 
», Balance carried down 


By Balance, being excess of Expenditure over Income for the year 


XXXVIi 
INCOME. 

£\ Ss. 4 Ss. a. 
: : 137 00 
é 22315 2 

182 10 8 

7815 0 

92 3 9 

I25 5 0 

93 15 0 

93 15 0 

75 0 0 
741 4 = 5 
5 919 I 
4 33 16 7 
$ 150 13 2 
£1,296 8 5 
5177 6 
£517 7 6 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc. 


{ 


APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN 
YORK, 1932. 


Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected 
with researches are indicated in heavy type. 


SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


Seismological Investigations.—Dr. F. J. W. Whipple (Chaiyman), Mr. J. J. Shaw 
(Secretary), Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Dr. C. Vernon Boys, Sir F. W. 
Dyson, Dr. Wilfred Hall, Dr. H. Jeffreys, Sir H. Lamb, Mr. A. W. 
Lee, Prof. H. M. Macdonald, Prof. E. A. Milne, Mr. R. D. Oldham, Prof. 
H. H. Plaskett, Prof. H. C. Plummer, Prof. A. O. Rankine, Rev. J. P. Row- 
land, S.J., Prof. R. A. Sampson, Mr. F. J. Scrase, Capt. H. Shaw, Sir F. E. 


Smith, Dr. R. Stoneley, Mr. E. Tillotson, Sir G. T. Walker. $100 (Caird 
Fund grant). 


Calculation of Mathematical Tables.—Prof. E. H. Neville (Chaiyman), Dr. L. J. 
Comrie (Secretary), Prof. A. Lodge (Vice-Chaiyvman), Dr. J. R. Airey, Dr. R.A. 
Fisher, Dr. J. Henderson, Dr. J. O. Irwin, Dr. E. S. Pearson, Mr. F. Robbins, 


Mr. D. H. Sadler, Dr. A. J. Thompson, Dr. J. F. Tocher, Dr. J. Wishart. 
£50. 


SECTIONS A, E, G—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, 
GEOGRAPHY, ENGINEERING. 


To inquire into the position of Inland Water Survey in the British Isles and the 
possible organisation and control of such a survey by central authority.— 
Dr. Ezer Griffiths (Convener), Mr. E. G. Bilham, Dr. Brysson Cunningham, 
Vice-Admiral H. P. Douglas, Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Dr. A. Ferguson, Lt.-Col. 
E. Gold, Mr. W. T. Halcrow, Capt. W. N. McClean, Mr. C. Clemesha Smith, 
Dr. Dudley Stamp, Brig. H. S. L. Winterbotham. 


SECTIONS A, J—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, 
PSYCHOLOGY. 


The possibility of quantitative estimates of Sensory Events.—Dr. A. Ferguson 
(Convener), Mr. R. J. Bartlett (Secretary), Mr. J. Guild, Dr. R. A. Houstoun, 
Dr. J. O. Irwin, Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, Dr. C. S. Myers, Dr. L. F. Richardson, 
Dr. J. H. Shaxby, Mr. T. Smith, Major W. S. Tucker (from Section A) ; Prof. 


‘F. C. Bartlett, Dr. W. Brown, Dr. S. Dawson, Prof. J. Drever, Dr. S. J. F. 
Philpott (from Section J). 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


To excavate Critical Sections in the Paleozoic Rocks of England and Wales.— 
Prof. W. W. Watts (Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides (Secretary), Mr. W. S. 
Bisat, Dr. H. Bolton, Prof. W. S. Boulton, Dr. E. S. Cobbold, Prof. A. H. Cox, 
Mr. E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, Prof. E. J. Garwood, Prof. H. L. 
Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling, Prof. V. C. Illing, Prof. O. T. Jones, Prof. J. E. 
Marr, Dr. F. J. North, Dr. J. Pringle, Dr. T. F. Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, 
Prof. A. E. Trueman, Dr. F. S. Wallis. £20 (Contingent grant). 


The Collection, Preservation, and Systematic Registration of Photographs of 
Geological Interest.—Prof. E. J. Garwood (Chairman), Prof. S. H. Reynolds 


PL ———<__ == = 


——— 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. XXXiX 


(Secretary), Mr. C. V. Crook, Mr. E. G. W. Elliott, Mr. J. F. Jackson, Mr. J 
Ranson, Prof. W. W. Watts, Mr. R. J. Welch. 


To investigate Critical Sections in the Tertiary and Cretaceous Rocks of the 
London Area. To tabulate and preserve records of new excavations in that 
area.—Prof. W. T. Gordon (Chairman), Dr S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary), 
Mr. H. C. Berdinner, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Miss M. C. Crosfield, Mr. F. 
Gosling, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, Prof. G. Hickling. £15. 


The Stratigraphy and Structure of the Paleozoic Sedimentary Rocks of West 
Cornwall.—Mr. H. Dewey (Chairman), Mr. E. H. Davison (Secretary), 
Mr. H. G, Dines, Miss E. M. Lind Hendriks, Mr. S. Hall, Dr.S. W. Wooldridge. 


To consider and report upon Petrographic Classification and Nomenclature.— 
Mr. W. Campbell Smith (Chairman), Dr. A. K. Wells (Secretary), Prof. E. B. 
Bailey, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, Prof. A. Brammall, Prof. A. Holmes, Prof. 
A. Johannsen, Dr. W. Q. Kennedy, Prof. P. Niggli, Prof. H. H. Read, Prof. 
S. J. Shand, Dr. H. H. Thomas, Prof. C. E. Tilley, Dr. G. W. Tyrrell. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. 


Zoological Bibliography and Publication.—Prof. E. B. Poulton (Chairvman), 
Dr. F. A. Bather (Secretary), Mr. E. Heron-Allen, Dr. W. T. Calman, Sir P. 
Chalmers Mitchell, Mr. W. L. Sclater. 


To nominate competent Naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the 
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth (Chairman and 
Secretary), Prof. H. Graham Cannon, Prof. H. Munro Fox, Prof. J. Stanley 
Gardiner. £50. 


To co-operate with other Sections interested, and with the Zoological Society, for 
the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir Sidney 
Harmer (Chaiyvman), Dr. W. T. Calman (Secretary), Prof. E. S. Goodrich, 
Prof. D. M.S. Watson. £50. 


On the Influence of the Sex Physiology of the Parents on the Sex-Ratio of the 
Oftspring.—Prof. J. H. Orton (Chaiyman), Mrs. Bisbee (Secretary), Prof. 
Carr-Saunders, Miss E.C. Herdman. $5. 


To consider the position of Animal Biology in the School Curriculum and matters 
relating thereto.—Prof. R. D. Laurie (Chaiyman and Secretary), Mr. H. W. 
Ballance, Mr. O. H. Latter, Prof. E. W. MacBride, Miss M. McNicol, Miss A.J. 
Prothero, Prof. W. M. Tattersall, Dr. E. N. Miles Thomas. 


To determine the behaviour of a limited and uniform plankton population observed 
under natural conditions.—Dr. G. P. Bidder (Chairvman), Mr. A. C. Gardiner 
(Secretary), Dr. J. Gray, Mr. J. T. Saunders. £10. ° 


The biology of a tropical river in British Guiana and of the neighbouring districts. 

—Prof. J. S. Gardiner (Chaiyman), Dr. G. S. Carter and Mr. J. T. Saunders 
(Secretaries), Dr. W. T. Calman, Prof. J. Graham Kerr, Dr. C. Tate Regan. 
20 


SECTIONS D, I, K.—ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BOTANY. 


To aid competent investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite 
pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. J. H. Ashworth 
(Chairman and Secretary), Prof. J. Barcroft, Prof. E. W. MacBride, Dr. M. 
Knight. £50. 


SECTIONS D, K.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY. 


To try to arrange for the observation and recording of changes in the Flora and 
Fauna of St. Kida since its evacuation—Prof. J. Ritchie (Chairman), 
Prof. F. A. E. Crew (Secretary), Dr. A. Bowman, Prof. J. Graham Kerr, 
Dr. C. H. O’Donoghue, Dr. Lloyd Praeger, Prof. J. Walton. 


xl 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. 


To aid competent investigators selected by the Committee to carry out definite 


To 


pieces of work at the Freshwater Biological Station, Wray Castle, Winder- 
mere,—Prof. F. E. Fritsch (Chaiyman), Mr. J. T. Saunders (Secretary), 
Miss P. M. Jenkin, Dr.C. H. O’Donoghue (from Section D) ; Dr. W. H. Pearsall 
(from Section K). £75. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


co-operate with the Ordnance Survey in the production of a Population 
Density Map (or Maps) of Great Britain and to endeavour to get this pub- 
lished as soon as the 1931 Census is available ; and, further, to examine the 
possibility of making similar Maps of the Empire, utilising the International 
Map (I : 1,000,000) as the base.—Brig. H. S. L. Winterbotham (Chairvman), 
Capt. J. G. Withycombe (Secretary), Mr. J. Bartholomew, Prof. F. Debenham, 
Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. H. King, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, 
Prof. A. G. Ogilvie, Prof. O. H. T. Rishbeth, Prof. P. M. Roxby, Mr. A. 
Stevens. 


inquire into the present state of Knowledge of the Human Geography of 
Tropical Africa, and to make recommendations for furtherance and develop- 
ment.—Prof. P. M. Roxby (Chairman), Prof. A. G. Ogilvie (Secretary), 
Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. E. B. Haddon, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, 
Mr. J. McFarlane, Col. N. M. MacLeod, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. R. U. Sayce, 
Rev. E. W. Smith, Brig. H. S. L. Winterbotham. 65. 

ascertain the place which Geography occupies in the Curricula of the Uni- 
versities in the various Dominions of the Empire.—Prof. C. B. Fawcett 
(Chairman), Dr. L. Dudley Stamp (Secretary), Dr. W. N. Benson, Mr. L. J. 
Burpee, Prof. F. Debenham, Dr. C. Fenner, Prof. Griffith Taylor, Prof. J. H. 
Wellington. 


SECTIONS E, K.—GEOGRAPHY, BOTANY. 


To complete two maps of England on the 1/M. scale showing (i) the distribution 


of woodland (based on physical evidence) after the establishment of climatic 
conditions approximating to the present, and (ii) the distribution of wood- 
land on the basis of evidence derived from early topographical writings 
and maps.—Sir John Russell (Chaiyman), Prof. P. M. Roxby (Secretary) ; 
Prof. H. J. Fleure, Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Prof. A. G. Ogilvie, Brig. H. S. L. 
Winterbotham, Capt. J. G. Withycombe (from Section E); Dr. E. J. 
Salisbury, Dr. T. W. Woodhead (from Section K). £25. 


SECTIONS E, L.—GEOGRAPHY, EDUCATION. 


To report on the present position of Geographical Teaching in Schools, and of 


Geography in the training of teachers; to formulate suggestions for a 
syllabus for the teaching of geography both to Matriculation Standard and 
in Advanced Courses and to report, as occasion arises, to Council through 
the Organising Committee of Section E upon the practical working of 
Regulations issued by the Board of Education (including the Scottish 
Education Department) affecting the position of Geography in Schools and 
Training Colleges.—Prof. Sir T. P. Nunn (Chaiyman), Mr. L. Brooks (Secre- 
tavy), Mr. A. B. Archer, Mr. J. N. L. Baker, Mr. C. C. Carter, Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, Dr. O. J. R. Howarth, Mr. H. E. M. Icely, Mr. J. McFarlane, Rt. Hon. 
Sir Halford J. Mackinder, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. Marion Newbigin, Prof. A. G.’ 
Ogilvie, Mr. A. Stevens, Prof. C. B. Fawcett (from Section E); Mr. C. E. 
Browne, Sir R. Gregory, Mr. E. R. Thomas, Miss O. Wright, Prof. Godfrey 
Thomson (from Section L). 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


Chronology of the World Crisis from 1929 onwards.—Mr. P. Ford (Convener), 


Miss Emmerson and Mr. F. W. Paish (Secretaries), Prof. A. L. Bowley, Prof. 
R. B. Forrester, Prof. H. M. Hallsworth, Prof. J. H. Jones. 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. xli 


SECTIONS F, G, J, L—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS, 
ENGINEERING, PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATION. 


Industrial Co-operation: to report on the provisions for co-ordinating and 
stimulating scientific work bearing on business practice, and to make 
recommendations.—Dr. J. A. Bowie (Chaiyman), Mr. R. J. Mackay (Secre- 
tary), Prof. J. G. Smith, Mr. L. Urwick (from Section F); Prof. W. Cramp 
(from Section G); Dr. C. S. Myers (from Section J); Sir Richard Gregory 
(from Section L). 


SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. 


Earth Pressures.—Mr. F. E. Wentworth-Sheilds (Chaiyman), Dr. J. S. Owens 
(Secretary), Prof. G. Cook, Mr. T, E. N. Fargher, Prof. A. R. Fulton, Prof. 
F. C. Lea, Prof. R. V. Southwell, Dr. R. E. Stradling, Dr. W. N. Thomas, 
Mr. E. G. Walker, Mr. J. S. Wilson. 


Electrical Terms and Definitions.—Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson (Chaivman), Prof. 
F. G. Baily and Prof. G. W. O. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Prof. 
W. H. Eccles, Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Sir R. Glazebrook, Prof. A. E. Kennelly, 
Prof. E. W. Marchant, Sir F. E. Smith, Prof. L. R. Wilberforce. 


Stresses in Overstrained Materials.—Sir Henry Fowler (Chaivman), Dr. J. G. 
Docherty (Secretary), Prof. G. Cook, Prof. B. P. Haigh, Mr. J. S. Wilson. 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


To report on the Distribution of Bronze Age Implements.—Prof. J. L. Myres 
(Chaiyman), Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Mr. H. 
Balfour, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Mr. O. G. S. 
Crawford, Prof. H. J. Fleure, Dr. Cyril Fox. 


To excavate Early Sites in Macedonia.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chaiyman), Mr. S. 
Casson (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth, Dr. D. Randall-MacIver, Mr. M. 
Thompson. 


To report on the Classification and Distribution of Rude Stone Monuments in the 
British Isles.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Miss M. A. Murray (Secretary), 
Mr. A. L. Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Dr. Cyril Fox, 
Mr. T. D. Kendrick. 


To report on the probable sources of the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians. 
—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chairman), Prof. C. H. Desch (Secretary), Mr. H. 
Balfour, Mr. L. H. Dudley Buxton, Prof. V. Gordon Childe, Mr. O. Davies, 
Prof. H. J. Fleure, Sir Flinders Petrie, Dr. R. H. Rastall. £25. 


To conduct Archeological and Ethnological Researches in Crete.—Prof. J. L. 
Myres (Chaiyman), Mr. L. Dudley Buxton (Secretary), Dr. W. L. H. Duck- 
worth, Sir A. Evans, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. 


To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent’s 
Cavern.—Sir A. Keith (Chaiyman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Mr. M. C. 
Burkitt, Dr. R. V. Favell, Mr. G. A. Garfitt, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Mr. 
Lacaille. £5. 


To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the 
exploration of Caves in the Derbyshire district.—Mr. M. C. Burkitt (Chair- 
man), Dr. R. V. Favell (Secretary), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong, Prof. H. J. Fleure, 
Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Dr. J. Wilfrid Jackson, Prof. L. S. Palmer, Mr. H. J. E. 
Peake. £50. 


To investigate processes of Growth in Children, with a view to discovering 
Differences due to Race and Sex, and further to study Racial Differences 
in Women.—Sir A. Keith (Chairman), Prof. H. J. Fleure (Secretary), Mr. L. H. 
Dudley Buxton, Dr. A. Low, Prof. F. G. Parsons, Dr. F. C. Shrubsall. 


To report on the progress of Anthropological Teaching in the present century.— 
Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Prof. J. L. Myres (Secretary), Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, Dr. R. R. Marett, Prof. C. G. Seligman. 


xlii RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. 


To make a preliminary survey of some reported archeological sites in British 
Somaliland.—Dr. A. C. Haddon (Chairman), Mr. R. U. Sayce (Secretary), 
Prof. J. L. Myres. 


To co-operate with Miss Caton-Thompson in her researches in prehistoric sites in 
the Western Desert of Egypt.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), Mr. H. J. E. 
Peake (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour. 


To report to the Sectional Committee on the question of re-editing ‘ Notes and 
Queries in Anthropology.’-—Mrs. B. Aitken (Chaiyman), Mr. L. Dudley 
Buxton (Secretary), Miss R. M. Fleming, Prof. C. Daryll Forde, Dr. A. C. 
Haddon, Capt. T. A. Joyce, Prof. C. G. Seligman, Mrs. Seligman, Miss C. 
Wedgwood. 


To report upon the steps which should be taken for the investigation and pre- 
servation of the deposits of the caves of Craven.—Prof. P. G. H. Boswell 
(Chaiyman), Dr. R. G. S. Hudson (Secretary), Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Dr. J. 
Wilfrid Jackson, Prof. L. S. Palmer, Dr. A. Raistrick. 


SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


The supply of Oxygen at high altitudes.—Prof. J. Barcroft (Chaiyman), Dr. 
Raymond Greene (Acting Secretary), Mr. G. S. Adair, Mr. N. E. Odell, 
Major J. A.Sadd. 45. 


To deal with the use of a Stereotatic Instrument.—Prof. J. Mellanby (Chaivman), 
Mr. F. R. Curtis (Secretary). 


SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


The factors involved in Mechanical Ability——Dr. C. S. Myers (Chairman), Dr. 
G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C. Burt, Mr. F. M. Earle, Dr. Ll. Wynn Jones, 
Prof. T. H. Pear. 


To inquire into (a) the occupations for which a training in Psychology is necessary 
or desirable, (b) the place Psychology should occupy in the curricula for 
University Degrees in Arts, Science, Medicine, Education, Economics and 
other subjects.—Prof. F. C. Bartlett (Chaiyman), Mr. A. Rex Knight (Secre- 
tary), Dr. F. Aveling, Dr. W. Brown, Prof. J. Drever, Prof. B. Edgell, Mr.C. A. 
Mace, Prof. T. H. Pear, Dr. R. H. Thouless, Prof. C. W. Valentine, Mr. A. W. 
Wolters. 


SECTION K.—BOTANY. 


Transplant Experiments.—Sir A. W. Hill (Chaiyman), Dr. W. B. Turrill (Secre- 
tary), Prof. F. W. Oliver, Dr. E. J. Salisbury, Prof. A.G.Tansley. $2 6s. 2d. 
(Unexpended balance). 


To consider and report on the provision made for Instruction in Botany in 
courses of Biology, and matters related thereto.—Prof. V. H. Blackman 
(Chairman), Dr. E. N. M. Thomas (Secretary), Prof. M. Drummond, Prof. 
F. E. Fritsch, Sir A. W. Hill, Prof. S. Maugham, Mr. J. Sager. 


Fossil Plants at Fort Gray, near East London.—Dr. A. W. Rogers (Chairman), 
Prof. R. S. Adamson (Secretary), Prof. A. C. Seward. 


To investigate the effect of conditions on the growth, structure and metabolism 
of Kleinia articulata.—Prof. D. Thoday (Chairman), Mr. N. Woodhead 
(Secretary), Dr. F. F. Blackman. 


SECTION L._EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 


The teaching of General Science in Schools, with special reference to the teaching 
of Biology.—Prof. Sir T. P. Nunn (Chairman), Dr. Lilian J. Clarke (Acting 
Chaiyman), Mr. G. W. Olive (Secretary), Mr. C. E. Browne, Major A. G. 
Church, Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Mr. S._R. Humby, Mr. E. R. B. Reynolds, 
Dr. E. W. Shann, Dr. E. Miles Thomas, Mr. E. R, Thomas, Mr. A. H. Whipple, 
Mrs. Gordon Wilson, Miss von Wyss. $85. 


RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. xliil 


Educational and Documentary Films: To inquire into the production and dis- 
tribution thereof, to consider the use and effects of films on pupils of school 
age and older students, and to co-operate with other bodies which are study- 
ing those problems.—Sir Richard Gregory (Chairman), Mr. J. L. Holland 
(Secretary), Mr. L. Brooks, Mr. A. C. Cameron, Miss E. R. Conway, Mr. G. D. 
Dunkerley, Mr. A. Clow Ford, Dr. C. W. Kimmins, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr: 
G. W. Olive, Mr. S. Rivers-Smith, Prof. C. Spearman, Dr. H. Hamshaw 
Thomas (Section K), Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green (Section I). 5, 


To consider the position of science teaching in Adult Education classes, and to 
suggest possible means of promoting through them closer contact between 
scientific achievement and social development.—Prof. J. L. Myres (Chairman), 
Mr. C. E. Browne (Secretary), Major A. G. Church, Dr. Lilian J. Clarke, 
Miss E. R. Conway, Prof. C. H. Desch, Sir Richard Gregory, Mr. S. R. 
Humby, Miss H. Masters, Mr. E. R. Thomas. £10. 


SECTIONS M, E.—AGRICULTURE, GEOGRAPHY. 


To co-operate with the staff,of the Imperial Soil Bureau to examine the soil 
resources of the Empire.—Sir John Russell (Chaiyman), Mr. G. V. Jacks 
(Secretary), Dr. E. M. Crowther, Dr. W. G. Ogg, Prof. G. W. Robinson (from 
Section M); Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Mr. H. King, Dr. L. D. Stamp, Mr. A. 
Stevens, Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (fvom Section E). 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES. 


Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chairman 
ex-officio), Mr. T. Sheppard (Vice-Chaivman), Dr. C. Tierney (Secretary), 
the General Secretaries, the General Treasurer, Mr. C. O. Bartrum, Dr. F. A. 
Bather, Sir Richard Gregory, Mr. J. V. Pearman, Sir David Prain, Sir John 
Russell, Prof. W. M. Tattersall. 


Committee to take cognisance of proposals relating to National Parks by the 
Government and other authorities and bodies concerned, and to advise the 
Council as to action if desirable—Dr. Vaughan Cornish (Chaivman), Dr. C. 
Tierney (Secretary), Prof. P. Abercrombie, Mr. T. Sheppard, Prof. W. M. 
Tattersall (Corresponding Societies), Prof. A. H. Cox (Section C), Sir Chalmers 
Mitchell (Section D), Dr. Harrison (Section H), Sir D. Prain (Section K). 


RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS. 


¥ 


The following resolutions and recommendations were referred to the 
Council by the General Committee at the York Meeting for consideration 
and, if desirable, for action :— 


From Section C (Geology). 


That the Committee of Section C draws the attention of the General 
Committee to the desirability of aerial photography of certain special 
topographic features in North-East Yorkshire and elsewhere, a list of 
which is being compiled, and suggests that the appropriate Government 
authority be approached. 


xliv RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 


From Sections E (Geography) and M (Agriculture). 


(1) That the Council be requested to bring to the notice of the Ministry 
of Agriculture certain difficulties which have arisen in connection with 
the supplying of statistics of agricultural production to University Depart- 
ments and to other accredited workers for purposes of research. 

(2) That the Council be requested to invite the Ministry of Agriculture 
to expedite the publication of Parts I and II of Agricultural Statistics. 


From Section G (Engineering). 


That the British Association calls the attention of the Home Office to 
the objectionable and largely preventable noises caused by many motor 
vehicles, and suggests that the Home Office should make greater use of the 
powers that they possess for dealing with such nuisances. 


From Section H (Anthropology). 


That the Committee of Section H welcomes the present policy of the 
Museums Association in regard to the interchange by loan or otherwise of 
duplicate specimens in public museums and similar institutions, and 
requests the Council to make representations in this sense to the museums 
and other public bodies concerned. 


BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE. 
YORK, 1932. 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


AN ENGINEER’S OUTLOOK 


BY 
SIR ALFRED EWING, K.C.B., F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION. 


ig 


Acain, for the fifth time, the British Association meets in York, a 
city of proved hospitality and the stage of great events. York is 
a monument of history ; its very stones are eloquent of the past. 
Not the least of the episodes it has witnessed was the birth of this 
Association. Your city, my Lord Mayor, was our cradle: we hold 
York in filial honour and affection. We are nomads who have 
strayed to the ends of the earth: we have been as far-flung as the 
British flag. We have enjoyed the welcome of many strange hearths. 
But here there is nothing unfamiliar. We take delight in coming 
home to a birthplace of happy memory and in recalling hopes 
which the past hundred years have generously fulfilled. 
Last year the infant of 1831 celebrated its centenary in the vigour 
of manhood, with a plenitude of pomp and circumstance which 
demanded no less ample a setting than the metropolis of the Empire. 
For President we had a man of world-wide fame, who fittingly 
embodied the imperial aspect that is part of the glory of the British 
Association. We had long known General Smuts as soldier and 
statesman : to some it may have come as a surprise when they 
found him also a philosopher, a student of ideas no less than a maker 
of history and a leader of men. It would be an impertinence for any 
successor in this chair to praise General Smuts ; to follow him is 
perforce to follow far behind. But one may congratulate the execu- 
tive on the happy instinct which recognised that the occasion was 
unique, and so led them to an unusual—not to say a daring—choice. 
It was amply justified by the event. Now they have returned to 
the beaten track along which Presidents for the most part plod, 
B 


2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


and have made a selection for which I am glad to have no 
responsibility. 

Of General Smuts I would say one word more. His occupancy 
of the chair not only added to the lustre of our rejoicings : I like to 
think it had a deeper significance. May we not regard it as a 
harbinger of the spirit of goodwill and sanity which civilisation 
longs for, but does not yet see? Our hundred years of science have 
done sadly little towards curing the nations of mutual mistrust. 
Surely it was a good omen that, in marking the close of one century 
of achievement and the opening of another, we should have had for 
President a citizen of the world whose life has been a lesson in sub- 
ordinating the lower patriotism to the higher good, who by example 
no less than by precept has taught his fellows that they should 
beat their swords into ploughshares and not learn war any 
more. 

Now we revisit our birthplace well aware of our maturity. We 
have scored our first century and begun to compile our second with 
the easy assurance of a Bradman or a Hobbs. At once the question 
arises, Is that assurance justified by the Association’s continued 
vitality ? Do we still give the community reason to support us? 
Or are we a survival, trading on a reputation which our present 
activities do little to increase? I put the question bluntly—nowa- 
days we are all familiar with disagreeable stock-takings and shrinking 
values—but it need not detain us long. I am confident you will 
find no trace of decrepitude. It is true that the sciences included 
in our purview have become specialised and differentiated to a degree 
that would make ridiculous any claim to the qualified omniscience 
which was possible in our early days. It is also true that each 
department of science now has its own society of votaries who meet 
as it were in a masonic temple and converse in a jargon that has 
little if any meaning for the general ear. But these very facts make 
this Association the more useful. Notwithstanding the restrictions 
of specialism, science has its own broad outlook, demanding expres- 
sion and explanation to laymen. And more than ever is it true—far 
truer than it was a hundred years ago, when we were ridiculed as 
a hodge-podge of philosophers and made the target of an unsym- 
pathetic Press—that laymen want to have intelligent contact with the 
seekings and findings of the scientific mind. 

I say seekings and findings rather than conclusions, for that word 
has too final a ring. Here we may note a striking change in the 
temper of the investigator. I am old enough to remember a time 
when some of the spokesmen of science (never, indeed, the greatest) 
displayed a cocksureness that was curiously out of keeping with 
the spirit of to-day. Among contemporary leaders nothing is 
more general than the frank admission that they are groping 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 3 


in a half-light, tentatively grasping what at best are only half- 
truths. Things that to one generation seemed to be essential 
parts of a permanent structure are treated by the next as mere 
scaffolding. ‘The quest of truth goes on endlessly, ardently, fruit- 
fully. And yet with every gain of knowledge we realise more clearly 
that we can never really know. ‘To understand, as Einstein lately 
said, is to draw one incomprehensible out of another incomprehen- 
sible. From time to time we discover a fresh relation between 
observed phenomena, but each of the things which are found to be 
related continues to evade our full comprehension ; and that is 
apparently the only kind of discovery we can achieve. Our joy in 
‘the quest itself never fails ; we are constantly learning that it is 
better to travel than to arrive. 

The philosophical implications of this altered attitude are many— 
indeed they concern the deepest springs of thought. What I wish 
at the moment to point out is that the new spirit strengthens a sense 
of brotherhood between the scientific adept and the average man, 
who in his own way is also commonly a seeker after truth. He 
listens gladly when the specialist drops his toga and admits that 
in scientific matters the only dogma is that there is no dogma. 
Obviously too the advance of science makes an increasing claim upon 
the layman’s notice through its technical applications. It invades 
his home and alters his ways ; it affects almost every feature of the 
daily round ; it brings him interests, comforts, wealth ; it enor- 
mously enlarges his powers of work and play. And, further, at a 
time like the present, when we carry a load of social and political 
and economic discontents, the ordinary citizen doubtless reflects that 
if only we could apply the dispassionate temper of science to the 
difficulties of the hour we might face them with less waste of effort 
and greater likelihood of settlement. 

These are a few of the reasons why the British Association keeps 
its hold on the public. It links experts with one another and with 
laymen, to the benefit of all. Experts gain by indulging in a short 
interval of comparatively lucid self-expression. ‘They gain also by 
trying to understand each other, which is by no means so easy as 

you might suppose. ‘To meet under these happy conditions is a 
stimulus to everybody. An old worker in science looks gratefully 
back on his attendances at the British Association not only as de- 
lightful human events but as red-letter days in his own development, 
_as milestones in the unceasing march of his subject, and as helps in 
the hard task of keeping himself more or less in step. 

It is recorded that York was chosen for our birthplace because in 
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society the infant would secure intelli- 
gent dry-nursing at the hands of a large body of friendly amateurs. 
In a letter to the Secretary of that Society, Sir David Brewster 


4 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


described the purpose of the proposed Association in the following 
words :+ 


‘ The principal objects would be to make the cultivators of 
science acquainted with each other, to stimulate one another to 
new exertions, to bring the objects of science more before the 
public eye, and to take measures for advancing its interests and 
accelerating its progress.’ 


There, in a nutshell, is what the Association set out to do, what 
it may fairly claim to have done, and what it still does. If you 
want an illustration, you had it last year when a great audience sat 
for hours, with every sign of sustained attention, while the Evolution - 
of the Universe was discussed by British and foreign specialists of 
acknowledged authority, immense learning, and conspicuous variety 
of opinion. 

At the end of that symposium the debate was admirably summed 
up by Sir Oliver Lodge, the Nestor of physics, who in every sense 
has filled a big place in our gatherings for more than fifty years. 
He has taught us much: would that he could teach his secret of 
perpetual youth! In a recent volume of reminiscences” he tells 
delightfully of the meetings he has frequented and the friendships 
to which they have led. If he is thankful for them, so are we for 
him. Not a few of us have found inspiration in the fountain of 
his knowledge, in the spontaneity and aptness of his spoken word, 
in the width of his sympathy and understanding, and have learnt 
to love him for his large humanity. 

My own first contact with these meetings antedates even that 
of Sir Oliver. Sixty-five years ago it chanced that the Association 
in its peripatetic course came, for the first time, to my native town 
and I was taken, a boy of twelve, by my mother to the Section of 
Mechanical Science, having already announced my intention of 
becoming an engineer. ‘To the pundits of Section G we must have 
seemed an odd pair, the douce minister’s wife and the shy little boy 
in his kilt. It was by my own wish, of course, that I was taken, 
and my mother counted no labour lost that might develop intelligence 
in her family of sons. ‘The boy could not understand much of what 
he heard ; it was something, however, to see the leonine head of 
the sectional president, Macquorn Rankine, over whose engineering 
text-books he was later to spend many assiduous hours. There is 
no boundary to a mother’s dreams, but in their wildest excursion 
they can scarcely then have pictured what is happening in this hall 
to-night. 

1 The British Association: A Retrospect, 1831-1931, by O. J. R. Howarth, p. 14. 


_ * Advancing Science, being Personal Reminiscences of the British Association 
in the Nineteenth Century, by Sir Oliver Lodge. 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 5 


Here let me make a confession which may also serve as an 
apology. I have the unwelcome distinction of being the oldest 
President the Association has ever suffered. In its primitive years 
the average age of Presidents scarcely exceeded fifty: one of 
them, aged only twenty-nine, afterwards founded the Cavendish 
Laboratory, and so did a service to science which it would 
be impossible to overvalue. As time went on the choice fell 
on older men, and now the electors have taken what one hopes 
may be regarded as an extreme step. But, as it happens, this is 
not the first time I have read the President’s Address. At the 
Edinburgh meeting of 1921 the President, Sir Edward Thorpe, 
was prostrated by illness and asked me to act as his mouthpiece. 
The small service so rendered brought an unexpected reward. 
Some newspaper report must have confused the platform substitute 
with the real President, for a well-known novelist sent me a copy 
of one of her romances which was no doubt meant as a tribute 
to Sir Edward. It was called The Mighty Atom—an arresting 
title. Perhaps that is why I did not read beyond the title-page. 
Without close examination it was put by a more orderly hand than 
mine on a shelf that already held works on like subjects by authors 
such as J. J. Thomson and Rutherford and Bohr. The Mighty 
Atom was said to be one of the best sellers of its day: in that 
respect, if in no other, it found congenial company when it was 
joined on the same shelf by a series of volumes from the fascinating 
pens of Eddington and Jeans. These, however, I need not tell you 
I have read and reread, to my entiré pleasure and partial under- 
standing. 


i. 


If ‘ The Mighty Atom ’ was an arresting phrase, it was also an apt 
one. For we now know the atom to be indeed mighty in senses 
that were little suspected by the begetters of atomic theory. It has 
been mighty in sweeping away ideas that were found inadequate, 
in demanding fresh concepts, in presenting a new world for con- 
jecture and experiment and inference, in fusing chemistry and 
physics into a single science. It is found to be mighty in the com- 
plexity of its structure and the variety of radiations it may give 
out when excited to activity. It has unravelled for us the be- 
wildering tangle of spectroscopic lines. And, most surprising of all, 
the atom, however seemingly inert, is mighty in being a magazine 
of energy which, for the most part, it locks safely away. This is 
fortunate, for if the secret were discovered of letting loose the 
atomic store we should invite dissolution at the hands of any fool or 
knave. And it is also fortunate that in the furnace of the sun, at 
temperatures far higher than those of our hottest terrestrial infernos, 


6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


the stored energy of the atom is drawn upon, as we believe, and 
has been drawn upon for ages, to keep up that blessed radiation 
which makes man’s life possible and is the source of all his power. 

In the middle nineties there set in an astonishing renaissance of 
physical science which has centred in the study of the atom and 
extends by inevitable logic to the stars. In quick succession came 
three great discoveries: the X-rays by R6ntgen in 1895, radio- 
activity by Becquerel in 1896, and the electron by J. J. Thomson in 
1897. Sensational, puzzling, upsetting, these events inspired every 
physicist to new activities of thought and equipped every laboratory 
with no less novel methods of research. A flood of further dis- 
covery followed, the flow of which continues unabated. Within the 
last few months notable items have been announced that well 
deserve our attention. It may not be inappropriate if I try for 
a few minutes to touch—however lightly—on one or two aspects of 
this subject, as it is seen through the eyes of an engineer. 

Thanks mainly to J. J. Thomson, Rutherford and Bohr, we 
now recognise the atom of any substance to be a highly com- 
plex structure, built up, so to speak, of two sorts of blocks or 
brickbats—the electrons, which are indivisible units of negative 
electricity, and the protons, which are indivisible units of positive 
electricity. It is strangely simple to be taken back, as it were, to 
the nursery floor and the childish game, and given just two 
sorts of blocks, exactly alike in each sort, and exactly the 
same number of each sort, with which to build the universe 
of material things. The blocks are unbreakable: we cannot 
produce them or destroy them or change them. In respect of 
electrical quality the two kinds are equal and opposite, but they 
contribute very unequally to the atom’s mass, each proton (for some 
reason not yet understood) contributing about 1,840 times more 
than each electron. Every substance is made up of blocks of the 
same two sorts. If you compare different substances you find 
that the diversity of their chemical and other properties arises 
solely from differences in the number and arrangement of the 
blocks which compose their atoms. Any atom, in its normal or 
electrically neutral state, must contain an equal number of protons 
and electrons. All the protons in any atom are gathered close 
together at the centre, along with some of the electrons, forming 
a compact, dense portion which is called the nucleus. Although 
the nucleus accounts for nearly the whole of the atom’s mass, it 
occupies no more than a very minute fraction of the atom’s volume. 
Those of the electrons which are within the nucleus doubtless 
serve to bind the protons together ; the other electrons constitute, 
as it were, a voluminous crinoline, or rather a series of crinolines, 
extending relatively far away from the centre and giving the whole 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS y 


atom an exceedingly open structure. Within that open structure 
upheavals may be caused by outside agents in various ways. One 
or more of the electrons in the crinoline may be temporarily removed 
(as, for instance, by the action of heat or by the incidence of energetic 
radiation), and the atom is then said to be ionised: for a time the 
balance between positive and negative is upset. But the missing 
electron returns to its place, or another comes instead, and when 
this happens a definite amount of radiation is given out, much as 
energy is given out when a weight falls from one to another landing 
of a staircase. We may speak of the landings as energy levels. 
The radiation which issues when an electron falls from one energy 
level to another constitutes what is called a photon.? It has two 
aspects, behaving in one like a particle and in the other like a 
group of waves, and at present we have to accept both though 
we cannot fully reconcile them. ‘The photon carries a definite 
quantity of energy and is characterised by a definite frequency 
of vibration. Its energy depends on the two levels between 
which the electron falls, and this determines the frequency of 
the vibration which the photon conveys, for the frequency is 
equal to the energy divided by that mysterious constant of 
nature, the Quantum of Action discovered by Planck. In any 
element all the atoms have the same set of energy levels: these 
contribute to the emission spectrum and account for its groups 
of spectral lines. In heavy atoms there are many energy levels, 
and consequently very many lines appear in their spectra. 

I will not weary you with details that are now fairly familiar. 
What we have to realise is that all matter consists of the two 
kinds of electricity, protons and electrons, held apart we do 
not know how. ‘To the early experimentalists who electrified rods 
of resin or glass by rubbing them, electricity seemed no more 
than a curious attribute of matter: now we regard it as matter’s 
very essence—the ultimate stuff out of which every atom is built. 
If you ask, What is electricity ? there is no answer, save that it isa 
thing which exists in units of two sorts, positive and negative, with 
a strong attraction for each other, and that in any atom you find 
them somehow held apart against that attraction, with a consequent 
storing of potential energy. They are prevented from coalescing, 
although the difference of potential between them is nearly a 
thousand million volts. Why they do not flash together is a 
mystery—one of the many mysteries which physicists have still to 
solve. 

Engineers are accustomed to the idea of storing energy in a 
condenser by charging the opposed plates to a potential of a few 


3 We owe the name ‘ photon’ to Prof. G. N. Lewis of Berkeley, California, 
who proposed it in a letter published in Neuve of December 18, 1926, 


8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


scores or hundreds or thousands of volts. That is done by trans- 
ferring some of the crinoline electrons from one to the other plate : it 
involves only a minute supplementary separation, which disappears 
when the condenser is discharged. In every atom we have a per- 
manent separation of electricities ; the protons and electrons look at 
one another, so to speak, across an immensely greater dielectric gulf 
which no laboratory operation ever causes them to bridge. That 
is why every atom is a magazine of energy, the quantity of which 
(mc*) is proportional to the atom’s mass. 

Any of the usual operations of the electrical engineer, such 
as charging and discharging a condenser or a storage battery, 
or driving a dynamo and conducting electricity from it to a 
distant station where it can actuate a motor or heat the filaments 
of lamps to incandescence, may be described as the setting up and 
the breaking down of a comparatively small extra difference of 
potential between the opposed electricities in some of the atoms of 
the engineering plant. In every process of industrial electricity, 
on whatever scale, what happens is a temporary enlargement of the 
potential difference which always exists between electrons and 
protons, and then a return to what may be called nature’s status 
quo. But those supplementary differences of potential which the 
engineer first superimposes and then allows to disappear are ex- 
ceedingly small, even at their greatest, in comparison with the 
gigantic difference which the normal condition of the atom itself 
involves. 

A notable event of the year is the strong evidence which 
Dr. Chadwick of the Cavendish Laboratory has found for the 
existence of what is called the neutron—a type of particle in which 
an electron and a proton are associated in particularly close 
juxtaposition. There is a like close association between electrons 
and protons in the nucleus of any heavy element, but it had not 
previously been discovered in a single isolated pair. ‘Twelve years 
ago Lord Rutherford conjectured the existence of such a particle 
and described the properties it should possess. Its excessive small- 
ness and density, together with its lack of an external electric field, 
give it a unique power of penetrating matter. It is too slim to be 
confined under pressure in any vessel: it will simply slip through 
the walls. ‘The normal hydrogen atom has the same two constituents, 
one proton and one electron, but in nothing like the same intimacy 
of association, for the hydrogen atom wears its electron as a bulky 
crinoline which confers on it an immensely greater volume. The 
neutron, on the other hand, may be said to have taken the crinoline 
off, folded it up and put it in its pocket. Not to be too fanciful, we 
may at least describe the partners as clasping one another so tightly 
that the electron has ceased to be a fender ; none the less as a unit 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 9 


of negative electricity it still serves to give electrical balance to the 
pair. Though so close together the two constituents of the neutron 
remain separate and distinct, parted by nearly as many million volts 
as in a hydrogen atom. In this hitherto unknown particle, whose 
existence the experiments of Dr. Chadwick seem to have definitely 
proved, we have a new physical entity of extraordinary interest and 
a powerful tool for further research. 

Lord Rutherford was the first to discover and name the nucleus. 
It is the inner sanctuary of the atom, the repository of secrets many 
of which have yet to be disclosed, almost unapproachable, not only 
because of its smallness but because of the electric field in which 
it is encased. Recognising the nucleus to be a richly charged 
strong-room, Rutherford has spared no effort to break it open. He 
has submitted it to a furious bombardment, using as missiles the 
alpha particles which radioactive substances project. ‘These particles, 
each consisting of four protons and two electrons compactly built 
together, have the necessary velocity and energy to penetrate to the 
atom’s heart. Rutherford had perforce to fire into the brown: he 
could not aim his gun, nor even tell when it would go off: the 
chances of a hit were no more than one in many millions. But hits 
were in fact obtained—hits so effective that they chipped off protons 
and caused the missile to be absorbed, thus realising the dream of 
the alchemist by making one element change into another. ‘That was 
a dozen or more years ago: since then his attack has lost none of 
its severity. It has been taken up under his guidance by a school of 
workers and many further secrets of the nucleus have been revealed. 

Quite recently two of his disciples have gone one better, as 

disciples sometimes do, to the joy of their lords. Dr. Cockcroft and 
Dr. Walton have used missiles of their own making instead of those 
that come spontaneously and intermittently from substances such 
as radium or thorium. By beautiful devices they have applied their 
knowledge of electrical engineering and their mastery of electrical 
technique to project single protons into the nucleus of lithium, 
using a steady potential of several hundred thousand volts to give 
the projectile sufficient penetrating power. An atom of lithium has 
(usually) seven protons and four electrons in its nucleus ; the other 
three electrons constitute the crinoline. Here again it was a case 
of firing into the brown: out of millions of shots a few reached 
their billet. When the projected proton forces an entry into the 
lithium nucleus it creates a domestic disturbance of the liveliest 
kind. For with the seven protons already in occupation it makes 
an eighth ; the group then splits into two sets of four, each taking 
two of the electrons, and they fly violently apart with an energy 
drawn from the atomic magazine. ‘The result is that two helium 
atoms are formed. This is a notable achievement, the first artificial 
B2 


10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


splitting of the atom by a laboratory process in which there is no 
recourse to the violent projectiles which radioactive substances 
provide. It has been followed up by successfully applying the 
same method to break up the atoms of other elements. 

It is a satisfaction to learn that in all the encounters and emissions 
and absorptions that are studied among atoms and photons and the 
parts of atoms there is, so far as we yet know, strict compliance 
with the accepted principles of conservation in respect of momentum 
and energy and mass, though matter (in the ordinary sense) is liable 
to transformation into energy:and energy into matter. When radia- 
tion is emitted some matter disappears, for the atom that emits it 
loses a little of its mass ; when radiation is absorbed a like quantity 
of matter comes into being. 

But the engineer finds himself obliged to admit that no mechanical 
model of the atom can be expected to give an adequate picture of 
that strange new world. Our mechanical ideas are derived from 
the study of gross matter, which is made up of vast aggregates of 
atoms, and any model must share the limitations this implies. It is 
futile to explain the constitution of the atom in terms applicable to 
gross matter, just as it would be futile to study the psychology of 
an individual by observing only the movements of crowds. So we 
must expect to find within the atom and among its parts qualities 
and actions different in kind from those we know, and paradoxes 
which without a wider vision we cannot interpret. Such a paradox 
indeed confronts us at the present time, when we try to harmonise 
the wave aspect and the particle aspect of the photon, of the electron, 
and indeed of matter itself. These things are still a mystery— 
a riddle which some day we may learn to read. Meanwhile we do 
well to remember that any attempt to portray the structure of the 
atom in the language of ordinary experience is to give undue 
significance to symbols and analogies that are more or less invalid. 
Qualifying phrases like ‘so to speak’ or ‘as it were’ cannot be 
escaped. ‘They are confessions that the image is inevitably a 
distortion of the reality it is intended to suggest. 


LIT: 


Let us now glance back to the early days of the Association, and 
trace a little—a very little—of what it has done for the advancement 
of science, both pure and applied. The two inevitably march 
together. Between discovery and invention there is, in effect if not 
always in form, a close partnership with a constant interchange of 
advantage. No discovery, however abstract, is safe from being 
turned to practical account ; on the other hand, few if any applica- 
tions fail to react in stimulating discovery and providing the experi- 
mentalist with more effective weapons of attack. 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS II 


From the first the Association took cognisance of engineering as 
one of the subjects it was created to advance. One of its earliest 
acts, and a very wise one, was to invite reports on the state of 
science: these were called for in many different fields and were 
written by the best available experts. In the first batch of such 
reports were two that dealt with engineering, one on the Strength 
of Materials and the other on Hydraulics. As it happened they 
were of very unequal merit ; but they are alike in this, that they 
demonstrate how conspicuous was the lack of science on the part of 
early British engineers. 

The engineers of those days were big professional figures. ‘They 
had covered the country with a network of roads and bridges and 
canals ; they had drained the fens; they had built harbours and 
lighthouses. By multiplying factories, by extending the uses of 
coal and iron, they were laying the foundations of that commercial 
supremacy which, so long as it lasted, we took for granted as a sort 
of national right. They had taught the world how to light towns 
by gas, and were beginning to drive ships by steam. Above all, 
they had shown that a new era of locomotion was about to set in. 
A railway connecting Liverpool with Manchester had been opened : 
its success was proved, and schemes were projected that would 
soon utilise labour on a large scale for a host of tunnels and cuttings 
and embankments, and so relieve the scourge of unemployment 
which—as we also know—follows the scourge of war. The engineering 
pioneers were sagacious men who put their faith in experience ; they 
knew little of theory and cared less. Instinct and personality 
carried them through difficulties of a kind that science might have 
helped them to solve or to avoid. They had the sense to profit by 
their own mistakes. 

It is significant that in 1832, when the British Association called 
for a report on the present state of our knowledge of Hydraulics 
as a branch of engineering, the terms of reference included this 
curious phrase: ‘Stating whether it appears from the writings 
of Dutch, Italian and other authors that any general principles are 
established in this subject.’ 

The report was written by George Rennie, a son of the greater 
Rennie who left us a monument of his genius—I wish I could 
say an imperishable monument—in Waterloo Bridge. After giving 
a good summary of the work of foreign theorists the reporter 
remarks : 


‘It only remains for us to notice the scanty contributions 
of our own countrymen. While France and Germany were 
rapidly advancing upon the traces of Italy, England remained 
an inactive spectator of their progress.’ 


12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


It is clear that there was much need for the scientific leaven 
which the new Association could, and did, provide. 

Another of the early concerns of the Association was with the 
performance of steam engines. At the date of our foundation 
more than fifty years had passed since the inventions of Watt 
provided an engine fit to serve as a general means of producing 
power. Its earliest application, and still at that date its most 
common one, was in the pumping of mines. Engineers took a pro- 
fessional and even sporting interest in what they called its ‘duty,’ 
meaning the amount of water pumped through a given height for each 
bushel of coal consumed. Nevertheless it is a remarkable fact that 
neither they nor the physicists of that period had any notion that 
the process involved a conversion of heat into mechanical work. 
It is difficult for us now to imagine a world of physics and engineer- 
ing where the idea had not yet dawned that there was such a thing 
as energy, capable of Protean transformations, but in all of them 
conserving its total amount. Enlightenment was soon to come, 
and our meeting-rooms furnished the scene. In 1843 Joule brought 
before one of the sections his first determination of the mechanical 
equivalent of heat. He spoke with the modesty natural—in those 
days—to a man of twenty-four. His paper was received in chilly 
silence. T'wo years later, after further experiments, he reappeared ; 
but again no notice was taken of the heresies of a youthful amateur. 
Nothing daunted, he prepared a fuller case for the Oxford meeting 
of 1847, perhaps remembering that Oxford is the home of lost 
causes. In a narrative written many years later, Joule has told 
how the Chairman suggested that as the business of the Section 
pressed he should not read the paper, but merely give a brief account 
of his experiments : 


‘ This [he says] I endeavoured to do, and discussion not being 
invited, the communication would have passed without comment 
if a young man had not risen in the Section and by his intelligent 
observations created a lively interest in the new theory. The 
young man was William Thomson.’ 


But Thomson, though deeply interested, was not at first con- 
vinced. Nearly four years more were to pass before he satisfied 
himself that the doctrines of Joule did not clash with the teachings 
of Carnot, of which he was then an enthusiastic proselyte. At 
length he became a convert ; he saw, as we should now say, that 
the First Law of Thermodynamics was in fact consistent with the 
Second. Then indeed he accepted the principles of Joule in their 
entirety and was eager in their support. Quickly he proceeded 
to apply them to every part of the physical domain. Along with 
Clausius and Rankine he formulated the principles which govern 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 13 


the whole art of producing power by the agency of heat. The 
steam turbine of Parsons, the gas engines of Otto and Dugald Clerk, 
the oil engines of Daimler and Diesel, with all their social conse- 
quences in making swift travel easy by road and possible by air, 
are among the practical results. On the same thermodynamic 
foundation was built the converse art of mechanically producing 
cold, which we employ in ever-increasing measure for the import 
and storage of our food. Joint experiments undertaken by Joule 
and Thomson led to a further discovery which later enabled the 
process of refrigeration to be carried very near to the limit of cold- 
ness which Thomson himself established as the absolute zero. 
In the hands of Linde and Claude the ‘ Joule-Thomson effect ’ as 
a means of producing extreme cold has created new industries 
through the liquefaction of air and the separation of its constituents 
by methods of fractional distillation. However cold, however near 
the absolute zero, was the Association’s first reception of Joule, we 
may claim that in effecting a conjunction between him and Thomson 
it made amends. ‘Their meeting in 1847 ushered in a new era both 
of scientific theory and of engineering practice. 

Of the Association’s many other services there is little time to 
speak. When the telegraph developed in the middle of last century 
and spread itself across the Atlantic, largely under the guidance of 
that same William Thomson (whom later we knew as Lord Kelvin), 
there were no accepted units in which electrical quantities could be 
measured and specified. ‘The scientific world was as badly off 
then for a standard of electricity as the commercial world is now 
for a standard of value. ‘The need of electrical standards was 
urgently felt, by none more than Thomson himself. He stirred 
the Association to act : a strong committee was set up, and in time 
its work served as a basis of international agreement. ‘There is no 
danger that any country will wish to ‘ go off’ the standards thus 
established. ‘To settle them was an incalculable boon to science 
no less than to technics. It paved the way for the revolution of 
the eighteen-eighties, when electricity passed, almost suddenly, 
from being no more than the servant of the telegraph to be master 
of a great domain. It was then that the electric light and the electric 
transrnission of power gave it a vastly extended application, and the 
fundamental discoveries of Faraday, the centenary of which we 
lately celebrated, came into the kingdom for which they had waited 
nearly fifty years. 

Ariother notable achievement of the Association was to promote 
the establishment of a National Physical Laboratory. Informal 
talks. at our meetings in the nineties led to the appointment of 
a committee which moved the Government of the day to take action. 
The, Laboratory was constituted, and Sir Richard Glazebrook was 


14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


appointed its first head. What it has become in his hands and the 
hands of his successor, Sir Joseph Petavel, does not need to be told. 
From small beginnings it has grown to be an influential factor in 
the world’s scientific progress, and a legitimate subject of national 
pride. 

Another by-product of quite a different sort is the memorial to 
Charles Darwin which we hold as trustee of the nation and of all 
nations. At our meeting in 1927 the President, Sir Arthur Keith, 
spoke in his address of the house where Darwin lived and worked, 
pointing out how admirably it would serve as a monument of the 
great naturalist. No sooner was the suggestion published than 
a donor came forward whose devotion to the memory of Darwin 
expressed itself in a noble gift. Sir Buckston Browne not only 
bought and endowed Down House, but arranged with pious care 
that the house and its grounds should exhibit, so far as was possible, 
the exact environment of Darwin’s life. The pilgrims who now 
visit this shrine in their thousands see Darwin’s study as it was 
when the master thought and wrote, and can reconstruct the habit 
of his days. There could not be a more appropriate memorial. 
Its custody by the Association involves obligations which are by no 
means small, and we may claim that they are worthily fulfilled. 

One may safely say that there is no department of scientific 
endeavour our meetings have not aided, no important step in the 
procession of discovery they have not chronicled. It was at our 
meeting of 1856 that Bessemer first announced his process of 
making a new material—what we now call mild steel—by blowing 
air through melted pig iron. Produced in that way, or by the 
later method of the regenerative furnace and the open hearth, it 
soon revolutionised the construction of railways, bridges, boilers, 
ships, and machinery of all sorts, and it now supplies the architect 
with skeletons which he clothes with brick and stone and concrete. 
It was at the Oxford meeting of 1894 that Lodge demonstrated 
a primitive form of wireless telegraph based on the experiments 
of Hertz, a precursor of the devices that were brought into use a 
little later through the practical skill and indefatigable enterprise 
of Marconi. At the same meeting there was an epoch-making 
announcement by the late Lord Rayleigh. His patient weighings 
of the residual gas which was found after depriving air of all its 
oxygen led him to the discovery of argon. That was a surprise 
of the first magnitude ; it was the herald, one may say, of the new 
physics. Next year his colleague Ramsay presented other members 
of the family of inert gases. It is curious to recall the indifference 
and scepticism with which these really great discoveries were 
received. Some of the chemists of that day seem to have had no 
use for inert gases. But the stones which the builders were at first 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 15 


disposed to refuse are become head-stones of the corner. In the 
architecture of the elements they fill places that are distinctive and 
all-important ; they mark the systematic sequences of the periodic 
law. Ina metaphor appropriate to atomic physics we may describe 
them as coy ladies with a particular symmetry in their crinoline of 
electrons, unresponsive to advances which other atoms are ready 
to make or to receive. Inert though they be, they have found 
industrial uses. Helium fills airships; argon fills incandescent 
lamps ; and neon, so modest a constituent of the atmosphere that 
you might think it born to blush unseen, has lately taken to blushing 
deliberately and even ostentatiously in the shop-signs of every city 
street. In the field of pure science it was neon, outside the radio- 
active elements, that first introduced us to isotopes. And helium 
has a greater glory as the key to radioactive transformations and 
historian of the rocks. Disciples of evolution should be grateful 
to helium for delivering them from the cramping limits of geological 
time which an earlier physics had mistakenly imposed. 

My own recollection covers many surprises that are become 
commonplaces to-day: the dynamo, the electric motor, the trans- 
former, the rectifier, the storage battery, the incandescent lamp, 
the phonograph, the telephone, the internal combustion engine, 
aircraft, the steam turbine, the special steels and alloys which 
metallurgists invent for every particular need, wireless telegraphy, 
the thermionic valve as receiver, as amplifier, as generator of electric 
waves. ‘To that last we owe the miracle of broadcasting. Who, 
a generation ago, would have imagined that a few yards of stretched 
wire outside the window and a magic box upon the sill should 
conjure from adjacent space the strains of Beethoven or Bach, the 
exhortations of many platforms, the pessimism natural to those who 


forecast the weather, and the optimism of orators who have newly 
dined ? 


‘ Sounds and sweet airs, that give delight and hurt not. 
Sometimes a thousand twangling instruments . . . 
And sometime voices . . . that, when I waked, 

I cried to dream again.’ 


I don’t know any product of engineering more efficient than that 
magic box. It needs no attention ; it is always ready for service ; 
and when you tire of it you have only to switch it off. A blessing on 
it for that! Heard melodies may be sweet, but those unheard are 
often sweeter.’ Do you ever reflect, when you pick and choose 
among the multitude of airs and voices, or shut out all from your 
solitude of thought, that they are still there, physically present, 
individual, distinct, crowding yet not interfering, besetting you 
though you do not perceive them, silent until you determine that 


16 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


one or another shall catch your ear? Go where you will, to the 
ocean or the wilderness or the Pole, you cannot escape that vast 
company of attendants ; they come to you, unheard, unseen, from 
every quarter of the globe with a swiftness no other messengers 
approach. Is any fairy tale so strange as that reality? In all the 
wizardry of science surely there is nothing more wonderful than 
this. 


IV. 


Among the inventions which have revolutionised the habits of 
modern man some were developed by steps that were mainly 
empirical. Others, especially those that are most recent, have had 
a very different history : science has been their incubator and their 
forcing-house. In the advance of any invention there is bound to 
be an element of trial and error, but when the scientific method is 
consistently applied the proportion of error is small and progress is 
swift. We see this exemplified in the development of mechanical 
flight, where one difficulty after another has been vanquished by 
aid of well-directed theory and well-related experiment. Or con- 
sider that immensely important modern art, the art of communica- 
tion by telegraph and telephone, by wire and ‘ wireless.’ There 
the efforts of scientific engineers were dominant at every stage, 
and it was through their guidance that the art quickly achieved its 
world-wide triumphs. It is true that in the story of long-distance 
radio-telegraphy there was a striking episode where the courage 
of the practical inventor forestalled the discovery of a recondite 
scientific fact. It happens that the wireless waves from a radio- 
station, instead of shooting out straight into space as such rays 
might be expected to do, become bent in the upper regions of the 
atmosphere, taking a surprising and convenient curvature which 
enables them to travel round the surface of the globe. An unlooked- 
for kindness on the part of Nature has provided what we now call 
the Heaviside layer by which she works this happy trick. The 
strange fact that the rays could somehow bend was recognised and 
applied by Marconi before anybody had a rational explanation to 
suggest. Speaking broadly, however, it was scientific nursing of the 
infant art, and scientific culture throughout its period of growth, that 
brought it to the splendid manhood which now blesses mankind. 

I think we may regard the whole art of electrical communication 
as an unqualified blessing, which even the folly of nations cannot 
pervert: in that regard it differs conspicuously from some other 
inventions. Before it came into use the sections of civilised man 
were far more separate than they will ever be again. There could 
be scant sympathy or understanding, little chance of effective 
co-operation among communities scattered over the earth. A 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 17 


calamity might fall on one and be already old before others knew 
of it to offer help. Now we have all the world made practically 
instant in its interchange of thought. Through this physical 
linkage, which annihilates both space and time, there is opened 
a possibility of quick discussion, common resolution, simultaneous 
action. Can you imagine any practical gift of science more 
indispensable as a step towards establishing the sense of international 
brotherhood which we now consciously lack and wistfully desire ? 
Should that aspiration ever become more than a dream we shall 
indeed have cause to bless the creators of electrical communication, 
to praise them and magnify them for ever. 

In the present-day thinkers’ attitude towards what is called 
mechanical progress we are conscious of a changed spirit. Admira- 
tion is tempered by criticism ; complacency has given way to doubt ; 
doubt is passing into alarm. There is a sense of perplexity and 
frustration, as in one who has gone a long way and finds he has 
taken the wrong turning. ‘To go back is impossible : how shall 
he proceed? Where will he find himself if he follows this path 
or that? An old exponent of applied mechanics may be forgiven 
if he expresses something of the disillusion with which, now standing 
aside, he watches the sweeping pageant of discovery and invention 
in which he used to take unbounded delight. It is impossible not 
to ask, Whither does this tremendous procession tend? What, after 
all, is its goal? What its probable influence upon the future of the 
human race ? 

The pageant itself is a modern affair. A century ago it had 
barely taken form and had acquired none of the momentum which 
rather awes us to-day. ‘The Industrial Revolution, as everybody 
knows, was of British origin ; for a time our island remained the 
factory of the world. But soon, as was inevitable, the change 
of habit spread, and now every country, even China, is become 
more or less mechanised. ‘The cornucopia of the engineer has been 
shaken over all the earth, scattering everywhere an endowment 
of previously unpossessed and unimagined capacities and powers. 
Beyond question many of these gifts are benefits to man, making 
life fuller, wider, healthier, richer in comforts and interests and 
in such happiness as material things can promote. But we are 
acutely aware that the engineer’s gifts have been and may be 
grievously abused. In some there is potential tragedy as well as 
present burden. Man was ethically unprepared for so great a 
bounty. In the slow evolution of morals he is still unfit for the 
tremendous responsibility it entails. ‘The command of Nature has 
been put into his hands before he knows how to command himself. 

I need not dwell on consequent dangers which now press them- 
selves insistently on our attention. We are learning that in the 


18 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


affairs of nations, as of individuals, there must, for the sake of 
amity, be some sacrifice of freedom. Accepted predilections as 
to national sovereignty have to be abandoned if the world is to keep 
the peace and allow civilisation to survive. Geologists tell us that 
in the story of evolution they can trace the records of extinct species 
which perished through the very amplitude and efficiency of their 
personal apparatus for attack and defence. This carries a lesson 
for consideration at Geneva. But there is another aspect of the 
mechanisation of life which is perhaps less familiar, on which I 
venture in conclusion a very few words. 

More and more does mechanical production take the place of 
human effort, not only in manufactures but in all our tasks, even 
the primitive task of tilling the ground. So man finds this, that 
while he is enriched with a multitude of possessions and possi- 
bilities beyond his dreams, he is in great measure deprived of one 
inestimable blessing, the necessity of toil. We invent the machinery 
of mass-production, and for the sake of cheapening the unit we 
develop output on a gigantic scale. Almost automatically the 
machine delivers a stream of articles in the creation of which the 
workman has had little part. He has lost the joy of craftsmanship, 
the old satisfaction in something accomplished through the con- 
scientious exercise of care and skill. In many cases unemploy- 
ment is thrust upon him, an unemployment that is more saddening 
than any drudgery. And the world finds itself glutted with com- 
petitive commodities, produced in a quantity too great to be 
absorbed, though every nation strives to secure at least a home 
market by erecting tariff walls. 

Let me quote in this connection two passages from a single issue 
of The Times.* In different ways they illustrate the tyranny of the 
machine. One is this : 


‘The new Ford works built upon a corner of Essex . . . will 
soon be able to produce motor-cars at the rate of two a minute.’ 


The other comes from Moscow. It also relates to the mass- 
production of motor-cars, and indicates how Russia is reaching 
out towards a similar perfection under the austere stimulus of the 
Five Years’ Plan : 


‘The Commissar lays down dates for the delivery of specified 
quantities by each factory and invests twenty-one special directors 
with extraordinary powers to increase production, threatening 
each director with personal punishment if deliveries are belated.’ 


We must admit that there is a sinister side even to the peaceful 
activities of those who in good faith and with the best intentions 
4 The Times, June 25, 1932. 


THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 19 


make it their business to adapt the resources of Nature to the use 
and convenience of man. 

Where shall we look for a remedy? [I cannot tell. Some may 
envisage a distant Utopia in which there will be perfect adjustment 
of labour and the fruits of labour, a fair spreading of employment 
and of wages and of all the commodities that machines produce. 
Even so the question will remain, How is man to spend the leisure 
he has won by handing over nearly all his burden to an untiring 
mechanical slave ? Dare he hope for such spiritual betterment as 
will qualify him to use it well? God grant he may strive for that 
and attain it. It is only by seeking he will find. I cannot think 
that man is destined to atrophy and cease through cultivating what 
after all is one of his most God-like faculties, the creative ingenuity 


of the engineer. 


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SECTION A.-MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


SOME ASPECTS OF APPLIED 
GEOPHYSICS 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. A. O. RANKINE, O.B.E., D.Sc., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Ir will be in accordance with the desire of this Section, I am sure, that 
I should take this opportunity of placing on record our appreciation of 
the work of Dr. E. H. Griffiths, who died since our last meeting. 
Dr. Griffiths was President of this Section when the Association last 
met in this city in 1906. Subsequently he was President of Sec- 
tion L, and, still later, he rendered great service to the Association as 
General Treasurer for a period of eight years. His contributions to 
knowledge in the field of accurate thermal measurements are of funda- 
mental importance, although they are liable to be overshadowed by the 
more recent and more spectacular discoveries in atomic physics. It is 
natural enough, but still in some ways regrettable, that physicists of the 
younger generation turn to the new and attractive branches of physics, 
and avoid so comparatively dull a subject as heat. Thus the disappearance 
of men like Griffiths and Callendar, who so often worked in close associa- 
tion, leaves this important part of experimental physics greatly in need of 
new workers of equal initiative and skill. 

One other reference is, I think, called for before passing to the subject 
of my address. We are now commencing the second century of our 
existence as an association for the advancement of science. It could 
scarcely have fallen out more appropriately that this year is specially 
marked by the important new discoveries in the Cavendish Laboratory— 
interpreted as the production of neutrons, about which we shall hear more 
during our proceedings, and as the transformation of the elements by 
artificial means. Whether or not these interpretations may require future 
modification, there can be no doubt as to the fundamental nature of 
. the phenomena observed. It seems certain, too, that we can look forward 
confidently to further remarkable developments, which, we may hope, 
will form the subject of a presidential address in this Section. But it is, 
as yet, too early to take stock of this, and related, recent work, and there 
are others much more qualified than I to undertake the task in due course. 
Accordingly I have chosen a subject with which I am more familiar, and 
which, although not new, seems to be worthy of consideration at the 
present time. 

Perhaps some apology, or at least explanation, is necessary for the choice 
of a subject for which I have not even been able to find a satisfactory 


22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


title. Applied geophysics may clearly be taken to include certain aspects 
of meteorology or oceanography or, indeed, any branch of knowledge in 
which physics is applied, in the service of mankind, to the elucidation of 
the properties of the earth. I propose to deal with what is in fact only 
a limited field of work. Put briefly, it covers the application of physical 
methods to the examination, without digging or boring, of what lies 
beneath the surface of the earth at relatively shallow depths of less than 
a few thousand feet. The application is more particularly directed to 
the discovery of deposits of economic importance, such as minerals or oil, 
or the structural formations with which they are likely to be associated. 

Truly this is a subject as different as it could very well be from those 
flights of theoretical physics—relativity, quantum theory, wave mechanics 
and the like—which those of us with slower minds and more pressing 
other occupations try so desperately to follow. In our admiration and, 
perhaps, envy of the apparent ease with which the pioneers in these new 
fields make progress, we are inclined, wrongly, I think, to allow it to be 
assumed that modern physics and atomic physics are one and the same 
thing. . It should not be overlooked that physics is making rapid strides 
forward also in other directions. Much that is new in the precision of 
measurement, in the choice of methods, and in the invention and design 
of physical tools for the attack on old problems hitherto unsolved, has 
become in recent years added to our knowledge. This is true with regard 
to the particular branch of physics we are now to consider. Its funda- 
mental basis is not new. It involves no appeal to, let us say, wave 
mechanics ; the old gravitational theory of Newton and the electro- 
magnetic theory of Maxwell serve well enough our purposes. Yet its 
successful application continues to demand the highest experimental skill 
that training in physics can provide, and initiative ability equal to that 
more frequently directed in less practical channels. 

My subject is also a border-line one, and, perhaps for that reason, has 
not received as much attention as it deserves, at any rate in this country. 
Its practice involves the co-operation of geologists with physicists, except 
in those rare examples of the same person being expert in both branches 
of knowledge. ‘This co-operation is desirable for many reasons, and 
essential for others. The geologist, if I may say so, is more practically- 
minded than the physicist. He puts a higher monetary value upon his 
work, and he is bolder in the expenditure of money upon exploratory 
investigations. His experience in the field accustoms him to the rigours 
of work out of doors as compared with the calm of a laboratory, and he 
is more ready to attack problems at first sight unlikely to be soluble. . 
He has a keener eye, too, regarding the economic results of his field work. 
As illustrating these points I can do no better than relate the fact that it 
was a famous geologist, the late Prof. de Béckh, who suggested to the 
equally famous physicist, Baron von Eétvés (whose work we shall con- 
sider more fully later), that the Eétvés torsion balance should be used to 
locate and delineate buried salt domes—geological features with which 
oil is frequently associated. Prof. de Béckh once told me that at first 
EG6tv6és was horrified at the idea. He regarded the use of his instru- 
ment for such an economic purpose as debasing science, and it was only 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 23 


with great difficulty that he was eventually persuaded to initiate what has 
now become a common and successful practice in various parts of the 
world. 

I may perhaps mention, too, that when I first became interested about 
five years ago in applied geophysics, I was very doubtful of its use. Could 
conditions underground, I asked myself, ever be so simple and free from 
complications that physical observations on the surface would point 
unequivocally to the solution ? The answer to this question is, generally 
speaking, in the negative ; but here the geologist comes in again. He 
carries out his preliminary survey by his own methods, and is often able 
to indicate both the limited region where a geophysical survey seems 
desirable, and in a general way the kind of formation which is to be sought, 
thus enabling a suitable choice of method to be made. He provides, in 
fact, the selection rules for the geophysicist, in much the same way as the 
quantum theorist does for the spectroscopist, as regards both where to 
look and what to expect to find. It is true that sometimes a forbidden 
result persists in obtruding itself inconveniently upon the geological 
interpretation, just as a forbidden spectral line may refuse to be extin- 
guished. But usually the solution of a problem has to depend upon the 
combined result of geological and physical evidence, and is only approxi- 
mate at that. Still, the co-operative effort is undoubtedly more likely 
to lead nearer to the truth than either singly, and physics and geology 
must accordingly work hand in hand. 


GEOPHYSICAL PROSPECTING. 


Before going on to consider the theoretical basis and the practical 
methods employed, we may well inquire what justification there is for 
carrying out geophysical surveys of the kind to be described. Why go 
to the expense of supplementing a geological investigation by systematic 
measurements of a physical character ? Geophysical surveying is costly, 
either in the price of the necessary instruments, or in running expenses, 
or in both. A high quality gravity torsion balance, for example, costs 
£1,000, and it may be noted that nearly two hundred of these instruments 
were at one time in use on the oil-fields in America. The portable 
seismometers required for an alternative method of attack are also 
expensive, and the running costs in seismic work rapidly mount up, owing 
to the requirement of, possibly, a hundred tons of high explosive during 
a survey. And it is necessary to reckon, besides, the substantial salaries 
and wages bill of the geophysical staff, often working in fields remote 
from civilisation, and requiring all the special accessories of camp life. 

The answer to the question proposed is that everything depends on 
relative cost. If the servant in the parable had happened to forget where 
he had buried his talent, geophysical assistance for its recovery would not 
have been a sound economic proposition. But if the prize is of great 
value—millions of tons of mineral oil, for instance—extensive application 
of suitable geophysical methods may become both justifiable and advisable. 
Each problem has to be considered from this point of view, on the basis 
of the experience gradually accumulating from previous surveys. But 
it is not my purpose to discuss this interesting economic subject, except 


24 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


to say that there are well-established cases where geophysical methods 
properly applied have, at relatively low cost, either led to the discovery 
of important mineral deposits previously unknown, or have facilitated 
the precise location of such deposits, thus reducing abortive digging or 
drilling to a minimum. 

It is mainly the physical basis of the work that I wish to review. And 
here I should point out that this limitation will exclude ‘ divining,’ 
whether for water or any other underground feature. Innumerable 
claims of successful use have been made for the divining-rod and similar 
indicators, but the modus operandi has never been explained, and none 
have been established on an acceptable physical basis. ‘This is not to say 
that all the claims are necessarily false, and I do not wish to use this 
occasion to express scepticism. For I have discovered, to my surprise, 
that the use of the hazel twig for water-divining finds credence among 
scientific friends, the honesty of whose beliefs is above suspicion ; con- 
sequently I am less ready to be dogmatic on the subject. Nevertheless, 
I am glad to escape from this highly controversial ground by defining in 
a sufficiently exclusive manner what is a geophysical method, and what 
a geophysical instrument, in relation to the search for minerals. ‘The 
basis of every geophysical method is the differentiation, usually abrupt, 
of some physical property as between rocks. ‘The four principal methods 
—gravitational, magnetic, seismic and electrical—depend, in fact, upon 
differences, in the various media underlying the earth’s surface, of density, 
of magnetic susceptibility, of velocity of elastic wave propagation, and of 
electrical conductivity respectively. Associated with these variations of 
physical properties, either naturally or through stimulation by artificial 
means, there are produced, at or near the earth’s surface, calculable 
physical effects which may be capable of measurement by suitable 
apparatus. Such apparatus is a geophysical instrument, in the sense in 
which the term will be used. Divining-rods do not belong to this 
category ; nor, on present evidence, do those apparently more elaborate 
instruments which are sometimes found advertised and illustrated in such 
unexpected organs of publicity as the popular story magazines. What- 
ever the outward form depicted may suggest, and whatever the validity 
of the remarkable claims to infallibility in the text, these instruments 
cannot be regarded as geophysical instruments until the mode of action 
is revealed, and proved to be dependent on known physical laws. In 
short, there must be something physical to measure, and the instrument 
must be able to measure it. 

Considering the simplicity and obvious nature of the physical concepts 
involved, it is not surprising that frequent suggestions have been made 
over a long period of years to put the matter to practical test. As early 
as the seventeenth century, indeed, the magnetic method was success- 
fully employed to locate deposits of magnetite and other highly ferruginous 
ore-bodies, by observing how the earth’s magnetic field was distorted 
locally by their magnetisation. And the beginnings of the electrical 
methods appear to date back to 1830. But substantial progress was not 
made until comparatively recent years, and practical geophysical pros- 
pecting—that is, systematic surveys with instrumental equipment specially 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 25 


designed and adequate for the purpose—can be described as a post-war 
development. It is of this that I wish to speak ; and, in this work which 
has suffered from inadequate publication, and the very nature of which 
implies collaboration, I shall not attempt to assign credit in any precise 
manner. Except in one case. I single out Edtvés as the somewhat 
reluctant pioneer of geophysical prospecting as it is known to-day. His 
fundamental work on gravitation has made practicable what is still the 
best-established and most precise geophysical method available. 


THE GRAVITATIONAL METHOD. 


I do not think that Edtvés has yet received in this country the full 
recognition which his work deserves. Possibly this is because the early 
accounts appeared in rather inaccessible journals ; or, possibly, there were 
real doubts concerning the validity of his claims. I remember, as a 
student, hearing vaguely about his experiments—and his name, without 
anyone knowing how to pronounce it. In the same lectures we learnt 
much fuller details of Boys’ classic measurement of the constant of 
gravitation, without realising how remarkably similar in essential form 
the Eétvés and Boys instruments were. But the fact is that when Boys 
was inventing and making the quartz fibres for his torsion balance to 
weigh the earth, Eétvés had already tackled successfully the difficult 
task of making robust and portable for field work another torsion balance 
of not greatly inferior sensitivity. And while Boys was busy with his 
measurements in a constant-temperature cellar, E6tvés was completing 
the protection of his portable instrument against the temperature varia- 
tions inevitable in the rigours of the field. A few years later he made 
notably successful gravitational surveys on the frozen surface of Lake 
Balaton, and on the Great Hungarian Plain ; but it was not until Shaw 
and Lancaster-Jones } had demonstrated in 1923 that an Eétvés balance, 
acquired for the Science Museum before the war, behaved according to 
specification, that the remarkable nature of Eétvés’ achievement began to 
be appreciated here in this country. Truly Eétvés could claim in 1896,” 
following eight years’ work, and only a year after the publication of Boys’ 
paper, that the extreme sensitivity of the methods he had invented for 
measuring the space variation of gravitational fields had enabled him to 
attack problems hitherto deemed to be unassailable. 

Even now I do not think it is well enough understood how small were 
the effects which Eétvés measured under the unfavourable conditions of 
field work. At the present day very fine measurement is common 
enough, usually by methods of electrical amplification which have become 
available ; but it may be well to place on record again what Eétvés did 
forty years ago without such aids. We can illustrate this in a very striking 
way. The earth’s gravitational field, even apart from local irregularities, 
is not uniform, or, rather, spherically symmetrical. Owing mainly to 


1 Proc. Phys. Soc., vol. 35, pp- 151, 204. 

2 Annalen dey Physik, vol. 59, p. 354.‘ Die ausserst empfindlichen Methoden, 
die ich besonders zur Messung der raumlichen Variationen dieser Krafte ersonnen 
habe, machten es méglich, mich solchen Aufgaben zuzuwenden, die bislang fiir 
unangreifbar gehalten werden durften.’ 


26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


the earth’s rotation, the apparent value of the gravitational intensity 
increases in passing from equator to pole. The total change is about 
5 cm./sec.”, and the maximum rate of horizontal variation is at latitude 45”. 
In this region the change of g for a step of one metre northwards is 
8 x 10-7? cm./sec.2, or, approximately, only one thousand millionth of 
the gravitational acceleration. This the Eétvés torsion balance, even 
in its early forms,? was capable of indicating definitely, being several 
times as large as the limit to which the instrument would respond. And 
the measurement could be made with the instrument occupying a single 
position in a space of less than a square metre, simply by making observa- 
tions with the apparatus as a whole in a number of different azimuths. 
When we compare this with what is possible in the measurement of 
gravity by ordinary pendulum methods, we see how great a step Eétvés 
made. By timing a standard portable pendulum, with all the precautions 
and corrections usually employed, variations of g of, perhaps, one part 
in a million can be detected. Edtvés, in effect, multiplied by a thousand 
the accuracy of measurement of terrestrial gravity variations. 

This remarkable sensitivity was secured by deliberately excluding 
gravity itself from exercising any control in the instrument, which was 
constructed so as to respond only to variations of the gravitational field. 
The same is true with regard to Boys’ apparatus, where the small forces 
of gravitational attraction between lead and gold spheres are balanced, 
not against any component of terrestrial gravity, but against the elastic 
torsion in the suspending fibre of quartz. ‘The principle in both was, 
of course, not new; and we ought accordingly to spare some of the 
credit for the Rev. John Michell, who, towards the end of the eighteenth 
century, proposed and began to construct the first apparatus of the torsion 
balance type. He died before being able to carry out his plans, but his 
apparatus, with certain modifications and improvements, became the 
instrument with which Cavendish made the first laboratory measurement 
of the constant of gravitation. 

Eétvés adopted the same principle in his torsion balance. By the use 
of suitable suspending wires he obtained the necessary sensitivity, and 
he secured protection against the spurious influences of air convection by 
proper design of the enclosure. He also extended the functions of the 
apparatus by arranging in an appropriate manner the distribution of the 
masses in the suspended beam. It would take too long to describe the 
instrument, and at the same time do justice to those used in other branches 
of geophysical surveying. It must suffice here to indicate that the 
Eétvés torsion balance provides means of measuring, normally by 
observations of the changes of torsion accompanying changes of azimuth 
of the instrument as a whole, two properties of the local gravitational field, 
each having magnitude and direction. ‘The magnitude of the first, for 
which a satisfactory name has not yet been devised—the ‘ horizontale 

3 There have been many newer forms designed and constructed by various 
inventors since this date. For example, photographic and automatic recording 
has been successfully introduced, and there have been improvements in the 
details of construction. These modifications cannot be discussed here. It is 


worthy of note that, among modern instruments, those produced by Siiss of 
Budapest, the firm which made the earliest models, are still in the first rank. 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 9 | 


Richtkraft ’ according to Eétvés—is the product g(c, — cy), where 
¢, and cy, are the greatest and least curvatures of the local ‘ level’ or 
equipotential gravitational surface ; its direction is horizontal and in the 
vertical plane of least downward curvature. The suspension in the 
instrument responds to this curvature difference in so far as the mass- 
distribution in the beam partakes of the nature of a Coulomb beam—i.e. 
in its simplest form two equal heavy masses at the ends of a light hori- 
zontal rod. Sucha beam would have no tendency to turn horizontally if 
the level surface were truly spherical ; but otherwise it would, if free to 
do so, set itself along the direction of least downward curvature. 

The other departure from gravitational uniformity which the balance 
measures is the gravity gradient, or the rate of change of the vertical 
gravitational intensity with horizontal distance in the direction in which 
the change is greatest. It is a vector, and both its magnitude and direc- 
tion can be obtained from the instrumental observations. The response 
in this case is due to the unsymmetrical vertical distribution of the 
masses in the beam, the effective mass on one side of the suspending 
wire being lower than that on the other. This causes the beam to tend 
to set with the lower mass pointing in the direction of the gravity gradient, 
and there is torsion in the suspension if the beam occupies any other 
azimuth. 

It will be seen, I think, without further elaboration, that in any given 
location of the instrument there are, in effect, two differential ‘ fields ’ 
acting simultaneously upon it. Its reaction to them provides the means 
of measuring the particular gravitational distortions which they represent. 
This part of the work is pure physical measurement of a straightforward 
character, and attaining, as I have indicated, a surprising degree of 
precision. It is in the interpretation of the results that the real difficulties 
arise. ‘The problem is to ascertain to what extent the gravitational 
irregularities measured are due to density differences in the buried struc- 
ture, and to assign to the latter a position and shape consistent with the 
observations. In country where the surface is otherwise than virtually 
horizontal it is necessary to survey its irregularities, and make calculated 
allowances for their contribution to the total measured gravitational 
distortion. ‘This topographical effect may indeed sometimes be so large 
in comparison with that of hidden structure as to render gravitational 
surveying ineffective. ‘The earth’s rotational effect, of course, has always 
to be eliminated, but this presents no difficulty. What remains after these 
corrections constitutes the data for geophysical interpretation ; and this 
is the stage where the geologist’s ‘ selection rules’ have to be applied. 
As in all geophysical methods, interpretation is necessarily indirect. 
Underground structures, agreeable to the geologist’s experience, have to 
be taken as hypotheses, and tested by calculation and comparison with 
the data provided by surface observations. 

The most important example of successful application of gravity sur- 
veying is in the detection of salt domes, and in the determination of their 
depth and extent. The first survey of this kind, in 1918, provides a 
striking illustration of the way in which geological knowledge has generally 
to be used in combination with the physical measurements, in order to 


28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


secure the proper interpretation. Much to the surprise of the observers, 
the gravity gradients found in the neighbourhood of the salt dome pointed 
towards it, whereas the relatively low density of salt, in comparison with 
that of the earth in which it was embedded, led to the expectation of 
a minimum of gravity directly above the dome. The explanation of the 
paradox lay in the recognition of the possibility of the existence of a cap 
rock, or shell of relatively high density anhydrite, covering the salt in the 
dome. Close to the dome this nearer material was the predominant 
factor, and produced a gravitational attraction ; it was only at greater 
distances, where the great bulk of the deeper salt more than compensated 
for its depth, that apparent gravitational repulsion was actually observed. 

I have, rather regretfully, to leave at this stage this part of my subject. 
My recent practical experience with torsion balances has aroused in me 
the greatest admiration for the work of the original inventor and his 
successors, and for the skill and precision with which most of these 
remarkable instruments have been constructed by the makers. It comes 
as something of a shock, even though we do not doubt the universal law 
of gravitation, to see for the first time a small mass of gold being attracted 
by a neighbouring lead sphere a few inches in diameter. With a torsion 
balance at our disposal the same becomes commonplace, and is indi- 
cative of the great power of these instruments for geophysical purposes. 
Accumulated evidence from the field confirms this view. There is 
convincing proof that extensive underground: features, such as the salt 
domes mentioned, limestone anticlines and synclines, rock faults, and 
deposits of hematite or of brown coal, produce, if not too deeply buried 
or masked by complicating irregularities, gravitational disturbances 
large enough to lead to their delineation by means of the torsion balance. 


Tue SeIsmMic METHOD. 


The seismic method of prospecting began to be used about 1919, 
chiefly owing to the initiative of Mintrop. To some degree it has replaced 
the gravitational method, on account of the greater speed with which it 
enables a given area to be surveyed—a most important economic criterion, 
of course. But there are other important reasons why, under certain 
conditions, it must be preferred. If, for example, the topography of the 
country is too irregular for the corresponding corrections to be applied 
reliably to torsion balance observations, gravity surveying is excluded ; 
and seismic work, which is not so sensitive to surface conditions, may still 
prove of value. Again, the structure to be determined may itself settle 
the choice of method. For instance, if the problem were to determine 
the depth of a horizontal interface of discontinuity between two strata of 
very great extent, the torsion balance would not find anything to measure ; 
the seismic method, on the contrary, would be confronted, as we shall 
see, with its most direct and simplest task. But while admitting these 
undoubted advantages, and recognising the many notable successes of 
seismic surveying under suitable conditions, it is necessary to state that 
this method does not yet rest on so sure a theoretical foundation as the 
law of gravitation; nor do the portable seismographs employed give 
records so unambiguous as the readings of the torsion balance. 


A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 29 


The basis of the seismic method is the same as that underlying the 
investigations of the propagation of earthquake shocks in relation to the 
determination of the structure of the earth’s crust. The difference is 
only one of degree. Artificial and controlled explosions replace the 
sporadic natural shocks, and, although the detonation of perhaps a ton of 
gelignite may be spectacular and dangerous enough, it is trivial compared 
with the natural disturbances occurring, even in England. The distances 
involved are also correspondingly small. But in so far as there is a theory 
of natural earthquake propagation, it serves also for the seismic method 
of geophysical prospecting. In trying to determine the depth of an under- 
ground stratum the most direct method of attack would be to measure, 
if possible, the time of travel of a particular disturbance from the surface 
to the interface and back to the surface after reflection. A knowledge of 
the velocity of propagation in the upper medium only would then give 
the depth required. ‘This method has been used with great success in 
determining the depth of the ocean by means of the Admiralty echo- 
sounding machine. But it fails in application to the solid earth, for the 
reason that the attenuation of vibrations with distance is far greater in the 
earth than in the sea; consequently much larger initial disturbances 
have to be used—in fact, violent explosions. Even if—as ought always 
to be done for the sake of efficiency—the explosion is arranged so that the 
surface of the ground is not broken, thus eliminating danger to observers, 
the delicate seismographs cannot as yet be properly protected against the 
direct effect. ‘They would thus be so greatly disturbed as to mask com- 
pletely the onset of the small reflected disturbance arriving shortly after. 
This effect, indeed, persists to a less but still important degree even when 
the seismograph is removed to quite large distances from the explosion. 
It is true that some important results have been obtained by employing 
this so-called reflection method, but the reading of the records is a matter 
of considerable uncertainty, owing to the difficulty of identifying the time 
of onset of the reflected disturbance in the midst of the effect of that 
propagated directly. For, in the first place, we have no means of knowing 
the precise form of the initial motion arising from the explosion, or the 
manner in which the form changes during propagation. And, secondly, 
none of the portable seismographs at present available record with com- 
plete accuracy the disturbances which reach them: all, to a greater or 
less degree, display resonance at certain frequencies, and thus treat 
preferentially corresponding components of the motion to which they 
are subjected. This uncertainty has led to the more general adoption of 
a method, properly called the diffraction method, although the adjective 
“refraction ’ is sometimes incorrectly used. Its great advantage is that 
it enables the inevitably feeble disturbances, which have penetrated to 
and through the lower medium, to reach the seismograph, under certain 
conditions, in advance of the much greater direct wave. Consequently 
the times of arrival of these indirect, or diffracted, disturbances are re- 
corded unmistakably upon the seismogram, however much the instrument 
may be agitated later on. 

The theoretical basis of this method has been worked out in a partial 
manner only. Let us take in illustration the simplest possible case, 


30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


namely, that of two horizontal strata in which the velocities of propagation 
of longitudinal disturbances are v, in the upper and v, in the lower 
stratum. The condition that v, is greater than v, is essential to the 
method. From the point of view of plane wave propagation the limiting 
ray-path would be from the upper surface to the interface, incidence 
upon which would be at the critical angle 0, given by sin @ = v,/v,, then 
horizontally in the lower medium just grazing the interface, with final 
emergence, also at the critical angle, into the upper medium to reach the 
surface again. The first and last parts of the path would be at the 
velocity v,; the intermediate part would be at the higher velocity v,. 
Assuming, for the moment, that this represents the path of a real and 
finite disturbance, it is easy to see that while, at short ranges, the direct 
disturbance travelling close to the upper surface will reach the seismo- 
graph first, at sufficiently great distances the reverse will be true. The 
indirect disturbance, having in part of its path the advantage of the higher 
velocity in the lower medium, overtakes the direct one which travels all 
the time in the upper medium with the lesser speed. It spurts, as it were, 
and is thus able to cover a longer total distance in the same, or even less, 
time: And if we can measure the instants of arrival of the initial dis- 
turbance at various distances from the source, including ranges great 
enough for the indirect disturbance to arrive first, we have at our disposal 
means of calculating, by very simple geometry, the depth of the interface. 

But the indirect path described, if the corresponding waves are plane, 
is of no practical interest, because no energy is associated with it; the 
conditions clearly imply total internal reflection. Yet the fact remains 
that disturbances do reach distant points at times consistent with the course 
indicated. Their appearance in the records of near earthquakes, where 
the sphericity of the layers of the earth’s crust is insufficient to account 
for the magnitude of the effects observed, led Jeffreys 4 to investigate the 
problem as one of diffraction. He showed on this basis that a small, but 
finite, disturbance of the nature and apparent speed actually observed 
was to be expected. ‘The argument, it is true, was limited to the case of 
two fluids separated by a horizontal interface ; and, strictly, the applica- 
tion to the solid media of the earth’s crust still lacks adequate theoretical 
justification. But there is no doubt that experimentally, both in regard 
to natural earthquakes and the seismic prospecting method, the assump- 
tion of similar paths of propagation depending on diffraction has led in 
many cases to reasonably certain determination of sub-surface dis- 
continuities. Moreover, in the solid material of rocks there is more scope 
for the judicious application of the diffraction principle, since transverse 
as well as longitudinal disturbances are propagated, and changes from 
one type to the other may occur at each interface. 

The principles of the method can be readily applied to structures less 
simple than a single horizontal interface ; and the observations obtained 
in the field, plotted on time-distance graphs, enable such features as the 
slopes and curvatures of strata, and the depths of more than one suc- 
cessive bed to be recognised under favourable conditions. For success 
the principal requirement is a large velocity-ratio as between the rocks 

4 Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., vol. 23, p. 472 (1926). 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 31 


constituting the various beds. Salt domes under alluvial deposits, for 
example, are in this respect suitable structures, and the location of many 
such domes was the first achievement of the seismic method. It has also 
been employed with valuable results in determining the underground 
contours of limestone anticlines and deep-seated granitic basements at 
depths of several thousand feet. We may notice that the method is rarely, 
if ever, able to reveal directly the presence of the mineral actually sought. 
It does not find oil as such, for example, but it may discover those rock 
structures with which there is a high probability of oil being associated. 
For the essential knowledge of such associations applied geophysics 
depends on geology. 

Concerning the portable seismographs and time recorders which are 
the tools of the method, I must here be content with remarking that many 
ingenious instruments have been made available latterly in this country 
as well as abroad. Most of them record the displacements of the earth’s 
surface at the place where the instrument is located ; a few record the 
velocity, as in the Galitzin seismograph. There are claims too, rather 
shrouded in secrecy, of the successful use of accelerometers. I mention 
this because it seems to me that this is the direction we ought to pursue 
in future developments. The diffracted disturbance, calculated by 
Jeffreys, begins with zero displacement and zero velocity, but its initial 
acceleration is finite. Consequently such disturbances may be expected 
to display much sharper and precisely determinable onsets in the record 
if this is of acceleration instead of either displacement or velocity. Greater 
accuracy of timing would thus be secured, leading to more precision in 
the results ; probably, also, smaller and less expensive explosive charges 
would be required: The application of piezo-electricity > obviously 
suggests itself. 


THe Macnetic MeEtTuop. 


We pass now to the magnetic method. In actual practice it is the 
simplest and least costly. It consists of measuring, with suitable portable 
magnetometers, local variations of components of the earth’s magnetic 
field, usually the vertical and horizontal intensities. The instruments 
which have been designed for the purpose enable observations to be made 
quickly, so that a large number of stations can be occupied, and a wide 
area covered, in the course of a single day. Under suitable conditions, 
therefore, much information regarding underground structure may be 
obtained by means of a survey lasting only a relatively short time and 
involving comparatively little expense. But it should be pointed out that 
this apparent economy has sometimes led to the method being employed 
on problems for which it is at present unsuitable, and to claims being made 
_ as to its performance which are doubtful. It is necessary to bear in mind 
that the basis of magnetic surveying is the differentiation of rocks in 
respect of magnetic susceptibility, and the consequent discontinuities of 


* Prince Galitzin in 1915 described an apparatus depending on piezo-elec- 
tricity for the direct measurement of accelerations, and subsequent investigators 
have used the method also; but seismographs of this type do not seem to have 
come into common use, at any rate as portable instruments. 


32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


magnetisation under the influence of the earth’s general magnetic field. 
For the field distortion thereby produced at the earth’s surface to be 
marked it is necessary for the responsible rock structure to have a large 
susceptibility ; this implies that only highly ferruginous rocks will be easy 
to find. No difficulty, for example, presented itself in the case of the great 
magnetic anomaly at Koursk, where two elongated deposits of magnetite, 
totalling 20 billion tons, and several hundred feet deep, produce, over 
a region of many square miles, prodigiously large variations ® of all the 
terrestrial magnetic elements. For this survey the magnetic method 
was eminently suitable, and comparatively insensitive instruments served. 
Ore-bodies of similar magnetic material, but of much smaller dimensions, 
give rise to anomalies less marked but still unmistakable. ‘Thus deposits 
of ilmenite and pyrrhotite, as well as magnetite, if not too deeply buried in 
relation to their size, can be both detected and located with considerable 
precision by simple magnetic measurements. 

I do not mean to imply that the magnetic method of surveying is limited 
to the detection of ore-bodies of this kind. Igneous rocks generally, and 
particularly basalt, may contain considerable quantities of iron, and 
consequently possess an effective magnetic susceptibility much larger 
than non-ferrous materials. There is abundant evidence that structures 
of such rocks have been determined, under favourable conditions, by 
the use of magnetic variometers. Moreover, in recent years these instru- 
ments have been much improved in sensitivity, so that, at any rate 
nominally, they are capable of measuring variations of about 5y only in 
the vertical or horizontal force. ‘This development is bringing within the 
field of applicability of the magnetic method even sedimentary formations 
only slightly ferruginous, if due care is taken to make corrections which 
are unnecessary where the anomalies are great. But I should, neverthe- 
less, reject the claims, which have sometimes been made, to have used 
present-day instruments to locate salt domes by reason of the diamag- 
netism of rock salt. In fact, the conclusion seems inevitable that the 
susceptibilities, whether positive or negative, of materials not within the 
ferro-magnetic class are too small to be responsible for field distortions 
at present measurable with portable instruments. Variation in the iron 
content of rocks has been the origin of the anomalies so far observed. 

If we are to hope to bring within the scope of the magnetic method 
non-ferruginous underground formations, we must improve greatly the 
sensitivity of the instruments, and at the same time exclude the operation 
of certain disturbing factors. It is little use rendering apparatus more 
sensitive if this involves enhancing also corrections of an uncertain 
character. The chief difficulty with the variometers at present available 
is the application of the corrections for diurnal variation of the earth’s 
field and for temperature changes. A certain degree of sensitivity having 
been achieved by balancing the control of the normal earth’s field against 

6 The vertical anomaly has a maximum of about 2 gauss; the horizontal 
field has both positive and negative values ranging over about 1-3 gauss, and 
the declination, accordingly, varies from o° to + 180°. These effects are larger 
than could be attributed to the magnetisation of the magnetite under the in- 


fluence of the earth’s present field. The deposit has strong permanent magnetism 
derived in a way not known. 


A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 33 


a control suitably imposed by gravity, by elastic torsion, or by an artificial 
magnet, the daily variations of the earth’s field, amounting to as much 
as 35y, make themselves manifest. ‘Temperature changes also, by causing 
variations of dimensions, elasticity or magnetic moment, disturb the 
balance, and thus affect the observations to an extent corresponding to 
15y per degree centigrade. Moreover, where, as is most usually the case, 
the method of mounting the indicating magnet is on knife edges, friction 
adds uncertainty of the order of 5y. If we could escape the necessity of 
applying the corrections which these important effects involve, we should 
feel much safer in attaching significance to anomalies only a few times 
larger than the limit of measurement of the apparatus. 

A year ago I thought I saw the way to do this, and brought the pro- 
posed method to the notice of this Section. It was to make use of the 
essential principle which gives to the Eétvés gravity balance its extra- 
ordinary sensitivity, namely, to measure the space-variation only of the 
forces in question. I found later that Edtvés himself had worked on these 
lines, and actually constructed an instrument partially fulfilling the con- 
ditions ; although it is not clear that he realised the full significance of 
complete success. I have to confess that unexpected practical difficulties 
of construction have so far prevented realisation, but I have not given up 
hope that a magnetic instrument can be constructed to operate in the same 
way as the proved gravity instrument. Accordingly it may be worth 
while to indicate what a device of this kind might be expected to achieve. 
Also, if I present the difficulties, perhaps someone more able than myself 
may show how to surmount them. 

The chief virtue of such a magnetic torsion balance is that it would 
discriminate between time-variation and space-variation of the earth’s 
magnetic field. ‘The variation with time of a magnetic field remaining 
spatially uniform would not affect it ; it would respond only to a sufficient 
distortion in space. (Even if this distinction of space and time is repugnant 
to relativity, it is practically of real importance.) Calculation shows that 
with the magnets and suspending wires now available we could anticipate 
an instrument which would be just about sensitive enough to respond, 
in the average magnetic latitude, to the non-uniformity 7 of the earth’s 
main field. The additional lack of uniformity arising from diurnal 
variations, or even magnetic storms, is by comparison small, because the 
amplitude of the variations is only a small fraction of the total field, and 
they are very widespread in character ; consequently they would fail to 
disturb the instrument appreciably. We should therefore be able to 
attribute the distortion observed solely to local magnetic features, apart 
from a nearly negligible correction for general earth’s magnetism. The 
effect of changes of temperature also would be comparatively small, for 


* T.e. the non-uniformity implied by the change in the resultant intensity 
from about 0-64 gauss vertically at the magnetic poles to about 0-32 gauss 
horizontally at the magnetic equator. 

Unlike the gravitational ‘ horizontale Richtkraft’ of Edtvés, its magnetic 
equivalent turns out to be zero everywhere on the surface of a uniformly mag- 
netised earth. But the analogue of the gravity gradient, i.e. the northerly 
gradient of the earth’s vertical intensity, is zero at the magnetic poles only ; 
it has its maximum value, about 1-5 x 10~® gauss/cm., at the magnetic equator. 


Cc 


34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


they would be proportional to the variation of field intensity over the 
limited space occupied by the suspended system, instead of to the full 
intensity at the station. In the gravity torsion balance they are, in fact, 
negligible, and they could be made equally so here. 

In order to realise in a magnetic torsion balance the full advantages of 
the corresponding gravity instrument, we must make the magnet system 
in the suspension completely astatic, so that, in a precisely uniform field, no 
couple acts upon it. It is here that the practical difficulties of construction 
present themselves. The polar nature of magnetism, as contrasted with 
gravitation, added to the fact that the earth’s magnetic field is not every- 
where nearly vertical, demands a precision of construction which may be 
unattainable. For example, to reduce to negligible proportions the directive 
action of a horizontal magnetic intensity of 0-18 gauss upon a suspension 
of the Coulomb balance type, we should require two magnets equal, and 
remaining equal, in moment to within one part in a hundred million, and 
with their magnetic axes aligned in opposite directions with an accuracy 
of one-hundredth of a second of arc. The conditions applying to an 
instrument’ for measuring only the horizontal gradient of vertical inten- 
sity are not, however, so severe and unpromising, and it is in this direction 
that there appears to me to lie hope of practical realisation. One magnet 
only is required, suspended with its magnetic axis nearly vertical from one 
end of a torsion balance beam, and suitably counterbalanced by a non- 
magnetic load at the other end. This is, indeed, a modification of the 
form used by Eétvés, which he operated with partial but not complete 
success. The outstanding difficulties to be overcome relate to the elimina- 
tion of the effects of torsion in the fibre used to suspend the magnet from 
the beam arm. If this can be done we shall have, as indicated earlier, 
means of extending greatly the scope of the magnetic method of surveying. 


ELECTRICAL METHODS. 


I have left until last reference to electrical methods, not because they 
are of less importance, but because I am less familiar with them, and could 
not speak with any of the authority which comes from practical experience. 
Accordingly I shall use this opportunity of calling special attention to the 
work of the Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey ® which operated 
in Australia from 1928 to 1930. This survey, under the leadership of 
Mr. Broughton Edge, whose extensive experience of electrical surveying is 
well known, was concerned chiefly with electrical investigations. Until its 
work began, although it required no great insight to recognise that the 
basis of electrical surveying was the differences of the electrical conduc- 
tivity of underground bodies, and that the procedure was to measure 


8 The equivalent of the gravity gradiometer, a modification of the Eétvés 
torsion balance, due to Shaw and Lancaster-Jones. See Mining Magazine, 
May 1929. 

9 The survey was instituted as a result of the suggestion of the Geophysical 
Sub-Committee of the Committee of Civil Research, and was carried out under 
the joint auspices of the British Empire Marketing Board and the Australian 
Commonwealth Government. The report, ‘The Principles and Practice of 
Geophysical Prospecting,’ was published in 1931 (Cambridge University Press). 


A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 35 


direct or alternating current distribution in the earth’s surface, or the 
implied electromagnetic effects just above the surface, the details of the 
methods employed were shrouded in mystery.!° ‘The report of the survey 
has lifted the veil, and the aims of the Committee of Civil Research, in 
suggesting this systematic research in the field, have been to a large extent 
realised. We find the various methods fully described, some of them 
having been devised and applied for the first time during the survey. 
The difficulties and limitations, as well as the successes, are made plain, 
and the conditions determining the choice of the most suitable methods 
for particular problems are indicated clearly. It is, I think, no exaggera- 
tion to say that the report is the most comprehensive and authoritative 
treatment available of the subject of electrical surveying. 


THE FUTURE OF GEOPHYSICAL SURVEYING. 


Much, however, remains to be done in all branches of geophysical 
surveying, in order to put it on a more secure basis and to determine more 
certainly the scope of its applications. It must be confessed that until 
quite recently practically all the work was being done by German investi- 
gators, both in the construction and improvements of instruments, and 
in their use in the field. But some interest has now been awakened in 
this country, and considerable progress has been made in enabling us 
to take an increasingly active part in the investigations. It would be a 
pity to let this interest and activity die—yet that isthe danger. Unfortu- 
nately, in scientific undertakings, whether national or commercial, we 
have not yet adopted one of the fundamental principles of the family, 
when the call is everywhere, as now, for economy. Not the full-grown 
and robust, but the newly-born and undeveloped, first feels the pinch. 
And, if the infant has a particularly large appetite, or needs special and 
expensive nourishment, proper provision is more than ever likely to be 
withheld. In sucha situation geophysical surveying finds itself just now. 
By its nature the work is necessarily costly. Except as regards some 
aspects of the construction and improvements of instruments it cannot 
be confined to a laboratory ; and, with the same limitation, it can rarely 
be an individual effort. Effective research in the field implies adequate 
scientific personnel, transport, labour and materials, in addition to the 
instrumental equipment. If we are to make substantial progress in this 
direction the expense must be faced. 

I recognise that it would be foolish, as well as useless, to press now for 
the initiation of any costly schemes. But it is permissible to hope and 


10 The Report of the Sub-Committee of the Committee of Civil Research on 
Geophysical Surveying (H.M. Stationery Office, 1927) contains this passage : 
“In particular, the electrical method has throughout been treated, by the com- 
panies employing it, as a jealously-guarded secret trade process. In the result, 
little information is available to the general scientific world regarding the methods 
employed . . . the apparatus required, the field operations, or the interpretation 
of results. We believe that . . . a full disclosure of the scientific facts would 
tend, more than anything else, to stimulate the natural development of this 
method of geophysical surveying, by placing it on a scientific footing, similar 
to that of the gravimetric method.’ 


36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


believe that the subject will not be completely neglected in these difficult 
times. We'can occupy the lean years in making ourselves more familiar 
with what is already known, and in conducting new investigations on a 
modest scale, as, indeed, is being done at South Kensington by the 
Imperial College with the assistance of the Department of Scientific and 
Industrial Research. Then, when the fat years come, and the mining 
industries again call for the help of geophysicists, we shall be found, at 
least, not wholly unprepared. 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. 


SOME ASPECTS OF STEREOCHEMISTRY 


ADDRESS BY 
DR. W. H. MILLS, F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Ir is many years since the opening address to this Section was devoted to 
the subject of Stereochemistry. I think, therefore, that it might be useful 
at this present time to consider some of the problems connected with 
molecular configuration and review them in the light of present knowledge. 

Looking back on the history of stereochemistry we can distinguish a 
succession of well-marked phases in its development. 

There was the initial phase, Pasteur’s discovery of /evo tartaric acid, 
his consequent recognition that every optically active substance must 
have its antipode, and his establishment of the doctrine of molecular 
dissymmetry. 

The theory of van ’t Hoff and Le Bel of the relation between molecular 
dissymmetry and structure in carbon compounds marked the beginning 
of a second phase. It originated soon after the structure theory had 
developed sufficiently to provide an adequate basis for it. In the form 
in which it was presented by van ’t Hoff—the theory of the tetrahedral 
distribution of the valencies of the carbon atom—it provided a frame- 
work into which we have been able to fit practically all that we know of 
the stereochemistry of carbon. For the ensuing quarter of a century 
stereochemical progress was largely made up of applications of the theory 
of the asymmetric carbon atom, and the conception still retains its 
usefulness. 

A new stage was marked by Pope’s discovery that the valencies of 
other elements besides carbon had sufficient configurational stability to 
give rise to mirror-image isomerism, and a further advance was attained 
when Werner brought within the scope of stereochemical investigation 
those complex compounds of the transitional elements which at that 
time seemed to lie outside the domain of the ordinary laws of valency. 

By the optical resolution of compounds of this class he established the 
theory of co-ordination and at the same time demonstrated the association 
of the co-ordination number 6 with octahedral configuration. 

The rule of the asymmetric carbon atom had provided so simple and 
reliable a guide to indicate when molecular dissymmetry was to be 
expected in carbon compounds, and the number of stereomers corre- 
sponding with a given molecular structure could be so simply determined 
with its aid that a certain tendency had arisen among organic chemists to 
think too much in terms of asymmetric atoms and lose sight of the more 


38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


fundamental principles on which the conception was based. A stage of 
some importance in the development of stereochemistry was therefore 
marked by the synthesis, by Perkin and Pope, and the subsequent resolu- 
tion of methylcyclohexylideneacetic acid, for this was the first representa- 
tive to be synthesised of a type of compounds, bearing a certain con- 
figurational relationship to allene, in which it is clearly more natural to 
consider the dissymmetry of the molecule as a whole than to refer it to 
the presence of an asymmetric atom. 

The present period is one that has been marked by particularly notable 
advances. On the one hand, progress in molecular physics and in crystallo- 
graphy has given us a knowledge of atomic dimensions and of the configura- 
tion of simple molecules and ions which, as far as we can see, could never 
have been obtained by the methods of classical stereochemistry. It is 
the progress thus attained which chiefly distinguishes the present period 
from those that have gone before. 

During this same period the more purely chemical methods of investi- 
gation of molecular configuration have also been yielding results of great 
interest, some of them in directions in which advances had been quite 
unanticipated. 

We have only to recall the discovery of molecular dissymmetry in the 
diphenyl series dependent on the restriction of rotation about a single 
bond, the discovery of optically active sulphinic esters and sulphoxides, 
and of optically active salts of nitroparaffins, the determination of the true 
configuration of aldoximes and ketoximes and the demonstration of the 
non-planar strainless character of six- and higher-membered alicyclic rings 
to see how far from being exhausted is the usefulness of the methods of 
classical stereochemistry. 

The electronic theory of valency, which was one of the first-fruits of 
the application of the new knowledge of atomic structure to chemical 
problems, has greatly increased the clearness of our ideas of the various 
types of chemical combination, and the octet rule in particular has enabled 
us to gain a fuller understanding of the constitution of many atomic 
groupings. 

The octet theory has not only led to a greatly increased clearness in 
our views of the nature of valency. We have only to supplement it by 
a simple three-dimensional interpretation and it serves also to indicate 
the relative directions of the valencies in space. 

If we consider the general results of the stereochemical investigation of 
compounds in which we have to infer that a central atom is associated 
with an octet of electrons corresponding with the electron group of highest 
principal quantum number in the succeeding inert gas, we find it clearly 
indicated that there is something in the arrangement of this octet which 
is related to a tetrahedral configuration. 

If this octet really does correspond with that of the inert gas, it is what 
we might expect if the orbits of the electrons constituting the inert gas 
octet might in certain circumstances be related to a tetrahedral system 
of axes. 

The tridimensional extension of the octet theory can be simply 
represented, of course in a purely diagrammatic manner, by placing the 


B.—CHEMISTRY 39 


four pairs of dots, by which the four pairs of electrons of the octet are 
indicated, at the four angles of a tetrahedron concentric with the atom 
under consideration. ‘The diagram will then indicate that another atom 
linked by a given pair of electrons will be situated on the axis through the 
corresponding angle of the tetrahedron. 


Fic. 1. 


There is little doubt that atoms are deformable, and we have clear 
evidence that valencies can be deflected. We can therefore only expect 
the tetrahedron to be a regular tetrahedron when the central atom is 
linked to four other atoms and these are all alike. The tetrahedral octet 
will therefore only indicate the general character of the configuration of 
the compounds represented with its aid ; it cannot be expected to predict 
accurate values of intervalency angles. Subject to this limitation there 
is, as far as I am aware, no established fact relating to the stereochemistry 
of compounds formed in accordance with the octet rule which is at variance 
with the indications of this tridimensional diagram. 

Where in such compounds we have to infer the presence of two- 
electron links only, then we find invariably that a four-co-ordinate atom 
has a tetrahedral configuration, a three-co-ordinate atom a pyramidal, 
and a two-co-ordinate atom an angular configuration. This is illustrated 
by the configurations of methane, ammonia and water. 


H 


°H \, °H 


Fic. 2. 


The compounds of four-co-ordinate nickel, platinum and palladium, 
for which there is much evidence for a planar configuration, evidently do 
not come within the scope of this rule. The effective atomic numbers 
of these metals in such compounds are each two short of the atomic 
numbers of the succeeding inert gas. The three-co-ordinate compounds 
of the elements of the third group of the periodic table likewise lie outside 


40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


the scope of the rule. An effective atomic number corresponding with 
the succeeding inert gas is, however, clearly not a necessary condition for 
a tetrahedral octet, as is shown, for example, by the tetrahedral configura- 
tion of the permanganate ion. 

Where the presence of four-electron links is to be inferred, the rule 
similarly correctly indicates the configuration. ‘Thus carbon dioxide, 
according to the rule, should be a linear compound, and its infra-red 
spectrum and zero di-pole moment indicate that it has in fact this 
configuration. 

The value of the stereochemical indications given by the octet rule is 
well illustrated by a comparison of some of the compounds of sulphur 
with compounds to which, until comparatively recently, chemists were 
in the habit of attributing similar constitutions. Thus, application of the 
rule shows at once that sulphur dioxide will not correspond in configuration 
with carbon dioxide. In sulphur dioxide one oxygen atom, according to 


Re We) 
° e Et 
. O : 
° bs ° 
Sulphur dioxide. Sulphinic Ester. 


FIG. 3. 


the octet rule, must be bound by a four-electron link, the other by a 
two-electron link to the sulphur. The tridimensional octet indicates that 
sulphur dioxide must then have an angular configuration with an angle 
between the lines joining the sulphur and the oxygen centres which, if 
the tetrahedron were regular, would be 125:5°; and, as is well known, 
the large molecular di-pole moment and the indications of the infra-red 
spectrum of sulphur dioxide show that its configuration must in fact 
be angular. Again, the analogy of the sulphite ion in configuration to 
the chlorate ion, both of which according to the results of X-ray examina- 
tion are pyramidal structures, and its difference from the planar carbonate 
ion is very clearly shown and on the basis of the octet rule could easily 
have been predicted. 

I believe the highly interesting discovery by Phillips, some seven or 
eight years ago, of the molecular dissymmetry of the sulphinic esters 
came as a complete surprise to chemists, for the common practice had 
been to assign to these compounds a constitution analogous to that 
attributed to the carboxylic esters. In a similar way the sulphoxides were 
generally given formule corresponding with those of the ketones until 
Kenyon and Phillips showed that sulphoxides of appropriate constitution 
could be resolved into optical antimers. 


B.—CHEMISTRY 41 


Had the confidence then existed in the octet theory and its stereo- 
chemical implication that we have since acquired, the pyramidal configura- 
tion of the three-co-ordinate sulphur in these compounds could have 
been most easily predicted. 

A comparison of the sulphoxides with the N-ethers of the oximes is 
possibly not without interest, since it shows that the presence of a 


R RI 
2. 
so N=0 
RK R 


co-ordinate (or semipolar) link is not in itself sufficient to produce a 
pyramidal configuration. In the oxime ether the nitrogen atom and 
the three atoms directly attached to it are evidently co-planar. 

Very considerable interest attaches to the possibility of the existence 
of compounds of tri-co-valent carbon of pyramidal configuration. The 
triaryl alkyl compounds of the alkali-metals in all probability contain 


R 
the anion R: C: If this is so, this ion must certainly be pyramidal, and 
R 


hence molecularly dissymmetric when the three ary] radicals are different, 
but it is not possible at present to predict how stable the antimeric con- 
figurations would be. However, questions of considerably greater 
theoretical importance centre about another type of compounds in which 
there seems reason to infer the presence of a pyramidal tri-co-valent carbon 
atom of marked configurational stability. 

When Hantzsch discovered the aci-form of phenylnitromethane he 
appeared to have obtained exceedingly strong evidence of the correctness 
of Michael’s formula for the sodium salts of the nitroparafhins. ‘There 
seemed little doubt that the aci-form of a secondary nitroparaffin had the 
constitution which in modern symbols we should represent as : 


Ry OH 
Ea 
Ny 
R 


In a compound of this structure the > C = N < group and the four 
atoms directly attached to it would evidently lie in one plane. The 
remarkable discovery by R. Kuhn and Albrecht that optically active 
methylethylnitromethane retained its activity when converted into its 
sodium salt showed therefore that the Michael formula could not 
possibly be right. 

With Mr. H. Cole I have recently obtained confirmation of Kuhn 
and Albrecht’s discovery. We have been able to prove that the aci-form 
of phenylcyanonitromethane is molecularly dissymmetric, since we find 
that the compound can be resolved with alkaloids in the ordinary way. 
When the brucine salt is converted into the sodium salt a strongly 
optically active solution is obtained. The activity of the sodium salt 


C2 


42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


seems to be quite stable at the ordinary temperature, but disappears on 
the addition of excess of mineral acid. 

In the present state of knowledge there would appear to be only two 
possible formulz for the aci-form of a nitroparaffin which would account 
for the non-planar configuration of the anion thus established. These are : 

R R OH 
ae no and CN“ 

46) | 
nae K I 

As Kuhn points out, there are very grave objections to the former of 
these, the cyclic formula. ‘The nitro-bodies themselves are non-reactive ; 
their aci-forms are highly reactive. As regards their general chemical 
behaviour, the relation between the two forms corresponds very closely 
with that between keto- and enol-desmotropes. The saturated cyclic 
formula for the aci-form is in entire disaccordance with the high chemical 
reactivity of the compound. The alternative formula with the tri- 
co-valent carbon atom seems, on the other hand, to be in harmony with 
the chemical behaviour of the aci-modification, as well as in agreement 
with its experimentally established non-planar configuration. It would 
seem therefore that, for the present at any rate, we are bound to accept 
the second formula in spite of the highly unusual feature which it presents 
of the tri-co-valent carbon atom. 

The configuration of the anion is clearly indicated by the tri- 
dimensional octet formula (Fig. 4). ‘The distribution of the ionic charge 


Fig. 4: 


is a question of considerable interest. If we were to assume equal sharing 
of the electrons in each of the valency links by which the nitrogen atom 
is bound to the three atoms attached to it, our formula would indicate 
the presence of charges of — e on the carbon and the singly linked oxygen 
atom and one of + e on the nitrogen atom, — e being the electronic 
charge. We know, however, that there will not be equal sharing, and 
the inequality will result in diminishing the negative charges on the carbon 
and the singly linked oxygen. Part of the negative electricity thus re- 


B.—CHEMISTRY 43 


_ moved will be transferred to the doubly linked oxygen atom, and part will 
go to diminish the positive charge on the nitrogen. We do not know 
_ what amounts will thus be transferred. It would seem probable, however, 
_ when we consider the di-pole moment associated with the carbon-oxygen 
_ link, that the resultant negative charge of the carbon atom would be more 
considerably diminished than that of the singly linked oxygen atom. 

_ There is an important point which this formula does not make clear. 

_ The anion can combine with the hydrogen ion either to form the aci- 
_ modification or to regenerate the true nitro-body, and these processes 
_ take place with extraordinarily different velocities. 

_ The former change is part of an ionic equilibrium and will occur with 
the great rapidity characteristic of ionic reactions ; the latter takes place 
so slowly that its course, in favourable cases, can easily be observed. 
It would thus appear that, in the encounters of the nitro-ion with hydrogen 
ions, a considerable proportion of the encounters on the nitro group result 
in combination (since the acidic hydrogen in crystalline phenyl iso- 
nitromethane, for example, is presumably co-valently linked), whilst an 
exceedingly minute proportion of the encounters on the negatively charged 
carbon atom are effective. 

It would, therefore, seem that combination of the hydrogen ion with 
the tri-co-valent carbon atom can only take place under very special 
conditions which rarely occur. It is thus probable that it is only when 
this carbon atom is suitably activated that it is capable of combining with 
a hydrogen ion. 


: 


One of the most striking features of the stereochemistry of the pyra- 
_ midal tri-co-valent atoms is the great variation in configurational stability 
exhibited by compounds of the different atoms. We may contrast, for 
_ example, the permanence of the optical activity of dissymmetric sulphonium 
ions with the configurational lability of the tertiary amines, which has 
hitherto prevented the demonstration of their pyramidal configuration 
_ by the methods of classical stereochemistry, though it is clearly shown 
_ by the considerable molecular di-pole moments which they possess. 
__ There are certain evident principles which must affect the stability of 
_ the molecular configuration determined by the relative valency directions 
_ of a central atom. 
It is clear that increase in the atomic radius of the central atom should 
diminish configurational stability. It is probably in consequence of this 
that it is so much easier to obtain quaternary ammonium ions in an 
optically active state than the corresponding phosphonium and arsonium 
_ compresses. 

Again, we should expect that compounds in which the normal valency 
only of the central atom is employed would show greater configurational 
stability than co-ordination compounds, for the reason that in the latter 
the nuclear charge of the central atom is relatively less in comparison 

with the number of electrons it has to control. We may attribute to this 
cause the optical lability of the compounds of four-co-ordinate beryllium, 
which contrasts strongly with the configurational stability of the com- 
' pounds of tetravalent carbon. 


~ 
iy 
' 


44 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


It may be noted as a matter of observation that six-co-ordination 
compounds, which are, as far as is known, universally of octahedral 
configuration, are more stable configurationally than tetrahedral four- 
co-ordination compounds. If the movements involved in optical in- 
version in the two types are considered, it is clear that this is what we 
should expect. 

Finally, it would be anticipated that a compound would have a greater 
configurational stability if the central atom had a resultant positive charge 
than if its resultant charge was negative, since the field controlling the 
octet would be stronger in the former case. Perhaps the difference 
between the tertiary amines and the sulphonium compounds is partly to 
be accounted for in this way. 

In the tertiary amines we may infer from the di-pole moment—and the 
length—of the single carbon-to-nitrogen link that the external electro- 
static effect of the nitrogen atom and its associated electrons is equivalent 
approximately to that of a negative charge of o-3e at its centre, while the 
three directly attached carbon atoms have resultant positive charges of 
about 0° re. 

In the corresponding sulphonium ions we have similarly to infer the 
existence of positive charges of about o-65e on the sulphur atom and 
0-12e on each of the attached carbon atoms. Thus, whilst there is a 
positive charge on the sulphur in the sulphonium compounds, there is 
a negative charge on the nitrogen in the amines, and the former should 
increase and the latter diminish the stability of the associated octet. 

On the other hand, if the constitution attributed by Kuhn to the salts 
of the nitroparaffins is correct—and, as we have seen, there is good reason 
to think that it is—then in these compounds we have very considerable 
configurational stability of a tri-co-valent atom associated with the 
presence of a negative charge. 

In view of this it is improbable that the difference in optical stability 
between the amines and the sulphonium ions can be wholly attributed to 
a difference in sign of the resultant charge on the central atom, though 
doubtless this has a contributory effect. 


It is interesting to look back on some of the principal difficulties which 
were encountered in interpreting stereochemical phenomena on the basis 
of the older conceptions of valency, and to review them from our present 
standpoint. 

Probably the most conspicuous example of these is afforded by the 
problem of the Walden inversion, which Emil Fischer described in 1907 
as being, ‘since the fundamental investigations of Pasteur, the most 
surprising observation which had been made in the field of optically 
active compounds.’ 

The difficulty of bringing the experimental observations on this in- 
version within the scope of any fixed set of rules is well recognised. 
I think, however, that if we review the evidence at present available, it 
might be interpreted as indicating generally that there is at any rate one 
type of reaction which, taking place at an asymmetric carbon atom, is 
normally accompanied by an inversion of configuration. This type of 


B.—CHEMISTRY 45 


reaction is one that might be described as an ionic interchange, and 
includes such changes as the replacement of halogens by hydroxyl by 
means of aqueous alkalies, or of the arylsulphoxy-group by the acetoxy- 
group by means of alkali metal acetates. 

Closely allied to reactions of this type—and also apparently normally 
associated with an inversion of configuration—are the interactions of 
halogen compounds with ammonia, leading to the formation of a sub- 
stituted ammonium ion and a halogen ion. 

Reactions of these types can be represented with extreme simplicity 
with the aid of the tetrahedral octet, and it is then seen that they would 
naturally be accompanied by an inversion of configuration. 

Let us take as an example of such an interchange of radicals at an 
asymmetric carbon atom the reaction commonly referred to as the 
“replacement of chlorine by the amino-group ’ by means of ammonia. 


Cl: a Gls 
ibe "8 
i : R e 
e 1 eee 
R, “1 oe a) ate og sae *Rs 
ry é 3 Ros a 
R2 . my 
ee ate 
H:>N:H H°N:H 
; ee oe 
H H 
Before reaction. After reaction. 
Fic. 5. 


In representing this reaction the experimental facts to which we have 
to give expression are: (i) the asymmetric carbon atom unites with a 
molecule of ammonia, forming a substituted ammonium ion ; (ii) the 
configuration is inverted ; (iii) a chlorine.ion is set free. 
In order to represent these three facts with the tetrahedral octet we 
have simply to move the nucleus of the carbon atom away from the 
chlorine and towards the ammonia (suitably situated) through a distance 
of half the height of the tetrahedron. It is a movement analogous to that 
which we have to assume for the nitrogen nucleus in the amines to account 
for the inversion of configuration which these compounds so readily 
“undergo. When the essential features of the change can be thus so simply 
and naturally represented, it is difficult to resist the belief that the 
representation corresponds closely with the reality. 
Thermodynamically considered, the reason for the change is to be found 
in the loss of free energy by which it must be attended, and this is the 
same whether the process results in an inversion of configuration or not. 


46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


From this point of view the necessity for the change is independent of 
the particular mechanism by which it may be effected, but different 
mechanisms will bring it about with different velocities. 

There would seem an evident possibility, in these ionic interchanges, 
of the hydroxyl or other anion (or the ammonia) interacting at one of the 
other three faces of the tetrahedron, in which case no inversion of con- 
figuration would ensue. ‘The di-pole moment, which must be associated 
with the link between the carbon atom and the radical which is going to 
be eliminated as an anion, will, however, have a directive effect on the 
attacking anion (or the polar ammonia molecule), and this will cause the 
probability of approach to be greatest on the opposite face of the 
tetrahedron, especially when the other substituents are relatively in- 
different. Elimination of the ionisable group will also be facilitated 
most when the movement of the nucleus is directly away from it. Thus 
it would appear that the mechanism effecting the change with the greatest 
velocity would be that which produces an inversion of configuration. 

In these ionic interchanges the reaction-mechanism is sufficiently clear 
to enable us to discuss their stereochemical aspect. Reactions such as 
those of phosphorus pentachloride or thionyl chloride on hydroxylic 
substances, or even of moist silver oxide on halogen compounds, are 
evidently more complex, and their mechanism seems at present too 
imperfectly known to justify speculation on the configurational changes 
by which they may or may not be accompanied. 

A phenomenon which was generally regarded, though not with very 
good reason, as closely related to the Walden inversion was that of trans- 
addition at a double bond. ‘The two phenomena had, however, this in 
common, that both showed the inadequacy of the old conception of the 
solid carbon atom with fixed valency poles. The two solid tetrahedra 
attached edge to edge and opening on one angle to allow of the attachment 
of the two addenda gave too crude a picture. 

The ethylenic link is now regarded rather as a unit, formed from two 
pairs of electrons of opposite spins, and possessing torsional rigidity. 
When combination with, for example, a chlorine molecule occurs, two 
electrons of opposite spins are taken to share in binding the two chlorine 
atoms, leaving two, also of opposite spins, to form the single link by which 
the two carbon atoms remain united. 

Experiment shows that this process can take place so as to lead either 
to cis- or to trans-addition, and, since these may occur concurrently, we 
may conclude that, so far as the readjustment of the link is concerned, 
there is no great difference in the facility with which the two types of 
change take place. 

The result appears to be determined partly by the energy relations 
between the possible products, and, since chlorine shows a greater 
tendency to cis-addition than bromine, it is probable that simple mechanical 
factors, such as the distance between the centres of the two atoms to be 
added, have an important effect. It is easy to see that an increase in 
this distance might favour trans-addition. 

Closely related to the phenomenon of trans-addition is that of trans- 
elimination. It has long been recognised that in ethylene derivatives the 


B.—CHEMISTRY 47 


trans-elimination of radicals takes place as a rule more readily than 
cis-elimination, and more recently evidence has accumulated that this is 
also the case with the aldoximes and their derivatives. 

The assumption which was formerly made that, in a pair of stereo- 
isomeric aldoximes, the isomer which was the less easily dehydrated had 
the hydrogen and hydroxyl on opposite sides of the CN group is almost 
certainly wrong. 

Of the different methods of converting ®-benzaldoximes into the cor- 
responding benzonitriles, that which proceeds most smoothly, and is 
probably least obscure in its mechanism, consists in the conversion of 
the oxime into its acetyl derivative and the treatment of this with aqueous 
sodium carbonate. 


Before reaction. After reaction. 
Fic. 6. 


The elimination of acetic acid from the oxime acetate is a reaction 
which can be very clearly represented with the aid of the tetrahedral 
octet, and with this method of representation it is indicated plainly that 
trans-elimination should take place more readily than cis-elimination. 

When the acetyl derivative of the B-oxime is treated with sodium 
carbonate the products are water, benzonitrile, and the acet-ion. The 
components of benzonitrile and of the acet-ion are already present in the 
acetyl derivative, and since both are indifferent towards sodium carbonate 
solution their liberation must take place as a secondary consequence of 
some direct action of the solution on the molecule of the acetyl derivative. 
This is clearly the removal of a proton by union with a hydroxyl ion 
from the alkaline solution to form water. The elimination of acetic 
acid thus consists of a chain of three events, each dependent on the next. 
The first is the removal of the proton. The second is the movement of 
the nitrogen nucleus to bring it into alignment with the phenyl-carbon 


48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


valency. The third, which is the immediate consequence of the second, 
is the liberation of the acet-ion. 

The determining factor which causes the unequal readiness of cis- and 
trans-elimination is the linear configuration of benzonitrile. The centres 
of the carbon and nitrogen atoms of the cyanogen group and of the 
carbon atom of the phenyl group to which it is attached lie in a straight 
line. The formation of benzonitrile therefore entails the movement of the 
nitrogen nucleus in the direction shown. 

In the derivative of the B-oxime, represented in the diagram, this 
movement is directly away from the acetoxy-group and consequently 
results in the liberation of this as the acet-ion. The successive events 
in the chain are correlated, and they proceed readily. 

In the corresponding derivative of the «-oxime, the movement of the 
nitrogen nucleus entails no similar withdrawal from the acetoxy-group. 
There is no corresponding opportunity for the latter to escape as the 
acet-ion, and the chain of events does not take place. 

In the ®-oxime derivative the possibility of the complete withdrawal 
of the proton is conditioned by the rapid breakdown of the resultant 
negative ion into benzonitrile and acet-ion. ‘The «-oxime acetate would 
yield a negative ion which would possess no corresponding tendency to 
split off an acet-ion. In accordance with its lack of acidity the ‘«-acetate 
could not, therefore, give up a proton to the alkaline solution. 

The greater facility of trans-elimination in the ethylene series is evidently 
capable of an analogous explanation. 

Not only were the configurations formerly assigned to the aldoximes 
based on a false assumption, but we now know from the work of 
Meisenheimer that those attributed to the stereo-isomeric ketoximes have 
also to be interchanged. In the Beckmann transformation the radicals 
which migrate do not lie on the same side, but on opposite sides, of the 
CN group. 

It is usual to think of the migration of the groups. But if we imagine 
the change occurring in an isolated molecule and remember that moment 
of momentum must be conserved, it is clear that most of the movement 
by which the relative displacement is brought about would be executed 
by the nitrogen atom. We therefore get a truer picture of the change by 
regarding the groups as relatively stationary and directing our attention 
on the movement of the nitrogen atom. 

Inspection of the diagrams which indicate the alternative movements 
of the nitrogen atom corresponding with cis- and trans-migration, shows 
at once how much more probable the latter is. 

The Beckmann change is brought about by energetic reagents, but if 
we view the phenomenon broadly, disregarding intermediate stages and 
looking at the final result, it is clear that the principal source of the energy 
difference between the oxime and the anilide is the replacement of the 
weak oxygen-to-nitrogen link in the former by the strong oxygen-to-carbon 
link in the latter compound. 

We may accordingly see, as the driving force which brings about 
the change, the affinity of the oxygen for the central carbon atom. It 
may therefore be concluded that the first step in the process of actual 


B.—CHEMISTRY ; 49 


transformation is probably the attachment of the oxygen atom (or its 
representative in an intermediate product) to this carbon atom. If this 
is so, then the consequent displacement of the nitrogen atom must 
inevitably occur in a direction away from the oxygen atom, that is, in the 
direction that leads to trans-migration. 

In any case, the passage of the nitrogen atom across the line of closest 


Oxime. 


Cis-migration ss Trans-migration. 


R, 


Anilide (enolic form), 
Fic. 7. 


approach of the oxygen atom to the central carbon atom, which is required 
for cis-migration, must seem exceedingly unlikely. 

This more concrete way of looking at the Beckmann transformation 
enables us to see, I think, very clearly that the cis-interchange of groups, 
instead of being an assumption that could be taken for granted, was in 
fact a highly improbable hypothesis. It indicates that the natural course 
for the migration of groups to pursue is that which leads to a trans- 
interchange. 


; I now pass to the consideration of a question which has been of deep 
interest to all who have reflected on stereochemical problems, the optical 


50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


activity of living matter. It was a subject to which Pasteur devoted much 
thought, and he was disposed to seek the origin of the optical activity of 
the products of vegetable life in cosmic causes. 

‘The universe,’ he said, ‘is a dissymmetrical whole. I am inclined 
to think that life, as manifested to us, must be a function of the dis- 
symmetry of the universe or of the consequences that result from it. 
The universe is dissymmetrical ; for, if the solar system were placed 
before a mirror, the image of the bodies that compose it moving with their 
several motions could not be superposed on the reality. Even the move- 
ment of solar light is dissymmetrical. A luminous ray never falls without 
constant change of direction on the leaf in which vegetable life is bringing 
about the creation of organic matter. ‘Terrestrial magnetism, the 
opposition which exists between the north and south poles in a magnet, 
that offered us by the two electricities positive and negative, are but 
resultants from dissymmetrical actions and movements.’ 

Pasteur tried to obtain experimental confirmation of these views. At 
Strasburg he had powerful magnets constructed with the object of 
introducing dissymmetric influences during the formation of crystals. 
At Lille again, in 1854, he had a clockwork arrangement made by means 
of which he intended, with the aid of a heliostat and reflector, to cause a 
plant to germinate and grow under conditions in which the natural 
apparent movement of the sun from east to west was reversed. 

Since the discovery by Cotton in 1896 that alkaline solutions of copper 
tartrate have unequal coefficients of absorption for dextro- and levo- 
circularly polarised light, the action of circularly polarised light appeared 
to be the most promising method of obtaining molecularly dissymmetric 
compounds in an optically active state without the use of other optically 
active substances. Since, further, circularly polarised light must occur 
in nature—as, for example, by reflexion of the plane polarised part of the 
light of the sky at the surface of the sea—the unequal destruction which 
it must effect of the dextro- and lzvo-forms of dissymmetric compounds, 
acting for immense periods of time, has been regarded by some as the 
most probable cause of the optical activity of the compounds contained 
in living matter, especially as Byk has shown that, in consequence of the 
rotation of the plane of polarisation of the light by the earth’s magnetism, 
there must be a preponderance of one of the two forms in the total amount 
of circularly polarised light thus produced. 

These considerations have been brought into prominence by the marked 
success which has recently been attained by Werner Kuhn and Knopf 
in activating the dimethylamide of «-azidopropionic acid by means of 
circularly polarised light. Kuhn has discussed the biological significance 
of this achievement, and he gives reasons to show that the possibility of 
the optical activity of living matter having been brought about through 
the long-continued action of circularly polarised light can by no means 
be rejected. 

When one considers, however, the minuteness of the proportion of the 
total illumination received by an organism under natural conditions that 
can be circularly polarised, and the difficulty that has been experienced 
in demonstrating the optically activating effect of this form of light, even 


B.—CHEMISTRY 51 


under the favourable conditions of the laboratory, it is impossible not to 
feel a certain scepticism of an explanation based on the action of circularly 
polarised light thus produced. 

It is true that circularly polarised light of greater intensity might be 
produced by naturally occurring doubly-refracting minerals; but its 
production in this manner would be necessarily so highly localised and so 
evenly distributed between the dextro- and levo-forms that it is difficult 
to believe that initially optically inactive living matter could be rendered 
optically active through the agency of circularly polarised light produced 
in this way. 

It would, therefore, seem not out of place to seek for other possible 
causes of the dissymmetry of living matter, and it may be profitable to 
inquire whether the property of growth which is characteristic of living 
matter may not necessarily lead to its dissymmetry. 

We know that many components of living matter are substances of 
great molecular complexity, and the more complex the substance the more 
likely it is to be molecularly dissymmetric, and, as a matter of fact, a 
large proportion of the compounds which occur in living organisms are 
optically active. 

Again, many of the reactions which go on in living matter, and on 
which vital activity depends, are thus reactions between molecularly 
dissymmetric compounds. 

Now when a reaction takes place between two molecularly dissym- 
metric compounds, there is always more or less difference between the 
velocities of reaction of a given antimer of the one compound with the 
two antimeric forms of the other. ‘Thus, as was shown by Marckwald 
and McKenzie, lavo-menthol reacts more rapidly with dextro-mandelic 
acid than it does with lavo-mandelic acid. 

It is easy to see why this should be. Chemical interaction between 
organic compounds necessitates the apposition of the two reacting groups 
in a particular manner, and when each of the reacting groups possesses 
a complex environment it is evident that there must be a difference in the 
readiness with which a dissymmetric molecule can be thus apposed to the 
dextro- and lzvo-forms of a co-reactant molecule. 

We can express this by saying that reactions between molecularly 
dissymmetric compounds are stereo-specific, and it is fairly obvious that, 
in general, the more complex the compounds the more highly stereo- 
specific reactions between them are likely to be. 

It is therefore probable that many of the reactions on which vital 
processes depend are highly stereo-specific. Of isolated reactions that 
can be studied in vitro, it would seem that those most nearly related 
to the reactions of living matter are reactions involving enzymes, and it 
is well known how highly stereo-specific these may be. 

Now in living matter, every dissymmetric component is present in one 
only of its two antimeric configurations, and it appears that the configura- 
tions of these components are so correlated that each dissymmetric 
molecule encounters only that antimer of its dissymmetric co-reactants 
with which it interacts the more rapidly. It is evident that living matter 
thus constituted must be greatly more efficient than a hypothetical form 


52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


of living matter in which every dissymmetric component was present in 
equal quantities of both its antimeric forms. 

This can perhaps be made clearer by consideration of some reaction 
which we might regard as a simplified model of a biological process. Let 
us consider the hydrolysis of dextro-sucrose by invertase, at not too great 
concentrations, so that the velocity of hydrolysis is approximately pro- 
portional to the concentrations both of substrate and of enzyme, and 
compare the initial rate of inversion with what it would be if we employed 
instead inactive materials at the same total concentrations—d/-sucrose 
and inactive invertase. From the known specificity of the action of 
invertase we may safely assume that ordinary invertase would activate 
dextro-sucrose only and that its mirror image would activate laevo-sucrose 
only. 

Then it is clear that in the first experiment every sucrose molecule that 
encountered invertase would be susceptible of activation by it, whereas 
in the second only half the encounters would be potentially effective and 
the reaction would proceed at only half the rate at which it takes place 
in the optically active mixture. 

Great caution is obviously necessary in applying the law of mass action 
to biological processes, since adsorptions on enzymes and on active 
surfaces have to be taken into account ; if in our model we had sufficiently 
increased the sugar concentrations, so that the enzyme was working at 
its maximum capacity, there would have been little or no difference 
between the rates of hydrolysis in the active and the inactive mixtures. 

If, however, we are justified in assuming that in living matter con- 
centrations of this order are not approached, and that diminutions in 
concentration of a molecular species would be accompanied by an approxi- 
mately proportionate fall in the velocity of the reaction or reactions in 
which it was concerned, then the inactivation of living matter by the 
instantaneous replacement of half of each of its optically active components 
by their enantiomorphs would suddenly diminish the rates of all the stereo- 
specific reactions proceeding in it to rates approximating more or less, 
in the case of reactions of bimolecular type, to one-half of their former 
magnitudes. 

Thus, in a general way, it is clear that if we are right in assuming that 
the reactions of living matter include reactions of a stereo-specific type, 
then living matter must gain very greatly in efficiency through the optical 
activity of its dissymmetric components. 

Let us now consider the optical activity of living matter in connection 
with the phenomenon of growth. 

In the growth of, for example, a vegetable organism of a primitive 
undifferentiated type we observe the existing tissue building up, with the 
aid of absorbed radiant energy, tissue of the same nature as itself from 
the materials of its inorganic environment. 

We have an association of chemical compounds which is capable of 
synthesising from simple inorganic materials each of the organic materials 
of which it is itself composed, and the rates of production of these are 
controlled, so that each is produced at a rate which, on the average, is 
proportional to the amount of it present in the tissue. 


B.—CHEMISTRY 53 


We have particularly to note that, though the new tissue is built up 
from symmetrical inorganic materials, each of its dissymmetric com- 
ponents is produced in one only of its two optically active forms, and this 
form is the same as that present in the tissue by which it has been 
produced. 

We must therefore conclude that the chemical reactions concerned in 
growth, or at any rate those concerned in the production of the primary 
dissymmetric tissue components, are completely stereo-specific. The 
mechanism concerned in the synthesis of, for example, glucose from 
carbon dioxide and water produces dextro-glucose only without, apparently, 
a trace of its enantiomorph. 

Let us now endeavour to imagine what the effect on the process of 
growth would be if all the dissymmetric components of the growing tissue 
were instantaneously racemised. On account of the stereo-specific 
character of the mechanisms of growth we should then have two practically 
independent mechanisms working side by side. We should have the 
original mechanism producing dissymmetric compounds of the con- 
figurations which occur in nature, d-glucose, d-cellulose, d-tartaric acid, 
l-leucine, and so on. We may arbitrarily call this the d-system. The 
concentrations of all its dissymmetric components would be reduced by 
this racemisation to half their original values. Working alongside this, 
and in practical independence, we should have the enantiomorphous 
l-system producing antimers of the dissymmetric compounds found in 
nature. 

The velocities of the different synthethic processes would be variously 
affected by this change. ‘The velocity of the fundamental process of 
carbohydrate photosynthesis, the formation of the symmetrical compound 
formaldehyde from symmetrical carbon dioxide and water, would remain 
unchanged. ‘This process is independent of mirror-image isomerism ; 
there is thus no need for assimilation pigments to be optically active, and 
chlorophyll is in fact described as being optically inactive. Again the 
condensation of formaldehyde to glucose, in which a dissymmetric 
polymerisation-catalyst must necessarily be involved, since normally the 
d-form of glucose is alone produced, would take place initially with 
unaltered velocity on account of the symmetry of formaldehyde. 
Immediately after the change the inactive tissue would go on producing 
dl-glucose at the same rate at which the optically active tissue had been 
producing d-glucose. 

As soon, however, as we come to consider the further transformation 
of the first formed optically active products, the relative inefficiency of 
the optically inactive tissue becomes apparent. 

If, for example, the glucose in the tissue undergoes a transformation 
involving interaction with another dissymmetric substance, such as a 
polymerisation under the influence of a dissymmetric catalyst, then, as 
we have already seen with our model, the inversion of sucrose, the process 
should proceed less rapidly in the inactive than in the active tissue to a 
degree dependent on the order of the reaction involved, provided always 
that the concentrations are below those at which the catalyst becomes 
saturated. 


54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


It would be out of place to attempt to pursue this in detail. I wish 
merely to emphasise the conclusion that if the reactions of living matter 
are as stereo-specific as the optical activity of the products indicates that 
they are, and if, further, a diminution in the concentration of a reactant 
in a biochemical process produces a comparable diminution in the reaction 
velocity, as the study of enzyme actions indicates may be the case as 
long as certain limits of concentration are not exceeded, then the synthesis 
of the components of new tissue will proceed more rapidly in living 
matter constituted, as we now find it, with all its dissymmetric components 
present in correlated optically active forms, than it would in living matter 
otherwise identical but optically inactive. 

Let us now consider the growth of a tissue which is not completely 
optically inactive, that is, a tissue in which the d- and /-systems are not 
present in equal quantities. 

Let us suppose, for example, that there is twice as much of the d-system 
as of the /-system. 

It is clear, if the arguments which I have put forward are valid, that 
in the process of growth of a tissue thus constituted, the d-system will 
increase at a relatively greater rate than the /-system. 

The complex dissymmetric components of the new tissue will be built 
up from the simple symmetrical food-materials by chains of synthetic 
reactions and the rates of formation of the end-products will be controlled 
by the velocity of the slowest link in the chains. If we consider a case 
in which, as must frequently happen, this slowest link is an interaction 
involving two dissymmetric molecules, and if we suppose that the applica- 
tion of the law of mass action is so little obscured by adsorption phenomena 
that we may with sufficient approximation assume that, as in a simple 
bimolecular reaction, the reaction velocity is proportional to the second 
power of the concentration, then the rate of formation of the d-component 
will be four times that of its enantiomorph. If this applied to every 
dissymmetric constituent of the new growth, then, whereas there was 
twice as much of the d- as of the /-system in the old tissue, there would 
be four times as much of the d- as of the /-system in the new growth. 

It will be clear that, even though the reactions of living matter may be 
less completely stereo-specific than I have, for simplicity, assumed, and 
though the velocities of the bi- and poly-molecular reactions in question 
may increase more slowly with the concentration than according to the 
second power, yet as long as they increase more rapidly than according 
to the first power of the concentration any excess of one system over the 
other in the old tissue will become greater in the new growth. 

In a subject as complicated as this, and where precise knowledge is so 
lacking, it is not possible to give an exact proof, but I hope I may have 
succeeded in indicating that there is an a priori probability that an 
optically inactive growing tissue would be, as regards its optical inactivity, 
in a state of unstable equilibrium. If there were the slightest departure 
in either direction from exact equality of the d- and -components of the 
tissue, this would increase with growth continually, according to a com- 
pound interest law until, eventually, the system originally in slight defect 
was completely swamped by its enantiomorph. 


B.—CHEMISTRY 55 


From this point of view the optical activity of living matter is an 
inevitable consequence of its property of growth. 

The question how an original bias could have arisen provokes an 
inquiry into the probable degree of variation from exact equality to be 
expected in the numbers of d- and /-molecules when a given number of 
molecules of a dissymmetric compound are produced under undirected 
conditions. 

It is very well known that the most probable distribution of d- and 
L-molecules is that in which the numbers of the two kinds are exactly 
equal. ‘The probability of the occurrence of this exact distribution, where 
the numbers are large, is, however, very small, and is greatly exceeded by 
the sum of the probabilities of the other distributions. An exactly equal 
distribution will practically never occur, and it is of interest to know the 
average degree of inequality to be expected for a given number of 
molecules. 

This is easily calculated for a relatively small number, for example, 
100,000. Plotting the probabilities of obtaining given numbers of 
d-molecules, as ordinates, against the numbers, as absciss@, a symmetrical 
curve is obtained— 


eae SOO 


49,500 50,000 50,500 100,000 
d-molecules. 


ee 


; Fic. 8. 
4 
which just becomes distinguishable from the base-line at about 49,500 
and rises to a maximum at, of course, 50,000 d-molecules. The ordinate 
of 49,894 divides the half-area into two equal portions. If, therefore, a 
number of groups of 100,000 molecules of a dissymmetric compound are 
produced under conditions under which the probability of formation of 
_d-and /-molecules is equal, half the groups will contain an excess of more 
than 212 molecules of one enantiomorph or the other. We may regard 
this proportion of 0-21 per cent. as expressing the degree of statistical 
dissymmetry (which we may call k) to be expected when 100,000 dis- 
symmetric molecules are produced under unbiassed conditions. 
As we take larger and larger numbers of molecules the average difference 
between the numbers of d- and /-molecules produced becomes, of course, 
absolutely greater, but relatively less. 


56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


I am indebted to Mr. L. A. Pars for calculating the very simple relation 
which exists between the average degree of dissymmetry k and the number 
of molecules 2, when n is large. It is 


k = 0°6743//n 

Thus the average degree of dissymmetry sinks to 0-067 per cent. for 
one million and to 0-021 per cent. for ten million molecules. In other 
words, when ten million dissymmetric molecules are produced under 
conditions which favour neither enantiomorph, there is an even chance 
that the product will contain an excess of more than 0-021 per cent. of 
one enantiomorph or the other. It is practically impossible for the 
product to be absolutely optically inactive. It is more probable than 
not that it will possess a very small but nevertheless a finite optical activity, 
exceeding 0-021 per cent. of that of the optically pure substance. 

Of course, ten million molecules represents a quantity of matter which 
is exceedingly minute in comparison with the quantities that chemists are 
accustomed to handle. To gain a concrete notion of the magnitudes 
involved, we may imagine a catalytically active compound of a molecular 
weight of 35,000, and, with regard to the well-established biological 
potency of very small quantities of many substances, we may suppose 
that it exerts a marked influence on the metabolism of living matter 
when present at a concentration of o-1 per cent. ‘Ten million molecules 
of this substance would then be contained in’a sphere of protoplasm of 
three hundredths of a millimetre, or 30 u in diameter. 

This is at least a thousand times as large (in bulk) as the smallest 
forms of vegetable life. A number of green alge and some of the 
smallest blue-green algz are only 3 yu in their larger diameter. 

In microscopic forms of life it appears, therefore, by no means impos- 
sible that the number of molecules of one vitally dominant dissymmetric 
catalyst contained in an organism might be sufficiently low to ensure 
the probability of the presence of a small but finite relative excess of one 
of the enantiomorphous forms, when that quantity of the compound was 
produced under symmetrical conditions. 

If we could assume, therefore, that the first portion of living matter 
which arose on this planet was of microscopic dimensions, we might 
account on the basis of the laws of probability for the existence of a minute 
initial bias towards one optical system or the other; and this would 
then, if the principles which I have endeavoured to explain are justified, 
eventually lead to the complete optical activity of the molecularly dis- 
symmetric components of all living matter. The development of the 
organic kingdom from a single germ would provide a simple explanation 
of the configurational relationship which appears to exist between the 
optically active components of the most diverse forms of life, as is illustrated 
by the occurrence in nature of glucose in its dextro-rotatory form only. 
The mystery of living matter seems to lie in its power of growth. Given 
this, the optical activity of its components appears to follow as a necessary 
consequence of the law of mass action and the stereo-specificity of inter- 
actions between dissymmetric compounds. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


fie CONTAGYTS’OF GEOLOGY: THE 
IGE AGE AND EARLY MAN IN BRITAIN 


ADDRESS BY 
PRUE. Gr, bs. BOOW Blls,. ).5C.5 F R.0., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


GEOLOGY IN ITS MODERN ASPECTS. 


One of the most attractive features of geology is the number of its contacts 
with other sciences and with the industrial arts. In this respect students 
of our science may account themselves fortunate or otherwise, according 
to their point of view and degree of maturity. We need only call to mind 
the recent progress in sciences with which geology makes contact to 
realise that the geologist is required, by the very breadth of his interests, 
to keep acquainted with such important advances in knowledge ; nor is 
it accounted to him for virtue to keep to a path of narrow specialisation, 
unmindful of the limitations which they must necessarily impose. 

Geology is primarily an observational science. Only to a limited 
extent at present are its data amenable to mathematical treatment. None 
the less, its ‘ laws ’ are based on foundations which, established firmly as 
many of them were nearly a hundred years ago, have survived the searching 
tests of a century’s observations, and have been strengthened in no small 
measure by the fulfilment of divers predictions. Discoveries that 
revolutionise the very basis of thought must, from the nature of our sub- 
ject, be few and far between, and it is therefore unnecessary to discuss the 
fact that geologists have not for many decades aroused the scientific 
world by sensational announcements. The development of our science 
from close observations of innumerable field-phenomena and from 
cautiously drawn inferences, has been guided by the principle that ‘ the 
present is the key to the past.’ But this is not to say that startling and 
fascinating hypotheses have been lacking. I need only cite those of 
Continental Drift and the Nappe Theory of Mountain-building. It has 
rather made for strength in our science that these flights of imagination 
have been looked at askance, after the traditional manner of British 
geologists ; and some attractive hypotheses have not emerged unscathed 
after careful study in the cold light of accumulated facts. 

Trends in geological thought during the past century have often been 
the subject of presidential addresses. My immediate predecessor in this 
chair appropriately compared the geological problems of 1831 with those 
in the succeeding three quarter-centuries. On an earlier occasion 
Prof. W. J. Sollas, in his characteristically felicitous and convincing 


58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


manner, reminded us of Huxley’s exposition of how first Hutton and then 
Lyell rescued our science from the stultifying catastrophism of the 
Noachian flood tradition by founding the Uniformitarian school, whose 
touchstone was the principle just mentioned, the interpretation of the past 
by reference to causes now in operation. Huxley further demonstrated 
how this swing of the pendulum was damped, and (as Prof. Sollas later 
pointed out) the most striking advance in geological thought engendered, 
through the publication of The Origin of Species, by which Evolutional 
Uniformitarianism became our watchword. ‘The new conception of the 
evolution of life on the earth was accompanied, as every great forward move- 
ment must be, by theories and hypotheses thrown out far in advance of the 
army of accumulated facts. Some of these outposts had to be abandoned ; 
others were able to dig themselves in. A long period of consolidation 
in the battle for enlightenment was inevitable. The onus of testing and 
proving the general truth of evolution and of describing the nature of 
evolutionary changes has naturally fallen on the geologist. Such a task, 
involving laborious stratigraphical and palzontological studies, was one 
after his own heart, for he was enabled while pursuing it to follow other 
geological interests. But it was not a task that could be hurried, since 
it included the full investigation of stratigraphical successions at home 
and abroad. Indeed, the present detailed studies of the rocks and fossils 
of small divisions of the geological record had inevitably to become a 
leading feature in our publications ; and, while they bear witness to the 
fact that the necessary labour is far from finished, they unfortunately tend 
to repel the student of other sciences. Further, during the last fifty years 
there has come to us the realisation that not only life, but environment 
and crustal movement have been undergoing steady changes in character 
throughout geological history ; and we cannot disregard the obvious 
connection between them. 'To Eduard Suess we owe the first exposition, 
in his Das Antlitz der Erde, of tectonic geology on a regional scale, a branch 
of the science which has grown apace. In this study, geologists abroad 
(whose lines are cast in more fayourable places) have taken a relatively 
greater part than those in Britain. As a branch of science that collates 
and co-ordinates a huge mass of facts, not always clearly related, but from 
which we may look forward to illuminating generalisations, regional and 
tectonic geology must be recognised as a striking feature of our science 
to-day. 

While realising, however, that detailed stratigraphical investigation and 
field-mapping, with its great British tradition behind it, must remain an 
essential, we should not lose sight of the fact that geology is also an 
experimental science. Sir John Flett, in his address to the section at 
Edinburgh in 1921, reminded us that the earliest synthetic work on the 
chemistry of igneous magmas and rocks was accomplished by James Hall, 
who actually melted and recrystallised rocks in the laboratory and investi- 
gated the conditions of temperature and pressure that resulted in the 
recrystallisation of limestone. During the past century, a long line of 
experimenters has followed Hall’s footsteps, but the elaborate equipment 
now required for physico-chemical investigations in petrology has been 
a deterrent to work in our impoverished Universities. The wonderful 


C.—GEOLOGY 59 


record of achievement of the Geophysical Laboratory in Washington, 
however, shows what can be done ; and we may hope that a revival of 
activities in this direction will before long be witnessed in this country. 
As in every science, not less than in some branches of geology, the results 
obtained and the facts recorded are a measure of the success of the tech- 
nique employed. The wide range and varied interests of geology now 
demand a body of investigators thoroughly trained and conversant with 
the methods of cognate sciences. How can we ensure the supply of such 
trained geologists, and how are they to acquire the necessary technique ? 


GEOLOGY IN SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES. 


Students are still attracted to geology by a pure love of the subject, 
just as they were in the old days of the great amateurs. Were it not for 
this, the restriction of science in schools to subjects other than geology 
would long ago have emptied our university class-rooms. It might be 
urged that geology offered definite opportunities for an attractive career, 
but this is a fact of which pre-university students and their mentors are 
even now only vaguely aware. And we should not forget that the value 
of geology as a cultural subject has frequently been emphasised. For the 
breadth of view it engenders and the enthusiasm it inspires, it should 
find a place in the curriculum of every university student (as it used to 
in the Royal College of Science and still does in at least one American 
university). 

I may here quote the authority of the Prime Minister, who recently 
expressed the view that ‘if any one of the sciences were selected as the 
key to all the other sciences—as that which in its subject-matter and its 
history, the history of its evolution, enforces the true scientific method— 
geology might be selected as that science. For it touches all the funda- 
mental sciences; it teaches the young how things become, how age 
merges into age, how species merge into species, how generation merges 
into generation, institution into institution—in short, how to approach 
that problem of a working and progressive society by making them 
acquainted with the processes of earth structure and of life lived on that 
structure.’ 

Again, Professor H. E. Armstrong, in one of the wholesome scourgings 
_ that he is wont to deliver to the scientific community at not infrequent 
intervals, rightly declares that the broad culture advocated by Huxley full 
fifty years ago has not yet come to us. From his own experience, he 
urges the feasibility and desirability of the study of geology in schools, 
and would regard it as the only possible foundation of a true geography. 
I can testify that as a school-subject geology makes an admirable and 
popular hobby, but it might be inadvisable further to overload an already 
heavy curriculum by adding it as a regular course of study. As an essential 
part of his training, we may regard it as highly desirable that the future 
student of geology should have a working knowledge of elementary 
chemistry, physics, mathematics and biology. The absence of geology 
from the school curriculum is not necessarily serious, so long as the formal 
work imposes no handicap on students who wish to go forward with the 
subject at the university. In most institutions, however, such a handicap 


60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


does exist in the form of concessions granted for pre-university training to 
a University Intermediate standard in subjects such as chemistry, physics, 
and mathematics, whereby the length or intensity of the university 
course in those subjects is reduced. 

If, however, geology could be introduced more widely into schools (as 
it has been in some) as part of a general course in elementary science—a 
revival and extension of Huxley’s Physiography—it could with advantage 
be supplemented by field-excursions, and related to the activities of school 
societies and museums. 

Assuming this general training in elementary science, with possibly an 
introduction to our subject, we may next ask how its further study is 
related to the advance of knowledge in other sciences. 


THE CONTACTS OF GEOLOGY. 


Geology makes contact with astronomy at an early stage in the history 
of our planet, when the astronomer hands over the new-born earth for 
the consideration of the geologist. We accept his assurance that its birth 
was an extremely unusual, if not almost unique, event, in that it was 
procreated in the mere approach of solar parents and suffered gestation 
in a hypothetical tidal disruption. By a process of condensation and 
sweating, its constituent matter, not differing from that of the other 
heavenly bodies, became arranged in the concentric shells that allowed 
life to develop on the surface, and provided there the means for its 
maintenance. 

The earth’s history has been that of a pulsating globe, its crust subject 
both to disturbances that have originated below the surface, and to 
modifications that have arisen from the interplay of the successive spherical 
shells known as the lithosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. This 
interplay is the result of such manifestations of energy as the gravitative 
action of the sun and moon and radiation from the sun; indeed, the 
movements of the atmosphere and the action of the tides represent for the 
geologist the music of the spheres. When and how life arose on the earth 
is a problem scarcely nearer solution to-day than it was at the first meeting 
of the British Association, but it is clear that not until Man had evolved 
as a civilised being did life play more than a minor part in influencing 
physical environment. In the earlier, as in the later, history of our planet, 
the problems of geology were of a physico-chemical character, serving to 
emphasise the contact of geology with its sister sciences of chemistry and 
physics. Our appreciation of this relationship has developed in recent 
years with the advances in geochemistry and geophysics. From a desire 
to further such knowledge have arisen investigations concerned with the 
stability-relations of elements, of simple chemical compounds, and of 
minerals generally ; with the influence of temperature and pressure on 
the solid, liquid, and gaseous materials involved in the constitution of the 
earth ; and with the transmission of wave-motion through these materials. 
By these studies we have come to comprehend, at least in part, the delicacy 
of equilibrium that exists in rock matter, whether viewed from the stand- 
points of the constitution of the atom, of phase-rule relationships or of 
the buoyancy (isostasy) of areas of the earth’s crust asa whole. Incidentally, 


= ~feee_ 2 eee. 


ee a, 


>; 


C.—GEOLOGY 61 


although this is a side-issue of purely scientific investigations, we find at 
every turn that the door has been opened to important industrial appli- 
cations of the facts so gathered, and geology in consequence continues to 
play its rdle as one of the most valuable instruments in the service of Man. 

Germane in this connection are the recent and active developments in 
our knowledge of the formation and emplacement of the deposits of useful 
metals and non-metals. ‘These advances have resulted from the realisation 
that the problems involve the application of physical and chemical jaws, 
and that ores, veinstones, and salts ultimately have a genetic connection 
with sub-crustal magmas. In those cases where superficial deposits 
conceal from the geologist possible mineral wealth existing at depth, he 
is now able to call to his aid the methods of applied geophysics—gravi- 
tational, magnetic, electric, radio-active, and seismic. 

The advances in the technique of geophysical prospecting in recent 
years are so outstanding as to justify our pausing for a moment to refer 
to them. Not only is precision given to estimates of the extent and 
depth of ore-bodies of large dimensions, and of irregular alluvial ore 
deposits covered by overburden, but the location of the water-table 
underground, as well as the distinction between fresh and saline waters, 
and the demarcation of salt-deposits and of the cavities occupied by brine, 
can also be effected. Estimation of the depth of buried topographic 
features, and the determination of thickness of overlying deposits such 
as Glacial Drift (of great importance in establishing foundations), or of 
detritus like that formed by tropical weathering, can now be made with 
considerable success. The position of old mine-workings, bad ground, 


and flooded areas can be determined with safety and at less expense 


than by the older method of exploration, which might at any moment 
result in loss of life. It should be emphasised, however, that geophysical 
prospecting supplements and gives precision to the ordinary geological 
methods of investigation—it cannot replace them. 

As distinct from their formation, the concentration of sparsely dis- 


 seminated elements and compounds into workable masses is due to 
chemical and physical processes; similarly, the action of plants and 
animals results in the concentration of energy in such fuel-products as 


the various coals, oil-shales and petroleum. Exactly in what manner 
deposits of the latter type formed and accumulated in commercial quanti- 
ties is by no means clear, nor for that matter is it always evident in the 
case of metallic ores (as was manifest from the discussions in this Section 
at the Centenary Meeting). But we may hope for further enlighten- 


ment from experimental and synthetic work at present in progress, 
_ especially when it guides and is guided by further field-investigations. 


Time was when the establishment of the truth of organic evolution 
and the concomitant inquiry into the manner in which the minute changes 
in organisms arose was all-sufficient for the majority of thinkers. But 
Eduard Suess, with a wider and deeper grasp of the essentials of earth- 


history, approached more nearly to a philosophic conception, when he 


wrote in an oft-quoted passage of ‘ those great physical changes in com- 


parison with which the changes in the organic world only appear as 
phenomena of the second order, as simple consequences.’ To determine 


62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


fully the profound influence exercised by those rhythmic or cataclysmic 
earth-movements on the evolution of life is, however, only to carry the 
inquiry a stage farther back. ‘The vera causa still remains obscure. 
Latterly we have witnessed efforts to explain both mountain-building 
movements and the more widespread interchange of areas of land and 
sea as the effects of convection currents in the earth’s interior, resulting 
from changes of density due to temperature and pressure or to mineral 
rearrangement in the subcrustal materials: ‘ oft the teeming earth Is 
with a kind of colic pinch’d and vex’d.’ 

Thus we arrive once more at the necessity for an understanding of 
the problems of physico-chemical relationships. Whether sub-crustal 
volume-changes in minerals and rocks originate as the result of a legacy 
from solar parentage in the form of the earth’s internal heat, or of the 
running-down of the radio-active clock, is still a matter for discussion ; 
but there is little doubt that the effects of the atmosphere and hydrosphere 
on the crust, in eroding a load of rock in one place and imposing newly- 
formed sediment in another, have played their part in determining the 
location of crustal disturbances. 

Many of the other contacts of geology are so obvious and familiar 
that I need only refer to them briefly. Such, for example, are illustrated 
by the intimate relationships of botany and zoology to palzobotany 
and paleozoology. Again, it is unnecessary to emphasise that the study 
of either living organisms or fossil remains cannot be effective if divorced 
from one another. Nor need one amplify the statement that the proof 
of the reality of evolution rests with the geologist. 

In the case of geography, the connection may be through the physical 
or the humanistic sides. Physical geography, for example, is but physical 
geology re-named and, as a sine qua non of preliminary geographical studies, 
its essential basis is field-work. It can only be taught effectively, there- 
fore, by the geologist. ‘The influence on the development of mankind of 
the major crustal features of the earth and of scenic types is profound, 
as also is that of the solid and superficial rocks and of the various mineral 
resources contained in them. ‘To mention only one example, the parti- 
tion of Hungary, like the restoration of Alsace, suggests that if a geological 
map did not hang on the wall at the Versailles Congress, its implications 
were in the minds of those present. 

In the application of geological principles to the problems of civil 
engineering we have a contact which has become increasingly close 
during the last half-century. Indeed, it is scarcely an exaggeration to 
say that no great engineering undertaking that involves an interference 
with the materials and loading of the earth’s crust is now promoted 
without geological advice. Loss of life and money, as well as the possi- 
bility of subsequent litigation, is thereby reduced to a minimum, Canal- 
cutting, tunnelling, road and railway construction, drainage, coast-erosion, 
mitigation of earthquake-effects, harbour-engineering, sanitation, and 
impounding of water-supplies for either power purposes or direct utili- 
sation all require a detailed knowledge of the geology of the locality if 
they are to be successfully prosecuted. The recovery of underground 
water by means of wells, boreholes, and adits has long been dependent 


C.—GEOLOGY 63 


on the advice of the geologist, and it is no less his function to take into 
eareful consideration in this and other connections the location of ceme- 
teries, the methods of disposal of sewage, and the prevention of the 
pollution of rivers. 

Apart from the problems involved in the proper location of means of 
communication and of heavy structures, the provision of raw materials 
used in constructional work falls largely within the geologist’s province. 
Natural road-stones and building-stones are still in great demand, 
although they were at one time more widely used than now. At the 
present day the geologist is called upon to provide the raw materials 
for the making of concrete, artificial stone, bricks, and cement. Concrete 
and the various artificial stones which are now being extensively manu- 
factured find their analogues in the rocks, and the improvement in their 
quality, as in that of cement, is both a geological and geochemical problem. 
Questions of the deterioration or improvement with time of natural and 
artificial stone, cement, bricks, and mortar are paralleled by the decay or 
induration of rocks, a field of inquiry but little explored. 

I must ask indulgence for thus labouring the obvious, but it is appro- 
priate from time to time to review, as my predecessors in this chair have 
done, the services demanded from geology by the ever-increasing needs 
of the community. It is not without relief that I turn to a contact where 
geology is able to help in the spirit of pure investigation, that of the 

relationship of Early Man to well-established geological phenomena. 
_ Here we may well fail to see any practical applications or utilitarian 
reward, but the discussion is none the less interesting for all that. 


Tue Ice AGE AND EarRLy MAN IN BRITAIN. 


When the British Association last met in York (in 1906), G. W. 
Lamplugh, then President of Section C, expounded the view that, with 
the evidence then available, he could find no proof of interglacial epochs 
in Britain, but only of a period of continuous glaciation during which 
“the margins of the ice-lobes underwent extensive oscillations.’ The case 
which he presented so skilfully and with such an extensive knowledge 
of field-phenomena and literature was difficult to answer. Further 
data and increased knowledge of the history of Man in Britain have 
caused most, if not all, of us to adopt the multiglacial theory. It will 
be my task to summarise the evidence that has produced this change 
of view from monoglacialism. 

The recent fortunate discoveries of skeletal remains of primitive 
Man in China, Java, Palestine, and East and South Africa, remarkable 
as they are, should not cause us to lose sight of the fact that the steady 
advance of archeological knowledge in this country during the past two 
or three decades has been no less startling. Only some fifty years ago, 
Skertchley’s advocacy of the great antiquity of Man in the Fen country 
was received with scepticism. At the present day it is recognised on 
all hands that the rise of Man was not a post-glacial phenomenon ; 
on the contrary, we are now certain that Man was as characteristic a 
~ mammal of glacial and interglacial times as the mammoth and straight- 

tusked elephant. The tendency to regard present-day geographical 


64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


conditions as having been inaugurated after the passing of the Ice Age 
is still seen in the practice of referring the terraces of existing rivers to 
post-glacial times. When, therefore, a river-terrace is described as 
post-glacial because it is proved to be of later date than the local boulder 
clay, we should remember that this use of the term post-glacial has 
only a local significance and is therefore loosely applied. The very 
extent of the broad and elevated areas of ancient river-gravels is evidence 
of conditions capable of giving rise to rivers of great volume. If such 
conditions were due to a very heavy rainfall, they would be accompanied 
by an exceptionally luxuriant flora; but of this we have no evidence. 
More probably, therefore, the volume of water arose from melting ice. 

It is because the work of the last twenty years has so greatly resolved 
the difficulty of co-ordinating the evidence of Man’s activities with 
that of the advance and retreat of the glaciers, that I have elected in 
this address to review our state of knowledge of the subject. This is 
not to say that the difficulties have all been overcome, but the reception 
accorded to an attempt which I made recently at scavenging among the 
confused deposits and literature of East Anglian geology and prehistory 
encourages me to make another effort. It can but afford an incentive 
to vigorous discussion and the consequent establishment of relationships 
at present obscure. 

As has frequently happened in British stratigraphical history, the 
situation of our country has provided exceptionally valuable imforma- 
tion for use in correlation. Special conditions resulted from the position 
of the greater part of the British Isles as an area just beyond the margin 
of successive glaciations ; in addition, a remarkable variety of human 
industries has been found. Our cultural evidence cannot vie with that 
of the caves of France and northern Spain, with their richness in painting 
and sculpture, but we may claim that the prehistoric remains in Britain 
have more illuminating contacts than those abroad. 

As is well known, an elevation of the British area of little more than 
100 feet would be sufficient to re-establish land-connection with the 
Continent by way of the east and south-east of England. We have 
good evidence in support of the view that in late Pliocene times such 
a connection existed, and that the area now occupied by the North Sea 
was land drained by a large forerunner of the present River Rhine, of 
which the Thames and other rivers of the east of England were merely 
tributaries. The ‘warm’ and southern fresh-water shell, Corbicula 
fluminalis, now living in the Nile, Euphrates, and other southern rivers, 
had already established itself in streams that fed the late Pliocene repre- 
sentative of the North Sea. Under the climatic oscillations which followed 
during the Glacial Epoch, it appears to have retreated southwards before 
the ice-advance and only to have returned to our area in Acheulian inter- 
glacial times. 

Wherever the cradle of Man may have been, Asia or Africa, the evidence 
of prehistoric stations shows that the waves of his successive migrations 
advanced north-westwards across Europe. The British Isles were his 
Ultima Thule, along the road to which he sought his prey. His advance 
was determined by the extent to which the country was ice-free, for we find 


C.—GEOLOGY 65 


that successive human industries extend farther northwards and north- 
westwards as the ice retreated, although the re-advances of the glaciers 
and flooding of the country temporarily drove the new invader back. 

If the time-succession of human industries recognised by our archzo- 
logical colleagues holds good (and in general it is becoming more firmly 
established every year), we should expect the sequence pre-Chellian, 
Chellian, Acheulian (Clactonian-Levalloisian), Mousterian, Aurignacian, 
Solutrian, Magdalenian, Tardenoisian, and Neolithic, when traced 
north-westwards across England, to display the phenomena known to 
geologists as overlap. The newer deposits and human waves would 
extend farther than the older, as the area was opened up to them by the 
retreat of the ice. 

This is found to be broadly the case. I propose, therefore, to examine 
the evidence for the contact of Early Man with stratigraphical horizons 
in the east of England, then to endeavour to trace the history of events 
across the Pennines to the Irish Sea, and thence to return by way of the 
Severn Valley and the Thames. 

The praiseworthy labours, extending over a long period of years, 
of the officers of the Geological Survey, and the work of numerous 
other investigators, have served to show that, in the main, the topographic 
features of Britain at the beginning of the Ice Age were similar to those 
of to-day. Many of our important river-valleys, long thought to be 
post-glacial, are now known to have been pre-glacial. ‘They have been 
modified in detail, it is true, and their terraces have in many cases been 

_ proved to be of inter-glacial and late-glacial age. On the other hand, 
glaciers have here and there acted as dams and, by forming glacier-lakes 
and overflow channels, have caused permanent modification of river- 

- courses ; such effects can, of course, be recognised without difficulty. 

_ The distinction formerly drawn between River-Drift Man (Early 

Paleolithic) and Cave Man (Late Paleolithic) belongs almost to the 

_ dark ages of the science. We recognise now that human occupation- 

_ sites were largely determined by environment and topographic features. 

_ If no caves were available, late Palaolithic Man was as ready as his for- 

bears to establish camps on open sites. River-Drift Man could not 
inhabit caves in Britain for the very good reason that caves almost 
exclusively occurred in areas protected by contemporary ice or snow. 

_ Our attempts at correlation may suitably begin in the east of England, 
where the succession of Late Pliocene and glacial deposits is most 

| complete. 

k 


East ANGLIA. 


The oldest deposit of undoubted glacial origin in Britain is found 
as remnants which have escaped denudation in the east of Norfolk (where 
it is known as the Norwich Brickearth), in Yorkshire (the Basement 
Clay), and in Durham (the Scandinavian Drift). No remains of Man 
have been found in it, and its age is inferred by reference to beds above 

and below. Nevertheless, in the Crag deposits which underlie the 
Norwich Brickearth and are referred to the later Pliocene, the late W. G. 
Clarke, Mr. J. Reid Moir and Mr. J. E. Sainty have discovered worked 


D 


66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


flints which are accepted by most archeologists as artefacts. The 
Crag deposits consist of marine shelly sands and loams, with ‘ stone- 
beds’ at the base of their several divisions ; and it is in the stone-beds 
that the worked flints known as rostro-carinates and also large flakes 
are found. If the flints were worked by Man the industry would appear 
to be pre-Chellian. 

The next horizon containing supposedly-worked flints is the gravel 
bed which often forms the base of the Cromer Forest-bed. If it is 
agreed that the deposit of coarse flints on the foreshore between Cromer 
and East Runton is the undisturbed local base of the Forest-bed, and if 
the flaking of the flints is regarded as Man’s handiwork, we here have 
evidence of another pre-Chellian industry, of which flakes and not 
rostro-carinates are typical forms. The accompanying fauna, including 
Elephas antiquus (the straight-tusked elephant), Hippopotamus amphibus, 
Rhinoceros etruscus, and R. leptorhinus, contains ancient elements in 
addition to forms associated with Chellian Man on the Continent. Above 
the gravels of the Cromer Forest-bed are black laminated clays con- 
taining peat with occasional scattered flint fragments, usually small, 
and displaying a characteristic black shiny lustre. No flints of undoubted 
human manufacture have been found in situ in this bed, but from time 
to time implements have been discovered on the foreshore and in one 
instance in the Cromer Till. From their appearance and patina, it has 
been assumed that they came from the black clays. They comprise 
‘ Chellian ’ hand-axes and flakes, but, as will presently be seen, they 
must either belong to an earlier industry than that generally included 
in the Chellian, or the Chellian industry must straddle a major glaciation, 
that of the Norwich Brickearth ; it may even straddle two glaciations. 

The progress of climatic cooling, indicated by the mollusca of the 
various Crag deposits, is continued in the two succeeding deposits, the 
Leda-myalis Bed and the impersistent and rarely-exposed Arctic Fresh- 
water Bed, in neither of which have remains of Man yet been found. 
These beds, however, have some significance for the archeologist, for 
they suggest an elevation of the sea-floor and the production of an exten- 
sive land-surface in East Anglia. What beings peopled that land- 
surface we do not know. As parts of it persisted for long ages, while 
other parts were covered by glacial deposits and again exposed by de- 
nudation, it is impossible at the moment to refer to their relative position 
in the geological time-scale any materials that may have been subse- 
quently picked up from this surface. 

At the end of the episode of the Arctic Freshwater Bed and the Leda- 
myalis Bed a striking change of physical conditions is inferred, for the 
next deposit is the Norwich Brickearth already mentioned. ‘This consists 
of clayey sands in which pebbles and boulders of chalk, flint, and crystalline 
rocks are scattered sporadically. No rocks identifiable as of exclusively 
British provenance have been found in it, but numerous types peculiar 
to Norway have been recognised. Of late years opinion has been veering 
to the view that it has originated from the melting of an ice-sheet in 
water, but whether this water was brackish or salt is not known. Un- 
doubtedly the ice-sheet had not only delivered into East Anglia boulders 


C.—GEOLOGY 67 


transported from Scandinavia, but had also incorporated much material 
from the bed of the North Sea, including fragments of shells. 

The striking feature of the Norwich Brickearth, as we see it to-day, is 
its oxidised and sometimes decalcified character ; it presents an eroded 
appearance, and its surface is often hummocky and weathered. One 
indication of its antiquity is the fact that the river-systems of eastern 
Norfolk have been carved through it. The deposits of the next glacial 
episode (the Great Chalky Boulder Clay) occur within the valleys and 
wrap over their slopes, so that an important and probably long period 
must have intervened between the two glaciations. During this period 
elevation occurred, extensive valley-erosion took place, and the brickearth 
was weathered and denuded. At certain localities near Yarmouth sands 
were deposited (‘ Mid-glacial ’ sands) which overlie the Norwich Brick- 
earth and contain a cold molluscan fauna, formerly regarded as derived, 
but now generally believed to be indigenous. The evidence thus goes 
to show that the interval, although protracted, was scarcely warm ; 
nevertheless, the amelioration of climate was sufficient to ensure that 
the North Sea ice retreated completely from the land-area of Britain, 
giving place to sheets of shallow water, sufficiently saline to support a 
marine fauna. At a later stage, the elevation of the area (presumably 
consequent upon the removal of the ice-load) resulted in the excavation 
or re-excavation of the valley-systems of eastern Suffolk and Norfolk 
just referred to. 

While these physical changes were in operation Man was possibly 
not absent from the scene. Although we find no undisputed evidence 
of his remains in the sands and gravels, we should remember that he is 
not an aquatic animal. In certain of the so-called ‘ Mid-Glacial Sands 
and Gravels ’ Mr. Reid Moir has found what he claims to be early points 
and edged-worked scrapers of Acheulian type. The flaking of these 
flints is not accepted as human by all archeologists, and there is the 
additional stratigraphical difficulty that the sands and gravels of different 
parts of East Anglia (formerly mapped together as ‘ Mid-Glacial ’) include 
deposits which lie both above and below the Great Chalky Boulder 
Clay. Similar sands and gravels occur also below and even within the 
Norwich Brickearth, and have up to the present proved difficult to dis- 
tinguish from one another. 

When the ice-sheets re-advanced over East Anglia they brought 
with them rock-debris of a very different character from that which 
built up the Norwich Brickearth. While the matrix of the Brickearth 
suggests that the bottom-deposits of the North Sea, including probably 
the unconsolidated sands and clays of the Eocene and Pliocene, were 
largely incorporated, the boulder clay of the re-advance is constituted 
almost entirely of material from well-known British outcrops. These 
include igneous rocks from the north of England, the Cheviots, and 
Scotland, Upper Palzozoic limestones and sandstones, and various examples 
from the ‘Triassic, Jurassic and Cretaceous Systems, Notably, the 
Oxford and Kimmeridge Clays of the Fen area and the Chalk provided 
the bulk of the constituents. A minor quantity of Scandinavian rocks, 
incorporated in Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire, represents the 


68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


remnants of the ploughing-up of the Scandinavian Drift, of which 
otherwise no traces are left in these areas. No implements of undoubted 
human origin have been found in the Great Chalky Boulder Clay, but 
Mr. Reid Moir has from time to time announced discoveries of Mous- 
terian flakes and points. Even if the flaking on these flints is accepted, 
I feel that the provenance of many is questionable, for the deposits in 
which they were found may have been a second (Upper) Chalky Boulder 
Clay, to be referred to later as the Upper Chalky Drift. 

Long ago Clement Reid and James Geikie stated their belief that the far- 
famed Cromer Till of the coast of Norfolk passed laterally into the Great 
Chalky Boulder Clay. In Geikie’s view the Cromer Till and Contorted 
Drift were the product of his second glaciation, the Weybourn Crag 
representing his first glaciation of the east of England. I have elsewhere 
summarised the stratigraphical evidence bearing on this point and need 
only say here that the Weybourn Crag does not itself appear to me to 
yield evidence of more than the gradual refrigeration of climate in late 
Pliocene times. In its lithological characters the Cromer Till is essentially 
different from the Norwich Brickearth. It contains numerous erratics 
of British type, but Scandinavian erratics also occur here and there. 
To explain the archeological difficulties, I should be inclined to regard 
the Cromer Till and Great Chalky Boulder Clay as contemporaneous, 
but Dr. J. D. Solomon prefers to follow Harmer in grouping the Cromer 
Till with the Norwich Brickearth. 

The general lithology of the deposit and the sporadic occurrence of 
the erratics suggest that the Till melted out in water, possibly when the 
ice-margin was slowly retreating from the area. Mr. Solomon adduces 
good evidence in support of the view that Clement Reid’s subdivisions 
of the Cromer Till, the First and Second Tills of the Mundesley area, 
separated by sands and loams, represent an oscillation during the glaciation, 
when a temporary retreat of the ice permitted the deposition of sands 
and loams in a lake-like area of water. 

F. W. Harmer followed James Geikie in grouping with the Cromer 
Till the Contorted Drift, which overlies and incorporates portions of 
the Till. He also correlated both of them with the Norwich Brickearth, 
and with the highly Chalky Drift of Sheringham and Weybourn, holding 
firmly to the opinion that the Cromer Ridge was the terminal moraine 
of the North Sea (Scandinavian) ice-sheet, of which the Norwich Brick- 
earth was the moraine profonde. But the topography of the Cromer 
Moraine is youthful and almost unmodified by erosion, as many observers 
have noted. The correlation of the Cromer Moraine with the Norwich 
Brickearth cannot be maintained on the geological evidence, and it breaks 
down entirely when the archzological succession is taken into account. 

The marly or chalky drift of the Weybourn area was regarded by 
H. B. Woodward and the Geological Survey as part of the Great Chalky 
Boulder Clay, contemporaneous with that exposed, for example, at Cawston, 
which contains erratics of Neocomian Sandstone, Red Chalk, and tabular 
Lincolnshire flint. This Chalky-Neocomian Boulder Clay is a facies 
of the Great Chalky Boulder Clay and is clearly the lateral equivalent 
of the Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay. As indicated on Harmer’s maps, 


C.—GEOLOGY 69 


it lies side by side with it in Lincolnshire, Norfolk and Cambridgeshire, 
and was regarded by him as reflecting the different outcrops along the 
strike of which the Great Eastern Glacier travelled. 

No Chalky-Neocomian Drift has been encountered in the area of the 
Cromer Moraine ; indeed, from Weybourn eastwards, it is not seen 
again until it appears, interdigitating with the Chalky-Jurassic Boulder 
Clay, at Scratby, near Ormesby, north of Yarmouth. The line of demar- 
cation between the two facies of boulder clay, having passed south of 
Norwich, sweeps north-eastwards and then northwards. The absence 
of the Chalky Boulder Clay in the Cromer district suggests that the ice 
had rounded some obstacle which prevented its direct passage over 
northern Norfolk. ‘There was no high ground to form such an obstacle, 
for the Cromer Moraine was not then in existence. One is therefore 
tempted to infer that the ice which produced the Cromer Till, and which, 
on the evidence of its erratics, had passed down the east coast of England 
to the Norfolk coast, lay in the way. 

Before leaving the problem of the Cromer Till and Contorted Drift, 
I must make reference to the implements found in association with these 
deposits. Unfortunately, finds of Chellian implements have been very 
few and the provenance of all but one is a matter of inference. As I 
have discussed the evidence in detail elsewhere, and given references 
to the appropriate literature, I will here only repeat the general con- 
clusions. If the workmanship of the hand-axes in question be accepted 
as Chellian, and if the implements came from undisturbed Cromer Till, 
then the probability is that they were picked up from the surface (perhaps 
a land-surface) of the Cromer Forest-bed or other Pliocene deposits, 
or of the Norwich Brickearth, by the oncoming Cromer Till ice. In 
that event the Chellian industry of Cromer would be of pre-Chalky 
Boulder Clay age and would be separated from the Acheulian by the 
glaciation which produced that Boulder Clay. The intimate association 
of the Chellian and Acheulian implements in many river-gravels and 
the gradualness of the change in the technique of flaking are not neces- 
sarily arguments against an intervening glaciation ; further, when Chellian 
and Acheulian implements are found together elsewhere, the former are 
commonly much more abraded and scratched than the latter. Indeed, 
the fact that the majority of the Chellian implements found throughout 
England are as a rule rolled and usually occur in the oldest implement- 
bearing gravels suggests that they may have been derived from a land- 
surface at a time when a marked change of conditions resulted in torrential 
floods. Evidence supporting this view is found in the Whitlingham 
deposits, to be described later. 

In the Cromer district Acheulian flakes and axes have been found 
in gravels lying above the Contorted Drift (the so-called river-gravels 
at West Runton and the Cannon-Shot gravels of the Ridge). These 
implements are probably derived, but if they are unrolled and im situ, 
as has been claimed, the underlying Contorted Drift into which the 
gravels are eroded must be pre-Acheulian, that is, the disturbances are 
probably due to the ice-sheet which produced the Great Chalky Boulder 
Clay. 


70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


The deposits which succeed the Great Chalky Boulder Clay (using 
that term to include the Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay and the Chalky- 
Neocomian Boulder Clay) yield the most satisfactory evidence known 
to us of a widespread climatic change. The ice retreated from practically 
the whole, if not the whole, of East Anglia, leaving here and there trails 
and fans of sands and gravel and occasional lake-like areas, often several 
square miles in extent, in which laminated clays and loams were deposited. 
Some of these basins, like that at Hoxne, were connected with the existing 
river-systems, others lay high on the boulder clay plateau ; all seem to 
have become gradually silted up with sediment which, from its petro- 
graphical character, is evidently the finer washed-out matrix of the 
Great Chalky Boulder Clay. The deposits are laminated, but no true 
varves have been found. In the present connection, however, the main 
point of interest lies in their fossil-contents, which include leaves, pollen, 
land and fresh-water shells, bones and teeth of the larger mammalia, 
and the implements of Man. 

Chief among these ancient lakes are the basins at Ipswich (Foxhall 
Road), Hoxne and Hitchin. The flora contained in the upper part of 
the series of laminated clays indicates that the climate then differed but 
little from that of the present day. Reedy fens and alder-cars bounded 
the lakes, and elm, oak, birch, spruce, pine, and hazel formed the neighbour- 
ing woodland. Beavers were to be found in the streams and the horse 
and red deer roamed over the country. 

In the gravels and brickearths lying in the basins are found ‘ floors’ 
of industries of Upper Acheulian type, a special feature being the beauti- 
fully fashioned and entirely unrolled hand-axes. The succession at 
Hoxne in particular consists of Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay overlain 
successively by (a) brickearth containing temperate plants like those of 
to-day, (b) a loam with dwarf birch and supposed arctic willow, (c) gravels 
and brickearths with late Acheulian implements, mammoth, and reindeer, 
(d) laminated clays with Early Mousterian implements and temperate plants 
and animals, and, finally, (e) deposits like boulder-clay, and disturbed 
gravels. While the successions at Ipswich and Hitchin are similar, 
only at Hoxne is there found, below the Acheulian layer, a bed, already 
referred to, containing the ‘ arctic’ plants, now considered to be evidence 
of cold but not of arctic conditions. ‘Thus between two temperate 
climatic phases we find a cold oscillation, and this oscillation must be 
placed just before the Upper Acheulian. Sealing up these lake-like 
depressions are deposits of sand, gravel, and stony clay variously termed 
‘trail’ and boulder clay. Rafts of a Chalky Boulder Clay actually 
occur in the gravels, but may be in part derived. ‘The great amount 
of disturbance to which the uppermost deposits have been subjected 
is a strong indication of the resumption of glacial conditions, especially 
as there is in places a thin deposit of intensely Chalky Boulder Clay. 
I cannot but regard the evidence for a post-Early Mousterian cold period 
in East Anglia as firmly established, even if the phenomena are explained 
as due to the slumping of snow and sludge rather than the work of ice. 
A more general term than ‘ Upper Chalky Boulder Clay’ is desirable 
for these variable deposits of post-Early Mousterian age, and I therefore 


C.—GEOLOGY - 


adopt Dr. Solomon’s designation for them of Upper Chalky Drift (his 
Little Eastern glaciation). 

In the present state of our knowledge we cannot consider the Upper 
Chalky Drift in East Anglia to be due to a major glaciation of the same 
intensity as those that produced the Norwich Brickearth and the Great 
Chalky Boulder Clay, respectively, for the following reasons. Deposits 
of this age are not widespread, or at least have not yet been identified 
(possibly because of the absence of human industries) at more than a 
few localities. They occur more frequently in the valleys, but here 
again the evidence is conflicting, for on both the slopes and bottoms of 
the valleys Mousterian Man left ‘ floors’ containing Combe Capelle 
and Levallois types, as discovered near. Ipswich by Miss Layard and 
Mr. Reid Moir. Probably all these industries, however, are referable 
to Early Mousterian, whereas the glaciation was apparently Middle to 
Late Mousterian. 

To revert for a few moments to the pre-Upper-Chalky-Drift interval, 
let us consider the conditions that obtained in the river-valleys while 
the lake-areas were being silted up. The valleys had been partly infilled 
with Chalky Boulder Clay and its associated sands and gravels. The 
melting and retreat of the ice not only produced in the plateau-country 
spreads of glacieluvial gravel containing Chalky and Jurassic debris, 
but must have resulted in floods descending the valleys. A period, 
first of erosion and later of aggradation, appears to have set in, and the 
river-terraces situated at from 50 feet (River Yare) to 70-80 feet (River 


_ Stour) above present river-level were formed. The streams were doubt- 


less braided, and, as they wandered to and fro in the valleys, formed 
gravel-flats of which the range from bank to bank extended from one to 
three miles. The terrace-materials are frequently indistinguishable 
from glacial gravels, and had undoubtedly the same origin. But in 


them rolled Chellian and Early Acheulian implements, especially hand- 
" axes, are occasionally found. In particular, at Whitlingham, in the valley 


. 
’ 
. 


of the Yare near Norwich, Messrs. J. E. Sainty and H. H. Halls made 
a wonderful collection of nearly 300 implements, of which a few were 
rolled and striated Chellian types, but the majority unrolled and probably 
of Late Acheulian age. The absence of evidence of a land-surface and 
of peaty bands suggests that Acheulian Man was following the retreating 
ice-sheet, possibly at no great distance from it, and was temporarily 
encamping on gravel-banks adjoining the streams. Although negative 
evidence is never entirely satisfac‘ory, we may recall that no beds of 
peat or planty layers have been recorded in the lake-like areas of brick- 


_ earth that occupy hollows in the Chalky Boulder Clay of Norfolk ; it is 
conceivable that, being nearer the ice-margin, the area was subjected 


‘to more rigorous conditions and more scour from melt-waters than the 


country farther south. 

At another interesting locality, Dovercourt, near Harwich, the ancient 
gravels of the river Stour lying at about 74 ft. above the river-level 
yielded to W. C. Underwood a series of implements and bones. The 


implements included rare Chellian types and a large collection of Early 


and Late Acheulian axes, unrolled and unscratched. The mammalian 


72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


bones did not represent a distinctive fauna, but included fallow-deer, 
mammoth, and Rhinoceros leptorhinus. In a second (later) terrace of 
brickearth lying at a few feet above river-level at Stutton, Corbicula 
fluminalis occurred in association with other land and freshwater shells. 
This was the first appearance of Corbicula fluminals in East Anglia 
since the late Pliocene (Cromer Forest-bed and Weybourn Crag), and 
in time (post-Chellian to Upper Acheulian) appears to correspond approxi- 
mately with its appearance elsewhere in the British area. We have no 
evidence that it was present in England during the earlier (pre-Chalky 
Jurassic Boulder Clay) interglacial interval. 

Our picture of East Anglia at the time of Acheulian and Early Mousterian 
Man will be completed by a glance at the Cambridge district, at present 
under re-examination by the officers of the Geological Survey. Already 
available to us, however, are the valuable results collected over a 
period of years by Prof. J. E. Marr, Prof. W. B. R. King, and the 
Cambridge school. In this district the Great Chalky Boulder Clay 
covers much of the higher ground, the river deposits being of later date, 
with the possible though not probable exception of the Barrington 
gravels. It is important to note that the Great Chalky Boulder Clay 
Ice retreated sufficiently from the area of the Wash to permit the Cam 
and Ouse to flow northwards into an early representative of the North - 
Sea, and to allow the warm-water mollusc Corbicula fluminalis to re- 
establish itself at numerous localities in the area. Prof. Marr shows 
that aggradation of the valleys took place after the glaciation and re- 
treat of the ice, the climate being at first rather warm, but later becoming 
cooler. During this stage, valley-gravels such as the Lower Barnwell 
Village Beds and lower evenly-bedded gravels of the Traveller’s Rest 
Pit were formed ; they contain worn Chellian and fresh Acheulian 
implements, together with Corbicula fluminalis and remains of hippo- 
potamus. Succeeding these deposits are the unevenly-bedded gravels 
of the Traveller’s Rest Pit, containing what appear to be La Micoque 
and Early Mousterian industries. It is Prof. Marr’s belief that during 
this time of aggradation marine and freshwater conditions alternated 
in the lower part of the area of the Ouse drainage—the deltaic tracts 
of the March-Nar sea. Dr. J. D. Solomon, on the other hand, is in- 
clined to refer the interdigitated marine and freshwater deposits to a 
later stage. 

Resting upon the Early Mousterian gravels in Cambridgeshire is a 
deposit similar to that already referred to as Upper Boulder Clay, Upper 
Chalky Drift or Trail A subsequent period of erosion with minor 
periods of aggradation intervened, resulting in the formation of, first, 
the upper evenly-bedded gravels of the Traveller’s Rest Pits and later 
the Upper Barnwell Village and Barnwell Station Beds with a cold fauna, 
but without implements. 

From the surface-deposits of the district have been recorded Aurig- 
nacian, Solutrian, Magdalenian and Azilio-Tardenoisian implements, 


1 Mr. S. Hazzledine Warren in 1924 suggested that the Trail of the Thames 
basin was of post-Mousterian age, but thought that it might be as late as 
Magdalenian, 


C.—GEOLOGY 73 


but their relationship to the river-gravels, and particularly to the last 
cold episode of the Barnwell Station Beds, has not been determined. 

The succession at the well-known locality of High Lodge, Mildenhall, 
raises problems which have not yet been solved. Prof. Marr recog- 
nised an Upper and a Lower Chalky Boulder Clay separated by gravels 
and brickearths which have yielded numerous implements of so-called 
Mousterian type, but including hand-axes related to the pre-Mousterian 
industry in Germany. The workmanship resembles somewhat that 
of the Clactonian flake-industry and may, according to Miss Dorothy 
Garrod, be a development from it. In the present state of our know- 
ledge, we can only correlate the Upper Boulder Clay of this area with 
the Upper Chalky Drift, and the Lower Boulder Clay with the Chalky- 
Jurassic facies. 

Traces of Man’s existence in the area after the formation of the Upper 
Chalky Drift of southern Norfolk and Suffolk can be found only in the 
surface-deposits. These usually occur on the slopes or floors of valleys. 
Mr. Reid Moir has found what he claims to be implements of Mousterian 
manufacture in the Upper Chalky Drift (Boulder Clay) near Ipswich, 
but agreement on the nature of the flaking has not yet been secured. 
Moreover, he has recently stated that he has found the same type in 
the upper part of the Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay—a claim which, if 
‘admitted, would be difficult to reconcile with our ideas of the strati- 

graphical sequence. However, on the slopes of a small valley near 
Ipswich Mr. Moir has found a succession of floors, the two uppermost 
of which contain Upper Mousterian and Aurignacian implements respec- 

tively. These floors prove that the local and minor topographical 

_ features must have attained their present form before Upper Mousterian 

times, for only hill-wash (containing Solutrian blades) covers the deposits. 
Even more significant is his discovery of an excellent section at the 
bottom of the Gipping Valley, where at a depth of 15 feet below the river 
alluvium (about 1 foot to 5 feet below O.D.) is a peaty loam containing 
a floor of Early Mousterian (Combe-Capelle) age, associated with bones 
of reindeer. This peaty bed was succeeded by a blue loam with Early 
Solutrian blades, the whole being covered by gravel with many derived 
implements. The surface-deposits of sand and loam here contain 
Magdalenian and Neolithic types. In the estuary of the river Orwell, 
below Ipswich, the well-known ‘ Submerged Forest’ or peat-bed, lying 
at about 30 feet or more below O.D. and containing teeth of mammoth, 
is covered first by shingly gravel and then by alluvial mud with 
peaty partings. At the base of the latter is a floor, believed to be of 
Magdalenian age. 

The relationship of the industries of Aurignacian and Magdalenian 
Man to the glacial episodes thus cannot be determined in the Ipswich 
district, but there is evidence, like that in the Fen country, of a subsi- 
dence since Solutrian times. For the requisite connecting link we must 
turn to north-western Norfolk, where there is a Boulder Clay still younger 

than any yet mentioned. This ‘ Brown Boulder Clay ’ was recognised 
long ago by the officers of the Geological Survey as the latest Boulder 
Clay of the Wash area, being very different lithologically from the Chalky 


D2 


74 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Boulder Clay upon which it sometimes rests. In its erratics, as also 
in the mineral composition of its matrix, it resembles the Hessle Boulder 
Clay of the coast-sections of Yorkshire, a deposit which lies above the 
Upper Purple Boulder Clay. The easternmost exposure of this Brown 
Boulder Clay is seen at Morston, near Blakeney, where Mr. Solomon 
has demonstrated that it overlies a raised beach, which in turn fringes 
and is banked against the western edge of the Blakeney Esker and Cromer 
Moraine. Obviously, this important discovery shows that the raised 
beach is later than the disturbance that produced the hummocks of 
Contorted Drift, and also than the Ridge (Cannon-shot) gravels ; still 
younger, therefore, is the Brown Boulder Clay. Mr. Solomon argues 
that the Brown Boulder Clay cannot have been produced by the same 
glaciation as the Upper Chalky Drift—a conclusion supported by the 
fact that no Brown Boulder Clay or its outwash material is found in the 
Cromer Moraine. 

At several sites in or near Hunstanton Mr. Reid Moir has found 
Middle Aurignacian burins, scrapers, points and cores in the Brown 
Boulder Clay. At one of these, the Gasworks Pit, the arrangement 
of glacial gravels, boulder clay and made ground is somewhat confused ; 
at another, the section at the southern end of the Esplanade, the Boulder 
Clay bed from which he actually obtained the implements has since 
been removed in the course of ‘improvements.’ The state of pre- 
servation and patination of the implements is similar to that of other 
flints in the Brown Boulder Clay. Thus we have here evidence of a 
glaciation subsequent to the occupation of the area by Aurignacian Man, 
but a glaciation which, as shown by the thinning off of the Brown Boulder 
Clay, did not reach farther south-eastwards than the north-western 
margin of Norfolk. That this glaciation is not likely to be the same as 
that which produced the Upper Chalky Drift and Trail of Suffolk is 
indicated by (a) the absence of Brown Boulder Clay and its outwash 
material in the Contorted Drift and Ridge gravels, and (b) the evidence 
of an interval between these deposits as represented by the raised beach 
of Morston. Were it not for this raised beach, however, we might be 
tempted to regard the Upper Chalky Drifts and Coombe Rock with 
their derived Mousterian and Levalloisian implements as the extra-glacial 
phenomena of the Brown Boulder Clay ice, due to snow-sludge and 
slumping under cold conditions. 

Such, then, is the most complete succession in England of glacial and 
other deposits associated with the remains of Early Man—a succession 
to which the term ‘ standard ’ may reasonably be applied. The attempt 
to trace the succession throughout England and Wales is probably 
worth while, although we shall find that, in the present state of our 
knowledge, and perhaps because of the less favourable conditions for 
the preservation of the remains of plants and animals and Man, minor 
difficulties of correlation have still to be faced. 


LINCOLNSHIRE. 


In endeavouring to recognise our sequence in Lincolnshire we have 
to travel to Kirmington, in the vicinity of the Humber, before reaching 


C.—GEOLOGY 75 


a multiple succession of glacial deposits. The deposits filling the 
Kirmington Channel were investigated in detail by a British Association 
Committee. The report of the Committee showed that the Purple 
Boulder Clay of the district (known from sections farther north in York- 
shire to be due to a later glaciation than the Scandinavian Drift) was 
succeeded first by sand, then laminated silts with estuarine shells and 
containing peat with marsh plants and fresh-water shells, next gravel, 
and, finally, ‘ Hessle’ Boulder Clay. ‘The plants indicated a sub-arctic 
climate ; the estuarine shells recorded were Cardium edule and Scrobi- 
cularia piperata. 'The ‘ Hessle’ Boulder Clay here is that of inland 
sections and is apparently not the equivalent of that of the coast-sections, 
which is to be correlated with the Brown Boulder Clay of Hunstanton. 
The sands, silts and gravels may thus correspond to similar beds at Hoxne. 
The Purple Boulder Clay has usually been regarded as the time-equivalent 
of the Great Chalky Boulder Clay west of the Lincolnshire Wolds, a 
deposit which continues into the Eastern Counties as the Chalky-Jurassic 
and Chalky-Neocomian Boulder Clay, but the possibility of there being 
two Purple Boulder Clays must be borne in mind. ‘The correlation of 
the Kirmington series with our standard succession will be open to 
doubt until the laminated silts or associated beds yield implements. 
Mr. J. P. 'T’. Burchell’s recent discovery of Early Mousterian (Clactonian) 
implements in the ‘ Hessle ’ Boulder Clay (=? the Upper Purple Boulder 
Clay) of Kirmington is of great interest, for it suggests that the Purple 
Boulder Clay at the base of the Kirmington series is the Lower Purple 
Boulder Clay, a conclusion confirmed, in his opinion, by its petrographic 
characters. Although Corbicula fluminalis has not been found at Kirm- 
ington, it is recorded in gravels above a Purple Boulder Clay elsewhere 
in northern Lincolnshire. 


YORKSHIRE. 


So graphic a word-picture of glacial conditions in Yorkshire has been 
painted by Messrs. Kendall and Wroot that I need only refer to their 
book on The Geology of Yorkshire and recall that, as in East Anglia, 
a succession of at least three definite Boulder Clays has been established : 
the lowermost or Basement Clay containing numerous Scandinavian 
erratics, the Purple Clays (the ‘ Middle Series’ of Mr. J. W. Stather), 
and the Hessle Clay. Each has its special characters, and these throw 
light on its origin and on the course of the ice-movement. Unlike East 
Anglia, however, no datable interglacial faunas and floras have been found, 
and no very definite traces of Early Palzolithic Man. ‘The relationships 
of the one implement obtained (of Acheulian type, from near Huntow) 
are obscure. What are claimed to be implements in chert, of supposed 


_Early Chellian age, have recently been discovered in the moraines, and 


on the Moors, of Nidderdale. The sketches of these unabraded rock- 


_ fragments are unconvincing to a geologist, but if the workmanship is 


accepted by archeologists, the occurrence of relatively unabraded Early 
Chellian or even Mousterian implements in such late-glacial deposits 
associated with retreat-phenomena seems to upset our tentative sequence. 


_ Discoveries by Mr. J. P. T. Burchell of Aurignacian implements near 


76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Flamborough, in a late-glacial deposit, which he regards as the equivalent 
of the coastal Hessle Boulder Clay, compare closely with the implements 
from the Hunstanton Boulder Clay, although the officers of the Geological 
Survey would prefer to regard the deposit in which they were found 
as a local kind of Coombe Rock. In the gravels of Kelsey Hill and 
Burstwick near Hull, long famous for their molluscan faunas (which 
include Corbicula fluminalis), and regarded by geologists as genetically 
connected with and overlying a Purple Boulder Clay, Mr. Burchell has 
found Early Mousterian artefacts ; as he rightly points out, the strati- 
graphical relationships may thus be similar to those at Hoxne, since he 
found below the gravels at one locality a boulder clay which he identified, 
from its lithological characters, as Lower Purple Boulder Clay. 

Sections have been described where two beds of the Purple Boulder 
Clay, separated by sands and gravels, have been observed. Prof. 
Kendall and Drs. Hollingworth, Raistrick, and Trotter are now inclined 
to regard these two boulder clays as due to separate glaciations, with 
an intervening interglacial phase. Dr. Raistrick would correlate the 
Lower Purple Boulder Clay with the early maximum of the Yorkshire 
Dales glaciation, and the Upper Purple Boulder Clay with the Vale of 
York maximum (Main Dales glaciation) and the passage of the Lake 
District ice over Stainmore. Drs. Hollingworth and Trotter agree 
in linking the Upper Purple Boulder Clay with their Early Scottish 
glaciation and the eastward travel of Lake District ice. Thus Yorkshire 
would appear to have suffered four glacial episodes (as Clement Reid 
originally thought), comparable with those of East Anglia, the Lower 
and Upper Purple Boulder Clays corresponding to the Chalky-Jurassic 
Boulder Clay and Upper Chalky Drift, respectively. The return of 
Corbicula fluminalis to the British area here appears to be of correlative 
value, for the Kelsey Hill gravels containing it overlie the Lower and 
underlie the Upper Purple Boulder Clay ; but if, as Lamplugh was 
inclined to think, the specimens were glacially derived from a river- 
deposit lying towards the east, the gravels might be associated with the 
retreat of a later ice-sheet, possibly that which formed the Upper Purple 
Boulder Clay. The present archzological evidence does not support 
the latter view. Moreover, recent work by Mr. W. S. Bisat shows 
that ee Upper Purple Boulder Clay and Hessle Clay overlie the Kelsey 
gravels. 

In one respect, however, the Yorkshire succession supplements our 
knowledge of that in East Anglia, for below the Basement Clay or most 
ancient Till at Sewerby is a preglacial cliff and beach containing the 
remains of hippopotamus, the straight-tusked elephant and the leptorhine 
rhinoceros. ‘These mammalian forms are often associated with imple- 
ments of Chellian Man, although they may persist to later times. At 
first sight it appears that here we have another link with the Cromer 
succession, if the beach is correlated with the Cromer Forest-bed. In 
the sand-dunes overlying the beach but underlying the Basement Clay 
appears a fauna consisting of mammoth, urus, bison and Irish elk. The 
sand-dunes, together with a bed of chalk-rubble below them, are evidence 
of an old land-surface. 


C.—GEOLOGY 77 


DuRHAM. 


It is generally agreed that the Basement Clay of Holderness finds its 
equivalent in Durham in the Scandinavian Drift discovered by Dr. C. T. 
Trechmann in hollows in the Magnesian Limestone near Sunderland. 
Overlying this deposit is a bed of loess, which was in all probability an 
interglacial deposit ; it is succeeded by Purple (Cheviot) Boulder Clay. 
The only record of Older Palzolithic Man in the district is that of a 
quartzite implement of Chellian type from below the Purple (Cheviot) 
Boulder Clay. Correlation based on this one implement of crude work- 
manship (if it be accepted as an artefact) would be premature. 


NORTHUMBERLAND AND THE LAKE DISTRICT. 


Our next problem is the question of the linking-up of the boulder 
clays of Yorkshire, Durham and Northumberland with those of the 
Irish Sea area. Recent work of the officers of the Geological Survey, 
admirable in its detail, has established for the Solway-Eden district 
three main ice advances and retreats, namely, (1) a Scottish ice-advance, 
(2) a maximum combined Lake District ice-advance which carried 
boulder clay eastwards over the Tyne gap and over the Stainmore gap 
into the Tees valley, and (3) a Scottish re-advanee. There also appears 
to be evidence of a weathered boulder clay earlier than any of these 
episodes. In his valuable paper on the glaciation of eastern Edenside and 
the Alston block, Dr. F. M. Trotter has traced an ose-train westwards from 
Hexham by way of the Tyne gap, and has thus connected the maximum 
glaciation of the Lake District with that which yielded the coastal Hessle 
Boulder Clay. Previous to this, ice-sheets which advanced over Stain- 
more during the onset of the Early Scottish and Lake District glaciations 
fed the glaciers which helped to form the Purple Boulder Clays of York- 
shire, replete with boulders of Shap granite, Borrowdale lavas, etc. 
Drs. Trotter and Hollingworth are therefore inclined to correlate the 
Upper Purple Boulder Clay with the Early Scottish advance, and the 
Lower Purple Boulder Clay with the early weathered boulder clay of 
Silloth, and other places. 


Tue IrisH SEA AND CHESHIRE BASIN. 


The main glaciation of the Irish Sea region extended to the coastal 
areas of North Wales and far into the Cheshire Plain. As is well known, 
during its retreat-stages at the end of this period, the ice gave rise to 
the glacial lakes Newport, Buildwas and Lapworth, and caused important 
diversions of river-drainage in the case of the Severn and other systems. 
In North Wales a boulder clay from the Irish Sea ice sealed up the mouths 
of several well-known caves in the Carboniferous Limestone, containing 
floors of Middle Aurignacian implements. Notable amongst these 
were Cae-gwyn and Ffynnon Beuno, in Denbighshire. Although for 
a time some difference of opinion was held as to whether or not the 
undisturbed boulder clay of the Vale of Clwyd actually sealed up the 
caves, the consensus of opinion was finally in favour of that view. The 
Snowdonian and Arenig ice-sheets seem to have been able to prevent 
the Irish Sea ice from advancing far into the hilly region of North Wales, 


78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


for the deposits of Welsh and Northern Drift often lie side by side. It 
is now generally believed that the Welsh and Irish Sea ice-sheets were 
practically contemporaneous, although the northern ice seems to have 
arrived first and weakened and retreated first ; thus, on the Welsh Borders 
it was overridden by the Arenig Ice which carried Welsh erratics as far 
as Wolverhampton and Birmingham—indeed, beyond the limits pre- 
viously reached by the northern ice. ‘That this phenomenon was but 
evidence of the give-and-take of glaciation has, however, been demon- 
strated by the officers of the Geological Survey, who have traced out 
the junction between the two ice-sheets, marked by morainic belts, 
kettles, meres and peat-bogs, along a line approximately through Wrexham 
and Ellesmere towards Shrewsbury. On the shores of Cardigan Bay, 
North Wales, and Lancashire, and also in Anglesey there are, however, 
two beds of boulder clay, sometimes separated by sands and gravels. 
In some places the boulder clays differ in composition, but in others 
they resemble one another closely. Also, Dr. Bernard Smith noted near 
Ellesmere, in the Cheshire Plain, the presence of a boulder clay lying 
above mounds of sands and gravels like those that overlie the boulder 
clay of the Newport district. ‘The two coastal boulder clays have not 
yet been traced inland, but general opinion is that only the lower extends 
to Newport and Buildwas (the main Irish Sea glaciation), while it is the 
upper clay which seals the caves at Cae-gwyn and Ffynnon Beuno. In 
the mountain-district of North Wales, the evidence of two glaciations 
has not been clearly worked out, but several investigators have observed 
features referable to two ice-advances with retreat-stages between. In 
fine, the Lower Boulder Clay of Lancashire, Cheshire and Wales would 
appear to be correlatable with the Early Scottish glaciation of the Lake 
District, and the Upper Boulder Clay with the Lake District Maximum 
and Hessle Boulder Clay. 


THE SEVERN DRAINAGE. 


A study of the overflow-channels of the extra-glacial Lake Lapworth 
(with its earlier stages, Lakes Newport and Buildwas) at Ironbridge, 
which were formed during the retreat of the northern ice, has enabled 
Dr. L. J. Wills in a masterly paper to connect the terraces of the river 
Severn below the Ironbridge Gorge with the glacial phenomena of the 
Cheshire basin above it. He regards the ‘ Main Terrace’ of the Severn 
as corresponding to his Stage II and subsequent stages of the ice-retreat, 
as deduced from glacial lake-levels and terrace-gradients. Another 
connecting-link with the drifts and river-deposits of the Midland area is 
provided by the overflow channel at Gnosall, which discharges into Church 
Eaton Brook and so into the Trent Basin. Mr. E. E. L. Dixon informs me 
that with this channel is connected a valley-train of sand and gravel that 
occurs at a low level, and is therefore later than the old Trent river-terrace. 


Tue AvON-STOUR AREA, 
The absence or rarity of mammalian remains and implements in the 
terraces of the Lower Severn has rendered very difficult Dr. Wills’s efforts 
to correlate these deposits with those of the river Thames. Meanwhile, 


C.—GEOLOGY 79 


Miss M. Tomlinson’s excellent work on the similar deposits of the river 
Avon and its tributary, the Stour, enables us to continue the story over 
the Moreton watershed into the Evenlode Valley, where Dr. K. S. Sand- 
ford has picked up the threads. The Drifts of the Avon-Stour region 
consist of high-level gravelly deposits mostly containing boulders foreign 
to the district. These Drifts antedate the fluviatile deposits, which 
Miss Tomlinson has classified as Terraces No. 4, No. 3 and No. 2, in 
order of decreasing age. The earliest Drift consists of Plateau Gravels, 
and the latest, termed the Moreton Drift, is a chalky deposit which in 
places has the character of a boulder clay derived from the north. ‘The 
Moreton Drift, which Miss Tomlinson would correlate with the Chalky 
Boulder Clay of the country farther east, penetrates the pre-existing 
Moreton gap into the Evenlode drainage, and, on considerations of 
gradient, seems to be connected with the Wolvercote Terrace-gravels 
of the Oxford district. Terraces Nos. 3 and 4 of the Stour-Avon drainage 
mark an aggradation accompanied by a ‘ warm’ fauna (including Cordi- 
cula fluminalis, Hippopotamus, and Elephas antiquus). It is to be noted 
that Corbicula fluminalis here appears at about the same horizon as in 
the east of England. Terrace No. 2 carries a cold fauna (including 
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros), and, in the opinion of Dr. Wills, is 
to be correlated with his ‘ Main Terrace ’ of the river Severn, and there- 
fore with the maximum glaciation of the Irish Sea area. Unfortunately, 
no implements that might assist in correlation have been found. 


THe Upper THAMES. 


To Dr. K. S. Sandford’s valuable work we owe our detailed know- 
ledge of the sequence of events in the region of the Upper Thames, where 
the problems are of exceptional difficulty. Dr. Sandford has recently 
(1932) correlated the Plateau Drift (containing Scandinavian erratics) with 
the Scandinavian Drift (Norwich Brickearth) of Eastern England, and 


the later-formed 1oo-r14o ft. Terrace of the river Thames containing 


=. 


Chellian implements, with the overlying sands and gravels of East Anglia. 

The Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay of the east of England does not 
reach the Oxford district, but the early retreat-stages of the ice may 
be represented by the formation of the Wolvercote Terrace. Next 


_ follow the Lower and Upper Summertown-Radley Terraces, with cold 


and warm faunas, respectively, which Dr. Sandford would now correlate 
with the lower brickearths at Hoxne. Thus the succeeding Lower 


_ Gravels of the Wolvercote Channel with their warm fauna and late 


 Acheulian and Micoque implements would be the equivalent of the 


corresponding (Upper Acheulian) gravels of Hoxne and other East Anglian 
localities. Corbicula fluminalis appears in the Upper Summertown- 
Radley Terrace in association with the straight-tusked elephant and 
hippopotamus—that is, at just about the horizon at which we have by 
now been led to expect it. The upper beds of the Wolvercote Channel, 
of cold-temperate character, with their single Mousterian implement, 
are correlated with the Mousterian brickearths farther east, and the 
warp at the top of the channel with the Upper Chalky Drift, for it yields 
evidence of probable frozen-soil conditions. The latest deposits of the 


80 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Oxford district are then correlatable with the various post-Mousterian stages 
of East Anglia, as shown in the table accompanying this address. ‘The 
Oxford succession can thus be fitted in fairly satisfactorily with our standard 
succession on the one hand and the Stour-Avon succession on the other. 


Tue Lower THAMES. 


The terraces of the Lower Thames have been the subject of numerous 
papers. Thanks to the efforts of Messrs. Chandler, Leach, Reginald 
Smith, the officers of the Geological Survey (particularly Mr. H. Dewey 
and Mr. H. G. Dines), and other workers, our knowledge of the succession 
is now well founded, and I need only summarise the results of their 
labours. The river-deposits seem to be later than the Chalky-Jurassic 
Boulder Clay. The 100-ft. terrace marks a period of aggradation, and 
is divisible into three beds of sandy gravel separated from one another 
in certain cases by deposits of marly loam. In the lowest gravel are 
large cores and flakes of the Clactonian industry, associated with Elephas 
antiquus and Rhinoceros leptorhinus. ‘The upper portion of this bed and 
the base of the succeeding loam contain land and fresh-water mollusca, 
including Corbicula fluminalis and Theodoxus cantianus. The middle 
gravel contains unabraded Early Acheulian hand-axes, and in its upper 
part, twisted ovates (Late Acheulian). In a brickearth of rather later 
age have been found Late Acheulian and Early Levalloisian ovate imple- 
ments. The 50-ft. terrace contains rolled Acheulian implements and 
affords evidence of corrasion during the warm period when its lower 
beds were formed, and aggradation during the colder times when its 
upper beds were laid down. ‘The Levalloisian tortoise-core industry 
appears approximately at the level of this terrace. ‘The Crayford brick- 
earth, which succeeds it, contains at its base Levalloisian flakes ; also, 
the cold fauna found at this time of aggradation foreshadows the oncoming 
of the arctic conditions which gave rise to the Coombe deposits, which may 
be correlated with the Upper Chalky Drift. ‘The Coombe deposits here, 
as Dewey figuratively says, ‘ put an end to Levallois Man.’ At Bapchild, 
in the Medway Valley, Mr. H. G. Dines found in the Coombe deposit 
Early Levalloisian implements in a battered and scratched state. ‘These 
had probably been transported for a short distance. Late Levalloisian 
implements were found at the base of a brickearth which overlies the 
Coombe deposits, and Aurignacian (or even later) implements above 
them. ‘The evidence of the Whitehall and Lea Valley deposits indicates 
uplift, erosion and aggradation under cold conditions, the ‘ Ponders 
End stage’ of Mr. Hazzledine Warren. ‘The age of these deposits has 
not been established with certainty, but the flakes found in them have 
been doubtfully regarded as Aurignacian ; they are, in any case, pre- 
Neolithic. In company with other investigators, I am much tempted 
to correlate the Ponders End stage with the post-Aurignacian Hunstanton 
and Hessle Boulder Clays, for the cold conditions which brought boulder 
clay so far south as the Wash must have had a marked influence on the 
fauna and flora of the Thames Valley. 

The correlation of the deposits and industries of the Upper Thames 
and Lower Thames has not been effected without some difficulty, but 


C.—GEOLOGY 81 


a recent and most useful review of the problem has led Dr. Sandford 
to general conclusions similar to those at which I had independently 
arrived. Dr. Sandford now correlates the 100-140 ft. terrace with 
the Caversham and Dartford Heath Chellian gravels, and his Wolvercote 
Terrace with the Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay. Further, he equates 
the Lower Summertown-Radley Terrace with the Swanscombe Clac- 
tonian-Acheulian gravels of the 1oo-ft. terrace, and the lower beds of the 
Wolvercote Channel with the 50-ft. or Taplow Terrace. The upper beds 
of the Channel are thus correlated with the Lower Crayford Brickearth 
(Early Mousterian). The oldest ‘ warp ’ of the Oxford district would then 
appear to be comparable with the Coombe Rock (Upper Mousterian). 

At Clacton, on the Essex Coast, Mr. Hazzledine Warren has discovered 
a river-channel of which the lower beds contain Clactonian flakes 
associated with elephant and other mammalian remains, and plants, 
indicative of warm conditions. Derived specimens of Corbicula fluminalis 
are also found. Correspondence is here suggested with the 100-ft. 
terrace of the Thames, although the deposit lies at only 43 to 48 feet 
above O.D. A few miles farther north, at a level of 74 feet above O.D., 
lie the gravels of the river Stour; also, the Stutton low terrace with 
Corbicula fluminalis, already mentioned. Thus the Stour deposits, 
which on field evidence appear to be more recent than the Chalky- 
Jurassic Boulder Clay, are probably to be correlated on the one hand 
with the Clacton gravel and 100-ft. terrace of the Thames, and on the 
other with the Acheulian deposits of Ipswich, Hoxne and Whitlingham, 
referred to earlier in this address. 


THE MIDLAND AREA, 


We have now closed our traverse, but we shall hardly be able to avoid 
the feeling that there are weak links in our chain of evidence, especially 
concerning the south-western part of the Midlands and the borders of 
the Irish Sea, where the difficulties are greatest and the traces of Early 
Man scanty or absent. It remains to see whether any cross-ties of 
evidence, which will serve as checks on our correlations, can be obtained 
by way of the central and northern Midlands. Unfortunately, dis- 
coveries of the implements of Palzolithic Man are rare and sporadic 
in the counties of Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire. 
A few cave-deposits, like those of Cresswell Crags, have yielded a rich 
harvest of implements and confirmed the time-succession of Palzolithic 
industries, but the beds containing them are unfortunately not in contact 
with glacial deposits. The irregular driftless areas of Lincolnshire, 
Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire and Staffordshire suggest considerable 
denudation in late-glacial times rather than non-deposition of glacial 
detritus. In many parts of the area the officers of the Geological Survey 
have been unable to distinguish with certainty more than one boulder 
clay with associated sands and gravels, although Mr. R. M. Deeley long 
ago claimed to be able to distinguish three or even four in the Trent 
basin, separated by interglacial sands and gravels. Much excavation 
took place in the valley of the Trent after Chalky Boulder Clay times, 
and the oldest Trent gravel is more recent than the glacial deposits ; 


82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


again, it has yielded but few implements, and those appear to be of 
Late Acheulian and Levalloisian types. Some part of the Irish Sea 
ice is known to have flowed over into the Trent drainage (as in Doveholes, 
the Rudyard gorge and the Gnosall gap), but the exact relationship of the 
various glacial and interglacial stages has yet to be established. In 
many cases the ‘ Older River Gravels’ are intimately connected with 
late-glacial flood-deposits, the transition being gradual and difficult to 
trace. In the areas subjected to the influence of the Pennine and the 
Chalky Boulder Clay glaciers, the two ice-streams often appear to have 
met and coalesced, continuing their southward journey as though they 
were almost, if not exactly, synchronous. The faunas recorded from 
the valley-gravels are often of mixed character, including both the cold 
and warm faunas referred to above. In the case of old records, it is 
possible that collecting may not have been carried out with discrimina- 
tion, but in the case of modern records the explanation must lie in the 
erosion and redeposition of gravels, whereby the faunas have been mixed. 

In one area, that of Kenilworth, recent re-examination of the deposits 
of the Avon basin has yielded to Mr. F. W. Shotton what are possibly 
Early Acheulian hand-axes of quartzite. These were obtained from 
the Baginton gravels, which he regards as interglacial, for they lie below 
the local Chalky Boulder Clay at Lillington (the Upper Chalky-Jurassic 
Boulder Clay of Dr. Hollingworth) and above a lower Boulder Clay 
containing Keuper debris (the Lower Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay 
of the same author). The gravels contain a cold fauna, including 
mammoth and woolly rhinoceros. From the fluvio-glacial gravels above 
the Chalky Boulder Clay Mr. Shotton has obtained a doubtful Leval- 
loisian flake. The stratigraphical relationships of these rare implements 
have not been established with certainty, and probably for this reason 
the succession cannot be correlated entirely satisfactorily with that in 
eastern England. Difficulties also arise in the correlation of these deposits 
with those of the Avon-Stour area described by Miss ‘Tomlinson, but 
future work may be expected to resolve them. 

At Biddenham and Kempston, near Bedford, in the Great Ouse Valley, 
Mr. H. Dewey has drawn attention to the occurrence of gravel at about 
40 feet above present river-level, the lower evenly-bedded portion of 
which contains core hand-axes and Levalloisian disc-implements and 
blades. The upper portion of the gravel, which breaks its way irregu- 
larly into the lower beds, ravining and contorting the even bedding, 
contains masses of Chalky Boulder Clay and heavily rolled implements. 
The masses of Boulder Clay (Mr. Dewey argues from the field evidence) 
were obviously frozen hard when they disrupted the lower gravel. As 
he rightly suggests, the succession is similar to that at Ipswich and at 
Hoxne. Mousterian implements have been found at St. Neots by 
Mr. C. F. Tebbutt, in gravels of the Great Ouse, 10 feet above the river. 
Prof. Marr considers the succession here to be similar to that of the 
deposits of the river Cam. 

Other records of Palzolithic industries in Britain are so scanty as to 
yield little evidence for purposes of comparison. Plateau Gravels in 
the Bristol district have been compared by Prof. L. S. Palmer with 


C.—GEOLOGY 83 


the clay-with-flints, and an abraded Acheulian implement, with remains 
of mammoth, woolly rhinoceros and the straight-tusked elephant, have 
been found in the 1oo-ft. terrace of the river Avon. The 50-ft. terrace 
has yielded an abraded late Acheulian implement, and the overlying 
brickearth a Mousterian point. The neighbouring caves of Aveline’s 
Hole and Gough’s Cave are well known for their Late Aurignacian and 
Magdalenian industries. But in this driftless area, the relations of the 
various cave and other deposits to the terraces and drifts farther north 
and north-east have yet to be satisfactorily elucidated. 

From Barnwood, near Gloucester, Mr. M. C. Burkitt has described 
an axe-like implement of possibly Late Acheulian or Early Mousterian 
age, found in gravel and associated with bones of mammoth and woolly 
rhinoceros. A neighbouring gravel-pit yielded a Mousterian point, also 
accompanied by remains of mammoth. 


I have as yet made no reference to recent discoveries of prehistoric 
human industries in definite geological settings outside Britain. We 
live in an age when such discoveries are made in rapid succession. ‘To 
review the investigations on the border-line of geology and archeology 
that have been prosecuted in various European countries, in Egypt, 
East Africa, South Africa and China, would take more space than is 
available to me. The labours of investigators too numerous to mention 
here have furnished valuable results, but they also serve to demonstrate 
that it would be premature to attempt world-wide correlations of the 
geological and climatic phenomena accompanying human industries. 
In particular, the correlation of British glacial episodes with those of the 
Alps, as established by Penck and Briickner, seems always to have exer- 
cised a peculiar fascination for archeologists. I have refrained from 
any such comparison, although nothing would appear to be simpler than 
to correlate the four major glacial episodes of Britain with the Giinz, 
Mindel, Riss and Wiirm ice-advances of the Eastern Alps. If the various 
human industries are broadly contemporaneous from the Alps to Britain, 
such a correlation would be strengthened, and the fifth glaciation of 
Britain (the Scottish re-advance) would be represented in the Alps by 
the Wiirm II or Buhl episode. In my opinion, however, it is still too 
early to claim that such a correlation has been established, for we have 
no proof (even if we admit the probability) that the first glaciation of the 
Alpine area was synchronous with that of eastern England. Moreover, 
reference to the works of such European authorities as Penck, Obermaier, 
Breuil, Wiegers and Wohlstedt, to mention only a few, shows astonishing 
differences of opinion regarding the correlation of the Alpine glacial 
and interglacial phases with human industries in other parts of Europe. 
In leaving the question still open, I would only remark in passing that a 
correlation such as that recently attempted by my friend Sir Arthur 
Keith is not likely to find favour among geologists. Sir Arthur uses the 
fourfold glaciations of the Eastern Alps in order to correlate the episodes 
with British glaciations ; then, since the sequence does not fit, he omits 
from the middle the Riss glaciation. Now, with all respect, I submit 
that this is like having your cake—in this instance an iced cake—as well 


84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


as eating it; Sir Arthur cannot both adopt the Alpine succession and 
abandon one member of the sequence because it does not accord. Satis- 
factory correlation will doubtless be possible in course of time, but it 
must needs await fresh investigation of the successions of the Rhine 
Valley and Low Countries and of the river-deposits of France, which 
may be regarded as connecting-links between the deposits of the Alpine 
area and those of eastern and southern England. 

The mention of southern England reminds me that within the limits 
of this address I have been unable to deal, even briefly, with the evidence 
of changes of level of the land and sea, and the consequent erosion and 
aggradation of the river-systems of Britain. In the area south of the 
river Thames glacial deposits as such (that is, as distinguished from 
deposits due to snow-sludge or movement of semi-frozen superficial 
material) are absent. Correlation must be effected, therefore, with 
river-terraces and raised beaches, and will depend on evidence of changes 
of level, combined with that of included implements. Information 
comes but slowly to hand, and the problems are exceptionally difficult. 
Two facts emerge: (1) the widespread submergence and aggradation 
of river-valleys in Acheulian times, and (2) the marked elevation and 
river-erosion of Mousterian times. The movements in southern and 
eastern England appear to have been differential, possibly of the isostatic 
type, rather than eustatic uplifts like those in the Mediterranean area 
described by Lamothe, Depéret, Gignoux and others. Nevertheless, 
the work that has been accomplished, notably by Prof. L. S. Palmer, 
is promising of fruitful results. While leaving open the question of 
correlating changes of level throughout Britain, I have therefore attached 
his sequence to the table accompanying this address. 

Any attempt to measure the antiquity of Man in Britain in terms of 
years is bound to be speculative and unscientific so far as the geological 
evidence is concerned. No deposits similar to the varve-clays of Sweden 
have yet been found in Britain. From the varve-clays of Sweden, as 
is well known, G. de Geer and other workers have concluded that about 
13,500 years have elapsed since the receding front of the ice occupied 
a position in southern Scania. Using this as a basis, he dates the com- 
mencement of the Gothi-glacial sub-epoch of the last glaciation (? Mag- 
dalenian) as from 15,000 to 16,000 years ago. Possibly the earlier sub- 
epoch (Dani-glacial) may also be dated, but any extrapolation of the 
time-scale in years to glacial episodes before the latest (the maximum 
of which was marked by the Baltic moraine) is, as de Geer and Sollas 
have emphasised, to add to ‘ a hecatomb of erroneous dates.’ 

In the foregoing review of our knowledge of British glacial deposits 
and their relationship to human industries, I have been compelled to 
summarise the work of a large number of investigators, many of whom 
I have been unable to mention by name. For this omission I crave 
pardon, and also for possibly misrepresenting their views in attempting to 
secure brevity, particularly when qualification of a bald statement would 
have been desirable. It may be that more agreement emerges from 
the foregoing suggested classification than might at first have been ex- 
pected, but it is certain that the facile correlations so often made, although 


C.—GEOLOGY 85 


not usually by British geologists, cannot have lasting value. In any 
case, I hope that this exposition of the state of our present knowledge 
and theories may have an historical use hereafter. 


Let me make a concluding summary by attempting a word-picture of 
Pleistocene conditions in the British area in so far as they affected the 
occupancy of the country by Early Man. We may assume that the 
connection of the Early Pliocene sea of the south-east of England with 
regions farther south was broken by an uplift of the Weald-English 
Channel region, which resulted in the formation of the ancestor of our 
present North Sea. In later Pliocene times, this sea became more and 
more restricted as its limits were forced northwards. With the removal 
of barriers to the migration of mollusca from the north, arctic species 
found their way in increasing numbers into East Anglia. Geographical 
and faunal changes about this time were so gradual and the effects of 
penecontemporaneous erosion so marked that it is by no means clear 
where we should draw the line between Pliocene and Pleistocene. In 
our picture we must visualise at this time a land-area populated by plants 
living under temperate conditions similar to those of the present day, and 
drained by a great river that carried down the remains of southern ‘ warm ’ 
animals, such as the straight-tusked elephant, the hippopotamus and 
leptorhine rhinoceros. Occasionally, however, there were also delivered 
into the estuary the remains of cold-loving animals, while the sea with 
which it was connected was the home of a cold molluscan fauna. The 
greater part of the east of England then seems to have been a land- 
surface, although there are now but few definite traces of it available 
for study. We have, however, the fissured surface of the Magnesian 
Limestone of Durham, the ancient sea-cliff of Chalk at Sewerby, and the 
surface of Pliocene deposits in Hertfordshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex. 
Ice began to gather in Scandinavia, and eventually found its way across 
the North Sea; its accumulation seems to have been accompanied by 
a submergence of the land. Boulders of characteristic Norwegian 
rocks were dropped on to the Scottish shores, particularly around the 
Moray Firth and Orkneys, and the ice-sheet itself appears to have 
impinged on the Durham and Yorkshire coasts. The evidence rather 
suggests that, by the time the ice-sheet reached the position of the present 
north-east coast, its force was spent, but its movement towards the south 
was more definite, and, possibly behaving like the Great Antarctic Barrier, 
it discharged its boulder-clay over the low ground of eastern Norfolk and 
Suffolk. Icebergs may also have invaded the Fen country by way of the 
Wash gap, dropping detritus even as far south-westwards as Oxford. 

In the long period of slow refrigeration which preceded this First 
Glacial Episode, Early Man must have passed through the primitive 
stages of his development as a tool-making animal, for the form and 
technique which characterise the subsequent Chellian implements 
could only have followed less easily-recognised efforts. ‘The resemblance 
in fashion of flaking and the repetition of form observed in the rostro- 
carinate implements of the sub-Crag gravels is one of the strongest argu- 
ments for their human workmanship. Also, the adherence to type bespeaks 


86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


the existence of even older and cruder forms. I must leave the debatable 
question with the picture of this very primitive man driven from his hunting- 
grounds by the advance of the first great ice-sheet, and only note in passing 
that the remains of Piltdown Man, although found in a Pleistocene gravel, 
are not datable with exactness, being accompanied by derived bones of 
Pliocene animals and flakes which, if referable to any particular period, 
must be attributed to the Chellian or even an earlier industry. 

The retreat of the Scandinavian ice appears to have been followed by 
a long interval, during the earlier stages of which the area of East Anglia 
was a shallow sea or lake, inhabited by a cold molluscan fauna. Into 
its waters were discharged large quantities of sand and gravel, released 
from the waning ice-sheet. During the later stages of retreat the area 
was uplifted and the East Anglian valley-systems were carved out of the 
deposits of brickearth, gravel and sand. Little evidence is forthcoming 
regarding conditions in Yorkshire and northern England during this 
First Interglacial interval, but in the Midlands and Thames Valley certain 
high-level plateau-gravels may have originated as outwashes from the 
ice, and some of the oldest river-gravels may have been the products 
of the subsequent erosion and aggradation of the pre-existing valleys. 
By inference, Chellian Man advanced into such parts of the British area 
as were available to him, for, although we find no ‘ floors ’ of unabraded 
tools of the Chellian industry, derived and abraded implements are not 
infrequent in later deposits. 

The First Interglacial interval was brought to a close by the develop- 
ment of ‘ home-grown’ ice-caps on the Scottish mountains, the Lake 
District and the Pennines. The chief glaciers thus produced appear 
to have developed and flowed east of the Pennines, possibly because 
of the cooling effects of the proximity of the Scandinavian ice, for the 
manner in which the earlier Cheviot ice and the Purple Boulder Clay 
ice hug the low ground to the East Coast, taking a southward course 
parallel to it, suggests that most of the North Sea was still filled with ice. 
The Lower Purple Boulder Clay ice does not appear to have risen 
sufficiently high to override the Lincolnshire Wolds westwards. On the 
west of this escarpment the Great Chalky Boulder Clay ice, augmented 
by the sheets which had flowed down the Yorkshire Plain (together 
with Lake District ice which had come over Stainmore), travelled up the 
valley of the Trent and down that of the Witham, fanning out across the 
low ground of the eastern Midlands. Part of the sheet, which crossed 
the Fen district, spread eastwards and southwards over East Anglia, 
reaching to Finchley in North London. Other portions of the ice- 
sheet spread south-westwards over the central Midlands and may have 
given rise to the most far-flung example we know, the Moreton Boulder 
Clay of the Cotswolds. The ice which had descended eastwards from 
the Pennines seems only to have been sufficiently powerful to travel 
southwards side by side with the Great Chalky Boulder Clay ice, and 
thus to have been elbowed into the Avon Valley. At the same time, 
ice appears to have advanced from the North Sea in a south-easterly to 
southerly direction on to the Norfolk Coast, thereby influencing the 
course of the Chalky-Neocomian and Chalky-Jurassic glaciers. 

Over the greater part of England this Second Glacial Episode was that 


C.—GEOLOGY 87 


of the maximum glaciation ; and we assume that Chellian, and perhaps 
Early Acheulian, Man retreated before it. The origin and provenance of 
the few implements found in the Cromer Till and Chalky-Jurassic Boulder 
Clay have been questioned ; if these implements demonstrate anything, 
they show that the ice advanced over a Chellian land-surface. 

Milder conditions caused the recession of the ice-sheets of the Second 
Glacial Episode, and the interglacial phase which followed was character- 
ised by a pronounced amelioration of climate, and an aggradation of the 
valleys. Little evidence is available for assessing the length of this 
interval, but there is reason to suppose that it was shorter than the first 
interglacial interval. Some diversions of drainage were caused in the 
more hilly country during the retreat-stages of the ice, but the main 
valley-systems were only enlarged and aggraded by swollen and detritus- 
laden streams fed by the melting ice. ‘The change to a temperate climate 
is reflected in the return of Corbicula fluminalis to the British area, and 
in the rich fauna and flora found in numerous lake-deposits ; it is not 
surprising, therefore, that the evidence of the presence and activities 
of Early Man at this time is most abundant and satisfactory. Acheulian 
Man, in his middle and later stages of development, wandered over the 
country and encamped near meres and rivers, doubtless hunting the 
“warm ’ big game, such as the straight-tusked elephant, hippopotamus, 
leptorhine rhinoceros, etc. He was succeeded as an occupant of the 
area by Mousterian Man, whose remains are usually (but not always) 
accompanied by evidence of colder conditions. Contemporary with the 
Acheulian industry was the interesting Clactonian type of flaking which 
may have marked a new human invasion from Central Europe. Climatic 
oscillations occurred during this interglacial stage, as indicated by the 
brief sojourn in eastern England of northern plants and animals ; also, 
the presence of faceted pebbles in some of the gravels points to vigorous 
wind-action, possibly connected with anticyclonic conditions during 
the retreat of the ice. In the main, the English area stood at a lower 
level than at present and, while the land oscillated in height from time 
to time, the story is one of gradual uplift, by reason of which the streams 
were able to erode their courses to lower levels, their braided sinuosities 
being restricted at the same time within narrower valleys. 

From the general absence of Acheulian and Lower Mousterian imple- 
ments in the north of England, even from the caves, we may conclude 
that the area was inaccessible because of its covering of ice. ‘The Second 
Interglacial phase was brought to a close by cold conditions which, 
if not excessively severe, were sufficiently cold to produce Coombe 
deposits and ‘Trail over the southern part of England, while a re-advance 
of the ice took place farther north. The most noteworthy effects of this 
re-advance were the production of the Cromer Moraine and the Upper 
Chalky Drift, in which, it is claimed, Mousterian implements have been 
incorporated from the pre-existing interglacial land-surface. ‘The record 
of this, the Third Glaciation of East Anglia, cannot be distinguished 
with certainty farther north, but it may be represented by the Upper 
Purple Boulder Clay of Yorkshire in those cases where two Purple Boulder 
Clays with intervening sands and gravels can be identified. 

The ice that had gathered on the Southern Uplands of Scotland was 


88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


joined by the Lake District ice and swept over Stainmore into the Tees 
Valley and also down the Tyne Valley. It also appeared to have filled 
the Irish Sea and to have advanced on to the Welsh Coast and across the 
Cheshire Plain to the Shropshire hills. 

The evidence for the Third Interglacial phase is not at present strati- 
graphically clear. By inference, the ice must have retreated on a large 
scale, for Aurignacian Man was able to establish himself on many sites 
and to reach the caves of Derbyshire and North Wales, and to leave, in 
the former case, examples of his art mobilier. He was accompanied by 
a fauna of arctic and tundra type. The situation of his ‘ floors,’ at present 
below sea-level at some localities, indicates that the land-area stood 
higher than now, so that communication with France and Spain must 
have been relatively easy. 

Corresponding with the evidence of a decrease of temperature in the 
Spanish and French cave-deposits, where the warm Aurignacian is 
followed by indications of a colder climate in the Magdalenian, is the 
development in northern England of great ice-sheets, the easternmost of 
which produced the Hessle Boulder Clay and was able to advance as far 
southwards as Hunstanton. Here its force was expended, and although 
it was able to pick up and include Middle Aurignacian implements on 
its way, it did not exercise sufficient influence to prevent Late Aurignacian 
and Magdalenian Man from living at no great distance from its front, 
as, for example, in East Anglia, and beyond the York Moraine in the 
Cresswell Caves. In the west of England and in Wales the Lake District 
and Scottish ice, having again filled the Irish Sea, invaded the marginal 
portions of the Cheshire Plain and North Wales. Aurignacian Man was 
driven from the country and the remains of his activities were sealed 
up in the North Welsh caves. We have considerable evidence of the 
retreat-stages of this Fourth Glacial Episode, and are at present led to 
believe that no subsequent glaciation of equal importance followed. 
While it may be true that the re-advance of the Scottish ice into the 
Lake District area marks a fifth glaciation, in the east and south of England 
Man appears to have survived free from climatic interruptions on a 
land-surface not very different topographically from that of to-day. 

The passing of the Ice Age was marked by a slow but steady sub- 
sidence of the land-area of southern and eastern England, which com- 
menced apparently after Late Aurignacian times, and continued until 
after the Neolithic period. Thus were produced the submerged forests, 
the drowned river-valleys and the buried valleys which occur just below 
the present-day flood-plain deposits of the rivers. 

And so the final touches on our picture portray a land very similar to our 
country as seen by modern Man. ‘Thenceforward its features become the 
study of the geographers, and its vicissitudes the concern of the historians. 
As geologists we piece together the earth’s story, one of unending yet varied 
change, from the rocky remnants on which we live. But, as we receive 
our earth from the astronomers, a world chronologically remote in its 
early stages and void of life if not of form, so we must in our turn pass 
it on to the historians. For the close of Paleolithic times marks the end 
of our course, and, like the runners of old, we hand on the torch of life. 


a Ss —— —————————eEEEE ose 


Valley. Portsmouth District. Industries. 
? 5th Glacial. 
ae eh a SEALE LS CRIS | es RIS SERN as: 
£  ? Interglacial or 
¢ | Interstadial ? 
Ree a - : : hice —_——_, § -— BESS : 
) § a 
End stage. | Last Coombe rock. | ‘S 
~ es 
Sandy deposits, Aurignacian ? 2 = 
andy deposits, Aurignacian ! | Ss 4 
(Ee | a oth Bee ike 
| a 
| ss | a g 
| Land rising. | S “bo 
osition of | 15-ft. Terrace-gravels. 5 o 
yusterian to 50-ft. Lower Coombe rock. hE As 
} _ Land rising. { = ss) 
| | 
: Be es ass hg st ome bu rs 
| 
| ro0-ft. Lower Coombe rock. S ) = 
| 50-ft. Gravels. . 2 i) 
15-ft. Littoral sands, Mous- | 2 o 
terian. | =§ ee) 
Land sinking. | | 3 rosy 
| <a 
Dacha fete 
| ro) | 
) a ) = 
S = 
too-ft. Terrace gravels. / s 
15-ft. Estuarine beds and Lower | | e 
fluviatile gravels, Acheulian. & a 
(= Ln | 
S as) 
~ 
3 : 
oO 


—Chellian——- —————— Acheulian — 


and Glacial. 


| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


1st Interglacial 


ist Glacial. 


Suffolk and Norfolk. 


Hunstanton Brown Boulder Clay, 
ith Middle Aurignacian im- 


Hill-washes, Aurignacian to Solu- 


z Chalky Drift, ? Lower 
Monsterian implements 


Early Mousterian  brickearth, 
temperate. 


Upper Acheulian gravels. 


ex ~ gravels 

Brickearth, cold and brick- 

Peat. with 

Brickearth, Corbicula 
temp. fluminalis. 


talky-Jurassic and Chalky-Neo- 
comian Boulder Clay. 
Contorted Drift. 


Glacial sands and gravels. 


; Association REPORT, 1932—The Contacts of Geology. 


Cambridge District. 


Barnwell Station arctic beds. 


Upper Barnwell Village beds, 
cold. 


Upper evenly-bedded gravels. 


Upper Chalky Drift. 


Unevenly-bedded gravels, Mous- 
terian and Micoquian. 


Lower evenly-bedded gravels, 
Acbeulian. 

Lower Barnwell Village beds, 
Corbicula fluminalis, ete. Bar- 
Fington gravels. 


Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay. 


Eastern Midlands. 


? Terrace gravels, 


Fluyio-glacial gravels. ? Leval- 


Joisian. 


Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay 
of Northants 


Grayels, warm above, cold below, 
Acheulian, 


Lincs, and Yorks. 


Arctic peats and plant beds. 


Hessle (coast) Boulder Clay 
Later retreat of Dales glacia- 
tion. York Moraine. 


Marine shingle: ? raised beach 
sands, laminated clays and 
estuarine warp. 


Main Dales glaciation. Vale 
of York maximum. Stainmore 
glaciation. 


Sands, grayels and laminated 
clays with Corbicula flumin- 
alis. 


Lower Red Boulder Clay 


Early Dales maximum. 


Grayels and sands, 


| Basement Clay. 
| Sewerby Beach and cliff. 


Lower Purple Boulder Clay. 


Northumberland and Durham. 


Scottish Re-advance. 


Sands. 


‘Tyne-gap ose-train. 
Tweed, Cheviot and Western ice- 
advance 


Plawsworth sands, etc. 


Upper Red Boulder Clay, and Upper Purple Boulder Clay. Western ice-adyance. 


Stainmore and Tyne glaciation 


Scottish-Cheviot ice-advance, 


* In using the term Mousterian, in addition to Levalloisian, T lave followed the published records, 


| 


| 


Lake District. 


Scottish Re-advance. 


Main Lake District glaciation 


Early Scottish, joined by Lake 
District, ice-advance, 


? Maryport and Silloth Boulder 
Clay. 


Trish Sea, Cheshire and N. Wales. 


Bride Moraine, Isle of Man. 


Upper Boulder Clay of Welsh 
Coast, sealing Mid-Aurigna- 
cian floors, 


Sands and gravels. 


Main Terrace of River Seven. 
Lower Boulder Clay of Welsh 
Coast and Shropshire, 


| 


Avon-Stour Drainage Upper Thames Valley. 


Deep channel filled at base, cold 
Food-plain gravels 


Excavation of deep channel. 


Erosion, warp and hill-washes. 


No. 2 Terrace, cold. 
Warp, frozen soil, top of Wolver- 
cote Channel. 


River-clays and peat, with Mous- 
terian, cold to temperate. 


Excavation of terraces 


vels of Wolvercote 


Terraces No, 3 and No. 4, warm, 
Late Acheulian, 


Corbicula fluminalis, 


Micoquian. 
Upper Summertown - Radley 
Terrace, warm, Corbicula 
fluminalis. 

Lower Summertown - Radley 
Terrace, cold. 


Moreton Driftand No.5 Terrace. Wolyercote Terrace 


| 
| Handborough Terrace. 


Plateau Gravels. 


100-140 ft. Terrace, with Chellian. 


Lotcer Thames Valley. 


Lea Valley, Ponders End stage 


Erosion, and deposition of 
Coombe rock, Mousterian to 
Upper Mousterian. 


Coombe rock, Mousterian, 


Upper Crayford brickcarth. 

Lower Crayford brickearth, with 
Early Mousterian. 

‘Taplow (50-ft,) Terrace 


too-ft, Terrace, with Corbicula 

‘fluminalis, and succession of 
Clactonian, Early and Mid- 
Acheulian. 


Chalky-Jurassic Boulder Clay. 


Portsmouth District. 


Last Coombe rock. 


Sandy deposits, Aurignacian ? 


50-ft. Lower Coombe rock. 
Land rising. 


100-ft. Lower Coombe rock 

50-ft. Gravels. 

15-ft. Littoral sands, 
terian. 

Land sinking. 


Mous- 


100-ft. Terrace gravels. 
15-ft. Estuarine beds and Lower 
fluviatile gravels, Achculian, 


Industries. 


Micoquian 


Acheulian— 


Chellian: 


Pre-Chellian 


Mousterian® — 


—Levalloisian. 


?Magdalenian, etc, 


—Clactonian 


Aurignacian, 


? sth Glacial 


2 Interglacial or 


Interstadial ? 


3rd Interglacial, 4th Gla 


rd Glacial. 


and Interglacial, 


2nd Glacial 


1st Interglacial 


| 1st Glacial. 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. 


THE PIONEER WORK OF THE 
SYSTEMATIST 


ADDRESS BY 
THE RIGHT HON. LORD ROTHSCHILD, Ph.D., F.RS., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


I FEEL greatly honoured by the position I occupy at this year’s meeting 
of the British Association, and am truly grateful to the Council for 
having chosen me as President of Section D. As the type of work 
pursued by us at Tring is well known to the Council, | may assume 
that I am not expected to speak from this chair on the advances made 
in Zoology during recent years, of which many of you are much better 
qualified to give a survey than I, but to set before this meeting some 
biological problems as seen by a systematist who has devoted much the 
greater part of his life to the study of species and what some among you 
may be inclined to call ‘ that sort of thing.’ Biology is such a vast and 
many-sided subject that there are naturally many directions of approach, 
and if one branch of research works in one direction and another branch 
from the opposite side, it has for the uninitiated often the appearance as 
if there were antagonism between such opposite lines of attack, while in 
reality all the different lines support each other in their quest after a 
solution of the secrets of Nature. Biologists are in the happy position 
that, whatever theories they may favour at one time or the other, they 
have nothing preconceived to defend at all costs ; for they all strive 
towards the same object : the advance of natural knowledge, wherever 
that may lead. 

The inquiry into the secrets of organic Nature may be divided into 
three categories of questions : (1) what organisms creative forces have 
produced on Earth ; (2) how they have produced them ; and (3) what is 
the nature of the creative forces. The animal world, which appears 
almost infinite in the number of different forms, their diversity of food, 
behaviour, fertility and details of their life-histories, presents a picture of 
life confusing in its endless variety. Yet there is orderliness underlying 
this seeming confusion, and it is the first task of the systematist to discover 
this orderliness and sort the multitude of organisms accordingly. It was 
at the time of Linnzeus a comparatively simple achievement for one man 
to have enumerated all the animals then known, his Systema Nature of 
1758 containing altogether fewer than 4,300 species. That task is in 
our days a hundred times more difficult, not only on account of the vast 
number of species which have poured into collections, are still pouring in 
and will continue to do so for a long time, but especially because research 


go SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


in systematics requires a much deeper knowledge of the morphology 
and bionomics of the animals classified. At the time of Linnzus and 
after, when systematics were in their infancy, individual specimens 
showing marked differences were as a rule diagnosed as representing 
distinct species, the unit called species being looked upon as essentially 
aconstant. This old view was at the time a new view. With the gradual 
discovery of the great range of variability exhibited by many organisms, 
the attitude of the systematist has changed. If formerly distinct-looking 
specimens found in the same locality had to be proved to belong to the 
same species before they were accepted as specifically the same, the modern 
systematist approaches the question from the opposite direction, regarding 
morphologically similar specimens, whatever their outward appearance 
may be, as specifically alike until their specific distinctness is established 
by convincing evidence. This attitude renders research in systematics 
far more subtle and difficult than it used to be and the results far more 
reliable. Experience has furnished a guiding principle in the facts that 
similarity does not necessarily mean relationship of the forms under 
observation, that dissimilarity is. not necessarily evidence of specific 
distinctness, and that variability obtains in every species and every organ ; 
and if these facts are kept in mind by the systematist, the reproach of 
superficiality often justly levelled at work in taxonomy can be borne with 
equanimity. Variability is an essential character of everything alive. 
The concept of the constant species of former days is replaced by the 
concept of the flexible species, and the saying that like breeds like requires 
modifying into the statement that a population breeds a population with 
the same extent of variability. If like breeds like were being taken 
literally, we should have to alter it into like breeds unlike. For, strictly 
speaking, individuals are never alike whatever their relationship to each 
other. A calculation, for instance, of the number of specimens required 
of the commonest British mouse-flea (Ctenophthalmus agyrtes) in order to 
find among them two absolutely alike in the number and position of the 
bristles on the body arrives at the amusing figure of many million billions, 
a figure certainly in excess of that of the whole flea-population of Great 
Britain, and tantamount to proving that there are no two specimens alike. 
In spite of all this variability the apparently chaotic mass of organisms is 
cut up by specific barriers into units represented by populations of 
numerous individuals, each population living its own life alongside other 
populations, as anybody can ascertain in his own garden or as a matter 
of fact in his own flat, particularly if there are a cat and a dog about. 

In studying the characteristics of each specific unit and drawing up 
diagnoses for purposes of recognition, the systematist renders service in 
two quite different spheres of work and thought. Being alone able to 
identify the species in the difficult group in which he specialises, he assists 
defensive biology in its task to safeguard humanity against the ravages of 
health- or food-destroying organisms. Applied biology can only be a 
science if based on sound systematics. You will forgive me, I hope, if 
I refer, as a case in point, to an instance in the work of my late brother ; 
it is a story well known to all who are interested in tropical diseases and 
perhaps a little worn by now, but will always remain a very instructive 


D.—ZOOLOGY gI 


illustration. When the Commission investigating bubonic plague in 
India had become definitely convinced that the plague was a rat disease 
transmitted to human beings through the agency of a particular species 
of rat-flea, no satisfactory explanation could be found why in Colombo 
and the city of Madras an outbreak of plague did not last long, although 
rats and rat-fleas abounded. The puzzle was solved when Dr. Hirst 
took the matter up and sent to my brother the flea material collected in 
the towns mentioned during a period when there was no plague and again 
when an outbreak occurred. The examination of the material proved 
that the flea ordinarily infesting rats at Colombo and at Madras was not 
(as the Commission had assumed) the plague-flea Xenopsylla cheopis, 
but X. astia, a very similar, but different species, which, by experiments, 
Dr. Hirst proved to be an inefficient carrier of the disease. Outbreaks 
of plague occurred in those cities only when grain infested with the plague- 
carrying X. cheopis was brought from the Punjab. For some reason or 
other the environment at Colombo and Madras does not suit X. cheopis ; 
it dies out, and consequently the plague disappears. When during the 
campaign in Mesopotamia camps became infested with rats, the British 
Museum could give the reassuring answer to an inquiry that there was no 
danger of a serious outbreak of plague, because the rat-fleas collected were 
X. astia, none belonging to X. cheopis. This close connection between 
applied biology and systematics is well understood by the scientists who 
are at the head of applied biology, but as yet not by every young scientist 
full of ardour and pride of knowledge, inclined to rely on his own identi- 
fications and therefore apt to go astray. The help which the systematist 
can extend to applied biology, however, is for him only a side-issue or a 
by-product ; he is a student of pure science, devoting his time to the 
discovery of new species, of new connections between them and of new 
facts bearing on the relation between the species and its surroundings, 
the driving force in this pursuit of knowledge being the irresistible 
attraction which the subject has for him. 

The describing of new species and finding the right place for them ina 
given scheme of classification and the identifying of species may seem 
work of an elementary kind, necessary and useful, but nevertheless rather 
superficial. If systematics ended there, they might satisfy the collector 
perhaps, but hardly the scientific mind. But this preliminary work is 
only a part of systematics, differing from the deeper study of the species 
as the cataloguing of literature does from the critical study of the contents 
of literature. A natural classification is based on blood-relationship, 
and therefore entails an inquiry into the evolution of the species classified. 
Systematics change from a static study of form into a dynamic study of 
evolution. For that purpose it is not sufficient to know some character- 
istic by which species A can be distinguished from species B, or which 
places A and B into the same genus or into different genera. A species 
is like a book, which must be read critically and in its entirety. Unfortu- 
nately the systematist is much handicapped, as in the case of mammals, 
birds, insects and some other classes he has to be content with the portions 
of the animal which it is customary to preserve in collections. But even 
so, the contemplation of the skins and skulls of mammals, of the skins of 


92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


birds, and of the dried insects reveal to him the latitude and the kind of 
variability and variation in the species of which he has adequate material, 
and enables him to compare results with the biologists who have studied 
the flexibility of species with the view to ascertain whether the variability 
is purely fortuitous or whether there is system in the apparent confusion, 
many so-called laws of development having been discovered in the course 
of such inquiries. Now, according to the experience of the systematist, 
such laws are rules with exceptions, sometimes the normal and the 
exceptional balancing each other, and it may be stated in general that 
the opposite must always be expected to occur. ‘That is somewhat dis- 
tressing, but very true to living nature, where there is little need for logic 
and where the mathematical constant expressed by ‘ one equals one ’ does 
not hold good, as any farmer can tell you. Exceptions have a certain 
fascination, not only for the writers of novels and plays, which are mostly 
based on exceptional characters or exceptional situations, but also for the 
biologist. As exceptions are comparatively rare, it requires large collec- 
tions or long observation to discover them, and if there is no known excep- 
tion to a certain rule of development, one has the feeling that it will some 
day be discovered. ‘Take as an instance the bright colouring found among 
birds and butterflies. In sexually dimorphic species the male is the 
brighter coloured as a rule, but there are also butterflies and moths in 
which the female bears the gayer garb, this being particularly often the 
case in mimetic species, where conspicuousness plays an important réle, 
such as Archontas bellona and Hibrildis norax.2 An interesting case of 
exceptional difference in colour and behaviour among birds and another 
among moths may be mentioned in this connection. In the swift moth 
of our meadows the white ¢ dances up and down a foot or two above the 
ground, keeping to the same spot and being in the twilight a very con- 
spicuous object. The dark-coloured female, barely visible as it slowly 
booms along in search of a mate, does not take the first male it encounters, 
but makes a selection, there being evidently a difference in the males not 
noticeable to our dull senses, probably a difference in scent, the g¢ 
having the hindleg converted into a scent-organ. That the male makes 
itself conspicuous agrees well with the general behaviour of that sex in 
animals, but that the female takes the initiative is an exception. A 
parallel instance occurs among Gallinaceous birds ; among these game- 
birds are found the most striking instances of sexual dimorphism, the 
cocks exhibiting an often marvellous display of colours, as in the Peacock, 
Pheasants, Fowls and others, the females being comparatively incon- 
spicuous. It is therefore somewhat startling to find just in this order 
a genus in which the colours and behaviour of the sexes are reversed. 
In most species of the Oriental genus Turnix, a kind of Quail, the females 
are larger than the males, bear a much brighter plumage, utter the call- 
note, fight each other for the possession of a male, and leave it to the male 
to incubate the eggs and to take care of the young—a state of civilisation 
of which we notice the beginnings in the human race. It is rather odd 
that in this instance the weaker sex, the male, attends to the young. For 


6 Cramer, Pap. Ex. I., tab. 13 (1775) ;. £. id, Uc. ui, tab. 177 (1770). 
2 Cf. Poulton, Tvans. Ent. Soc., 1928, p. 380. 


D.—ZOOLOGY 93 


it would surely be safer for the chickens if the stronger parent took 
charge of them, for the sake of defence ; but perhaps the heavy hand, or 
in this case, the strong beak, is, in the bringing up of the young, not 
always superior to gentler means of persuasion. In the Struthiiformes 
we find likewise that the male attends to incubation and to the nursery, 
with the exception of the African Ostrich, where both sexes incubate 
alternately, as is the rule in birds. As an example of birds of which only 
the female incubates we mention the Hornbills, the male ensuring the 
continuity of incubation by so blocking up the entrance to the hole con- 
taining the female on the nest that the female cannot get out. During the 
whole period of incubation and until the young birds are fully fledged the 
male feeds the female and young through the minute hole in the plastered- 
up nest opening. Of the two classes of animals which I have studied 
more particularly, birds and Lepidoptera, the coloration is on the whole 
more constant in birds within the species at the same locality, apart from 
differences of sex and age, than in butterflies and moths, and individual 
di- and polymorphism is decidedly more common in the insects than in 
birds, but it is by no means absent among the latter. Dark and light 
phases long known to occur regularly among certain raptorial birds— 
for instance, harriers—have during recent years been discovered to exist 
also here and there in other groups of birds, where they have formerly 
generally been described as distinct species. Such a correction had also 
to be made in the systematics of the American genus Rhamphocelus, 
where red and yellow forms differing only in colour are now regarded as 
being individuals of one species, intermediate examples of an orange colour 
also being known, as well as very exceptional examples, such as the aberra- 
tion Rhamphoceelus dunstalli Rothsch., in which the red and yellow colours 
extend to parts of the body other than those normally so coloured. The 
gaily-coloured parrots furnish other examples of dichromotism ; for 
instance, the parakeet Eos fuscata Blyth, which is a fairly common bird 
in New Guinea, appears in a red and a yellow form in the same place, 
both forms being about equally frequent, the redone slightly prepon- 
derating, and the lory Charmosyna stella Meyer, which appears in a black 
aswellasared form. This replacement of red by yellow recalls numerous 
Lepidoptera in which a similar change of colour takes place. Sometimes 
this change is sex-linked, the male being red and the female yellow, or 
the male yellow and the female red, the one happening about as often as 
the other ; the same is true of the change from orange to yellow, and from 
yellow to white. Pierine butterflies of the genera Teracolus, Pereute, 
Anthocharis may be mentioned. Occasionally species are found which, 
independently of sex, regularly occur in red and in yellow individuals, 
or in yellow and white ones, red specimens being on the whole more 
frequent than yellow ones, or yellow specimens than white ones—as, for 
instance, in Papilio deiphobus L. and P. deiphontes Feld., from the Moluccas, 
and the Agaristids? Xanthospilopteryx karschi, X. africana and Rothia 
eriopis, from Africa. The colour scale red, orange, yellow, white agreeing 
with the sequence in the ontogenetical development of the colours in the 
wing of the Lepidopteron, an acceleration of the physico-chemical process 
3 Cf. Seitz, Macrolep., vol. xv, p. 38 ff. (1913). 


94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


in consequence of some stimulating factor, would account for the later 
step in the colour scale being so often obtained. This phenomenon is 
so frequently observed that one expects every red-coloured species at 
least occasionally to produce yellow specimens. According to the 
combined experiences of many observers, there is undoubtedly this 
tendency of a development from red in the direction to white, and if we 
find that in one species the male is orange and the female yellow (or 
white) (as, for instance, in some Colias and Soritia), there is reason for 
considering the female the more advanced sex, and vice versa. Now there 
is a curious discrepancy in the frequency of occurrence between red and 
yellow (or orange, yellow and white) in species where only occasional speci- 
mens bear the different colour, being so-called aberrations among a normally 
coloured population. To ascertain the frequency of a comparatively rare 
occurrence of this kind requires large collections brought together over a 
long period. Collectors, as a rule, are very keen on such aberrant speci- 
mens, and what we see therefore in collections is a disproportionately 
large number of aberrants among the normals. ‘There is a collection of 
Lepidoptera at Cologne (Dr. Philipps), consisting almost entirely of 
aberrants ; a madhouse the late Prof. Study, of Bonn, called the collection. 
The discrepancy alluded to is this: whereas the number of yellow 
aberrants among red normals (and white among yellow) is large, the 
change in the opposite direction from white to yellow and from yellow 
to red is excessively rare. I have in my collection only two instances of 
such inverse aberrants : an orange male of the yellow (g) and white (9) 
Dercas verhuelli Hoev. from China, and an Indian specimen and a Javan 
one of Troides helena L.., with the abdomen and hindwings partly reddish 
instead of yellow. If the yellow aberrants of red species are due to 
accelerated development in the chrysalis, the red or orange aberrants of 
yellow species must be considered the result of retarded development. 
But why this enormous difference in frequency ? As a systematist I 
can only present the riddle and must leave it to the experimentalist to 
find the solution of this contradiction. 

Besides colour and pattern, the size and shape of the specimens and 
their appendages and the structure of the secondary sexual characteristics of 
many kinds are found to be of great help in species classification, but 
experience has shown that none can be relied on unreservedly any more 
than colour or pattern. The comparison of the frequently exaggerated 
distinctions of the males, such as the horns of stags and beetles, the long 
forelegs of beetles, the stalked eyes of certain flies, etc., has led to the 
discovery that the size of these organs is not always proportionate to the 
size of the body, but that the ratio in the development of such appendages 
increases disproportionately with the size of the specimens ; in a small 
male of a species of Longicorn beetle the antenna may be a little longer 
than the body, while in a large specimen of the same species it may be 
several times longer than the body. Collections bear out this law of 
growth almost completely, but only almost. The Stag-beetles are one of 
the families that have early drawn attention to the remarkable develop- 
ment of their mandibles, which are sometimes so large, and the point 
of gravity therefore placed so far forward that the specimen has to assume 


D.—ZOOLOGY 95 


a semi-erect position in order to keep its balance. As far back as 1885 
Leuthner 4 showed that in the genus Odontolabis the size of the mandibles 
of the males increased with the size of the body, but that there was never- 
theless a certain amount of dimorphism, some large males having short 
mandibles, in one species the largest measured male having shorter 
mandibles than a smaller male. Similarly, it has recently been shown by 
Arrow ° that in Onthophagus,a genus of Dung-beetles, the horns of the males 
conform in general with the above law, but that in one instance there are 
long-horned males and short-horned ones of the same body-size. Such 
exceptions from general rules are of great interest, and it is therefore 
the duty of the systematist who comes across an exception—generally 
accidentally—fully to record it. Does it not seem evident from the cases 
mentioned that Nature can break a rule of development, just as Nature 
has created species and destroyed them? After all, the law is only our 
deduction based on the organisms we find provided by working methods 
of Nature we endeavour to discover. Circumstances may arise which 
interfere with the usual ‘ routine ’ of growth. In Papilio memnon L., for 
example, one of the many Swallowtail butterflies with a polymorphic 
female, one of the female forms has a spatulated tail and therefore a larger 
wing-surface than the other females, but its body is not larger than in 
the specimens which have no appendage. The species is derived from 
an ancestor in which all specimens had tails. The direction of develop- 
ment in this and other species is towards taillessness ; but mimetism 
stepped in and preserved the tail by modifying the course of evolution. 
The rule of growth illustrated by the Stag-beetles, and corroborated by 
breeding of plants and animals, leaves no doubt that the characteristics in 
size and weight of an individual are not inherited and therefore are of no 
importance in the evolution of species. ‘The test can be made in collections 
by comparing the closely related species of a genus with each other. In 
Xenocerus, for instance, a genus of Anthribid beetles, of which we happen 
_ to have the largest collection at Tring, the largest specimen (¢) of the 
largest species has the antenna two and a half times as long as the body, 
while in several smaller species the antenna is five times as long as the body 
in the largest male. If the proportional size of body and antenna were 
constitutional, the largest species in a group of nearly related species 
should always have the longest antenna, which is not the case. An 
interesting contradiction of another type in the evolution of allied species 
has lately come to our knowledge while I was arranging the American 
Syntomide and Arctiidae, families which are among my favourite groups 
of Lepidoptera. The families are separated in Hampson’s classification 
by vein 8 of the hindwing being present in the Arctiide and absent in the 
Syntomide. Variation in the state of development of this vein, therefore, 
is of some importance in the systematics of these families. Now, in the 
genus Neidalia one species in my collection has,vein 8 represented by 
a distinct spur in the g, whereas in the @ it is a fully developed vein ; 
in a second species the vein has disappeared in the ¢, but remains un- 
reduced in the 2. ‘That is to say, in the evolution of the neuration of the 


* Trans. Zool. Soc. Lond., vol. xi, p. 385 (1885). 
5 Trans. Ent. Soc. Lond., 1928, p. 76. 


96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


hindwing from the Arctiid type with 8 fully developed to the Syntomid 
type with 8 suppressed, the $ Neidalia is in advance of the 2. Inasecond 
genus, Aclytia, on the other hand, 8 is present in the 3 of some species, 
absent in the ¢ of others, with intergradations, and absent in the Q of 
all species. In this case, therefore, the process of reduction is farther 
advanced in the 2 than in the g, just the opposite of what obtains in 
Neidalia. The morphology of Aclytia, however, offers an explanation 
of the contrast. The $$ of this genus have the costal margin of the 
hindwing enlarged in conformity with the development of a scent- 
organ, and vein 8 acts as a support of the lobe. Though the vein is absent 
from the imago of the Syntomids and ought to be absent from Aclytia, 
which belongs to the Syntomids, it has reappeared in the 3, being pre- 
sumably in a recessive or dormant state in the larva and chrysalis, capable 
of resurrection in the imago if the necessary stimulus arises, which in this 
case would be the development of a scent-organ. This explanation is 
perhaps not palatable to those who believe that lost organs are lost for 
ever ; much depends on what is meant by the word ‘ lost.’ Vein 8 of the 
Syntomids is probably not really ‘lost’ in the individual, but merely 
suppressed in the imago. 

It must be clearly understood that in speaking of the unimportance for 
evolution of the bulk of individuals and the size of certain appendages, 
we referred to specimens of the same country—i.e. individuals belonging 
to the same interbreeding population. In comparing the populations of 
two different countries the question assumes quite another aspect. In 
the systematics of birds the study of subspecies or geographical races has 
developed into a fine art. Size and shades of colour furnish the main 
distinctions between subspecies, and here we observe this important 
contrast that, while the difference of, say, 6 mm. in the wing-lengths of 
specimens from the same country is of no importance, because not 
inheritable, the difference of 2 mm. between the populations of two 
countries is an inheritable quantity and therefore qualifies the two popu- 
lations as being subspecifically distinct from one another, The evolution 
of the subspecific size-difference evidently starts with a shifting of the 
average size. A series of English sparrows has not the same average 
wing-length as a series from Central Germany (large numbers have actually 
been measured by Dr. Kleinschmidt) ; in other birds there is only a more 
or less moderate overlapping in size, and in others again the averages are 
so far apart that there is a gap between the largest bird from one country 
and the smallest from another country. The size of birds is remarkably 
constant as compared with that of Lepidoptera. In these insects size 
depends to a great extent on a variable outside factor, the supply of luscious 
food for the caterpillar. In the dry season of the tropics and in the late 
summer and autumn of the temperate regions food is hard and the resulting 
butterflies, therefore, as a rule smaller than those resulting from cater- 
pillars which have fed up in the wet season or in spring and early summer 
when food was plentiful and soft. Size, therefore, is as a rule of no great 
weight in the diagnoses of subspecies of butterflies ; but there are such 
which are definitely smaller or larger than others—a case in point being the 
races discovered by Wallace on Celebes and characterised by large size 


D.—ZOOLOGY 97 


and falcate forewings. If there is no corroborative evidence in the 
specimens themselves, the subspecies based on slight differences in the 
shade of colour or in the size, and especially the subspecies which overlap 
each other in size and colouring, urgently require testing by controlled 
breeding experiments. ‘That such differences are inheritable has to be 
proved ; the systematist assumes they are, but he may be wrong. ‘The 
differences between geographical races, however, are frequently very 
considerable. 

In our researches on the Swallowtail butterflies we came across a 
combination of distinctions which is most instructive in an inquiry how the 
subspecies have come into existence. In a large number of species of 
butterflies and moths the geographical forms are separated by differences 
in the structure of the organs of reproduction and in colour and pattern. 
The important point is this, that the two sets of differences vary in- 
dependently of each other within each subspecies. In Papilio euchenor,® 
for instance, the yellow markings of the forewing are less extended, and 
the hook on the inside of the clasper is less curved in the New Guinea 
subspecies than in the one from the Bismarck Islands. Ifa New Guinean 
specimen somewhat approaches the Bismarckian race in colour it does not 
show an approach in the shape of the hook of the clasper, and vice versa. 
The chance that a specimen of one race approaches the other both in 
colour and structure is very remote—we have never come across one— 
and the identical combinations colour plus structure of the Bismarckian 
race cannot be expected ever to occur among the New Guinean popu- 
lation. ‘Therefore the Bismarckian subspecies cannot have come into 
existence by arrivals from Guinea, having already possessed the charac- 
teristics which distinguish the race of the Bismarck Islands; con- 
sequently these special distinctions must have been acquired after the 
islands had become populated from New Guinea, no matter whether 
the immigrants were average or not. The individual characters of the 
ancestral specimens do not influence the formation of the new race, only 
what is inheritable is of importance, and what is non-pathological and 
therefore adaptable to new and possibly less congenial surroundings. 
It is perhaps necessary to emphasise that the breaking-up of a species 
into geographical races (subspecies), often into a large number, is not 
exceptional, but is the rule with all species with wider distribution, and 
that the above combination of structure and colour has been tested in 
many species. A chain of races each confined to its district is a beautiful 
illustration of the workings of evolution. The differences evolved 
during isolation depend on the constitution of the animal and the nature 
of the environment, and the change may be visible only in externals, 
or may affect also internal organs. In mammals the subspecific characters 
relate generally to the skull and the colour, texture and proportions of the 
skin ; in birds to wing-length, proportions of the bill and to colour; in 
insects, where the whole skeleton and the soft parts, at least in a dried-up 
State, are preserved, distinctions may be found in any part of the body, 
but, apart from colour and pattern, are often most pronounced in secondary 

® Cf. Roths., Nov. Zool., vol. ii, p. 339 (1895); Jord., l.c., vol. iii, p. 469 
(1896). 

E 


98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


sexual organs—certain subspecies of Ectoparasites ’ are even mainly based 
on differences in the ducts of the sexual organs and their accessory glands. 
Systematics and morphology are different expressions for the same kind 
of research, and I have no doubt that experimental biology will likewise 
have such a deepening influence on systematics that the superficial gap 
existing between the two lines of research will disappear too. Knowledge 
begins with the observation of phenomena, not with the experiment. 
The areas inhabited by the geographical forms of the species we have 
studied are either strictly separated, as in the case of island forms, or they 
are contiguous, there being between the areas no gap uninhabitable for 
the species, such as water would be for a dryland species, or a desert 
or savannah for a woodland species ; or the areas may overlap. What 
happens when the areas touch or overlap and the geographical forms 
come in contact with one another? In a critical survey of the birds of 
Kenya Colony, lately published by Dr. van Someren in the Tring Museum 
periodical,® every now and again the author records the observation that 
perfectly distinguishable subspecies intergrade in the intermediate district, 
where the two evidently have interbred and produced an impure popu- 
lation, not strictly distinguishable from, nor identical with, either present 
subspecies. The phenomenon occurs very frequently, as must be ex- 
pected ; for the breaking-up of a species into geographical units cannot 
at once result in sexual aloofness. ‘This, however, is a point which should 
be further investigated. Standfuss ® mentions, for instance, that, accord- 
ing to his experience, specimens from different districts do not mate so 
easily when brought together as do specimens from the same district. It is 
therefore quite possible that geographically separate populations which 
the systematist considers identical, because he does not find any morpho- 
logical differences, may nevertheless have acquired a physiological differ- 
ence, the rudiments of a physiological barrier, which the experiment only 
could detect. ‘Though hybrid populations are of common occurrence, 
they have not been thoroughly tested with some exceptions. Prof. W. F. 
Balfour-Browne made the interesting discovery among the water-beetles 
of Great Britain—and Mr. J. O. Cooper has corroborated the discovery 
in other species—that there is a certain species in the south of Great 
Britain and another in the north, clearly differentiated, while in the inter- 
mediate area both are found with all intergradations. ‘The species-pairs, 
as Prof. Balfour-Browne calls them, are of great significance. The 
systematist does not know what to do with them ; he generally treats the 
hybrid population as an intermediate race and gives it a name or leaves 
it without one of its own; the insect catalogues abound with the name 
‘intermedia.’ I need hardly point out that the frequency of the occurrence 
of mixed blood is a snare for the geneticist who bases his conclusions on 
the assumption that the original specimens for his series of experiments 
were pure, while his experimental results may in reality be due to 
the hybrid nature of the parent stock. Intermediate races fluctuating 
in character are often indefinable morphologically, but are definable 


? Cf. Jordan, Trans. Fourth Intern. Congr. Entom., p. 498 (1929). 
8 Nov. Zool., vol. xxxvii, p. 292 (1932). 
® Handbuch, p. 107 (1896). 


—T ee ee 


D.—ZOOLOGY 99 


ecologically—.e. by the kind of country inhabited: desert, savannah, 
forest. In fact, the peculiarities of a race are best understood if it is 
considered as part of the environment. 

Not all geographical races amalgamate when they come together. 
Many of them have become so different that they can live side by side, 
each being an independent community not interbreeding with the other. 
As instructive examples I will mention some Swallowtail butterflies : 
Papilio thoas L. occurs, split up into many races, in South and Central 
America, its range reaching intoU.S.A. A very closely related species, and 
evidently originally its northern race, P. cresphontes Cram, flies in U.S.A. 
and extends far south into Central America, the two common insects keeping 
perfectly distinct in all characteristics, no hybrids being known. In the 
Oriental region Papilio eurypylus L. ranges in various subspecies from the 
Bismarck Islands westward to India, and P. doson Feld., which we only 
recognised as a separate sister-species after a more careful study of the male 
genital organs, occurs from Ceylon and South India eastwards to the 
Philippines and the Lesser Sunda Islands. ‘The two species, therefore, 
are found together over a large area, but the most western districts are 
inhabited only by P. doson and the most eastern by P. eurypylus ; originally 
they were the Western and the Eastern forms of one species. It is evident 
that these butterflies represent a further step in the evolution of species 
than the species-pairs which still amalgamate in the area common to them. 

Sometimes we find both amalgamation and specific distinctness among 
the forms divided from a parent stock, as is the case in the sister-species 
Cat-flea and Dog-flea. ‘The home of the genus Ctenocephalides to which 
both belong is Africa. ‘Tropical and South Africa are inhabited by a 
subspecies with short head, and the Nile countries by one with a long 
head, the two intergrading in the Sudan and Uganda. From India to 
the Papuan countries, with the exclusion of Australia, a third race occurs, 
and in Europe and Central and North Asia the cat-fleas were represented 
by the flea occurring on dogs and wolves. When the Egyptian house- 
cat came to Europe, it brought with it the long-headed form of Ctenoce- 
phalides felis Bouché, which thereby came into contact with the Palzearctic 
shortheaded dog-flea. One might have expected that they would hybridise 
and amalgamate, but they did not. The morphological differences are 
but slight, but a physiological barrier had arisen which kept and keep the 
cat- and dog-fleas as species, although they may occur together on the 
same individual of the host. When my brother pointed out the specific 
distinctness of the two fleas, he encountered a good deal of criticism 
before his opinion was generally accepted as correct. 

Before leaving this subject I will mention a type of local form which 
stands apart from the usual kind of geographical race. In gregarious 
mammals, such as the African buffalo, one herd seems frequently to 
differ from another herd, and as herds keep to their particular district, 
the difference has all the appearance of being geographical and having 
originated in the same way as the geographical distinctness of which 
Ihave spoken. But we know that family. likenesses are inheritable, and it 
appears to me that the herd distinctions are really family characteristics 
impressed on the herd by the dominant bull. ‘The point requires further 


100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


investigation by the systematist, as the result may be quite interesting 
and perhaps important for our understanding of localised differences 
encountered among other animals. 

Systematics, however, are not concerned with the study of species and 
their variations only. The species have to be grouped into genera and 
then into higher categories, all according to relationship—+.e. according to 
descent. As in the study of subspecies the systematist must enter upon 
geography, so in the search for the past connections between genera and 
families his research becomes linked with the past history of the Earth 
and sometimes throws light on this history. If he can prove that two 
genera now widely separated geographically are really of common stock, 
then there must have been a means of communication in former times 
which is now absent. If I may draw again on my brother’s studies for 
an illustration, we will take the distribution of the queerest-looking fleas 
as yet discovered, the Australian Stephanocircus and the American 
Craneopsylla, in which the anterior portion of the head is divided off as 
a laterally compressed helmet. They are closely related, and the group 
originated in South America, where occur several allied genera and a 
genus connecting the group with more normally built fleas. They are 
only found in the Andesian countries from Patagonia to Ecuador (possibly 
occurring farther north), and in a modified form as Stephanocircus in 
Australia, nowhere else. The assumption that there was at one time a 
bridge between South America and Australia is the only explanation 
at all satisfactory. This conclusion is supported by another genus (or 
group of genera), Parapsyllus, which is plentifully represented by species 
in the same Andesian countries (not in Eastern Brazil, the Amazons and 
Guianas), and recurs in one species on the islands in the South Polar Sea 
and in southern districts of Australia, The distribution of both genera 
evidently took place from West to East. To this example, affording 
positive evidence of a geographical bridge of some kind, may be given a 
comparison which is a negative witness. One of the most remarkable 
lacunz in the butterfly fauna of Africa south of the Sahara is the total 
absence of swallowtails which feed as larve on Aristolochia. ‘The species 
are numerous both in America, especially in the tropics, and in the 
Oriental region, but not a single one has reached Tropical and South 
Africa, though food plants occur, only one species of Ceylonese affinity 
being found on Madagascar. In face of this evidence it is impossible to 
believe that after the appearance on Earth of the butterflies there ever 
existed a bridge between Africa and South America. 

Although the systematist is primarily concerned with the organisms 
as produced by Nature, and not with the creative forces which have 
evolved them, his researches extend to so many different species that he 
is bound to collect evidence bearing on those forces and their working. 
There are, in fact, certain questions which can only be answered with the 
help of extensive systematic collections: Convergent development, for 
instance, which looms rather large in discussions on natural selection, 
particularly its frequency and its geographical occurrence. It is a fairly 
common phenomenon, which however I shall mention only in passing, 
for similarity in colour—such as shown in the mountains of New Guinea 


D.—ZOOLOGY 101 


by an unusually large percentage of butterflies which have the upper side 
white with a black border to the wings, as in Pieride, even a number of 
Blues having acquired this colour—involves one unavoidably in arguments 
about mimicry, a subject outside this address and concerning which I 
will say no more than that there are numerous cases of convergence in 
appearance unexplainable to me if mimicry were not a reality. I will, 
however, refer to a few non-mimetic illustrations of convergent develop- 
ment in which the influence of locality is very apparent. In a number 
of Oriental Papilios, with a tail to the hindwing, this appendage becomes 
reduced as we proceed eastwards, and in some instances disappears 
altogether on the Papuan islands. New Guinea has produced very 
striking metallic coloration in two groups of animals, the Birds of 
Paradise and the Geometrid moths Milionia. A number of butterflies 
of the island of Celebes are large and have the forewings strongly curved. 
The home of long-tailed Geometrid moths is South America, where also 
occur long-tailed Riodinid butterflies similar in habits and sometimes in 
appearance to these Geometrids. We do not always have a satisfactory 
explanation of such convergences ; but the darker coloration of certain 
West African butterflies as compared with their East African representa- 
tives, and of some Sumatran forms as compared with those from Java, is 
probably explained by the damper climate favouring the production of 
black-brown. The wings in a number of migratory birds are shorter in 
several Algerian subspecies than in the European ones—for instance, in 
the House-Martin, the Hawfinch, Goatsucker, and others, possibly due 
to these subspecies having to fly a shorter distance to their winter quarters 
than the northern birds, and therefore short-winged individuals having 
a better chance of surviving than in the case of northern migrants. 

Another point of significance revealed by collections is the frequency 
of monomorphism in the outlying districts of polymorphic species. 
Papilio egeus Don., for example, is polymorphic in New Guinea, appearing 
in two forms of the 3 and several female-forms ; the various subspecies 
flying in Australia and on the Moluccas have only one kind of female. 
The polymorphic Papilio memnon L. has a monomorphic female in its 
most northern area, Japan. The African Papilio dardanus Brown is 
monomorphic in Madagascar and the Comoro Islands (the female being 
but slightly different from the male), whereas on the African Continent 
the species is not only strongly sexually dimorphic, but moreover 
polymorphic in the female. 

The simplification from the centre of distribution outwards, indicated 
by the examples mentioned, obtains also in some insects where the sexes 
of the species remain monomorphic in the whole area. According to the 
researches of Onslow, the conspicuously different geographical forms ot 
Papilio priamus L., the orange one inhabiting the Northern Moluccas, 
the blue one found in New Ireland and the Solomon Islands, and the green 
forms occurring in the interjacent countries, differ from each other (in 
the tint of colour) in that the orange form has an orange pigment in the 
scales, the blue form no pigment, but a structural blue, and the green 
forms a combination of the yellow pigment with the structural blue. 


10 Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc., B 211, p. 39 (1923). 


102 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Although the green forms combine the colours of the other two, they are 
not hybrid products, but the original stock from which the blue and the 
orange forms have descended, the blue form having originated by the loss 
of the yellow pigment, and the orange one by the loss of the blue structural 
colour. A gradation of the loss of the yellow pigment is observed in the 
three subspecies from the Bismarck Islands: the green bornemanni 
Pagenst., from New Britain, with the metallic green scaling similar in 
distribution to the scaling of the blue New Ireland specimens, a second 
subspecies, miokensis Ribbe, from Miotio, intermediate in geographical 
position and in the blue-green colour, and the deep blue urvilleanus 
Guér., from New Ireland, New Hanover and the Solomon Islands 
(which has occasionally one or two golden dots on the hindwing). This 
case of great outward contrasts with so simple an explanation of them is 
probably unique. 

In the vast majority of species the geographical differences are quan- 
titatively small and frequently so concealed (or even inside the body) as to 
exclude the idea that a process of selection through enemies takes place 
in such cases. This elimination of one factor in their evolution, however, 
does not answer the question how these small differences have arisen and 
become hereditary. A new subspecies being the old plus the surviving 
and accumulating effect of mass and energy of the environment, perhaps 
observations of another kind give a hint. In an instance here and there 
it has been found that the larvee of a Lepidopteron, usually monophagous 
on a definite plant, through force of circumstances or accidentally feed 
upon another species of plant, and that then the offspring of this brood 
will rather die than take to the normal food-plant of the grandparents. 
Does it not look as if here a habit had become fixed in one generation ? 
Now, if we look upon the component parts of an insect specimen as if 
each part were an individual and apply the above observation, it is quite 
conceivable that in a new environment one or the other factor affecting 
the development of the growing body will stimulate this or that individual 
organ, or group of cells, or retard its development, and when an accelera- 
tion or a retardation has taken place in one generation, a predisposition, 
a habit, is acquired by that organ which will persist, like the habit of 
eating the strange plant. The crested lark, which is common on the south 
shores of the Channel, but never crosses the twenty odd miles of water, 
except by accident (about half-a-dozen specimens being known from 
England), teaches us that habit is a pertinaceous factor in life. 

From the remarks to which you have so patiently listened it must have 
become clear what my attitude is towards the staff to whom the study of 
systematics is to be entrusted in public institutes. If I could carry out 
an ideal, I should leave the preliminary work only to less thoroughly 
trained members of the staff and continue to appoint for research work 
the best brains to be got, trained at the University in scientific thinking, 
who do not merely float, but can dive. 


11 Incidentally it may be mentioned that green specimens of P. priamus which 
have suffered from damp assume a bluish tone in consequence of the deterioration 
of the yellow pigment. 


| 


| 
| 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


THE GEOGRAPHICAL STUDY OF 
SOCIETY AND WORLD PROBLEMS 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. Hf!’ FLEURE!' 'DSe., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


I. INTRODUCTION. 


Ir has been assumed in many discussions that mass-production and com- 
merce on a large scale represent a new mode of life, a form of society, that 
is conquering the world and must disintegrate older modes of social life 
and organisation. However true this is, there are limitations obvious now 
that production far beyond immediate selling possibilities is causing so 


‘much difficulty. It is truer to say that various types of society, the world 


over, are trying to graft on to their ancient heritage this new scheme of 
mass-production. In vastly increased numbers the peoples of the world, 
some more, some less, touched by the idea of mass-production, are jostling 
one another as never before, and various types of society have become, 
willy nilly, standing dangers to others. 

Whether Adam Smith really willed it or not, his plea for specialisation 
between individual and between parts of a nation became a plea for 
specialisation of nations, and the /aisser-faire doctrine which followed it 
was an idea that all would be for the best if economic rivalry were un- 
bridled, and the best were allowed to win freely. One might caricature 
this, a little unfairly no doubt, by saying that unlimited commercial war- 
fare was to be the way of progress, peace and plenty. A few thinkers were 
not so sure of this ; Disraeli saw its dangers, and, on the other side of our 
politics, Leonard Courtney, back in the seventies of last century, expressed 
alarm at the growth of British industry and population, which he saw would 
call up rivalries leading to war ; and at the end of such a war there would 
be a breakdown of the network of credit and millions would be unem- 
ployed. His foresight has been all too fully justified. It may have been 
useful, up to a point, to think out the increase of production through 
specialisation as Adam Smith does in his famous argument about pins, but 
there was need for far more thought than seems to have been given to the 
Maintenance and development of social life in the various environments 
nature provides and man adjusts. Study of that kind has lagged behind 
for many reasons. There were those—and they had immense power in 
the days when British industry was spreading—who, on religious grounds, 
held that one had but to propagate the faith western Europe had assimi- 
lated and all would be well ; for them there was one type of ideal society 


104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


for all. ‘The development of science and the multiplication of contacts 
have made thought more complex. Social forms result from interaction 
between men and their environments, and the lessons learned and the 
ideas selected and developed in different cases have been very different. 
This is a legitimate and important sphere of work for the student of 
geography. In each case, the people and their form of society are so much 
a part each of the other that, whatever changes mass-production may 
bring, they want to, they must in fact, keep a large measure of continuity 
from their past. They have nearly all once been, in the main, self- 
contained groups, or, at least, external commerce has been subordinate to 
internal exchange. Socially and economically the village group was in 
large measure an autarchy, whatever political organisations might come 
and go above its head. One recalls the well-known answer of a Polish 
villager that his lord was a Pole but he was a peasant. The idea of the 
self-contained unit is thus very deep-rooted. With great effort, using the 
opportunities of cheaper printing in the nineteenth century, the village 
has come to feel itself part of the nation, which has clamoured for opportu- 
nities of self-expression. Many a nation naturally, therefore, seeks to be 
self-contained, all the more if it feels that specialisation and consequent 
dependence on imports is going to give it an inferior position. We may 
declaim against the follies of economic nationalism ; we must, however, 
go beyond criticism into sympathetic examination of the people in their 
geographical environment with their need of ‘a place in the sun’ and 
their claim upon the world’s help, if we are to become constructive 
thinkers. 

The old self-contained national group might have a centralised adminis- 
tration efficiently organised for defence ; but it was usually an agricultural 
group and, in the nineteenth century, found itself at a disadvantage in 
comparison with a group of industrial producers in commercial organisa- 
tion. In the first burst of mass-production the future for manufacturer 
and merchant seemed boundless. The exchanges that developed, unless 
there were some restriction, tended at first to make profits and credits 
accumulate among the industrialists rather than among the agriculturists. 
These credits might be loaned to the agricultural countries to start them 
on the new line of development or to build railways and roads, and the 
debtor country might, and in some cases does, profit by its indebtedness. 
But industrial groups, to keep their works going, have not seldom been 
willing to get payment in bonds, or banks in creditor countries have issued 
bonds the produce of which has been used to pay for goods sent to debtor 
countries when cash and exports did not suffice. There has often been 
an eagerness to put off the day of reckoning in this way because direct 
payment would depreciate the debtors’ currency. Moreover, in far too 
many cases, an evil chain of consequences works itself out. Part of the 
loan spills over into unauthorised channels on its way to its destination ; 
much is probably spent on railways that may not earn a cent for a century ; 
not a little may go in various schemes of display to try to conquer what is 
now called an inferiority complex. It is true that default is not infrequent, 
and, in this way, international debts that are not represented by sub- 
stantial assets do wipe themselves out in time ; but the process is harmful 


E.—GEOGRAPHY 105 


to the society that defaults. In other words, the spread of mass-produc- 
tion and commerce needs to be looked at less from the point of view of how 
as many pins as possible may be produced as quickly and as cheaply as 
possible, and more from the point of view of the health, and especially 
the continuing mental and moral health, of the societies concerned. A 
historical geography of international indebtedness is much needed. 

We need to think of forms of society the world over not merely as 
examples of halts at various stations along a road on which the industrialist 
nations have advanced farthest. To do that is to choose out and empha- 
sise points in our own experience and to make thence a kind of footrule 
wherewith to measure the world. An Oriental sage, with as little or as 
much justification, might invent a very different measure for us, and say 
that patriotism, for example, is a relic of barbarism that has brought 
calamity to twentieth-century Europe. Human societies are primarily 
associations between men and the earth in particular areas, and must be 
studied objectively as such, and also in relation to what they receive from 
outside, 


II. Huntinc Groups ; THEIR GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION, 
PAST AND PRESENT. 


When men developed the hunting habit, social life probably took a 
great step forward and was furnished with a new dynamic influence of 
psychical nature in that the men hunted while the women collected food, 
reared the children, and began to make the home centre, temporary at 
first, with its attendant arts of dealing with fire, skins of animals, grass 
bags,and so on. The group was as yet not fixed in one abode, nor could 
it look or think far ahead. Its observations led, no doubt, to the emphasis- 
ing of coincidences rather than to much real argument, its cosmogony 
was very fragmentary and poor, but it is doubtful whether M. Lévy Bruhl 
has justification for saying that the mental processes of pre-agricultural 
peoples are entirely different from ours. In the Old Stone Age hunting 
was the leading scheme of life, and finds of implements allow us to trace 
at least three main waves of dispersal. The first resulted from their 
acquiring the power to chip stone, and probably to make fire as well. 
While some of the early implements are associated with ancient and 
apparently extinct types like the Neandertal race, the chief series, called the 
Chelleo-Acheulean, has no skeletons definitely associated with it in Europe, 
but there is an a priori possibility that this series, or a part of it, is associ- 
ated with Homo sapiens. The claim that Oldoway man is contemporary 
with the Chelleo-Acheulean culture of the bed in which it lay is not con- 
firmed and it is likely that the skeleton is a later burial. Leakey has, 
however, apparently found H. sapiens with tools of this series elsewhere 
in East Africa. The Chelleo-Acheulean series is found over much of 
Africa, save the equatorial forest regions, in south-western Asia and parts 
of southern India, and over south-western Europe. 

The second great move forward seems to have come with the use of 
multiform tools for different purposes, though the recognition by their 
makers of definite types of tools must not be over-emphasised ; the 
mounting of stone points and edges in wood, the beginnings of artistic 

E2 


106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


skill, were other features. Finds of the so-called Upper Palzolithic series 
of tools are again characteristic of much of Africa, the north and the east 
at any rate, of south-western Asia and central and south-western Europe. 
Within this area the Aurignacian variety of this culture bears character- 
istic marks over wide areas. It is definitely associated in Africa and 
Europe with Homo sapiens and there is a considerable range of form 
among the skeletons found, suggesting that Homo sapiens already had a 
long history. 

It is at any rate possible that the makers of the earlier Pleistocene tools 
(Chellean and Acheulean) belonged to Homo sapiens. If so, they seem to 
have flourished in Africa during early phases of the European Ice Age 
(probably the Mindel phase of Penck), and to have spread into Europe 
when aridity ensued in the next interglacial phase (probably the phase 
which included the formation of the Hétting breccia which is allocated to 
the Mindel-Riss interval by many students but by some to the Riss- 
Wiirm). A set-back was followed by a new and much more capable 
advance, that of the Aurignacian-Capsian hunters. 

In the interval, however, another culture-spread occurred. Utilisers 
of flint flakes have left their traces in early and middle Pleistocene layers 
in various parts of Eurasia, and the developed form of the culture has been 
called Mousterian. In China, Palestine and Europe it is associated with 


beings who do not belong to Homo sapiens, but we do not yet know what 


type or types of men were associated with it in North or East Africa, and 
it is quite possible that there its ideas were taken up in varying degrees in 
different parts by Homo sapiens who had already used flakes a good deal. 
This is an archeological rather than a geographical question, but the 
possibility is relevant to our present purpose. For, beyond the area of 
the Capsian-Aurignacian cultures, to the south and south-east especially, 
there is evidence of spread of a hunting culture that seems best described, 
provisionally, as based on a mixture of Mousterian and Aurignacian ideas. 
The tools in question are known from South Africa, as well as from India, 
and they linger on in use as the basis of Australian culture, as Sollas long 
ago pointed out, though there they are affected by fragments of later 
cultures. ‘The importance of what is now the African-Arabian arid zone 
in the days when hunters were the most advanced social types is under- 
stood if we reflect on the importance of the ungulate herds, especially 
Antelopidz, on African grasslands, and if we realise that, during glacial 
conditions in Europe, North Africa and Arabia would get considerably 
more winter rainfall, though parts of the eastern Sahara, for example, may 
well have been arid throughout. Long after the spread of the Aurig- 
nacian-Capsian hunters, who reached Europe via Spain across the Straits 
of Gibraltar during an ice retreat, there occurred a third dispersal indicated 
by finds of implements of flint and chert as before, but many of these are 
very small and are called pygmy flints. Men were spreading more widely 
over Europe and Asia, probably because the ice sheets had retreated. It 
is quite likely that there was no first-class advance of civilisation at this 
stage but rather a driving force behind, namely, the intensification of the 
desert in northern Africa and south-western Asia. 

With the next great movement we meet agriculture, so we must pause 


E,— GEOGRAPHY 107 


here to note the fate of societies that have lingered at this stage of hunting 
and collecting. 

lf we use as a hypothesis the idea of drifts from northern Africa and 
south-western Asia, we have akey to some modern distributions of hunting 
peoples. These societies are either in what are ultimate corners or in areas 
of special difficulty ; elsewhere they have been superseded by agricul- 
turists. ‘The pygmies of the equatorial forest of Africa are remnants in 
a region of hot wet climate where debilitation makes achievement difficult, 
and one may discuss in what measure these lowly people are primitive 
and in what measure they are degenerate. Biologists find the same type 
of question arises concerning the lowliest members of various animal 
groups. The Bushmen of south-western Africa are in a region of sheer 
poverty ina farcorner. ‘The Veddah and some jungle tribes of southern 
India are in another far corner under conditions that forest or jungle 
makes difficult. The Australians and recently extinct Tasmanians are 
in a far corner, isolated by orographical changes. ‘The pygmies and some 
other hunting groups of the Malay and the East Indies and Philippines 
are, again, in what are almost ultimate corners, isolated by land-sinking, 
and, also, in regions of warm wet forest. North-eastern Asia also has some 
hunting groups, but here it is possible that some of the peoples, as Demo- 
lins thought, may have given up pastoralism as they drifted north-eastward 
from the interior of Asia. The pre-Columbian hunting peoples of the 
New World are omitted from this sketch, as they would need separate 
discussion, for the story of spreads of culture into America is a complex 
one, as the hunting peoples of pre-Columbian America have a more 
intricate cultural history than have many of those of the Old World. 


III. AGricULTURAL PEOPLES—ORIGINS. 


The third, or epi-Palzeolithic drift, it has been suggested, was corre- 
lated with the intensification of the desert in northern Africa and south- 
western Asia. That great change apparently had the further effect of causing 
pressure of population on the Nile and Euphrates and possibly the Indus 
as well, all rivers with regular floods running through dry, or, then, fairly 
dry open country with a warm season. In or near these river-valleys, 
and probably other minor ones of the Syria-Palestine region, there arose, 
perhaps at one, perhaps in more than one, place the art of cultivation. 
Barley apparently is native to south-western Asia and north-eastern Africa, 
and the wild ancestors of our wheats include plants native to south-western 
Asia, but it is well known that the story of domestic wheat is a complex 
one. ‘These facts suggest that the Fertile Crescent and Egypt are the first 
homes of agriculture, while the Indus civilisation may be an early derivative. 
All these rivers permitted and encouraged irrigation, and the deposit of 
silt from floods gives a renewal of fertility, so exhaustion of the soil, a 
serious difficulty in later extensions of agriculture to other lands, was not 
a problem of early cultivators near the rivers, and this was no doubt a 
great help to settlement. ‘The courses of the Euphrates and Indus were 
conspicuously subject to variation, whereas the Nile is confined in its 
famous slot and its peasantry has gone on from time immemorial until 
near our own day with a remarkable measure of constancy as regards the 


108 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


economic basis of life. In Mesopotamia and on the Indus there have been 
more marked fluctuations ; cities grew up and then died down when a 
stream left them to take a new course, and there was thus much wastage 
of momentum, with, no doubt, compensations in the direction of freshness 
of attack on environmental difficulties. The Nile slot contrasts so sharply 
with the plateau desert on either side that the peasantry now, and probably 
in the past, know little of the desert and fear it ; Egypt basically seems to 
have been at first a self-contained unit receiving stimuli from without ; 
Mesopotamia with its fluctuations seems to have exercised more influence 
over regions of Asia and Europe. How far the Indus civilisation affected 
the pre-Aryan life of central and southern India and thus the cultures 
associated with the speakers of Dravidian languages, which are still so 
important in southern India, is still a matter for pioneer research, though 
Slater has to some extent made an attempt to work this out—an attempt 
the more striking in that it was made before Sir John Marshall had dis- 
covered the Indus civilisation. 

It is important to note here the immensity of the change that modern 
ideas have effected in Egypt. Perennial irrigation has made it possible 
to grow different crops in the different seasons, and the population has 
increased phenomenally. But the new schemes draw more from the soil 
and give it less silt, so Egypt is needing to import manures, and her agri- 
cultural life is drawn into commercial relations in revolutionary fashion. 


IV. CULTIVATORS AND HERDSMEN. 


It is probable that the earliest cultivators were still without domestic 
animals, and the old view, still so often quoted, that hunting developed 
via pastoralism into agriculture, is now to be considered very doubtful. 
But domestication of animals was an achievement of very early times too, 
and, in such regions as the Fertile Crescent with its grass zones, it un- 
doubtedly assumed great importance and led to the beginning of age- 
long conflicts and interactions between herdsmen and cultivators. The 
herdsmen, basically a close corporation gathering around the flocks and 
needing men to add to their strength for defence, as well as discipline and 
organisation to maintain unity, have often dominated peasant neigh- 
bours, but this special ability appears to have been much developed when 
the horse was acquired as a companion and helper—and that belongs to a 
later stage of this argument. The close nomad corporation, with little 
opportunity of expressing itself in luxury and building, has as features 
family pride and the idealisation of the hero ancestor. A measure of endo- 
gamy is a natural expression of this mentality, whereas some amount of 
exogamy is often encouraged by cultivators, probably as a means to peace. 


V. SoctaL FEATURES ACCOMPANYING CULTIVATION. 


The bearings of the introduction of cultivation on social life and organisa- 
tion have obviously been of the first importance. There was involved 
the idea of sowing for a crop to be reaped weeks or even months ahead— 
that is, there was now an incitement to prevision and provision. There 
was an observable sequence that made argument more solid than it was 


E.—GEOGRAPHY 109 


likely to be in the days of hunting when accidental coincidences loomed 
larger. In fact a growth of rationality must have been a feature, and with 
it came increased power of choice that is described in the account in 
Genesis as the knowledge of good and evil. The habit of prevision 
extended itself through calculations of the coming of the floods and 
correlated study of the heavenly bodies to the framing of a calendar. So 
society acquired a learned tradition and lifted itself some way above the 
old level of dependence on the personal power of medicine-men and the like. 
There was a further extension of prevision beyond that to a succession 
of years—namely, to a succession of generations specially associated with 
the domestication of animals and with the family, and with this came 
the growth of the idea of a mother-goddess or goddess of fertility which 
has so widely influenced society. ‘Thought, drawn out towards the future, 
seems just as naturally to have run back into the past, giving rise to gene- 
alogies which are one of the germs of history and also to rites of reverence 
paid to ancestors. ‘These rites, not unnaturally, are specially marked in 
regions such as China which owe so much of their civilisation to early 
interactions of herdsmen and cultivators on the ways from central Asia. 
It is of interest to note that the large household, linked by real or some- 
times assumed blood relationship, seems a social feature of basic character 
among the cultivators of northern China, and in other forms is notable 
among other cultivators around the edges of the great steppe, the famous 
Zadruga of parts of the Balkan peninsula being a case in point in a region 
in which interactions between herdsmen and cultivators have been and 
still remain most important features of life. ‘The Russian Mir sometimes 
had a like origin. It is naturally a social development in large measure 
antagonistic to the growth of nationalism. 

Along with the primarily psychical development accompanying the rise 
of cultivation went the linking of society with a definite piece of land 
through the establishment of the settled life. This association is one of 
the most important features of settled society, and, occurring more or less 
in the same phase of development as the mental changes just named, it 
seems to have led to what has become a most widespread characteristic : 
this is the idea that the living hold a trust from their forefathers and 
will pass it on to future generations. ‘This trust includes both the land to 
which the society is linked, and the customs, traditions and rites of the 
group. It must defend these when necessary, and it is likely to resist 
violent and deliberate change in them, though change of the ‘ common 
stock of ideas’ of the society is always going on. The old local unit, 
large household or village, worked rather by ‘ declaring the custom’ of 
the people than by debating projects of change. 

There was, in the same phase of development, a marked growth of 
specialisation as between individuals in some, at any rate, of the settled 
societies. Marked advances of the potter’s art, of the arts of stone grinding 
and metallurgy, apparently of carpentry, weaving and so on, all belong to 
early stages of cultivation. There appears also to have been, even in 
early stages, some exchange between different groups and a good deal of 
fusion, as well as division, of groups. But in spite of these last two 
considerations, the early cultivator-society seems to have been primarily 


IIo SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


self-contained, with external exchanges as a subordinate matter, however 
important. 

Whatever may be found hereafter concerning the phases through which 
the early cultivating societies developed in their primary homes, there is 
little doubt that the spread of their scheme of life occurred in most direc- 
tions in two stages. The first went with the hoe, used chiefly by women, 
and with domestic animals for food or milk, but not for work, and the 
second with the plough drawn by domestic animals under male control, 
as well as with the increasing use of domestic animals as carriers and 
workers in other ways such as the turning of a water-wheel. At a later 
stage comes the relief given to women from the work of crushing grain. 


VI. THE SPREAD OF THE IDEA OF CULTIVATION, AND ITS PRIMARY 
MopIFIcaTIONs. 


The first of these two rather artificially contrasted stages is the one 
that spread into intertropical Africa. There were special difficulties here. 
Firstly the climate made steady prolonged efficient exertion difficult in many 
areas. ‘Then the fundamental crops, wheat and barley, would not thrive 
in most parts and inferior grains and other plants became the important 
crops. Further, there were practically no wild plants in intertropical 
Africa that the native cultivator contrived to domesticate ; so progress 
depended largely on plants deliberately introduced, as for example via 
Egypt or by Arabs, Portuguese, etc., in later times. The introduction of 
maize, manioc, etc., from America has made a huge difference to Africa. 
Fly belts in several regions, also lack of salt and phosphorus deficiency, 
and no doubt climatic factors, limited the value of domestic animals in 
Africa between the Tropics. "The plough reached the Niger in due course, 
and Abyssinia also presents a special case, but, these apart, it is the 
lowlier stage of agriculture, supplemented by survivals of hunting and 
collecting, that is characteristic of the region. Nevertheless, the social 
life of African cultivators generally has at its base some feeling towards 
the idea of a trust handed along the generations. Systems of land tenures 
and utilisation vary greatly but usually gather around an idea of the land 
as the basis of the group’s life, and that land, however utilised by families 
or individuals, is basically the property of the group or of the chief or king 
as a sort of personification of the group. It is something either given by 
nature or acquired or lost through war rather than something bought or 
sold, and leases are nearly always subject to customary limitations and not 
intended to lead to alienation in permanency. 

Archeologists think agriculture spread into central Europe at first 
with the hoe and the non-permanent village that is a feature of parts of 
intertropical Africa; and there are indications of the same scheme in 
forested and therefore backward parts of central India and elsewhere in 
south-east Asia as well as in north Korea. It is a useful hypothesis, not 
as yet proved, that this was the first stage of agriculture in most regions, 
save where irrigation offered the simple method of flooding with water 
containing fertilising silt. 

Agriculture with the plough has now ousted this scheme from Europe 
and most of Asia and, in this superior stage, the village becomes more 


E.—GEOGRAPHY Ii 


permanent: either a rotation in the use of lands is established and the 
households have their strips in each of the village lands, or a portion of 
the village land specially enriched by manure from stock folded on it may 
be cultivated nearly every year, and some portion of an ‘ outfield ’ may be 
used as may be required or may be possible. There seems to have been, 
with the growth ot this phase, an increase of the social or conjoint activi- 
ties of the group. In many parts of Europe harvesting had to be com- 
pleted by a certain day, on which a bell was rung and the fences around the 
crops removed to allow the cattle to feed in the stubble fields and give 
them manure. ‘This is but one of scores of activities regulated for the 
village by custom and continuing through centuries, a scheme of life 
which maintained and developed the idea of a trust handed along the 
generations. Communal agriculture has largely passed away in Europe, 
but it is the basis on which later systems have been built, and its idea of 
the soil as a trust underlies much that is still important. It is important 
perhaps most of all because of a long continuity of inheritance, but it is 
in danger from the fact that our industrial culture is so drastically uncon- 
formable above these deeper layers, and has so diverged from the idea of 
a society living in close relation with a particular piece of the earth. The 
danger of unconformable superposition of cultures, when very extreme, 
is illustrated by the fate of the pre-Columbian life of America, and the 
peoples concerned, in the last few centuries. 

In the regions with irrigation or plough agriculture or both, the differ- 
entiation of crafts went much farther than among societies with hoe 
cultivation. Exchange developed more considerably and there are towns 
or cities, fundamentally centres of exchange and of handicraft, and often 
of a priesthood and government. Cities are not found in intertropical 
Africa save in a few spots where they are due to intrusive influences of 
fairly recent date. The typical social unit in Africa is thus the village or 
the little group of villages ; in Europe and Asia the village may be the 
fundamental unit among settled peoples, but it also forms part of a larger 
unit made up of a town and a number of villages. 

The nomadic or semi-nomadic societies of intertropical Africa live 
on their cattle, and by hunting and collecting, as well as by raiding those 
who are more sedentary and less ready for war. The nomadic and semi- 
nomadic societies of Europe, Asia and northern Africa have in many cases 
the important auxiliary activity of trade, and use their beasts as carriers. 
Moreover, they have typically developed or contributed to the develop- 
ment of stations, which have in many cases become centres of trade and 
religion, 7.e. sacred cities, near the bounds of the waste or in oases. The 
names of Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Damascus, Ur of the Chaldees, 
Babylon itself, Khiva, Bukhara, Merv, Samarcand, Lhasa and many another 
crowd on one’s memory. In China, India and the Fertile Crescent the 
semi-nomad, especially after he acquired the use of the horse, found it 
possible to dominate the cultivator, and seems often to have contributed 
an elaboration of organisation to the group of social units, villages and their 
focal towns become grouped into larger entities. In Africa, too, pastoral 
groups have repeatedly conquered cultivators and, in such cases as that 
of the Baganda, have attempted a considerable amount of organisation 


112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


with a hierarchy of units, but all this remains far cruder in regions where 
the hoe is the instrument of cultivation than where the plough is used and 
especially where the horse is available. 

It is important to bear in mind contrasts between the various steppe 
lands of the Old World. In the first place, one may distinguish the 
northern steppe, north of Iran, from the southern steppe including Iran, 
Arabia and parts of northern Africa. For considerable periods in the 
Pleistocene the southern steppe was in many parts better watered than it 
now is, and included much land that is now desert. On the other hand, 
much of the northern steppe was apparently either under ice or under the 
water derived from the melting of ice. Parts of the southern steppe were 
of special importance as a home of hunting groups ; of the northern steppe 
at that stage we know little. Parts of the southern steppe have a little 
rain in winter, the northern steppe is subjected to the fiercest cold at that 
season. 

The rivers of the southern steppe lend themselves to fertilisation of 
land tracts as well as to movement of trade, and, with the aid of the climate, 
agriculture developed far earlier and far more highly than it did in the 
northern steppe, and there are far more ancient cities. 

In the southern steppe, ass, sheep, goat and camel are characteristic 
and traditional, with cattle in the vicinity of water. The camel appears 
to have reached Egypt, presumably from Arabia, at a very early period 
(in or before the First Dynasty), and it no doubt promoted trade. The 
northern steppe by way of contrast had large herds of cattle, sheep and 
horses, and milch mares gave a very valuable and complete food which 
was not available on the southern steppe. The latter is so dry and hot 
that the horse does not seem to have been fully adapted until the days of 
the Arab horse, inured to abstinence and evolved in Nejd in post-Roman 
times. ‘The horse was, however, of great importance in the southern 
steppe before this. It is thanks to the horse, acquired from the Hyksos, 
that the Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt transformed that once self-contained 
country into a far-flung empire. It is thanks to the horse that the lowland 
ways of Palestine became important under the kingdoms of Israel and 
Judah, and Israel broke away from the old-fashioned Judah to throw 
herself more fully into the new life. ‘The horse was the ally of the Persian 
Kings of Kings, whose cradleland was among the hills of Fars with grass 
and streams. But all these earlier mentions of the horse are connected 
mainly with the fertile border of the steppe. 

The multiplicity of relations between nomad and cultivator in the 
southern steppe has led the conquering herdsman to use the scribes of 
the cities he took in order to get written records of his prized genealogies 
and ancestral achievements, once he had become too busy with adminis- 
tration and policy to carry these in his memory as in the old days of the 
simple life and the blood feud. There is naturally far less of all this on 
the northern steppe, which a French writer has described as the land of 
peuples sans histoire. ‘The many contacts of the southern steppe, and its 
nomads and its citizens, have led to the exchange of ideas and the broaden- 
ing of the religious vision, so that this is the cradle of the mono- 
theistic religions; in so far as the northern steppe has become 


E.—GEOGRAPHY 113 


monotheistic it has been by the spread of influences from the southern. 
One may look upon this as a return gift for the horse, passed on from the 
northern to the southern steppe and effecting there so many of the contacts 
which made big religious ideas develop. 

The southern steppe may be divided into regions such as Iran, Arabia, 
north Africa. The northern steppe in its turn is divisible into the low 
steppe of Turan or Turkestan with extensions into Europe, the plateau 
steppe around Gobi and the Takla Makan, and the mountain steppe or, 
rather, desert of Tibet. Moreover, the borders of the northern steppe, 
towards the rainier lands both west and east, have been in many ways 
rather distinct. ‘Their nomads have been able to use oxen to draw wheeled 
carts, on which the tents were built. The wheeled nomads near the 
cultivators of the loess, the fertile soil of the steppe edges, offer a special 
case of contact of nomad and peasant. The nomads with control of large 
spaces and transport by horse and wheeled ox carts have been able to make 
their power seriously felt. 


VII. CoNSscIOUSNESS OF KIND IN ITS GEOGRAPHICAL SETTINGS. 


The social group gathered around land held in trust along the genera- 
tions has added to the expressions of its common life and to its conscious- 
ness of kind by developments of language and religion, of peculiarities of 
clothing and hairdressing, and other shibboleths, but it would apparently 
be exaggerating matters were we to think of our modern idea of linguistic 
nationalism as at all widely developed in early times. As already stated, 
the village, or the pays, or other small district was, of old, the effective 
unit. Consciousness of kind might be strongly developed in the Hebrew 
group that came back from exile in Babylon, but speaking generally that 
consciousness had to grow much further before modern nationalism could 
arise from it. In India distinctions between pastoralist conquerors and 
cultivator subjects gave impetus to the growth of caste, and this was an 
alternative channel along which consciousness of kind could grow. 
Nationalism in India is quite a modern political reaction. In China 
conquerors from the steppe have always had to merge themselves in the 
people, for the great mass of whom there has been no urgent need of 
common action against the outsider, at any rate until our own time ; and 
in China, again, nationalism is just in its birth-throes. In Japan, on the 
other hand, there was a prolonged struggle, on a relatively narrow front, 
for the conquest of land inhabited by aborigines, remnants of whom have 
been absorbed into the group of the intensely nationalist conquerors, 
organised as a feudal hierarchy. 

In the classical lands of the Mediterranean, a variety of environmental 
and other causes, too familiar to need discussion here, made the city the 
general unit of society, and it is a commonplace that in many parts of the 
Mediterranean region even a place that has a population of what we in 
- north-west Europe call a village affects the form and lineaments of a city. 
Consciousness of kind in considerable measure developed among these 
small units, and only the middle of the nineteenth century saw the rise of 
Italian nationalism in the guise of a struggle against foreign domination. 
Greek nationalism, also, came to birth as the struggle against Turkish 


114 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


rule became possible. Spain on the other hand, with its long fight fot 
Roman Catholicism against Islam, developed nationalism earlier, and 
naturally gave it an intensely zealotic flavour. That this feature has 
limited its growth seems beyond doubt. 

In west, north-west and parts of central Europe early development was 
slow because the food-plants and animal breeds had to be acclimatised, 
and the problem of soil exhaustion was serious even if mitigated where the 
subsoil was of loess or related material. Nevertheless, there can be no 
doubt that settled populations in central and western Europe practising 
agriculture and living in villages were much more numerous in far pre- 
Roman times than it was customary to think a generation ago. It would 
appear that the languages in use in those days changed from time to time 
with conquests or migrations, and that Roman influence affected language 
far and wide. Thus, in west, north-west and central Europe, language 
up to Roman times appears to have played at most only a minor part in 
developing durable consciousness of kind. The centuries following the 
fall of the Roman Empire are dubbed the Dark Ages, and it is as they pass 
away that the germs of the future linguistic national groups become clear, 
with attempts to organise governments that were more than local in the 
small sense, while leaving the fundamental village units in large measure 
to themselves. 

The spread of Islam in the Mediterranean region cut old trade routes 
for a time, and this increased the poverty following the decline of the 
Roman Empire, so that towns and cities went through a bad time, but 
apparently in several areas there was a marked increase of rural settlement, 
notably in central Europe, where this is called the Rodungszeit from the 
amount of forest clearing. Apparently the large plough worked by an 
ox team came into use, or, at any rate, wider use, at this time, and helped 
to develop the three-field in place of the two-field system—that is, a 
scheme in which two-thirds, as against one-half previously, of the village 
lands bore crops in each year. The unsettled state of affairs as well as 
this more elaborate system of communal cultivation made the village a 
very self-contained unit with a very definite routine. Neighbourhood in 
many cases came to mean as much as, or more than, kinship. The spread 
of clerical celibacy meanwhile caused the Church to recruit the clergy from 
the people, and thus the clergy often belonged to the locality in which they 
functioned, so the structure of society came to be built around local units, 
the majority of them rural. 

As a hierarchy of social units re-established itself, growing mainly from 
local roots instead of from an external influence such as that of Rome, 
it is natural that such hierarchies should spring up where there was mutual 
comprehension of language in groups of villages and their focal market 
towns, and cathedral cities in France. Moreover, charters and grants 
and agreements written in the vernacular came to be increasingly im- 
portant, while the use of the vernacular in courts of first instance developed 
folk-speech. It is apparently a combination of all these factors that has 
maintained the distribution of the peasant languages of Europe without 
any change of great importance since the Middle Ages. 

The idea of the city can be traced eastwards and northwards from 


E.—GEOGRAPHY 115 


France and the Rhine in the early Middle Ages, and, in relation with this, 
often, at the present day, the life of a town connects it with regions farther 
west, while the peasant life round about knows nothing of this. The 
Renaissance, being essentially an urban movement, accentuated this, and 
we note the French leanings of part of the upper classes in Alsace contrasted 
with the Alemannic tradition of the peasantry, German aristocracy and 
Danish common folk in parts of Slesvig, German (including Yiddish) 
affiliations of towns in Poland as against Slavonic life among the peasantry, 
Polish affiliation of towns and the upper classes in East Poland as contrasted 
with Lithuanian (in the north) and Ruthenian (in Eastern Galicia) 
traditions of the peasantry. ‘This difference in the fit of the traditional 
frames of life has become one of the most troublesome difficulties of 
Europe, by no means diminished in 1918-20 through the decision to follow 
now the urban and now the rural tradition in rearranging boundaries to 
suit political exigencies and a greatly intensified consciousness of kind 
following the bitter struggle of 1914~18. 


VIII. TRADITIONALISM AND INDIVIDUALISM IN VARIOUS GEOGRAPHICAL 
ENVIRONMENTS. Mass-PRODUCTION. 


But the problem was greatly deepened by another sequence of develop- 
ment. ‘The Renaissance, whatever else it may have done, was a potent 
factor of the rise and spread of individuality: After it, much larger 
numbers of men in Europe became less members of a traditionalist com- 
munity and more definitely persons with ideas of their own to express. 

In agricultural life the introduction of seed grasses, sown clover and 
root crops, and, later on, of the potato, helped to break down the old 
communal cultivation, perhaps most of all by interfering with the old 
right of stubble pasture. Individualism in farming made its way in the 
end, and the last eighty years have seen further revolutionary changes 
due to modern transport developments. 

In urban life, the increased wealth that more elaborate agriculture 
brought, and the growth of commerce, coupled with the individualist 
spirit, made craftsmanship become more differentiated, and guild systems 
gave place to independent enterprises, with apprenticeship continuing 
the old idea of maintenance of a trust handed down and passed on. 

But in some parts, notably in France, these changes, and even great 
political convulsions, long left some basic facts of society untouched. 
The peasantry long remained attached to, almost worshippers of, their soil, 
even if in parts of the west and south of that country this is no longer the 
case. The peasant acquired more dignity, but the village remained an 
entity ; men still often make it their main ambition to hand on animproved 
farm to their descendants. The town too is often still essentially the 
focus and market for its region, and it often still carries on a number of 
smallish industries for the benefit of its neighbourhood. Its bourgeois 
are peasants only slightly modified. The idea of maintenance, rather than 
that of expansion on an English, German or American scale, is strong 
in many minds and France, characteristically, makes external trade sub- 
ordinate to internal production for use and exchange. The reasonable 
assurance of her wheat, root-crop, potato, and, but for a few calamitous 


116 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


years, vine and apple harvests, thanks to sunshine, has contributed a great 
deal to this, and has helped the French people to modify into modern 
forms the age-old feeling of a trusteeship (of the sacred soil) handed along 
the generations. With ideas of this kind shaping social life the population 
of France has grown only relatively slowly, and a country which led in 
population a century ago now has far fewer people than Germany and 
fewer than Great Britain, countries which have pursued a different course 
of evolution. 

Britain’s harvests have long been less secure because of summer rains 
and coolness, and, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, there 
grew first a widespread maritime commerce, and then manufacturing in- 
dustries—in fact, the Industrial Revolution with its financial successes and 
its notion of taking a profit wherever that could be made. This new and 
enormous development in Britain almost made people forget the old feeling 
of trusteeship and maintenance ; what would pay for the next few years 
became more important than any question of its lasting as a means of 
livelihood for the third and fourth generation. An immense increase of 
population was an accompaniment of this, and for a while the surplus 
found outlets in distant lands, so that British expansion has become one 
of the outstanding facts of the world’s history. 

But the home population came to exceed by a great deal the numbers 
that could be kept busy supplying the needs of their fellow-citizens. 
Britain’s export trade came to be her mainstay, and few recognised the 
dangers of the position thus created, for, in early stages, Britain’s industry 
was far ahead of that of other countries. 

The contrast between French and British development was thus ex- 
treme and startling. That it did not lead to more trouble between them 
after 1815 was due partly to the opportunities for expansion of trade, and 
of settlement, outside Europe. 

Industrialism spread from Britain to Germany and led to a parallel 
increase of population, but this time with less facility for its emigration, 
because by this time there were few new lands without organised govern- 
ment, and German emigration, therefore, now meant the ultimate loss of 
the direct link with the Fatherland. ‘Then, also, the German effort had 
its aim moulded politically by the desire to rise out of an old position of 
political inferiority and disunion. Further, the historic cities of Germany 
in several cases, such as Niirnberg, Frankfurt-am-Main, Kéln, Leipzig, and 
so on, had their situations predetermined by major physical considera- 
tions, and must be important centres so long as Germany is a land of 
organised civilisation. ‘This fact and the related one of the finding of coal 
near the zone of gradation from the hills to the northern plain—+.e. a zone 
of cities—led to the development of modern industry in several cases in 
historic towns, whereas in England the greatest developments took place 
in what had previously been small places. Both national and municipal 
authorities in Germany, therefore, had a larger and more direct share in 
the directing of industrial growth than was the case in Britain. Manu- 
factures, mining and agriculture were made to interlock where possible, 
and the profits derived from new growth of cities often came to the 
municipal treasury. The tendency was for the nation to become one 


E.—GEOGRAPHY 117 


great organisation, with agricultural, manufacturing, mining, financial and 
commercial aspects of its life interwoven much more than in Britain. As 
a result it often planned for years ahead, and redeveloped in modified 
form the old idea of a trust to be handed on. 

If we think along these lines we see why, quite apart from wars and 
questions of external political ambition on one side or the other, it has 
come about that the French people have been gravely anxious. Here 
are two enormously increased units, England and Germany, both 
dependent on export trade, neither able to live with any reasonable 
standard for the great multitude mainly on the produce of the national 
soil; both, before 1914, becoming able to lend abroad, both liable to 
crises with the spread of industrialism to other lands, especially outside 
Europe, and to the consequent checks to old lines in staple export trades. 
France, urged, not very willingly, and to a smaller extent, along the same 
lines for fear of being outclassed, could not but cherish the idea of the 
peasant nation with external commerce as a secondary feature, and a 
system that, at any rate, seemed to promise more continuity of economic 
activities through the generations. There is thus a conflict between 
different ideas of society underlying the present difficulties of Europe and 
the world, and, naturally, nowhere is it so acute as it is between France 
and Germany. It is well known that M. Clemenceau summed up the 
problem of Europe by saying that there were too many millions of Germans 
and British. He might have added ‘ and too few millions of tons of coal 
in France.’ His statement was less a callous gibe than an anxious thought, 
fearful lest a society cherishing social continuity and economic stability 
should be overwhelmed by one that had grown suddenly through an 
expansion that was likely to receive a sharp check and must, therefore, 
face a serious crisis, sooner or later, when more of the world’s peoples 
came to make things for themselves. 

The spread of large-scale industrialism to U.S.A. and Japan and the 
prospect of its emergence elsewhere make the attendant problems still 
more serious. ‘There are now several states that have populations ex- 
ceeding what their soils can support unless science intervenes afresh ; all 
therefore compete for an increasingly precarious export trade, all are in 
danger of finding groups of their people, with highly specialised machine- 
tending activities and corresponding inelasticity of mind, suddenly 
thrown out of employment and unable to adjust themselves to new lines 
of enterprise. 

Meanwhile nearly half mankind, in the monsoon lands of Asia apart 
from Japan, is being shaken out of its traditionalist schemes by contact 
with the west, and nationalist ideas are germinating in various ways along- 
side of schemes of industrial development that borrow from the west to 
such an extent as to be a danger to indigenous society. Then the newer 
lands which have received the later overflow of modern Europe, and which 
seemed likely to become producers of raw material for Europe, are also 
being forced along the same line of nationalist development. They have 
borrowed freely from Europe (chiefly Britain and France) and more lately 
from America, and have consequently found themselves faced with the 
duty of finding large amounts of interest. This interest often, as already 


118 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


stated, is not by any means earned by the working of the schemes on which 
the money was spent. ‘To meet this call for interest, exports must largely 
exceed imports, and so tariffs are introduced to keep down imports; and 
local industries are started. 

Both in the teeming monsoon lands and in the new lands, therefore, 
industrialism spreads, and both react strongly against the danger of a 
position of inferiority. The risks and evils attendant on international 
indebtedness without strict control have been publicly emphasised of 
late by Sir Arthur Salter and Mr. Loftus and others. ‘The evils attendant 
on the disequilibrium that has arisen between producers of food and raw 
materials on the one hand, and producers of manufactured goods and 
merchants on the other, have not been studied as much as they should be. 
Means must be found to increase self-respect among primary producers, 
not least among those who are natives of intertropical Africa. 

On all sides, in the first great burst of mass-production, local boundaries 
seemed to have been swept away. It is probable that our social thoughts 
and plans will have to regain contact with Mother Earth, each group 
basing itself on its own soil, but evidently not in the old sense of a self- 
contained isolation. Interdependence of all on each is a new feature that 
will become increasingly important, and one of the geographer’s tasks is 
to try to see both the roots of each society in its own soil, and its relations 
to others. He must try to see which factors are likely to go on operating 
from generation to generation, and which are temporary, and perhaps 
carry in themselves the germs that will bring their own decay: the 
industrialist society with its accumulations of capital in the hands of the 
grandchildren of able men, and its specialisation of machine tenders 
lacking seriously in the skilful adaptability of the man who thatches to-day 
and ploughs to-morrow—the overpopulated agricultural area losing its 
fertility and driving its people out because of the spectre of famine and 
disease, and perhaps finding no land ready to receive them. It is ad- 
mittedly a most difficult phase of the world’s life that has now been reached. 
Traditionalism is challenged everywhere in economic, social and religious 
life as never before. The local group is inevitably part of a great future 
whole, and yet is being forced to think more of its roots in its own soil. 
Each group has its problems and needs the help of others. England has 
her population problem, France her need to safeguard her peasant tradition, 
Germany her need to develop her schemes of welfare planning, and so on. 
But development of each without domination by any is a very difficult 
idea to work out, and in our attempts we are all too likely to try to crystal- 
lise out some condition of stutus quo, forgetting that life has change as one 
of its basic characteristics. ‘The study of men and their environments 
that we geographers pursue is necessarily always relative to a particular 
time, and must always be looked at in the broad frame of the life of 
mankind as a whole. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS. 


BRITAIN’S ACCESS TO OVERSEAS 
MARKETS 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. R. B. FORRESTER, 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


THERE have been within the last few years a number of reports of special 
British Economic Missions! sent to various dominions and foreign 
countries to inquire into the difficulties which are being met in marketing 
British products overseas; in addition, there have been Government 
Committees! specially devoting their attention to this subject. Their 
efforts are an indication of the increasing anxiety with which the British 
export position is being regarded, and it is proposed to consider some 
aspects of their inquiries in the light of the events of the years after 1920. 
Statistical surveys have indicated that Britain had failed to recover in the 
post-war years a position comparable to that which she occupied in 1913 
in the export trades; this lack of recuperative power was not merely 
absolute, as shown in the decreased quantity of her sales, which in the 
favourable years 1925-29 was estimated to be 10 per cent. below her 
level in the years before 1914, but it was relatively unfavourable in so far 
as world trade and the trade of some of our leading rivals was increasing 
at a more rapid pace and had easily surpassed its pre-war quantities. 

The reasons advanced to explain this generally admitted slowing down 
of overseas sales have varied with the passing of years but have fallen 
into two main groups: the first may be said to place emphasis upon the 
natural course of world development in production combined with the 
long series of casual misfortunes to which British trade has been specially 
subject ; the other tends rather to urge that there is some special retarding 
cause operating in the case of British sales which is not present in the 
case of other countries, at least to the same extent. It finds this under- 
lying cause in non-adjustable costs and in the suggested rigidity in the 
British income and price structure which has put it out of gear with the 
economic levels of price and remuneration in other countries. 


1 Among these reports may be mentioned the following : 

Report of the British Economic Mission to the Fay East. 1931. 

Report of the British Economic Mission to Argentina, Brazil, and Uruguay. 
1930. 

Report of the Cotton Mission to the Fav East. 1931. 

Interim Report of the Committee on Education for Salesmanship: British 
Overseas Marketing. 1929. 

Final Report of the Committee on Industry and Trade. 1929. 


120 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


INFLUENCES LIMITING THE EXPANSION OF BRITISH EXPORTS. 


It is obvious that the two reasons advanced are not necessarily separate 
and mutually exclusive ; the second becomes prominent after 1925-26. 
Passing these influences in review, it may be said that the growth of local 
manufacture and the desire of many countries to develop what they 
believe to be their industrial resources has always been recognised as 
a main factor in the changes which have taken place. It is clearly a 
permanent influence which received special stimulation in the years after 
1914; large groups of markets outside Europe found themselves cut 
off from their usual sources of supply for industrial products owing 
particularly to the absence of the two countries which held industrial 
leadership, Britain and Germany. New industries therefore grew up in 
India, China and Japan, in Brazil, Argentina and Chile, in Canada and 
Australia, which required some measure of protection to entrench them- 
selves against the competitive power of long-established foreign organisa- 
tions. This new effort was usually directed to the common grades of 
staple goods, leaving the upper ends of the markets and the specialities 
for later attention. The tendency is one which was familiar before the 
war period, in the textiles at least. 

There is little need to labour the difficulties which accumulated in the 
years 1914-21 for the British staple export industries : fuel production, 
the textiles, the heavies, comprising general engineering, steel smelting, 
iron and steel rolling, together with shipbuilding, became, after 1921, the 
depressed group; the war period had naturally led to extreme over- 
development of the heavies and of shipbuilding, and had given to Japan 
and to the U.S.A. unrivalled opportunities of making new business con- 
nections in former British markets. For coal-mining the prospects 
seemed at first bright ; neither the Ruhr nor the Nord coalfields recovered 
rapidly ; but the return of these areas to full output, the development of 
the German lignite beds, the new Dutch coalfield, the Polish efforts in 
Silesia, as well as the technical advances in fuel economy, the growth of 
hydro-electric power, the use of oil fuel for shipping, the expansion of 
road transport, placed a serious limit on British power of export. ‘The 
industry was also damaged by the strike of 1926, and by the dislocation of 
its marketing through the method of paying reparations in kind. 

The textiles began to affect the position from 1924 ; the difficulties in 
the Far Eastern markets, the troubles in India, the successful competition 
of Japan, all played their parts. 

The decline in the purchasing power of local populations was also 
commonly advanced as a cause of difficulty ; it was stated that in the 
immediate post-war period the populations of certain regions, such as 
Russia, India, the Near East, the Far East, and Mexico, had suffered a 
decline in their standards of living, and that for a considerable period they 
would be bound to buy goods less expensive than those offered by Britain ; 
they had drifted to a cheaper class of article than formerly. ‘The evidence 
upon this matter is far from satisfactory, and it will be the subject of 
comment later in this survey. 

The heritage of restrictive tendencies and of financial and exchange 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 121 


troubles left by the war years is a further factor which is held to have 
retarded recovery. No doubt the multiplication of customs tariffs, the 
enforcement of prohibitions and of trading by restrictive licences, the 
presence of special privileges in trade to particular industries such as 
national shipping, the use of state control and social monopoly by govern- 
ments to avoid the ordinary liabilities of commercial trading, all exercised 
a limiting influence upon international trade, but by 1925 great progress 
had been made in removing the most serious obstacles, and the actual level 
of European tariffs was relatively little higher than that of 1913.2 

The years after 1925 represent the second phase of recovery from 
war dislocations—namely, the growth of production, trade and general 
material well-being throughout the world; they were distinguished by 
rapid technological advance in agriculture and in certain new manu- 
facturing industries, such as wireless apparatus, electrical goods, auto- 
mobilism, and artificial silk. This somewhat unbalanced development 
led among other effects to a great cheapness of foodstuffs and raw materials. 
Britain benefited in so far as her exports fell relatively slowly in price 
while her imports of food and raw material fell severely ; she herself had 
no significant agricultural output of this type which was specially injured 
by falling prices, but many of her chief markets were found in regions of 
primary production to which her industrial output was mainly comple- 
mentary, and in this direction she was subjected to losses. 

The return of Britain to the gold standard in April 1925 made the 
exchange position prominent and was held to have imposed a special 
handicap on the British export trades. The General Strike of 1926 and 
the inflationary movements in France, Belgium and Italy followed in 
turn ; each administering its special short-period shock to the business 
system. 

The list of unfavourable events leading on to the crisis which began in 
1929 could be made more comprehensive, and it could be argued that 
Britain has been compelled through the pressure of events to recognise 
that her traditional dependence on a large overseas market to assist in the 
full employment of her people at relatively high standards of living is no 
longer feasible, and that her struggle to a new equilibrium position in 
world trade will involve an increased dependence on the home market 
and on those overseas markets where her special characteristic products 
hold their own at remunerative price levels, and the products of which 
are mainly complementary to the chief British industries. Britain might 
be held to be tending to an international position more like that of France, 
where the home and empire markets form the centre block of the foreign 
trade structure. 

The difficulty with this form of interpretation of post-war development 
is that it does not make clear why Britain is in this special position of 
retreat or at least of slow advance as compared with countries whose 
resources seem less than her own. Mr. Loveday and others have stressed 
this point, and the following sentence from his essay on Britain and World 
Trade may be quoted: ‘ The evidence is, it may be hoped, adequate 
at least to suggest that the difficulties [of Britain] are confined to no 


* Cf, Tariff Level Indices. League of Nations Publication, 1927. 


122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


particular type of industry, major or minor, new or old, that they are due 
neither to the special prosperity in the Far East (or West) nor to the 
chaos in Europe which is passed, neither to inflation nor to deflation, 
that our successful competitors are drawn from all quarters of the globe 
and have pursued currency policies wholly dissimilar. Disorder and 
prosperity, depreciating and appreciating exchanges, tariffs, and dumping, 
subsidies and prohibitions may all in fact have proved damaging ; ; but 
there must surely have been some special reason connected with our 
internal economy which rendered them more disastrous to the United 
Kingdom than to other countries. But this view is too rarely expressed.’ * 

The basis of this statement is the examination of international trade 
statistics from 1924 to 1929, which indicates that in a period of general 
prosperity, Britain’s rate of advance was relatively much slower than that 
of any other important trading country. It is not so much the depression 
of the depressed industries as the failure of the new industries to grow 
adequately which Loveday deems serious. The trade of the world had 
increased but Britain’s share had diminished. Mr. Loveday goes on to 
suggest that the Rueff* diagram, showing the numbers of unemployed 
and their relation to the ratio between wholesale prices and wages, leads. 
one to think that a lack of adjustment of wages to prices is a serious cause 
of disequilibrium. This evidence seems hardly adequate as an analysis 
of labour costs; Mr. Cole *> has worked over wages rates in different 
countries without finding that British wage levels had gone notably out 
of line with those of other industrial countries; and the question of labour 
costs raises broad issues of technical efficiency in industry. As the 
Macmillan Committee ® have pointed out, several of our important 
industries are not among those which have been showing, of late years, 
the most rapid technical advance ; they state that ‘in 1929 our exports 
of manufactured goods, though declining, were still greater than those of 
any other country in the world. At the same time our real wages, whilst 
comparing unfavourably with those in the United States (which country, 
however, is unable to compete with us in world markets in our principal 
staple exports such as coal or textiles and many iron and'steel products), 
were much higher than those paid by any of our chief European com- 
petitors.’ The maintenance of so great an export trade makes it unlikely 
that British technical efficiency is much behind that of her chief com- 
petitors. On the other hand, they blamed the return of sterling to pre-war 
parity in 1925 as a cause of the difficulties in export, while indicating that 
the organisation of British industry as distinct from its technique was 
often defective, and that we had been slow in applying ourselves on an 
adequate scale to certain of the newer industries. 

Those who offer the above explanation of the export trade difficulties 
arrive, therefore, at the conclusion that it is the relatively high costs of 
certain British industries which have weakened their hold on old markets, 
and that the remedy is to reorganise output and reduce cost until it 


3 Loveday, Britain and World Trade, pp. 170-171. 1931. 

4 Jacques Rueff, Les Variations du Chémage en Angleterre. 1925. 
° G. D. H. Cole, British Trade and Industry. 1932. 

6 Report of Committee on Finance and Industry, p. 53. 1931. 


F. 


ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 123 


returns to its efficiency level with that of foreign competitors. It is then 
thought that the elasticity of demand for British exports in the world’s 
trade will be such that expansion of a more rapid kind will take place. 

It is at this point that attention is naturally drawn to the side of demand 
and markets, to inquire if they cast any light upon these issues. The 
missions sent from this country to selected markets went to find out why 
Britain was losing her status in those areas, and within the limits of their 
opportunity gave certain answers. 

The evidence bears upon three issues of importance affecting Britain’s 
access to overseas markets : 


(1) The characteristics of the market. 

(2) The structure and efficiency of the distributing organisation. 

(3) The position with regard to tariffs and the use of commercial 
diplomacy. 


THE SALES POSITION IN THE MARKETS. 


It is, no doubt, difficult to make any generalisations which cover so man 
different types of markets and so many commodities without introducinY 
undue simplification. It is obvious that there are markets like Indiag 
where Britain sells 5s.” of manufactures per head of population each year, 
and the Far East, where in a good year she may sell 1s. 6d. per head of 
estimated population, at one end of the scale, and at the other end countries 
like Australia and New Zealand, where £10 per head is sold, whilst in 
between come areas such as Canada and Newfoundland with £2.10s. per 
head, the South American States with 36s. to 4os., and Scandinavia with 
28s. to 30s. Ina populous low-grade market such as China, an increase 
in general prosperity is a most influential factor on purchases, whereas in 
a highly developed country an increase in numbers is for most industries 
an equally favourable sign. 

In spite of these difficulties and limitations a few general matters 
raised by the Economic Missions may be surveyed. It seems generally 
agreed that an increased choice of all classes of goods has become open 
to the overseas purchasers, and that the field of effective competition has 
broadened in most classes of goods, so that traditional business connec- 
tions of a semi-monopolistic kind have lost much of their value. As this 
heritage of predominance was often British, it has followed that the offer 
of alternative choices affected her more than most other countries ; the 
passing of exclusive markets has also meant that a much closer degree of 
adaptation to market requirements must be aimed at, since standard articles 
of consumption have to bear an increased psychical wear and tear. ‘This 
faises serious difficulties for the producer who had hoped to maintain 
mass output methods, but it appears to be a definite trend both in highly 
developed markets where it might be expected and also in more general 
markets such as India where it might not be expected. It must be kept 
in mind that methods of sale in the home market and in countries such 
as the U.S.A. and Australia have made rapid advance within recent years, 
and this striking change in outlook regarding sales and demand is bound 


7 1927 estimates. 


124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


to spread through the whole field of international commercial intercourse. 
The outlook is away from broad general sales towards differentiation of 
consumer groups. 

Closely associated with the range, choice, and adaptation of the goods 
as produced, there has come increased emphasis on all those services 
which the purchaser requires to accompany a successful sale; these 
include ‘ no trouble ’ quotations as regards language, prices, weights and 
measures, considered action regarding packing, its weight and suitability, 
a clear position regarding terms of sale, time of delivery, and terms of 
credit, and with some classes of goods the producer or his agent may 
require to instruct the purchaser both in the proper methods of use and 
upkeep. The net terms of purchase have come to cover much more 
than a price, and in some markets have given rise to considerable friction 
between buyers and sellers. 

A somewhat widely quoted criticism of British selling methods has 
been that which urges that the quality of British goods is too good for 
their market, while their price is beyond its paying capacity. In the 
poorer markets like China, this point has, no doubt, substance, but it raises 
difficulties in industrial policy. If what is meant is that Lancashire, for 
example, is sticking to the upper end of the market and offering a better 
article at a higher price, then the question whether such extra quality is 
really dearer in actual use arises. If, on the other hand, an article with 
a short life at a low price is deemed adequate for the job, then this cheap 
grade must be provided if the connection is to be held. No doubt 
British industry cannot view with equanimity the loss of the cheap ends 
of markets; at the same time it must be recognised that there is more risk 
at the cheap end, since it is more open to competition from the foreign 
country’s own industries as well as to that of other countries ; the whole 
trend has been to leave the cheaper and rougher work to beginners or to 
countries with low levels of remuneration. 

The evidence seems to suggest, however, that there has grown up a special 
type of cheap market for articles, either machine or textile, which are 
rapidly scrapped either through the influence of fashion, invention, or 
through having served some limited purpose. The example of a special 
type of shovel,® light and fragile, used for unloading a cargo of coal and 
then thrown away so that no collecting, storing, or reissuing troubles 
might arise, is a case in point. It was not considered that this article 
compared in any way with a sound standard article, but its net advantages 
were deemed greater to the purchaser. Low price is, of course, vital for 
such sales, and as many such cases can be given, it seems worth further 
investigation whether recent invention in many fields is not creating a cheap 
substitute article to many old-established standard articles of such a 
character that an appeal is made to people with relatively high standards 
of living, and not merely to those who cannot afford anything better. 
A further difficulty emphasised in most of the reports is the credit and 
finance of sales, particularly of machinery and the more elaborate forms of 
capital equipment. It is not possible to consider in this paper how far 
British methods of export finance can be said to curtail unduly the period 

8 Interim Report of the Committee on Education for Salesmanship, p. 27. 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 125 


of credit granted to customers or to make it less liberal than before 1914 in 
important markets. It is clear that a sound policy would depend upon 
a considerable number of general and special factors: the duration of 
overseas credit must usually be longer than the period of domestic credit 
to cover transit time ; the credit worthiness of the firms in a particular 
country or trade must be examined, the customs of the area under 
observation and the general attitude towards meeting obligations ; 
agricultural countries require consideration of their crop position. No 
doubt sales may be stimulated by long credits, but if this merely means 
a loss of all profit or an accumulation of market risks and losses, it is 
simply unsound business dealing. Most countries, including Britain, 
have attempted within the years after 1920 to develop schemes of export 
credit, and of credit insurance to cover certain kinds of exports where 
a period of years was involved, but the state schemes have been carefully 
guarded in their scope and in their bearing of risks, and it seems doubtful 
how far they represent a useful approach to this problem. 

The subject of suitable publicity and advertisement is one which is of 
considerable importance in most markets, and can be made a matter of 
joint effort between firms ; advertisement is one of the best methods of 
conveying information to the consumer ; if incomes are rising in a market 
it is a valuable aid in attracting part of the additional available purchasing 
power to the class of commodity concerned ; in addition it constitutes 
a useful check upon the marketing organisation, since it strikes through 
to the consumer and keeps the commodity before his notice. In so far 
as other commodities are competing either directly or indirectly with the 
article of the advertiser, it may be necessary to engage in combative 
publicity in order to preserve a share of the market. The evidence 
suggests that British traders have not as yet developed so definite an out- 
look upon this form of expenditure as those of certain other countries. 


THE STRUCTURE AND EFFICIENCY OF DISTRIBUTIVE ORGANISATION. 


The structure and working of the intermediary system have been the 
subject of examination and criticism within recent years, both in the home 
and overseas markets. Fundamentally, no doubt, the problem of pro- 
viding a cheap and efficient marketing system is the same in both cases, 
but overseas distribution involves greater elaboration and complexity of 
Services. 

Broadly considered, the alternative channels are : 


(1) The sale to merchants in Britain who sell overseas. 
_ (2) The sale or consignment of goods to merchants overseas. 
_ (3) The sale direct by the manufacturer’s organisation abroad either 
through agents or through its own staff of commercial travellers. 
(4) The employment of central selling agencies of a cartelised type, or 
joint selling organisations of an independent kind. 


_ All these systems except the last are found on a considerable scale in 
British overseas trade. The view has been expressed that the merchanting 
| System is the weak link in the chain, and that efforts should be devoted 
either to the creation of more direct and highly centralised methods of 


126 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


marketing or in other cases to various methods of strengthening the inter- 
mediary system to enable it to undertake the heavier modern task of 
keeping in touch with the market. 

The main difficulty with the merchanting system is held to be the lack 
of incentive to push British goods ; it is immaterial to foreign merchant 
houses whether they push the goods of a particular country or not ; so 
long as British sales were the chief part of the market, it is said, the 
system grew up satisfactorily. An importer, of course, may aim at control 
of his market and attempt to screen it off from the producer, or alternatively, 
with a powerful manufacturing interest, he may become practically an 
exclusive agent for one firm. The method which has grown up particu- 
larly in American business is to put manufacturers’ direct representatives 
or service men alongside of the merchants, not to sell but to keep in 
touch with consumers and their outlook, as well as to use methods of 
publicity and marking of goods to acquire the goodwill and indirect 
control of the market. 

There has been a tendency in many markets towards direct methods 
of marketing, even where the countries are not highly developed in- 
dustrially ; with some commodities, such as chemicals, cigarettes, and oil, 
it has even been possible to do up-country direct trading from depots 
managed by agents in China. These efforts to strike more directly 
through to the consumer are very familiar in domestic market organisations, 
but in these days of sensitive national feeling it seems prudent that the 
directness should be associated at least in part with the employment of 
citizens of the country the market of which is being served, either in 
associate companies or subsidiaries ; it may also be wise to associate the 
market served with processes of assemblage, repair, and equipment, 
which confer on the commodity concerned a certain national status. 

A main difficulty in overseas distribution is that small and medium- 
sized firms have little chance of using direct methods unless they combine. 
If they are cartelised, they may develop the central selling agency method, 
but if not, then the difficulty of access to overseas markets can only be 
overcome by some form of joint selling agency supported by firms the 
products of which do not directly compete with each other. 

It is obviously impossible to say without detailed examination and trial 
which of these forms of distributive organisation is best able to survive 
and serve a given market, nor has any evidence of the relative costliness of 
these forms of marketing been available. 

It is clear, however, the British Economic Missions have found in most 
of the markets they examined that high price is the chief difficulty facing 
British expansion, that demand has become much more sensitive and 
exigent in its requirements, that the intermediary structure is subject to 
serious criticism in many areas, and that new experiment and effort to 
keep in closer touch with consumers’ outlook is due to be made in foreign 
as in domestic markets. A suitable illustration of these difficulties in 
selling organisation is found in the account given by the Cotton Mission 
to the Far East (1931) of the Chinese market for Lancashire piece goods, 
with its reliance upon importing houses and Chinese dealers, its troubles 
with credit and with dealers who depart hastily to ‘ Ningpo more far’ in 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 127 


lieu of paying their accounts. The mission examined the possibilities 
of centralised selling, and the warehousing at central points of stocks 
adequate to the market. The views expressed by those engaged in the 
trade laid stress on the necessity of continuing to use the Chinese inter- 
mediary system, whatever change might be made in creating a central 
body with depots to introduce and carry the goods. 


THE NEED FOR MarkeT INVESTIGATION, 


It may be asked, however, whether general surveys of market diffi- 
culties, such as the British Economic Missions have made, are either 
adequate for their purpose or convey any clear conception of the marketing 
position. In rapid visits they are bound to collect the faults and the 
fault-finders, without having time to get a sense of proportion. No doubt 
there are weaknesses in selling organisation, but Britain has no monopoly 
of shortcomings and her methods are much the same, it may be urged, as 
those of most of her competitors. Such questions are not capable of being 
directly answered ; it is obvious that if the missions have found serious 
faults, attempts should be made to remedy them, even if the U.S.A. 
methods are also faulty; and further, with changing trade conditions it 
would indeed be peculiar if the field of selling organisation did not show 
tendencies to change, develop and experiment with new ways of adjusting 
demand. It is in fact well known that selling method has been changing 
rapidly in the large domestic markets of Britain and the U.S.A. within 
the last twelve years. 

This is ground for asking if such missions get close enough to their 
work, and have a broad enough conception of their task. 

What is really wanted is a thorough inquiry into the general market 
position as a background for action. There is the grading and grouping 
of consumers, the amounts of their family budgets and standards of living, 
their habits of expenditure, prejudices, preferences, methods of pur- 
chase ; the general character of the distributive structure, the position of 
merchanting, agency, direct trading, and so on; the variations by regions 
and the variations by season in demand. Last comes the commodity 
marketing investigation, the position of old products and of new ones. 
The position of an established product may be described with reference 
to its users and present uses, the price limits within which it sells, the 
existing brands and qualities, reasons for successful expansion of sales 
or of failure, the completeness of its distributive arrangements and its 
usual terms of sale, delivery and so on. Methods of introducing new 
commodities to the consumer, the use of laboratory shops, estimates of 
potential demand, satiation points in consumption, all may be the subject 
of close observation. It may be asked, Who is to undertake such laborious 
investigation? Much of it is already done in the U.S.A. and a little in 
Britain ; the task would not be so overwhelming if it were systematically 
approached. No doubt manufacturers’ own organisations and private 
agencies could undertake some of the work, but the suggestion may be 
made that the Department of Overseas Trade, which is in touch with all 
Britain’s overseas markets, might be provided with a staff of marketing 


128 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


specialists? who would examine sales problems from this angle and who 
could undertake both general studies and commodity marketing studies. 
Such work would give a balanced view of the market examined, and could 
be carried out without offence to other countries ; it is an entirely different 
type of task from that which the U.S.A. Tariff Commission imposed on its 
agents when it instructed them, some years ago, to inquire into the costs 
of production of certain industries in foreign countries. It should be 
possible to define the strength and weakness of a seller, to make some 
estimate of the extent of the existing market and the shares of different 
exporters. In addition, it should cast some light upon the elasticity of 
demand, and whether changes in the product or in its price would enable 
it to reach new groups of consumers. It is not a question of finding out 
whether a few firms sell badly and lose trade, but an entirely different 
attitude towards the possibilities of selling organisation which is most to 
be aimed at. 


Tue PosITION WITH REGARD TO OVERSEAS TARIFFS. 


From the standpoint of this paper the only issue which it is proposed 
to discuss in connection with tariffs is whether Britain is at any dis- 
advantage compared with her trade competitors in gaining access to over- 
seas markets. The central feature of her policy within recent times 
has been the unconditional interpretation of the ‘most favoured nation ’ 
clause: this has meant that Britain claimed by treaty, convention and 
custom that her goods should be admitted at the lowest rates into over- 
seas markets; even if nations such as the U.S.A. did not accept the 
unconditional interpretation but insisted on ‘ reciprocity,’ Britain has 
commonly enjoyed the benefit of the lowest available rates. The excep- 
tions to this position have been few and unimportant in their relation 
to the export trades. The special circumstances where the clause would 
not apply would be, for example, if there were a complete customs 
union between two countries which maintained their tariff against other 
countries : no third country could claim in virtue of the clause to introduce 
its goods duty free into the united territory. Colonial and Empire 
unions are commonly outside the scope. The case of the preferential 
rates between the U.S.A. and Cuba may be quoted as a general illustration. 
It can therefore be said that British trade is at least as favourably treated 
in foreign markets as that of any other exporting country, and it must 
be added that it is more favourably treated by certain of the overseas 
Dominions. 

In so far, however, as Britain is the chief world exporter of manufactured 
goods, tariffs do in fact partially discriminate against her, since if the 
proportion of her exports be taken as 75-80 per cent. manufactured, while 
that of the U.S.A. is only 37-44 per cent., it follows that since finished 
goods tariffs have, until the last two years, ruled much higher than 
agricultural tariffs, Britain has faced the barrage on a larger portion of 
her trade than any other country except, perhaps, Germany. Again, the 


® The Economic Mission to the Far East (Report, p. 128) did recommend a 
service of specialists and experts, but the task assigned was not purely market 
investigation. 


F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 129 


so-called ‘ new industries ’ tariffs which have grown up since the war have 
probably proved a more serious obstacle to British and German trading 
interests than to those of other countries, since it is commonly fuel, 
power, textile, iron, steel and engineering developments which are first 
attempted in making the transition from the agricultural to the industrial 
state. A third matter seems to deserve mention: that the elaboration and 
differentiation of tariff ratings which has grown up has to some extent neu- 
tralised the favourable position given to Britain by the M.F.N. clause; it 
has made it possible to conclude bargains on those qualities of a commodity 
which lay outside Britain’s scope, while making no change in those ratings 
which affected her trade. 

Earlier in this paper it was pointed out that up to 1925 there was 
a distinct tendency towards freeing international commercial intercourse 
from its war fetters, and towards tariff simplification and stabilisation at 
levels not much higher than those ruling before 1914. That promise 
has not been fulfilled, and from 1927-28 there has been a rapid upward 
movement not only in finished goods tariffs but in agricultural duties ; 
no doubt this tariff marathon may be in part a passing phase due to the 
extraordinary rapidity with which prices have fallen, but it has raised one 
problem which may affect future British policy. It now appears as if 
bilateral treaties with the M.F.N. clause were not an adequate method of 
dealing with the tariff situation, and the only obvious alternative is group 
negotiation and group treaties: if groups of nations begin to create 
tariff blocs within which lower duties prevail than those which are 
granted to outsiders, then the whole question of the unconditional inter- 
pretation of the M.F.N. clause would arise. It would hardly seem 
feasible for a European bloc, if it were formed, to allow the clause to 
operate in the case of high tariff nations like the U.S.A. British com- 
mercial policy would have to secure that she was favourably received into 
all groups on similar terms to the constituent members, particularly into 
those which included many countries whose productive resources are 
mainly complementary to her own. Examples beyond the Empire would 
be the Scandinavian countries and the South American markets. 

Looking therefore at British overseas trade from the angle of demand 
and sales, there seems a reasonable probability that its position would be 
relatively improved compared with that of other countries if special 
efforts were made to study and analyse the features of most of the over- 
seas markets, and if the distributive organisation were developed to that 
level at which the British firms were able to keep in much closer touch 
with the sale of their goods overseas. The world is tending for many 
industries to become a ‘ home’ or ‘ domestic’ market, and it will have to 
be cultivated, developed, stimulated and studied with the same care and 
by many of the same methods as are applied by firms within their own 
country’s frontiers. It need hardly be said that any policy which led to 
general reduction of tariffs to even the level of 1914 and imparted to them 
some freedom from continual change would assist particularly in the sale 
of British goods. Of the countries which have been most prominent in 
foreign trade development within recent years the U.S.A. is the chief ; 
although she has displaced Britain as leading source of supply for many 

F 


130 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


markets, a glance at her foreign trade shows that many of her exports 
are not directly competitive with those of Britain : as already mentioned, 
only 37-44 per cent. of her exports come into the finished goods class, and 
among these comes refined petrol as well as the typical American industries 
providing the ‘ amenities ’ of life—motor-cars and accessories, films and 
cinematograph goods, electrical appliances, radio apparatus, typewriters, 
cash registers, office appliances, sewing machines, domestic refrigerators, 
gramophones, new types of agricultural and road-making machinery, 
oil-well plant, and so on. Motor-cars, gramophones and radio sets may 
mean, however, less Irish linen, less Sheffield cutlery and less English 
china and glass. Japan, which has proved so successful a competitor in 
the Far Eastern textile markets, is a country which shows 47-49 per 
cent. of her exports as finished goods, and of this 34 per cent. consists of 
cotton and silk textiles and allied products. It must be recognised that 
an able and industrious population, propinquity to the large Eastern 
markets, and an excellent geographical position between Asia and the 
American market are bound to make her a permanently serious competitor 
in the textile market, to which she has devoted her main efforts. Germany, 
which resembled Britain to a much greater degree in having 70-75 per 
cent. of her exports finished goods, finds markets for over 70 per cent. 
of her exports in Europe itself. Redistribution of markets has always 
been a normal incident in foreign trade history, and Britain’s problem 
is to work her way through to a new equilibrium in foreign sales, and also 
to a new distribution of industries, both in the home and overseas markets. 


SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. 


THE CALL TO THE ENGINEER 
AND SCIENTIST 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. MILES WALKER, D.Sc., F.R.S., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Ir is nineteen years since Gisbert Kapp in his address to this Section at 
Birmingham reviewed the position of railway electrification. The par- 
ticulars he gave related mainly to foreign railways, as it was mainly on 
the Continent and in America that main lines had been provided with 
electric locomotives. Few of those who listened to his address would 
have guessed that in 1932 main line electrification in this country would 
have extended as little as it has to-day. And yet the delay has been all 
to the good. Had we hurriedly adopted some system which for the 
moment appeared the most promising, it is probable that the whole of the 
plant would have been old-fashioned to-day, and, in the light of recent 
developments, would have had to be reconstructed. 

Electricity in 1913 was such a big infant that there were many people 
who laughed at the saying that it was still in its infancy ; and yet, when 
we see the advancements that have been made since then, we are inclined 
to think that the saying was true after all. The largest generators then 
were rated at about 10,000 kw. ; now they are ten times as great. Electric 
traction on main lines had then well begun ; now we find thousands of 
miles of it. In those days electric light and household appliances were 
luxuries for the middle classes ; now they are fast becoming the neces- 
sities of the poor. Wireless telegraphy was the achievement of the 
technician. Now it is the plaything of the schoolboy. Instead of a few 
thousand receivers in the hands of experts, we have millions of sets in 
the homes of the people. 

But what is more remarkable than the total advances made in two 
decades is the speed of advance during the last few years. If we could 
evaluate the importance of discoveries made from day to day, and plot the 
values in a curve with time as abscissa, we should find that this curve 
slopes more and more rapidly upwards, and makes us wonder whether it 
can still go on with increasing steepness. If so, what will it bring us ? 


132 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Already electrical appliances have pervaded every field of mechanical 
engineering. The electrical driving of factories has become so general 
as greatly to reduce the smoke and waste of factory chimneys. ‘The very 
heaviest kinds of machinery, such as the rolling-mills for rolling boiler- 
plate and rails, are now driven electrically. Some of the rolls call for 
loads of 10,000 h.p. at times of peak load. In our mines electricity is 
becoming more and more widely used for driving coal-cutters and 
conveyors, as well as for hauling and winding. In the deposition 
and refinement of metals, electrical processes are all-important. The 
electric furnace is the most perfect one for the treatment of 
metals at high temperatures. The electrical equipment of motor- 
cars has become an important industry in itself, employing millions 
of capital. 

One of the directions in which rapid strides will be made in the near 
future is in connection with electric transmission. Following fast on the 
construction of the national 132,000-volt lines and the Weir Report, 
which showed what economies might be effected by the electrification of 
our railways, comes the wonderful development made possible by the 
grid-controlled mercury-vapour arc. The mercury-vapour arc (which 
for some years has been capable of carrying thousands of amperes) is now 
provided with a grid much in the same way as a trinode valve in a wireless 
set. Make the grid negative and no current will flow either way ; make 
it positive and the arc acts as an ordinary valve. Thus, by connecting 
two grids to an alternating voltage, a pair of valves will deliver alternating 
current from a direct-current source. This makes possible the trans- 
mission of power at a D.C. pressure of 180,000 volts easier than when 
A.C. is used at 130,000 volts. It does away with many difficulties due 
to capacitance and inductance. 

Another application of this device is to change a power supply from one 
frequency to another. It is possible to take power from a single-phase 
trolley line and convert it into three-phase power at any frequency, so 
that three-phase motors can be started at a low frequency and the number 
of cycles per second can be increased as the speed of the train rises. 
Moreover, the voltage can be regulated over a wide range without the 
necessity of transformer taps. ‘There are also great facilities for arresting 
the current on an accidental short circuit. This revolutionises the possi- 
bilities with polyphase traction and gives it some advantages over D.C. 
traction which were quite unexpected a year or two ago. 

But there is yet another surprising improvement in electric traction 
along entirely different lines. The Drumm storage battery employed 
in the Great Southern Railway of Ireland has shown such remarkable 
characteristics as a traction battery that it has revived the hope held by 
many of us that some method of storing electrical energy could be found 
which would make the electric locomotive independent of any connection 
to a trolley. If it be possible to build powerful, efficient electric loco- 
motives independent of any connection to an external system, and capable 
of long journeys without recharging, it is obvious that they would provide 
a more desirable method of electric traction than that generally adopted 
at present for main lines. Battery-fed shunting locomotives are already 


G.—ENGINEERING 133 


widely used and effect a great saving in time and personnel. It would 
seem that the Drumm battery or some of the other new traction batteries 
may give a sufficiently long range to the pure-electric independent- 
running locomotive. Ina country like ours, where we have no very large 
supplies of oil, the pure-electric locomotive is of course to be preferred 
to the Diesel-electric. For we would rather get our power from our own 
coal than from imported oil. It would be worth while for the nation to 
carry out very extensive researches on batteries possessing the required 
characteristics. One can conceive methods of changing batteries so 
rapidly that no excessive weight need be carried, and the speed between 
the stops might be so great that a very satisfactory express service could 
be run. In this connection we must remember the great advantages that 
can be gained by using some kind of adjustable speed-torque conversion 
system between the electric motor and the axles. The performance of 
a locomotive can be enormously improved by the addition of such a 
system of transmission. This is of especial importance in a battery- 
driven locomotive, as it does away with complicated control gear and the 
necessity for high rates of discharge. Two very great advantages would 
result from the adoption of such a locomotive : (1) the change over from 
steam to electricity could be made gradually and without requiring any 
special equipment of the line ; (2) in times of war the railway system 
could be kept running. To make our railways dependent on the con- 
tinuity of overhead lines is to present such a vulnerable feature to the 
enemy as almost to invite war. 

As soon as the characteristics of the battery-driven locomotive are sufhi- 
ciently good, see what an opening we have in this country for the battery- 
driven motor-car! Instead of thousands of cars burning petrol, costing 
the nation eighteen millions per annum, and polluting the air of our 
towns, we would have cars driven by home-generated electricity. Imagine 
hundreds of battery-charging stations, twenty miles apart along our main 
roads, at which we could in the course of a few seconds drop our partly 
discharged battery and take a new one that would carry us for the next 
three or four stages. ‘The batteries would probably belong to the Central 
Electricity Board, and would afford a very nice load for the early 
hours of the morning. I do not say that we see our way to such 
perfect batteries yet, but they will probably come some day. The best 
figures at present seem to be about 10 watt-hours per pound of 
material, but the theoretically possible figures are much better than 
this. Experiments on very light motors for traction purposes show 
that it is possible to make motors of about half the weight of those 
ordinarily used. 

We live in the hope that with all these developments, and with the con- 
tinual cheapening of the cost of generation, electricity is going still further 
to simplify our factories, lighten the work of the housewife, and make 
our cities clean and healthy. 

So far as the work of the engineer is concerned in the building of super- 
power stations and the equipment of overhead lines and sub-stations, 
everything has been done in a most praiseworthy manner. The increase 
of output of some of the power houses feeding the grid is remarkable. 


134 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


In thirty years from 1901 to 1931, the capacity of the stations of the 
Newcastle Electric Supply Company has increased from 3,000 kw. to 
311,000 kw., or more than a hundredfold. 

Power is generated and supplied to the grid at well under one halfpenny 
per unit. In some districts (even rural districts) it is sold to the con- 
sumers at reasonable prices, and the slogan ‘ Cheap electricity for the 
people’ is well justified. But in other districts the middleman (that 
curse of civilisation) steps in and sells the electricity at ten times the price 
at which it is supplied to the grid. I know a farm where electricity is 
being generated by means of a small plant at a cost of threepence per unit. 
The owner would like to take 20,000 units per annum from the national 
grid at three-halfpence or twopence per unit, and a neighbour is prepared 
to take 50,000 units at a reasonable price ; but the authorised distributors 
only offered to supply him at prices far above that at which he could 
generate himself. If the owner were to put in a Diesel-electric plant for 
himself and his neighbours and offer to light the village at twopence a 
unit, the authorised distributors would prohibit him from poaching on 
their concession, although they will not supply the villagers at less than 
sixpence. Instead of ‘ Cheap electricity for the farmer ’ the cry is “ Keep 
off my profitable concession.’ I mention this case to illustrate the differ- 
ence between the work of the engineer and the work of the middleman. 
The engineer tries to generate and supply at the lowest possible price. 
That is his triumph. ‘The middleman tries to sell at the highest price 
he can get. That is his triumph. No wonder we have not enough 
load on the national grid. There are hotels in the heart of the 
system of distribution in Scotland generating their own electricity 
at threepence-halfpenny per unit, and they will continue to do so, 
because they cannot get power from the grid at less than eightpence per 
unit. 

All through our ‘ civilisation’ vested interests block the way to im- 
provement. Long after science has shown the way to make things better 
for the people, unintelligent control and stupid prejudice preserve the 
old evils and refuse to be convinced. 

There are many things to be ashamed of in our great cities. Not the 
least of these is the waste that goes on. ‘There is waste of heat in domestic 
fires, waste of by-products in the consumption of coal, thereby producing 
dirt ; waste of fresh air by pollution; waste of sunshine; and, above all, 
the waste of labour that might be applied in stopping all the other desola- 
tion and loss ; waste of money by paying dole while there are obvious 
jobs for everybody. 

If engineers were in control, they would so order matters as to neutralise 
this waste at the source. All soft coal should be treated by a low-tem- 
perature carbonisation process or some similar process so as to extract the 
gas, oil and other by-products from it. People should be prohibited by 
law from burning soft coal, as they are in Paris. ‘They would then be 
compelled to burn carbon in a bright cheerful fire making no smoke, or 
to use gas. Of course it requires labour to do this, but the labour is 
available—why not use it? As things are at present in a district like 
Manchester, more than one hundred thousand housewives are making a 


G.—ENGINEERING 135 


continual fight against dirt. It is a hopeless fight, for every time they 
open a window black specks float in to settle and dirty everything. 
Patients at a nursing home are told that they cannot have the windows 
open because to do so dirties the curtains. The perfectly ineffective and 
hopeless labour of these housewives is ten times as great as the total 
labour required to treat the coal and extract the valuable by-products. 
Even if the carbonisation process carried out on a limited scale did not 
show a profitable return, the objections to it disappear when we contem- 
plate the process carried out on such a scale as completely to rid our 
towns of smoke, and when the by-products are utilised in a national 
scheme. 

The waste heat and power stations might be used in agriculture. A 
power station having an average load of 50,000 kw. will waste more than 
8,000 million British thermal units per day. This is sufficient to warm 
500 acres of greenhouses. ‘Two very important items of cost in the 
forcing of vegetables are—(x) the capital cost of the greenhouses, and 
(2) the cost of heating. ‘The capital cost to a nation possessing sand, lime, 
soda, and a surplus of labour need not be very great. If we can utilise the 
waste heat of power houses to do the warming, we ought to be able to 
save hundreds of thousands per annum, at present sent to foreign countries 
for vegetables and flowers. At the same time we could do away with the 
objectionable discharges from power houses. 

It is not only in connection with engineering and scientific matters that 
the engineer can help to improve the lot of mankind. It is in connection 
with all economic and social matters. There is a certain quality found in 
some men which has been called ‘ eudemonistic.’ It is a quality very 
often found in engineers and scientists, so much so that in the original 
draft of this address I said that men who were possessed of this quality 
were ‘ engineeringly minded.’ I am told that this latter phrase is mis- 
leading, because it seems to claim that only engineers have the quality, 
and of course there are many people who are not engineers or scientists 
who are eudemonistic or, as Stuart Chase has phrased it, ‘ engineeringly 
minded.’ A man has this quality when he throws the whole of his energies 
into the carrying out of sound, practical and beneficent projects for the 
sake of those projects themselves, and not primarily from selfish motives 
or in pursuance of some irrational prejudice. But besides the motives, 
the definition involves a certain faith in the obtaining of good by logical 
procedure to that end. This quality of logicality is partly inherited, but 
only brought to full efficiency by being trained and spurred to overcome 
difficulties successfully. The man who gets into the habit of shirking 
problems, the answers to which are not obvious, will never acquire this 
quality. 

The distinction between the activities of the eudemonistic and the rest 
of mankind can be best seen by taking a few examples of the activities of 
the latter by way of contrast. 

Consider the wasting of the energies of the inhabitants of a town (say 
of 50,000 inhabitants) on the interchange of wealth between individuals 
instead of their utilisation in the making of wealth—the payment of 
doctors by people who are ill instead of by people who are well ;_ the em- 


136 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


ployment of lawyers to transfer real estate when the thing can be done more 
efficiently and more cheaply by registration ; the building of free libraries 
and cinemas when people have not decent houses ; the lending of money 
to states that have recently repudiated their debts. Or consider a Board 
of Education trying to teach boys and girls to spell English ; or the con- 
tinued distribution of dole to the unemployed without asking anything 
in return. The verdict of an intelligent observer of these activities would 
be, ‘ How can people be so stupid ?’ 

Consider in contrast some eudemonistic activities: the organisation 
of the Boy Scouts ; the provision of technical education ; the generation 
of electric power at a cost of less than one penny for 7 horse-power 
hours ; the manufacture of a yard of cotton fabric containing 15 million 
interweavings of thread for sixpence ; the broadcasting of speech, audible 
in any part of the world ; the manufacture of a machine that will fly from 
America to Great Britain in 15 hours; the discovery of the internal 
construction of an atom by noting the position of the bands of the 
spectrum. 

The verdict of the intelligent observer of these and many other bene- 
ficent activities would be, ‘ How can men be so wonderful ? ’ 

In this time of world-depression the question not unnaturally arises 
whether the engineer (in which term I will include the scientist for 
brevity) cannot make a useful contribution towards the bettering of condi- 
tions—something more promising than the totally inadequate measures 
already proposed. I have chosen this subject because I believe that the 
application of the engineering mind to our difficulties is much more likely 
to lead to a satisfactory solution than hopeless debates and discussions 
upon side-issues that have little to do with essential factors and problems. 
I propose then to consider shortly—(1) What is wrong with the world ? 
(2) Why are the proposed solutions inadequate? (3) How could 
engineers make things better ? 

(1) There are so many things wrong with the world that I must 
here confine my remarks to the three main defects, the poverty in 
material possessions, the poverty in outlook, and the incompetence of 
the rulers. 

Notwithstanding the fact that civilisation has been developing and 
extending for centuries and the application of steam power to manufac- 
ture has been in operation for one hundred years, by far the greater 
portion of the inhabitants of Europe and America are very poorly supplied 
with the things that make life full, free, and enjoyable. Indeed, a very 
large number of these inhabitants exist in want and squalor ; and in some 
cases the conditions of life are so insanitary and loathsome that we are 
tempted to ask whether civilisation is not a failure. If we go outside the 
modern states to the teeming millions of China and India we find that 
only a little has been done to improve the lot of the peasant, who still lives 
by bodily toil, and receives no share of that fullness of life which we know 
to be possible when the machine lightens our labour and education opens 
the mind to the beautiful things around us. Even in cases where the 
machine has been introduced, it has often brought about conditions more 
unhealthy than with the original peasant labour, 


G.—ENGINEERING 137 


This is a very unsatisfactory result in view of the enormous natural 
resources available and the huge possibilities of manufacture and distribu- 
tion of wealth with modern systems of transport. If there had been a 
central organisation looking after the world’s welfare for the last fifty 
years, and if it had made as bad a mess of things as we find to-day, it 
would have been condemned as hopelessly inefficient. As a fact, we 
have had no central organisation, but only governments looking after 
the welfare of individual states—an easier task, one might suppose. Yet 
these governments have made this mess of things within their states. 

In spiritual matters the failure has been as complete as with material 
things, but I will leave the consideration of this until later. 

This failure of civilisation to attain its purpose is not surprising when 
we remember that the chief principle in operation has been ‘ Every man 
for himself and the devil take the hindmost.’ This is supposed by some 
economists to be the only principle which will work satisfactorily and 
automatically. It certainly does automatically give the hindmost to the 
devil. There has not been any logical plan in the old states in Europe 
or in America to enable all citizens to create their own wealth and 
enjoy it. ‘The word ‘ wealth’ is here used in its proper sense to denote 
the material things that contribute to man’s well-being. And there 
being no plan, it is not surprising that things have come to their present 

ass. 
: The main business of the world, to-day, is buying and selling. Things 
are manufactured to be sold at a profit. When prices are low, business is 
said to be bad. This shows how inverted is the position under our 
ridiculous system. It ought to be just the other way. Buying and 
selling should be a mere unavoidable incident in the distribution of wealth. 
When prices are low, it should be evidence of economical manufacture 
and distribution, and the standard of life should accordingly be higher. 
The main business of the world should not be to buy and to sell, but to 
make the things that men want and distribute them in the simplest way 
without adding any more to the cost than is absolutely necessary. At 
times when trade is supposed to be good, things are sold at three or four 
times the price paid to the people who make them, and as a consequence 
the people who make them cannot buy them, so there is a slump on the 
market.’ If things were sold at a price which represented the exact cost 
of manufacture and distribution, then all the people concerned in the 
manufacture and distribution would have money enough to buy all the 
things that they have made. They would go on making more and more 
and getting more and more wealthy. Instead of this many are out of work 
because the shopkeepers cannot sell the things that they have in stock. 
They cannot sell them because the people who make them and want 
them have not received enough money to buy them. Many attempts 
are made to justify the prices at which things are sold, but the real reason 
for high prices is that in a so-called civilised country there are only about 
15 per cent. of the inhabitants making a real contribution to wealth : the 
remainder are hangers-on such as landlords, merchants, retailers, servants 

1 In my first draft I gave several examples, but they are well known to 

everyone. 
F2 


138 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


of the rich and retainers of all sorts. ‘Then, of course, there are the 
young people who are still being educated and the pensioners. The cost of 
supporting all the extra people must be added to the legitimate cost of 
manufacture and distribution. 

Imagine a state in which the majority of the inhabitants are at work 
using the most efficient machinery. ‘They can supply their material 
wants and the standard of life may be very high. If, on the contrary, only 
15 per cent. of them are doing useful work, then the standard of life is 
necessarily lower. ‘The mere fact that some of the inhabitants are very 
wealthy, and have a large amount of money to invest, does not help very 
much the man who is out of work and has no facilities for making the 
things he wants. It is not a solution to set him to make roads which he 
does not want. Nor is it a solution to make him into a gardener, a butler 
or a footman. ‘The rich man may flatter himself that he is giving work 
to one hundred people. He is possibly doing his best according to his 
lights, but he may be a part of a system which is withdrawing one 
hundred workers from the really useful tasks and thereby impoverishing 
the state. Isay ‘may be’ because some servants of the well-to-do are 
very useful members of society. The chauffeur who enables a master of 
industry to get about quickly may be doing more useful work than if he 
were employed in the factory. But the greater part of the money spent 
by the well-to-do goes into channels that do not contribute to the welfare 
of the state as a whole. 

For all the inhabitants of a state to be as wealthy as possible two condi- 
tions are necessary : 

(1) Things that contribute to well-being shall be manufactured at the 
greatest speed possible at our present state of knowledge, and with the 
best appliances available. 

(2) The method of distribution shall be so efficient that the people who 
make the things are able to buy the things that are made. Anything that 
interferes with the second condition will prevent the obtaining of the 
first. 

Consider the hundred million inhabitants of the United States of 
America. They have at hand all raw materials, all food supplies, capital 
equipment in the way of factories, expert advisers and means of transport. 
What is to prevent every inhabitant from enjoying a very high standard 
of life? What is it that condemns the great majority of them to a very 
poor standard? It is the system of trading, in which most men are 
traders and only a few are real workers. And why are there so many 
traders ? Because under the present rules it is more profitable to trade 
than to work. Alter the rules so that only the useful workers, useful 
distributors and providers of useful capital share the things that are 
made, and there will be hardly any limit to the material wealth of the 
individual. 

In the past the engineers have been busy with their own jobs. They 
leave the making of the laws, the controlling of the state and the general 
management of things to the politician and the tub-thumper. This is 
especially so in the U.S.A., but most countries suffer from the absence 
of special intelligence and expert knowledge in the make-up of their 


G.—ENGINEERING 139 


rulers. A man becomes a town councillor or a member of parliament 
without any proper test of his ability to put two and two together or to 
arrive at a logical conclusion from a given set of premises. No test is 
imposed for the purpose of seeing whether or not he has the ability to 
tackle very difficult problems. The kind of mental training required to 
find the right solution of a difficult economic problem is exactly the same 
as the kind of training required to tackle engineering problems. How 
many members of parliament could solve a simultaneous equation with 
three unknowns? And yet they are paid {£400 per annum to solve 
problems involving many more unknowns. How many of them have the 
most elementary knowledge of the laws they are amending? When 
they voted for the Law of Property Act, 1925, how many of them under- 
stood it? How many of them have the most elementary knowledge of 
the scientific facts upon which the manufacture of wealth is based or have 
the organising ability that is necessary to carry through a great project ? 
There are, of course, exceptions, but as a class, apart from lack of educa- 
tion, they have the wrong mentality. 

An example will make my meaning clear. A certain factory receives 
an order to equip an electric railway in Australia. ‘The carrying out of 
the order involves the manufacture of many hundreds of different kinds 
of machines, instruments and apparatus. Each machine and instrument 
consists of many parts made of special materials and manufactured by 
processes requiring expert knowledge. A good deal of abstruse mathe- 
matical calculation is involved in the design. ‘The directions to the shops 
are contained in hundreds of documents and drawings, each compiled 
after intense attention to detail. ‘Thousands of workmen are engaged, 
each directed by these minute instructions, and in a few months the various 
parts take shape. They move along pre-arranged channels until they are 
assembled and the machines and instruments are tested. These are 
shipped to Australia, taken up country, each to its appointed place, to 
power house, sub-station, or locomotive. On a certain day the equipment 
starts up. ‘Thousands of passengers are carried successfully and we have 
this wonderful addition to our civilisation. Now I assert that if the men 
who form an average committee of our House of Commons were in charge 
of that factory, whatever might have been their previous training and 
whatever facilities they might have had to gain experience, they would 
make a dismal failure of the whole thing. The reason would be that they 
are not engineeringly minded, and that is the reason why they make a 
failure of state management. They can talk but they cannot do things 
successfully. ‘They do not know their job. They have not the minds 
that can think out intricate problems. ‘They have not faith in the obtain- 
ing of good by logical procedure to that end. They are not as a class 
eudemonistic. 

The very parliamentary procedure which they permit to hinder them 
condemns them. Every session for years past there have been desirable 
measures which no one has expected to get through, because, as it was 
said, there was not time. A large business house in its annual conference 
with salesmen assembled from all parts of a continent can get through 
more work and come to more useful decisions in two weeks than are 


140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


reached in a whole session of debate in the House of Commons. If par- 
liamentary procedure were to take a leaf out of the book of one of these 
business houses, it would enable ten times as much useful work to be 
done in a session. Here are a few suggestions. Cut down the number 
of members to a number that can comfortably sit in the House. Give 
each an appointed seat fitted with an automatic recording apparatus to 
show the constituency when its member is at work. Each seat should be 
provided with two press buttons for voting ‘ Aye ’ or ‘ No’ (also recorded). 
Let all bills be circulated some weeks before being read and all members 
who have anything to say asked to dictate their remarks to a typist or 
otherwise prepare them. ‘These remarks are then to be sent to a staff of 
under-secretaries, who make a synopsis of the whole. When a bill comes 
up for consideration an official reads Clause No. 1 and says, ‘ Twenty 
members have said so and so, eleven say so and so. As against this 
fifteen express this view, nine express the opposite view and give the 
following reasons.’ In fifteen minutes all members in the House will 
have a better idea of the pros and cons than if they had listened to a debate 
lasting many days. If any member is misrepresented by this synopsis 
he would have an opportunity of amending it, but woe to the member 
who takes up the time of the House by any unnecessary remarks. Having 
fresh in their minds the views of far more members than could possibly 
be heard in a week of debating, the question is then put. Members press 
the buttons and go on to Clause No.2. Or if clause has to be amended, 
the amendments can be dealt with in the same business-like manner. 
Such a procedure with suitable extension would enable members to have 
before them, not only the views of the other members, but the views of 
outside experts. The necessity for Royal Commissions would in this 
way be sometimes avoided. 

One of the things wrong with democracy to-day is that its representa- 
tives come to decisions upon matters about which they know very little 
after long desultory discussion. The listeners find these discussions 
very uninformative and their votes as a rule are uninfluenced by anything 
that is said. If these discussions could be replaced by short, clear 
synopses of the pros and cons put forward in an impartial way, law- 
making would be very much more efficient. 

I have made reference to this matter because if ever the world is 
managed at all, it will probably be managed by some sort of committee, 
and no committee can work efficiently until desultory discussions are 
absolutely barred. 

When we understand what is wrong with the world, it is easy to see 
that such solutions as have been proposed are inadequate. Some people 
say war debts are the cause of the trouble. ‘ Wipe out war debts,’ they 
say, ‘and things will be better.’ At present Germany is a debtor country, 
while the U.S.A. is a creditor country. It is difficult to believe that both 
debt and credit have the same effect in creating unemployment. How 
can the fact that the U.S.A. have money owing to them, giving them 
power to buy even more raw material or manufactured products than they 
have already, be in any way disadvantageous? ‘The existence of ten 


G.—ENGINEERING 141 


million unemployed in the U.S.A. is due entirely to internal causes, such 
as I have outlined, and would not be helped in the least by the extinction 
of the war debt. 

Some people blame the gold standard, forgetting that the monetary 
transactions of the world are carried out mainly by cheque, which would 
operate in exactly the same way whatever might be the standard. Banking 
accounts are nothing more than the book-keeping of services rendered, 
and the cheques are given for such services. ‘The gold standard does at 
least help to steady the value of the £, and that must be all to the good in 
commerce. Some complain that there is a scarcity of money and say that 
an inflation would be useful. Whatever may be the temporary effect of 
inflation, it is clear that only the world’s useful activities can ultimately 
result in greater material wealth. 

Some say that it is the deficiency of trade between states that is at the 
root of the evil. ‘Trade between states is useful in bringing about the 
exchange of commodities, but otherwise it does not contribute to man’s 
well-being. It is languishing now because the average standard of life 
of the inhabitants of the world is low. Let the engineer raise that standard 
and world trade will flourish because there will be a greater need for the 
exchange of commodities. 

Given a central authority of sufficient power to preserve peace, general 
disarmament would undoubtedly help matters because it would release 
machinery and personnel to raise still further the standard of life. But 
until we get a powerful and wise central authority, nations will prefer to 
trust to their own strength. A comprehensive world plan under which 
each individual could be provided for independently of the strength of his 
nation would do more than anything else to relieve the tension between 
nations and bring about disarmament. 

I now come to the question, “ How could the engineer make things 
better ?’ 

A committee of engineers given control of the whole world would not 
attempt to tackle the whole problem at once. The world would have to 
wait for the growth of an organisation operating at first over a small area, 
and extending as it gained experience. 

A suitable place to begin might be one of the states of North America, 
already provided with most of its raw material. Or it might be better 
to begin in Europe. France would be suitable as it is already nearly 
self-supporting, but only a small self-supporting part of that country 
would at first come under the scheme. 

An estimate would be made of the standard of life that could be obtained 
by the average inhabitant provided he worked well and was aided by the 
best machinery and organisation. A promise would then be made to 
provide the houses, furniture, clothing, food, fuel, education and enter- 
tainment in exchange for the services of the individual. Payment would 
be made by cheques the nominal values of which would be adjusted on the 
low side so as to allow for accidental losses and defective workmanship. 
Though the state would need a gold backing for these cheques to begin 
with, the real backing of the cheques would be the wealth produced, 


142 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


The cheques would be honoured by the production of the goods and not 
by the production of gold. A man working well for a year might earn 
cheques valued at 40,000 francs. Some of these he would exchange for 
food and necessities ; but after each one had done his share of the work, 
he would enter into his inheritance and the cheques would be balanced 
against the things he would receive. 

To get over labour troubles, the arduous duties would be given to all 
the young men and women irrespective of class. ‘The greatest honour 
would go to those who did the most arduous tasks. 

There is a spirit of adventure in youth that makes the taking on of new 
work easy. Anyone who has lived in a mining village knows the eager- 
ness with which a young miner takes up the work to help his father. The 
learning of new processes in our factories by young hands is in most cases 
a matter of a few weeks. Only in some specially skilled trades does it 
take long to become expert. ‘The machine is fast taking the place of the 
expert craftsman. ‘The number of years that young men and women 
would be required for manual work need not be too great in these days 
of machinery, and the number of hours’ work per day would be few. A 
very high standard of life can be earned in a few hours of work per day 
when all are useful workers and all operations are carried out in the most 
efficient manner. Think of all the young men and women standing 
behind counters in shops all over the civilised world. Not one-quarter 
of them would be required under a really efficient system of distribution. 
The other three-quarters should be at work a few hours a day, contributing 
their share to the work of the world. Some of the hours not required for 
manual labour would be given to higher education, and it would, of course, 
be possible to give special facilities to the best brains and put them to do 
intellectual work. Physical culture would form a part of the day’s 
programme for all young people. 

The present factories need not pass out of the present management. 
That is in most cases very efficient. But the object in view would be to 
produce goods wanted by the people. Many factories at present con- 
centrate more on making a profit than on making commodities that are 
useful to the buyer. Interest would be paid on the capital invested in 
factories and other undertakings. That interest would be paid by 
cheques and the cheques would be honoured by commodities or other 
services rendered. ‘The fundamental idea in the scheme is, of course, that 
all wealth comes from the soil by the application of labour and intelligence, 
and it is possible by good organisation to create and distribute ten times 
as much wealth as is being done at the present time. In a country like 
America, where they have available vast natural resources and manufac- 
turing facilities, the average standard of life should not be less than the 
equivalent of three thousand dollars per annum. This comfortable state 
of affairs does not exist in the United States or in any other states. The 
reason is that no arrangements are made whereby everyone does his share 
of the work ; and even when a man does his share, and more, he very 
often does not get his share of the product. Things will never be better 
as long as they are controlled by people who are not engineeringly minded. 


G.—ENGINEERING 143 


These people talk about ‘ over-production,’ ‘ low prices,’ ‘ effect of the 
gold standard,’ and other things that are mere incidents. They have 
not enough logicality to see the real cause. 

One cannot in a short address of this kind propound a complete plan 
for the reformation of the world ; but it is easy to see how the methods 
of distributing wealth might be made very much more efficient than they 
are at present. The first step, of course, is that there shall be a definite 
plan with that endin view. Instead of having as many persons as possible 
making profits out of the needs of the people we should have as few as 
possible engaged in distribution, and they should be concerned with the 
problem of how to supply the goods rapidly and efficiently. As things 
are at present, a small town of twenty thousand inhabitants may have as 
many as three hundred shops. None of them will have a really good stock 
to choose from. ‘Two really good departmental stores would be of very 
much more service to the inhabitants, especially if these stores directed 
_ their energies to efficient methods of supply instead of useless display for 
advertising purposes. At present we have hundreds of men and women 
standing behind counters while customers are making up their minds as 
to what kind of ribbon to buy or how many yards of stuff they will want. 
Buyers should be encouraged and helped to do all this thinking before 
they ask for the goods. A departmental store should have elaborate 
show-cases in which samples of all materials and finished articles can be 
seen and studied independently of the man behind the counter. Rapid 
methods of getting full information about all products are easy to devise 
when we are concerned with only a few comprehensive stores instead of 
with hundreds of shops. Quantities can be weighed and wrapped by 
machinery. Goods can be placed in containers and delivered cheaply 
by express vans when the thing is done on a system. As many as three 
dozen business vans at present visit a small street in the course of a single 
day. Three delivery vans in a day bringing everything for everybody 
should be quite sufficient. 

Starting with a small self-supporting state, it would be possible within 
a few years to demonstrate the high standard of life obtainable by good 
organisation and modern methods. Do some of my hearers say, ‘ Oh, 
this was tried by Robert Owen years ago, and failed’? Men tried to fly 
before the Wright brothers, and failed. Robert Owen was right in some 
of his theories and would have succeeded better if he had had some of 
the advantages we have to-day. To say that we are not to try a properly 
organised system merely because some previous attempts have failed is 
to condemn the world for all time to the muddle in which it now finds 
itself. Having succeeded on a comparatively small scale, the region 
under sane control would be extended until it gradually embraced the 
whole world. ‘The natural resources would be developed and each country 
would supply those commodities for which its climate and natural pro- 
ducts made it most suitable. ‘There should be only one monetary system 
common to the whole world, and one universal language taught in all the 
schools. Nationalism need not die, but there need no longer be a clash 
between nations since the wants of all would be bountifully supplied. 


144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


I know of dozens of young men of ability in this country who have 
nothing useful to do. Many of them are kicking their heels waiting for 
ajob. Jam sure that they would all volunteer to take up any work that 
might be organised to produce wealth for themselves. I suggest that the 
engineers and economists of this association should urge upon the Govern- 
ment the necessity of organising a wealth-producing community in which 
the voluntary work of thousands of young men might be directed to 
making things for themselves—houses, clothing, fuel, food, and most of 
the things they want. I have elsewhere ? elaborated a scheme of the kind 
by which we could in a few years completely do away with unemployment 
and at the same time teach the world how things should be done. 

One of the main things wrong with the inhabitants of the world, 
more serious than the inefficiency of their methods of providing them- 
selves with material things, is the poverty of their outlook. The vast 
majority fail completely to look at life from the right point of view. 
They do not see its finest opportunities ; they are almost blind to its . 
greatest duties. ‘The intellectual and spiritual sides of their nature are 
undeveloped. ‘This is partly due to the exhaustion of effort in their 
struggle for existence, a struggle which ought to be lightened in the 
way I have indicated. But this is not the only cause of the poverty of 
outlook in the vast majority of mankind. It is in a great measure due 
to the inefficiency of their teachers and especially of their religious 
teachers. I had in the original draft of this address put down some 
remarks on what the engineer and scientist had to say upon religious 
teaching, for if they took a greater share in the management of the 
world, this most important subject should not be left out of account. 
This subject is, however, precluded from the discussions of this Associa- 
tion, so I am reluctantly constrained to strike out what I would like 
to say. 

The education of the young is a duty that must be approached with 
great discretion. 

Each child must be regarded as a reasonable entity looking out upon 
the world with interest and ready to absorb impressions from its surround- 
ings. It is most important that the things that we put before it shall be 
of such a kind that, when the child applies its reason, it shall arrive at a 
correct result ; for it is only in that way that the young mind gains con- 
fidence in its reasoning powers. It is a pity that in this country the first 
efforts in a child’s education should be concerned with so unreasonable 
a thing as English spelling. The little mind applies the reasoning powers 
which nature has given it and finds that the answer is wrong. Over and 
over again it tries. Sometimes it is right, mostly it is wrong. Instead 
of the reasoning powers being strengthened they are undermined, and the 
majority of children learn to rely upon their memory or their guessing 
faculties rather than on their reason. 

After twenty years’ experience of the students who present themselves 
for evening classes, I assert that not more than one-fifth of the inhabitants 


) 
2 Paper read before the Seacombe Forum, March 1930. 


G.—ENGINEERING 145 


of this country will follow a simple logical argument, even when it is about 
a subject in which they are interested. The remainder will let their 
minds wander and will take a result on trust without even hoping to under- 
stand it. This I attribute in a great measure to the fact that in their early 
years their reasoning powers, so far from being encouraged, were actually 
wrecked on the snags of unreasonable studies. 

Education should be directed much more than it is at present to the 
making of young people into happy and useful citizens. ‘To this end the 
subject-matter of education should be concerned more with the things 
around us than with the things of the past. History, of course, should 
have a place in education, but it should be valued mainly for its bearing on 
the present. The curricula of schools have been very greatly improved 
during the last few years ; but there still remains a great deal to be done 
before we can say that we take the shortest and most reasonable way to 
learning. When that shortest and most reasonable road has been gained, 
it will be found that boys and girls are carried much further and made 
into much happier and more useful citizens. 

Some of my hearers may wonder why I have not confined my presi- 
dential address to Section G of the British Association to the subject 
matter of Engineering. It is because at this stage of the world’s mis- 
fortunes, with output falling and unemployment figures rising, the 
engineer has an important message to give. When he gives it in his 
technical journals it passes unheeded by the world at large. ‘The position 
is analogous to that of a mains engineer, who, working in a roadway, 
sees an omnibus out of control careering down a steep hill. The 
passengers are giving frantic and futile advice to the driver who does not 
understand the mechanism. Shall the engineer go on with his job or 
shall he jump on board and apply his expert knowledge in bringing the 
omnibus under control ? 

You ask for a constructive proposal. It is that the Government should 
found an experimental, voluntary, self-supporting colony under the 
auspices of engineers, scientists and economists. The object in view 
would be to ascertain how far it is possible with our present knowledge 
and the best methods of manufacture and distribution for a group of say 
100,000 persons to maintain themselves and continually to increase their 
wealth when freed from the restraints and social errors of modern civilisa- 
tion. Such an experiment might do more to enlighten the world as to 
the possibility of modern logical methods than an experiment carried out 
on a continent thousands of miles across, where unforeseen difficulties 
might easily defeat the best intentions. If you ask what differences there 
would be in the old world and the new colony from which so much 
is to be hoped, I will in partial answer draw two pictures. One is of a 
feeble man of sixty years working all day in a sewer because it is the only 
occupation he can find to earn his daily bread. Far worse than the 
unpleasantness of the task is the rankling injustice that he should be 
compelled to do this despised job for no more reward than a living wage, 
while others with easier tasks get greater rewards. The other picture is 
that of a young man of twenty-three years, who has chosen the task of 


146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


sewerman in the spirit of those who went to the trenches in 1914. Sir 
Sewerman aided by modern appliances cheerfully puts in his three hours 
of unpleasant work and for the rest of the day disports himself and 
extends his education. 

So with all the work of mankind. It can be done cheerfully when 
justice seasons its incidence. 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


THE PLACE OF ARCHAOLOGY AS 
A SCIENCE, AND SOME PRACTICAL 
PROBLEMS IN ITS DEVELOPMENT 


ADDRESS BY 
DAVID RANDALL-MacIVER, M.A., D.Sc., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


I Propose to follow in another line of inquiry the example which has 
been set by our outgoing President. As he addressed us on the general 
theme of Anthropology I shall consider the general subject of Archzology, 
its place as a science, and the practical policy which we ought to pursue 
in view of its startling and wide development. It is a very happy and 
propitious moment for such a discussion inasmuch as there was never so 
wide and universal an interest in the subject. There is some danger 
indeed that archzology may be killed by kindness and the indiscriminating 
affection of its admirers ; and there is very great danger that archzologists 
themselves may be more or less gently suffocated by the overwhelming 
mass of accumulating material. We need to devise methods of organi- 
sation, to think out means of collaboration, and to subdivide the field of 
our activities so that they may be all related in a conscious scheme. 

Like anthropology ours is a very young science, and like anthropology 
it has grown at the most astonishing rate. Archeology in the true sense 
is scarcely a hundred years old, for its birth may be placed about the 
middle of the last century, unless we are willing to give a rather artificial 
value to that false dawn which came with the occupation of Egypt by 
Napoleon. I should rather prefer to say that it begins just about 1850. 
Layard was excavating at Nineveh in 1845. Boucher de Perthes pub- 
lished his first work on stone implements in 1841; and the entire theory 
was made known in England in 1858, in the same year that Darwin and 
Wallace read ‘On the Origin of Species.’ Keller’s work on lake- 
dwellings appeared in 1854. Lartet and Christy were doing their chief 
work in 1861, and Pigorini from 1862 onwards. Schliemann’s excava- 
tions of Troy began in 1870. 

Just as chemistry had its precursor in alchemy, so archeology had its 
natural forerunner in antiquarianism. The Antiquary was a recognised 
person as early as the sixteenth century, when Thomas Nash in his Pierce 
Penniless speaks of him as an ‘ honest man’ and says that he has known 
“many wise gentlemen of this mustie vocation.’ In those days, as a 
recent President of the Society of Antiquaries has told us, he was chiefly 
busy with the promulgation of written texts, so that the official antiquary 
of Oxford University was the ‘ custos archivorum.’ In the seventeenth 
century such a promising title as ‘ British Antiquities Revived ’ consisted 

of nothing more important than a mere work of genealogy; while in the 
eighteenth century the Society of Antiquaries was still principally engrossed 


148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


in philosophical studies. It was, I suppose, the formation of Sir Hans 
Sloane’s collection, and the eventual foundation of the British Museum, 
which initiated that study of the material remains of man’s history that 
developed into true archeology in England. 

The old-fashioned type of antiquary was, as so often happens, beginning 
to pass out of existence at the moment when his character was immortal- 
ised in fiction. I doubt whether any of the younger generation of our 
own time have ever known a real Jonathan Oldbuck. That whimsical 
and lovable old pedant was a very different being from his modern 
successor, who is generally one of the most sociable of people, and who 
is so sure of the popularity of his subject that he can venture to address 
immense audiences through the machinery of the British Broadcasting 
Corporation. Archzology is no longer regarded as a ‘ mustie vocation,’ 
but is one of the daily interests and recreations of the whole world, learned 
and unlearned. 

It no doubt adds something to the general interest that there is a very 
vague understanding of what archeology really means. I hope it may 
not seriously impair this interest if I begin by inquiring what we are 
really talking about when we begin to discuss this subject. Definitions 
may spoil our unanimity, but they are necessary for any real agreement. 
The ordinary man if questioned would probably tell us that Archeology 
is just busy with old things—any old things. Now this is not a bad 
answer, but it is not sufficiently definite. For the essential that really 
differentiates archeology from several more or less cognate sciences is 
that it deals with old things only in so far as they are the product of man’s 
hand and brain. 

The works of Nature are not included in this science ; for the study of 
the ancient structure of the world belongs to geology, while the description 
of extinct animals and plants is the province of palzontology and palzo- 
botany. Archzology receives an immense amount of assistance from 
these kindred sciences, but it is wholly distinct from them. 

Inasmuch as it is a study of man and his works, archzology is very 
closely related to anthropology, and the two subjects have always been 
considered together in this Section of the British Association. What 
then, we may ask, is the precise character of this alliance ? Each deals 
with man and nothing but man, but they deal with man from different 
points of view, so that the two sciences are supplementary to one another. 
Obviously anthropology is the wider of the two, for it treats not only of 
man’s material works but also of his mental, moral and sociological 
development. Anthropology moreover totally disregards date and time, 
it simply studies primitive man wherever and whenever he is found ; and 
primitive man may exist and does exist in the twentieth century A.D. as 
well as in many thousands of years before Christ ; though he has become 
rarer in these later days and is not so widely distributed over the earth. 
Strictly speaking, both civilised and uncivilised man should fall equally 
within the range of anthropology, which claims to be nothing less than 
the study of all mankind in every relation. But the latest and more 
complex developments of civilisation which are manifest in our own day 
have been appropriated by younger and more specialised sciences such 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 149 


as sociology and psychology, so that except for an almost academic dis- 
tinction it may be said that anthropology confines itself to primitive 
man. It has two distinct branches—the one which examines man simply 
as an animal, the other which studies him as a rational animal. With 
the first of these, termed physical anthropology, which is really a branch 
of zoology, our science has very little to do. It may accept and use its 
results occasionally as a background, but with the same detachment that 
it shows towards zoology or geology. For the interest of archeology 
is solely in those works which can only be produced by man when he 
has become more or less sapiens. Even ethnology, which is physical 
anthropology as applied to the developed races of man, has only a very 
slight and limited usefulness for the archeologist. 

From those branches of anthropology, on the other hand, which reveal 
man in his religious, sociological and cultural relations, and those which 
study his arts and crafts, archeology derives the whole of its theoretical 
structure. How intimately the two subjects are related is shown by such 
a book as Sollas’s Ancient Hunters, in which, if it were not for the headings 
of the chapters, the reader could hardly tell at any given moment whether 
it is an ancient or a modern people that is being described. Without 
anthropology, in fact, archeology would be blind of one eye and very 
short-sighted of the other. For the only possible subject of archeology 
is the material output of man, the visible products of his hands, whether 
these are shown in agriculture, building and other modifications of the 
surrounding world, or in those manufactures, arts and crafts by which 
man improves the conditions and amenities of his material existence. 
What man has been thinking or feeling, or just why he did any of the 
things that we find him doing, archeology can never directly ascertain. 
What it discovers is merely the bare fact ; it can never divine the essence 
of the fact, that which gives it all its meaning and its interest. For the 
whole interpretation of the inner meaning and rationale of man’s life we 
are necessarily dependent either on anthropology or on history—that is 
to say, on records and observations of the thought, habits and behaviour 
of men who could be actually studied as living and thinking beings. 
Without the aid of these records archeology would indeed be a musty 
science ; but when it employs them it is able inferentially and by analogy 
to construct the whole of man’s story from his earliest beginnings to the 
present day. And this reconstruction is not only a book, it is an illustrated 
picture-book, richer than mere anthropology and richer than mere history. 

Of the two auxiliary sciences, anthropology and history, the former is 
generally more useful to us, just because it deals with the primitive, and 
ancient man is necessarily more or less primitive. Documentary history 
is very limited in its range; it gives only a few glimpses of the life of 
ancient times, and covers only a very small section of the immense period 
over which archzology must range. Occasionally, however, it throws 
a vivid searchlight on times which are especially interesting to us as 
being comparatively near our own, and usefully supplements our anthro- 
pological knowledge by information as to what civilised people, as distinct 
from savages, thought, felt, and said. Its principal and indispensable 
function, however, is that of providing a time-scale, which cannot be 


150 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


obtained from any other source, even though its time-scale only covers 
a few thousand years. A few thousand years is only a small fraction 
of the time which is included in archeology. The material of this science 
goes back to the Tertiary period in geology, innumerable thousands of 
years before the first beginnings of writing or the first whisperings of 
tradition. It begins even earlier than zoological anthropology, for in 
the Chellean, not to speak of pre-Chellean, flints we have records of man’s 
handiwork which antedate any actually known remains of man himself. 
For these immeasurably remote periods a very rough and inaccurate 
time-scale, which is, however, steadily being improved, has been pro- 
vided by geology. It is not until about 3,500 years before Christ that 
this clumsy instrument can be replaced by a much finer one derived 
from inscriptions and documentary evidence. Then comes a stage of 
overlap when the interaction of historical tradition and archzological 
study is extraordinarily fertile. At this stage we are able to build on 
our most solid foundations, when archeology synchronises with written 
records or with the epics, sagas and genealogies which precede them. 
This, if we care to make this distinction, is the period of proto-history 
as distinct from pre-history. It is the time which is most familiar to 
the general public, and naturally the most attractive. For it illustrates 
the dawn of all those great civilisations, oriental and classical, which enter 
into the intellectual life and interests of all cultivated people. Egypt, 
Elam and Sumeria, the Crete of Minos, and the Troy and Mycenz of 
Homer are some of the subjects of this period. 

But archeology does not end where history begins ; it does not even 
end when written histories are numerous and fully documented. All 
through the classical periods of Greece and Rome, and all through the 
Middle Ages, history needs and receives the greatest assistance from 
archeology. Down to at least A.D. 1000 archeology is needed as much 
as documentary evidence for reconstructing the life of any people. It is 
not until written records of every kind are so minute in character and so 
abundant in quantity as to cover almost the whole field of life that archz- 
ology becomes superfluous. Then gradually it gives way, but does not 
wholly cease to exist until all ‘ old things ’ have been replaced by new and 
modern things, which is almost the time of our own generation. 

The ordinary man is rather apt to suppose that history is infallible and 
archeology is a study in which individual fancy may have free play. It is 
therefore well worth while to spend a few minutes in considering the 
relative trustworthiness of history and archeology. The modern 
historian has recently ceased to be contemptuous of archzological data, 
and some of the latest histories show a remarkably able handling of what 
I may call ‘dumb documents.’ Indeed, the methods of history and of 
archzology are analogous to one another, only the historian’s documents 
are loquacious, whereas ours are tongue-tied. This does not mean, 
however, that the historian’s material is intrinsically superior to the 
archeologist’s ; verbosity is a different thing from veracity. Wholly 
apart from the essential impossibility, long ago remarked by Sir Walter 
Raleigh, of obtaining consistent accounts of the same occurrence even from 
two independent eye-witnesses, a great deal of documentary evidence is 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 151 


vitiated from the outset by its propagandist bias or basis. Personal 
vanity, envy, hatred, and malice, the desire to please great persons, the 
fear of offending dangerous powers—these and a thousand other motives 
enter in to deform the truth. Just as only a childish intelligence supposes 
that what is printed has any value merely because it is printed, so only a 
very purblind historian can maintain that a document has any scientific 
value merely because it is written. And if anyone feels disposed to 
challenge this statement, I will only ask him to remember his experiences 
between 1914 and 1919 if he took any part in the Great War. Without 
troubling about the deliberate and obvious propaganda, intended to deceive 
ourselves or the enemy for some immediate purpose, let him reflect on 
the character of the ordinary current documents whether of civilian or 
of military origin. Would he consider that they were scientifically 
accurate? A slight but amusing illustration of my point may be drawn 
from the ration strength of a battalion. Of course everyone, from the 
commanding officer to the youngest private, was closely and personally 
interested in overestimating the figure so as to deceive, with the most 
laudable object of self-preservation, the officers who provided supplies. 
And yet a very eminent historian once indignantly asked if I would not 
unquestioningly accept the stated ration strength of a force, if a Latin 
author had been so thoughtful as to record it. 

Now contrast with the lying or tendencious documents issued in 
this and in much more serious cases by battalions and brigades the com- 
plete objectivity of my ‘ dumb documents,’ for instance the cap badges 
and regimental insignia found on the field of battle. ‘These are perfectly 
trustworthy evidence, equally useful to an intelligence officer during 
the war or to an archeologist years after. 

Passing from this recent material to that which has survived from 
ancient days, is it not evident that even the strongest motives of family 
pride can never induce a pre-Chellean flint to falsify its genealogy ? 
Again, the Hermes of Praxiteles will never open his mouth to tell us 
whether he is an original or a Roman copy. In brief, to leave a subject 
which it is tempting to expand at greater length, archzology is not pre- 
cluded by its material from being just as scientific as history. Neither 
the one nor the other can claim to be rigorously exact, each is in much 
the same degree liable to misinterpret its data ; but I claim that at least 
the data of archeology have never been falsified from the start. ‘The 
historian has perhaps one advantage, in having at his command certain 
fundamental documents which are supposed to be unimpeachable, such 
as charters, treaties, statutes, and—in very late times—textual reports 
of trials and speeches. Even these, however, find a fairly close analogy 
in the stratified deposits which the geologist guarantees to archeology 
and in the intact tombs which contain inscribed objects. 

It must not, of course, be supposed that there is any disparagement to 
history in the emphasis which I have laid upon its subjective character. 
The ideals of history are far greater than its mere skeletal form, the bare 
record of events and dates, though it is principally this skeletal form 
which is valuable to archeology. The position of history is unique ; 
it appears to oscillate between science and art, but at its best and truest 


152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


it must surely be art. Herodotus writes an epic, and Thucydides com- 
poses a tragedy ; Gibbon displays a pageant, and Macaulay delivers an 
oration. We value them not for their scientific accuracy, which may or 
may not be unimpeachable, but for the beauty and philosophic truth 
of their artistic production. 

Having now to some extent defined the place of archeology as a science, 
I will speak of the organisation of its material. 

The organisation of archzology may be treated under three headings. 
First there is the collection of the material in the field and the recording 
of it. Secondly there is the housing, conservation and exhibition of 
this material in museums. Thirdly there is the comparative study of 
all such material, and the digesting and dissemination of the results in 
books of synthesis and popularisation. Each of these activities demands 
separate consideration. 

The collection of material in the first instance is due to the work of 
the explorer. He may either travel through a country observing its visible 
features and monuments, or he may seek to discover new material by 
excavating what has been hidden underground, either deliberately in 
tombs and treasuries or accidentally by the accumulation of sand and 
soil over the deserted ruins of ancient buildings. At the present moment 
our chief attention is centred on excavation and our most sensational results 
are being obtained thereby. Recent excavations in Egypt, Mesopotamia, 
Greece and India are of vivid interest to every cultivated person. 
Now as one who excavated himself for a good many years and has had 
constant opportunities of studying all aspects of the excavator’s problems, 
I have been able to form some very clear ideas as to the policy and general 
necessities of science in this regard. First there are one or two elementary 
axioms, which were once generally ignored, but are now so universally 
recognised that they need only be mentioned and emphasised as axioms. 
The most important of these is that no person who is not qualified by 
special knowledge and study should ever be allowed to excavate at all. 
And since individuals are not impartial judges of their own capacity, this 
comes to mean that no one must excavate unless he is endorsed by a 
scientific institution or at least by a committee of scientific men. This 
necessity is explicitly recognised almost everywhere, though I can remember 
some flagrant instances of the violation of the rule even in these last few 
years. It is a rule, however, which can admit of no exceptions. The 
days are long past when the looting of sites for the amusement or personal 
profit of a private individual could be tolerated, and no government 
with any pretensions to enlightenment will ever again allow it. But 
various countries which have only recently arrived at autonomy may 
need warning in this respect, and it would be well that public opinion 
should be fully alivetothe danger. Powerfulinterests, both individual and 
political, are often enrolled against our science, and we may sometimes 
regret that there is no scientific League of Nations to which we might appeal. 

If the right to excavate is only granted by the licence of government to 
a properly qualified individual, it ought to follow as a corollary that 
digging for antiquities even by the owner of an estate should be forbidden. 
Such a restriction would reduce the trade in antiquities, which is a survival of 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 153 


barbarism and utterly to be condemned, toa minimum. This is the true 
ideal, but in practice it proves impossible to execute ; science retires bafHled 
before the conspiring avarice of the land-owner and the collector. Never- 
theless a vigilant and determined government can do much to mitigate this 
evil, and it is to be noted that both Italy and Greece have been remarkably 
successful in their systems of close supervision and control of export. 

A very intelligent and practical policy was long ago adopted by the 
Egyptian Department of Antiquities, which goes far to satisfy the smaller 
buyer though it cannot cope with the bigger gangster. The Cairo 
Museum maintains an official sale-room in which duplicates and objects 
of small value are sold to the tourist. These are officially guaranteed to 
be genuine, which is incidentally no small advantage in a country where 
forgeries are so frequent and sometimes so clever as to deceive even an 
expert. It would be very useful if this system were extended and adopted 
also in other lands. Even objects of real value might be placed in the 
sale-room when they are already abundant in the national collections. 
There are several European countries in which the store-rooms of the 
great museums are crowded with thousands of duplicates, that can never 
be exhibited or used and are practically waste material. If these were sold 
the result would produce large sums which could be used in financing 
new excavations ; knowledge would be usefully disseminated, and the 
destructiveness of private dealing might be a little restrained. 

Now let us consider what happens and what ought to happen when 
a museum, a university, or a scientific body of any kind sends out its 
duly qualified explorer. Both this explorer and his employers have 
certain perfectly clear duties to discharge, and I suggest that on one side 
these are not sufficiently recognised. It is the explorer’s business not 
only to furnish his home museum with collections of valuable specimens, 
but also to make the most complete study of all the conditions under which 
they are found and to publish this study in the fullest possible form, But 
here he is very often fettered by the unthinking or deliberately selfish 
egotism of his employers. A great deal of pressure is often brought to 
bear on the explorer to make him not only excavate the most lucrative 
sites, which may be quite legitimate, but neglect the less attractive and 
remunerative parts of his concession. This is so notorious that I need 
not quote instances. I prefer rather to recall the admirable public spirit 
shown by a great American institution, which ungrudgingly and uncom- 
plainingly supported its representative through several years of expensive 
and quite unremunerative trenching which he judged to be necessary. 
And it is pleasant to relate that this generosity was rewarded by the 
eventual discovery of prizes which excelled their wildest dreams. 

If it is the explorer’s duty fully to study and record whatever he finds, 
it is a duty which is never neglected in these enlightened days by any 
Scientist at all worthy of the name. But it is not quite so invariably 
a part of his creed that the privilege of exploration carries with it the 
implied promise to publish, and to publish quickly and fully. The 
record of British archeologists is very honourable in this respect, and there 
is hardly any important field work that has not been published or is not 
in process of publication. A great deal of credit for this happy state of 


154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


things must be given to the doyen of British excavators, Sir Flinders Petrie, 
who has never failed, in spite of every obstacle, to furnish a published 
account of his field work within the shortest possible time of its completion. 
This example and the growing pressure of public opinion have been very 
effective in Great Britain, but several continental countries have fallen 
far short of our standard. It is sometimes the fault of the individual, 
sometimes of the institution. ‘There are some men who direct workmen 
admirably, but seem to be seized with paralysis at any mention of publica- 
tion. And there are many institutions which make no provision and take 
no thought for the publication of their material, once it has been safely 
hoarded in their exhibition rooms. Now let me be perfectly outspoken 
on this matter. That explorations should be made and left unpublished 
is a disaster, and if the explorer or his employers are responsible for this 
failure it is a crime. Nothing can take the place of publication. Notes, 
drawings, photographs and plans, however elaborate and careful, are of 
very limited usefulness except to the man who made them and who can alone 
interpret them. It is an error even to suppose that a literary executor can 
take over the material and produce a satisfactory result. Ifanarchzologist 
does not bring out his material, or at least fully prepare it for publication, 
in his own lifetime, a great part of it is irretrievably lost to the world. 
This being the case, the institution which obtains a site for excavation 
ought to guarantee the expenses of a reasonable publication and ought to 
bind its excavator by contract to publish. I may quote as an example my 
personal experience with an institution which appreciated its duties fully 
and exactly. In January of 1907 I accepted a contract with the University 
of Pennsylvania to conduct excavations in Egypt and the Northern Sudan. 
The term was fixed at five years, and the University stipulated that before 
the lapse of these five years I should have prepared for publication a full 
report of all the results. In accepting this provision I stipulated on my 
side that the University should publish every word that I might write 
and every illustration that I might deem necessary. No obstacles were 
allowed to stand in the way, and the contract was precisely fulfilled on 
both sides. I consider that such an undertaking ought to be given by 
every institution that sends its man into the field, and that this should be 
so fully recognised that the excavator need not even have to propose it. 
There is still one more consideration in regard to the exploration of 
sites which is very little appreciated. The wisdom of one generation, 
even if it be our own, is inadequate to foresee all possible problems. 
Therefore, whenever the circumstances allow, a portion of every site 
should be left unexplored and reserved for future study. The advantages 
of this are manifest; let me quote only two examples. The results 
obtained at Pompeii within the last ten years have been so revolutionary 
that they have put all the old standard books out of date. If this city had 
been cleared at one sweep when first discovered all this knowledge would 
have been lost, owing to the imperfections of the methods then in use. 
The proper technique has only gradually been evolved. On the other 
hand, the frantic rush to explore all lake-dwellings in the third quarter of 
the last century barely left Vouga enough material for the studies which 
he has just completed. Had they been a// destroyed by the first excavators _ 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 155 


the mistaken opinions launched seventy years ago would have been 
stereotyped for ever. 

In some countries where the government is very weak it is unavoidable 
that cemeteries should be completely cleared before they are abandoned, 
otherwise the natives descend like vultures and sack whatever the archzo- 
logist has left. But in places where the police control can be more effective 
a portion of a cemetery might sometimes be left ; and certainly a town, 
palace, fort, or other site which does not contain remarkable treasures, 
could be protected for a second generation to study. The new generation 
will have new points of view and problems to solve which the earlier 
explorers never suspected. 

The second aspect of an archzologist’s activities is museum work. 
Sometimes the same man who has formed a collection in the field will 
be placed in charge of itin amuseum. This isa very happy arrangement 
and ensures that the most minute and intelligent attention will be given 
to everything that has been found. More often, however, the museum 
curator is a person who stays at home, and acts as the recipient and 
custodian of the collections that are brought to him. 

How he treats these collections must be to a great extent determined 
by the circumstances and the accommodation at his disposal. Our greatest 
museums in England and on the Continent are in many instances so over- 
crowded, and so hampered by an excess of concentrated material, that it 
is useless to lay down ideal rules for them. The only hope for a really 
rational treatment of them is that they should be broken up into a number 
of smaller units ; this may for the moment be impracticable, but should 
certainly be borne in mind as the ideal at which any really systematic 
policy would aim. 

In countries like Italy, with its traditional liberality towards science 
and art, or America, which starts in at a later stage with great resources 
and no hampering accumulation from past years, a genuinely systematic 
arrangement is possible. From the point of view of an excavator many 
of the Italian museums are ideally arranged. The results of any given 
excavation are kept together in a single room, and each tomb and deposit 
is placed in a separate division of a case, carefully marked off from its 
neighbours. ‘The effect of this is that a student can go into the museum 
at Florence or Bologna with the excavator’s report in his hand, and study 
every paragraph with the objects in front of him. Even when the objects 
have been incompletely published I have been able to make a fairly 
systematic record of them from the mere contents of the cases thirty 
years after the work had been done. In the Egyptian department of 
the Metropolitan Museum at New York the deposits are not so rigidly 
kept in series—which is, indeed, difficult unless the available space is almost 
unlimited—but the same ideal has been borne in mind. The exhibition, 
therefore, can be used as an illustration of the actual excavation. More- 
over, New York has gone far beyond any other institution in popularising 
its exhibition. Photographs illustrating the stages of the excavation, 
abundant and detached labels and descriptions of the objects, and résumés 
of periods and styles of work make the collection an illustrated picture- 
book which has an immediate appeal for the public. 


156 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Many of our own museums might follow this example with advantage. 
A recent Government Commission, as you are aware, has published its 
reports on the museums in England. Amongst other things it remarks 
on the discouraging truth that the public does not seem to want museums. 
The same might be said of many places on the Continent. Now as 
conditions are at present, I must confess to having a good deal of sneaking 
sympathy with the public. If a few institutions, like the British Museum 
and South Kensington, as well as a small number of enlightened provincial 
museums up and down the country, have published admirable hand- 
books, instituted popular lectures, and encouraged popular demonstrations 
by expert guides, yet these are only a very small minority. Whether in 
Great Britain or on the Continent the visitor to a museum, other than 
a gallery of pictures or sculpture, is merely left to drown in an uncharted 
sea of unintelligible cases. We can scarcely blame him if he objects to 
being drowned and rushes out into the fresh air. It is not the public 
but the management of the museum which is to blame. In America it 
would be quite untrue to say that the public does not want museums. 
On any holiday the Metropolitan in New York is crowded to overflowing 
by thousands of people, rich and poor, educated and uneducated, who 
show the most intelligent interest. 

In order to popularise museums, however, a totally false start has been 
made in many places. With the mistaken idea that the ordinary man 
can appreciate art but cannot appreciate science, a number of institutions 
have been founded which are called Museums of Art and Science. The 
title might be allowed if it did not dictate the policy. But the policy has 
generally been to subordinate science, and presently almost to thrust it 
out of doors. The local magnate who has bought a few pictures for his 
own home, together with copies of the Apollo Belvedere and similar works 
which are supposed to be above criticism, declares to the committee of 
which he is chairman that the museum must not be filled up with old 
stones and pots and pans. And in the hope, very often unrealised, of 
a substantial legacy the committee obsequiously follows his lead. And 
very probably the director of the museum, who has been chosen for his 
talent as an art connoisseur, is very content with the policy of his com- 
mittee. Now as far as the general public is concerned this is a sheer error 
of psychology. The ordinary man has no training and little aptitude for 
fine art, but he can understand workmanship, and he is interested in the 
things which come near either to his daily life, or to a life that he might 
have led some centuries ago. A well-illustrated and well-explained 
collection of ethnographical or archzological objects makes a definite 
appeal to him, and he responds wonderfully to the romance of ancient 
history or of primitive life. 

This supposed union of science and art is simply hypocritical, and when 
science has insinuated itself into a collection under the disguise of art it 
is high time that the disguise should be thrown off. A scientific collection 
is not made for esthetic purposes ; it need not be ugly, and if capably 
handled it will not be ugly, but its primary purpose is not zsthetic. The 
attempt to zstheticise an archzological collection is constantly being 
made, and always results in much damage to scientific interests and very 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 157 


little satisfaction to the zsthete. Let us be perfectly clear-sighted and 
frank about it. In itself archeology has nothing to do with art—at most 
it chronicles the history of art ; which is a very different thing, as every 
artist knows, from genuine esthetic appreciation. The art-critics are 
perfectly justified in protesting, as they constantly protest, against the 
confusion of art-history with art-criticism. The individual archeologist 
may by the grace of heaven chance to be endowed, as a very few men are, 
with the real gift of esthetic appreciation. But it is not directly evoked 
by his work, and there will be little opportunity as a rule for exercising it 
in the course of his work. The immense majority of the objects with 
which he deals have very slight zsthetic worth ; in so far as a man is 
purely archzologist zsthetic values do not exist for him. The archzo- 
logist works like a naturalist—it is his business to trace evolution, patterns, 
migration, and development ; and when he is tempted to discourse on 
esthetic values his opinions are very seldom worth hearing. Except in 
very rare instances, therefore, the products of excavation and exploration 
should be treated as natural history collections, and not as more or less 
unsuccessful efforts at pure art. And we must remember that archeology 
has now happily become a popular subject. The man in the street is 
greatly interested in it. He delights in the pictures and the brief accounts 
which are published in the J//ustrated London News; he rushes to the 
exhibitions of antiquities excavated at Ur of the Chaldees, or in Egypt, 
or anywhere else. ‘The reporters of the most up-to-date American news- 
papers will assure you that archeology is ‘ front-page news,’ and it is 
printed with two-inch headlines in columns next to the exploits of the 
gangster and the gunman. This is fame—let us take advantage of it. 
It would be exceedingly foolish not to welcome this popularity and 
cultivate it by every possible means. Here is a study which does no harm 
to anyone, which any intelligent being can share, and which can add 
immensely to the amenity and happiness of the ordinary man’s life. 

I have now dealt with two aspects of an archzologist’s work, the 
collection of material and the exhibition of it in museums. The third is 
the dissemination of knowledge by means of books. Some of these books 
must necessarily be technical; others should be addressed less to 
specialists than to a cultivated public; and a third class ought to be 
directly and deliberately popular in their aim. 

First of all, the original scientific accounts of excavations can hardly 
be popular works, and need not be. They are written for the professional 
and make very dry reading. They are not essentially literary in form, 
and if a writer inserts some chapters of literary character these are only 
an added grace ; they are not essential at this first stage, but belong rather 
to the second. Lists, plans, schedules, catalogues and indexes are the 
fabric of which the excavator’s reports ought to be composed. Their 
aim is to give a precise account of every feature of the exploration, and 
not until this has been done is there any occasion for general theories or 
estimates of the historical bearing of the discoveries. Books of this stage 
need be no more than mere chronicles ; it is probably best that they 
should not attempt to be more. An excavator need not be a literary man. 
If he has literary gifts he will have ample opportunity for using them in 


158 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


books of what I would call the second stage in the dissemination of 
archeological knowledge. 

For if it is the absolute duty of the excavator to produce a perfectly dry, 
passionless record of his work for the sake of his professional brethren, 
this is only the first stage in the process of bringing knowledge into general 
currency. When the seed has been thus gathered and sown it has to be 
watered and cultivated. ‘This is a task which may be undertaken by 
the original explorer or by others. Unquestionably the best results are 
obtained when the explorer himself, if he has any literary ability, under- 
takes the popularisation and exploitation of his own field work. No one 
else can so exactly estimate the finer values and all the different aspects 
of the discoveries which he has made. Indeed, any outside person will 
inevitably miss a great deal, and will probably view many details in a false 
perspective. Many of our best archzologists have achieved as much 
success in semi-popular writing as in exploration ; I need only mention 
Sir Aurel Stein as a conspicuous example. 

I wish strongly to emphasise that such semi-popular works are a 
necessity if we are to have a wholesome circulation of general archxo- 
logical knowledge. ‘The multiplication of material has become so great 
that it is no longer possible for even the hardest working professional to 
master everything that is published in its primary form. It is doubly 
impossible if he is simultaneously doing any original work of his own. 
And yet, if he is to be anything better than a narrow specialist, he ought 
to know at least the outlines of what is being done for every period in 
every part of the world. Narrow specialisation is naturally and properly 
abhorrent to the British mind; but it is not merely ungracious and 
undesirable in itself, it is positively damaging to the efficacy of an archzo- 
logist’s own work. If he is shut up in a small compartment he becomes 
not merely a duller person, but a less efficient worker even in his own 
limited field. Cross-fertilisation and the production of new hybrids are 
indispensable conditions of a wholesome intellectual life. 

In the chain which forms our organised knowledge of archzology I have 
spoken in order of the explorer, the museum worker, the author of tech- 
nical books on exploration, and the author of semi-popular expositions 
of these technical books. All these aspects may be combined in one person, 
though generally the museum curator and the explorer will be distinct. 

Separate from these, and with an extremely important function to 
fulfil in our Platonic state, is the writer of general synthetic works. He 
will probably be the occupant of some professorial chair, or a museum 
curator holding a post which allows sufficient leisure for writing, or 
occasionally an unofficial author who works in his own library and on his 
own resources. It is writers of this class who have manufactured our 
fine fabrics out of the raw material. It is they who have constructed 
those far-reaching syntheses which have made archzology a coherent 
science instead of a group of isolated and disparate phenomena. It would 
be invidious to enumerate the names of a long list of writers which begins 
with the great pioneers of the last generation, Sir Edward Tylor, Sir John 
Evans, Lord Avebury, and culminates in a perfect galaxy in our own 
generation. As I compare the archzology of even forty years ago with 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 159 


that of our own time, the new thing that is so striking is its sudden co- 
ordination. Even in the last years of the past century we were working 
departmentally. Magnificent explorations were being made, but they 
were in separate and apparently disconnected regions. Here and there 
an audacious prophet might hint at a trade route or a far-reaching con- 
nection, but the material was as yet insufficient to prove it. 

Now suddenly the ancient world appears as a connected whole—it is 
a change like the shrinkage of the habitable globe due to steamship, 
railway, and aeroplane. We propose to connect Europe and the Mediter- 
ranean with the uttermost parts of Africa ; we speak freely of intercourse 
between the Sahara and the Russian steppes; we do not hesitate to 
associate Mesopotamia not merely with Egypt but with India, and even 
perhaps with China. And within a less wide area countless links have 
been forged which unite one country with another, until the continents of 
Europe and Asia seem to be furrowed by numerous trade routes from the 
earliest times, and the Mediterranean is partitioned into well-defined 
spheres of commerce and empire. 

Time has shrunk no less than space. Sir Arthur Keith, Prof. Elliot 
Smith and others have made fossil man a familiar pet, almost as close to 
us as the animals in the Zoo or Felix the cat. As for the Bronze Age, 
We move in it with as much security as the historian moves in the reign 
of Queen Elizabeth. 

Now in constructing this type of synthesis the general writer is often 
carried far beyond the possibilities of strictly logical proof. This does 
not mean that his methods are to be condemned. | fully realise the 
wisdom of a colleague who said to me many years ago, when we were 
discussing first principles on the banks of the Nile, ‘ You must not break 
archeology on the syllogism.’ It would be pedantry to ignore how much 
we owe to the poetic and far-seeing imagination of many a great archxo- 
logist, from Schliemann down to several of our own contemporaries. 
The picturesque prophecy of to-day may well be the scientific fact of 
to-morrow. So long as the author keeps his fancies and his facts distinct, 
he can remain perfectly scientific. But it is his duty to show clearly the 
grounds of his reasoning; and this leads me to consider somewhat 
tentatively what are the types of logical reasoning which may be regarded 
as conditionally or unconditionally valid. 

From such a vast and intricate subject I will select for discussion only 
two of the principal problems of archzology—namely, the application of 
a time-scale and the proof of the dissemination of a culture. First, then, 
as to the time-scale. A philosopher may attach little value to the mere 
arithmetical count of years, and a student will often work more freely if 
he thinks in culture periods rather than in centuries. But there is no doubt 
that the ordinary man demands not only ‘ facts,’ but ‘ figures,’ and it is 
a great temptation to supply the figures at any cost. A series of culture 
periods has been well established, so that there is a reliable system of 
what is called ‘ relative chronology ’ from the earliest Stone Age down to 
the time of full documentary history. But it is a very different matter 
when we attempt to translate these culture periods into centuries and 
thousands of years. The estimates given by various geologists and 


160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


palzontologists for everything behind the last stages of the Ice Age are 
immensely divergent from one another. I should not venture—it would 
be quite beyond my capacity—to criticise or discuss them. But when the 
stage of universal hunting has passed, and mankind has settled down to 
an agricultural and pastoral existence ; when the outlines of sea and land 
have become fixed in approximately the same forms which we know to-day, 
then we feel that pre-history is only a slight extension backward of what 
is generally recognised as simple history. It is a sketch of the early chapters 
in the story of empires, nations, and peoples, of whom several are known 
to us in written history or tradition. We naturally desire to know in 
terms of years and generations how far back we can trace the doings of 
the men who are our own ancestors or collateral forbears. Now here 
we must be clear-sighted enough to accept our inevitable limitations and 
avoid all sophistries and all claims, however specious, to know the un- 
knowable. We are wholly dependent for our absolute chronology upon 
the dates recorded or obtained by immediate inference from ancient 
writings or traditions. The fragmentary relics of Mesopotamian and 
Egyptian official chronology furnish a time-scale, liable, as you know, to 
much uncertainty in minor details, but trustworthy in all its main lines. 
Whenever this time-scale can be applied, it is possible within quite narrow 
limits of variation to give precise figures as well as facts. ‘Thus we can 
give a dating in years to all the products of Egyptian civilisation back to 
the beginning of the First Dynasty. And by direct inference we can apply 
this scale to many other parts of Europe and Asia, as Sir Arthur Evans 
has so successfully applied it to the dating of Cretan civilisation. Indeed, 
as archeological discovery proceeds in the coming years we may reasonably 
hope to arrive at a completely graduated scale of chronological dating in 
actual years for every part of the ancient world after 3500 B.c. But if 
it is asked what means we have for establishing a chronological as well 
as a typological scheme behind 3500 or possibly 4000 B.c., I answer 
unhesitatingly that we have none, and that unless earlier written records 
or traditions come to light it is probable that we shall never have any. 
One very crude method of attempting to avoid this impasse is so 
illogical that I need spend little time in discussing it. Below the strata 
in which definitely dateable objects are found—whether at Knossos, 
Ur, Susa, Mohendjidaro or any other very ancient site—there are generally 
strata of a certain thickness in which other and obviously earlier forms 
occur. Now it is sometimes suggested, even by skilled explorers in their 
less discreet moments, that the mere thickness of these undated layers 
may give an indication of the length of time which it took to form them. 
And yet a very slight amount of reflection, not to speak of actual experience 
in the field, will show that this reasoning is as childish as it is simple. 
I have myself seen in Egypt deposits many feet deep which can neverthe- 
less be proved by well-dated objects at the top and bottom to have been 
formed within a single century; and I have also seen a concentrated 
stratum of not more than four feet which contained the products of many 
centuries closely pressed together. There are innumerable reasons for 
which the rate of deposit may vary almost indefinitely. To attempt 
therefore to estimate the rate of deposit in the prehistoric stratum from 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 161 


that which is observed in the historical layers above it is worse than 
illegitimate, it is sheer fantasy. 

In a less crude, but not very different form, the same error appears in 
the attempt made by several justly admired writers to establish a chrono- 
logical scale for the typological series preceding the historical in a country 
like Egypt. ‘The system of sequence-dating based on typology is now 
familiar to all students. It was established for Egypt by Sir Flinders 
Petrie, and for Europe in general by Montelius. As a scheme of relative 
chronology it sometimes creaks a little, but on the whole it works well 
and has justified itself, though it may need occasional emendation. But 
the recurring attempts made by one author after another to translate this 
relative system into an absolute chronology of years have no logical 
justification whatsoever and only encourage self-deception. The argu- 
ment is really based on an assumption which can easily be shown to be 
fallacious. ‘This is the assumption that the rate of progress in civilisa- 
tion is always uniform. If we know the rate of development in types 
which took place during the First and Second Dynasties and know also 
from inscriptions the length of these dynasties, then, it is argued, we have 
a yard-stick which can be applied to the period preceding the First and 
Second Dynasties. It is as though a policeman, having timed a speeding 
motor car over a measured mile, and found that it was going at sixty 
miles an hour, should appear before the magistrate and state that it was 
evident the defendant had been proceeding all day at sixty miles an hour. 
The falsity, of the conception is evident as a mere matter of logic; but 
it can also be shown by numerous examples in the well-known periods 
of medizyal and modern history. Would any historian, for instance, 
seriously maintain that the rate of intellectual and artistic achievement 
was exactly the same during the Dark Ages as in the Gothic time or the 
Renaissance ? Would anyone venture to argue that the industrial pro- 
gress of the nineteenth century A.D. was no more rapid than that of the 
eighteenth, or that material development proceeded at the same rate in 
the reign of George I as in that of George V? Merely to ask such ques- 
tions is sufficient. I need not dwell on the long centuries of Byzantine or 
Chinese immobility, or on the static quality of much actual Egyptian art. 

If, however, we must abandon such illegitimate methods, it is not quite 
impossible that properly directed ingenuity may find some others which 
will give a rough scale, less accurate indeed than the chronological, but 
nevertheless valuable. ‘The recent success of Miss Caton-Thompson in 
settling the very difficult dating of Badarian culture by truly logical 
methods based on geology is very encouraging ; and thirty years ago 
I myself made a suggestion which [ still think has some value. If, 
I suggested, we could discover the village corresponding to an ancient 
cemetery, and also ascertain the total number of burials in that cemetery, 
then we should be able by calculating the presumable death rate to arrive 
at a rough estimate of the number of generations. Itis evident that several 
factors in this equation can never be established more than approximately, 
but it would be worth attempting if ever a suitable site could be found. 

Next we may briefly consider the problem of the dissemination of 
cultures. This is one of the most interesting and important aspects of 

G 


162 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


archeological study. In it are involved all questions of the migration 
and movements of peoples, their commerce and intercourse of all kinds, 
and the degree and extent of their reciprocal influence upon one another. 
It is really the cardinal problem of archeology, irresistibly attractive, 
and for that very reason offering peculiar temptations to hasty and 
premature generalisation. 

Now the foundations of this particular study, in so far as they have been 
well and truly laid at all, have been laid not by archeology but by other 
sciences, those in fact which deal not with man himself but with the 
conditions necessary to his very existence. Geology, climatology, 
palzontology, palzo-botany have been the instruments of that great 
progress in synthetic theory which I have pointed out as the special 
achievement of the last thirty or forty years. Those who have worked 
out the details and the stages of the Ice Age and the rainy periods have 
shown us that various parts of the world were uninhabitable for a long time. 
It is obvious, for instance, that man cannot exist under a snow-field, so 
that it is useless to look for him north of 50 degrees of latitude until the 
Ice Age is well past. That already reduces our problem to much smaller 
dimensions, and teaches us to exclude large parts of the world from the 
possible area of man’s earliest evolution. Conversely, large areas which 
to the modern view seem impossible homes for man are shown to have 
been eminently suitable for the life of the palzolithic hunter. ‘The Sahara 
and the Gobi desert in their present condition cannot maintain the life of 
man or beast ; but the climatologist shows that there was a not very remote 
period when they were well-watered regions, covered with grass like the 
South African veldt, and teeming with large game. Thus he explains 
what otherwise might have remained an ambiguous problem for the 
archeologist, the finding of human implements of very early types in these 
apparently uninhabitable tracts. 

The botanist next comes forward to tell us that the food plants on which 
a settled agricultural life depends can only be found in their wild state in 
certain closely defined areas. And he shows how changes of climate 
produce various types of afforestation which necessarily limit the move- 
ments and activities of a man who possesses only primitive tools. This 
type of reasoning has been exceedingly skilfully used, in particular by 
writers like Peake and Fleure, to restrict the range of choice and to give 
proportion, scale and limitation to the study of man’s origin and move- 
ments. I regard this as one of the most solid achievements of recent years. 

But when the archzologist proceeds by purely archeological methods 
to fill in the details on a background of which the outlines are thus im- 
mutably drawn by the other sciences, he is confronted with innumerable 
difficulties of method, and the logic of his procedure is not always well 
studied. In the first place we must necessarily rule out many types of 
reasoning which are so general and inconclusive that they can never carry 
any conviction. A little serious reflection must show that we necessarily 
know so little of the mental equipment of early man that it is often 
impossible to say what actions and habits are natural to all men as highly 
developed anthropoids, and what are so peculiar as to be specifically 
human and characteristic of one or another developed type of man. 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 163 


As to many simple actions and habits there is simply no analogy which 
can teach us whether they are natural and inevitable to any human animal, 
or whether they presume so much specialised intelligence that they could 
only originate in some one place and time. I will choose a few instances. 

That man should seek shelter from the elements is so obviously natural, 
and so like all other animals, that probably no one would argue that the 
living in caves or the construction of a primitive shelter, analogous to an 
animal’s lair or a bird’s nest, must presuppose any identity of race or 
origin. Or again, may not any animal pile up stones? And if so, at 
what exact stage does the piling up of stones become such a complex action 
that it can only be developed in one place? After all, stones will only 
hold together in certain shapes ; the existence therefore of simple cairns 
in many parts of the world could be no valid evidence of a single mind at 
work. Let us go one step further and suppose that a shelter of stones 
has to be roofed. Is the laying of slabs, one overlapping the other so as 
to form a corbel, so intricate a device that it might not be invented in many 
places simultaneously ? It seems a very primitive process, even if it has 
been developed with great skill in certain countries. 

Again, let the form of shelter be the very primitive form of boughs or 
saplings placed in a circle and tied together at the top. If this simple 
trick is found amongst many peoples living thousands of miles apart, 
must we argue that they all learned it from the same source? Take again 
the wattle-hut : birds know how to weave a nest and to plaster it with 
mud—is homo sapiens less intellectual than the hedge sparrow ? 

This last example may carry us to another line of thought. It has 
sometimes been suggested that the discovery of the uses of burned clay, 
and consequently of baked pottery, may have been due to the accidental 
firing of a wattled hut. If so, it is difficult to maintain that the invention 
of pottery could only happen in one place, unless the use of fire was 
limited to one little spot on the earth. 

Even with regard to burial customs, though many probably will dis- 
agree with me, I think it is unwarrantable to suppose that simple customs 
found half the distance of the globe apart must have a common origin. 
There are many methods of disposing of the dead, but they fall into two 
main classes : those which aim at preserving the body and those which 
aim at destroying it. Are all races which destroy, or even those which 
destroy by the same general methods of exposure or burning, necessarily 
derived from the same stock or necessarily learning from one another ? 
It is not even convincing to say that races which preserve the body must 
have learned the idea from each other unless their methods are intricate 
and all the intricacies are identical. 

These apparently elementary questions go to the root of the whole 
matter. Whatever answer an archeologist might give—and I person- 
ally would give no answer at all in such cases—he could not persuade 
by logical means any opponent who chose to disagree with him. He 
would be obliged when driven into a corner to say ‘I am convinced ’ of 
this or that, but the conviction would express nothing more than his own 
temperament and psychology. 


To apply logic at all then, we need to find our material in h'ghly 


164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


specialised products or habits of man. In short, it is only possible to 
reason convincingly when manufactures or arts and crafts have reached a 
high point of intricacy. Let us take examples from flint-working, man’s 
earliest craft. It seems fair to say that the use of natural flints, perhaps 
even of pre-Chellean or rostro-carinate and other forms which involve 
the minimum of workmanship, might arise independently among various 
types of almost simian man. But when it comes to elaborate chipping, 
and when this chipping produces implements of identical and highly 
specialised forms, then it is indeed logical to argue that this process and 
these forms could only have been invented once and only in one region. 
Chellean flints already seem to me to be so distinctly a product of a highly 
specialised intelligence, which might have taken a hundred other forms, 
that it must inevitably be inferred that a single type of man originated these 
artefacts, even though they are found distributed over an immense area. 

Still more it might be supposed that when one more degree of elabora- 
tion has been added, by the use of so peculiar a technique as pressing 
off flakes as well as chipping, the logical inference was still stronger. 
And if, further, this peculiar technique is combined with peculiar shapes, 
then the case seems to be almost irresistible. To accept this would entail 
some surprising consequences, linking, for instance, the Badarian culture 
of earliest Egypt with the Solutrean of Europe and perhaps with other 
even remoter places. Yet it is certainly good reasoning. It is curiously 
significant, however, of the difficulty of arriving at any certain conclusions 
that just as we might be ready to accept this theory of the Solutrean, 
with all its far-reaching consequences, Menghin comes forward with the 
assertion that the Solutrean style is the natural and inevitable product of 
the juxtaposition of a core-working and a flake-working industry. 

In contrast to the doubts and uncertainties which beset all reasoning 
based on the manufactures and products of early man, it is a relief to turn 
to a field in which unquestionable logical certainty can be achieved. This 
is when we are able to study man’s action in moving and displacing natural 
products. For when the natural distribution as known to geologists of 
rocks, ores, and other natural products, is artificially changed there can 
be no doubt that man has been at work. The direction of his movements 
can be traced, the motive of his action can be divined, and even the intensity 
of his action can be measured. ‘Thus if a certain kind of flint is peculiar 
to Grand Pressigny in France and implements of that flint are found in 
Switzerland, there can be no doubt that Switzerland is trading with 
Pressigny. Similarly, if gold combined with antimony is known only 
to occur in Transylvania, it is a just, though a surprising, inference that 
the sceptre of a very early Egyptian king, living about 3000 B.c., which 
shows this unique combination of metals, is made of gold from Tran- 
sylvania. To take a simple example from nearer home: if a number of 
stones in the circles of Stonehenge are of a type peculiar to Wales, they 
must have been transferred from Pembrokeshire to Salisbury Plain by 
man. In short, whenever the rare and precious stones used for ornament, 
the quarry stones used for building, or the peculiar metals and alloys 
used for jewellery and weapons can be shown to occur naturally only in 
one place and yet to be used in widely different areas, that is certain and 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 165 


positive evidence of trade and intercourse. ‘The most perfect example 
of this kind is furnished by amber, which in one form of its composition 
is peculiar to the Baltic. It is found at hundreds of stations all across 
Europe, from Jutland to Italy and Greece—a fact which proves beyond 
all possible doubt the existence of a trade route, of which every step and 
deviation can be traced. 

Raw materials, then, are better evidence than manufactures, especially 
in the earlier stages of man’s life. When we are dealing with the works 
of man, logical processes of real value only begin to be applicable as 
handicrafts become more complicated and as the arts begin to emerge. 
Between art-styles, if we are sufficiently discriminating, it is possible to 
institute sound contrasts and comparisons. ‘To take an extreme instance, 
we should no doubt recognise a Greek statue even if it were found in 
West Africa. Thus an unprincipled person knew that we should recognise 
an Egyptian faience figure if it were found in South Africa, and produced 
a very passable forgery from South Africa in that reasonable confidence. 
There are, of course, traps for the untrained, and there is such a thing as 
expert criticism even of the most primitive painting in the world. But 
if the criticism is sufficiently good it ought to be able to arrive at quite 
positive results. No two schools of art can possibly coincide in the 
united peculiarities of technique, convention and artistic style. I am 
confident, therefore, that in due time we shall have our palzolithic painters 
as neatly ticketed by schools as those of pre-Raphaelite Italy. 

When therefore we find, as we very frequently find in all ages, either 
very highly specialised implements or very complex manufactures or 
highly stylised decorations, then we may and must concede that they 
originate from a singlesource. ‘The hammer-axes of Troy and the Danube, 
the polygonal battle-axes so widely spread over Southern Russia and 
Northern Europe, the lunulz of Irish gold, the decorated situle of Iron 
Age Italy, the painted vases of pre-Corinthian style, may stand as instances 
of highly specialised products which unquestionably denote commerce 
and reciprocal influence wherever they occur. To measure the intensity 
of the influence and the direction of the commerce is another and scarcely 
less difficult task, but the contact itself is beyond all doubt. No one has 
so ably and scientifically used evidence of this kind as Prof. Childe. 

But we have to be on our guard against many cases in which the style 
is hardly developed enough to be a convincing criterion, or in which 
the style has become so confused owing to cross influences that it gives 
an ambiguous answer. Most of all does this occur in the sphere of 
pottery. There is no study that is more necessary to the archeologist, 
more fruitful in its potentialities or more fascinating to pursue than that 
of pottery. It is very often approached, however, with the utmost 
light-heartedhess and with an absence of technical knowledge which 
can only provoke scepticism and irritation in a critical reader. How 
often have I read suggestions for pottery manufacture which any potter 
knows to be technically impossible! And how entirely subjective and 
arbitrary seem many of the assertions commonly made as to derivation 
and influence! There is more bad reasoning in regard to pottery than 
in regard to any other part of our subject. 


166 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Here and there however, though almost confined to the work of only 
a very small number of authors, there is some extraordinarily good reason- 
ing. Dr. Frankfort in particular has shown that he is fully alive not 
only to all the subtleties and intricacies of the subject, but also to the 
peculiar traps which it constantly presents for the unwary. I will quote 
one admirable piece of reasoning which only a skilled technologist could 
have used. In pre-dynastic Egypt there occurs a very handsome and 
well-known class of pottery of which the body is red and the upper margin 
a lustrous black. In Anatolia and Cyprus a similar black-topped red 
pottery is found. It would be most natural to suppose, and it has been 
constantly assumed, that the Anatolian and Cypriote wares were derived 
from those of Egypt. But Frankfort shows that though the results are 
similar in the two wares the processes from which they were derived are 
radically different. The Egyptian school, of which we know the entire 
genealogy, is the result of evolution from a process of producing red ware ; 
the Anatolian and Cypriote arise out of a black ware production. In spite, 
therefore, of a very close fortuitous resemblance there is no dissemination 
from a single source even in this highly specialised type of pottery. 

In dealing with pottery, especially in such early stages as the Neolithic 
and the Chalcolithic, there is the same danger of reasoning in too general 
terms that I have already pointed out in regard to primitive customs and 
habits. Limitations of opportunity and knowledge, similar climatic 
conditions, and even deep-lying similarities of temperament, may produce 
an apparent uniformity of type over a wide area without necessarily 
implying commerce or contact. It is generally agreed, for instance, 
that the entire margin of the Mediterranean, throughout all its length 
and breadth, was principally peopled by a uniform race called the 
Mediterranean race. It is also an observed fact that in the Neolithic 
and Bronze Ages a carboniferous black ware, so uniform in its general 
character that I and others have been content to call it simply ‘ Mediter- 
ranean black ware,’ is found all over the same area. In the Iron Age it 
becomes specialised into finer products of great beauty, such as the 
bucchero especially associated with the Etruscans. Now it might naturally 
be argued that the uniformity of this black ware, coinciding as it does so 
nearly with the distribution of the Mediterranean race, was due to the 
uniformity of the race. This, however, does not necessarily follow, and 
the fact that black bucchero also appears as far away as Japan, without 
any intermediate links to connect it with the Mediterranean, shows that 
the inference would actually be false. The real explanation no doubt 
is that all these peoples are living at just the same stage of technical 
knowledge and limitation. . They did not know the use of the kiln—they 
were obliged to burn their pottery in open bonfires. Wherever this is 
done the fire is smoky, and black smudges on the surface of the pot give 
it an unsightly appearance. The easiest way of remedying this trouble 
is to make an all-black ware on which the smoke-stains do not appear. 
This is the simple and rational explanation of the occurrence of the 
black carboniferous wares which occur almost literally from ‘ China to Peru.’ 
Similarly in regard to form, primitive man is closely conditioned by the 
material which he has around him. The smaller vessels used during the 


H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 167 


Neolithic stage are all imitations in clay of receptacles originally made in 
other materials. Goatskins, leather bags, gourds and baskets are some 
of the natural predecessors of pots. It is only to be expected therefore 
that the clay imitations of these will be found far and wide among people 
who may have had no racial connection or commercial intercourse of any 
kind. It is only occasionally that geographical conditions may intervene 
to prove that there is a real unity of culture underlying the superficial 
resemblances. There is, however, one happy instance of this. Gourds 
are indigenous in tropical and semi-tropical countries, but do not grow 
naturally in Europe. When, therefore, pots derived from gourd-forms 
are found in Moravia, it is a logical and necessary inference that the people 
who made them on the Danube came from a gourd-producing country 
like Asia Minor, or were in close commercial relation with it. 

The same caution that is needed in reasoning about the technique 
and the form of very primitive pottery must also be used in regard to a 
great deal of the decoration. Putting holes with the fingers, puncturing 
rudimentary designs with a stick or a bone, studding the surface with 
warts and bosses, even imitating the human face, are probably devices 
natural to any and every primitive man or woman. The production of 
simple patterns by tying a string on the wet clay or copying the impres- 
sions made by a net or a basket is equally natural and by no means 
distinctive of any one people. 

In short, it is seldom possible to produce any convincing argument 
from pottery as to dissemination of culture or movements of peoples 
until the potter has so completely mastered his material and his imple- 
ments that he, or more generally she, begins to invent freely and to form 
distinctive schools of design and ornament. This stage is reached by 
the advanced peoples of Egypt, the Near East, and the Aegean, in the 
Copper and Bronze Ages while Europe still lags far behind. And so 
it is natural that the best studies of pottery connections which have yet 
appeared, from the pens of such writers as J. L. Myres and Frankfort, 
deal with these more advanced regions. Into the complexities of their 
arguments I cannot here enter ; but I think it may be well to emphasise 
that the quality of their reasoning is put on a different plane from that 
of many other writers by the fact that it is based on actual technological 
knowledge. It is only too evident that many general writers on the 
theory of pottery have never seen a primitive potter at work, have ‘never 
experimented with their own hands, and have seldom even read the very 
considerable though scattered literature produced by travellers who have 
accurately studied primitive methods among contemporary peoples. 

In concluding this necessarily very brief résumé of the pottery question 
I should like to contrast two examples of reasoning, the one of which has 
led to useful and fruitful results while the other threatens to plunge us 
into confusion. All archeologists are agreed that the beakers which 
have such a wide distribution over Europe in the Bronze Age are derived 
from a single source, though they are not unanimous as to the centre of 
origin. Their arguments are based on a study of graduated evolution 
and a connected system of distribution which it would be too long to 
examine but which is generally recognised as valid. This unification 


168 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


of a single system all over the west and north of Europe, including Great 
Britain, has greatly assisted the study of the Bronze Age in those regions. 

But contrast with this the attempts which are being made—not, I am 
glad to say, without many protests—to unify the schools of painted pottery 
so as to make a chain from Chalcolithic Sicily to China. The dates 
are hopelessly incompatible over large sections of this immense area, the 
civilisations have few if any points in common, and yet we are invited to 
unify them on the sole basis of paint being used. It is even asserted in 
so many words that it is improbable that the idea of applying paint to 
pottery should arise independently in different centres. It might be 
too dogmatic to say that this is utterly illogical, but it can certainly be 
said that it is quite unconvincing. The discovery of paint is in itself 
easy and inevitable, and once this medium is known it will naturally be 
used for anything and everything. To paint every object in sight, from 
his or her face to the furniture, the house, the shutters, the tables and 
chairs, is surely the natural impulse of every homo sapiens, whether male 
or female, from the earliest times to the present day. As for the fixing 
of the colour on the pottery by firing, that is no discovery at all, for the 
pottery has to be fired in any case, whether it is painted or not. 

We need a systematic study of this entire subject of the reasoning 
that can and cannot be based on pottery. I have been able to touch on 
only a few points, and shall be more than satisfied if I may have stimulated 
someone to work the whole matter out more thoroughly. It cannot, 
however, be done without a wide experience and without a very thorough 
technological knowledge. 

And this leads me to make in conclusion the only suggestion that I 
think need be made in regard to the training of the young archeologists of 
the coming generation. Ido not believe that early specialisation in archzeo- 
logical training would be wholesome—indeed I think it would probably 
be rather harmful. As I mentally call over the roll of my most distin- 
guished colleagues, some a little older and some a little younger than 
myself, I am struck with the remarkable diversity of their background 
and training. Several dozen potential professions and callings are 
represented among them. But this diversity has probably been a real 
source of strength. That classical scholars, historians, anthropologists, 
geologists, lawyers, engineers, artists and many other types of mind should 
focus from different angles on the same subjects has led to catholicity and 
breadth. For it is not so important that an archzologist should be an 
expert in one subject as that he should be widely and well educated. But 
with this premise once granted, I think that much time would be saved, 
and much efficiency would be added, if the student at the beginning of 
his archeological career were to superimpose a year or so of intensive techno- 
logical training on his more general education. Weall know the saying that 
aman does not really know about an object until hecan make it. A technical 
training in primitive handicrafts such as pottery-making, flint-chipping, 
weaving, and the hammering, alloying and casting of metals, would give 
him an insight which no mere reading or even handling of finished specimens 
can give. We must all envy the rising generation its wonderful oppor- 
tunities. I venture on this one small suggestion for its assistance. 


SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


CURRENT CONSTRUCTIVE THEORIES 
IN PSYCHOLOGY 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. BEATRICE EDGELL, D.Litt., 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Is 


On August 29 there occurred the tercentenary of one who is often called 
“the father of English psychology,’ John Locke, 1632-1704. 

His Essay concerning Human Understanding is primarily a theory of 
knowledge, not a system of psychology, but none the less there is much 
of psychological interest in the Essay, and it has had a profound influence 
on empirical psychology in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 

We may regard it as a misfortune that what he described as a ‘ historical 
plain method ’ should have been interpreted as a genetic study, and that 
his doctrine of simple and complex ideas should have been translated into 
a doctrine of psychological elements and compounds ; but such has been 
the case. Historians trace a straight line of descent from the Essay of 
Locke to the Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind by James 
Mill, and thus claim Locke as a founder of the Association school. 

It may seem a far cry from 1632 to 1932, but I want to consider some 
of the differing constructive theories of learning and knowledge offered 
by the psychologists of to-day in the light of the unreconciled methods 
and principles which find expression in the Essay. 

We find first and foremost in the Essay a confusion of logical and 
psychological analysis ; secondly, we find a theory that attributes the union 
of discrete ideas to their accidental association in time, introduced as an 
afterthought to the theory that ideas are united by the perception of their 
connection or repugnancy. 

_ To begin with the confusion of logical with psychological analysis. 
As Prof. Gibson has pointed out in his book Locke's Theory of Know- 
ledge, at the time at which Locke was writing the distinction between 
the elements of knowledge attainable by logical analysis and the simple 
beginnings of knowledge attainable by genetic study was a distinc- 
tion which it was well-nigh impossible for a writer to draw. Growth 
and development were conceptions which had a very different colouring 
from what they have for us to-day. They were, moreover, conceptions 
which had no literal application to knowledge. Knowledge for Locke 
was a structure whose validity could be tested by taking it to pieces. 
Just as a logical analysis of the ultimate items into which, say, a building 
G2 


170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


could be resolved and an inquiry into the material out of which it arose 
might lead one to much the same catalogue of stones and beams, so a 
logical analysis of knowledge into its elements seemed to have the same 
issue as an inquiry into the beginnings of knowledge. ‘That which is 
simple in its content is easily confused with that which is simple in its 
origin. It is this confusion which lays Book II of Locke’s Essay open to 
much misunderstanding. Having in Book I denied that mind is possessed 
of ideas at birth, and having claimed that all knowledge is founded upon, 
and derived from, experience, Locke seems by his account of the ‘ simple 
ideas ’ of sensation and reflection and of the ‘ complex ideas ’ built upon 
them to be offering a psychological constructive theory of knowledge. 

There is much of great psychological value in this second book : his 
frequent appeal to concrete illustrations, his references to children and 
animals, the famous citation of Molineux’s problem whether a man whose 
sight was only restored to him in adult life would be able to distinguish 
by sight between a sphere and a cube. The book also contains his 
striking chapter on retention, vivid through its analogies but of paramount 
importance for psychology by reason of the statement added in the 
second edition: ‘ This laying up of our ideas in the repository of the 
memory signifies no more but this, that the mind has a power in many 
cases to revive perceptions which it has once had with this additional 
perception annexed to them, that it has had them before, and in this sense 
it is that our ideas are said to be in our memories, when indeed they are 
actually nowhere ; but only there is an ability in the mind when it will 
to revive them again, and as it were paint them anew on itself, though 
some with more, some with less difficulty ; some more lively, and others 
more obscurely ’ (II. x. 2). Here there is a glimpse of a conception 
which might have done much to correct the atomism encouraged by the 
‘ blank paper ’ and ‘ cabinet ’ metaphors in other passages. 

When mind is compared with an empty cabinet which is furnished by 
the simple ideas of sensation and reflection, simple ideas are being treated 
as the psychological origin of knowledge. When, on the other hand, 
Locke tells us that simple ideas are unanalysable, are not distinguishable 
into different ideas, and are those in which men agree when they clear away 
verbal misunderstanding, we have simple ideas as the materials of know- 
ledge in the logical sense. If we look at the simple ideas listed together, 
we find the same confusion: the items ‘ colour,’ ‘ sound,’ ‘ pleasure,’ 
‘ pain’ might be interpreted as psychologically simple, but what of the 
items ‘ existence,’ ‘ unity,’ ‘ power,’ ‘ succession ’ ? 

We are told of the idea of unity, ‘ Amongst all the ideas we have, as 
there is none suggested to the mind by more ways, so there is none more 
simple, than that of unity, or one: it has no shadow of variety or com- 
position in it: every idea our senses are employed about, every idea in 
our understandings, every thought of our minds, brings this idea along 
with it.’ The simplicity of ‘ one’ or ‘ unity ’ lies in its content rather 
than its origin. It may be logically implied by every single idea, but this 
does not explain how we come to reach the idea of unity. Similar 
difficulties are found in Locke’s account of succession, duration and 
space. Prof. Ward wrote, ‘ Locke hopelessly confuses time as perceived 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY 171 


and time as conceived.’ I would prefer to say he confuses the psycho- 
logical and logical analysis of the idea. 

In his account of complex ideas he starts with what purports to be a 
psychological account of how they are formed—viz. the operations of 
compounding by putting together several simple ideas, and of abstracting 
by ‘ separating them from all other ideas that accompany them in their 
real existence.’ ‘These operations are set side by side with the operations 
of comparison and seeing relations. Locke holds that such operations 
are not present in animals. The complex ideas of animals are apparently 
combinations of simple ideas given to, not made by, the animal. ‘ They 
take in and retain together several combinations of simple ideas, as 
possibly the shape, smell and voice of his master make up the complex 
idea a dog has of him, or rather are so many distinct marks whereby he 
knows him ; yet I do not think they do of themselves ever compound 
them, and make complex ideas’ (II. xi. 7). These operations of mind 
in building complex ideas are never brought into clear relation with the 
operation which constitutes knowledge—viz. ‘ perception of the connection 
of and agreement, or disagreement and repugnancy, of any of our ideas.’ 
Cutting across his attempted psychological account of how complex ideas 
come to be formed, Locke gives a logical classification of complex ideas 
according to the nature of their object or reference: there are ideas of 
modes, of substances, and of relations. In this we have another example 
of the confusion of the psychological and the logical standpoint, or shall 
one say of transition from one to the other without any realisation of the 
change in outlook ? 

No orthodox psychologist from the time of Wundt onward would have 
admitted for a moment that his acceptance of sensations as psychological 
simple elements was due to logical analysis. He would have declared 
that it was due rather to the analysis of physiological events, viz. the 
simple stimulation of a sensory receptor and the resultant excitation of 
the central nervous system. 

I question whether any psychologist who sets out from simple sensations 
is really determined by a search for what is primitive in experience. 
That we do not experience simple sensations as such is, of course, admitted 
on all hands ; when treated as elements they are often said to be reached 
by ‘ hypothetical ’ analysis. What I want to suggest is that such analysis 
is the outcome of logic, not psychology. The method implies that 
perceptual knowledge is a structure, the logical analysis of which will 
yield the bricks out of which it is made. This is a teaching derived from 
Locke’s Essay. - The use to which the Association school put Locke’s 
theory of association rests on this doctrine. The theory is given in a 
section added to the fourth edition of the Essay, and was put forward as a 
theory to explain strange aversions and likings, prejudices and errors. It 
is never put on a level with the synthetic processes of knowledge wherein 
there is perception of a relationship between ideas. Association is thus 
primarily a way of uniting items which are discrete and have no intrinsic 
connection with one another. 

Gestalt psychology to-day is never tired of proclaiming itself as a revolt 
from Associationism. Even if we believe that Associationism in pure 


172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


psychology is dead, how far may it nevertheless be true that Gestalt is 
fighting a present-day attitude of mind which had its historical foundation 
in Locke’s confusion of logical analysis and an inquiry into psychological 
genesis ? 

Gestalt psychology would claim that no constructive explanation can 
be satisfactory which sets out from such elements as sensory events or 
reflex responses, and attempts to build up the experienced phenomena of 
human awareness and behaviour by the synthetic method. Perceptual 
awareness of a situation and responsive behaviour must on their view be 
taken in. toto. The explanation of why just ‘this’ is perceived rather 
than ‘ that ’ must be sought in the physical constitution of the immediate 
environment and in the total condition of the organism. The school 
sets itself the task of studying the conditions in the stimulating situation 
which determine the perception of this pattern rather than that. It is 
always the pattern or configuration as a whole which has to be explained. 
Much experimental work has been done and valuable information ob- 
tained, particularly in the field of visual perception. 

Whereas for the ‘ orthodox ’ school—if there is still a school capable of 
claiming this adjective— meaning ’ in the form of memory images, actual 
or potential, comes in as an ingredient in the complex perception of an x, 
for Gestalt meaning may lie in the nature of the sensory pattern or total 
organisation. To take an example, size or shape perceived in indirect 
vision is not ‘ apparent ’ size or shape modified by the memory of ‘ real ’ 
size and shape ; the size or shape actually perceived is due to the sensory 
pattern of the whole field. 

Leaving aside such characters of perceived objects as form, size, colour, 
brightness, and considering the characters derived from past experience 
of effects upon the percipient, a wider interpretation of ‘ meaning ’ is 
required. For example, ‘ these red berries ’ are recognised as poisonous. 
‘ Poisonous ’ is not due to the sensory pattern in the sense in which the 
particular shade of red is. Intra-organic conditions are stressed in such 
acase. Wehaveatheory of memory traces. ‘ Traces of past experiences 
are neither an indifferent continuum nor a mosaic of independent points ; 
rather they must be pictures of past organisation.’1 We must presume 
that the behaviour response wherein lay the gist of being noxious is part 
of the berry organisation. It is ‘ organisation ’ which for Gestalt replaces 
the conception of association. The so-called association of contiguity is 
never mere collocation in time or space. It is always an instance of 
organisation. ‘ Organisation is not at all an aggregation of indifferent 
material. . . . If association is a consequence of organisation, it must 
also depend upon the mutually relative properties of what is or shall be 
organisated.’ 2 

When we turn to the question, How do organisations arise? we may 
not be wholly satisfied with the answers at present forthcoming. There 
are the sensory organisations or patterns the conditions of which are being 
experimentally investigated. Here the relative importance of the en- 
vironmental and the intra-organic factors stands in need of elucidation. 
Descriptive terms such as ‘ closure,’ ‘ nearness,’ * pregnancy,’ ‘ symmetry ’ 


1 Kohler, Gestalt Psychology, p. 211. 2 Ibid. p. 226. 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY 173 


summarise the present formulations of experimental findings. There 
are. also the organisations said to be created intentionally. Here the 
* self ’ and ‘attitudes’ are called in as explanatory concepts, and with them 
we pass over into a speculative region of tensions and dynamic relations 
in the brain field, asomewhat misty region in our present state of knowledge. 
The contemporary representatives of Locke’s doctrine of association 
are, of course, the Behaviourists. According to this school, man is born 
with certain native responses to definite conditions in his environment : 
his unconditioned reflexes. He ‘ learns ’ or acquires new responses when 
an original response is extended to a different situation or when an 
original situation is made to evoke a different response. This acquirement 
is the result of ‘ conditioning.’ All conditioning depends upon the tem- 
poral arrangement of the factors in the stimulating situation and upon 
the structure of the animal’s nervous system. Conditioning is a scientific 
formulation of the facts noticed by Locke as association. ‘ Custom 
settles habits of thinking in the understanding, as well as of determining 
in the will, and of motions in the body : all which seems to be but trains 
of motions in the animal spirits, which, once set agoing, continue in the 
same steps they have been used to; which, by often treading, are worn 
into a smooth path, and the motion in it becomes easy, and as it were 
natural . . . and are therefore called so, though at first they had no other 
original but the accidental connection of two ideas, which either the strength 
of the first impression, or future indulgence so united, that they always 
kept company together in that man’s mind as if they were but one idea’ 
(Essay, II, xxxiii, §6 and 7). In the language of Behaviourism such a 
man is ‘conditioned’ to respond to the second idea as he originally did 
to the first. As in Associationism the complex phenomena of mind were 
constructed from the simple ones by association, so in Behaviourism all 
the complex phenomena of human behaviour are constructed from the 
simple units of reflex responses by conditioning. To quote from a 
recent article by Pavlov: ‘The theory of reflexes divides this general 
activity of the organism into separate activities, connecting them with 
internal as well as external influences, and then unites them anew, one 
to another, which brings us to a more and more clear understanding of the 
total activity of the organism, as well as of the interaction of the organism 
with surrounding conditions.’* Thus might James Mill have described 
the aim of his Analysis of the Phenomena of the Human Mind. Behaviour- 
ism presents us with a tidy system wherein everything hangs together. 
The whole of man’s thought (speech) and conduct is theoretically capable 
of being explained deductively from his original reflexes subject to 
conditioning. 
_ There are other contemporary schools wherein association figures as a 
great principle of linkage, but in each of them some condition over and 
above bare sequence is recognised. In the psychology of Prof. McDougall 
association by bare contiguity has a place, but he also lays great stress on 
the learning that implies a thread of purposive interest. The‘a,’‘b’ and 
“c’ that are associated together are members of what Prof. Stout terms a 
“conative unity.’ This interest would be an essential feature in the 


3 Psy. Review, 1932, p. 103. 


174 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


experience acquired in working out any instinctive tendency. Member- 
ship of a purposive whole is in principle a radical departure from associa- 
tion by temporal contiguity. 

In psycho-analysis there is again great emphasis on association and its 
opposite, dissociation. The old forms of association, contiguity and 
similarity, are retained and much use is made of them in explaining trans- 
ference, trains of ideas, complexes, but the operation of association links 
appears to be completely controlled by instinctive and emotional disposi- 
tions. ‘The machinery of association is the same as in the older doctrines, 
but the levers are operated by forces which lie quite outside the ken of 
association psychology. 

Association figures also in the motor-theory of consciousness, and 
here it would seem to be more after the old pattern. All association is 
between movement systems. Contiguity and similarity must be inter- 
preted as contiguity and similarity between the systems of incipient and 
overt movements involved in the associated ideas. 

We have’said that Locke left his afterthought, his union of ideas by 
association, unreconciled with, or unrelated to, his account of knowing. 
Knowledge is the perception of the connection of and agreement, or 
disagreement and repugnancy, of any of our ideas. In Book IV he gives 
us a Classification of the kinds of connections and repugnancies we thus 
perceive: identity, relation, co-existence or necessary connection, real 
existence. It would be out of place to go into the details of each class. 
What is at once apparent is that in all varieties of knowing the knower is 
perceiving some kind of relation between his ideas. ‘They are synthesised 
or united in virtue of a perceived agreement or repugnancy. 

If we turn to contemporary psychology we may compare this doctrine 
with the principles of cognition laid down by Prof. Spearman. Prof. 
Spearman calls his qualitative principles of cognition ‘ noegenetic.’ He 
claims that they and they alone are generative of new items in the 
field of cognition. Familiar as these principles may be, I will venture to 
quote the second and the third. The second is the principle of the 
eduction of relations: ‘The mentally presenting of any two or more 
characters (simple or complex) tends to evoke immediately a knowing of 
relation between them.’ The third is the principle of the eduction of 
correlates : ‘ The presenting of any character together with any relation 
tends to evoke immediately a knowing of the correlate character.’ These 
two principles make the knowing of relations the basic fact of cognition. 
They are the key to intelligence. Prof. Spearman would agree with 
Gestalt psychologists in stressing organisation. He differs from them by 
regarding organisation as dependent upon perceiving characters as related. 
All organisation or synthesis depends ultimately upon cognised relations. 
He thus denies sensory organisations as simple data. By his second 
principle he necessarily repudiates association in the Lockian sense. 
Although he keeps the names of the old laws of association, contiguity 
and similarity, he states explicitly that ‘ quasi-mechanical reproductive 
adherence has its source in the noetic coherence.’* In principle repro- 
duction by association and the eduction of correlates are akin. The 


4 Nature of Intelligence, p. 146. 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY 175 


distinction is that in reproduction the relata have already been related 
in past experience, the organisation is old, whereas in eduction of 
correlates the educed correlate is new. It is this aspect of his third 
principle in creating new knowledge that Prof. Spearman wishes to 
stress, and it is just this stress that differentiates his principle from tha 
of relative suggestion advocated by Thomas Brown in his Philosophy of 
the Human Mind, 1820. Whether such a distinction of ‘old’ and ‘new’ 
is one that can be drawn in any absolute sense is a question that need 
not be raised in this connection. 

Locke left us with unreconciled methods and principles, and in con- 
necting these with differing schools in contemporary psychology I may 
seem to be emphasising divergencies of doctrine. Indeed, I may seem 
to be giving support to the gibe that to-day there is no psychology, only 
a collection of psychologies. By many this is thought to be a sure sign 
of decadence. At first sight there is much in the present situation which 
may give rise to a sense of disappointment to those of us who belong 
to the older generation. The present century opened full of hope— 
psychology was emerging as a new science. It was being recognised as 
something distinct both from philosophy and from physiology. It was 
rapidly developing a technique of its own. All was ‘set fair’ for the 
growth of the ‘ new’ psychology. It is true there were schools in a very 
limited sense. ‘There was Leipzig, G6ttingen, Paris, Harvard, Cornell, 
etc., but the lines of cleavage represented, say, at the Paris Congress of 
Ig00 were but deep furrows in a common experimental field. ‘To-day 
the schools appear to be separated by unbridged gulfs. Yet it is little 
more than fifty years since Wundt opened his laboratory in Leipzig, and 
fifty years is a brief interval in historical retrospect. Is the present 
division of theory really a bad sign? Does it indicate the petering out 
of the spirit which animated the workers from 1879 to 1900, or is it a sign 
of vigour? I believe there are good grounds for believing the latter 
alternative. Prof. Woodworth, in his book Contemporary Schools of 
Psychology, declares, ‘all the schools are emphasising something that 
demands emphasis and serve a useful function in the progress of psy- 
chology.’ The methods and principles which find a place in Locke’s 
Essay may demand for their reconciliation, not resolution but increase 
of knowledge to enable us to mark out their respective spheres. 


Il. 

If Prof. Woodworth is right, we need reject no ‘ psychology ’ as false, 
but rather consider how far its particular teaching serves to explain 
certain aspects of complex human phenomena. It is as a concrete 
exemplification of this view that I wish to use data from my recent 
studies of memory. 


EXPERIMENTS A. 

Last year I had the honour of laying before this Section the results of 
some experiments on recall. The material used was pictorial, British 
Museum postcards depicting the occupations and pastimes of the months, 
copies from a sixteenth-century Flemish MS. Six of these cards were 


176 ‘SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


shown serially to individual subjects, each card being exposed for thirty 
minutes. Immediately after the presentation the subjects were asked to 
write a full report of the cards. Without warning they were asked a 
month later to report all that they could then recall of the pictures ; a 
third report was called for at the end of another month, and finally, in 
some cases, a fourth report was written after the lapse of a period varying 
from a year to nineteen months. The results of these experiments 
showed that certain pictures had been uniformly well remembered and 
others ill. ‘The question arose how far this might be due to the position 
of the cards in the series, rather than to the intrinsic character of the cards. 
The reports also suggested problems about the influence of one recall 
upon another. 

Further experiments have been made with the same material. Eleven 
new subjects took part, and the range of their scores for immediate 
recall show them to be a group comparable to that of the previous experi- 
ment. Some of the hypotheses suggested a year ago receive further 
support. 


PosITION IN SERIES AND INTRINSIC CHARACTER. 


In the experiments of the present year the pictures which had been 
worst remembered were put in the positions occupied by the pictures 
yielding the best scores, and vice versa. To be first in the series would 
seem undoubtedly to be advantageous. ‘The best score now as number 1 
attaches to a card which only possessed a fair record previously as 
number 4. There is also something to be gained by being last in a series. 
As last picture old number 2 has now’a fair score. It previously had a 
very low one. 

But position will not explain everything. Old number 5 which was 
put in the position of good number 3 remains very lowin score. Number 3, 
though assigned the position of old low-scoring number 2, still yields a 
high score. Old number 1 is not so high now that it occupies the fourth 
place, but it still obtains a good score. 

One may contrast the two cards that retain their former respective high 
and low scores. I hazarded the suggestion last year that this was due to 
their intrinsic character, and in particular to the spatial organisation. In 
present number 2, foreground, middle distance and background make a 
single whole—each contributes to one scene. In present number 3 there 
are three scenes unrelated, whether viewed in terms of perceptual organi- 
sation or in terms of meaning. 

This year’s reports contain evidence of the same. confusions as last 
year’s. In meaning there is a relation between ‘ Chopping Logs’ and 
‘Felling Trees.’ The right side of number 3, representing the latter 
activity, is imported into number 1, where log-chopping is in the centre 
of the picture. The hut of number 1 and the hut of number 5 are 
interchanged ; each has a feature of similar appearance—viz. a wooden 
upright supporting the roof. The principles of Gestalt psychology as 
well as the doctrine of meaning may be evoked to explain the data. 

The recall of the picture wherein ‘ pig killing’ is the central episode 
may find its right explanation in the emotional value of the scene, and here 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY 177 


psycho-analytic theories may be in place. What is recalled and what is 
forgotten both suggest the importance of emotional factors. 


REPETITION. 


In the experiments of last year there was one case of two recalls only, 
an immediate recall and a delayed recall after an interval of ten months. 
The second recall by this subject was much poorer than that of a com- 
parable subject who gave four recalls, the last after ar interval of fourteen 
months. ‘To test further this influence of recall on recall the subjects of 
the present experiments were divided into two groups. Six gave four 
recalls—the fourth after an interval of four months, and five gave two 
recalls only—an immediate recall and the second after five months. The 
scores of this group are consistently lower in this last recall than those of 
the former group. Repetition of recital fixes recall. The same phrase- 
ology is used, the same errors are repeated from recall to recall. Subjects 
remember not only the original but their own reports of the original. 
This taken by itself is a testimony to habit memory. 

The distortions and changes in the nature of the objects and scenes 
depicted in the originals raised questions about the nature of memory 
traces. There were reports that bore out the Gestalt view of traces of 
organisation. There were reports wherein memory was conceptual in 
character. It is knowledge about the scene. There were other reports 
which suggested that if the writer saw imagery she created this in terms 
of her knowledge about the object or scene. Other reports suggested the 
presence of the orthodox memory image, a sensory presentation on the 
model of the original sensory pattern. The same features are shown in 
reports of this year’s group. 


EXPERIMENTS B. 


A new set of experiments was undertaken with the aim of testing the 
influence of conceptual knowledge about an object on the recall of a sense- 
given particular and the influence of one sense-given particular on the 
recall of another belonging to the same class. 

For these experiments two parallel sets of cards were used. Set X 
consisted of five variants of each of five simple objects—a lamp, a slipper, 
a book, a candlestick with candle, and a teapot. The objects were drawn 
in outline in black ink and coloured with chalk. Set Y consisted of five 
variants of five shapes. ‘These variants were obtained by drawing the 
shadows of the same piece of cardboard placed in different positions in 
relation to a light.® 

One variant of each object (or shape) constituted a series. Three 
shades of yellow, of blue, of green, and of red chalk were used for the 
drawings, and no two drawings in any series were alike in both colour and 


5 This method was adopted by Stevanovic in his ‘Experiments on the Mental 
Processes involved in Judgment’ (British Journal of Psychology. Monograph 
Supplement 12). The material for these experiments is a duplicate of maternal 
being used for a different purpose in other experiments, and I wish to express my 
thanks to Miss A. M. Jenkin for kindly allowing me to use her material and 
for making the duplicates. 


178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


shade. While the variants in Set X are members of the same class, in 
that they are obviously lamps, slippers, etc., the variants of Set Y have the 
same fundamental relationships of form. 'The character of the outline 
is determined by the one original. 

Six subjects took part in the experiments with Set X, and four of them 
continued with Set Y. ‘The five cards constituting a series were shown 
serially to the individual subjects under the same conditions as in the 
picture experiments. ‘The order of objects or shapes was kept constant 
and an immediate recall was asked for. The subject was required to 
draw a reproduction of what she had seen on a card of similar size, and 
was provided with a box of chalks containing the full range of hues and 
shades. In addition to her drawing, the subject wrote any introspective 
report or comment that she wished. After giving this immediate recall of 
the series seen at that sitting the subject was asked for a delayed recall of 
the series seen a week earlier. 

It would be unsuitable to give a detailed report of these experiments. 
I want here to confine myself to presenting a table of the objects and 
shapes which were reproduced best and worst, and to noting salient 
points about the recalls. 

Each reproduction was scored for accuracy in colour, shade, and form 
(including orientation). Marking for size was tried but abandoned ; a 
drawing that was too large because of an addition or too small because of 
an omission involved debiting the same error twice. Drawing the object 
or shape consistently smaller than the original was in one case an individual 
characteristic. One mark was given for correct colour (half for hue, 
half for shade) and one mark or a fraction, according to the proportion of 
the whole form correctly reproduced. 'The tables (pp. 179-80) give the 
results. Roman numerals indicate the series and Arabic the objects and 
shapes. 

The number of persons taking part in the experiment is so small that 
quantitative results have no great significance. Taking the five series 
together, the object and the shape which secures the highest average 
score in immediate recall is the one that stands first. Position would 
again seem to be a determining factor in recall. Ifthe objects and shapes 
marked 6 and w—best and worst—in the delayed recall are compared with 
those marked in the two recalls taken together, it will be seen that there is 
close agreement. 

The fifth variant of the second object—viz. slipper—is slightly better on 
joint scores than the fifth variant of the third object, book, which had the 
best average in immediate recall. The fifth variant of the fifth object, 
teapot, is the worst in both immediate and delayed recall. It has gained 
nothing from its end position, though the last cards of the series have a 
high average score. 

When these best and worst scores are analysed into the mark given for 
colour and that given for form, colour and form contribute equally to the 
score of the book in immediate recall, form more than colour to the score 
of the slipper. 

Colour and form are responsible for the low score of the fifth teapot, 
and colour for the low score of the fourth candlestick. The first best 


179 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY 


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shape on immediate recall has only a moderate score on delayed recall. 
The shape which is one of the second best in immediate recall is first 
in delayed recall and on joint score. The worst shape in immediate 
recall is. lost altogether in delayed recall. The second worst receives a 
low score. These constitute the two worst on joint score. 

Analysing for colour and form, one finds that colour and form are both 
contributory to the high score of the best shapes in immediate and 
delayed recall, and to the second best in delayed and joint recall. The 
low scores in immediate and in joint recall are due more to form than to 
colour. 

Coming to the qualitative consideration of the actual recalls, one may 
take the two sets separately. 


Set X. 


A study of the reproductions shows very clearly the influence of ‘ know- 
ledge about.’ In Set X no one ever reproduced anything but an object 
of the appropriate class—a lamp, a slipper. I attribute the low scores of 
the teapot V and candlestick IV to their commonplace character ;_ they are 
reproduced just as a teapot and a candlestick, and the particularising 
features are lost. As one subject writes, ‘ The teapot was, I think, ordinary 
shape.’ The best recalled slipper V and book V have distinctive 
characteristics, although each is a familiar example of its class. 

Knowledge that the object is so and so is frequent even when the re- 
production is wrong in form, colour, or orientation, or all three. There 
may be knowledge that the slipper was a mule, that the lamp was angular, 
that the book was lying down, without ability to recall the particular 
object with its sensory features. There may be an imaged object, but 
the image is not a recreation of the original pattern. 

As an illustration of reasoning out a memory recall based on ‘ know- 
ledge about,’ the following is worth quoting in full. It relates to lamp II. 


“I find very great difficulty in seeing or drawing this. I remember 
that it consisted of two balanced arrangements of planes. There 
was a triangular shape in both large masses, but how the other lines 
fitted on to this I can’t tell. ‘The above was written after my first 
attempt to draw. When I returned to this I saw it wouldn’t do, 
because I couldn’t get depth in. So I started again, building up 
the two blocks (one small, one large, in each) as I thought they must 
go if there was to be depth. I was pleased when I saw this gave me 
a triangle on top because I feel sure there was one. But now that 
I look at it, I don’t think it was this shape. It was more like the 
shape of my original wrong start. Also I now don’t feel certain 
whether the smaller blocks were on top of the bigger blocks or vice 

versa. I’ll colour in what I have drawn and see if it helps me to see 
_ whether it looks like the original. Done. It looks very unlike it. 
I shall put the outlines in, in pencil. Done. This makes it a bit 
better, but I’ve got it too symmetrical. The bottom was less large 
than the top, and the whole didn’t seem to go in such a straight line. 
I think there were other surfaces bounded by lines, but I can’t see 


182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


how they would fit on to the shapes. As I was writing this I saw 
I’d left out the third side of the bottom triangle. I stopped and 
put it in. I shall try some lines down the sides to see if these make 
the figure look at all more as itshould. They are not right. I give 
this one up.’ 


The influence of the object of the day on the delayed recall of the series 
of the previous week is evident in the errors of form, of colour, and of 
orientation. 

There are many instances of remembering form or colour through 
‘ association.’ 


‘ When I saw the book I immediately tasted olives.’ 

‘ T remembered the sandal because it had reminded me so much of 
sand in colour and purpose.’ ‘ I liked the lamp ; thestand reminded 
me of a gallé vase (sic) I had once seen converted into a lamp.’ 


As with the more elaborate pictures, one finds evidence in the reports of 
what I should term genuine memory images, re-creations of the original 
sensory pattern. 


‘TJ had a visual image and started to draw. At first I left no place 
for the band between shade and bottom. I saw this was wrong as I 
drew the bottom coming up to meet the shade without any band, and 
so corrected it. As I did so I had a distinct visual image of this 
band, seeing black lines on it and the handle.’ 

‘ The slipper—I could not remember anything about it at all, so 
could not draw it. I could see my own page of writing quite clearly, 
and knew whereabouts on the page I had mentioned the shoe.’ 


Ser Y. 

Conceptual knowledge of the shape had to be gained from the experi- 
ments themselves before it could be used as an aid to recall, and was in 
fact only gained by two of the four subjects. The scores are lower than 
in Set X, and each subject refers to the difficulty of the task. 


‘There is nothing definite that I can get hold of about these 
except the colour. They are so complicated. The objects were 
much easier, as one could remember them by thinking of shoes, etc., 
like one has really seen.’ 


The best scores for shapes are for V 4 and II 4, shapes which all four 
subjects likened to an animal and a bird respectively. V 5 scores prin- 
cipally through colour, but its form is also well remembered and its 
symmetry is noted. The worst shapes are those that are most indefinite 
and suggest no analogies. Colour rather than form is responsible for 
the low score of IV 1. 

As in Set X, the influence of the perceived variant of the day on delayed 
recall is seen in the errors of form, colour and orientation. 

All subjects try to see the shapes as like something. 


‘The designs seem much easier when I can connect them with 
something else.’ 


J.—PSYCHOLOGY 183 


This does not aid memory in the direct way in which association may 
aid the recall of the objects. If an analogy is seen for the variants of the 
first series, the subject tries to apply this as a controlling concept to the 
following series, and here it may have misleading results and cause con- 
fusion. The second shape in the first series was seen as ‘a slipper ’ by 
everyone (possibly the fact that in Set X the second object was a slipper 
contributed to this interpretation). ‘ Slipperness ’ is not very appropriate 
for an accurate recall of the later variants of this shape. The first shape 
of the first series was seen as a picture hook and a chicken’s head, with 
misleading results in each case. Reproductions are worked out in terms 
of the analogy. 


‘I feel my drawing has become too much simply like a slipper.’ 
* How did the horse one go?’ ‘ Which is the bird one ?’ 


The subjects who got hold of the concept of the shape reproduced 
shapes correct in general features, but sometimes wrong in orientation or 
in colour, and sometimes unlike the original when this is regarded as a 
sensory whole. 

As in Set X, there is evidence of simple memory images. Thus one 
subject writes : 


“I tried to think of the shape. I remembered angles one side, 
curves the opposite—I couldn’t remember which. Suddenly I had 
a visual image of the two corners I’ve made.’ 


Both here and in the following there is a combination of knowledge 
* that so and so is so and so’ and a memory of the sense particular. 


“The blue one. I’ve a visual image of this, not definite ; also I 
remember that there were three projections on the right, the centre 
one largest, the lowest one curved.’ 


To return to my purpose in referring to these studies : To explain what I 
find I need to draw on explanatory principles typical of each of the current 
schools. If I stress position in series and the influence of repetition on 
recall, I am using factors which would find their place in Behaviourism. 
Indeed, if I stress the influence of the present sensory pattern on the 
subsequent delayed recall, I may be using a factor which could fall under 
the conception of conditioning. Much of what I have said about the 
intrinsic characteristics of the pictures, objects and shapes which are 
best recalled is explicable in terms of organised sensory wholes, and some 
of these organisations seem to be simple data. On the other hand, many 
of the reproductions depend upon seeing relations, particularly the 
relation of likeness. ‘ Gestalt theories and noegenetic principles both 
have their place.’ There is also evidence that likes and dislikes play 
their part, and that emotional factors influence forgetting and recall. 
If I separate form from colour in assessing the recall of the objects and 
shapes, am I confusing logical with psychological analysis and following 
the old view of elements? In a certain sense, ‘ yes.’ But if colour and 


_ form can be ill-mated in reproduction, must they not be psychologically 


184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


as well as logically different aspects of recall? If such recall is image 
creation under the influence of knowledge that, such changes need not 
surprise us. The logical analysis of experience involved in conceptual 
thinking furnishes us with simple ideas of form, colour, size, etc., simple 
ideas in Locke’s ‘ logical’ meaning. These can enter into conceptual 
knowledge about objects, but they can also control image constructions 
built on the lines of perceptual patterns. Such image constructions are 
not in any literal sense reproductions of a particular sensory organisation 
and should not be explained by a theory of traces. The attempt to so 
explain al] images entangles those which have their origin in the logically 
simple,—conceptual knowledge, with those which have their origin in the 
psychologically simple,—sensory experience. Greatly as memory is con- 
trolled by concepts, there are the cases which I feel I can only regard as 
re-creations of the original sensory pattern, genuine memory images. 
The painting anew on the mind seems directly conditioned by the original 
sensory experience. It is not an image constructed under the influence 
of knowledge that. 

Inadequate as this sketch is, I trust it may serve to support the claim 
that it is important to consider all the constructive hypotheses that are 
to be found in present-day psychology while continuing patient experi- 
mental work. We cannot perhaps go forward with the confident belief 
of the early pioneers that the solution of many problems lies close at hand, 
but we can possess their spirit of adventure and their enthusiasm for 
progress. 

When we compare the constructive theories of psychology with those 
which light up physical science to-day, without envy and without shame 
we may echo Locke’s words in his Epistle to the Reader : ‘ The common- 
wealth of learning is not at this time without master-builders, whose 
mighty designs, in advancing the sciences, will leave lasting monuments 
to the admiration of posterity : but everyone must not hope to be a Boyle 
or a Sydenham ; and in an age that produces such masters as the great 
Huygenius and the incomparable Mr. Newton, with some others of that 
strain, it is ambition enough to be employed as an under-labourer in 
clearing the ground a little, and removing some of the rubbish that lies 
in the way to knowledge.’ 


SECTION K.—BOTANY. 


THE GROWING TREE 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. J: .H. PRIESTLEY, D.S.0., B:Sc:; 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


CONTENTS. 


The Habit of Growth of the Tree. 
Apical Growth and Radial Growth. 
Basipetal Cambial Activity from the Buds. 


I. Form. 
Branching in Softwood and Hardwood Trees. 


II. Structure. Cambial Growth and Vascular Differentiation 
in Softwood and Hardwood. 
Cambium and Vascular Differentiation in the Softwood. 
Cambium and Vascular Differentiation in the Hardwood. 


Ill. Function. The Movement of Water and Solutes in the 
Tree. 
Water Movement at Bud-break. 
Water Movement into the Expanding Foliage. 
The Contents of the Wood. 
Air. 
Water. 
Water Vapour. 
Sap Wood and Heart Wood. 
The Ascent of Sap. 
The Movement of Organic Solutes. 


Trees do not form a special botanical category ; they are often regarded 
as the special study of the forester rather than of the botanist, and they 
seem never to have formed the special subject of a presidential address 
in this Section. In 1894, however, when Prof. I. Bayley Balfour 
presided over Section D, upon the last occasion on which that Section 
included botanists as well as zoologists, forestry was the subject of his 
address. 

_In making this his theme before a gathering of biologists, he laid 
emphasis upon the fact that the ‘ utilitarian side gave the first impetus 
to the scientific study of botany,’ and that botany still had, in agriculture 


186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


and forestry, its contribution to make in the service of mankind. He 
laid stress upon this because he felt that a recognition of its practical 
significance would vitalise botanical teaching, which was ‘ inclined to 
elaborate the minute detail of a part at the expense of its relation to the 
whole organism, and discuss the technique of a function more in the 
light of an illustration of certain chemical and physical changes than as a 
vital phenomenon of importance to the plant and its surroundings.’ 
This tendency, Bayley Balfour argued, must be counteracted ‘ if botany 
is in the future to be aught else than an academic study, as it was of 
old an elegant accomplishment.’ He sees the roots of the trouble in the 
failure of botanists, so far, ‘ to see the lines through which the subject 
touches the national life.’. Bayley Balfour would possibly, therefore, 
have felt some sympathy with this effort to show that a study of the 
growing tree throws fresh light upon its form, structure and vital functions, 
and gives new meaning to the practices of the forester and horticulturist, 
whilst the details of structure which attract the attention of the worker in 
wood are also seen in new perspective. 


Tue Hapsit OF GROWTH OF THE TREE. 


The tree is characterised essentially by prolonged vegetative growth 
and delayed reproduction. Green leaves add to the substance of a 
plant by their activity, whilst flower and fruit production exhaust it, so 
that during this prolonged period of vegetative activity the tree gains 
annually in substance. It is a further characteristic of the tree that each 
growing season sees this substance added as an increment of radial growth 
upon a woody branch system which increases no more in length. Each 
year also, emerging from the buds in which they lie concealed during 
the dormant season, the growing points of the shoot form new extension 
shoots bearing new leaves, although after flowering commences some of 
these growing points also form flowers. 

At first sight the extension growth of the shoots from the buds, and 
the formation of wood and bast on all the rest of the woody axis, seem 
two independent processes, but recent studies in the Leeds laboratories 
have convinced me that the key to the interpretation of the behaviour of 
the growing tree is to be found in the fact that these two processes are 
inseparably and causally connected. ‘This statement must first be justified, 
and then it is hoped to show that, regarded from this angle, problems of 
form, structure and function connected with the growing tree reveal an 
entirely new significance. 

Apical Growth and Radial Growth—Two great classes of plants, the 
Dicotyledons and the Gymnosperms, are characterised. by growth pro- 
cesses which continue to thicken the axis of the shoot after it has extended 
in length. .In these two groups are found the two characteristic tree 
groups, the hardwoods in the Dicotyledons, the softwoods in the Gymno- 
sperms. ‘To each great group also belong plants which are not trees, 
the Dicotyledons in particular being predominantly herbaceous, but 
throughout both groups the axis increases in thickness, after it is first 
formed, by the continued growth of an internal cylinder of cells known 


K.—BOTANY 187 


as the cambium. This cambium consists of cells which grow and 
divide, as did the cells of the shoot apex which were thus responsible 
for the original growth of the shoot axis, and the cambium cells prove 
to be very closely related to the growing (meristematic) cells of the 
apex. 

vat the shoot apex two processes can be seen to follow one another in 
close succession. In this region the crowded leaf primordia, with the 
youngest nearest to the apex, are evidence that surface growth is in excess. 
Growth is here proceeding in a beautifully ordered manner, throughout 
a mass of similar meristematic cells. ‘The shape of each cell is being 
determined by the mutual pressure their expanding semi-fluid contents 
exert upon each other, their plastic walls yielding readily to pressure, 
whilst cell expansion is due to the increase in amount of living protoplasm. 
The cells remain small because after a certain increase in size each cell 
divides into two new cells which behave in the same way. Just below 
the apex the leaf primordia are being dispersed along the shoot axis, as 
they increase rapidly in size, because here cell expansion by vacuolation 
is taking place, mainly in a longitudinal direction, in association with a 
series of cell divisions in which the new cell walls are formed at right 
angles to the length of the shoot axis. At this stage of cell growth, cell 
extension is rapid and largely due to the intake of water. The cell wall 
resists this rapid extension, so that neighbouring cells are no longer in 
mutual contact over their whole surface. ‘Their walls separate from one 
another at all angles of contact, so that an intercellular space system now 
develops. This is at first full of sap but rapidly fills with air—a change 
that must exert a profound influence upon the further progress of growth 
in this tissue. In all probability the great longitudinal extension of the 
shoot tissues, which are composed of such vacuolating, dividing cells, is 
attributable to the properties of the cellulose wall, which resists expansion 
in some directions more than in others. 

Before shoot extension begins, the leaf primordia are crowded at the 
apex, with no indications of internodes between them. When cell 
extension and vacuolation, with continued cell division, lead to the 
development of the internode, all the cells of the leaf primordium and 
axis do not vacuolate simultaneously. In the median plane of the flattened 
primordium and in continuity with this, in the axis, in a region between 
vacuolating cortex and pith, the cells remain meristematic, continue to 
increase in size by increase in protoplasm and remain in contact with each 
other over their whole surface so that intercellular spaces are absent. 
These meristem cells are therefore behaving just like the apical meri- 
stematic cells, but they are now embedded in vacuolating dividing tissues 
which are extending mainly in a longitudinal direction. As a result 
their plastic walls are drawn out in a longitudinal direction, and we 
distinguish as procambium this strand of meristematic tissue in 
the leaf primordium together with its prolongation into a hollow 
cylinder or network in the extending internode. This procambium is 
however nothing but meristem such as is present in the surface of the 
shoot apex, which is still left as meristem when neighbouring cells 
vacuolate. 


188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


But other changes are visible in the procambial tissue almost immediately. 
The outermost cells begin to vacuolate and differentiate into protophloem 
elements with thickening of wall and ultimate loss of contents, the change 
being initiated from below upwards in continuity with the differentiated 
sieve-tubes of the vascular strands below. ‘Then another change is 
noticed at the base of the leaf primordium ; on the inner (adaxial) side 
of the procambial strand cells begin to vacuolate and differentiate into 
lignified xylem elements, but even earlier the growth and division of the 
elongated meristem cells in the centre of the strand has taken a new form. 
These elongated cells at first expanded mainly in length, with the natural 
result that they subsequently divided by a transverse wall. These cells 
now grow more rapidly than can be allowed for in the longitudinal exten- 
sion of the system as a whole. As a result they increase in size in the 
radial and tangential directions and new cell divisions occur repeatedly in 
which the new cell walls are tangential in the axis and parallel to the 
flattened surfaces of the leaf primordium. These repeated tangential 
divisions in elongated meristematic cells are characteristic of the cambium, 
and their occurrence marks the change from procambium to cambium. 
The new cells formed by such divisions lie in radial files which are visible 
at a very early stage of shoot extension. Evidently, even during extension 
growth of the shoot, the meristematic cells of the cambium are growing 
more rapidly than the vacuolating dividing cells around them. ‘The 
vacuolating cells cease to divide altogether as the intercellular space 
system around them fills permanently with air; but the meristematic 
cells of the cambium lie between the differentiating vascular elements, 
from which supplies of sap still reach them along walls which are in close 
contact, or between which small intercellular spaces are only just developing. 
In the fully extended axis, therefore, the growth and division of the 
cambium cells still continues, the new walls being mainly in the tangential 
direction; from the inner cells of the radial files thus formed, new 
xylem elements are differentiated, from the outer cells new phloem 
elements. 

The tree is the outcome of the maintenance of this radial growth in 
the axis long after the leaf in which it was initiated has fallen, but it is 
essential to realise that this radial increase by cambial activity is in direct 
continuity with the normal meristematic growth of the shoot apex, and 
is initiated always, at successively higher levels in the extending shoot apex, 
at the base of each new leaf primordium. This fact is quite definite, 
and whilst the protophloem on the outside of the procambial strand 
always differentiates forwards into the shoot apex as an extension from 
previously differentiated elements below, cambial activity and xylem 
differentiation begin afresh at the base of each new leaf primordium and 
extend from thence downwards as the growth of the vacuolating and 
dividing tissue around them produces the axial extension we know as the 
internode. In each developing internode, therefore, cambial activity and 
xylem differentiation are most developed at the top of the internode, at 
the point of leaf insertion, and from thence diminish in amount 
downwards. 

So long as the internode is extending in length, the vascular elements 


K.—BOTANY 189 


differentiating from the cambium are pulled out during differentiation 
and are characterised as protoxylemand protophloem. It has only recently 
been realised that in many plants much, if not all, of this protoxylem 
differentiates from cells cut off in regular radial rows from the cambium, 
so that it is ‘secondary’ in origin. After extension has ceased, the 
vascular elements, metaxylem and metaphloem, differentiate, without 
undergoing further extension, from the elongated cells cut off by tangen- 
tial division from the cambium. 

This process of radial growth continues in the axis as long as the leaf 
is active, being renewed in successive years when the leaf is evergreen ; 
but when the leaf dies the process does not necessarily stop. Higher on 
the axis are now developing new leaves ; new impulses to cambial activity 
and vascular differentiation are travelling basipetally downwards through 
the newly extending internodes, and these impulses do not cease to be 
effective at the base of an internode. On the contrary, they continue 
downwards into the fully extended internodes below, so that the cambial 
activity and proto-vascular elements of the upper internode are in direct 
and causal relation with the cambial activity and meta-vascular elements 
of the internodes below, and, so long as new leaves are growing at the 
apex, radial growth of the vascular tissues continues on the fully extended 
axis below. It is the essential feature of the tree habit of growth that 
this radial growth of the vascular system does not cease at the base 
of the current year’s shoot, but continues as a similar impetus to 
new radial growth, from the base of the growing bud down over the 
surface of the wood throughout the permanent woody axis of the 
tree. 

Basipetal Cambial Activity from the Buds—So long ago as 1862 Th. 
Hartig pointed out, in the willow, that the new cambial activity on the 
dormant woody twig began at the base of the buds and worked from 
thence basipetally downwards, and that this original direction of growth 
continued in a willow cutting even when the twig was inverted. The 
significance of this observation does not appear to have been realised 
at the time, and the fact was rediscovered recently and attention drawn 
to it by several workers. Using ordinary anatomical methods, it is a very 
tedious task to determine where cambial activity is renewed in the 
spring, and it is not surprising that statements upon the subject are very 
contradictory. During the last few years detailed studies of two species, 
one hardwood and one softwood, by two Leeds workers, Mr. 
Cockerham and Dr. W. Wight, have shown that in both the first inception 
of cambial activity on the woody axis is to be found at the base of the 
buds, and from thence cambial activity and vascular differentiation spread 
basipetally downwards throughout the tree. Many thousands of sections 
had to be examined to establish these facts. Fortunately in the present 
year a new and simple method of following the renewal of cambial 
activity has been found, which has rapidly extended the range of our 
observations. 

In the resting condition the cambium cells on the surface of the old 
wood seem to be relatively firm in texture. They are then very granular 
in appearance with somewhat thick walls, and are bound firmly between 


190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


the surfaces of the wood and bast, so that the bark will not ‘slip.’ The 
first sign of renewal of cambial activity is a change in the consistency of 
the cambial cells. Their contents become much more transparent and 
apparently semi-fluid, and the bark now ‘slips’ easily upon the surface 
of the wood, separating from it at this plastic cambium layer. But if the 
bark is peeled off a little later, after a few divisions in the cambial cells 
have taken place, then the separation still takes place at the cambium 
layer, and as most of the newly formed cells have usually been cut off to the 
inside of the cambium, these now lie in a thin film on the firm surface 
of the old wood. ‘These new cells have thin walls and fluid contents and 
can readily be stripped off the surface of the old wood. In this manner 
long strips of tissue newly formed from the cambium, in which proto- 
plasmic streaming has frequently been seen and in which early stages 
of vascular differentiation are readily visible, can be stripped from the 
surface of the old wood with the greatest ease. By the use of this method 
it has been possible to follow the resumption of cambial activity in a 
number of species of both hardwoods and softwoods. 

The results will be presented in detail elsewhere, but the general 
result is a complete confirmation of the conclusion that the renewal of 
cambial activity upon the surface of the old wood depends upon the 
commencement of growth in the buds. Such cambial activity always 
begins beneath the buds and spreads from thence basipetally downwards. 
In the softwoods the basipetal spread of cambial activity is extremely 
rapid. In some hardwoods, as oak, ash, sweet chestnut and elm, it is 
also extremely rapid, but in others, as in sycamore and horse chestnut 
and many of the Rosacez, the downward spread of cambial activity is 
much slower. In birch, beech and alder again, the buds have burst 
and the leaves emerged before there is any sign of cambial activity 
spreading down the twigs ; but as the extension growth begins in the new 
shoots, cambial activity appears on the woody shoots beneath the buds 
and spreads from thence relatively rapidly down the tree. The varied 
details of this process have proved exceedingly interesting, and there is no 
doubt that the new method has much to tell us of the characteristics of 
radial growth in differenttrees. ‘Thering-poroustype of wood characteristic 
of oak, ash and elm is evidently connected with the rapid and early spread 
of cambial activity and vascular differentiation down the axis, whilst the 
diffuse-porous type of wood of beech links with its later basipetal spread 
of cambial activity. Atthe moment however, we must be content to empha- 
sise the significance of the general conclusion that the resumption of 
radial growth of the trees is almost completely dependent upon the 
commencement of growth in the buds. With this clue to their interpre- 
tation, the problems of form, structure and function presented by the 
tree are seen in quite a new light. 


I. Foro. 


We can only indicate, by discussing one or two examples, how tree 
form is dominated by this causal link between bud development and 
radial growth. One familiar horticultural operation demonstrates the 


K.—BOTANY 191 


point beautifully. When a branch is pruned it is the invariable rule that 
the cut is made just above a bud, not just below one. As a result no 
piece of stem is left projecting beyond the uppermost bud on the pruned 
branch. The reason is that practical experience has shown that any such 
projecting length of stem, above the influence of any bud, makes no further 
growth but withers or rots into an unsightly ‘ snag ’—clear evidence that 
cambial activity from the buds is only basipetal and that it cannot re- 
commence in a region of the woody axis which has no living bud above it. 
All forestry practice is really based upon this fundamental fact. When 
growth starts in the tree, the buds in the light are moving first, and if 
their growth is sufficiently vigorous, buds on lower branches shaded by 
neighbouring trees may never resume growth. Such lower branches 
fail to make any radial growth also and lose their supplies of water and 
food to the vigorously growing regions of the crown and trunk. It is the 
tacit recognition of this fact that underlies the system of close planting 
to obtain straight-shafted timber—a system which meets a rather different 
problem in the different branching habits shown by softwood as com- 
pared with hardwood trees. 

Branching in Softwood and Hardwood Trees—In the softwoods, as in 
Abies, Picea, or young pines, the branching habit of the tree is usually 
singularly regular, a whorl of branches starting each year from buds left 
in the axils of some of the uppermost leaves on the shoot of the previous 
year. In the spring, growth activity begins in all the apical buds of leader 
and branches at about the same time. In the leader and the youngest 
branches radial growth is thus stimulated and progresses down the stem 
very rapidly and at about the same rate; but in older branches, and 
progressively as the branches grow older, the downward propagation of 
cambial activity becomes slower and slower. As a result, when in the 
main stem radial growth is already well advanced—because differentiation 
of new wood, when once begun, proceeds very rapidly—the bases of the 
lower branches joining the stem still show no signs of radial growth. ‘The 
new wood formed on the main stem runs downwards in a loop closely 
encircling the previous year’s wood of the branch, which runs radially 
inward through it, the two tissues having no continuity at all. Later, 
when new wood formation begins at the base of the branch the new wood 
is continuous with the downward running elements of the new layer of 
wood still forming on the axis. Still lower on the main axis, especially 
when shaded by neighbouring trees, branches will be found in which the 
radial growth of the branch does not recommence because the apical bud 
does not grow. ‘These lower branches lose their sap to the growing 
trunk. Around the dry wood of such branch-bases flows increment after 
increment of the wood formed on the main axis. But the branch is usually 
set at an angle to the main stem ; each new layer of wood is forming from 
above downwards, and expanding outwards with irresistible force against 
the dried and brittle base of the branch, lifting up the dead bark which 
clothes it, throwing this into folds around the base of the branch to which 
the bark is firmly fixed, and ultimately straining the dry tissue so much 
that the branch is broken off. New increments of wood still flow around 
the base of the broken stump of wood until they cover it over completely. 


192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


All that is now left as external evidence of the presence of the branch is 
the scar where the bark has healed over the stump, and the folds in the 
bark around this scar where the bark has been thrust outwards against 
the base of the stem. But within the wood of the trunk, below the scar, 
the branch stump is left to form a loose knot when planks are cut from this 
region because of the way the wood of the branch has simply been gripped 
in the flanks of the vertically running fibres of the wood of the main stem. 
Still further within the tree the branch wood has more continuity with the 
wood of the trunk, but still remains a tapering, radially directed 
cone with its fibres, in the main, running radially inwards, distinct 
from the downwardly running fibres of the main axis. This is 
particularly clearly shown when the wood of the main axis rots away 
leaving the tapering branch end pointing into the hollow centre of the 
trunk. 

In the hardwood, the beginnings of radial growth similarly wait upon 
apical growth, but the branching is less mathematical in its regularity 
and there is no constant succession of longer and larger branches regularly 
spaced along the axis. Usually radial growth is proceeding at the same 
time on main stem and branch stem and a continuous layer of wood is 
laid down smoothly on all sides of the branch-base, in closest continuity 
with the wood of the main axis. Here again however, if light does not 
reach them, lateral branches lower on the tree will fail to make any 
extension growth ; radial growth will then also fail in them and these 
branches will dry and die. ‘Then successive increments of wood upon 
the main axis will thrust against the bark where it is held tight around the 
bases of the dead dry branches, and thus ultimately strip the lower part 
of the trunk of such branches, the stumps of which will promptly be 
buried under the new layers of wood, with only the branch scars and their 
attendant folds in the bark as evidence of their presence. When these 
stumps are brought to light as knots in planks they will usually be very 
firm because of the different manner in which wood of branch and main 
axis made union, and because under high forest conditions the lateral 
branches die and fall off young, leaving no dead stub of wood to be buried 
in the wood of the main axis. Only when older branches have been cut 
off by the forester in such a manner as to leave projecting stumps are these 
likely to be buried and reappear as loose knots in the planks cut from the 
trees. 

Although the hardwood has not the mathematical regularity of branch- 
ing characteristic of the softwood, its branch system is usually built 
up upon an ordered plan. The case of poplar may be described as 
an interesting example in which, as in oaks, the natural abscission of 
branches contributes to the rapid simplification of the branch system. 

The vigorous vegetative seasonal shoot of a poplar bears many buds, 
of which the terminal one normally makes very vigorous growth the follow- 
ing season. The next few buds remain dormant. Then follow a group 
of buds which grow out into vegetative shoots, the uppermost of these 
usually being the stronger and the lower ones progressively weaker until 
again buds are reached which remain dormant. Cambial activity in these 
various shoots shows some proportionality to their vigour of growth ; in 


K.—BOTANY 193 


the strong lateral shoots the basipetal impetus to cambial activity moves 
strongly down to the base of the shoot and on to the main stem, so that 
the shoot is subsequently firmly bound to the main axis by differentiated 
and lignified vascular elements common to them both. In weakly growing 
shoots basipetal cambial activity is weak and carries over little, if at all, 
into the main stem, to which this shoot has as a result but little lignified 
vascular attachment. Then as the parent axis enlarges under the 
vigorous impulse to radial growth reaching it from the vigorous terminal 
shoot and contributed to by the more vigorous branches above, the weaker 
lateral twigs, as they continue to make little or no lateral growth, are forced 
off by a perfectly natural process of abscission which leaves a clean scar 
on the surface of the parent axis. These twigs thus gradually disappear 
from below upwards, leaving in the leafy crown a scaffold of stronger 
branches. 

Later in life, probably after thirty or forty years of vegetative growth, 
flowering begins on lateral shoots in which only the apical bud continues 
a relatively weak vegetative growth. ‘The buds immediately below this, 
and all other buds except perhaps a few of the most basal ones, develop 
flowers, and these flower-producing buds contribute nothing to the 
cambial activity of the axis; in fact, as they draw food from it they 
probably diminish the vigour with which the basipetal impulse to cambial 
activity travels down the stem from the terminal bud. Such shoots 
usually make a most inadequate vascular connection with the axis that 
bears them. ‘The parenchyma amongst the woody tissue is in excess and 
contributes to a swollen base which, strained by the girth expansion of 
the more vigorous axis it joins, is abscissed after some years of flowering, 
even though the branch thus abscissed is fifteen to twenty years old. 
In some species of poplars and oaks, in England, the ground beneath the 
trees is thus carpeted each autumn with a crop of still fresh, sappy 
branches, self-pruned from the distal branch system, the rounded bases 
of the abscissed branches and the cup-shaped scars on the branches that 
bore them bearing witness to the natural manner in which they have 
separated. 


II. Structure. CAMBIAL GROWTH AND VASCULAR DIFFERENTIATION 
IN SOFTWOOD AND HarDWooD. 


It is clear that the branch system of the tree is mainly determined by 
the close relation that exists between shoot growth and radial growth. 
Only when the bud is still making extension growth and producing new 
leaves will the woody stem beneath it increase in thickness and remain 
a functional member of the woody crown. The slender twig still shows 
evidence, in contour and leaf scars, of the series of nodes and inter- 
nodes laid down during shoot extension, but in later years the smooth 
addition of each new radial increment, spreading basipetally downwards 
from new leafy shoots above and independent of any local influence, 
gradually obliterates all trace of node and internode, whilst the repeated 

cracking of the bark as the stem thickens may make it impossible to trace 
the original leaf scars. This region of the woody shoot now forms an 


194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


integral portion of the woody axis, but the texture of the wood is still 
determined by growth characteristics of the cambium which are linked 
in the closest manner with its origin at the shoot apex, and which are 
strikingly different in softwoods and hardwoods. 

Conifer and Dicotyledon have very different types of shoot apex. The 
Conifer bears narrow leaf primordia, many often growing simultaneously 
at the apex (the seedling often has many cotyledons), and most of the 
subsequent growth of leaf and subtending segment of the axis is in a 
vertical direction. The Dicotyledon usually has few primordia sharing 
the growing apex, with a broader leaf primordium, and the seedling has 
two cotyledons. The subsequent growth of the primordium, whilst 
mainly longitudinal, also includes considerable tangential expansion. 
With these differences may be connected the contrast between the long 
narrow cambium initials of the Conifer (Fig. 1), which thoroughly deserve 
Bailey’s term of ‘ fusiform,’ and the shorter Dicotyledon initials which 
are often not fusiform but more, as Fig. 2 shows, like elongated meristem 
cells which have retained their original polygonal faces. ‘These charac- 
teristic forms of the cambial cells have a very distinct bearing upon the 
differences in the elements cut off from them—differences which affect 
the grain of the timber and which are well known to all workers in wood, 
who distinguish sharply between the properties of the softwoods with 
their uniform grain and freedom from vessels, and the more varied hard- 
woods with vessels, fibres, etc., variously distributed throughout their 
texture. 

We will now briefly examine the relation of these structural features to 
their formation from the cambium, as this tissue resumes activity when 
growth recommences in the buds. 

Cambium and Vascular Differentiation in the Softwood.—lIn tangential 
longitudinal view, ends of adjacent fusiform initials never lie at the same 
level. Evidently as the cambial cylinder grows in size and the initials 
in the periphery increase in number, new initials do not arise by longi- 
tudinal radial division. ‘Tangential divisions do not add to the number 
of cells in the periphery, and the only other divisions that have been seen 
are transverse divisions, when the two new cells are separated by a some- 
what oblique cross wall. This wall rapidly assumes a more oblique or 
vertical position, so that it is usually assumed that the two daughter 
initials have glided past one another by ‘ sliding growth.’ In view of the 
plastic walls and liquid contents of these meristematic initials it is difficult 
to understand how they readjust their relative positions by sliding past 
one another, whilst such a process is also difficult to reconcile with the 
presence of plasma connections and pits on the radial walls of the vascular 
elements differentiated from the cambium. Further, if the alteration in 
the relative position of any two cambial initials with time is followed in 
the only possible way—viz. by studying the relative displacement of the 
radial files of tracheids in the woody axis—then such sliding growth does 
not appear to be a necessary assumption. The tracheids in any radial 
file, traced outwards through the wood, grow longer but undergo little 
or no vertical displacement, so that the cambium initial that has been present 
all along on the outer tangential face of this file has grown longer but 


Fic. 1.—Cambial initial 
of Pinus. (x 60.) 


K.—BOTANY 


195 
D 
3 
Ww 
ce 
\ =. 
pe ate y =; 
= 
= 
> 
fal 
Cc 
| 
i 
. Fic. 2. 
(x 60.) 


Sycamore 


Fic. 1.—Cambium initial of Pinus drawn asa 

solid object. (x 60.) Its position on the 
surface of the wood is indicated. The 
apex is redrawn upon a larger scale. 

Fic. 2.—Cambium initial of Laburnum and 
Sycamore. (x 60.) 


196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES * 


has not shifted upwards or downwards as a whole. When the file of 
tracheids doubles, through the transverse division in the cambium 
initial, the new files of tracheids are at first nearly superimposed vertically, 
but as the two initials grow in length, the cross wall between them 
becomes more tilted, especially in the tangential direction, so that the two 
files of tracheids cut off from them come to lie more nearly side by side. 
The readjustments in relative position of the two daughter initials, on 
the face of the files of tracheids, may take place without slip, in view of the 
liquid nature of the cell contents and the plastic nature of their walls, 
which allows of a relatively rapid extension of the new ‘ three-ply ’ 
cellulose-pectin-cellulose division wall as it moves into a more vertical 
position. 

Reasons have been given elsewhere for thinking that these relatively 
minor readjustments of position in the cambial cells, as the cambium 
cylinder grows wider, thus take place by ‘ symplastic’ movement of the 
common framework of walls of the fusiform initials, which thus continue 
to grow and spread tangentially between the rays. The latter act as fixed 
points because they are formed of vacuolated cells which extend through 
to the differentiated vascular tissues on either side. When growth in the 
cambium is renewed in the spring, if the impetus to growth and tangential 
expansion reaches one point first at any level in the cambium cylinder 
and spreads from thence gradually round the cylinder, this plastic wall 
framework of the initials will tend to undergo an oblique displacement 
as a whole. The result, when the new pattern is repeated in the wood, 
will be the production of ‘ twisted fibre’ or ‘ spiral grain.’ ‘This is a 
phenomenon that frequently thrusts itself upon the attention of the 
forester and worker in wood. 

In the early summer quite a number of tracheids in the same radial 
file are in course of differentiation, and the radial expansion of these 
vacuolating elements must exert a very considerable pressure upon the 
plastic meristematic cambium initials outside them, which thus remain 
radially compressed and seem to become even more elongated in the 
young tree each year as the vigour of radial growth increases. ‘This radial 
pressure was very vividly brought home to us when we were stripping the 
young differentiating tissue off the old wood. When a thick layer of 
differentiating tracheids was present, as the knife scraped these tissues a 
fine spray rose from their surface to a height of more than a foot. ‘This 
phenomenon has only been noticed with the softwoods, and supplies the 
clearest evidence of the pressure under which the liquid contents may be 
held in the vacuolating tissues. 

Cambium and Vascular Differentiation in the Hardwood—Bailey has 
pointed out that the cambia of the Dicotyledons may be grouped in 
different categories in which, as the initial becomes less elongated, the 
specialised development of wide vessel segments and elongated fibres 
becomes more pronounced. The shorter cambium initial shows an 
obvious correlation with the broader leaf primordium and diminished 
longitudinal extension of the original meristem cells. In very short 
cambial cells division walls, which are originally nearly transverse, will 
not be pulled out into an oblique or nearly vertical position by the sub- 


K.—BOTANY 197 


sequent elongation of the cambium initial but will remain nearly transverse. 
As a result, when the cambial initials are short, it is impossible for their 
number to increase at any one level in the cambium cylinder in the manner 
described for the softwood cambium. Instead, the cambium cells increase 
in mass in a tangential direction and are then divided by a radial longi- 
tudinal wall. When this process has been in progress for some time 
the cambium naturally has a ‘stratified’ appearance, when viewed in 
longitudinal tangential section, as the ends of the cells derived from 
one another will all be at the same level. Bailey has pointed out 
that such stratified cambia are characteristic of hardwoods with 
relatively short cambial initials, and that they are associated with a 
marked contrast between the length of the vessel segments and the 
fibres in the wood differentiating from the products of cambial 
activity. 

In many hardwoods the cambium initials are not so short, new division 
walls which are originally nearly transverse do subsequently become 
oblique, and so the number of initials in the cambial cylinder multiplies 
without radial longitudinal division and the cambium does not become 
stratified. None the less, even these initials are shorter on the average 
than those found in the softwoods, and, in the products formed from the 
cambium on the inner and outer surfaces, as the result of the usual 
tangential divisions, the differentiating elements begin with walls at top 
and bottom which are relatively transverse. ‘There are a few rare 
exceptions. For example, in Drimys and Trochodendron, genera of the 
Southern Hemisphere, the fusiform initials average more than four 
millimetres in length, no walls appear to be specially transverse and no 
vessels are subsequently differentiated. 

In almost all other hardwood genera the original fusiform initials are 
comparatively short, the elements differentiating from them have walls 
that, even if oblique, are relatively transverse, and when these elements 
begin to vacuolate, the collapse of this wall leads to the formation of a 
vessel. For when vacuolation commences, as the cell expands transversely, 
expansion of a cell just below follows immediately and the transverse 
walls between them, thus violently stretched, suddenly perforate, so that 
the contents of the two cells coalesce. ‘This happens with great rapidity 
throughout a long chain of cells, and the common tracheal element 
thus formed, which may be very long indeed, ultimately thickens and 
lignifies its wall, loses most of its protoplasmic contents and becomes a 
vessel. 

It is very frequently assumed that these perforating cross walls are 
gradually digested, but this assumption becomes untenable when the 
differentiating tissues are examined by the new method. Very long strips 
can readily be peeled off the surface of the old wood in spring in which these 
differentiating vessels can be traced for long distances. It then becomes clear 
that the vacuolation which expands a series of vessel segments takes place 
with extraordinary rapidity in cells whose walls are in a very thin ‘ primary ’ 
stage. Even in these preparations, in which the course of the differ- 
entiating vessel can be followed, stages in perforation are very difficult 
to find. There can be no doubt that the process occurs absolutely 


198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


suddenly, in a long series of cells that lie more or less vertically beneath 
one another, and that it is associated with a very rapid expansion in the 
size of the future vessel segments. The walls of these elements subse- 
quently thicken and lignify. Unfortunately the polarising microscope 
can only tell us about the structure of the thickened wall, and no cross 
walls are thickened before perforation. In Fraxinus it has been possible 
to examine cross walls with comparatively small perforations and with 
a thickened rim. The arrangement of the cellulose micelles in this 
thickened region certainly suggests that if they were arranged similarly 
in the original primary wall they would offer minimum resistance to 
perforation. 

It is interesting to examine more closely the magnitudes involved in 
the expansion of a hardwood vessel segment as compared with a softwood 
tracheid. The softwood fusiform initials are so much longer that their 
volume exceeds that of a hardwood initial, but this volume relation may 
be reversed during differentiation. Details of the calculations are omitted, 
but it is estimated that in Scots pine an average cambium cell of 
length 3-2 mm. has a volume of about 0-o00014 cubicmm. In wych elm 
the cambium cells are about o-2 mm. long with a volume of about 
0:000013 cubicmm. ‘The expansion of the tracheid in the pine is almost 
entirely radial and a spring tracheid may expand to about 7-5 times 
its original radial diameter, so that its new volume is of the order of 
o-o0105 cubic mm. The vessel segment of the wych elm expands to 
a roughly circular structure. Quite an average diameter for such a seg- 
ment would be o-1 mm., which gives a vessel segment of length o-2 mm. 
a volume of 0-0016 cubic mm. Such an average vessel segment may 
have a volume of the same order of magnitude as a softwood tracheid, 
but compared with the cell from which it was derived, it has attained 
its new dimensions by an enormously greater transverse expansion, in 
this case some 120 times as compared with 7-5 times. 

It seems natural to link this greater expansion with the early collapse of 
the transverse wall. The collapse of this wall is associated with the fact 
that a number of cells vertically beneath one another vacuolate almost 
simultaneously. Possibly the stretching of the wall accelerates the 
vacuolation of the element immediately beneath in each case, so that the 
impetus to vacuolate spreads more rapidly downwards beneath a differ- 
entiating vessel. This would help to explain the other characteristic that 
distinguishes differentiation in a hardwood from the process in a softwood. 
In the hardwood the cells formed from the cambium at the same time, and 
therefore lying in the same tangential plane, do not vacuolate simultane- 
ously. Some vacuolate before others, and these are always the cells which 
lie beneath differentiating vessel segments above. But the result is that 
their expansion can take place at the expense of the plastic elements around 
them, which are compressed into more elongated elements, and may later 
differentiate into fibres, or in some cases they vacuolate as they are 
compressed, as in the oak, where the vessel is surrounded by curiously 
contorted tracheids. 

In this argument we see the vessel as a natural consequence of 
the vacuolation of tissue elements which have transverse walls, and 


K.—BOTANY 199 


the fibre as the natural corollary of the rapid basipetal spread of this 
tendency to expand in the files of elements which will form the 
vessels. The fibres are often compressed to a length several times that 
of the original cambium initials. It is concluded, from the evidence as 
to correspondence of pits, that these future fibre elements deform under 
compression in a symplastic manner, their walls changing position as 
a common framework. As the cambial activity begins in the leaf trace 
and proceeds thence basipetally downwards, vessel segments are also 
added in succession basipetally and the compression of the tissue between 
the vacuolated vessels and rays also takes place in the same basipetal 
sequence. ‘Thus a wedge of expanding differentiating tissue spreads 
downwards, on the surface of the old wood, inside the growing and 
dividing cambium, which is carried outwards upon this living and ex- 
panding framework without undergoing much direct radial pressure and 
without an appreciable increase, as a rule, in the length of the individual 
cambial initials. 

In this manner the surface of the wood is clothed throughout its 
length with a new layer of wood, which originates and spreads from the 
base of the extending foliage shoots, and which consists of thin walled 
wood elements in which vessels are relatively numerous. But when the 
leaves are fully expanded and are busily engaged in photosynthesis, a good 
proportion of the new tissue formed from the cambium is phloem, whilst 
the new wood elements have much thicker walls and the vessels are not 
so prominent. ‘This rhythm of structural differentiation builds up the 
annual ring which, in temperate climes, where foliar expansion all takes 
place at a definite season, forms such a characteristic feature of the annual 
increment of wood. This growth and differentiation of new secondary 
tissues, in such close connection with leaf expansion and physiological 
activity, cannot fail to have a great influence upon the growth and func- 
tional activity of the new leaf system. Curiously enough, although the 
attention of many observers has been attracted by the problems presented 
by the maintenance of the water supply to the leaves at the top of a tall 
tree, and by the removal of the products of photosynthesis from the 
leaves for the nourishment of the rest of the tree, including the root 
system, these problems are usually considered as if detached from the 
phenomena of growth in the tree. We have noticed already that if the 
buds on the lower branches fail to grow, cambial activity also fails in 
these branches, which thereupon dry, losing their water, if not their food 
supplies, to the regions in the tree which are still growing. It is clear 
that any interpretation of water and food movement in the tree must be 
inadequate which neglects to consider these problems in relation to 
growth and differentiation, and these problems will now be briefly 
reconsidered from this standpoint. 


III. Function. THE Movement oF WaTER AND SOLUTES IN 
THE TREE. 


Water Movement at Bud-break—The opening of the buds in spring 
must be associated with the movement of water into their tissues. In 


200 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


an English spring this might mean the movement of water from the soil 
through the activity of the root system, but in Rhodesia for instance, 
where the spring foliage expands in early August over a dry soil in rainless 
weather, the essential water movement must be from the branch to the 
bud. Sachs long ago drew attention to a simple experiment which 
suggests that such a movement of water will take place with rising tempera- 
ture. In spring, when a woody branch is either dipped in hot water or 
placed in a vacuum, the expansion of air in the trachez will drive water 
freely to the cut surfaces of the wood, especially of the youngest sap wood. 
In the intact tree, therefore, a rise of temperature will drive water to the 
ends of the tracheal system of the youngest sap wood which are to be 
found, as a result of their method of differentiation, either at the leaf 
scars or in the tracheal systems of the buds. At the leaf scars these ends 
are blocked, so that all this water movement following upon rise of 
temperature must find its goal in the buds which now resume their 
growth. 

But, as Pringsheim has emphasised, when such a growth centre resumes 
activity it is capable apparently of drawing water from any other portion 
of the plant, and is the last to suffer from lack of water when supplies 
are deficient. ‘Thus even when the older leaves are wilted the growing 
point may continue active and leaf primordia expand in size through the 
yacuolation and division of their cells. ‘The mechanism drawing water 
to such a growing point requires further elucidation, but a contributory 
cause is almost certainly the osmotic system provided by the differentiating 
vascular elements. In the bud in spring, between dormant cambial cell 
and fully differentiated xylem element, are always left elements which are 
not fully differentiated, whilst throughout the woody axis the dormant 
cambium usually lies directly against fully differentiated and lignified 
wood. As the water enters the buds in spring the first visible change is 
the swelling of these partly differentiated elements between cambium 
and wood, and water is obviously attracted by the osmotic forces within 
them. The shoot meristem as a whole now recommences growth, and 
cambial activity spreads downwards to the base of the bud and into the 
dormant cambium lying upon the surface of last year’s wood. But as 
the cambium thus awakens into life, this layer and the newly formed 
tissues arising from it must be withdrawing water from the woody 
tissues within. This will be true of both hardwood and softwood, 
but it is particularly clear in the case of vessel differentiation in the 
hardwood. \ 

In the leafy shoot of the hardwood are found differentiated, lignified 
vessels, with cross walls all perforated and no protoplasmic contents, so 
that if they contain sap under pressure it will flow out through the per- 
meable lignified wall into the surrounding tissues. Traced downwards 
this vessel system is in direct continuity, in the tissues growing upon the 
surface of the old wood, with a vessel system which still contains proto- 
plasm and in which water is accumulating under osmotic pressure sufficient 
to force outwards the still plastic walls. ‘This liquid, thus accumulating 
under pressure, becomes continuous suddenly (with the collapse of the 
cross walls and the coalescence of the liquid contents of the originally 


K.—BOTANY 201 


separate cells) with the liquid in the vessel in the leafy shoot, from which 
it is separated at most by a very occasional unperforated but permeable 
wall. Naturally, then, the water withdrawn from the old wood at the 
lower end of the system, by the differentiating elements which are there 
being added to the vessel system, is driven forward under pressure into 
the distal end of the tracheal system, where it is slowly released into the 
still growing tissues of the leafy shoot. 

The facts of anatomy and development are the clearest evidence that 
each differentiating vessel, common to both leafy shoot and woody axis, 
must thus transfer water from the woody axis to the growing shoot. The 
growth of the bud, especially the vigorous cell expansion in the growing 
tissues, is clear evidence that water is thus moving from the woody axis 
to the young shoot. The following considerations support the view that 
this water movement takes place under the impulse of a mechanism that 
is actuated by the growth and differentiation which begins in the bud 
itself and spreads from thence to the axis. 

Occasionally so much sap is driven into the vascular system of the 
young developing leaves that they ‘ weep’ from the tips of the veins ; 
the sap flows out of the veins, injecting the intercellular spaces in which 
it accumulates until it flows out through the stomata on the teeth near 
the termination of the veins. Such ‘ weeping’ is often spoken of as 
caused by root pressure, as it certainly is in the case of seedlings, but in 
the tree the connection with root pressure is very indirect. So long as 
root activity throughout the winter has accumulated sufficient water in 
the old wood, weeping may occur from the buds. It can be demonstrated 
in buds on twigs removed from the tree provided they are kept in warm 
saturated air. Th. Hartig has pointed out, in Carpinus Betulus particu- 
larly, a tree which shows both ‘ bleeding’ from the cut stump and 
“weeping ’ from buds in the intact tree, that the two processes do not 
synchronise. In a particular season, ‘ bleeding’ from a cut stump 


began on February 22, but no buds were observed to ‘ weep’ until 


March 17. ‘ Bleeding’ occurred from g a.m. till midday each day, but 
“weeping ’ began in the afternoon, was strongest at night and ceased 
about one hour after sunrise. ‘The sap flow from the veins of the leaves 


in the buds, therefore, does not synchronise with the time of highest sap 


pressure, derived from root activity. 

Many points about bud development in the tree become much clearer 
when it is recognised that the movement of sap in these developing 
tissues depends so directly upon processes originating in the bud itself. 
All buds on the tree do not start into activity at the same moment ; well- 
developed buds in full sunlight open first, and as they draw off the supplies 
of water from the wood immediately adjacent we can understand why it is 
(x) that the buds immediately below the vigorously growing terminal 

ud of a poplar shoot remain dormant (p. 192), and (2) that the lower 
shaded branches on which the buds do not commence growth so soon, 
may never start into growth at all, unless the upper, vigorously growing 
buds are cut off by man or by a frost ; and that such branches, if the buds 
do not commence growth, lose water to the differentiating tissues in the 


main axis. 
H 2 


202 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


It is not easy to obtain further experimental proof of the presence of 
the osmotic systems connected with each developing bud, because they 
are so closely connected with processes of growth and differentiation and 
cease to operate if the experimental procedure prevents further growth. 
When the young bud is cut across, liquid can be seen to well out from the 
veins, but it is impossible to collect drops of this liquid which are not 
mixtures of sap from both wood and phloem. The sap in this differ- 
entiating wood is certainly much more concentrated than any recorded 
concentrations for the tracheal sap, but it must be remembered that all 
analyses have been made upon extracts which are drawn mainly from 
fully differentiated trachezee. Observers who have tried to distinguish 
between the sap from the outer and inner trachee have always found 
that the sap from the outer and younger contains more solutes. In all 
cases where sap is collected from differentiating trachee but little can 
be obtained, because when these elements are cut open and the sap released 
the processes of growth and differentiation come to an abrupt end ; the 
osmotic system thereupon soon ceases to function and no more sap collects. 
It is possible to collect small supplies of sap from the new tissues differen- 
tiating over the surface of the old wood in spring, and such samples in 
both hardwoods and softwoods have shown themselves more concen- 
trated than a 0:25 M cane sugar solution when tested by Bargers’s 
method. In a drop from the differentiating tissues of the plane, 
the reducing substances after inversion, determined by the method 
of Hagedoorn and Jensen, were equivalent to about 2-6 per cent. 
sucrose. 

Water Movement into the Expanding Foliage —As the tracheal elements 
absorb water, as they differentiate in and beneath the bud, naturally 
their liquid contents are under pressure and are leaking outwards into 
the leaf tissues ; but as the foliage expands, evaporation from the larger 
surface rapidly removes any excess of water, and ‘ weeping ’ cannot be 
detected long after sunrise even in young leaves, But evaporation will 
still continue during the day, so that the living cells of the leaf tend to 
withdraw water from the trachez faster than it enters, with the result that 
the liquid contents of the trachez are soon under tension. It is surprising 
how soon this condition of tension can be detected in the tracheal system 
of the expanding bud. If the bud is cut across under indian ink, which 
contains a fine suspension of carbon particles, and the cut surfaces washed 
under running water, many of the trachez will be seen to be injected 
with the ink. The injected trachee will be found to be protoxylem 
elements of medium age. Older collapsed elements are not injected, and 
younger elements, still differentiating and containing liquid contents 
under pressure, are also not injected. In a young bud, a freshly cut 
surface, whilst showing ink in some injected vessels, will also show 
liquid welling from the bundles for a time because of the excess liquid 
still accumulating in the elements which were differentiating when the 
bud was cut across. 

The same phenomenon can be demonstrated in the case of the trachez 
differentiating from the base of the bud over the surface of the old wood, 
the hardwood being naturally a more suitable subject for such experiments. 


K.—BOTANY 203 


Phloem and bark can be easily removed, these tissues coming away at the 
plastic cambium layer without any damage to the differentiating vessels 
within. ‘These vessels, and the older wood within, can now be pierced 
with a sharp knife through a drop of indian ink placed on the surface of 
the cambium. The newly differentiating vessels are full of liquid at 
first and do not inject at all when so cut; very often instead sap flows 
freely from them, though they never give off a fine spray when punctured, 
as the differentiating tracheze of the softwoods sometimes do. While 
they are thus found full of liquid, the vessels of the old wood immediately 
beneath them will be found to inject freely, which may be due to the 
withdrawal of water from these vessels by the differentiating elements 
forming outside them. This suggestion is supported by observations 
on the ash, in which the vessels are extraordinarily long, so that when 
they are cut open they cease to function throughout a great length of 
the tree. Beneath the surface of such punctured differentiating 
vessels the old wood has often subsequently failed to inject, whilst 
beneath undamaged differentiating vessels on either side it injected very 
freely. 

A little later in the year (by June 1 this year in Leeds), the differ- 
entiated lignified vessels in the newly forming ring of wood inject freely, 
and from then onwards, as von Héhnel first pointed out, this evidence of 
a state of tension in the contents spreads gradually inwards, the vessels of 
progressively older and inner rings of sap wood injecting as the summer 
progresses. 

The Contents of the Wood—Nowadays it is usually assumed that the 
tracheal elements remain full of water although their contents are under 
tension. In this case, each day that water loss from the tree by evapora- 
tion exceeds water entry by absorption, the tension must mount in the 
tracheal system and should reach extraordinarily high values. This 
possibility must now be more closely examined. In the first place it is 
clear that the structure of the tracheal system is such that air will not 
readily enter to displace the water, although air at approximately 
atmospheric pressure is present in the intercellular spaces that form 
a continuous system along the flanks of the rays, and which are in 
immediate contact with the trachee and in communication, through 
the cambium, with the intercellular system outside and with the 
outside air. 

Air.—The only pores in the water-saturated wall of any element of the 
wood, including the hardwood vessel, through which gas might enter 
are the minute holes in the thin primary walls that run across the pits, 
which were originally filled by the plasmodesma strands. In the soft- 
wood Bailey has recently demonstrated the passage of gas and fine sus- 
pensions through these pores, and concludes that in Larix laricina they 
vary in diameter from 3u to o-5u. ‘The smaller pores here would need 
pressures of 5-8 atmospheres on either side of the wall in order to drive 
air through to displace water. Bailey actually drove air into the tracheids 
of Larix by using pressures below 3 atmospheres. In the hardwood the 
pores in the pits are certainly smaller: A. Meyer estimated their diameter 
at 0-15, whilst Renner estimates them at less than o-5u. In actual 


204 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


experiment we have failed to displace the liquid contents of closed hard- 
wood vessels by air, using pressures of 15 atmospheres. 

The displacement of water by air entering through these pores would 
not in any case be easy, and when it is remembered how they arise it 
will be seen to be practically impossible. The pores were filled originally 
by protoplasmic connections. ‘These are found only connecting adjacent 
protoplasts, and only persist as pores in thin-walled pit areas where the 
original wood elements have not been displaced relatively during 
development. 

The pores, then, do not open on to intercellular spaces and are not in 
communication with the air of the intercellular system unless considerable 
splitting apart of the primary walls of adjacent tracheal elements has 
occurred ; such splitting only occurs, if at all, in dry heart wood in which 
the water movements are relatively unimportant. We may conclude then 
that the liquid contents of the tracheal elements may be under tension 
without the slightest likelihood of air being drawn in from the intercellular 
system of the wood to displace the liquid. 

Water—But the tension upon the water contents of the tracheal 
elements must increase very rapidly if the water cannot be displaced by 
gas. When the water in a trachea is in tension, at points where the wall 
faces upon an air space the water will be withdrawn into the wall until 
the menisci are very concave and only a thin film of water, no longer free 
to move, covers the internal (inter-micellar) surfaces. This is not only 
true of the wall where it faces upon an air space, but the water in all the 
wall must be in equilibrium with this and will be withdrawn into the 
trachea until only a thin film is left. In the cohesion theory of the ascent 
of sap the high tension which must develop in the contents, if the trachez 
remain full of sap, is held accountable for the upward movement of 
water in the tree. But this tension must isolate the liquid contents of 
the trachea, because the walls between this trachea and its neighbours 
will only have a water content in equilibrium with the walls bordering 
air spaces, and the movement of water across such walls, under the differ- 
ence of tension developed between the tracheal contents, will be very 
slow indeed. Indeed, as Schwendener and Nigeli pointed out many 
years ago, when tensions develop the liquid contents of the trachez are 
immobilised, with the result that the rate of evaporation from the mesophyll 
is cut down. 

Water Vapour——Nevertheless, though the rate of evaporation falls 
on a sunny day with the water in the trachez immobilised, if they all 
remain full of water the tensions developing in the trachea near the 
leaves would be very high indeed. 

Experimental evidence however, such as was supplied originally by 
von Héhnel and Scheit, suggests that water vapour replaces water in many 
tracheal elements. As soon as a bubble of water vapour forms in any 
trachea, its water will be immediately free to move and dispersed into the 
surrounding trachez in which tension will be released, and thus water 
remains available for the trachee supplying the evaporating leaf without 
a great rise in the tension of their contents. 

The presence of tracheal elements containing water vapour may be 


K.—BOTANY 205 


beautifully demonstrated in the trunk of Fraxinus excelsior, in spring, 
when the newly formed vessels lie just below the cambium. ‘These 
vessels are very long ; they have been traced, without a cross wall, for 
more than 25 ft., and they often have a diameter approximating to 
o*1mm.,so that they are readily seen with the naked eye. If the cambium 
is exposed and the vessels are then cut open under indian ink or coloured oil, 
the liquid can be seen to enter, moving both upwards and downwards 
in the tracheze with an astonishing speed, often more than 1 ft. in 
three seconds. In this way vessels will rapidly fill often to a length of 
more than ro ft. from the point of injection. As the liquid enters, there 
is no marked change in diameter of the vessel such as would suggest 
a great release of tension, and, if the vessel had been originally full of 
water, it is very difficult to explain where this water has been accommo- 
dated when it is so rapidly displaced, particularly as vessel after vessel 
can be injected, the liquid entering at practically the same speed. But 
that the vessel originally contains water under tension seems to be com- 
pletely negatived by a simple modification of this experiment. In most 
trees the vessels are much shorter, and many closed vessels in isolated 
branches, stripped of all leafy shoots, can be injected when they are cut 
open under suitable liquids. These injection experiments, carried out 
extensively in a different form by von Héhnel, seem to admit of no other 
interpretation than that, in many of the tracheal elements, as the leaf 
surface expands, water vapour displaces water. 

Sap Wood and Heart Wood —Water vapour displaces water in the wood 
beneath the opening buds both in the old wood and in the new ring of 
wood in direct communication with the leaves ; and during the summer 
water vapour continues to displace water in the trachez of the older wood 
throughout the axis, but is found first in the outer rings and then appears 
progressively further inwards. In the autumn water absorption exceeds 
evaporation even during the day, and the trachez will begin once more 
to fill with water, save that if any air has accumulated from the water 
as the result of release from solution with rising temperatures, this air 
cannot be driven out but is only slowly redissolved. In the older rings 
of wood, where the tracheal content has fluctuated between water and 
vapour over many seasons, air has gradually accumulated, in some trees 
to a very considerable extent. This older wood is then often structurally 
modified, so that it is distinguished as heart wood from the relatively air- 
free sap wood, and the accumulation of air in the trachea may prove to 
be causally connected with these structural changes. Such heart wood 
gives buoyancy to logs floating down streams to the lumber mill, because 
the air within the trachez is not readily displaced, but it probably plays 
little part in the movement of water in the living tree, which takes place 
mainly through the sap wood. 

The Ascent of Sap—Through the complex tracheal system of the 
sap wood the water supply is maintained to the foliage of even the 
tallest trees, and the facts reviewed in the previous section are relevant 
in this connection, though they do not in themselves supply a complete 
explanation of the mechanism by which this movement is brought 
about. 


206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


The first movement of water into the bud seems to be brought about 
by osmotic systems consisting of differentiating tracheze developing in 
the bud itself and then extending downwards from the bud over the surface 
of the old wood. Then these new tracheal systems, as they lose water 
to the expanded foliage faster than it can be supplied, are able gradually 
to draw upon the water in the old wood through its displacement by 
water vapour, thus mitigating the tensions developing in the water columns 
in tracheze which remain full of water. Up till the end of the growing 
season, the water content of the wood shows that many tracheal elements 
in the sap wood remain full of water, and during the autumn and winter 
the tensions in these columns, as well probably as in the living parenchy- 
matous elements interspersed throughout the wood, may play a part in 
filling the remaining tracheal elements once more with water instead of 
water vapour. 

The problem is a difficult one—a tracheal system would obviously fill 
again with water to any height to which water could be driven by the 
pressures available in the root supply system, but at heights beyond this 
it is not at present clear how the tracheal elements are once more 
refilled. 

The present discussion of the problem, however, should serve to 
emphasise a consideration that is too little regarded at the present day. 
Water movement through the tree is associated with the growth of the 
tree ; the mechanism of movement is inseparable from the processes of 
growth and differentiation, and the movement is not equivalent to the 
passive flow of a liquid along a pipe driven either by a pressure below or 
a tension developing above. 

Within the tracheal sheet laid down in the current season, which alone 
has direct continuity with the leaves, is an inner core of sap wood which 
acts as a reservoir of water of which the contents fluctuate daily and with 
the seasons, under the influence of a supply and demand determined by 
the activities of the growing tissues of root and shoot. 

The Movement of Organic Solutes—Finally we would suggest that the 
movement of solutes throughout the tree similarly cannot be adequately 
interpreted unless the growth processes of the tree are borne in mind. 
The movement of inorganic solutes will not be considered ; the available 
data are too few, but one consideration is emphasised in relation to the 
organic substances which are manufactured by the leaves during their 
season of activity. Undoubtedly these substances are mainly transferred 
downwards from the leafy shoot to branches, trunk and roots, where they 
are stored. Both the path of transfer and the mechanism of movement 
are controversial subjects which cannot be fully examined here. ‘There 
is very general agreement that the phloem plays a réle in this movement, 
and much discussion centres around the problem as to how so much 
material can move through a tissue containing elements of such peculiar 
and characteristic structure as the sieve tubes. The data supplied by 
Ramann and Bauer show that the gain in dry weight of stem and root 
system takes place relatively late in the growing season. The point it is 
desired to emphasise is that this gain in dry weight appears to synchronise 


iy 


K.—BOTANY 207 


with a vigorous basipetal growth and differentiation of the phloem, which, 
like the earlier differentiation of spring wood, begins in the leafy shoot and 
spreads from thence downwards over the axis. ‘The successive enlarge- 
ment and division of cells that lie below one another in the cambial 
cylinder, which must take place during this new formation of 
phloem, represents in itself a very considerable downward movement of 
food. 

The following very approximate calculation may be presented in this 
connection. In Fraxinus excelsior the structure of the phloem makes it 
practicable to remove it over small areas in fairly smooth tangential 
sheets. The fresh weight of a square centimetre of such a sheet, separated 
from the tree in April and containing the phloem formed in the two 
previous growing seasons, proved to be about 0:046 gram; the dry 
weight 0-018 gram. This phloem was taken from a small tree perhaps 
twenty to thirty years old, from the short main trunk which possessed 
about 14,000 sq. cm. of surface. The dry weight added to this trunk by 
the formation of phloem during one season’s growth would then be of the 
14,000 X 0-018 


order of =126grams. Ramann and Bauer found that the 


increment of dry weight in the stem in one growing season, in 100 two- 
year-old ash trees, was about 2,437 grams, so that a single tree gained 
about 24 grams. In the older tree the increment of weight would be 
much greater, but when it is remembered that to the gain of weight due 
to the formation of phloem in the trunk has to be added that due to the 
new phloem on all the branches together with the formation of the thick- 
walled summer wood throughout the stem, then it would appear that a 
large proportion of the downward movement of organic solutes is effected 
during the actual growth and differentiation of these tissues, in which case 
the mechanism of movement would be closely linked with the basipetal 
mode of growth of the cambium. 

So long as the cambium is still growing and differentiation proceeding, 
the downward movement of organic material in the tree must be closely 
connected with these growth processes, and no mechanism of transfer 
which is independent of them can accurately represent the processes at 
work. It may be that subsequently, in fully differentiated sieve tube, 
companion cell, etc., translocation of food still takes place, but on the other 
hand, the structural features of the adult sieve tube may rather be analogous 
to those features in a dry river bed which supply evidence that it was once 
a channel along which a rapid current flowed. 

This brief review of some of the many problems presented by the form, 
structure and function of the growing tree has been presented, so far as 
possible, upon very general lines in an attempt to show that the issues 
thus raised, if primarily botanical, yet make a very wide appeal to our 
interests. A more detailed discussion of most of these problems will be 
found in a series of papers? in which citations of literature are given. 
It is hoped that this general statement has shown that the study of the 


1 “Studies in the Physiology of Cambial Activity,’ New Phytologist, 29, 1930. 


208 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


growing tree, whilst full of intriguing problems for the student of science, 
will not be without interest and profit to the forester and to all interested 
in growing trees. Furthermore, when we contemplate the texture of the 
wooden materials fashioned to our service, which surround us on every 
hand, it may add to our pleasure in them if we can link their structure 
and their properties with the story of the way in which they came into 
being during the life of the tree. 


SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 


THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE 
IN SCHOOLS—ITS MAGNITUDE, 
DIRECTION AND SENSE 


ADDRESS BY 
W. MAYHOWE HELLER, 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


The Function of Section L—Some doubt exists as to the proper function 
of this Section of the Association. ‘The group of men who, thirty-one 
years ago, threw themselves earnestly into the work of the Section were 
in the main interested in the teaching of science in schools of all grades. 
Forsome years our activities centred round the place in education of school 
science and its aims and methods. 

Strong committees of investigation were appointed, and in a few years 
valuable reports were published which have influenced profoundly the 
teaching of science in many English-speaking countries. Joint meetings 
to discuss with specialists of other sections the school-handling of their 
subjects were frequent. It is clear that in these early years the ‘ Old 
Guard "—many of whom are still working with us—viewed the work of 
the Section as subject to these limitations and did not contemplate that still 
far-off objective—a Science of Education. In this latter direction we have 
made some progress: small-scale experiments under favourable conditions 
have discovered some truths. The valuable results of such experiments 
receive a narrow publicity, are seldom adequately or permanently recorded, 
and in a few years are forgotten and no longer available for the serious 
student of education. ‘Too often these researches are interrupted by 
changes in the school staff or terminated by the growing pressure of 
external examination. As in other branches of science, we need a learned 
Education Society in whose transactions will be recorded permanently 
the results of original work and experiment in education. The annual 
reports of this Section for the past thirty years contain a wonderful record 
of investigation and thoughtful opinion which in its present form is 
inaccessible to any but the most determined inquirer. ‘The time is ripe 
for the establishment of a clearing-house of educational effort such as 
was suggested at last year’s meeting by Prof. Clarke in his advocacy of 
an Imperial Institute of Education. 

Need for Experiment—Before we can cultivate a Science of Education 


210 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


we need more experiment deliberately conceived, skilfully conducted, 
accurately interpreted, and intelligently utilised ; for such experiments 
a soil cleaned of the weeds which to-day choke the growth of education 
is necessary. 

In recent years the Section has spread its net more widely over the too- 
placid seas of educational discussion, and although we have landed some 
queer fish, we have on the whole made valuable hauls. 

I do not propose in this address, as have many of my distinguished 
predecessors in office, to venture far into the field of general educational 
philosophy, but think it better to place on record the impressions and 
convictions that remain from a long contact with teaching, inspection 
and administrative problems. Nothing more is possible; the worker 
in education can seldom conduct true experiments—he can only attempt 
remedies for existing evils, and this he must do often under conditions 
that he cannot control. 

Has School Science advanced ?—I\ make no apologies for plagiarising 
the title of the Association for my address, but it seemed to demand a 
sub-title, and, believing that science and its method is the most needed 
force in education to-day, I have adopted for my purpose the character- 
istics of a force—magnitude, direction and sense. In case my use of the 
word ‘ sense’ may be regarded as frivolous, I may say I give to it no un- 
common meaning. 

From the earliest times scientific thinkers, almost without exception, 
have tilted with little effect against the academic and traditional training 
given in the schools of their time. The astounding developments of the 
last hundred years have moved the mass centre of human knowledge 
towards natural science and away from literary teaching. Has the centre 
of effort of our schools changed correspondingly, and is the magnitude, 
direction and common sense of the effort satisfactory under the new 
conditions ? 

We have, I think, recognised honestly this new distribution of the weight 
of knowledge, and during the past half-century have provided gradually 
a machinery through which these new educative forces may act. We 
must test, from time to time, the efficiency of our machine, and if we find 
it low, must reconsider its design and trace the causes of transmission 
losses. 

Our Faith in Science Teaching—We have urged the advancement of 
science in schools in the belief that training in its methods should produce 
habits of cautious and judicial approach to the problems that confront 
us, and would give us courage and self-reliance in attacking them. We 
believe that natural knowledge must inspire a reverence for the Creator 
only to be obtained by direct contacts, and that our ability to use this 
knowledge wisely adds greatly to our general efficiency and power for 
good. 

The outstanding value of a scientific training should be the develop- 
ment of a power of diagnosis, a quality essential to the majority of 
occupations. Consider for a moment how constantly a critical diagnostic 
faculty must be employed by the successful farmer, doctor, schoolmaster, 
housewife, architect, motor-mechanic or plumber ; yet how frequently 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 211 


failure and inefficiency in these trades and professions is due to an 
inability to apply scientific method to thought. 

Evidence of Progress —What evidence have we that forty years of science 
teaching have produced the results for which we have hoped and striven ? 
Notwithstanding the fact that seven million of our population will invest 
hard-earned half-sovereigns in a sweepstake upon a horse race in which 
“the unexpected always happens,’ I believe there are many signs of 
improvement in general intelligence and vocational keenness. Boys, 
and especially girls, are entering employments and facing with success 
responsibilities unthinkable at their ages in Victorian days. The soundest 
critics of the schoolmaster and his work are the pupils he has taught. 
Although a few boys, and more girls, say they hated science at school, 
the great majority in after life regard the subject with profound respect 
and regret the lack of fuller opportunity for its study. 

Admittedly the magnitude of science teaching in the schools is con- 
siderable ; how much is emerging in useful form? Are we satisfied with 
the understanding of the commonest occurrences displayed by the man 
in the street and the woman in herhome ? Is not their childlike simplicity 
about such matters rather disturbing ? To what percentage do such 
ideas as the burning of a fire, the nutrition of the body or the growth of 
a plant mean anything ? 

Among the general practitioners in the scientific occupations mentioned 
above do we not often detect lacune of fundamental knowledge that 
would disgrace the average schoolboy? We have yet to give the lie to 
Mr. Baldwin’s recent epigram that ‘the only permanent thing in life is 
human stupidity.’ 

The schoolmaster of grammarian bent still looks askance at our efforts ; 
he cannot visualise our wider and more distant objective. With the ends he 
has in view we agree, but we cannot regard them as all-sufficient, nor con- 
sider his methods the most direct for the achievement of his own purposes. 
But the old antagonism between traditional and modern studies is break- 
ing down. In his presidential address to the Science Masters’ Associa- 
tion this year, Dr. Cyril Norwood, Headmaster of Harrow, stated the case 
for science in the schools with cogency and sincerity ; his skilful diagnosis 
of the demands that life makes upon the product of our schools shows that 
a classical education is no barrier to scientific and courageous thinking. 

The provision for science instruction in secondary and other schools 
for pupils over fourteen years of age appears to be fairly general and 
satisfactory. 

Science in the Elementary School_—In the elementary schools little sub- 
stantial progress has been made ; here more than elsewhere the child is 
dependent upon the school for his educational equipment for life ; if he 
does not get some introduction to natural knowledge at school, he will find 
few opportunities later. Sound science teaching must not remain the 
prerogative of the child over fourteen years of age. In recent years I 
have had the opportunity, as an examiner, of assessing the value of the 
science instruction given in the elementary schools of most of the larger 
centres of population in the United Kingdom. Although I was dealing 
probably with selected cases the results were wholly depressing, and 


212 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


consultation with the teachers into whose hands successful candidates 
passed confirmed the poor impression I had formed of the quality and 
nature of the teaching. 

Twenty-four years ago, we said in a report of this Section that ‘ the 
child’s time should be about equally divided between practical manipu- 
lative work and the ordinary lessons in reading, writing and reckoning.’ 
In such practical work is included science, handwork and drawing. 

We have not taken science seriously in elementary education ; we must 
regard it as of the same fundamental importance as the three R’s: the 
first subject of instruction should be the study of our immediate environ- 
ment. It is a serious reflection upon our system that our school output 
is incapable of thinking about its commonest experiences. 

Once we believe that natural knowledge should hold a foremost place 
in the curriculum for both boys and girls the difficulties of reform are not 
great. The teachers are competent, or can be made so, and the cost of 
the simple equipment necessary is less than for other practical subjects. 

I could not speak so confidently if I had not conducted large-scale 
experiments in both England and Ireland. ‘That both these experiments 
were subject to serious interruptions does not in the least affect their 
value. What has been done, can be done, and I am sure will be done 
again. I take this opportunity of expressing my appreciation of the fine 
work done by thousands of teachers who have proved beyond cavil that 
purposeful science teaching is both possible and effective in elementary 
schools, large and small. 

‘ Nature Study..—The case for handwork has been won with incal- 
culable advantage to the people ; the cause of science, with its even 
greater possibilities for the creation of alert minds and power of initiative, 
has yet to be fought. Some confusion exists as to the use of the terms 
‘Nature Study’ and ‘ Science.’ It is important that they should be 
properly defined for school purposes, and the distinction between them, 
if it exists, should be made quite clear. ‘ Nature Study ’ is an excellent 
term in that it expresses both the subject and the method, and, used as 
in America, would cover all elementary science up to the standard of the 
school certificate. In this country it is generally used to cover junior 
biological studies, but too often connotes aimless and incompetent 
teaching devoid of all experimental illustration. Natural knowledge, 
whether it relates to dead or living matter, is science, and I plead 
for courage to use the word wherever instruction is purposeful and 
methodical. 


METHODS OF INSTRUCTION. 


Aims of Science Teaching —In educational discussion we hear vastly 
more about methods of instruction than we do about its purpose. We 
find a subject, ‘ Methods of Teaching,’ presided over by a professor of 
Methodology ; there is no professor of aims and purpose. A method is 
merely a means of reaching an end already definitely enunciated ; any 
method that achieves its purpose successfully is a good one. ‘Take care 
of your purpose and the methods will take care of themselves. We need, 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 213 


therefore, far less dogmatism about methods and far more emphatic 
definition of our objectives. 

The aims of science teaching are admittedly the aims of all sound 
education ; it must provide the pupil with that knowledge and those 
mental and personal characteristics that the demands of employment 
and leisure will make upon him. In this broad sense education must 
be directly or indirectly vocational, but does not imply any neglect of 
mental and zsthetic development. I refrain from the use of the term 
* cultural,’ as I have yet to discover the meaning of this password to 
respectability. On the one hand, one finds subjects labelled cultural 
which, pursued to the extent that the average boy follows them, produce 
little or no effect upon his adult life and thought ; on the other hand, 
subject-matter which leads to an understanding of and a reverence for the 
wonders of the creation is often classed as non-cultural. 

Every teacher of practical subjects knows of boys, failures in the class- 
room, who have first gained scholastic self-respect in the laboratory or 
workshop—a vital turning-point in their school career. To assert that 
practical studies do not constitute a powerful factor in the formation of 
character implies an ignorance both of school and of life. 

The old grammar-school tradition, much of which we still inherit, 
provided an education which, for the few who profited by it, was more 
vocational than cultural ; the majority left school half-way through the 
course with an equipment little better than the three R’s. 

We have scattered the same scholastic seed upon soil of all kinds in the 
blind hope that it will germinate and mature. We have paid little attention 
to the soil or to the variety of crops that are necessary. 

Need for Vocational Outlook—We must not constrain every boy into 
a course of study culminating at eighteen or nineteen years, and allow 
go per cent. to drop out at various points along the route without heed to 
their requirements at the point of departure. We must cater for the boy 
and the girl leaving school at fourteen, at fifteen, and at sixteen, and 
must endeavour to place them in a position to face with success the 
employment and the problems that will confront them. The last year 
or so of school life must have a frankly vocational trend. 

We must envisage the demands of the office and the shop, the factory 
and the workshop, the building trades and transport services on land and 
sea, the farmer and the fisherman, domestic service and home duties ; 
even the messenger boy and other blind-alley employments should not be 
forgotten. 

At this final stage of the child’s schooling, whatever the age may be, 
the teacher’s work is as much concerned with character-building as with 
instruction ; he must lead his pupils from the sheltered irresponsibility 
of school life to the habits of self-reliant and conscientious work that the 
world will demand of him. 

No common school examination could direct usefully the varied types 
of training necessary, and inevitably it would divert attention from the 
more essential aspects of the teacher’s work. 

Natural Knowledge-—Natural knowledge renders possible aims and 
therefore methods applicable in only a limited degree to other subjects 


214 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


of the school curriculum. Our younger pupil comes to us with a con- 
siderable knowledge of his native language, but with a great store of natural 
knowledge gained through his own observations and experience in the best 
school of all. ‘These two subjects stand apart, and in early years should 
provide the natural foundation upon which the fabric of his education 
is based. In this mass of unorganised knowledge there is abundant 
material about which he can be led to think and in which he is already 
interested. 

Too often this foundation of the known is completely ignored ; his 
lessons deal exclusively with ideas foreign to his experience ; consequently 
he is bored exceedingly and makes invidious comparisons between the 
schoolroom and the world-school outside. 

The young pupil is immediately responsive to any lesson upon a subject 
within the range of his experience ; he is keen to display his own know- 
ledge and to bombard one with questions in order to extend it. The 
lack-lustre eye of the grammar or arithmetic lesson sparkles into life and 
interest when in the science or nature lesson he is allowed to air his own 
views. Nothing is more astonishing than the power of logical thinking 
young people display, if they are allowed to grow up intellectually and 
their spontaneity is not curbed. Cannot we introduce into the class-room 
something of the atmosphere of the intelligent home, where children show 
knowledge and judgment years in advance of their school performances ? 

Concentration upon method and routine without reference to the end 
in view leads to dogmatism and stereotypes teaching. We can detect 
this blind obedience to traditional method in every subject of the school 
curriculum. Once a teaching method loses its directing purpose it 
becomes a dull-edged and inefficient tool. 

Didactic Method—Among science teachers I find three schools of 
thought : 


(a) Those who don’t think and advocate nothing. 
(6) Those who advocate didactic method. 
(c) Those who advocate natural method. 


With group (a) I am not concerned, except to hope that their numbers 
are few and that they realise that they have mistaken their vocation. 
Group (6) is large but admittedly honest. The didactic teacher has an 
end in view, and hence we must accept his procedure as a method. His 
aim is to produce a pupil with a word knowledge of a subject that can be 
put on paper by a certain date, and can, by constant practice, carry out 
certain routine operations. He believes that these results are a true 
measure of the mental if not the character growth of his pupils. I have 
known many such for whom I have great respect ; they play the school 
game—as they see it—efficiently, and believe that from hard work alone 
will result all that education can achieve. Others advocate didactic 
teaching from other considerations. Headmasters have their difficulties ; 
some, with no great belief in studies other than literary, are forced un- 
willingly to include science in the curriculum ; the time-table is upset 
by the small size and long duration of practical classes; the periods 
demanded by the science master are badly needed for more Latin. Why 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 215 


waste so much time breaking test-tubes ? Of what use are balances and 
thermometers for boys who will only need a gentleman’s knowledge of 
the sciences ? 

Every young teacher, no matter what his training, tends to revert to 
the methods practised upon himself at school. If a science teacher, he 
may find himself confronted with the demand for an annual list of successes, 
no time for preparation, and a starved laboratory ; under such circum- 
stances the text-book and didactic instruction becomes a substitute for 
real teaching. 

Natural Method—I have used the term natural method in contra- 
distinction to didactic instruction. It is the method employed by every 
teacher worthy of the name in much of his daily practice. As far as the 
schoolroom will permit, it approaches the method by which we acquire 
knowledge in the world outside, and is applicable wherever we have a 
foundation of knowledge or experience upon which to build. It is 
natural method because its aim is to cultivate and satisfy the natural 
curiosity in young people about the happenings in the wonderful world 
in which they find themselves. It implies that children are encouraged 
to think for themselves, to express themselves, and are given ample 
opportunity to do so. Their irresponsible activities are gradually and 
carefully directed to inquiries into definite problems within their powers 
of comprehension. Lessons are conversational and argumentative, but 
need not exclude didactic statements where such are necessary to add 
interest and to make progress. The teacher is the leader, not the 
driver; upon his direction, wide knowledge and inspiration success 
depends. 

By these platitudes I run the risk of wearying you ; these principles in 
theory are almost universally accepted ; in practice we find them to a 
large extent ignored to-day. 

Heuristic Method —You will say that natural method as here defined 
is but thinly disguised Heuristic Method first suggested by Prof. 
Meiklejohn in connection with the teaching of English. I have avoided 
the term because it has in these countries become associated with much 
intemperate controversy and destructive criticism. Its opponents have 
set up their own definition in the most absurd terms, and its exponents 
have sometimes allowed the method to submerge its aim. 

Heuristic Method as defined by Prof. Armstrong in the many valu- 
able constructive schemes of work which he has published from time 
to time has passed beyond the stage of controversy. It is accepted as an 
essential component of science teaching by thoughtful teachers in every 
country to which my inquiries have extended. Is there, in fact, any 
alternative method? Although applicable to many subjects, it is so 
specially adaptable to natural knowledge that it has become associated 
almost exclusively with science teaching. 

Prof. H. E, Armstrong—One name beyond others stands out as its 
advocate wherever science is taught—Prof. Henry E. Armstrong— 
originator of this Section of the Association. ‘To his advocacy of training 
in scientific method the advancement of science in schools owes whatever 
progress has been made. His trenchant criticism has been supplemented 


216 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


by copious constructive suggestion. Therein he stands, almost alone, 
among the small band of scientific men who, during the past fifty years, 
have helped us to put purpose and method into our work. Like other 
great reformers, the full appreciation of his tireless efforts may not be 
reached even in his long lifetime. 

General Science essential—There is one implication in my definition 
of natural method as applied to science teaching: our subject must be 
General Science. We cannot work in the corners of knowledge fenced 
in by present-day examinations ; we must be free to trample down half a 
dozen of these fences in one and the same lesson. 

In this great open field we can start almost anywhere ; it will depend 
upon the special interests of the teacher, or even of his pupils, and upon 
the environment of the school. Personally I find ‘ Air, burning, breathing,’ 
a good starting-point ; it involves physics, chemistry, physiology and 
hygiene. In a girls’ school a two years’ course can be centred round the 
theme ‘ How the body keeps warm’; it provides a sound and adequate 
basis of fundamental general science. 

Text-books—Purposeful method in general science should dominate 
instruction up to sixteen years of age—that is, the teaching should be 
broad in scope, and fundamental and experimental in character. Subject- 
matter incapable of inquiry, illustration or verification should be intro- 
duced only where its utility is outstanding. During the later part of 
this period I see no objection to text-books. properly used—that is, for 
reference after instruction and practical work. Science masters are 
more prone to the disease of book-making than other teachers, and I am 
not sure whether the mass of text-books available is a blessing or an evil ; 
their multiplicity and success is a proof that the great majority are misused. 
Publishers and authors alike are interested in sales to individual pupils. 
‘Text-books used otherwise than for reference tend to stereotype instruc- 
tion and to check investigation and initiative. I am glad to say I know 
of no one book that provides a natural and rational course of instruction. 


THE INFLUENCE OF EXTERNAL EXAMINATIONS. 


Examinations and Method—lIt is impossible to discuss methods of 
teaching without reference to the constraints that preparation for examina- 
tions places upon them. In early reports of this Section we deplored the 
stultifying effects of external examinations upon the purpose and methods 
of the teachers’ work. After twenty-five years this yoke appears to hang 
as heavily as ever upon the shoulders of our teachers, who accept patiently 
the burden as part of a pre-ordained scheme of things. In the years 
that need the greatest concentration upon those aspects of training that 
no ordinary examination attempts to test, this evil spirit has obtained 
a strangle-hold upon the efforts of both teacher and pupil. 

Influence upon Teaching —I am unconvinced that external examination 
produces much voluntary stimulus to effort with the ordinary pupil of 
sixteen years of age. It is a very powerful stimulus to the teacher and 
urges him to methods which repress initiative and destroy imagination. 
His reputation is at stake. No matter that the syllabus is extensive and 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 217 


without appeal to the average pupil, it must be covered ; no matter that 
his class is over-large and badly graded, he must deliver to the examination- 
room pupils capable of answering questions which an intensive study of 
past papers indicates as likely to be set. No wonder, then, he looks upon 
argumentative teaching as waste of time, and fails to show the bearing of 
his subject upon the events of every day. He has no time to digress to 
related subjects outside the four walls of his syllabus. Some teachers 
can resist the temptations that examinations offer, and, treating the syllabus 
as a useful servant, can obtain good results without sacrificing the broader 
aims of education. 

The Public Demand for Examinations—The public, with reason, 
demands some guarantee that a pupil leaving school has made satis- 
factory progress in a curriculum approved by an expert. It does not, 
unfortunately, seek information as to the more important results of school 
training—character, physical fitness, and practical skill—which written 
examination is unable to assess. 

The shackles of examination are in the main self-imposed ; no efficient 
school will suffer in reputation because it elects to play the game in an 
amateur spirit and refuses to enter a league of rival competitors. Many 
public and secondary schools retain their freedom, or at least keep the 
dangers of examination in check, but hundreds of others appear to exist 
solely to promote the well-being of semi-official boards and examiners. 
The assessment of the progress of pupils is primarily the duty of the 
expert school staff, who are in daily contact with them. Periodical examina- 
tions by the teachers themselves provide valuable information as to the 
success of their own efforts, and as to the special difficulties of individual 
pupils. The tendency of these great examining bodies to mould many 
schools in the same pattern and to relieve the teachers of one of their 
important functions is a matter for grave consideration. 

It is argued that the influence of preparation for examination is confined 
to the last year of school life. In practice we find this is notso. In some 
cases the purpose of instruction is distorted for several years prior to the 
examination, or, on the other hand, we find low-pressure teaching in the 
earlier years and consequent over-pressure as the examination approaches. 
Examinations, disastrous in their influence upon scientific and practical 
studies, are probably less harmful with linguistic and mathematical sub- 
jects, but with these must discourage free teaching and experiment. 

Internal examination strictly upon what has been taught, supplemented 
by the other information that any well-conducted school can supply, 
should meet every demand that parent and employer can make. 

The quantitative testing by written examination of selected candidates 
is no measure of the value of the work of a school as a whole, which can 
only be ascertained by the guarantee of the teaching staff, supplemented 
by adequate extern inspection. Constructive and sufficient inspection 
in close co-operation with the teaching staffs can provide every safeguard 
that the public may demand. ‘Teachers and inspectors alike must assume 
wider responsibilities and we must trust them both. 

The elementary and central schools have hitherto led a healthy 
educational life, but the virus of examination is beginning to enter their 


218 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


blood. The disease must be checked, and the schools must be isolated 
from the contagion which has become endemic in the majority of secondary 
schools. 

The problem of external examination and its attendant evils is not 
insoluble, but it must be faced with courage and understanding. It is 
much less exacting to work for examinations than to strive for high ideals 
by thought and purpose. The teacher who needs an examination to 
direct his work and keep him at it is in no sense an educator. The 
majority of science teachers, at any rate, would welcome freedom from the 
thraldom that is destructive of all that is best in their art and renders 
much of their effort anything but a labour of love. ‘The present position 
has been reached along a path of least resistance—always a dangerous 
route to follow. 

Practical Examinations —The efficiency of instruction in science cannot 
be tested by written examinations alone ; practical tests, properly con- 
ducted, are as reliable and more searching, and, moreover, tend to direct 
methods of instruction into the right channels. The failure of examining 
bodies to deal with practical and manual instruction is a potent cause of 
the non-advancement of science in our schools. The reason is not far 
to seek ; such examinations are troublesome and expensive and demand 
much expert man-power. These difficulties are shirked, and possibly are 
insuperable, but the teaching suffers accordingly. 

The testing of practical work involves : (a) observation of methods of 
work ; (4) oral questions to test understanding of the problem ; and 
(c) evaluation of the results obtained. Such tests are impossible in the 
absence of an expert examiner, who should base his tests upon the course 
covered by the candidates, but should also test resourcefulness and the 
ability to carry out definite instructions. 

In Irish secondary and central schools we have found no great difficulty 
in ensuring uniformity of marking by different examiners and have every 
confidence in the assessments made. 


Scope OF INSTRUCTION. 


Science in the Junior School —In a good infant school you will probably 
find thoughtful and skilful instruction, natural and scientific in its method. 
It is to be deplored that when the infant emerges into the standards the 
break in methods of instruction is often sudden and complete ; the 
passage of this barrier should be made more smooth by the co-operation 
of teachers working on either side of it. 

The Lower Standards —In the standards of the Junior School instruction 
in science is known as ‘ Nature Study ’—a title which may cover much 
excellent work or cloak a multitude of sins. The old object-lesson, 
described in one of our early reports as ‘ the laborious elucidation of the 
obvious,’ still persists, but has to a great extent been replaced by lessons 
on plant specimens examined individually by pupils. A lesson that 
centres round a single object is apt to be narrow: objects should be used 
to illustrate a topic or subject of instruction, and these subject lessons 
should be connected in short series and so lay some foundation for the 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 219 


work of the Senior School. The tendency to specialise on natural history 
topics to the exclusion of many phenomena more within the experience of 
young people is to be regretted ; they love to see things happening, and 
happening quickly. Little experiments on burning and breathing, how 
water boils, where the sugar goes to in a cup of tea, and a dozen other 
things about air and water, arouse enthusiasm and set them thinking hard. 
Some simple equipment of apparatus is necessary for such lessons and for 
plant experiments. 

Animal Studies—Compilers of syllabuses write glibly—‘ Animal 
studies: birds, fishes, insects, etc.’ I do not think that animal studies 
are to any great extent practicable under ordinary school conditions ; the 
treatment is generally encyclopedic, does not set children thinking, and 
the facts are soon forgotten. 

Need for Explanatory Syllabuses—Teachers in junior standards need 
simple explanatory syllabuses of natural studies arranged seasonally and 
in good sequence that will provide a volume of fundamental and applicable 
knowledge. We need more constructive help from our biological 
friends than we have yet received as to details of instruction and which 
will recognise fully the conditions under which the average teacher 
works. 

Teaching at this stage demands more inspiration than at later periods. 
Sound knowledge is needed for a full appreciation of the wonder and 
beauty of familiar things. ‘The teacher must be able to think upon the 
same plane as his pupils ; he must neither be above their heads nor treat 
them as babies incapable of thought. 

Nowhere can one learn the possibilities of science teaching as under 
the untrammelled conditions of these early years. Almost my whole 
faith in the teaching of science has come from my experiences in elementary 
schools rather than from contact with pupils of more advanced age. 

The outlook and work of university professors, inspectors and secondary 
teachers, in their respective spheres, would greatly benefit if they were 
compelled to spend a post-graduate period in elementary schools, for here 
more than elsewhere can the art of teaching be learnt and practised. 

In considering the scope of science instruction beyond the primary 
stage it will be convenient to divide the subsequent school life into 
three two-year periods: 12 to 14 years, 14 to 16 years, and 16 to 18 
years. 

Science the Same in all Schools—There is no reason to suppose that 
for pupils of the same age, whether in elementary, central or secondary 
schools, there need be any marked difference in the subject-matter of 
instruction or in the manner of teaching it. The size of classes and the 
school equipment may modify the methods but not the purpose of 
instruction. 

Period 12 to 14 Years—In the first of these periods—12 to 14 years— 
our general science syllabus may be: ‘ Earth, air, fire, water, the sky, 
the green plant, and ourselves.’ Under these broad headings the more 
fundamental ideas of physics, chemistry, geology, botany and hygiene 
can be taught. The experienced teacher will delight in drafting his 
own scheme of lessons on a syllabus of such universal scope, but the 


220 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


young student fresh from training will be in difficulties. ‘To help him 
it is necessary to prepare a working syllabus in such explanatory detail 
that it amounts to notes of lessons. ‘Theorists will hold up their hands 
in horror at such a suggestion, but I know from long experience that it 
is the only road to success. By working conscientiously through such 
a scheme the inexperienced teacher gains a grasp of the purpose and 
method of the course that he can obtain in no other way. For the 
preparation of these teaching syllabuses we need the co-operation of 
teachers and inspectors of long and thoughtful experience. 

Demonstration lessons play an important part: they give purpose and 
meaning to individual work, but alone can never give the reality to words 
that comes from personal contact with things and phenomena. Pro- 
vision for individual practical work is essential in every type of school ; 
central and secondary schools are provided with satisfactory laboratories, 
and committees spend large sums upon manual and art instruction in 
higher schools, but plead poverty when the most modest demands are 
made for practical instruction in elementary schools in which the need is 
more urgent. Some elementary schools have—and all should have— 
a work-room fitted with flat-topped tables and provided with a gas and 
water supply. 

Period 14 to 16 Years—At no period of school life does the pupil react 
more to his treatment than between the ages of fourteen and sixteen years. 
His interests become keener and more serious, and his powers of initiative 
and judgment develop if not suppressed by an unyielding school regime. 
Both in the central and secondary school the course in science should be 
of a general character, but not necessarily the same in all schools or in all 
groups of the same school. A more systematic treatment of elementary 
physics, chemistry, electricity, biology and hygiene will necessitate 
revision of much done in the previous two years ; it will not be possible 
to deal with more than fundamentals, and no attempt should be made to 
force instruction up to the present standards demanded by school certifi- 
cate examinations in specific subjects. Instruction should be essentially 
practical, demonstration lessons bearing the same relation to practical 
work as in the earlier period. 

Conditions of Practical Work—The teacher should give many 
qualitative demonstrations not necessary for individual repetition ; the 
laboratory exercises should lead to definite observational or quantitative 
results, and should be performed always with the eye on the clock, for 
quick work implies concentration and success. Laboratory work in 
groups of two or even more pupils is responsible for the formation of 
desultory and inaccurate habits of work, and is tolerated in no other form 
of practical instruction. Over-large classes, poor equipment, and lack of 
laboratory preparation lead to low-pressure work, waste of time and small 
achievement. 

The organisation and supervision of laboratory work makes severe 
demands upon the science teacher ; a practical class of more than twenty 
pupils cannot be taught by one teacher, and the normal school groups are 
usually divided or, alternatively, a second teacher called in. If the science 
master is to devote his whole energies to the problems of instruction he 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 221 


must have at his disposal the services of a laboratory assistant ; valuable 
time is often wasted in mere fetching and carrying and by the difficulties 
arising from a poor equipment. Breakages must occur, and the bill 
for renewals is often a measure of the efficiency of instruction, but head- 
masters look askance at these demands and wonder whether the game is 
worth the candle. 

Where a vocational outlook is possible emphasis should be laid upon 
the appropriate branches of the full course. For others whose future 
employment makes little demand for applied science, instruction will 
be mainly directed to the investigation of common occurrences and the 
problems of healthy living. 

Value of Revision—The adoption of a non-departmental scheme of 
general science has one great advantage : it necessitates the repetition and 
expansion of the same ideas in successive years. Few pupils really grasp 
a new idea at the first presentation, nor does the immediate and frequent 
repetition of the same lesson do more than secure a word memory which 
is not lasting. A new approach to the same idea, after a considerable 
interval, and by a more mature treatment, is invaluable, and much of the 
admitted ineffectiveness of school science is probably due to the neglect 
or ignorance of this fact. 

It is urged as an objection to general science that it is not examinable. 
Could any stronger argument for its adoption be offered ? There can be 
no doubt that external examination would affect the teaching of general 
science even more disastrously than it has affected that of specific subjects. 

Senior Work in Secondary Schools —If instruction up to sixteen years 
of age has been broad, thorough and practical, the nature of science 
studies in the last two years will be determined by the necessities of future 
occupation or employment. Reading and practical work will go hand- 
in-hand, the teacher’s principal function being to direct and organise 
both. A real but elementary knowledge of the interdependence of the 
various branches of science is of greater value to the young student than 
a specialised book knowledge beyond his years. 

The engineer, the doctor, the agricultural expert, the chemist and the 
schoolmaster require a much wider knowledge of science than they com- 
monly possess, and these years should tend to counteract the narrowing 
influences of university and professional training. 

The false standards of university scholarship examinations have 
influenced adversely the science in senior forms of secondary schools. 
The schoolmaster who has been through it knows what his pupils require 
in order to profit by university courses ; his opinions should carry great 
weight in determining the nature and standard of these examinations, 
which should test practically and theoretically a broad and thorough 
knowledge of general science. 

Science in Girls’ Schools—Domestic duties call for more initiative, 
executive ability, power of organisation and common sense than do the 
ordinary vocations followed by boys on leaving school. The woman in 
the home is confronted daily with problems the solution of which demands 
trained intelligence and considerable knowledge of science. A training 

in methods of inquiry in relation to the materials and phenomena of 


222 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


home-life should do much to create an alert interest in common domestic 
experiences. Until fourteen years of age the same course of general 
science is just as useful for girls as for boys; but later there should in 
most cases be a different objective. The academic science syllabuses 
followed with success in boys’ schools make little appeal to girls ; to meet 
this difficulty in Irish secondary schools we substituted a course of 
Everyday Science, with special emphasis upon domestic experience 
and hygiene; while providing a good general foundation, it is less 
quantitative than the course for boys, and has proved an unqualified 
success. 

In girls’ schools there is need for better correlation between the teaching 
given in the laboratory and the kitchen; the subject taught in both is 
really one and the same, yet too often the science teacher and the teacher 
of housecrafts ignore the educational existence of each other. I believe 
we shall not get the best out of either of these aspects of domestic science 
until both are taught by one and the same person. In classes for adults 
there is some justification in treating the subject purely as a craft 
dominated by rules and recipes, but in schools we should direct the 
instruction towards the development of scientific habits and reasoned 
action. Less advance in the purpose and methods of instruction has 
been made in this most adaptable of subjects than in other practical 
studies. 

Training Schools of Domestic Science—TVhe remedy lies with the 
training schools. ‘Training in Domestic Science not only ensures quick 
and congenial employment but provides the best possible preparation 
for married life. The leakage from the profession is doubtless great, 
but we need not regret the cost of training to the State or to the indi- 
vidual, since it provides for the future homes of the nation intelligent 
and skilful management combined with an ability to teach. Some 
training in the art of teaching young children should form part of the 
equipment of every woman ; it is at least as important as a knowledge of 
domestic arts and household management, and is an aspect of girls’ 
education which has not yet received serious attention. ‘There can be 
little doubt that the training schools are accepting students immature 
both in age and educational attainments, and are in consequence com- 
pelled to undertake much instruction which could have been given in 
the secondary school. 

A sound knowledge of general science and considerable experience of 
the domestic arts should be an essential condition for admission to a 
training school, which could then devote itself more intensively to pro- 
fessional training, and so prevent the present tendency to undue prolonga- 
tion of the training period. ‘The instruction in science should concentrate 
upon the bearing of scientific method upon teaching and of science upon 
domestic experience. ‘The preparation of dishes does not supply the 
most suitable material for practice in the teacher’s art, it is too dogmatic ; 
there should in addition be lessons on science and hygiene argumenta- 
tively treated. Learned lectures upon subjects beyond the comprehension 
of the students should be avoided, as they create the feeling that science 
is an unpractical and ornamental fringe to training. In the kitchen as 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 223 


well as in the laboratory it is important to develop an experimental 
attitude of mind; the fear of spoiling food should not be allowed to 
prevent definite inquiries into the nature of the materials and processes 
of the kitchen. 


TRAINING IN SCIENCE OF THE GENERAL SUBJECTS ‘TEACHER. 


Years ago I inspected a country school in the South of Ireland ; the 
teacher—an elderly man—assured me his pupils were ‘ mad on science’ ; 
the school was full of devices for making instruction real and exciting ; 
senior pupils had preserved the keenness often found only among 
the juniors, and would argue with one about anything. On leaving, I 
asked the teacher why he had succeeded when others failed. With a 
twinkle in his eye, he replied : ‘I dunno, sir, but perhaps it is I wasn’t 
trained.’ 

On the whole the training colleges for elementary teachers have done 
their work well: their product is reasonably well fitted to gain experience 
from their teaching. ‘That is all we can expect. 

The teacher of the primary or higher primary school is usually a 
class-teacher, responsible for some or all subjects of the curriculum ; 
he has to contend with difficulties not found in the secondary school, but, 
on the other hand, his methods and his inclinations are free from the 
constraints of examinations. 

The teacher, whether in elementary or secondary school, must have 
grasped the method of science, and requires the same skill in the pre- 
sentation of subject-matter to young pupils. A training college staff 
in touch with the problems of real teaching can do this work more effec- 
tively than university lecturers. 

The studies in general science followed in the training colleges should 
be fundamental but of necessity more limited in scope and degree than 
those attempted by the secondary teacher ; they should revise, from the 
teacher’s standpoint, the work done by the student when at school, but 
must also fill up the many gaps that remain. 

With students of this age it is not desirable to divorce training in 
teaching methods from instruction in subject-matter; both can be 
dealt with simultaneously and without loss of time ; constant reference 
should be made to the difficulties and experiences of class teaching. 
Every specialist in a training college should be his own professor of 
method. Although this might lead to a conflict of pedagogical advice, 
it would leave the student more inclined to form his own judgments and 
would encourage his own critical powers : we do not want all our teachers 
cast from the same mould. 

In the training colleges as in the schools instruction should be more 
akin to discussion than lecturing. The final qualifying tests, theoretical, 
practical and pedagogical, should be conducted by inspectors and teachers 
who have been in close touch with the work. 

The laboratory training must be intensive and individual in order that 
students may acquire the resource that their future work will demand of 
them. In order to face the difficulties that poor equipment imposes they 


224 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


require a good training in laboratory arts and an ability to make use of 
the simplest means of illustration. 


Tue MAKING OF THE SCIENCE TEACHER. 


Over-specialisation —It would be of interest to ascertain the proportion of 
science graduates who ultimately become science masters and who intended 
originally to adopt that profession. ‘The number is probably small, and 
explains the complaint that many young graduates, possessing a diploma 
in education, are unable to deal with junior science classes, and fail to 
interest and to get down to the level of their pupils. Due to their narrow 
specialisation, they are unable, or unwilling, to undertake even elementary 
instruction in a broad course of general science. The preference given 
in school appointments to men with high degrees further ensures 
specialisation. There is something wrong when it requires three different 
specialists to teach a boy of sixteen the modicum of science with which 
he leaves school. There is no such specialisation in literary, language 
or mathematical studies. This haphazard preparation of the science 
teacher for his life’s work explains the failure of general science to obtain 
any firm footing in the schools, and also the large number of candidates 
for the school certificate examination who receive an education in science 
so narrow as to be of little service to them in life. 

In Irish secondary schools there is no alternative to general science 
for the first school certificate ; specialisation is only allowed for the 
higher certificates taken at about eighteen years of age; but we 
find difficulty in obtaining teachers of all-round training and broad 
sympathies. 

To remedy these defects we recently organised an intensive course of 
general science for a group of selected graduates. The instruction in 
elementary physical and biological science was given partly by inspectors 
and partly by the students themselves under direction. We quickly 
discovered the necessity for our experiment, and found that elementary 
work, such as would be covered in the first university year, was half-known 
and its importance little appreciated ; practical work was slow and 
inaccurate, and there was little evidence of an understanding of scientific 
method or of an ability to undertake an experiment to answer a specific 
question. ‘The material was good and the students responded admirably 
to a rather stern disciplinary training. The results of the course, as far 
as we can at present assess them, were very satisfactory. 

Vocational Training for Science Teachers —It would seem that science 
teachers should be trained for their work in life as deliberately as candi- 
dates for other professions. The universities have not yet seriously faced 
this problem, but years ago the Royal Colleges of Science did offer courses 
designed for this purpose, which, though not ideal, produced a large 
number of very sound teachers. Such a course should provide a very 
thorough foundation in physics, chemistry, botany, animal physiology, 
geology and physiography. Emphasis should be laid upon the meaning 
of scientific method as exemplified by the work of the great pioneers, 
ancient and modern. The course should preserve a professional outlook 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 225 


throughout and every effort be made to break down artificial barriers 
between subjects. 

If science teaching does not influence the pupils’ methods of thought, 
if it does not develop the habit of forming careful judgments, it has failed 
completely in its purpose, and little defence can be made for it. To 
produce such results the training of the teacher must provide deliberately 
a practical and scientific discipline. In addition to the acquirement 
of knowledge he must learn to play the game of science, proficiency in 
which examinations make little attempt to test ; bookish erudition and 
a brilliant degree alone give no guarantee that he is scientifically 
minded. 

Training in Theory of Education—The prospective secondary teacher 
spends a post-graduate year attending lectures in the history of education 
and psychology associated with some practice in teaching. Many of us 
are disappointed and surprised at the poor results this year of professional 
studies provides ; any good results appear to come from the amount and 
quality of the teaching experience rather than from the lectures on theory. 
The historical and philosophical treatment of education contributes 
admittedly to the intellectual growth of the student, but in effect is non- 
vocational and does not produce practical and resourceful teachers. 

Such theoretical training would be more effective after some years of 
thoughtful experience ; the student would then be in a position to com- 
pare theory with the results of his own practice. Where they agreed it 
would greatly strengthen his own faith ; where conflict occurred he would 
seek the cause. 

At the Winnipeg meeting of this Section Prof. Hugo Miinsterberg, 
the leading experimental psychologist of his time, said: ‘ I would as soon 
give a student a manual of physiological chemistry and expect her to 
prepare me a good dinner, as I would give her a course in psychology and 
expect her to teach.’ 

If the art of teaching is to develop into a science it will do so along 
inductive lines, and truth must be sought by purposeful observation and 
experiment in the class-room. We must concentrate less upon deductive 
methods and didactic rules and more upon a product equipped to gain 
knowledge from experience and conscious that success in his art can be 
achieved only by his own thoughtful investigations. 

An ability to conceive, carry out and utilise an experiment should form 
an essential part of the training of every teacher, since the problems of 
teaching are the same in all subjects. Some of the most truly scientific 
teaching may be found in elementary schools given by teachers of no 
academic training and whose knowledge of science is dangerously super- 
ficial ; they have a missionary interest in their work, and with freedom 
develop a natural method. 

Why then is professional training in its present form not producing 
the results expected? Fresh from the intensive grinding for his degree, 
the candidate-teacher enters his professional year with unchanged outlook 
—another essential examination to pass. With no experience to give 
reality to the lectures he attends, he thinks far more of the diploma he is 
seeking than of the demands of his future career. 

I 


226 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Other countries have recognised the need of a break between academic 
studies and professional training, and delay the latter until experience and 
greater maturity serve to make it effective. The Danes, both in their 
Folk Schools and in the training of their teachers, recognise the need for 
some experience of the world before embarking upon studies that demand 
a serious outlook upon life. 

An Unorthodox Experiment.—Recently a new Irish Education Act 
found us insufficiently supplied with the types of teacher necessary to 
implement it. We needed teachers of general subjects, building trades, 
metal work, motor-car engineering, rural and general science, and 
domestic economy. We selected our candidates for these groups with 
care, the average age being about twenty-five, and importance was 
attached to the quality of their previous work and experience ; few had 
previously taught. The groups were placed under teachers of experience 
who dealt with the technical training and the problems of teaching 
simultaneously. ‘Teaching methods were confined to the subject-matter 
of the group, and consisted mainly of discussions and criticism lessons 
and a little class experience. The duration of the courses was less than 
a year. I was present at all the final teaching tests and was astonished 
at the excellent standards reached. These teachers are now at work 
throughout the country, and with few exceptions have fulfilled our 
expectations. Many have been called upon to undertake teaching duties 
not contemplated originally, and they have not failed. 

Some conclusions are indicated from this unorthodox experiment. 
In the making of a teacher his maturity and serious contacts with life are 
of great importance ; concentration upon the teaching of specific lessons 
is more effective than the discussion of theoretical principles ; and, lastly, 
the skill acquired in the teaching of one subject is available for wider 
application. 

Section L in York, 1906.—My distinguished predecessor, Sir Michael 
Sadler, in this chair and in this city twenty-six years ago surveyed, with 
very great ability, the whole field of English education at that time. He 
dealt at some length with many of the questions to which I have referred, 
but especially to the need for more vocational purpose in school work. 
At that time he saw signs of a first general appreciation of education 
definitely for life, and showed how educational problems must be inter- 
woven with social problems. He said: ‘ In planning a course of education 
for anyone you must keep the actual needs of his or her future life-work 
steadily in view. The schools must prepare the children for citizenship 
and for individual efficiency in this or that type of future calling, and 
must dovetail educational discipline into the practical tasks of life.’ 
And again : ‘ Schools are at present too little concerned in the question 
how each individual pupil is likely to earn his living.’ He appreciated 
that, with the expansion of the public school downwards and the 
elementary school upwards, the old middle-class grammar school must 
disappear, and that the two remaining types would attract such a 
variety of pupils that it would be difficult to have a clear-cut vocational 
purpose. 

The traditional ruts into which education moved, the concentration 


L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 227 


upon book-learning, the neglect of handwork, and our wastefulness of the 
more ordinary kinds of intellectual material he regarded as the besetting 
weaknesses of his time. 

Much of the progress that Sadler foretold has gone apace, but though 
he deplored our ‘worship of examinations’ as destructive of teaching 
and learning alike, he could not foresee the extent to which machine-made 
examination would stultify the good that should have resulted from the 
fusion of the old class education grades. 

Conclusions —Within the limits of this address, and of your patience, 
I cannot refer to many aspects of science teaching of considerable im- 
portance : for example, the place of scientific thinking in adult education, 
and the marked decline of the amateur interest in science, are problems 
not within the scope of this paper. 

During the generation which represents the life of this Section the 
magnitude of science teaching has increased enormously. As a measure 
we might take the number of school balances in use. Forty years ago 
the number could not have exceeded a few hundreds ; to-day it must 
run well into six figures. 

In early days our school rays of scientific light were admittedly divergent 
but gave a fairly general illumination of the facts of experience ; to-day 
they seem to pass through a lens of short focus and perfect optical 
properties which converges them to form a well-defined image in the 
examination room, but allows little stray light to illuminate the path of 
life at more distant ranges. Our beam of school science must be directed 
in a wider angle so as to envelop the dark areas of ignorance, to enlighten 
which is its proper function. 

There is justification for the impression that, during the period under 
review, the ‘ sense ’ of the advance of school science has become negative 
rather than positive, that its quality and purpose has retrograded rather 
than advanced. Common sense alone will give proper direction to our 
efforts. We must agree as to what school science can do to make better 
thinkers and more earnest workers and see that it does it, irrespective of 
the artificial constraints that scholastic and educational machinery at 
present impose. 

This survey of the advancement of science in schools has left me with 
certain outstanding impressions : 


1. The curricula of many schools—especially secondary schools—are 
based upon the demands of external examinations, and take little 
thought of the human material handled or the shape into which it 
should be moulded to fit accurately into its place in the machine of 
life. It results in mass-production from the same mould without 
reference to the markets it is intended to supply. 


We must be prepared to justify every rectangle in our school time- 
table to the satisfaction of a competent authority. We must define 
clearly what we mean by ‘ culture ’ and must adopt the most direct 
and most economical route to it. We must test our products 
more broadly and more sanely, and keep our curricula fluid and 
experimental. 


- 


228 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


3. School science for the average boy and girl should, in the first place, 
provide broad and real knowledge that will, as far as possible, 
render intelligible the phenomena of common experience; and, 
secondly, provide a training in the formation of sound judgments 
and alertness. Its teaching cannot be adapted to traditional 
linguistic methods. 


4. Science teaching is a profession the preparation for which is at 
present neither deliberate nor adequate. 


SECTION M—AGRICULTURE. 


SHEEP FARMING: A DISTINCTIVE | 
FEATURE OF BRITISH AGRICULTURE 


ADDRESS BY 
PROF. R. G. WHITE, 
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION. 


Ear y in the sixteenth century Master Fitzherbert wrote: 


‘ An housbande can not well thryve by his corne without he have 
other cattell, nor by his cattell without corne. For else he shall be 
a byer, a borrower or a begger. And because that shepe in myne 
opynyon is the mooste profytablest cattell that any man can have, 
therefore I pourpose to speake fyrst of shepe.’ 


The first part of this extract is a clear statement of the belief responsible 
for the traditional policy of British agriculture. The soundness of that 
policy perhaps is not accepted so readily and generally as it used to be, 
but, while we might differ on the broad question, we shall at any rate agree 
that one of the biggest immediate problems which British farmers have 
to face is that of finding a profitable outlet for their main crop—grass. 
It therefore seems appropriate that we should give special consideration 
to the kind of ‘ cattell ’ of which Fitzherbert had such a high opinion, and 
that like him Section M at this meeting should ‘ speake fyrst of shepe.’ 

I am sure that he would accept my title without question, or, at most, 
would assert that it was much too mild, but, without making any reflection 
on my audience, it is perhaps necessary to produce some evidence in 
support of my opinion that sheep farming is a ‘ distinctive feature of 
British agriculture.’ I must restrict my survey to Great Britain, but my 
claim could probably be justified even if we used the term British in its 
wider sense. About one-third of all the world’s sheep are in the British 
Empire. ‘They produce about half the world’s wool and probably about 
the same proportion of mutton and lamb. 

Table I, compiled from the International Year-Book of Agricultural 
Statistics, shows that in relation to total land area our sheep population 
is only surpassed by that of New Zealand. Even if we consider actual 
numbers, Great Britain is eighth on the list, and, except for New Zealand, 
is only surpassed by countries many times its size. 


230 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


TABLE I. 
Total 
és No. of Tiietared Sheep 
ountry. Sheep, 1930 (Thousand per 100 
(Thousands). u Hectares. 
: ectares). 

Australia (1929) . > 104,558 770,385 13°6 
U.S.S.R. (Asia and Europe) 89,860 1 2,117,620 4 
US.AL fs. d : : 51,911 783,943 6-6 
Union of S. Africa (1929) . 45,010 122,224 36°8 
Argentina . : : 44,413 279,271 15°9 
New Zealand . 2 : 30,841 26,784 iG 
British India. ‘ : 25,539 270,130 9°4 
Great Britain . _ ‘ 23,965 22,744 105°4 
Uruguay . . ‘ : 20,558 18,693 90°9 
Spain (1929) _ . : : 19,370 50,521 38°3 
France (1929) . : . 10,452 545405 19°2 
Italy : : 2: 5 9,896 31,014 31°9 
Germany . : : 4 3,501 46,864 vied 


Table II enables us to examine the position in European countries more 
comparable with our own than those at the head of the first table. It will 
be noticed that the area considered—arable and grass land—is different 
from that in Table I, where total land area was taken as the basis of 
calculation. The important facts brought out by this table are (1) our 
low proportion of tilled land, which is only about half the average of the 
other countries ; (2) our great number of sheep ; (3) the small population 
employed on a given area of land. In Great Britain sheep are used to 
consume a large part of the production of the soil which in other countries 
is of a different character and is disposed of in a different way—e.g. 
France grows a much larger proportion of crops for direct human con- 
sumption ; in Germany, Holland, and, above all, in Denmark, dairy 
cattle and pigs dominate farming practice. 

In assessing the importance of the industry it is perhaps even more 
necessary to know how sheep compare with other branches of farming in 
this country, and I have therefore drawn up Table III (p. 232) from 
figures in the official reports on Agricultural Output. It indicates the 
extent to which the income of the British farmer depends on receipts from 
sheep and wool. It should be noted that the figures include only pro- 
duce sold off the land or consumed in farm households. They do not 
include sales from one farm to another. 


1 This figure taken from the International Yeay-Book is probably much too low. 
The “Wool Survey ’ recently published by the Empire Marketing Board, quoting 
the Journal of the Soviet Textile Trust, gives 100-5 millions. The number in 
1929 Was 132°8 millions. 


. M.—AGRICULTURE 231 


TaBLeE IT. 


Per 100 Hectares of Arable and Grass Land. 


1930. 
Population | Percent. in 
occupied in| Total of 
Agriculture | Arable Land 
Country. Sheep. Cattle. Pigs. per 100 excluding 
Hectares. | Clover and 
Crops and | Temporary 
Grass. Grass. 
Great Britain .| 1990 58:8 20°3 II 29°2 
Italy -|  49°3 34°3 15°7 51 58-9 
France . : 35°6 52°9 20°7 30 65°5 
Holland 21°8 106°5 go:8 28 38-9 
Germany 12°2 64°2 81°5 34 64°4 
Denmark 6°3 102°2 162°8 15 65-1 
Great Britain 
(including 
rough graz- 
ing) 33°0 39°2 2 AG) Z 19°5 
France 
(including 
rough graz- 
ing) 31-6 47°2 18-4 27 58-4 


Thus, in 1925, receipts from sheep and wool constituted between 
one-fourth and one-third of our receipts from the sales of farm stock, 
excluding poultry, and about one-tenth of the total British agricultural 
income. 

The main facts regarding our consumption of mutton and lamb in 
relation to that of other kinds of meat are set out in Table IV (p. 232), 
prepared from the Marketing Reports in the Ministry’s Economic 
Series. 

Whilst Tables I and II justify the claim of sheep to be regarded as a 
special feature of British farming, the figures in Tables III and IV show 
that we must not take an exaggerated view of their importance, even 
though they are immensely more important to us than to continental 
farmers. 

In 1925 mutton and lamb brought to the British farmer rather less 
income than did vegetables, flowers and fruit. Possibly, by now, even. 
poultry may be more important financially than sheep. 


232 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


TaBLe III. 


ESTIMATED VALUE OF AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL PRODUCE 
FROM FARMS AND OTHER HOLDINGS IN GREAT BRITAIN. 


1908. 1925. 
Thousands of £. 

Horses . : ; : 5 1,590 1,430 
Cattle and Calves. , : : 27,264 51,210 
Sheep and Lambs . : : ‘ 18,196 24,520 
Rags tees : : ; : ; 14,362 28,240 
Total Live Stock. : : 3 61,400 105,400 
Wool . : é , : 2,600 4,100 
Farm Crops . i : ; 46,600 555250 
Milk and Dairy Produce . : E 30,000 66,500 
Eggs and Poultry . ‘ . 5,000 17,310 
Vegetables, Fruit, Flowers : ' — 25,430 
Total Sales off the Land : ; 150,800 273,990 


TaBLe IV. 


SE | Proportion of Home-produced 


go lie A cane = Production to Total Supplies. 
- of Mutton 
| and Lamb | 
[Mutton] Beef | Pork, | Crt | mutton | Beef | Pork, 
gaat aaa Be Bia, and ft aaa Bacon? 
Lamb. | Veal. | etc.? | Lamb. Veal. etc.? 
Thousand 
lb. Ib. lb. tons. % % % 
1904-9 | 27°9 | 67°4 | — Ser. | | Sr°O ogee ani 
(Average) 
1909-14 | 30°7 | 65-7 | 34°2 277 49°3 oe 57°4 
(Average) 
1923-24 | 23-7 | 68-6 | 41-2 190 41°3 44°5 42°8 
1924-25 | 23:8 | 70°4 | 43°7 #95 4179 4319 47°8 
1925-26 | 25:6 | 71:6 | — 215. | .42°8 42°6 — 
1926-27 | 26-8 | 70:7 | — 234 44°3. | 42:7 = 
1927-28 | 28:0 | 70:2 | — 261 Aas 45°7 — 
1928-29 | 28-0 | — — 250 4 4b — = 
1929-30 | 28:6 | — — 239 419 — — 


2 Great Britain and Ireland. 


M.—AGRICULTURE 233 


Similarly, our consumption of mutton and lamb is far greater than 
that of most other populations—z28 lb. per head per annum as compared 
with 6-8 lb. in France, 6-5 Ib. in Canada, 5-8 Ib. in the U.S.A., and 
1-6 lb. in Germany ; but Table IV shows that it is only about two- 
fifths of our consumption of beef and veal. The home supply and the 
consumption of mutton and lamb per head appear to be recovering from 
the check caused by the war, but it is clear that the home product has 
not held its own in the competition for supplying the demands of our 
increasing population, and we now depend on overseas supplies to a much 
greater extent than before the war. 

At the same time, I feel that these figures must not be taken as an exact 
measure of the importance of the sheep industry in our national agricul- 
tural economy. There are many other considerations to be taken into 
account, some of which I will discuss later. 


DEVELOPMENT OF BRITISH SHEEP FARMING: WOOL PRODUCTION. 


The importance of sheep is no new feature of British agriculture, and 
a rapid survey of the history of sheep farming in this country will enable 
us to obtain a better idea of the present position of the industry and its 
prospects for the future. I cannot go further back than Norman times, 
and I do not suppose that until the country became comparatively settled 
and law-abiding, sheep were of very great importance. In a country 
subject to continual tribal quarrels or internal wars, I imagine that a sheep 
flock would excite the feelings said to be roused to-day by a rabbit in a 
Yorkshire mining district. ‘Throughout the Middle Ages it would hardly 
be an exaggeration to say that the history of sheep farming was the history, 
not only of agriculture, but of national commerce. Up to the middle of 
the fifteenth century, Great Britain, and, in particular, the lowland 
districts of England, provided the most important source of supply of the 
wool required by continental manufacturers, particularly those of Flanders, 
but also those of Italy and other countries at a greater distance. Britain 
almost played the part which Australia plays to-day. Such was the 
dependence of continental manufacturers on English wool that it was 
possible to impose export duties, which for long were among the most 
important sources of revenue available for the medieval equivalent of 
our Chancellor of the Exchequer. The nation was not long content with 
being merely a producer of raw wool, and from the twelfth century 
onwards there was a whole series of enactments intended to foster 
woollen manufacture and to keep British wool for British looms. For 
long periods the export of wool was actually prohibited, though even in 
those days prohibition was not entirely successful, and the smuggling of 
wool out of the country became at various times quite an important 
enterprise. 

Legislation of this kind was not the only means adopted to build up a 
manufacturing industry. It is probable that continental weavers were 
encouraged to come over and settle in different parts soon after the 
Conquest, and it is certain that Edward III brought over a number of 
Flemish weavers between 1330 and 1340. By the middle of the fifteenth 

12 


234 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


century the effects of the various protective measures and of the develop- 
ing home industry were to be clearly seen. The export of raw wool fell 
off, less cloth was imported, and the export of cloth became of considerable 
importance. 

In the Middle Ages English woollen manufacture was mainly con- 
centrated in three areas: the West Country—Gloucestershire, Wiltshire, 
Somerset ; East Anglia, particularly Suffolk and Essex ; and Yorkshire. 
I regret to say that Yorkshire was not only third in order of quantity, but 
it was also rather notorious for poor quality, and it was not until the 
nineteenth century that the West Riding assumed its present eminent 
position in manufacture. It is interesting to us to-day to know that York 
played an important part both in the manufacture and in the foreign trade 
in cloth. From 1164, for more than a century, the city had the monopoly 
of the manufacture of dyed and striped cloth in the county, and at the 
beginning of the fifteenth century it was estimated that of about 2,500 
heads of families in the city, 250 were masters of one or other of the 
Guilds which regulated the making of cloth. By the sixteenth century 
York had declined as a manufacturing centre, partly owing to the growing 
competition of the West Riding, but it still held an important position 
in the trade, largely as a result of its connections with the Merchant 
Adventurers, who so largely controlled the export of Yorkshire cloth up 
to the seventeenth century. 

As regards the production of wool, it is important to note that the 
developing agriculture of the country, though called upon to provide the 
food required by the increasing industrial population, was also able to 
supply the wool needed for the continually expanding manufacture, as 
well as a certain amount for export. There must, therefore, have been a 
steady increase in the number of sheep, doubtless accompanied by some 
improvement in the weight of fleeces. In the main, the country was self- 
supporting up to the end of the eighteenth century, and, although there 
were at times considerable imports of wool from overseas, on the other 
hand we read of agitations for the removal of restrictions on export, so as 
to enable the British farmer to secure a better price for his wool. These 
agitations came to a head about the end of the eighteenth century, and the 
prohibition of the export of wool was removed in 1825. It is possibly not 
generally known that, although we now import colossal quantities of wool, 
a large proportion of our home-grown clip is exported. Up to 1927 
nearly 60 per cent. was sent abroad, principally to the United States and 
Italy. The weight of home-grown wool exported is such that Great Britain 
is about eighth on the list of wool-exporting countries. 

On the more definitely agricultural side of the sheep industry, our 
information of early developments is in many ways very meagre and 
unsatisfactory. For instance, we know little of the origin of our domesti- 
cated breeds of sheep, and I do not suppose that anyone would care to 
express a very definite opinion regarding the character or origin of the 
sheep in the country at the time of the Norman Conquest. From the 
Conquest onwards records of various kinds throw some light on the 
nature of the sheep kept in different parts of Great Britain, though early 
writings deal much more fully with the wool than with the sheep them- 


a 


M.—AGRICULTURE 235 


selves. The monasteries were very large sheep farmers, and information 
regarding the prices they obtained for their respective clips gives us 
some idea of the distribution of different types of sheep in the thirteenth 
and fourteenth centuries. Even at that time, Hereford and adjoining 
counties produced very valuable wool, while the Midland counties and 
Lincolnshire also received high prices. Scotland, the North of England, 
and Wales, as now, evidently produced a good deal of wool of low market 
value. Certain exceptions may possibly indicate isolated areas in which 
sheep of an old local kind survived, or, on the other hand, the results of 
the introduction of new types from abroad. 

From the fourteenth century onwards there was a regular succession 
of writers on agriculture, and from them we obtain more definite ideas 
of the sheep in different districts. For instance, Gervase Markham, 
writing in the early part of the seventeenth century, observes : 


‘ If then you desire to have Shepe of a curious fine staple of Woole 
from whence you may draw a thread as fine as silk, you shall see such 
in Herefordshire about Lempster side and other special parts of 
that country ; in that part of Worcestershire joining upon Shrop- 
shire, and many like places ; yet these shepe are very little of bone, 
black faced, and bear a very little burthen. ‘The shepe upon Cotsall 
hills are of better bone, shape and burthen, but their staple is coarser 
and deeper. The shepe in that part of Worcestershire which joyneth 
on Warwickshire and many parts of Warwickshire, all Leicestershire, 
Buckinghamshire and part of Northamptonshire, and that part of 
Nottinghamshire which is exempt from the forest of Sherwood, 
beareth a large boned shepe, of the best shape and deepest staple ; 
chiefly if they be Pasture shepe, yet in their woole coarser than that 
of Cotsall. Lincolnshire, especially in the Salt Marshes, have the 
largest shepe, but not the best Woole, for their legs and bellies are 
long and naked, and their staple is coarser than any other. The 
shepe in Yorkshire and so northward are of reasonable big bone, 
but of a staple rough and hairy, and the Welsh shepe are of all the 
worst, for they are both little and of coarse staple ; and indeed are 
praised only in the dish for they are the sweetest mutton.’ 


This extract not only gives some idea of the sheep kept in different parts 
of the country, but Markham’s last remark shows the unimportance in 
his day of mutton compared with wool. 

At the present time wool is of such secondary importance in this country 
that it is well to be reminded of the fact that until the eighteenth century 
wool production was the main purpose for which sheep were kept. 


FOLDING OF SHEEP. 


. Probably the next most important function which the sheep served was 
‘that of fertilising the arable land in the days when very little farmyard 
Manure was produced and artificial manures were yet unthought of. 
In the old village system the arable land was usually cultivated on a 


236 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


primitive rotation of two corn crops followed by a fallow. The village 
flock was grazed on the wastes and commons during the day, and at night 
was brought back to be folded on the fallows and stubbles (or, in some cases, 
fastened in houses or sheds). They thus provided the means of enriching 
the arable land at the expense of the commons and wastes, which often lay 
at some distance from the village. Most of us have seen at one time or 
another remarkable demonstrations of the wonderful efficiency of a flock 
of sheep as transporters of fertilising material. ‘Tusser’s verse describes 
the system sufficiently well and indicates one of its incidental disadvantages 
in the days when fences were almost non-existent and sheep dogs had not 
had the benefit of the education provided by our Sheep Dog Trials. 


‘ The land is well hearted with help of the fold, 
For one or two crops, if so long it will hold. 
If shepherd would keep them from stroying of corn, 
The walk of his sheep might the better be borne.’ 


The system was general in all arable districts up to the time of the 
great enclosures in the eighteenth century. At the end of that century 
the folding of sheep in the South Midlands was still valued at about 4os. 
an acre, or from 4s. to 5s. per sheep per annum, though many writers 
suggest that the return was dearly bought. Walking the sheep long 
distances every day and the discomfort and semi-starvation which they 
often experienced on the fallows made mutton production impossible. 
It is perhaps worthy of note that the Wiltshire and Norfolk breeds were 
regarded as specially suitable for folding because they were active and 
* stood well out of the dirt.’ This early system of folding on fallows and 
stubbles must not be confused with the modern system of folding on 
root and forage crops, which is a very different matter. 


MILk PRODUCTION. 


A subsidiary, but not unimportant, additional return from the flock 
in old times was the cheese made from the ewes’ milk after the weaning of 
the lambs. The practice of milking the ewes survived in many hill 
districts until comparatively recently, but has now almost completely 
disappeared. Walter of Henley, Tusser and other early writers deal 
rather fully with the matter. ‘The lambs were weaned comparatively 
early and the ewes milked for six or eight weeks, care being taken to dis- 
continue the milking soon enough to allow the ewes to get into good 
condition before the approach of winter. In the General View of the 
Agriculture of Roxburgh (1798) it is estimated that a score of ewes 
would give about two quarts of milk a day ; thirty-six score of ewes, with 
the addition of 25 per cent. of cow’s milk, should give a cheese of about 
45 lb.aday. These were, of course, small Cheviot ewes kept on poor hill 
pasture. When we think of the labour involved in collecting and milking 
thirty-six score of ewes every day, and the value of cheese at the present 
time, we can hardly be surprised that the practice has died out. At the 
same time, there are other aspects of the milking of ewes which require 
mention, and to them I will return. 


M.—AGRICULTURE 237 


MEAT PRODUCTION. 


Early agricultural writers make little reference to mutton. ‘Tusser 
advises the purchase of old crones at the end of August for autumn 
fattening, and included ‘ fat crones and such old things ’ in the farmer’s 
daily diet between Michaelmas and Hallowmas. ‘Tusser, Lisle and 
other early writers refer to fat lambs and ‘ House Lambs,’ but the usual 
practice was to kill for meat only those sheep which were too old and 
infirm for further keeping. Losses from disease were very heavy, and 
the lambing percentage was low, so that the need for maintaining the 
numbers of the flock for wool production would make it impossible to 
slaughter young sheep in any great numbers. 

In the eighteenth century great changes took place. The demand for 
wool was greater than ever, but the developments which took place in 
agriculture made it possible to maintain larger numbers of sheep and to 
fatten them in either winter or summer. Among these changes were 
the enclosures, increased attention to drainage, and, above all, the cultiva- 
tion of roots and clover. The growth of the towns and the demands of 
a large industrial population provided the necessary outlet and stimulus 
for the production of mutton on a large scale. The application of Bake- 
well’s genius to the development of a sheep capable of maturing early, 
feeding quickly and producing a heavy fat carcase, completed the 
sequence of changes which, for the first time, made meat production 
the object of prime importance in the British sheep industry. 

Following on the changes I have mentioned, and stimulated by the 
constantly growing markets for both mutton and wool, there were other 
important developments in the latter half of the eighteenth and the early 
part of the nineteenth centuries. 


MOovunTAIN SHEEP FARMING. 


The first of these is the development of Mountain sheep farming, which, 
in its present form, dates very largely from the second half of the eighteenth 
century. It is fairly safe to estimate that in Great Britain Mountain sheep 
now outnumber all other breeds put together, and their importance is 
such that we are apt to assume that sheep have always been the chief stock 
kept on mountain land. This certainly was not the case. In the Scottish 
Highlands and in the mountain areas of Wales sheep were, until com- 
paratively recently, of very much less importance than cattle. The 
estimated numbers of different classes of stock in Scotland even at the end 
of the eighteenth century were : 


Horses. Cattle. Sheep. 
: ; 243,000 1,047,000 2,852,000 
as compared with 156,316 1,235,999 +~—- 7,649,551 in 1930 
The figures for Perth, Inverness and Argyll were : 
Horses. Cattle. Sheep. 


36,544 185,937 550,450 
as compared with 21,640 166,738 \ © 1,874,177 in 1930 


238 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Had the first estimate been made fifty years earlier, the comparison 
with present-day figures would have been even more striking. 

The Gwydyr Papers throw a very interesting light on the position in 
mountain districts of Wales in the sixteenth century. ‘The following table 
gives the numbers of different classes of stock on eight mountain farms in 
1569, together with particulars of the stock in 1931 in a neighbouring 
parish. I should like to express my indebtedness to the authorities of 
the National Library of Wales and the Ministry of Agriculture for 
permission to quote the figures. 


TABLE V. 
Eight Large Farms (1570). Neighbouring Parish (1931). 
Cows ; : 5 - 432 Cows and heifers in calf or 
4 year old Bullocks. - .180 in milk . : é . 19267 
Birislerdes Pe 4 . 66 Bulls E ; 3 : 5 
5 aly vagy af 3 76 Other cattle : 
Suloviiles bHetietsw wy . 80 2 years and above . 281236 
24 deit-hew 5 ‘ olan7o r year and under 2 years. 118 
Bulls . 4 , 79it6 Under 1 year . y . 144 
Calves. ; : 2. :2ag 
Total cattle , . 1,033 Fotal cattle ; egg 
‘pheepy).4.. . ; . 495 Ewes kept for breeding . 6,712 
‘ Yearlings ’ ‘ ‘ . 152 Rams and ram lambs . 30 203 
Lambs. : : «\ 983 - ‘Other sheep: 
1 yearand above . . 2,165 
Under 1 year ; . 5,180 
Total sheep. , . 1,030 Total sheep : 14,260 
Horses (1569). t - 39 Horses } : = Ake 
Goats ‘ ; ‘ . 215 Goats : . No information 


Watson has recently given a full account? of the development of the 
sheep industry in the Highlands between 1760 and about 1810 and has 
shown how the Black-face replaced both cattle and the old type of sheep 
often referred to by early writers as the Dun-faced breed. In Wales and 
the North of England a similar process undoubtedly took place in 
many mountain areas, but the change was much more gradual, and, 
doubtless partly for that reason, there was no sudden substitution of a 
new breed. In Wales, for instance, I think it is very likely that the old 
Dun-faced breed was also the original type, but it had been gradually 


3 Transactions of the Highland and Agricultural Society, 1932. 


M.—AGRICULTURE 239 


improved and modified until it became the Welsh Mountain sheep well 
before the period of which we are speaking. 


ARABLE SHEEP FARMING. 


Up to the eighteenth century sheep in all parts of the country were 
necessarily what we should now describe as ‘ grass sheep.’ The weeds 
and miscellaneous herbage of the fallows and stubbles could contribute 
comparatively little to the sustenance of the flock. In the fifteenth and 
sixteenth centuries, when wool production was particularly profitable, 
a great increase in sheep stocks took place, and the extra food required 
for them was provided, not by ploughing up land, but by the reverse 
process of converting arable land into pasture, much to the dismay and 
indignation of all except the large landowners and flock-masters. The 
long-wools, which formed the bulk of the production of the country, were 
mainly the product of the grass lands of the Midlands. At the same time, 
the folding of the sheep on the fallows was, as we have seen, an essential 
part of the old English arable system. Therefore, when the fallow was 
replaced by root crops and various forage crops, it was natural that a 
system should be devised under which sheep consumed the crops where 
they grew. Gradually there was developed the system of intensive 
sheep management, best seen about the end of the nineteenth century in 
counties such as Wiltshire, Dorset and Hampshire. There the flocks 
might be kept closely folded on arable land throughout the whole year, 
consuming crops specially grown for them. For such a system our Down 
breeds of sheep are particularly suitable, and without it they would not 
have reached their present degree of excellence as mutton sheep. The 
Dorset Horn in its own country, the Leicester on the Yorkshire Wolds, or 
the Lincoln on the light arable land in its own county are other examples 
of arable sheep, though the system of management in the North was never 
so intensive as that in the South. 


Fat Lams INDUSTRY. 


In recent times the most important changes have been associated with 
the great development of the fat lamb industry, but it would be wrong to 
regard it as a new activity. Tusser, Lisle and others refer to it in writings 
from the seventeenth century onwards, and in the neighbourhood of 
London the practice of obtaining very early fat lambs appears to have been 
quite common. Dorset Horn ewes, as now, were commonly employed 
for this purpose, and the practice of rearing the lambs indoors led to the 
term ‘ House’ lamb. At the same time, the practice of producing early 
fat lambs was by no means confined to the Home Counties or to Dorset 
Horn ewes. Lisle describes the sending of fat lambs from Wiltshire to 
London at the beginning of the eighteenth century, and in the County 
Reports, to which I must make frequent reference, there is very 
general mention of fat lambs. For instance, in Durham, the draft 
mountain ewes were sold from the high western districts to the lower 
eastern parts of the county, where occupiers could not keep permanent 


240 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


breeding flocks on account of the ‘ rot.” The proceeds in 1810 are given 
as follows : 


hess ad: 

Lamb sold beginning of July , ’ 16 oO 
Ewe sold beginning of October. ‘ 18 oO 
Fleece . : f : ; 2 0 
Total . : 5 : : 3 2, BO 
Deduct the price paid for ewe : ; IZ. 10 
Leaves for a year’s keeping. whl: Ano 


To show that our large autumn movements of ewes to distant 
parts of the country had their counterpart more than a century ago, 
I may mention that Welsh ewes were largely used in South-East England 
for fat lamb production. I am inclined to think that the fat lamb 
industry was of relatively greater importance at the beginning of the 
nineteenth century than it was in the latter part of the century. The 
general development of agriculture, and particularly of root growing, 
during the first half of the century, encouraged the keeping of lambs for 
fattening on roots during the winter, and of yearlings to be fed on clover 
leys during the summer. In any case, most of us know from our own 
experience that up to quite recently little early lamb was marketed, and 
the meat most commonly consumed was that of young sheep ranging from 
about six months to eighteen months in age, whilst in the hill districts, 
and also in some lowland districts, wethers were kept until they were three 
or four years old. This is now a thing of the past. ‘Two years ago the 
Ministry of Agriculture, in addition to the usual June census, collected 
figures for numbers of stock in January. The following table brings out 
clearly the fact that now the majority of lambs in England and Wales 
are slaughtered before reaching the age of eight or nine months. ‘The 
number of lambs under one year in June was nearly 7 millions, and less 
than half that number in the following January. Of the 3-4 millions then 
returned, probably not less than 1 million would be ewe lambs intended 
for breeding purposes, so that of 6 million lambs not intended for breeding, 
34 millions left our farms between June and December. Actually, this 
underestimates the sale of early lambs because the spring lambs sold in 
April and May ought to be added to the June figures, whilst from the 
January number should be taken the autumn lambs born in the south of 
England and the store lambs purchased from Scotland. 


Tasie VI. 
England and June Jan. June 
Wales. 1929. 1930. 1930. 
Ewes for breeding. 6,717,000 7,120,300 6,810,700 
Other sheep, 1 year 
and above . . 2,267,000 1,218,900 2,213,700 


Under 1 year - 6,934,000 3544.0,500 7,099,300 


M.—AGRICULTURE 241 


THE PRESENT POSITION OF SHEEP FARMING IN GREAT BRITAIN. 


The rough survey of the history which we have made enables us to 
summarise the present position very briefly, and Table VII enables us to 
consider recent changes. Our sheep can be divided into three large 
groups : 


(a) Mountain and hill flocks. 

(6) Flocks kept largely or mainly on arable land. 

(c) Lowland grass flocks maintained primarily for the production of 
fat lambs. 


Mountain Sheep—In the Census of Production made in 1908 an 
attempt was made to secure information regarding the numbers of each 
breed of farm livestock in Great Britain. Even at that time the mountain 
breeds included about half the total sheep population. Since 1908 they 
have become of much greater relative importance, not so much because of 
any great increase on their native grazings, but because of their invasion 
of the lowlands, particularly to form temporary flocks for the production 
of fat lambs. 

Table VII brings out the relative stability of the flocks in areas where 
there is a great deal of hill or mountain land. Under present conditions, 
even more than in the past, sheep farming is the only possible system of 
utilising the greater part of such land agriculturally. At the same time, 
there has been little, if any, increase in the number of sheep on the 
mountains, although financial returns from sheep were satisfactory until 
a year or two ago. In many cases the number is strictly limited by the 
area of suitable winter grazing which can be secured within a reasonable 
distance for the lambing ewes and the ewe lambs. In others, where this 
consideration does not arise, the land was fully stocked years ago and has 
probably deteriorated in recent years. In certain Highland counties 
there has even been a substantial reduction in the numbers. This has 
been discussed by Greig and King, and more recently by Watson. De- 
terioration of grazings and, above all, the disappearance of the wether flocks 
are probably the main reasons. In mountain flocks everywhere there 
has been an important change in the type of sheep kept. Formerly 
very large numbers of the wethers were kept until three or four years 
old. Now there is no demand for such old mutton, and practically all the 
wether lambs are sold off the hills in their first autumn. This has 
enabled larger numbers of breeding ewes to be maintained, and has 
provided the lowland farmer with a larger supply of draft ewes and 
store lambs, but in many cases the clearance of the wethers has led to 
deterioration. After the first winter they spent the whole of the year on 
the mountains and ate down a good deal of the rough grass left over 
from the summer, thus contributing to the growth of attractive nutritious 
herbage in the following spring. Moreover, the weight of protein and 
mineral matter annually sold off the grazing is now much greater than 
formerly. 


242 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


TABLE VII.—CHANGE IN SHEEP POPULATION OF DIFFERENT COUNTIES OF 
GREAT BRITAIN BETWEEN 1900 AND 1930. 


Decreases. 
Over 40 %. 20%, to 40 %. Under 20 %. 
England : 
Cambs. 65 Notts. 35 Kent 19 
Berks. 60 Somerset 31 Warwick 15 
Suffolk 60 Staffs. 28 Worcs. 15 
Wilts. 59 Glos. 26 Cheshire r2 
Hants, 58 Derby 26 E. Riding 7 
Norfolk 53 Leics. 25  W. Riding 2 
Surrey 50 Cornwall 23 N. Riding I 
Essex 50 Northants. 21 Shrops. 2 
Dorset 50 Bucks. 21 
Lincoln 49 
Bedford 45 
Oxford Al 
Sussex 41 
Herts. AI 
Wales : 
Glam. 
Merioneth I 
Monmouth 3 
Scotland : 
Moray 26 Inverness 17. 
Argyll 24 Roxburgh 13 
Bute 9 
Perth 8 
Stirling 2 
Lanark 2 
Increases. 
Over 40 %. 20, Y,1ta140, 9/5 Under 20 %. 
England : 


Westmorland 16 
Hereford II 
Northumb. 10 
Cumberland 10 
Lancs. 9 
Durham 4 
Devon 2 


M.—AGRICULTURE 243 


TABLE VII.—continued. 


Increases—continued. 


Over 40 %. 20 % to 40 %. Under 20 %. 
Wales : 

Anglesey 76 Denbigh 35 Mont. 19 
Flint 52 Radnor 13 
Pemb. 12 
Card. II 
Carm. II 
Caern, 10 
Brecon 2 

Scotland : 
Kincard. 68 E. Lothian 38 W. Lothian 14 
Caithness 57 Fife 34.  Wigtown 9 
Banff 47. ~Aberdeen 29 Selkirk 8 
Berwick 26 Peebles 8 
Dumfries | Sutherland 7 
Ross 6 
Midlothian 5 
Ayr 4 


Arable Sheep Farming as developed in the south of England well deserves 
special notice, because it is the one British system in which sheep are 
managed really intensively. The flock is folded on forage and root crops 
practically all the year round. The relatively high productivity of arable 
land and the systematic management of the fold enable large numbers to 
be kept on a given area of land. The sheep secure their food with the 
minimum of exertion on their part ; they usually receive generous supplies 
of cake or concentrated food, and the land is well and evenly manured 
for succeeding crops of corn. Table VII shows how this system of 
farming has suffered. In the fourteen English counties in the first 
column the number of sheep was 5,040,000 in 1900 and is now only 
2,393,000. ‘The reduction in arable flocks must be even greater than 
the figures indicate, because in practically all counties there has been 
some increase in grass sheep. With present costs of labour and prices of 
produce, it is no longer profitable to transfer labour and exertion from the 
sheep to the shepherd, and it is becoming more difficult to obtain men to 
‘wait on the sheep,’ if I may use a Yorkshire expression. Even more 
important is the fact that the manurial residues left by the sheep fold 
can only be valued at a very low figure, whether one takes the cost of 
purchasing corresponding amounts of manurial ingredients or the direct 
return received in the form of corn. Until last year prices of mutton 
were fairly well maintained, but the disastrously low prices for corn cut 
away the foundation on which the whole system was based. 

The system has been most highly developed on poor thin chalk soils, 
and it is often maintained that such soils can only be kept in cultivation 


244 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


by the aid of the fertilising effect of the sheep fold. ‘This is claimed to be 
necessary, not only to build up suitable reserves of plant food, but to 
secure satisfactory physical structure in these loose, shallow soils. It is 
worthy of note that the idea finds some confirmation in researches now 
proceeding at Rothamsted. None the less, I am inclined to think that, even 
if corn growing again becomes profitable, other methods of maintaining 
soil fertility will be adopted. 

The system of arable sheep farming which, in its fully developed form, 
is peculiar to some of the southern and eastern districts of England can 
not only claim to be a form of intensive farming with relatively high 
production and employment of a large amount of labour, but it is also the 
system under which the mutton qualities of many of the British breeds 
were developed. ‘To it may largely be attributed the clear supremacy 
which our breeds enjoy in all countries where sheep are kept primarily 
for the production of meat. The work of Hammond and others has 
clearly shown that genetic variability in size, rate of growth, early maturity, 
and general carcase quality is only fully expressed under optimum 
conditions of nutrition. Under less satisfactory conditions, the animal 
of exceptionally high potential characters may be indistinguishable from 
the individual which is merely moderately good. ‘This variability must 
be secured if improvement by selection is to be effected, and the reduction 
in arable sheep is therefore not without its disquieting aspect to the live- 
stock improver. It will be noticed that the fourteen counties already 
referred to include the homes of all our Down breeds except the Shrop- 
shire. It is not improbable that the Shropshire also has suffered to the 
same extent, and that the maintenance of the sheep population in the 
native county of the breed is due to a great and overriding influx of grass 
sheep from the Welsh border. 

The Longwools were in the main developed originally on good grass 
land liberally supplemented with produce of arable crops. ‘The Down 
breeds originated in districts where there is little good grassland, and owe 
their improvement largely to breeders whose selective methods were 
aided by the ample food supplies provided by a succession of arable crops. 

For modern conditions, the Longwools with their large, excessively fat 
carcases, and the Downs, handicapped by the cost of labour and other 
considerations already discussed, are (as the table shows) falling behind as 
commercial sheep. It will, however, be necessary for ram-breeding 
flocks to be continued—even if only to provide rams for crossing pur- 
poses—and for such flocks some system of arable management would 
appear to be practically essential, if the standard of our sheep is to be 
maintained. 

The Production of Fat Lambs is no new feature of British sheep farming, 
but during the last thirty or forty years it has attained an importance far 
exceeding its position in any previous period, and now probably the 
majority of lambs not to be kept for breeding purposes are sold for 
slaughter before they are six months old. Changing demands are the 
main reasons for this development. Formerly, early fat lamb was 
regarded as a luxury article only to be consumed by wealthy or extravagant 
people. Now, regardless of cost, the public demands small joints of 


M.—AGRICULTURE 245 


pale, tender meat which can be cooked at once. To provide these, 
well-fattened carcases of 30 to 40 lb. at three or four months old are 
required, and in their production perhaps the main consideration is 
a liberal supply of milk. It is largely because of their excellence as milk 
producers that the hill and mountain ewes have become so popular for 
fat lamb production, other reasons being their small size and their ability 
to find a living on lowland pastures during the winter with little expendi- 
ture on either labour or feeding stuffs. They are available in large 
numbers every autumn, when the drafts from the hill flocks are being 
made, and it suits the lowland farmer better to buy these ewes than to 
rear his own. His land is often too wet and unhealthy for a permanent 
flock, and in most cases it can be put to more profitable use than grazing 
yearling ewes. A very large proportion of the land laid down to grass 
since the war is now stocked with such ‘ flying ’ flocks, and recent work 
of my colleague, E. J. Roberts, has shown that fresh young pastures give 
far better results in fat lamb production than old pasture on similar land. 
One of the questions regarding fat lamb production which I think is 
likely to arise is that of securing satisfactory ‘finish’ on the lambs when 
reared on recently formed pastures which every year will become more 
similar to old grass land. 

The special suitability of young grass for fat lamb production largely 
accounts for the remarkable increase in the number of sheep kept in the 
lowland areas of North Wales and the eastern counties of Scotland 
(see Table VII). In both cases there is a considerable area of arable land 
farmed on a rotation which includes a temporary ley. The very simple 
modification of the system involved in extending the length of the ley 
made it easy to secure the relatively attractive returns from fat lamb 
production, and enabled farmers to reduce labour costs and unprofitable 
corn production. 

Summing up the whole situation, we may say that we have almost 
reached the state of affairs in which hill and mountain flocks are main- 
tained primarily to produce breeding ewes of a hardy, heavy-milking 
character ; a relatively few arable sheep have as their chief object the 
breeding of rams of excellent mutton qualities mainly for crossing pur- 
poses; and the draft ewes from the hills and the rams from the arable 
flocks meet in the lowland pastures to produce lambs for sale almost 
entirely in the summer and autumn months. 

The great concentration on production in summer is one of the 
dangerous features of the present situation. It makes our supply over 
the year very uneven, and there can be no doubt that this is one of the 
reasons for the decrease in the proportion of home-fed meat shown in 
Table IV. 

So far I have not discussed our sheep population as a whole, and in 
doing so it is necessary to remember that it is composed of sections of 
widely differing character. ‘The graphs enable us to see the position at 
a glance. The one for total numbers shows that there has been a great 
deal of fluctuation, and indicates very well the big drop (nearly 4 millions) 
caused by the fluke years 1879-80, and that brought about by food pro- 
duction measures during the war. There is also evidence of a general 


SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


246 


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M.—AGRICULTURE 247 


downward trend, which, for the time being at least, has been arrested, 
but I fail to see anything which would suggest the existence of regular 
movements similar to the well-known cycles in the case of pigs. In fact, 
it seems absurd to expect anything of the kind when during the last thirty 
years we have had such conflicting changes as those shown in Table VII, 
with great increases in some parts of the country and great decreases in 
others. 

The other two curves show how the general downward trend has been 
caused. The number of lambs, and presumably, therefore, the number 
of ewes, has remained remarkably steady throughout the fifty years, with 
the exception of the two periods already mentioned. If we allow for the 
greater number of lambs now sold off the farms before June 4, and therefore 
not included in the returns, there has probably been a slight upward 
tendency. The downward trend of the figures for total sheep is mainly 
due to the steady reduction in the number of ‘ other sheep one year and 
above.’ ‘This class consists almost entirely of animals to be fattened as 
yearlings or older sheep kept for fattening. These have dropped by at 
least 50 per cent. in the last forty years, and this decrease has rather masked 
the position of ewes and lambs. 


DESIRABILITY OF SHEEP FARMING. 


Before considering possible developments, we may perhaps put the 
question whether we consider our large sheep population to be a desirable 
feature of British agriculture. 

The keeping of sheep on a large scale is usually associated with extensive 
farming in zones beyond the areas in which cultivation or dairying is 
economically possible. Yet in this densely populated country we find 
to-day sheep grazing over large areas of land which formerly grew good 
corn and appears to be not unlike that used to-day in other countries for 
corn growing, dairying or some other form of more intensive cultivation. 
Some idea of the effect of a large sheep population can be obtained 
from a study of Table II, where it will be seen that per unit area we 
have the largest sheep population of any European country, and the 
smallest human population employed in agriculture. We cannot 
attempt to make an exact correlation, but no one is likely to question 
the effect of grass sheep farming. At different periods in British history 
it has caused hardship and bitterness, and has even led to legislative 
action. 

The high price of wool about the beginning of the sixteenth century led 
to the conversion of arable land to pasture in order to provide for increased 
flocks. At that time the welfare of agriculture and the maintenance of 
the rural population was a matter of prime concern to both Church and 
State, so that preachers and writers declaimed against the sheep ‘ that were 
wont to be so myke and tame, and so smal eaters, now, as I hear saie, be 
become so great devowerers, and so wylde, that they eat up and swallow 
down the very men themselfes,’ while legislation was framed to try to keep 
the land in cultivation. 


248 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Another well-known period was the latter half of the eighteenth century 
when large sheep farms were being established in the Highlands. The 
Black-face sheep were able to utilise many of the higher grazings which 
previously had never given any considerable return ; but they required for 
wintering the lower slopes and the land which up to then had been culti- 
vated. ‘The establishment of sheep farms therefore involved the removal 
of the Highland cattle and of the population which depended so largely 
onthem. The feeling of the time is well and moderately put by Dr. John 
Smith in the View of the Agriculture of Argyll (1805): ‘'That our moun- 
tains are better adapted for sheep than for black cattle cannot admit of 
a doubt. Under the sheep system they make a much better return both 
to the farmer and to the landlord ; and furnish in the wool of the sheep 
a large fund for manufacture and commerce. But all these advantages are 
more than balanced by the effect which sheep have produced upon popu- 
lation. When one man occupies space which would suffice for twenty 
families, his private gain will by no means compensate for public 
loss.’ 

Possibly, in time to come, the present period may be regarded as com- 
parable with those I have just mentioned. In many counties the situation 
is obscured by the fact that, along with the laying of land to grass and a 
great increase in the number of grass sheep, there has simultaneously 
been a great reduction in arable sheep. In some counties this complica- 
tion does not exist, the most striking areas being North Wales and the 
arable counties of the east of Scotland. I had hoped to be able to 
correlate the changes in the former, but, unfortunately, the detailed results 
of the 1931 census will not be published for some time, so that I can 
only say that a remarkable increase in the number of sheep has obviously 
been accompanied by a very marked decline in employment and in the 
general life of the countryside. 

We must, however, be fair to the sheep, and those who wish to impute 
blame must take care that they put it on the right shoulders. But for the 
development of the sheep industry, the farmers of many areas would 
indeed be in a parlous condition by now. We know how unsatisfactory 
are the returns from ordinary arable farming, and there are many districts 
unsuited for dairying or intensive cultivation. 

Grass sheep farming based on fat lamb production has enabled many 
farmers, not only in North Wales but all over Great Britain, to hold 
their own when, without it, they would have gone under. It is no use 
abusing the farmer because of the undoubted evils which have accom- 
panied the adoption of this type of farming. As in the Middle Ages, 
the cure for the ills can only come through the improvement in the 
returns from what most of us will regard as more desirable systems of 
agriculture. ; 

Efficiency of the Sheep—We may apply another test in considering the 
desirability of a large sheep population. How do they compare with other 
farm animals as a converter of crops or raw feeding stuffs into meat for 
human consumption ? The following table is taken from a report drawn 
up by a committee of the Royal Society in 1917—Food Supply of the 
United Kingdom : 


M.—AGRICULTURE 249 


TaBLe VIII. 


Lb. Starch equivalent in Fodder required to produce 
1,000 Calories in form of : 


2°9 Milk from good cow (800 galls.) 

3°70 Pork 

4°7 Veal (6 months) 

4°7. Milk from poor cow (300 galls.) 

E-g Mutton (11-12 months) 
70 Eggs (140 egg hen) 
7:0 Baby beef (17 months) 
9:0 Steer beef (24 years) 


The figures quoted probably require modification in the light of more 
recent results and also to adapt them to altered systems of management, 
but it will generally be accepted that from this point of view the sheep, 
though better than the steer, compares badly with the milking cow or 
the porker. 

It is, however, necessary to qualify this conclusion by considering not 
merely the amount and energy value of the food consumed, but also its 
nature and cost. In the case of the fattening bullock, for instance, the 
food may consist largely of straw—a by-product of corn-growing, and on 
most farms an unsaleable article. On the other hand, the pig and the fowl 
require considerable proportions of meal and grain, which have to be 
bought at market price either from the grain merchant or, in the case of an 
arable farm, from the cropping section of the farm business. The sheep 
occupies an intermediate position. It cannot utilise large quantities of 
straw, but makes good use of such crops as grass, roots and hay. Except 
in the case of arable flocks it receives comparatively little corn or 
concentrated foods. 

Still, we are bound to admit that grass sheep under ordinary manage- 
ment give only a low return of food, and to those who wish to see a large 
rural population they are about the most objectionable form of enterprise 
in which the farmer can engage. 

Viewing the matter from this standpoint, there is much force in the 
argument that we should leave sheep farming to more remote, thinly 
populated countries, and use our limited area and large population to 
produce forms of food which give a high return per acre, require a good 
deal of labour, and cannot easily be transported over large distances. 

On the other hand, if we take the farmer’s point of view we can make 
_ Out a strong case for the sheep. 

(x) Even allowing for considerable extensions of forest and woodland, 
we have large areas of hill and mountain land, which, under present 
conditions, can only be economically utilised for the production of sheep, 
and they carry a very large proportion of our total sheep flock. Our 
Mountain flocks can only be maintained if they have an outlet for the 
draft ewes and store lambs which largely constitute their saleable product. 


250 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


(2) Although we now have under grass large areas which most of us 
would like to see used for some kind of arable or mixed farming, grass 
is the crop to which soil and climate make a great deal—perhaps most— 
of our land in Great Britain specially suited. The mild, wet, equable 
climate of the greater part of the country not only makes cultivation 
difficult, but favours the growth of grass to some extent throughout the 
year. Sheep managed in such a way as to meet modern market demands 
fit in extremely well with grass production. So many fat lambs are now 
sold in summer that the annual cycle of the sheep population very closely 
resembles that of production from grassland. Numbers are at the 
minimum in winter and the requirements of the flock are at their 
maximum in May and June. Even the autumn flush of grass is met by 
the influx of sheep from hill grazings. 

(3) Grass sheep not only require the minimum expenditure on labour 
and feeding stuffs but, compared with other forms of stock, they involve 
little outlay on buildings, water supply and other permanent equipment. 

(4) Compared with other nations, our consumption of mutton and 
lamb is very high. The home-produced article has a great advantage in 
that it can be marketed fresh, whereas practically all imported mutton 
and lamb is frozen. 


PossIBLE DEVELOPMENTS. 


So far, in discussing the sheep industry, I have had in mind our existing 
methods of sheep management, but we can be quite sure that they will 
not continue unchanged, and we may devote a few minutes to considering 
the directions in which changes and developments would be most desirable. 

Winter Lamb.—At present, the weakest point is the low return per 
unit of the flock. We keep a ewe for two years before she produces any- 
thing beyond a fleece, and in these days that is worth very little. Even 
when she is mature, we keep her for twelve months in order that she may 
breed a lamb or a Jamb and a half, which she suckles for twelve or sixteen 
weeks. Thus the actively producing period is limited to about a quarter 
of the year: the product is perhaps 40-60 lb. of carcase. The cow, on 
the other hand, is producing milk for about ten months in the year. 

The remedy often suggested is to keep sheep which will give two 
crops of lambs a year. Some breeds, of which the outstanding 
instances are the Merino, and, among British sheep, the Dorset Horn, 
will breed at almost any time, and this makes it possible to obtain 
two crops of lambs in a year. It is quite possible to secure this occasion- 
ally with other breeds, and I have no doubt that by selection and proper 
management of the ewes two crops could be obtained fairly regularly in 
flocks where the lambs are sold at an early age. ‘The advocates of such a 
system very rightly point to the need for a better distribution of supplies 
throughout the year. At present there isa huge supply of lambs and sheep 
on the market from June to October, and very little from January to May. 
Moreover, the class of meat provided for the winter six months of the year 
is not the young milk-fed lamb for which there is most demand. They 
also urge that the production of young lamb in the present off season would 
enable the farmer to take advantage of the high prices which such lamb 


M.—AGRICULTURE 251 


at present commands at that time of year. Obviously the argument is 
open to criticism, because we cannot have it both ways. If we equalise 
supplies we are likely to equalise prices, and no one would suggest that 
winter lamb can be produced at the same cost as summer lamb. 

There is another possibility to be kept in mind. If means are found 
for placing New Zealand and South American lamb on the British market 
in such a state that it compares with our own summer lamb in freshness 
and condition, we shall be driven to concentrate more exclusively on 
summer production. Ina world perfectly organised this would seem to 
be the natural way of exploiting fully the difference in the growing 
seasons of the Northern and Southern hemispheres. 

Still, there is something to be said for two crops on farms where the 
grass land is all of good quality and there is no possibility of putting the 
ewes on to inferior, cheap pasture for the greater part of the year. In any 
case, there is no likelihood of winter supplies even approaching summer 
supplies, and the overhead costs are not greatly increased when the double 
crop of lambs is raised. 

Need for greater prolificacy—Perhaps a more hopeful way of making 
better use of the ewe’s capabilities of production is by securing an increase 
in the lamb crop. The lamb crop for Great Britain, calculated from 
numbers on the farms on June 4, is only about 102 per cent., i.e. almost 
exactly one lamb from one ewe. Even allowing for the fact that a good 
many lambs are sold as early fat lambs before June 4, and for the large 
numbers on poor hill grazings where we do not want twins, this is a very 
poor result. On good lowland, a ewe rearing only one lamb will put on 
weight during the suckling period, and, unless she‘is to be sold for slaughter, 
this represents wasteful use of grass. A ewe of a good milking type 
can well rear two lambs on reasonably good grass, and if this were secured 
as an average on good land, our lamb crop over the country as a whole 
should be about 150 per cent. This would either give an increase of four 
or five millions on our present total, or allow of our present numbers to 
be reared on a much smaller area of land. This, surely, is one of the 
developments we may anticipate, and I think that we may also expect to 
see an increase in the practice of breeding from ewe lambs, so that under 
good conditions the almost unproductive period from twelve to twenty- 
four months may be eliminated. 

Milking Ewes —I sometimes wonder if we shall not return some day to 
the old system of milking sheep. A ewe which has had her lamb taken 
away in mid-June is just at the very height of her milk production, and 
would give a good deal of milk for a couple of months. Last summer in 
Norway I was told that girls in the saeters on the mountains each milk 
and make the cheese from a flock of sixty goats. It occurred to me that it 
would be just as easy to deal with a flock of twice the number of half-bred 
ewes on good enclosed land. ‘The invention of a cheap and simple milking 
machine for sheep and goats might make the idea feasible, even in a country 
like this where we have come to despise small contributions to income, 
particularly if they involve work on Saturday afternoons or Sundays. 

But in suggesting the possibility of a return to the old system of milking 
the ewes, I have in mind much more than the question of securing an 


252 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


additional return from the flock. When a heavy milking type of sheep 
is kept for early fat lamb production, one of the troubles experienced is 
the occurrence of what is now usually termed toxemia of pregnancy, 
which is very often fatal and in some years causes enormous loss. ‘This 
appears to be associated, among other conditions, with fatness in the 
ewes at the end of the summer, and, consequently, is encouraged by the 
practice of removing the lambs at an early age, so that the ewe has no 
outlet for her productive capacity during the summer. 

Production of Wool—The current price of wool makes the time oppor- 
tune for considering how far we are wise in trying to combine wool and 
meat production. Wool is eminently one of the products best suited for 
production in remote parts of the world, where arable farming, and even 
meat production, are out of the question. Weight for weight, it is far 
more valuable than grain, and, unlike meat, it does not readily deteriorate 
in handling, storage and transport. Apart from the competition from 
such areas overseas, which shows no signs of slackening, there is the 
question of the diversion of food from the production of meat and milk. 
Wool, as taken off the sheep’s back, consists mainly of protein and grease, 
with a little moisture and a certain amount of soil and other impurity. 
Allowing for the large percentage of water in fresh meat, one may guess 
that a fleece of 10 lb. represents the product of food capable of producing 
15 or 20 lb. of saleable meat. At the present time the meat would be 
much more valuable, and the diversion of food from meat production to 
wool production must at the present prices of wool and meat be 
uneconomical. 

Of course, I do not suggest that we should aim at doing away with the 
fleece altogether. If the sheep is to retain its character as an outdoor 
animal it must be protected against the weather, but a short, close fleece 
of, say, 2 or 3 lb. for small breeds and 4 or 5 lb. for the larger breeds would 
be adequate for this purpose. Actually, the argument against a large, 
long, heavy fleece is even stronger than I have stated, because it hampers 
the movement of the animal and does not give good protection against rain. 

In days when most sheep were kept to a greater age and had long ‘ store ’ 
periods in which meat production was not particularly desired, the posi- 
tion was different. Now ewes are almost the only adult animals we keep, 
and the case is at least as strong if we consider the breeding ewe instead 
of the fattening animal. The young lamb will give a better return for 
extra protein and fat than the wool merchant will give for the same 
amount of similar substances in its fleece. 

In this connection, I may refer to the fact that in many breeds, ewes 
with heavy, strong fleeces have not the best reputation for milk production 
and prolificacy. 

Possible Changes in Function, Management and Demand—One of the 
possibilities which must not be overlooked is a complete change in the 
purpose for which the sheep is required. Is it possible that the sheep 
which already does so much to meet the needs of man has products now 
almost disregarded which may in time become as important as meat or 
wool? We may certainly look forward to improvements in feeding, not 
only by better rationing of supplementary foods, but also by more skilful 


M.—AGRICULTURE 253 


management of grassland. Is it possible that we may return to the practice 
of keeping at least a considerable proportion of our flocks in a way less 
wasteful of heat and energy on the part of the sheep? At present they 
must utilise a large proportion of their intake of nutriment in obtaining 
their food and maintaining their body heat. ‘The housing or ‘ cotting’ 
of sheep is no new idea. Shall we ever return to it on a large scale ? 

A more probable change is an alteration in demand. At present, lamb 
is the only form of sheep meat for which there is a real demand. It is 
difficult to sell mutton even from good quality yearling sheep, and old 
ewes can hardly be given away, but it is not inconceivable that new methods 
of cooking, or the establishment of a canning industry, or the need for 
greater national and individual economy, may again bring larger, older 
and fatter sheep to the front. If the consuming public are brought to 
take the same interest in food values that the intelligent farmer shows in 
the purchase of feeding stuffs, it seems unlikely that they will disregard 
the great differences in value for money at present provided by different 
classes of meat. Perhaps it would not be wise to push this suggestion too 
far. I fear that sheep farming would not be a distinctive feature of a 
vegetarian Britain ! 

Multiplicity of Breeds —Of more immediate interest is the oft-debated 
question whether we need so many different breeds of sheep. Gervase 
Markham, in the account which I have quoted, mentioned six breeds. 
At the end of the eighteenth century we find a considerable increase. 
George Culley, for instance, describes the following : Leicester, Lincoln, 
Teeswater, Devon Natts, Exmoor, Dorset Horn, Herefords or Ryelands, 
Southdown, Norfolk, the Heath breed (Black-faces), Herdwickes, Cheviots, 
Spanish (Merino), Dun-faces and Shetlands. This list, however, was 
by no means complete, because he failed to mention such breeds as the 
Cotswolds, Wiltshires and Welsh, all of which were kept in considerable 
numbers ; and, while we do not expect to find such names as Hampshires 
and Shropshires, it is surprising that he did not mention some of the 
local types from which these sprang. 

Making these necessary additions, the list of British breeds existing 
at the end of the eighteenth century becomes quite a formidable one. 
Therefore, when we are accused of having far too many breeds of sheep, 
we can at least say that most of them were developed by our rather 
remote ancestors. We must, however, plead guilty to having increased, 
rather than reduced, the number, and I feel that I must consider briefly 
this multiplicity of breeds and discuss the necessity for maintaining so 
many. 

Merino wool constitutes about 40 per cent. of the world’s total clip, so that 
probably about one-third of all sheep are of this one type, and when we 
reflect that five or six breeds and their crosses probably comprise about 
half the sheep population of the world, it does seem absurd that we should 
maintain thirty or forty in a small country, with a sheep population of 
only 25 millions. The disadvantages, particularly from the point of view 
of marketing, are obvious. 

There are, however, other aspects of the matter which I should like to 
submit. I have already pointed out that most of our breeds can be traced 


254 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


back at least as far as the eighteenth century. The end of the eighteenth 
and the first half of the nineteenth century was a period of wonderful 
development in British agriculture, which, in particular, occupied the 
attention of landowners who in those days carried out a tremendous 
amount of experimental work. One of the most popular forms of activity 
was that of endeavouring to substitute’new and improved breeds of live- 
stock for old local breeds. Replacements did take place in some cases. 
The old Dun-faced breed was replaced over the greater part of the 
Highlands by the Black-face ; Cheviots were established in the North 
of Scotland, and so on. 

But these examples, though important in themselves, were, after all, 
exceptions to the general rule that in most cases the new introductions 
either had no effect or merely modified the existing breeds. ‘They did not 
replace the local breeds. ‘This is the more surprising when we remember 
that about this time there took place the great change in the relative 
importance of the functions which the sheep was required to serve. 
To-day, in Australia and New Zealand, the change over from wool 
production to meat production involves the replacement of the Merino 
by a mutton breed of sheep of altogether different origin and character. 
In this country, in the eighteenth century, the change from wool to mutton 
did not in the main involve the disappearance of the old breeds. They 
were modified, but retained their identity. ‘To my mind, this suggests 
that so far we have failed to fathom the full significance of breed differences 
and breed distribution. We have paid greatattention to meat and wool, 
but have failed to analyse fully the more basic vital characters on which 
the survival of semi-wild animals must largely depend. In the case of 
a sheep which spends its life completely out of doors and is dependent 
mainly on grass and other semi-natural food, there is almost certainly 
a delicate adjustment of the animal’s physiology to the local environment. 
Hammond’s recently published work on the growth of the sheep 
suggests all kinds of variables which may have to be fitted to corresponding 
differences of season, amount and composition of food, rate of growth of 
vegetation, and so forth. Ought we not to regard the animal’s general 
physiology, including this special adjustment, as the element of funda- 
mental importance on to which the more obvious characters of meat, 
wool and milk production have to be grafted ? If so, is it not deserving 
of much more study than it has hitherto received ? 

It might be urged that great differences of environment also exist in 
other countries, but that they do not think it necessary to maintain special 
breeds for small areas. For instance, I imagine that the differences of 
soil and climate are probably no greater in Great Britain than those in 
New Zealand, and yet we have more than twice as many breeds. In reply 
to that, one might say that for all we know there may be as great variation 
in the sheep stock of New Zealand in fifty years’ time as at the present time 
in this country. 

Another point occurs to one after reading Hammond’s book. The 
first requirement in our ordinary systems of stock improvement is varia- 
tion. Maximum variation occurs under optimum conditions. In general 
it may be said that British conditions at their best are optimum conditions 


M.—AGRICULTURE 255 


for the type of sheep we have developed. We have no long periods of 
drought, and, with good management, a generous food supply can be 
provided all the year round. It is largely because of this that we have 
in the past been able to do so much in the way of developing our various 
breeds of live stock. Attempts to standardise our stock too strictly would 
largely preclude advance in the future and nullify the suitability of our 
conditions for stock improvement. We have not yet reached finality in 
any direction. 

Present conditions and market demands seem likely to lead to the dis- 
appearance of some of our breeds, but I hope that before the process goes 
very far, a detailed survey will be made of the relationship between the 
various breeds and the conditions to which each appears to be particularly 
suited, in the hope that thereby the peculiarities of the breeds may be 
tested and utilised in other parts of the world. We do not at present 
require their large size and fat meat, but it is possible that each possesses 
some special characters which we are not yet able to appreciate properly, 
but which may be of immense value elsewhere, even if they are no longer 
specially important in this country. It is pleasing to know that Nichols 
has already started such an investigation. 


DISEASE. 


It would be impossible for me to close my address without some 
reference to the importance of sheep diseases. In a detailed history of 
British agriculture, among the dates which would stand out most clearly 
would be the many years in which disastrous losses of sheep from disease 
have occurred, but I suspect that at all times what has been regarded as 
more or less normal loss has been even more important than the exceptional 
losses experienced periodically. In early days there is no doubt that this 
annual loss was extremely heavy. For instance, Thorold Rogers quotes 
records of about the end of the thirteenth century which show that on 
eight sheep-breeding estates with an average of 1,133 sheep, the average 
loss was 221, or close upon 20 per cent. He also points out that in the 
early days of the landlord and tenant system, the owner of the land 
insured the tenant against extraordinary losses of stock, particularly sheep. 

From the earliest days of sheep farming in this country, liver fluke has 
been much the most important single cause of loss. I have already 
alluded to the fact that in 1879-81 it accounted for three or four million 
sheep, or Io per cent. to 15 per cent. of our total population at the time. 
More recently, 1920-21, 1924-25, 1931-32 have all been periods of great 
loss, though more localised than the 1879-81 epidemic. Few things give 
me greater satisfaction than the reflection that it is largely due to the work 
at Bangor of my colleagues, Montgomerie and Walton, who followed up 
the researches of many workers, that this trouble, which has caused such 
untold losses to British agriculture for centuries, may now be combated 
with a good chance of success. Various workers have devised methods 
of control for the most important of the other parasites which infest our 
flocks, but there is still great need for much more research both on these 
and on the more obscure sheep diseases which, until quite recently, have 
received very little attention from veterinary workers. 


256 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES 


Gaiger’s work on braxy, Dalling’s success in producing effective 
inoculations for the prevention of lamb dysentery, are striking illustrations 
of work which has already achieved a great measure of success in con- 
trolling diseases which twenty years ago were altogether elusive. We 
may hope that equally fruitful results will attend the investigations of the 
Diseases of Animals Research Association in Scotland on ‘ louping-ill ’ 
or ‘ trembling,’ and the work of McEwan in Kent on ‘ strike.’ Similarly 
those of us who are specially interested in hill sheep are eagerly watching 
the work of the Rowett Institute. But although the sheep farmer has 
reason to be grateful for the great advances of recent years, he knows 
that his annual loss is still great, and he feels that it is in this direction 
that research will be of greatest immediate help to him. 


Printed in England at THe BALLANTYNE PRESS 
SPOTTISWOODE, BALLANTYNE & Co. LTD. 
Colchester, London & Eton 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, 
EEC. 


SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 


Thirty-seventh Report of Committee (Dr. F. J. W. WuIpPPLe, Chairman ; 
Mr. J.J. SHaw, Secretary ; Dr. C. VERNON Boys, Dr. J. E. Cromsre,! 
Sir F. W. Dyson, Sir R. T. GLazeBroox, Dr. WILFRED HA tt, Dr. H. 
JEFFREYS, Sir H. Lams, Prof. H. M. Macponatp, Prof. E. A. 
Ming, Mr. R. D. OtpuHam, Prof. H. H. Piaskett, Prof. H. C. 
Piumme_r, Prof. A. O. RANKINE, Rev. J. P. Row.anp, S.J., Prof. 
R. A. Sampson, Mr. F. J. Scrase, Sir Napier Suaw, Capt. H. SHaw, 
Sir F. E. Smitu, Dr. R. STONELEY, Sir G. T. WALKER). 


Tus is the thirty-seventh Report of the Committee appointed by the 
British Association for Seismological Investigations, the Committee having 
been formed in 1895 by the amalgamation of two committees. One of 
these committees had been appointed for the investigation of Earth Tremors 
in this country and had presented five reports, whilst the other, with John 
Milne as the moving spirit, had been investigating the Earthquakes .and 
Volcanic Phenomena of Japan for fourteen years. Thus the British Asso- 
ciation has given continuous support to seismology for fifty-one years. 

Up to his death in 1913 the reports of the Committee were prepared by 
Milne, and from that date onwards to his own death in 1930 Prof. H. H. 
Turner, Chairman since 1907, was responsible not only for the reports but 
for the organisation of the greater part of the work recorded in them. 

Since 1921, the year in which the Seismological Section of the International 
Geodetic and Geophysical Union was constituted, the principal care of the 
Committee has been the International Seismological Summary. This is 
a publication in which details are given of all the instrumental records of 
earthquakes occurring in any part of the world. Returns, known as seismo- 
logical bulletins, are transmitted from all observatories to Oxford, where 
the observations for each day are transcribed on cards. By comparison of 
the observations the epicentre of every appreciable earthquake and the time 
of occurrence are determined. The distance of each observatory from the 
epicentre is computed, as well as the times of transmission of the waves 
which are revealed by the various phases of the seismograms. Finally, for 
the ‘ preliminary tremors,’ which correspond with the primary waves of 
compression and distortion, the times of transmission are compared with 
standard tables. ‘The results of these calculations are tabulated for printing 
and duly checked. It will be seen that the preparation of the Summary is 
atask of considerable magnitude. It occupies fully the time of three persons. 

The International Seismological Summary was initiated and developed by 
Prof. Turner. He left the work well organised. In accordance with the 
wishes of the University authorities, the routine has been continued at the 
University Observatory during the two years that have elapsed since his 
death. His successor in the Savilian Chair of Astronomy, Prof. H. H. 


1 Dr. Crombie died on August 6, 1932. 
E 


258 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Plaskett, was appointed in 1931 and has recently taken up his duties. Prof. 
Plaskett, who has been co-opted as a member of the Committee, is anxious 
that the seismological department of the Observatory shall remain a centre 
of the international organisation. 

For the present satisfactory position of the work much credit is due to 
Mr. F. A. Bellamy, who has been in charge of the Observatory for two 
years, to Miss E, F. B. Bellamy, who has been editor of the Summary, 
to Mr. J. S. Hughes, who has been responsible for the determination of 
epicentres and the preparation of the manuscript, and to Mr. S.C. Cook, who 
has served as computer. 

Responsibility for the financial arrangements for the production of the 
Summary has remained with the British Association Seismological Com- 
mittee. ‘The funds allotted by the International Seismological Association 
(to give the Seismological Section of the International Union for Geodesy 
and Geophysics its new name) have not sufficed hitherto to pay the cost of 
printing the Summary. During the year under review the International 
Seismological Association has provided £259, whilst the cost of printing 
four quarters of the International Seismological Summary has been £351. 
The British Association placed £250 at the disposal of the Committee, £150 
from general funds and £100 from the Caird Fund. Roughly speaking, the 
£100 served to meet the deficit on the printing of the Summary, whilst the 
£150 was used for computing and for incidental expenses. The principal 
part of the cost of the preparation of the Summary was borne by the 
University of Oxford, generous assistance being given, however, by Dr. J. 
Crombie. 

The Committee is informed that, for the present, no increase in the sub- 
vention from the International Seismological Association towards the cost 
of the International Seismological Summary is to be anticipated. It is 
found that considerable economy can be effected by adopting the ‘ Replika ’ 
process for reproducing the Summary, the cost of setting up the matter in 
printer’s type being obviated. On the other hand, additional expenses must 
be incurred at Oxford. 

In accordance with a resolution adopted by the Council in 1914, an annual 
grant of £100 is made to the Committee from the Caird Fund. To meet 
the special expenses of the year the Committee asks for an additional grant 
of £100. 

The Committee is most anxious for the international seismological work 
to be maintained at Oxford, where it is so well organised, and hopes that, 
before the International Seismological Association meets next year, it will 
be possible to announce that the Seismological Department of the University 
Observatory has been put on a permanent footing. ‘This will be the best 
way of recognising the part played by British scientists, by Mallet, Knott, 
Ewing, Oldham, Rayleigh, Love, Davison, and especially by Milne and 
Turner, in the development of seismology. ‘The Committee would cordially 
welcome any proposal which might be made by the University of Oxford 
for establishing a Readership in Geophysics. No better memorial of the 
work of Prof. H. H. Turner could be conceived. 


THE INTERNATIONAL SEISMOLOGICAL SUMMARY AND THE REVISED 
SEISMOLOGICAL TABLES. 


Three quarterly issues of the International Seismological Summary were 
made during the year ending June 1932, those for the last quarter of 1927 
and the first two quarters of 1928. The Summary for the third quarter of 


SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 259 


1928 was published in July, and that for the fourth quarter was then in 
proof. 

The following table showing the progress of the Summary has been 
prepared. The steady increase in the number of pages is mainly due to the 
growth in the number of well-equipped seismological stations. 


Year of P Baeent Cost of Date of 
Summary. Shae Picenires. “ Printing. Printing. 
1918 220 375 241 1922-24 
1919 170 323 163 1924 
1920 200 324 193 1924-25 
1921 176 257 146 1925 
1922 222 308 200 1925-26 
1923 316 545 267 1926-27 
1924 284 470 240 1927-28 
1925 324. 483 281 1928-29 
1926 427 616 360 1929-30 
1927 472 663 406 1930-31 
1928 440 596 aH 1931-32 


The tables by Dr. Harold Jeffreys referred to in the last report have been 
published by the British Association, the cost being met by the Gray-Milne 
Fund. These tables were despatched from Oxford to all recipients of the 
Summary, as were two papers, one by Dr. Jeffreys alone, the other by 
Dr. Jeffreys and Dr. Comrie, dealing with the genesis of the tables. 

The new tables are being used together with the accepted Zéppritz- 
Turner tables in the preparation of the International Seismological Summary 
for the year 1929. The Summary is to be published in such a form that 
comparisons between the merits of these and other tables will be facilitated. 


SEISMOGRAPHS. 


One of the tasks undertaken by the Seismological Committee in 1895 
was the development of a seismograph suitable for general use in recording 
distant earthquakes. ‘The instrument devised by Milne was found to 
serve its purpose, and a large number of such instruments was distributed 
to various parts of the world. ‘The principal drawback to the Milne seismo- 
graph is the absence of any means of damping the oscillations of the 
pendulum. In 1912 Milne co-operated with Mr. J. J. Shaw in the design 
of the Milne-Shaw seismograph, a remarkably efficient machine. After 
preliminary trials the first Milne-Shaw instrument was brought into regular 
use at Bidston in 1914. Fifty-five Milne-Shaw seismographs have now 
been constructed. Of these five have been supplied to the Committee. 
The distribution of these is as follows : 


Number of ‘bs : Date of 
: ocation. : . 
machine. installation. 

4 Oxford 1918 

6 Cape Town 1919 

3 Edinburgh 1919 

27 Perth, W. Australia 1923 

I Oxford 1926 


The machine at Edinburgh was placed originally at Eskdalemuir in 1915 
for comparison with the Galitzin seismographs, and was removed to Edin- 
burgh in 1919. No. 1 was supplied to Mr. W. E. Plummer at Bidston in 


260 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


1914. It was transferred to Oxford in exchange for No. 32 (see report, 
1927). 

Early in 1931 a letter was received from Dr. H. Spencer-Jones, H.M. 
Astronomer at the Cape, in which he expressed the opinion that the 
seismographic records at the Royal Observatory were of little value. Owing 


to the instability of the zero of the seismographs it had been necessary to keep . 


the sensitivity very low. 'The Committee agreed with Dr. Jones’s view that 
the instrument should be moved to another site, but considered it important 
that it should be kept in South Africa. Subsequently Dr. Grindley volun- 
teered to erect the seismograph at the Cape Town University, which is 
several miles from the Observatory. In the basement of the University 
he found both microseisms and changes in zero relatively small. Prof. 
Alexander Brown, head of the Department of Applied Mathematics, has 
kindly undertaken to continue the observations until the end of the year 
1932. If the results are satisfactory the seismograph will remain in opera- 
tion at the University. 

Mr. Shaw has supplied a Milne-Shaw seismograph to the Department 
of Geology, Liverpool University, where regular observations are to be 
commenced in September. Two Milne-Shaw seismographs are being 
despatched to the Department of Geology, University of Vermont. 

Mr. Shaw has also made during the year a seismograph adapted for 
public exhibition. This instrument is set up on the third floor of the Store 
of Messrs. Selfridge & Co. Ltd. in London, and attracts much attention. 
On several occasions the public have watched whilst severe earthquakes 
were being recorded. The records are on smoked paper on an open scale. 
It is found that the pendulum, which is supported by one of the main 
stanchions of the building, is affected neither by traffic in the streets nor 
by the movement of people in the Store. 


BRITISH EARTHQUAKES. 

In 1932, January 10, at 4.15, a slight earthshake was felt at two villages, 
Aylesham and Nonington, near Canterbury. Three distinct rumblings 
were heard below ground in the Snowdown mine, dust flew and hurt men’s 
eyes, mice began to squeak, and the miners ran from the coal face. It is 
presumed that the earthshake was due to some collapse of old workings in 
the mine. 

A small earthquake, which was felt in Yorkshire in 1932, May 25, at 22 h. 
G.M.T., was recorded by the seismographs at Stonyhurst and Durham, 
though not by those at Bidston and West Bromwich. The epicentre 
appears to have been in the Hope Valley near Sheffield. 

Small disturbances not recorded by seismographs were reported by news- 
papers as occurring on the following dates : 


1931, Dec. 18, Nottingham. 1932, March 17, Oban. 
1932, Jan. 13, South Carnarvonshire. 1932, July 7, Shrewsbury. 
1932, Jan. 16, Manchester. 


Deep Focus EARTHQUAKES. 


The question of the depth of focus of earthquakes continues to occupy 
the attention of seismologists. As was mentioned in the last report of the 
Committee, records of the earthquake which occurred on February 20, 
1931, were collected at Kew Observatory. A discussion of the records by 
Mr. F. J. Scrase will be published shortly. The focus of this earthquake, 
the epicentre of which was in Siberia near the Sea of Japan, was at a depth of 
360 km. A good example of an earthquake with deep focus is dealt with 
in one of the recent issues of the International Seismological Summary. 


SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 261 


For this earthquake, which had its epicentre in the New Hebrides, Mr. 
Hughes gives in the Summary the focal depth 0-04 of the earth’s radius, 
or 250 km. Excellent confirmation is provided by a special investigation 
of this earthquake by Father Stechschulte of St. Louis. 


HicH Focus EARTHQUAKES. 


That earthquakes with deep foci occur is now well established, but the 
significance of the observations which led Turner to attribute high foci to 
certain earthquakes is not yetknown. A good example of such an earthquake 
was that of 1928, January 6, the epicentre of which was in East Africa, midway 
between Mt. Kenia and Mt. Elgin. Mr. Hughes gives the height of the 
focus as -o15 R or 100 km. It is certain that the focus of a normal earth- 
quake is at a depth much less than 100 km., so that a height of 100 km. 
above the normal is not to be taken literally. The difficulty in interpreting 
the observations is that if the earthquake is treated as normal, the interval 
between P and S phases is at most stations about 10 seconds greater than that 
appropriate for the distance from the epicentre. The earthquake in 
question is to be studied by Mr. E. Tillotson, who is collecting original 
records, and it may be hoped that he will succeed in solving the mystery 
of the ‘ High Focus.’ 


"THE SURFACE LAYERS. 


It is by the study of near earthquakes that information must be sought as 
to the usual depth of focus and as to the thickness of the layers of the earth’s 
crust. There is at present a remarkable difference in practice between 
English investigators, who follow the method of Harold Jeffreys, and 
most seismologists abroad, who keep to the procedure developed by 
S. Mohorovitié. Calculations by the Jeffreys method lead to estimates of 
10 km. for the thickness of the granite (which is generally overlaid by a 
kilometre or two of sedimentary rock) and 25 km. for the thickness of the 
intermediate rock between the granite and the ultrabasic rock which trans- 
mits the P and S waves. The alternative method has led to estimates of 
about 60 km. for the thickness of the two upper layers. The nature of the 
controversy as viewed by Jeffreys in 1928 is explained in the second edition 
of his book The Earth. Following papers by Tillotson and Mourant, in 
which the method of Jeffreys was used, there have been published in the 
year under review two papers by A. W. Lee, which consolidate the evidence. 
The success of the method depends on the detection of waves reflected at 
the ground or at the upper surface of the granite layer. ‘The method has 
only been applied hitherto to small European earthquakes. It is to be 
hoped that reflected waves will be investigated in other regions, so that 
general agreement as to the merits of the alternative methods of inter- 
pretation of the seismological evidence may be reached. 


MMICROSEISMS. 


In continuation of the work summarised in the last report, Mr. Lee has 
investigated the theory of the propagation of surface waves over an area 
where there is a known thickness of sedimentary rock over granite. It 
appears that the larger microseisms are to be expected where the sedi- 
mentary rocks are of greater thickness. As far as Great Britain is concerned 
this conclusion is consistent with the geological evidence. Information is 
now being collected at Kew as to the microseismic disturbance in all parts 
of the world, so that the theory may be put to a thorough test. 


262 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


MEMBERSHIP. 


The Committee asks for reappointment, with the addition of Prof. P.G. H. 
Boswell, F.R.S., Mr. A. W. Lee and Mr. E. Tillotson. ‘The confirmation 
of the election of Prof. H. H. Plaskett is desired. Sir Napier Shaw has 
notified his wish to retire from membership of the Committee. 


AccouUNTS, JULY 193I-JUNE 1932. 


General Account. 


LUSH ‘a, fiatsteads 
Brought forward . 178 11. 6 I.8.S.—Printing lig magatao 
B.A. Caird Fund {£100 Printing and esis & 33 6 6 
B.A.General Fund 150 Postage. ! 13 16 5 
250 0 O Computing ; . 87 16 11 
U.G.G.1.,forI.S.A. . 259 7 10 
Saleof 1.S.S.. : THUOK &2 486 2 I0 
Bank Interest . : O19) 3B 
Operation of Seismo- 
graphs . k : LO Thea 
Cheque stamps . : © 10 0 
497 Bvyek 


Balance carried forward 192 3 8 


£689 11 9 £689 11 9 


Liabilities—One quarter of I.S.S. passed for press 


) 
One quarter in proof j £200. 


Gray-Milne Trust Account. 


LAO Sisal £2 iso: 

Brought forward . 311 4 6 £Miss Bellamy Neches = 
Trust Income . . 86 14 10 rium) . gC) aol te 
Bank Interest . : 7 9 5 Reprints . : : 6 9 3 
Tables : 5 ? I4 10 0 
Milne Library . ; IO I5 3 
Insurance . j , ©0115 0 
62 9 6 
Balance carried forward 342 19 3 


£405 8 9 £405 8 9 


MATHEMATICAL TABLES 263 


MATHEMATICAL TABLES. 


Report of Committee on Calculation of Mathematical Tables (Prof. E. H. 
NEVILLE, Chairman; Prof. A. Lopce, Vice-Chairman; Dr. L. J. 
Comrie, Secretary; Dr. J. R. Atrey, Dr. R. A. Fisuer, Dr. J. 
HeENpDERSON, Dr. J. O. Inwin, Dr. E. S. Pearson, Mr. F. ROBBINs, 
Dr. A. J. THompson, Dr. J. F. Tocuer, and Dr. J. WisHart). 


General activity Eight meetings of the Committee have been held, in 
London. Professors Love and Nicholson, Dr. Doodson and Mr. Whitwell, 
finding themselves unable to take an active part in the work of the 
Committee, did not accept reappointment. 

The grant of £93 has been expended as follows : 


fae SSE ed 

Calculations connected with Emden’s equation : : 12).0' O 
ba hi ,, Legendre functions . : ae 15. “0 
Preparation of copy of tables of Bessel functions : eo Oi! |O 
Editorial and secretarial expenses ; ; : PHISH 8 2 
Unexpended balance . : : : ; : BAe Of TO 


Volume I—This volume of Mathematical Tables, which was in the 
press at the date of the last meeting of the Association, was published in 
November 1931, and is now on sale by the Association for ros.a copy. One 
hundred copies were bound, and the demand for the volume has been 
steady. It was necessary to have a second hundred bound in March of 
this year. 

Volume II.—This volume contains solutions of Emden’s equation. The 
supervision of the calculations, the preparation of printer’s copy and the 
work of seeing the volume through the press have been done by Mr. D. H. 
Sadler, to whom the Committee expresses its gratitude. The cost of 
printing this volume has been borne by the International Astronomical 
Union. The price is 7s. 6d. 

Cunningham Bequest.—(a) The preparation of a table of reduced ideals 
and primitive units in real quadratic fields has been put in hand. Dr. E. L. 
Ince has undertaken the calculations. 

(6) The Council has undertaken for Prof. L. E. Dickson, of Chicago, 
the publication and printing in England of his tables of the minimum 
decompositions of the numbers 1-300,000 into fifth powers. 

Bessel functions —A sub-committee (Drs. J. Henderson and J. O. Irwin) 
was formed to draw up a report on the tables of Bessel functions which have 
appeared in the reports, with a view to the possibility of their publication in 
one volume. Interim reports dealing with the more important of these 
tables have been drafted for consideration by the Committee. In many 
cases the tables will require to be extended and prepared for interpolation. 
Work on the preparation of a few of these tables has been carried out. 

Legendre functions —At the request of Prof. H. R. Hassé, the Com- 
mittee has prepared 7-figure tables of the Legendre functions Pn» (x) up to 
n= 12 for x = 1:00(0-01)6'00 and up to 2 = 6 for x = 6:o(0'1)11°0. 
These tables are required in problems in quantum mechanics. They have 
been supplemented by values up to » = 9 for x = ©*00(0'or)1-00, the 
values up to n = 7 being taken from the Committee’s report for 1879. It 


264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


has not been possible to publish the tables with this report, but they are 
available in manuscript. 

Associated Legendre or Toroidal functions.—Preliminary theoretical work 
on these functions is being done by Dr. J. R. Airey. It is hoped that the 
calculations will be done next year. 

Reappointment.—The Committee desires to be reappointed, with the 
addition of Mr. D. H. Sadler, and with a grant for general purposes of £50, 
which it is expected will be expended on the tables of associated Legendre 
functions and on work for the volume of Bessel functions. 


PARACHORS. 


Report of Committee appointed to collect and tabulate all available data on 
the Parachors of Chemical Compounds with a view to their subsequent 
publication (Dr. N. V. Sipcwick, Chairman; Dr. S. SuGpEn, 
Secretary ; Dr. N. K. Apam). 


INTRODUCTORY NOTE. 


Tuis list has been prepared by a sub-committee of Section B of the British 
Association and gives data for 638 substances. It attempts to tabulate all 
the parachors which have been calculated and discussed down to June 
1931. 

The list is divided into two parts, dealing with inorganic and organic 
compounds respectively. The latter group includes all compounds which 
contain carbon. ‘The inorganic list is arranged in alphabetical order of 
symbols, so that any compound can be found by rewriting its usual 
formula in alphabetical order. Thus sulphuryl chloride is written Cl,O,S 
and its parachor will be found in the part of the list beginning with C. 
The organic substances are arranged in the order used in Richter’s well- 
known ‘ Lexicon.’ 

The references are grouped by years at the end of the list and the ab- 
breviations are, in the main, those used in the Journal of the Chemical 
Society. Where two references follow a value of a parachor the first 
gives the paper in which the parachor is calculated and discussed, the 
second the paper in which the experimental values of the surface tension 
and density are recorded. 


INORGANIC COMPOUNDS IN ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF SYMBOLS. 


A Argon 54:0 1929,7, p.186 ; 1902,1; I.C.T. 
Ag Silver 61-8 1929,7,p.186 ; I914, 4. 

AgCl Silver chloride 98-8 1929,7, p. 186 ; 1916, TI. 
AgNO, Silver nitrate 157:2 1929,7,p.186 ; 1917, I. 
Al Aluminium 55:0 1929,7,p.174; 1916,T. 
Al,Br, Aluminium bromide 457°6 1929, 8. 

AsBr,; Arsenic tribromide 253°5 1929,2; I9I7,TI. 


AsCl, Arsenic trichloride 212-0 1929, 2; I9I7,I. 


PARACHORS 


Gold 60:6 1929,7,p.186 ; 1916, (Zz). 
178°8 1928,7); 1927, 5. 


Boron trichloride 
Barium chloride 


215 


1929, 7, p. 187 ; 1904, 3. 


Bismuth 93:2 1929,7,p.174; 192I,4; 1928, 12. 


Bismuth tribromide 


Bismuth trichlorid 
Bromine 132°! 
Caesium bromide 


Selenium dihydroxy dibromide 
Potassium bromide 


Sodium bromide 


Phosphorus tribromide 
Rubidium bromide 


Stannic bromide 
Calcium chloride 


Chlorine 
Chromy] chloride 
Caesium chloride 


Hydrochloric acid 67:3 1927,2; 
Selenium dihydroxy dichloride 222:8 1929, 2. 
8 


283°9 
e 
1924,I ; 


I929, 7 p. 88 > I9I7, I. 
236°9 1929,7,p.188 ; 1917, I. 
TORT, T- 


207°5 1929,3; 1917,T. 
Hydrobromic acid 85:4 1927,2; 1906,T. 


143°8 


248°5 


IOI 


325°8 1929,T. 
177 1929,7,p.187 ; 1904, 3. 
Cadmium 70:0 1929,7,p.187 ; 1927, 6. 


IIm'5 1924,1 ; 1913, 4. 
1928, I, 


199°1 


104. 


TOCL. 3. 
174°3 1920,3; 1917, T. 
1929,3 5 I917,T. 
242°9 1925,T. 
192°7 1929,3 5 


7,7. 


sire og0; 5 


188-7 1929,3; I917,T. 


1906, 


hy 
218-9 


Potassium chloride 156°6 1929,3,; I917,T. 
Lithium chloride 98:4 1929,3; I91I7,T. 
124°8 1929,3; I917,T. 


Sodium chloride 
Nitrosyl chloride 


108-1 


I924, I 3 


Igr2, 


Chlorine peroxide 98:7 1930, 3. 


Phosphorus oxychloride 

Additive compound SnCl,4.2POCI, 

172°5 1893, 2. 
187°0 1893, 2. 


Thionyl chloride 


Sulphuryl chloride 
Selenium oxychloride 

Phosphorus trichloride 
Phosphorus pentachloride 


Lead chloride 


Rubidium chloride 
Sulphur monochloride 

1929, 4; 1925,1 
Antimony trichloride 


Antimony pentach 
Stannic chloride 


Titanium tetrachloride 
Potassium dichromate 


Caesium fluoride 
Caesium iodide 
Caesium nitrate 


181-1 
199-0 


205-1 
ETS O33 2. 


loride 


217°6 1925,T. 


689°7 
174°5 
193 
1929, 2. 
IgIt, I. 


1925, I; 
205°5 


227°4 1927, 2. 
3118 , hg27, 2. 


272-8 (1929, Z: 


262°5 


1929, I. 


2. 


265 


IQ31, 


217°6 1893,2. 


1929,T. 
1925, 1. 
'g 


20I°'I 


282°5 1927, 2. 
194°5 1929,35; 1908, 2. 
182°8 1929,3; I917,TI. 


1893, 2. 


1930, 5. 


450°8 1928,I ; 1917,T. 


136°9 1929,3; 1917, I. 


242°4 929,35; I917,T. 
218°0 1929,3; I91I7, TI. 


Caesium sulphate 388-8 1929,3 ; I9I7, TI. 
Copper 46 1929,7,p.186 ; 1914, 4; 1927,7. 
35 1917, 2. 
109°O 190203 3.; 1927, Zz. 
82:7 1929,3; 1917,T. 


Lithium fluoride 
Potassium fluoride 
Sodium fluoride 
Rubidium fluoride 


58°5 1929, 


123°I 


Gallium 50:0 1929,7,p.187 ; 1927, 3. 
Hydrogen 35:2 1924,1 ; 1914,I. 


1929,3 5 1917, TI. 


JERS ALE 


1893, 2. 


204.°3 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Helium 20°5 1929,7,p.186 ; 1925, 5. 

Mercury 68-0 1929,3 ; 1914,4. 69:0 1929,3; 1929,5. 
69°4 1929,3; 1921,4. 69°4 1929,3; 1928,12 & 13. 

Hydriodic acid 105°3 1927,2; 1906,T. 

Ammonia 60:7 1929,7,p.170. 

Nitric acid 105°0 1929,7,p.169 ; 1908, TI. 

Water  52°3..'1929,7; p. 69 5 IGT. 

Hydrogen peroxide 69:6 1924,I ; 1920, 3. 

Sulphuricacid 144-8 (10°), 152°3 (132°5°) 1929,7,p.169 ; 
1908,I. 143°7 1929,4; I9II, 5. 

Hydrogen sulphide 82-9 1930, 9. 

Hydrogen disulphide 130-0 1930, 9. 

Potassium iodide 205-2 1929,3; I917,T. 

Sodium iodide 170-8 1929,3; I9I7,T. 

Rubidium iodide 226-8 1929,3; I917,T. 

Potassium molybdate 367 1929,7,p.189 ; I1917,TI. 

Potassium nitrate 189-0 1929,3; I917,T. 

Potassium metaphosphate 204°4 1929,3; I9I7,TI. 

Potassium tungstate 373 1929,7, p. 189 ; I9I7, TI. 

Lithium nitrate 131°5 1929,3; I91I7,T. 

Lithium sulphate 216-0 1929,3; Ir917,T. 

Sodium molybdate 288 1929,7,p.189 ; I9I7,I. 

Nitrogen 60°4 1924,I; I902,T. 

Sodium 97°4 1929,3; 1926, 3. 

Sodium metaphosphate 178-1 1929,3; I917,T. 

Sodium sulphate 261-1 1929,3; I917,T. 

Sodium tungstate 300 1929,7;p.189 ; I917,I. 

Neon 25:0 1929,7,p.186 ; 1925, 6. 

Sodium nitrate 152:9 1929,3; I917,T. 

Nitrous oxide 81-1 1929, 7, p. 170; 1904, 2. 80-0 
1930, Io. 

Nitrogen peroxide 144°4 1925,1I; 1893, 2. 

Rubidium nitrate 197-9 1929,3; I91I7, TI. 

Thallous nitrate 177°3 1929,8. 180°7 1929,8 ; I917,T. 

Oxygen 54:0 1924,I ; 1902,1. 

Osmium tetroxide 154°:0 1925,I ; 1924, 3. 

Rubidium sulphate 361-8 1929,3; I917,TI. 

Sulphur dioxide 101-5 1929,7,p.170 ; 1904, 2. 

Sulphur trioxide 103°6 1929,7,p.170; IgoI,I ; 1922,1. 

Lead 114°2 1929,3; 1914, 4. 89°3 1929,3; 192I, 4. 
91°5 1929,3; 1927,6. 93°5 1929,3; 1927,7. 

Sulphur 49°4 1929,7,p.166 ; r9gr8,T. 

Antimony 76°8 1929,3; I914,4. 82:0 1929,3; 1927, 
6. 83:9 1929,3; 1927,7. 

Tin 83°4 1929, 3; 1974, 4. 83:8 1929, 3; 1927, 6. 
86:8 1929,3; 1926, 2. 

Zinc 50°7 1929, 7, p.187; 1928,12. 58-0 (?) 1929, 7, 
p. 187 ; 1914, 4. 


C.H.Cl, 
C.H.Br, 
C.H;N 


C,H,O 
C,H.0, 


C,H,Cl, 


PARACHORS 267 


ORGANIC COMPOUNDS. 


C, 


Carbon monoxide 61:6 1929,7,p.170 ; 1902,T. 
Carbon dioxide 77°5 1929,7,p.170; 1927, 4. 


Carbon tetrachloride 219°9 1924, I; 1893, I. 220°0 
1924, £5 1884, 1, 218°5 1924,-1,; \I9IT, 3. 21978 
1924,I ; 1920,2. 219°8 1931, 6. 

Carbon disulphide 144°7 1925, I; 1893, 2. 14376 
1925, 1; I9II, I, 3. 142°9 1925, 1; 1920, 2. 143°6 


1931, 6. 

Phosgene 151°6 1929,4; 1920, 4. 

Thiocarbonyl tetrachloride 266-1 1929, 14. 

Thiocarbonyl tetrabromide 316°4 1929, 14. 

Carbon selenosulphide 156-4 1929, IO. 

Chloroform 183°4 1924, 1; 1921, 2. 183°4 1924, 1; 
1884, I. 182°4 1924, I; I9II, 3. 183°5 1924, I; 
1920,2. 183°4..1937,6. 

Bromoform 221:9 1929,4; I.C.T. 

Hydrocyanicacid 81°5 1929,7,p.170. 

Formic acid 93°3 1929, 6. 93°2 1931, 6. 

Methylene dichloride 143°0 1924, I; 1920, 2. 147°6 
I93T, 6. 

Methyl iodide 146:2 1931, 6. 

Methyl alcohol 88:8 1928, 4. 88-7 1929, 7, p. 167. 
88-0 I93I, 6. 

Methylamine 95:9 1929,7,p.170; I917,T. 

Chloropicrin 236°8 1929,4; 1884, TI. 

Thallous formate 150°3 1929, 8. 

Dichlorobromomethane 196°8 1924,1I; IgI2,T. 

Nitromethane 132°1 1924,1; 1920,2. 132°0 1924,1; 
LOLG, 2. %T32°2)' TOZT).6; 


C, 


Acetylene 88:6 1924,1 ; I92I,T. 

Ethylene 99°5 1924,1; 192I,I. 

Ethane 110°5 1924,1; I92I,T. 

Pentachloroethane 292°3 1931, 6. 

Acetylene tetrachloride 259°0 1924, 1; 1912, I. 261-0 
I931, 6. 

Acetylene tetrabromide 311-0 1924, I; 1912, I. 309°8 
924.2 2.1920,2, 310-4 1920, 2 3) ICxE. 

Acetonitrile 122°2 1924,I; 19%3,I. 121°6 1931, 6. 

Methyl isocyanide 122-1 1930, 6. 

Ethylene oxide 112°5 1927,I ; 1922, TI. 

Aceticacid 133°5 1929,7,p.169. 130°8 1929,6. 131°2 
1920,.4 ; 1.C.F. 131 °0 © 193r, 6. 

Methyl formate 138°6 1924, 1; 1893, I. 137°7 1924, 
TeeehO IT. 4s 

Ethylene dichloride 189°3 1924, 1; 1884, I. 189°1 
1924,1; 191I,I. 188-3 1937, 6. 


268 
C,H, Cl, 
C.H,Br, 


C.H;Cl 
C.H;Br 
C.H:I 
C.H,O 


C.H;S 
C.H,N 


C.H,0.T1 
C,H;NS 


_C,H;ON 


C.H;OTI 
C,H;O,N 
C,H;0;N 
C,H,ON, 


C,H,0.S 
C,H,C1,T1 
C.H,O;N, 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Ethylidene dichloride 188-5 1924, 1; 1884, I. 188-6 


I924,I ; I91I,I. 191'9 I931, 6. 


Ethylene dibromide 215-7 1924, IT; I9II, 3. 215°! 
TO2A NAT, ie lOZOnm 2. Orse se TOL al TLG.de) 203°0 


T93T, 6. 
Ethyl chloride 151°6 T93I, 6. 


Ethyl bromide 167-6(?) 1924,1 ; 1920,2. 165°7 I931,6. 


Ethyl iodide 187-0 1931, 6. 


Ethyl alcohol 127°5 1929, 7, p. 167. 127°3 1928, 4. 


126-8 1929,4; I.C.T. 126:6 1931, 6. 
Ethyl mercaptan 162:9 1925,I ; I913,T. 
Dimethylamine 136°6 1929, 4; I917,T. 
Ethylamine 137°4 1929,4,; I917,T. 
Thallous acetate 183°5 1929, 8. 


Methyl thiocyanate 168:6 1925, I; 1884, I. 170°2 


1929, 9. 
Acetamide 148:0 1924,I ; rgro,T. 
Acetaldoxime 145°4 1929,4; I.C.T. 
Thallous ethylate 177°3 1929, 8. 
Nitroethane 171°:2 1929, 4. 
Ethyl nitrate 189°6 1924,T1; I91T3, 2. 


Dimethylnitrosoamine 183°8 1924, IT; 1973, 2. 184°8 


I924,I ; rgro,r. 
Dimethyl sulphate 238-9 17925, Tf. 
Dimethyltelluridichloride 282-5 1929, IT. 
Dimethylammonium nitrate 249-7 1929,3; I9I4, 3. 


Ethylammonium nitrate 239°2 -19290,3. 234°9 I9I4, 3. 


C; 


Allylene 122:9 1924,1; 192I,T. 

Propylene 139°9 1924,I; I92I,T. 

Propane 150°8 1924,I ; I92T,T. 

Propionitrile 160°5 1931, 6. 

Ethylisocyanide 164 1930, 7. 

Allylalcohol 152°7 1928, 4. 153:°8 1931, 6. 
Acefone, 161"'7 ~7o2ak rs rors, T.. 16230 wpe, 


1884, I, \160°9 2924, 0.° \TOIT,.2.i,10TZS . £029, vee 


I.C.T. 161-5 1931, 6. 


Propionic acid 168-7 1929, 6. 169:0 1929, 4; I.C.T. 


169:0 JI93I, 6. 


Ethyl formate 178+4 1924,12; 1884,I. 177-0 1924,1 


TOIT, 4. 


Methylacetate 177-2 1924,1; 1884,I. 176°7 1924,1; 


QTL, 4. 


n-Propyl chloride 190:2 1924, 1; 1884, 1. 187:0 I93I, 
6 


n-Propyl bromide 205°3 I93I1, 6. 
i-Propyl bromide 205-1 1931, 6. 
n-Propyliodide 226:0 193I1,6. 


n-Propylalcohol 165-4 1929,4; I.C.T. 165°8 1928, 4. 


164:7 1931, 6. 
i-Propyl alcohol 164:3 1931, 6. 
Methylal 189-8 1932, 6. 


C;H,N 


C;H,ON, 
C;H,0O.N; 
C;H,OCI, 
C,H;ON; 
C;H;OCI 


C;H;0,Cl 
C;H;NS 


C;H,ON 
C;H;O.N 
C;H,0,B 


C,H 
C,0,NI 
C,H,S 
C,H,Se 
C,H;N 
C,H,O; 
C,H,N 
C,H,O 


C,H 302 


C,H,0, 


C,H soe 
C,H,Cl 


C,H,Br 
C,H,I 
C,H,,0 


C,H,,.0, 
C,H,,N 


PARACHORS 269 


n-Propylamine 178:5 1924,I ; rgro,T. 

Trimethylamine 177°6 1929, 4; 1917, TI. 

Diazoacetone 191°9 1930, T. 

Methyl diazo-acetate 207-2 1930,T. 

«-&%-Dichloroacetone 244:1 1924,I ; 1920, 2. 

Triazoacetone 220°9 1928, ro. 

Epichlorohydrin 193°7 1927, T. 

a-Chloracetone 192:7 1I924,I ; 1920, 2. 

Ethyl chlorocarbonate 216-9 1929, 4; 1893, 2. 

Ethyl thiocyanate 210°7 1925,1; 1893,2. 209:1 1925, 
Sip ViRO NTS joy UR 

Ethyl isothiocyanate 211°7 1925, I; I9I%3, I. 211°5 
7929, 9. 

Propionamide 181°2 1924,I ; rgro,T. 

Ethyl carbamate 202-2 1924,1; Igro,T. 

Methyl borate 243:7 1928, 7. 


C, 


n-Butane 190°3 1929,4; 1928, 3. 

Nickel carbonyl 250-8 1929,7,p.189; 1893, 2. 

Whiopene 2rSo"3 T0920) (44 °4.C.T. 5 1928, Tr. 189°3 
1931, I. 

Selenophene 210°6 1928, 9. 

Pyrrol 164°7 1I931,T. 

Acetic anhydride 225°6 1931, 6. 

n-Butyronitrile 201:2 1924,1 ; 1920,2. 198-9 1924,1; 
Igr0, I. 199°7 1924,1 ; 19T3,I. 199°3 1931, 6. 

Methyl ethyl ketone 198-2 17924, I; IgII, 2. 198°8 
ng2orgiaeh€. Tr. 

n-Butyric acid 2091 1929, 6. 

i-Butyric acid 207:8 1929, 6. 

n-Propylformate 224°4(?) 1924,I ; 1884,T. 216+1 1924, 
I; Tort, 4. 

Ethyl acetate 217-1 1924, 1; 1893, 1. 217°8 1924,1; 
FSS4VRS VI54OUW924\ me; sromTyyle 26:9 1929, 4; 
EGEP SS 255 2701937, 6. 

Methyl propionate 215-1 1924,1 ; I884,I. 214°9 1924, 
TF heorr\4) 

cyclo Selenobutane 229'5 1929, I2. 

n-Butyl chloride 230°5 I931, 6. 

i-Butyl chloride 228-4 1931, 6. 

n-Butyl bromide 243°5 I931, 6. 

7-Butyl bromide 243:8 1931, 6. 

n-Butyl iodide 264-7 1931, 6. 

i-Butyl iodide 265-0 1931, 6. 

n-Butyl alcohol 202:9 1928,4. 203°4 T1931, 6. 

i-Butyl alcohol 202-1 1929,4,; I.C.T. 200-6 1931, 6. 

sec-Butyl alcohol (methyl ethyl carbinol) 201-9 1931, 6. 

tert-Butyl alcohol (trimethylcarbinol) 201-0 1931, 6. 

Di-ethyl ether 211-7 1924,1; 1893,I. 211°9 1924,1 ; 
1884, Is) 269"5 1924, 1 ToTT)3./(antle 1937, 6. 

Dimethyl acetal 226-0 1924,1 ; 1884, TI. 

z-Butylamine 216-1 1929,4,; 1884, TI. 


270 


C,H,0,Cl, 
C,H,C1,S 
C,H;0,Cl, 
C,H;NS 


C,H;C1,S 
C,H,O.N, 
C,H,O,Cl, 
C,H,O.N, 
C,H,0O,.Cl 
C,H,OSe 
C,H,O.N 
C,H,,ON; 
C,H,,0;S 


C,H,,0,S 
C,H, ,Br.Te 
C,H, ,1.Te 
C,H,,0;N; 
C,H,,0,Si 


C;H,,.0; 


C;H,,Se 
C;HiiN 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Succinyl chloride 282:6 1927, 3. 

Tetrachlorovinylethylsulphide 374-1 1928, 8. 

Ethyl trichloroacetate 327°6 1929,4; I.C.T. 

Allyl isothiocyanate 232°4 1925, I; I913, Tf. 
1929, 9. 

Trichlorovinylethylsulphide 338:4 1928, 8. 

Ethyl diazo-acetate 248°3 1930, T. 

Ethyl dichloroacetate 291°7 1929,4; 1884,I. 

Triazo-acetic ester 277°0 1928, TI0. 

Ethyl chloroacetate 252:1 1929,4,; 1884,T. 

1:4Selenoxan 245°2 1930, 4. 

n-Butylnitrite 251°8 1925,T. 

Diethylnitrosoamine 260°3 1924,I ; I9r0,T. 

Diethyl sulphite 299°7 1912, TI. 

Ethyl ethanesulphonate 295°8 1912,TI. 

Diethyl sulphate 313-:8 1925,TI. 

6-Diethyl telluridibromide 377°3 1929, IT. 

«-Diethyl telluridi-iodide 425:0 1929, II. 

Di-ethyl ammonium nitrate 324°8 1929,3; I9T4, 3. 

Methyl orthosilicate 330°9 1931, 2. 


230°5 


C; 


Amylene 218-2 1924,1; 1884,1. 

B-iso-Amylene 216°9 1929, 4. 

i-Pentane 230°0 1931, 6. 

Furfural 212°9 1924,I ; I913, 2. 

Pyridine 199°8 1924, I; I9II, 3. 199°7 1929, 4; 
TS Od hi 

cycloPentanone 214°'2 1928, 6. 

Acetylacetone 240'°7 1924,I ; I913,T. 

Laevulinic acid 258:6 1929,4; I917,T. 

Dimethyl malonate 283:1 I931,TI. 

n-Valeronitrile 236°6 1924,I; I913, TI. 

i-Valeronitrile 237°3 1924,1I ; 1920, 2. 

i-Valeraldehyde 237°5 1929,4; 1884,T. 

Diethyl ketone 236°2 1924,I ; IgIT, 2. 


245°4 1929, 8. 


237°4 1931, 6. 
237°4 I93T, 6. 


Methyl-n-propylketone 233:0(?) 1924,1; I9I5,I. 238-0 
I9T3, 2. 

n-Valeric acid 247:0 1931, 6. 

i-Butyl formate 262°4 1924,1; 1884,1. 

n-Propyl acetate 257°1 1924,1,; 1884,1I. 255°'0 1924, 
Te-wLOLr, Ae 

Ethyl propionate 255°2 1924,1; 1884,I. 254°4 1924, 
L$ I9IT, 4.) 25470 GkOgz, 6; 

Methyl butyrate 254°1 1924,1; 1884, 1. 254°3 1924, 
I; Iori, 4. 

Methyl iso-butyrate 253°1 1924, I; 1884, I. 253°5 


1924,2; I91t, 4. 
Ethyl lactate 268-5 1929,4; I.C.T. 
Diethyl carbonate 277°4 1925,I. 274°9 1931, 6. 
cyclo Selenopentane 264°2 1929, 73. 
Piperidine 231°5 1924,1,; I9II, 2. 


C;HiiC 
C;H,,Br 
C;H,,.0 


C;H,3N 
C;H,O.N, 
C;H.O;N2 
sH,O.N, 
sH,O, 
C;H,NS 
C;H,,0.N 


PARACHORS 271 


n-Amyl chloride 270°4 1931,6. 

i-Amyl chloride 269°8 1924,I ; 1920, 2. 
n-Amyl bromide 283:6 1931, 6. 

i-Amyl bromide 282-9 1931, 6. 

n-Amyl alcohol 243°3 1931, 6. 

i-Amyl alcohol 241°4 1931, 6. 


tert-Amylalcohol 241-1 1929,4; 1.C.T. 238-0 1931,6. 


Ethyl-n-propylether 252:0 1924,I ; 1913, 2. 
tert-Amylamine 252°3 1929,4,; I917,TI. 
Diazo-acetylacetone 274°9 1930, TI. 

Methyl diazo-acetoacetate 295:0 1930, I. 
Methyl diazomalonate 305°4 1930,TI. 

Ethyl cyano-acetate 262-1 1929,4; I9I2,I. 
Butyl-zsothiocyanate 281-6 1929, 9. 

i-Amyl nitrite 287°4 1925,T. 
Acetylacetoneborondifluoride 300°6 1929, 8. 


C, 


Benzene 206°3 1924,I ; 1893,I. 2061 1924,I ; 1884, 


I. 206°0 1929, 4. 205°7 1931, 6. 
Di-allyl 248-2 1924,1 ; 1884,1. 
Methyl-cyclo-pentane 242°8 1924,1I ; 1904,T. 
cyclo-Hexane 239°3 1929,4. 241°8 1931, 6. 


n-Hexane 270°:1 1924, IT; 41884, I. 273°3 1924, I; 


I9T3,I. 270°4 1929,4. 270°4 I931,6. 
p-Benzoquinone 236°8 1927, 3. 
p-Dichlorobenzene 279°5 1924,2; 1924,TI. 
Phenyl azoimide 267-3 1928, 10. 

Fluorobenzene 214°3 1924,I ; IQII,I. 
Chlorobenzene 244°5 1924,I ; 1893,I. 244°9 1924,I 
I9II,3. 243°9 1924,1; 1920,2. 244°1 1931, 6. 
Bromobenzene 260°6 1924,2 ; 1924,I. 258-0 1924,I 

Igit,I. 257°8 1931, 6. 

Iodobenzene 282:3 1924, 2; 1924, 1. 280°7 1924, 1 

TORI: 

Phenol 220°2 1928, 4. 221°3 1929, 4; I.C.T. 222: 

(49°6°), 224°8 (147°5°) 1930, 8. 


> 


. 


2 


’ 


a 


3 


Phenyl mercaptan 257°5 1925,I; 1912,I. 256°4 1925, 


F4SeRO TF pie 

Amilinete2gs 97% 2024; 2, 23474 09a00g:; I.C.T.. 232° 
TORT AOS 

Dimethyl fumarate 308°5 1925, 2. 

Dimethyl maleate 309°6 1925, 2. 


7 


Phenyl hydrazine 255°7 1924,1; I9T0,I. 255°9 1924, 


DP s0LGQTZHELO25 71% | LOSR RE. 
cyclo-Hexanone 251°4 1928, 6. 
Propionylacetone 279°7 1929, 8. 
Ethyl aceto-acetate 302°0 JI93I,T. 


Diethyloxalate 323°4 1924,1; I913,I. 322°2 1931, 6. 


n-Capronitrile 276°6 1931, 6. 

i-Butylacetonitrile 275:0 1924,I ; I9I0,I. 
Pinacoline 273°4 1929,4; I.C.T. 

cyclo-Hexanol 254°9 1929,4; I1913,5; 1924,5. 


272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


C.H,:0. 


C,H,,0; 
C,H,,Br 


oH; 
oH, 


C,H, ,0, 
C,H,;N 
C,H,CIBr 
C,H,Cll 
C,H;0,.N 
C,H;O;,N 


C,H;Cl,As 
C,H;BrSe 


C,H,0,.NCI, 


C,H,0,NCI 


C,H,O,NBr 


CH, 


n-Hexoic acid 287-2 1929, 6. 

i-Amyl formate 303-8(?) 1924,I ; 1884,I. 293°7 1924, 
I; I9Il, 4. 293°6 1924,1; 1973, 3. 

t-Butyl acetate 300-0(?) 1924,1 ; 1884,1. 295°1 1924, 
Test QIGT «oF 

n-Propyl propionate 295°3 1924,1; 1884,1. 

Ethyl butyrate 293-9 1924,1 ; 1884,I1. 293-0 1924,1; 
TOTTI, 3. 294°2 I924,I ; I9T5, 2. 

Ethyl tso-butyrate 292:9 1924,1; 1884, T. 

Methyl valerate 292:5 1924,1; 1884, 1. 

Paracetaldehyde 299:0 1924, 1; 1884, I. 298°5 1924, 
if , I9T3, 2. 

cyclo Selenohexane 302:1 JI93I, 3. 

2-Methyl cyclo selenopentane 304-2 1931, 3. 

n-Hexyl bromide 322-8 1931, 6. 

n-Hexyl iodide 344-1 1931, 6. 

n-Hexyl alcohol 276-2 1931, 6. 

Di-n-propylether 290-9 1931, 6. 

Diethyl acetal (Ethylal) 306-9 1924, 1; 1884, 1. 305-7 
OGIO. 

Dipropylamine 297°3 1924,I ; 1910,T. 297+2 1929,1; 
UR ORS 

p-Chlorobromobenzene 292°5 1924, 2; 1924, I. 

p-Chloro-iodobenzene 316°4 1924,2; 1924,T. 

Nitrobenzene 264°5 1924,2; 1924,1. 264:1 1924,1; 
I9II, 2. 262°5 1924,1 ; 1920,2. 262-1 1931, 6. 

o-Nitrophenol 273:2 1928, 4. 274:7 1930, 8. 

m-Nitrophenol 283-3 1930, 8. 

p-Nitrophenol 280°8 1928, 4. 283-2 1930, 8. 

Phenyl dichloroarsine 348:3 1929, 2. 

Phenyl selenobromide 321°5 1929, 2. 

Ethyl diazo-aceto-acetate 330°3 1930, I. 

Thallous aceto-acetic ester 332°2 1929, 8. 

n-Butyl diazo-acetate 326:0 1930, T. 

Diethyl azoformate 377°1 1930, 13. 

Triethyl borate 363-1 1928, 7. 

Triethyl phosphate 399-1 1925, I. 

2:5 Dichloronitrobenzene 335°4 1929,4; I9I7,T. 

1-Chloro 2:4 dinitrobenzene 351°6 1929, 4; 1917, I. 
348-2 1930, II. 

1-Chloro 3:4 dinitrobenzene 258-7(?) 1930, IZ ; I9T4, 5. 
347°4 1930, II. 

o-Chloronitrobenzene 299:9 1925, 3. 

m-Chloronitrobenzene 298-9 1925, 3. 

p-Chloronitrobenzene 300:0 1924,2; 1924,T. 

o-Bromonitrobenzene 312:9 1925,3. 

m-Bromonitrobenzene 313°5 1925, 3. 

p-Bromonitrobenzene 313°5 1925, 3. 


@ 


C, 


Toluene 246-9 1924,1 ; r9r2,r. 245°5 1924,1 ; 1884, 
I. 246°5 1924,1; TOIT, I. 246°0 1924,1; To2T, 2. 
245°O I93I, 6. 


Cis 
CAs 


PARACHORS 273 


Methyl cyclohexane 278°5 1924, I; 1904, I. 282-0 
IQ3I, 6. 

n-Heptane 309°3 1924, I; 1920, I. 310°8 1929, 4; 
1929, 5. 

y-Methylhexane 306°6 1929,4; 1929, 5. 

66-Dimethylpentane 305-3 1929,4; 1929, 5. 

88-Dimethylpentane 305°5 1929,4; 1929, 5. 

BBy-Trimethyl-butane 301°4 1929, 4; 1929, 5. 

Benzonitrile 259°3 1924, 1; I9II, 3. 258:0 1924,1; 
I9I0,I. 255°5 1924,1 ; 1913,T. 

Phenyl isocyanide 255°2 1930, 6. 

Benzaldehyde 256:2 1924,1; IQIIT,2. 254:0 1924,I; 
1920,2. 255-1 19290,4; I.C.T. 

o-Hydroxybenzaldehyde 268-0 1930, 8. 

m-Hydroxybenzaldehyde 274°5 1930,8. 

p-Hydroxybenzaldehyde 278-2 1930,8. 

2-Methyl- 1: 4-benzoquinone 272:0 1927, 3. 

o-Toluylazoimide 303:8 1928, ro. 

p-Toluylazoimide 307:0 1928, 10. 

o-Chlorotoluene 280°8. 1931, 6. 

p-Chlorotoluene 283:6 1924,1I ; 1924, 2. 

p-Bromotoluene 296°8 1924,I ; 1924, 2. 

p-lodotoluene 318:6 1924,I ; 1924, 2. 

o-Cresol 257°5 1928, 4. 

m-Cresol 257-°1 1928, 4. 

Benzyl alcohol 259:°6 1929,4; JI.C.T. 

Anisole 265:°6 1924,I ; 1912,I. 265°7 1924,1 ; I9gI5, 
PAIZO OROLO24 Se TOTES Gee t2O5e 2024, fs TO2Z02. 

o-Toluidine 269:3 1931, 6. 

p-Toluidine 272°4 1924,2. 272:1 1929,4; I.C.T. 

Benzylamine 273°7 1924,1; 1910, TI. 

Dimethyl mesaconate 341°9 1925, 2. 

Dimethyl citraconate 346-1 1925, 2. 

cycloHeptanone 288-0 1928, 6. 

2-Methylcyclohexanone 288:2 1930, 4. 

3-Methylcyclohexanone 290°0 1930, 4. 

4-Methylcyclohexanone 289°6 1930, 4. 

Ethylcyclobutanecarboxylate 309°4 1927, I. 

Dietoyt malonate 362°:0 1924,1,; I913,I. 360°3 1931, 


n-Heptonitrile 316:1 1931, 6. 

Oenanthol 318-0 17931, 6. 

Di-n-propyl ketone 314:1 1924,I ; I91T3,3. 

i-Amyl acetate 337°I 1924,1 ; 1884,1. 331-6 1924,1; 
FOR s2: 

1-Butyl propionate 331°8 1924,1; 1884,T. 

n-Propyl butyrate 333°8 1924,1; 1884,1. 

n-Propyli-butyrate 332°6 1924,1 ; 1884,TI. 

Ethyl valerate 332:1 1924,1 ; 1884,1. 

Ethyli-valerate 331°9 1924,1; 1920,2. 

n-Heptyl bromide 363-0 1931, 6. 

n-Heptyliodide 384:5 1931, 6. 

n-Heptylalcohol 313°4 1931, 6. 

Benzoy] chloride 289°8 1929,4; 1884,T. 

Phenyl thiocyanate 307°3 1929,9. 


274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


C,H;NS 
C-;H,ON 
C,H,O.N 


C,H,O;N 


C;H,.0:N; 
C,H,,0,N; 
C-H, NCI 

C,H,,0.Cl, 
C-H,;ON 

C,H, 0,8, 
C,H,NCISe 
C,H,NBrSe 
C-H,0,CIS 


C,H, 


C,H 
C,H. 


eH, 6 


C.His 


C,H;N 


C;H,O 
C,H,O2 


C,H,0; 


Phenyl isothiocyanate 304:1 1925, I; I9I3, I. 305°4 
1929, 9. 

Formanilide 273°5 1924,1I; I91r0, TI. 

Benzamide 279°:9 1924,I; IgI0,T. 

Salicylamide 295°3 1924,I; IgI0,T. 

o-Nitrotoluene 297°7 1924,1; 1920,2. 301-1 1925, 3. 

m-Nitrotoluene 297°0 1924,I ; 1920,2. 300°6 1925, 3. 

p-Nitrotoluene 302°8 1924,2; 1924,I. 301°6 1928, 4. 

o-Nitro-anisole 322-1 1930,8. 

p-Nitro-anisole 322°6 1930, 8. 

Phenylmethylnitrosoamine 313°6 1924,1I; IgI0,T. 

n-Butyl diazo-acetate 326:0 1930,I. 

Ethyl diazomalonate 381-6 1930, I. 

Methyl aniline hydrochloride 348-6 1929, 3. 

i-Amy] trichloro-acetate 443:0 1924,I; I913, 3. 

Heptaldoxime 343°7 1929,4; 1903,T. 

Sulphonal 465-5 1928,T1. 

p-Chlorophenylselenocyanide 349°3 1929, 2. 

p-Bromophenylselenocyanide 366-1 1929, 2. 

p-Toluene sulphonylchloride 367:°8 1928, 1. 


C, 


o-Xylene 283-3 1924, 7; “1884, .1.° 283°3 1924, T ; 
IOI, I. 

m-Xylene 284-6 1924, IT; 1I9T2, I. 283°3 1924, 1 
F664, I. "255°T “FO24, 1 =" 1615) 7. Begg 1924, T= 
IQII, I. 284:0 1931, 6. 

p-Xylene 283°8 1924, ©; 1884, I. 283:8 1924, I; 
I9gII,I. 283°8 1931, 6. 

Ethylbenzene 283-0 1924,1 ; 1884,I. 283:8 1924,1; 
IgII,I. 284-0 1931, 6. 

Octine 327°4 1924,I ; I9r2,T. 

1:1 Dimethylceyclohexane 316-1 1924,1I ; 1904,T. 

n-Octane 350°3 1929,4. 351°0O I931, 6. 

Diisobutyl 345-0 1924,1 ; 1884,T. 

B-Methylheptane 348-7 1929,4; 1924, 4. 

Be-Dimethylhexane 345°5 1929, 4. 

Phenylacetonitrile 293°6 1924,I ; I910,I. 293°4 1924, 
Ten OUra ae 

o-Toluonitrile 292°5 1924,I; I9I0,I. 292:9 1924,I; 
T9T3,I. 290°6 1925,3. 292°7 1929,4; I.C.T. 

m-Toluonitrile 280-0(?) 1924,1; 1910,1. 280-7(?) 1924, 
I; 19T3,T. 295°6 1925, 3. 

p-Toluonitrile 295-2 1924,1 ; I910,I. 295°9 1924,1; 
T9T3,I. 294°4 1925, 3. 

o-Tolyl isocyanide 292:9 1930, 6. 

p-Tolyl isocyanide 295-5 1930,6. 295 1930, 7. 

Acetophenone 293'8 1924,1I; I913, 2. 

Methyl benzoate 310°4 1929,4; I.C.T. 

o-Methoxybenzaldehyde 312:°4 1930, 8. 

p-Methoxybenzaldehyde 313:9 1930,8. 

nape salicylate 323°7 1929,4,; 1917,I. 322:1 1930, 


C,H,,Br 
C,H, ,0 


Cc sH, gle 
eH, 

C,H. Si 

Cc gH. .Sn 

C,H )Pb 

Cc 3H,O,Cl, 


C,H,ON 
C,H,ON 


C;H,,0.S 
sH,,0, 
3H,,0,Cl 
sH,,0,N; 


C,H,,NC 
C,H, 2NBr 


C,H,,0,.N 


eH, 7 
C,H, 30S, 


gH2.0,Si 


C,H,,0,NS 


PARACHORS 275 


Methyl-p-hydroxybenzoate 331°8 1930, 8. 

p-Methoxy-salicylaldehyde 325°1 1930, 8. 

Phenetole 303°5 1924, I; I9I5, I. 303°6 1924, I; 
TOIrT, 3. 130278 1924, T ; 1920, 2. 

normal Methyl -3-methyl - cyclopropene-t : 2 - dicarboxylate 
371°6 1927,T. 

Dimethylaniline 311°7 1929,4; J.C.T. 

Ethylaniline 310°4 1924,4; I.C.T 

Ethyl maleate 387:0 1924,I ; 1912,TI. 

Ethylfumarate 391°2 1924,I1 ; I912,I. 392°4 1924,1; 
I97T3, I. 

2-Methyl-A,-heptene-6-one 340°7 1928, 5. 

Ethyl dimethylacetoacetate 382°3 1924,I ; I913,T. 

Diethyl succinate 396-2 JI93I, TI. 

Diethyl malate 412-4 1929,4,; I9173, 3. 

Diethyl tartrate 428:1 1929,4; I917,T. 

n-Octylic nitrile 356:0 JI93I, 6. 

eo aoa 355 °7 } 1924; Ps T9TT,2. 356°8'. 7997, 


6-Methyl-A,-heptenol 345°5 1928, 5. 
n-Octoic acid (caprylic acid) 365°6 1929, 6. 
i-Amyl propionate 372°1 1924,1 ; 1884,T. 
i-Butyl butyrate 370°5 1924,1 ; 1884,T. 
i-Butyl i-butyrate 371°8 1924,T ; 1884, TI. 
n-Propyl valerate 371°9 1924,1 ; 1884,T. 
n-Octyl bromide 402°4 1931, 6. 

n-Octyl alcohol 354:4 931, 6. 

sec-Octyl alcohol 360°4 1929,4; I.C.T. 
Di-n-butyl ether 369°9 1931, 6. 
Di-n-butyl telluride 426-8 1930, 2. 
Di-i-butylamine 372°1 1929,4; I.C.T. 
Tetraethylsilicane 412-1 I93I, 2. 

Tin tetra-ethyl 441-1 1929,T. 

Lead tetra-ethyl 456°6 1929,8. 
as-Phthalyl chloride 367°8 1927, 3. 
s-Phthalyl chloride 373:9 1927, 3. 

o-Anisyl isocyanide 314°1 1930, 6. 


p-Anisyl isocyanide 314°5 1930,6. 315 1930,7. 


Acetanilide 321°8 1924,I ; Igro,T. 

Phenylacetamide 320°2 1924,I ; Igto,T. 

Benz-anti-aldoxime O-methylether 324°2 1925,T. 

Benz-anti-aldoxime N-methyl ether 325°9 1925, I. 

Benzylmethylsulphone 369°8 1928,T. 

Ethyl r-cyanocyclobutane-1-carboxylate 360°4 1927,TI. 

Diethyl chloromaleate 423°3 1929,4; I.C.T. 

Ethyl diazosuccinate 428°4 1930, TI. 

Ethylaniline hydrochloride 381°9 1929, 3. 

Dimethylaniline hydrobromide 412°8 1929, 3. 406°3 
I9T4, 3. 

Ethyl 7-propylcyanoacetate 374°8 1928, 6. 

Methylhexylketoxime 375°2 1931, 6. 

Trional 493°8 1928,I. 

Ethyl orthosilicate 487°6 1931, 2. 

Dimethylaniline bisulphate 469°9 1929, 3. 


276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


C.Hiz 


C,H;N 
C,H,,0 


oH, 40,4 


C,H, ;N 
C,H, ,0 


C,H, 0, 


C,H2iN 


C,H,,O.N; 
C,H,,0CI, 
oH, 0, 
C,H, ,ON 
C,H, ,NHglI, 


C, Hs 
C,oHis 


C, oH» 


C,oH,,0, 


C,H, 20 
C,oH,0, 


CoH; ,04 


10H 3 


C, oH, 303 
C,oH2.0 


Cy 


n-Propylbenzene 322:0 1924,1; 1884, 1. 323-1 I931, 
6 


p-Ethyltoluene 321:7 1924,1; 1884,1. 

Mesitylene 320°5 1924, 1; 1884, I. 320°8 1924, I; 
Igri, I. 

Quinoline 306°4 1924,TI ; I9IT, 3. 

Phorone 367:9 1925, 2. 368-3 1929,4; 1I909,T. 

Ethyl cyclopropane-1 : 1-dicarboxylate 417:1 1927,TI. 

Ethyl cyclopropane-1 : 2-dicarboxylate 422:8 1927,T. 

n-Nononitrile 395:2 1931, 6. 

Methylheptylketone 396°8 1931, 6. 

Be-Dimethyl-A,-heptenol 383-2 1928, 5. 

Ethyl-u-heptylate 413°3 1931, 6. 

i-Amyl butyrate 410°9 1924, 1; 1920, 2. 408:5 1924, 
Th TOUS. oh 

Tripropylamine 413°6 1924, I; I910, I. 414°6 1924, 
4; I917,1. 

Benzene azoformic ethyl ester 402°1 1930, I}. 

Methylacetanilide 354:2 1924,7 ; I9I0,T. 

Ethyl phenylcarbamate 375°6 1924,I ; I9I0,T. 

aa’-Dichlorophorone 427°7 1928, 2. 

aa’-Dibromophorone 463:2 1928, 2. 

Ethyl p-toluenesulphinate 410°3 1925, 4. 

Ethyl p-toluenesulphonate 431-8 1928, T. 

Methylheptylketoxime 414:6 1931, 6. 

Phenyltrimethylammonium mercuritri-iodide 719-1 1930, 
TR 


Cio 


Naphthalene 312:5 1928, 4. 

n-Butylbenzene 361°7 1931, 6. 

p-Cymene 356:9 1924, 1; 1884, I. 360°:7 1924, T; 
FEG)ETE ike 

1:2:4:5 Tetramethylbenzene 355:°6 1929, 4; IQ00, Tf. 

n-Decane 429°7 I931, 6. 

Di-isoamyl 422°7 1924, I; 1884, I, 425°7 924, 1; 
I9gII,2. 427:8 1924,I ; 1920,2. 426°9 T1931, 6. 

Benzoylacetone 382:°4 1929,58. 

Methyl cinnamate 383:1(?) 1924,1; I912,1. 385:2(?) 
924,12 ; 1913,2. 373°9 1925,2. 

Methyl allo cinnamate 376-1 1925, 2. 

Anethole 363-2 1924,I ; 1913, 2. 

normal Ethyl 3-methyl-A,-cyclopropene-1 : 2-dicarboxylate 
450°2 1927,T. 

labile Ethyl 3-methyl-A,-cyclopropene-1 : 2-dicarboxylate 
447°8 1927,T. 

Ethyl] cyclo-butane-1 : 1-dicarboxylate 454-1 1927, I. 

Isopulegol 392:2 1928, 5. 

Citronellal 415°2 1928, 5. 

Ethyl diethylacetoacetate 446°6 1924,I ; 1913,T. 

d-Citronellol 421-7 1928, 5. 

l-Rhodinol 421:6 1928, 5. 


PARACHORS 


C,,H.2,02 n-Decoic acid (Capric acid) 447°7 1929, 6. 
Ethyl n-octoate 452°7 1931, 6. 

C,,H..0 Di-n-amyl ether 449°9 1931, 6. 

Di-i-amyl ether 445°7 1929, 4; I9I4, 2. 
C,.H,O0,.N «-Nitronaphthalene 363-3 1928, 4. 

C,,H,O.Br Methyl «-bromocinnamate 426°6 1925, 2. 
Methyl «-bromo-allo-cinnamate 427:9 1925, 2. 
Methyl B-bromocinnamate 424°8 10925, 2. 
Methyl] @-bromo-allo-cinnamate 427°5 1925, 2. 
C,,H,,;ON = Ethylacetanilide 398-5 1924,I ; Ig9I0,T. 
10H,,0,Be Beryllium acetylacetonate 470-4 1929,8. 
C,,H,;O,N Ethyl-cyclo-pentyl-cyano-acetate 430°1 1928, 6. 
C,,H,;O0,.Br «-Bromo-x’methoxyphorone 455°3 1928, 2. 
C,,H,,0,Cl,Sn bis-Acetylacetone tindichloride 617-2 1929, 8. 


277 


C,,H,,.NHgI; Phenyldimethylethylammonium mercuritri-iodide 754-0 


1930, 12. 
Ci 
C,,Hi, n-Amyl benzene 402:0 1931, 6. 
Pentamethylbenzene 390°:0 1929,I ; 1900, I. 
C,H Undecine 404°5(?) 1924,I ; I912,T. 


C,,H,,0, Ethyl phenyl propiolate 375°2(?) 1924,1; 1912,1. 


I929,7,p. 42. 

C,,H,,0, Ethyl cinnamate 417°2 1924,I; I9I3,I. 

C,,H,,0, Dehydroangustione 435 I93I, 5. 

uH,,0; a-Acetoxyphorone 459°4 1928, 2. 
dl-Angustione 442 I931, 5. 

C,,H,,0, 


dicarboxylate) 493°2 1927, I. 

C,,H,,0, Undecylenic acid 478-2 1929,4; 1920, 2. 
C,,H,.0, Ethyl pelargonate 493:6 19312, 6. 

nH,,0, %-Monocaprylin 514 930,15. 


C,,H,;O.N Ethyl cyclo hexylene cyano-acetate 454:7 1928, 6. 


uH,;0,Br «-Bromo «’-acetoxyphorone 506°4 1928, 2. 
C,,H,,0O,N Ethyl cyclohexyleyanoacetate 467:6 1928, 6. 


410°3 


Ethyl] caronate (Ethyl trans-3 : 3 dimethyl cyclo propane-1 : 2- 


C,,H, ;,NHelI, Phenylmethyldiethylammonium mercuritri-iodide 789:5 


1930, 12. 


Cre 


C,H; ¢' n-Hexylbenzene 442:0 1931, 6. 
C,.H,,N2 Azobenzene 429°5 1930, 13. 

12HipHg Mercury diphenyl 448-7 1929, 8. 

12H Se Diphenyl selenide 445°6 1929, 2. 
C,:H,,Se. Diphenyl diselenide 506°5 1929, 2. 
C,,H,.Te Diphenyl telluride 457-4 1929, IT. 

12h; Diphenylamine 402-1 1924,1 ; Igro,T. 


12H, ,0. n-Propyl phenylpropionate 468:°7 1924,1 ; rgr2,T. 
i-Propyl phenylpropionate 467°4 1924,I ; I912,1. 


C,,H2,0. n-Dodecoic acid (Lauric acid) 532°8 1929,6. 
12H. .Si Tetrapropyl silicane 565°3 I93I, 2. 
C,,H,OTe Phenoxtellurine 452-9 1930, 2, 


278 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


C,2Hi0ON2 
C, oH, oOSe 
C,2Hi002S 

1 oH, oClAs 
C,2H,,Cl.Te 

12441572 
C,H; ;0,1 
C,.H, 70.N 
C,H, 30,Be 


12H, ,02 


Azoxybenzene 444°7 1925,TI. 

Diphenyl selenoxide 461°6 1929, 2. 

Diphenyl sulphone 465°7 1928,T. 
Diphenylchloroarsine 487-1 1929, 2. 
Diphenyltelluridichloride 547°3 1930, 2. 
Dimethylthallium benzoylacetonate 523-7 1929, 8. 
Iodosobenzene propionate 583°5 1931, 7. 

Ethyl cyclo-heptylenecyano-acetate 487:7 1928, 6. 
Beryllium propionyl acetonate 539:0 1929, 8. 
Ethyl cycloheptycyanoacetate 502'7 1928, 6. 


C,.H..NHg.I, Phenyltriethylammonium dimercuripentaiodide 1060 1930, 


C,;Hie 
C,;H,,0 
C,3H1,0; 


13H, 2N2 
C,3H,02 


C,;H2,0, 
C,;H,,0.S 


C,.Hio 
144414 
1444102 


C,,Hi.N2 


C,,H,;N 

C, 4H, 60. 
1 +H, sO, 
1 sH2,0, 
14H2,0,4 


C,,H, 202 
14H, ,ON, 


C,.,.H, ,0.Te 


Tei. 


Cis 


Diphenylmethane 419°:0 1924,1 ; IQII,I. 414°5 1924, 
I; rgrg, Tf. 

Benzophenone 428:2 1924,I ; I912,I. 425°2 1924,I; 
TOTS ae 

Diphenyl carbonate 467°4 1925,I. 

o-Methylazobenzene 463-8 1930, 13. 

m-Methyl azobenzene 467:3 1930, 13. 

i-Butylphenylpropiolate 424°7(?) 1924,1; 1912,1. 487-1 
I929,7,p. 42. 

a-Monocaprin 588 1930, I5. 

Phenylbenzylsulphone 503-5 1928, T. 


Ci 


Phenanthrene 414-1 1928, 4. 
aa-Diphenylethane 449°8 1924,1I ; I919,TI. 
Benzil 480°8 1927, 3. 

o-o’-Dimethylazobenzene 501°3 1930, I3. 
m-m’-Dimethylazobenzene 504°6 1930, IT}. 
Dibenzylamine 485°6 1924,I ; I9I0,T. 
Diethyl benzalmalonate 561-1 1928, 6. 

Diethyl benzylmalonate 567-7 1928, 6. 
Di-i-Amyl maleate 613°6 1924,I ; I9I2,T. 
Di-z-Amyl succinate 621:3(?) 1924,I ; I913,T. 
Di-ethyl sebacate 646:9(?) 1924,1I ; 1912,T. 
n-Tetradecoic acid (Myristicacid) 605-8 1929, 6. 
o-Azoxytoluene 528:6 1925,TI. 

Di-p-anisyl telluride 575-2 1930, 2. 


C,,H,,0,Cl.Te Di-p-anisyl telluridichloride 663:2 1930, 2. 


C,5His 
C,;H,,.0; 
C,5H300. 


Ci; 
Diphenylpropane 484:6 1924,T ; Ir9r9,T. 
Ditolylmethane 488-0 1924,1 ; I9T9,I. 
Ethyl cyclo-propane 1: 1:2:2tetracarboxylate 7o1:1 1927, 
2 


a-Monolaurin 664 1930,T5. 


PARACHORS 279 
C,;H,,0.N ay decahydro-8-naphthylene cyano-acetate 582°3 1928, 


C,;H,,0,Al Aluminium acetylacetonate 680-5 1929, 8. 
1sH230.N Ethyl decahydro-B-naphthyl cyano-acetate 594:6 1928, 6. 


Cis 


C,H, ,0, 2: 2’-Dimethoxybenzil 596:8 1927, 3. 

C,H, ,0; a#-Benzoyloxyphorone 583-9 1928, 2. 

C,.H;,0, Palmitic acid 693:2 1929, 6. 

C,H, Cetyl iodide 748-9 1931, 6. 

C,,;H,,O;Br «-Bromo-«’-benzoyloxyphorone 642°4 1928, 2. 
16H,3,02.Br. «-Bromo-«’-p-bromobenzyloxyphorone 684:0 1928, 2. 
C,;H,,0.Te, Di-p-phenetyl ditelluride 723-0 1930, 2. 

C,,H,,0.Br «-p-Bromobenzyloxyphorone 630°7 1928, 2. 

C,,H3,N.5 Tri-i-amylammonium thiocyanate 761:6(?) 1929,3; 1914, 


3. 
C,sH,,0.Cl,Te Di-2-chloro-p-phenetyltelluride (?) 731-2 1930, 2. 
C,,H,,SHgI, Dibenzylethylsulphonium mercuritri-iodide 915:2 1930, 
72. 


Ci; 


C,-H,,0 Distyrylketone 564°5 1928, 2. 
C,,H;,0. Margaricacid 733°2 1929,6. 
17H34,0, a-Monomyristin 740 1930, 15. 
C,-H,,OBr, «-«’-Dibromodistyrylketone 650:7 1928, 2. 
C,-H.,SHgI, Dibenzyl-n-propylsulphonium mercuritri-iodide 952-0 
1930, 12. 


Cis 


_ C,3H,;P Triphenyl phosphine 607:7 19122, TI. 
C,,H,;Sb  Triphenylstibine 637°4 1927,2 ; 1917,1. 
C, ,H;,02 Stearic acid 778 ‘Oo 1929, 6. 
C,,H,;0,P Triphenyl phosphate 686°5 1925, TI. 
C,,;H,,0,Al Aluminium propionylacetonate 788-0 1929, 8. 
C,,H;,0,N, Tetrapropylammonium picrate 932°2 1929, 3. 
1sH3 90,;Be, Basic beryllium propionate 985°4 1929, 8. 
C,,H;,;SHelI, Dibenzyl-n-butylsulphonium mercuritri-iodide 1000 1930, 
To. 


Cis 
C,,H;,0,4 a-Monopalmitin 841 1930, 75. 


Coo 


C..H;,0, Di-i-Amyl sebacate 877:0 1924,1 ; I912,T. 
C,.H,,NI Tetra i-amyl ammonium iodide 895°5 1929,3; 1914,3. 


280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Ce, 


C,,H.,N Tribenzylamine 695°7 1924,I ; I9I0,T. 
o1H120, %-Monostearin 894:0 1930,T5. 


Cys 
C,;H,,0, 7-Amyl stearate 974°2 1924,I ; I913,3. 


Coy 
C,,H2,Si Tetraphenyl silicane 787:5 1931, 2. 


Co, 

CosHs4 n-Hexacosane 1082 1929,4; 1923,T. 
Cop 

C3.H¢6 n-Dotriacontane 1322 1929,4; 1929,6. 
C3 


C33H,20, Tricaprin 1404 1930, T4. 


C3, 
C,,H,,0, Trilaurin 1648 I930, r4. 


C,; 
C,;H 3.0, Trimyristin 1892 1930, 14. 


C5 
C,,H,,.0, Tripalmitin 2120 1924, I; 1912, I. corrected, 1930, T4. 
2134 1930, I4. 
C;; 


C;;Hi100,  Tristearin 2380 1924,1 ; 1912,T. 2376 1930,T4. 


Coo 


CooHies n-Hexacontane 2480 1929,4; 1923,T. 


1884. 
1893. 


1900. 
Ig9Ol. 
1902. 
1903. 
1904. 


1906. 
1908. 
1909. 


IQIO. 
IQII. 


1912. 


1913. 


1914. 


IQI5. 
1916. 
1917. 
1918. 


1919. 
1920. 


1921. 


1922. 
1923. 
1924. 


PARACHORS 281 


REFERENCES. 


(1) Schiff, Annalen, 1884, 223, 47. 

(1) Ramsay and Shields, Phil. Trans., 1893, 184, 647. 

(2) Ramsay and Shields, 7. Chem. Soc., 1893, 63, 1089. 

(1) Dutoit and Friderich, Arch. Sci. phys. nat., 1900,9, 105. 

(1) Schenck, Ann., 1901, 316, 1. 

(1) Baly and Donnan, 7. Chem. Soc., 1902, 81, 907. 

(1) Dutoit and Fath, 7. Chim. physique, 1903, 1, 358. 

(1) Kistiakovsky, Ann. Inst. Polytech. Petrograd, 1904, 1, 450. 

(2) Grunmach, Ann. d. Physik, 1904, (4), 15, 401. 

(3) Motylewski, Z. Anorg. Chem., 1904, 38, 410. 

(1) Steele, McIntosh and Archibald, Z. physik. Chem., 1906, 55, 145. 

(1) Walden, Z. physikal. Chem., 1908, 65, 129. 

(2) Lorenz and Kaufler, Ber., 1908, 41, 3727. 

(1) Dutoit and Mojoiu, 7. Chim. physique, 1909, 7, 169. 

(1) Turner and Merry, 7. Chem. Soc., 1910, 97, 2068. 

(1) Morgan and Daghlien, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1911, 33, 657. 

(2) Morgan and Owen, ¥. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1911, 33, 1713. 

(3) Morgan and Thomssen, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1911, 33, 657. 

(4) Morgan and Schwarz, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1911, 33, 1041. 

(5) Pound, 7. Chem. Soc., 1911, 99, 698. 

(1) Walden and Swinne, Z. physikal. Cheni., 1912, 79, 700. 

(2) Briner and Pylkoff, 7. Chim. Physique, 1912, 20, 657. 

(1) Morgan and Chazal, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1913, 35, 1821. 

(2) Morgan and Stone, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1913, 35, 1505. 

(3) Morgan and Kramer, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1913, 35, 1834. 

(4) Marchand, }. Chim. physique, 1913, 11, 574. 

(5) Hardy, Proc. Roy. Soc., 1913, A., 88, 303. 

(1) K. Onnes, Proc. K. Akad. Wetensch. Amsterdam, 1914, 17, 528. 

(2) Kremann and Meingast, Monatsh., 1914, 35, 1323. 

(3) Walden, Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersberg, 1914, 8, 405. 

(4) Smith, 7. Inst. Metals, 1914, 12, 168. 

(5) Muller, Z. phystkal. Chem., 1914, 86, 224. 

(1) Renard and Guye, ¥. Chim. physique, 1915, 5, 81. 

(2) Richards and Coombs, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1915, 37, 1656. 

(1) Lorenz, Liebmann and Hochberg, Z. anorg. Chem., 1916, 94, 
301. 

(1) Jaeger, Z. anorg. Chem., 1917, 101, 1. 

(1) Kellas, 7. Chem. Soc., 1918, 113, 903. 

(1) Harkins and Ewing, ¥. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1919, 41, 1977. 

(1) Kremers and Kremers, 7. Amer. Pharm. Assoc., 1920, 9, 860. 

(2) Harkins, Clark and Roberts, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1920, 42, 700. 

(3) Maass and Hatcher, ¥. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1920, 42, 2562. 

(4) Paterno and Mazzucchelli, Gazzetta, 1920, 50, i, 30. 

(5) Harkins and Ewing, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1920, 42, 2539. 

(1) Maass and Wright, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1921, 43, 1098. 

(2) Richards and Carver, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1921, 43, 827. 

(3) Richards and Boyer, ¥. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1921, 43, 274. 

(4) Hogness, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1921, 43, 1621. 

(1) Berthoud, Helv. Chem. Acta, 1922, 5, 513. 

(1) Schenck and Kintzinger, Rec. trav. chim., 1923, 42, 759. 

(1) Sugden, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1924, 125, 1177. 


282 


1924. 


1925. 


1926. 


1927. 


1928. 


1930. 


REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


(2) Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1924, 125, 1167. 
(3) von Wartenberg, Annalen, 1924, 440, 97. 
(4) Richards, Speyers and Carver, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1924, 46, 
1196. 
(5) Weissenberger, Schuster and Schuler, Monatsh., 1924, 45, 413. 
(1) Sugden, Reed and Wilkins, 7. Chem. Soc., 1925, 127, 1525. 
(2) Sugden and Whittaker, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1925, 127, 1868. 
(3) Sugden and Wilkins, 7. Chem. Soc., 1925, 127, 2517. 
(4) Phillips, 7. Chem. Soc. TODS ated, 2552. 
(5) Mathias, Crommelin, Onnes and Swallow, Comm. Leiden, 1925, 
172b. 
(6) Urk, Keeson and Nighoff, Comm. Leiden, 1925, 172b. 
(1) Harvey and Schnette, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1926, 48, 2065. 
(2) Sauerwald and Drath, Z. anorg. Chem., 1926, 154, 79. 
(3) Poindexter, Physical Rev., 1926, 27, 820. 
(1) Sugden and Wilkins, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1927, 139. 
(2) Sugden, #7. Chem. Soc., 1927, 1173. 
(3) Garner and Sugden, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1927, 2877. 
(4) Quinn, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1927, 49, 2710. 
(5) Mills and Robinson, 7. Chem. Soc., 1927, 1823. 
(6) Bircumshaw, Phil. Mag., 1927, (7), 3, 1286. 
(7) Drath and Sauerwald, Z. anorg. Chem., 1927, 162, 301. 
(1) Freiman and Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1928, 263. 
(2) Sugden, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1928, 410. 
(3) Coffin and Maass, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1928, 50, 1427. 
(4) Bhatnagar and Singh, ¥. Chim. physique, 1928, 25, 21. 
(5) Doevre, Thesis, Lyons, 1928. : 
(6) Vogel, 7. Chem. Soc., 1928, 2010. 
(7) Etridge and Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1928, 989. 
(8) Mumford and Phillips, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1928, 155. 
(9) Briscoe and Peel, 7. Chem. Soc., 1928, 1741. 
(10) Lindemann and Thiele, Ber., 1928, 61, 1529. 
(11) Peel and Robinson, 7. Chem. Soc., 1928, 2068. 
(12) Brown, Phil. Mag., 1928, (7), 6, 1044. 
(13) Bircumshaw, Phil. Mag., 1928, (7), 6, 510. 
(1) Garner and Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 1298. 
(2) Henley and Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 1058. 
(3) Sugden and Wilkins, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 1291. 
(4) Mumford and Phillips, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1929, 2112. 
(5) Edgar and Calingaert, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1929, 51, 1540. 
(6) Hunter and Maass, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1929, 51, 153. 
(7) Sugden, ‘ The Parachor and Valency,’ George Routledge and 
Sons, London, 1929. 
(8) Sugden, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1929, 316. 
(9) Perschke, Ber., 1929, 62, 3054. 
(10) Briscoe, Peel and Robinson, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 58. 
(11) Lowry and Gilbert, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1929, 2087. 
(12) Morgan and Burstall, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 1098. 
(13) Morgan and Burstall, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 2199. 
(14) Briscoe, Peel and Robinson, 7. Chem. Soc., 1929, 1049. 
(1) Lindemann, Wolter and Groger, Ber., 1930, 63, 702. 
(2) Burstall and Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1930, 229. 
(3) Cheesman, 7. Chem. Soc., 1930, 35. 
(4) Vogel and Oommen, 7. Chem. Soc., 1930, 768. 
(5) Lowry and Jessop, 7. Chem. Soc., 1930, 1014. 


PARACHORS—EAST AFRICAN LAKES 283 


1930. (6) Lindemann and Wiegrabe, Ber., 1930, 63, 1650. 
(7) Hammick, New, Sidgwick and Sutton, 7. Chem. Soc., 1930, 1876. 
(8) Sidgwick and Bayliss, ¥. Chem. Soc., 1930, 2027. 
(9) Butler and Maass, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1930, 52, 2197. 
(10) Quinn and Wernimont, ¥. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1930, 52, 2727. 
(11) Sickmann and Menzies, 7. Amer. Chem. Soc., 1930, 52, 3328. 
(12) Cavell and Sugden, 7. Chem. Soc., 1930, 2572. 
(13) Lindemann and Groger, Ber., 1930, 63, 715. 
(14) Joglekar and Watson, 7. Indian Inst. Sci., 1930, XIII A, 119. 
(15) Rewadekar and Watson, ¥. Indian Inst. Sct., 1930, XIII A, 128. 
1931. (1) Landolt and Bornstein, Zweit. Erganzungsband, pp. 172-188. 
(2) Sugden and Wilkins, #7. Chem. Soc., 1931, 126. 
(3) Morgan and Burstall, 7. Chem. Soc., 1931, 173. 
(4) Gibson and Johnson, 7. Chem. Soc., 1931, 266. 
(5) Evans and Soper, 7. Chem. Soc., 1931, 289. 
(6) Hennant-Roland and Lek, Bull. Soc. Chem., 1931, 40, 177 (see 
also Lek, Thesis, Brussels, Oct. 1930). 
(7) Sidgwick and Barkworth, 7. Chem. Soc., 1931, 807. 
(8) Parker and Robinson, 7. Chem. Soc., 1931, 1314. 


EAST AFRICAN LAKES. 


Report of Committee appointed to co-operate in an Expedition to investigate 
the Biology, Geology, and Geography of Lakes Baringo and Rudolf, 
Northern Kenya, and Lake Edward, Uganda (Prof. J. 5S. GARDINER, 
Chairman; Dr. E. B. WortHincTton and Mr. J. T. SAUNDERS, 
Secretaries ; Dr. W. T. Catan, Prof. J. W. Grecory, Prof. R. N. 
RupMosE Brown, Dr. L. S. B. LEAKEY). 


THE expedition, which was in the field from October 1930 to October 
1931, consisted of : Dr. E. B. Worthington as leader and zoologist ; Mrs. 
Stella Worthington as geographer and surveyor; Mr. L. C. Beadle as 
chemist and zoologist ; Mr. V. E. Fuchs as geologist ; and Mr. R. E. Dent, 
Assistant Game Warden in charge of fish in Kenya Colony (for the first 
two months). 

Faunistic, ecological, geographical and geological work was carried out on 
the following lakes in Kenya: Rudolf, Baringo, Nakuru, Hannington and 
Naivasha ; and also the following in Uganda: Edward, George, Bunyoni, 
Nabugabo; Kachira, Nakavali and Kijanebalola. The whole work was 
designed to complete limnological studies of the lakes of Kenyaand Uganda, 
which were started in 1927 by the fishing surveys of Lakes Victoria, Albert 
and Kioga and were continued by Miss P. M. Jenkin on the small lakes of 
Kenya in 1929. As a result of the Cambridge Expedition it may now be 
said that all the important lakes of Kenya and Uganda have received a 
thorough preliminary biological survey. 

Collections of the aquatic fauna and flora were made. At present they 
are being examined by experts in the different groups, and ultimately the 
whole collection will be deposited at the British Museum of Natural History. 

A summary account of the expedition’s work has already been published 
in the Geographical Journal, vol. Ixxix, pp. 275-297. Other publications 


284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


relating to the expedition are in Discovery, February 1932, p. 40; Nature, 
January 9, 1932, p. 55; The Empire Survey Review, vol. i, p. 217; The 
Times, etc. 

Arrangements have been made with the Linnean Society of London to 
publish the general scientific results of the expedition as a series of papers 
in the Fournal of the Society. The following papers are complete and now 
in the press: (1) Worthington: ‘ General Introduction and Station List.’ 
(2) Worthington : ‘ Fishes other than Cichlidae.’ (3) Beadle: ‘ Chemistry 
in relation to Fauna and Flora.’ (4) Beadle: ‘Bionomics of African 
Swamps. (5) H. W. Parker: ‘Amphibians and Reptiles.’ (6) Prof. P. 
de Beauchamp : ‘ Rotifera and Gastrotricha.’ 

Another series of about six papers will be ready for publication in the 
autumn of this year. 

The expedition was financed by the Royal Society Government Grants, 
British Museum (Natural History), Percy Sladen Memorial Trust, Balfour 
Fund, British Association, Royal Geographical Society, Gloyne Fund, 
Gonville and Caius College, Worts Fund, and assistance was also received 
from the Uganda Government. The balance sheets have already been 
audited by the Royal Society Government Grants, and have been sub- 
mitted to the British Association through Prof. Stanley Gardiner. All the 
societies who contributed grants have agreed to allow the balance of £170 
at the completion of the field work to be devoted to publication in the 
Linnean Society’s Journal. 


PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION. 


Interim Report of Committee appointed to examine and report upon 
Petrographic Classification and Nomenclature (Mr.W.CAMPBELL SMITH, 
Chairman; Dr. A. K. WELLS, Secretary ; Prof. P. G. H. Boswett, 
Prof. A. Hoimes, Prof. A. JoHANNSEN, Prof. P. Nicci, Prof. H. H. 
ReaD, Prof. S. J. SHanp, Dr. H. H. Tuomas, Prof. C. E. Tiiey, 
Dr. G. W. TyrreELt). 


THE Committee first met in December 1931, and after general discussion 
of possible lines of action decided to issue a questionnaire framed to ascer- 
tain the opinions of petrologists on controversial points in nomenclature and 
classification. ‘The questionnaire, in its approved form, was published in 
February 1932, in the Geological Magazine and in Science, in England and 
the U.S.A. respectively. 

As a result, replies to some or all of the questions have been received from 
H. L. Alling, E. B. Bailey, A. F. Buddington, R. Campbell, T. Gillette, 
C. K. Graeber, M. G. Hoffman, H. Jeffreys, A. J. Johannsen, W. Q. 
Kennedy, E. S. Larsen, B. Lightfoot, A. C. Macgregor, A. M. Macgregor, 
P. Niggli, H. S. Palmer, T. C. Phemister, H. H. Read, J. B. Scrivenor, 
S. J. Shand, Q. J. Singewald, G. W. Tyrrell, and A. C. Woodford. Dr. A. 
Brammall has rendered valuable assistance to the Committee in connection 
with the preparation of the questionnaire and the discussion of the results. 

Some of the replies have taken the form of lengthy communications, and, 
particularly on the more controversial questions, opinions are forcefully 
expressed. 

The problem before the Committee was twofold : the accurate naming 


PETROGRAPHIC CLASSIFICATION 285 


of rocks, and their grouping for purposes of classification. The Committee 
finds that there is little prospect of any one of the several existing schemes 
finding general acceptance. Replies to the questionnaire indicate an 
almost unanimous opinion that classification of igneous rocks must be based 
on ascertainable facts—composition, texture, and mode of occurrence— 
and that theories of origin must be excluded. Many petrologists are con- 
vinced that no one scheme of classification is adequate to meet all require- 
ments and advocate two (or more) classifications: one based on mineral 
content, the other on chemical composition, i.e. a classification of magmas 
rather than of rocks. Apart from these, the general opinion strongly 
favours classification based upon mineral composition and texture! There 
is even more general agreement that the naming of individual rocks must 
be so determined. 

The Committee is of the opinion that rock nomenclature should be 
independent of age, geographical distribution, and the nature of the asso- 
ciated rocks. Exception should be made of certain dyke rocks, notably the 
aplites and pegmatites. 

On the question of whether there should be three main divisions or only 
two, opinion is almost equally divided. Similarly there is a sharp division 
of opinion as to whether texture or mode of occurrence should be used to 
separate the groups. In general, opinion favours either two divisions, based 
on texture; or three, based on mode of occurrence, i.e. habit. The 
Committee suggests a compromise and advocates three main divisions 
defined in terms of texture. 

When the three divisions are based rigidly on field occurrence it is 
inevitable that two rocks, identical in composition and in all their physical 
characters, should bear different names ; and that, on the other hand, two 
rocks differing widely in texture and appearance should bear the same 
name. Admittedly, field relations are frequently so obscure as to render 
their interpretation a matter of personal opinion. ‘The Committee thinks it 
desirable that the personal factor should be eliminated as far as possible in 
classification and nomenclature, and believes that the ambiguities referred 
to above would disappear were nomenclature made independent of mode of 
occurrence. Several of those petrologists who, in general, favour the other 
course are apparently willing to go half-way, as they raise no objection to 
the use of such terms as ‘ dyke-basalt.’ 

The Committee finds that many petrologists, particularly among the 
teachers of the subject, experience difficulty in defining and using the terms 
* plutonic,’ ‘ hypabyssal’ and ‘ volcanic’ (or ‘ extrusive ’) when used with 
reference to individual rocks. This is notably the case with ‘ hypabyssal ’ 
—a misnomer, in that many dyke rocks have consolidated under the same 
depth-pressure conditions as the plutonic rocks with which they are asso- 
ciated. Further, both granite and gabbro (plutonic rock types) occur as 
dykes (hypabyssal rock bodies) ; while many composite intrusions consist 
in part of ‘ plutonic’ gabbro and in part of ‘ hypabyssal’ granophyre in 
intimate association. 

The conception of the existence of three phases of igneous activity, 
commonly referred to as plutonic (major intrusive), dvke phase and volcanic, 
is of great value in mapping and in the interpretation of geological maps ; 
but the Committee points out that duplication of rock names and other 
ambiguities arise when these terms are applied to the roughly corresponding, 
though actually not congruent, main rock groups. 

1 By ‘texture’ the Committee means ‘ those features which depend upon the 
size and shape, and arrangement and distribution of the component minerals.’ 
A. Johannsen, A Descriptive Petrogvaphy of the Igneous Rocks (1931), vol. i, p. 32. 


286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


With regard to rock names, most petrologists favour the retention of names 
long familiar to readers of Zirkel, Rosenbusch, Iddings, Harker, and Hatch 
—with the proviso that, where necessary, these names should be revised to 
meet modern requirements. ‘That some revision is necessary is evidenced 
by the fact that even the commonest names are used in several different 
senses. Thus the distinction between basalt and andesite is based by 
different writers on silica percentage, colour index, and specific plagioclase. 

The Committee is of the opinion that agreement on the re-definition of 
names in common use can be best reached through systematic study, by 
competent petrologists, of the rocks themselves. 

Impressed by the lack of uniformity in, and important omissions from, 
descriptions of rocks, the Committee believes that systematic petrography 
would greatly benefit if all authors would embody clear statements of all 
the diagnostic characters of the rocks they describe. It would be an 
obvious convenience if these characters were listed in the same order. A 
recommendation on this point will be made in a subsequent report. 

The Committee calls attention to the Report on British Petrographic 
Nomenclature (Min. Mag., vol. 19, 1921, pp. 137-147), with which, in the 
main, it agrees, but to which it may propose amendments later. 

It is hoped that the suggestions made in this interim report will evoke 
discussion and correspondence, before they are incorporated as definite 
recommendations in the final report. Such correspondence should be 
addressed to the Secretary of this Committee at University of London, 
King’s College, Strand, London, W.C. 2. 


EMPIRE SOIL RESOURCES. 


Report of Committee appointed to co-operate with the Imperial Soil Bureau 
to examine the soil resources of the Empire (Sir E. J. RussELL, Chairman ; 
Mr. G. V. Jacks, Secretary ; Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Mr. H. Kine, 
Dr. L. DupLey Stamp, Mr. A. STEvENS, Dr. S. W. WOOLDRIDGE 
(from Section E) ; Dr. E. M. Crowruer, Dr. W. G. Occ, Prof. G. W. 
RoBINSON (from Section M) ). 


THE Committee was formed as a result of a suggestion put forward by 
Sir E. J. Russell in his paper on the ‘ Soil Resources of the British Empire,’ 
given before Section E, at the British Association Meeting in 1931. The 
function of the Committee is to organise a survey of the soil resources of 
the Empire on a geographical, ecological and climatic basis. ‘Two meetings 
of the Committee have been held. At the first meeting, it was decided to 
invite the Schools of Geography of British Universities and some well- 
known experts in the overseas Empire to co-operate in collecting the 
climatic and ecological data of different parts of the Empire, each indi- 
vidual or school to be asked to undertake the work for that country of which 
he or it should have special knowledge or special facilities for obtaining 
the required data. At the same time, the Imperial Soil Bureau would under- 
take to collect all the available information relating to the soils themselves. 

The invitations to co-operate with the Committee were accepted by 
nearly all who were approached on the matter, and the Committee desires 
to record its sincere appreciation of the willingness with which its request 
for assistance was answered. The work on the different parts of the Empire 
has been allotted as follows : 


EMPIRE SOIL RESOURCES—EARTH PRESSURES 287 


Canada: Prof. P. M. Roxby, Department of Geography, Liverpool 
University. 

India : Mr. A. V. Williamson, Department of Geography, Leeds Univer- 
sity. 

Ireland : Dr. D. K. Smee, Bedford College, London. 

Australia: Prof. O. H. T. Rishbeth, Department of Geography, 
University College, Southampton. 

New Zealand : Mr. R. O. Buchanan, University College, London. 

East Africa : Prof. Rodwell Jones, School of Economics, London. 

West Indies, British Guiana, etc.: Prof. F. Hardy, Trinidad. 

Tanganyika : Mr. G. Milne, Amani (provisional). 

Several other individuals have expressed their readiness to co-operate, if 
necessary. 

At the second meeting of the Committee, recommendations for collecting 
the required climatic and ecological data were drawn up. Those recom- 
mendations have been sent to all who are helping in the Survey, and it is 
hoped that the work on the different parts of the Empire is now well in hand. 


EARTH PRESSURES. 


Seventh Interim Report of Committee on Earth Pressures (Mr. F. E. 
WENTWORTH-SHEILDS, Chairman; Dr. J. S. Owens, Secretary ; 
Prof. G. Coox, Mr. T. E. N. Farcuer, Prof. A. R. Futon, Prof. 
F, C. Lea, Prof. R. V. SouTHWELL, Dr. R. E. Strap.inc, Dr. W. N. 
Tuomas, Mr. E. G. Waker, Mr. J. S. Witson). 


SINCE the Committee’s last report two meetings have been held, one at 
Burlington House in April 1932, and one at Garston in July 1932. Both 
were chiefly concerned with the research work which has been carried on 
at the Building Research Station at Garston by Prof. C. F. Jenkin, who 
has collaborated with the Committee in this work for the past five years, and 
who has contributed the report which is attached hereto. His work, of 
which the Committee would again express high appreciation, may be said 
to have reached an important stage, as he considers the results now justify 
his laying down ‘rules’ for estimating the lateral pressure of sand on 
retaining walls, which rules are stated and explained in a notable paper, 
which was read and discussed at the Institution of Civil Engineers in 
February 1932. ‘The paper formed the subject of further discussion at the 
Committee’s meeting in April 1932, when the reliability of some of the rules 
was challenged. The Committee, however, welcomed the announcement 
that the Research Department intended to publish a paper with the addition 
of relevant tables, and suggested an introductory note, which Prof. Jenkin 
agreed to. At the July meeting Prof. Jenkin further explained the work 
he is doing on clay. At the same meeting Mr. E. G. Walker presented 
an abstract he had made of an important paper by Mr. Glennon Gilboy, 
published in the Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers 
(October 1931). The paper summarises the principal features of the pro- 
gramme of research on soils which is being carried out at the Massachusetts 
Institution of Technology. The work was started some years ago by Dr. 
Charles Ferzaghi, who is still in touch withit. Mr. Walkeralso presented an 
abstract of an article in Engineering (May 30 and June 13, 1930), describing 
various experiments, including one with sand and ‘till’ on a ‘ wall’ ro ft. 


288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


high, specially constructed so that the horizontal and vertical loads exerted 
on it by an earth backing could be measured. 

The Committee consider that the research on which Prof. Jenkin is now 
engaged is likely to be of great value, and they recommend that his and 
their work be carried on for a further period. 


BurILpDING RESEARCH STATION, 
July 1, 1932. 


REPORT FOR THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION EARTH PRESSURES 
COMMITTEE. 


The investigation of earth pressures has been continued without 
interruption during the past year. 

A very large number of measurements of sand pressures on retaining 
walls has been made with the experimental apparatus, and a fairly complete 
mathematical theory, which I call the revised Wedge Theory, has been worked 
out, which agrees with the experimental pressures, but no mathematical 
theory has been found to explain the heights of the centre of pressure. 

A general account of the work was given in a paper illustrated by 
experiments read to the Engineering Section of the British Association last 
year, and a discourse on ‘The Mechanics of Shifting Sand’ was delivered 
to the Royal Institution on February 19. 

The whole of the work was described in a paper to the Institution of Civil 
Engineers, which was discussed on February 23 and March 1. At the dis- 
cussion an apparent disagreement between my results and those obtained by 
Takabeya in Japan was pointed out; this has been investigated, and an 
article entitled ‘ Predicting the Internal Motion of Sand’ was published in 
Engineering for May 13, which shows that my theory could actually predict 
the results obtained by Takabeya. 

I am now engaged on the problem of the pressure exerted by clay. Some 
six different ideal materials have been investigated, and their mathematical 
equations worked out. Experiments with china-clay and oiled glass beads 
and other substances have begun. The most promising method of testing 
these materials appears to be the determination of their stress-strain diagrams 
when subject to torsion (pure shear). Preliminary experiments have turned 
out more successful than was expected, and a complete recording torsion 
meter is in course of construction. 

Simple large-scale experiments on clay, sufficient to check the theoretical 
calculations, are being considered, and do not seem to be impossible. 

I have received valuable assistance from Mr. Wentworth-Sheilds, who 
obtained the opinions of a number of experienced engineers on a question 
I submitted. 

The difficulties presented by clay are very great, and it is too soon to offer 
any opinion as to the probability of the ultimate success of the investigation. 

C. F. JENKIN, 


ELECTRICAL TERMS—KENT’S CAVERN 289 


ELECTRICAL TERMS AND DEFINITIONS. 


Interim Report of Committee on Electrical Terms and Definitions (Prof. Sir 
J. B. Henperson, Chairman; Prof. F. G. Batty and Prof. G. W. O. 
Howe, Secretaries; Prof. W. Cramp, Dr. W. D. Dye, Prof. W. H. 
Eccies, Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Sir R. GLazeproox, Prof. A. E. 
KENNELLY, Prof. E. W. Marcuant, Sir F. E. Smiru, Dr. W. E. 
SuMPNER, Prof. L. R. WILBERFORCE). 


THE subject of electrical terms and definitions is being considered by many 
committees in this and other countries. Different views are held in regard 
to the meaning of some of the fundamental terms used in electromagnetic 
science, and it is essential that international agreement should be obtained on 
these important questions of terminology and definition. It is therefore very 
desirable that this Committee should work in close co-operation with other 
bodies considering the same subject. 

In December 1931 a circular was issued by the Commission on Symbols, 
Units and Nomenclature of the International Union of Physics. This 
circular, which was in the form of a questionnaire dealing with the main 
points on which differences of opinion were known to exist, was sent to the 

individual members of our Committee. 

In May 1932 the British National Committee of the International Union 
of Physics convened a conference at the Royal Society to discuss proposals 
drawn up by Sir Richard Glazebrook on the basis of the replies received to 
the questionnaire. The members of our Committee were invited to attend 
and take part in this conference. Although no unanimous decisions were 
arrived at, votes were taken on the chief points of difference and by a 
majority certain recommendations were approved. These were subsequently 
discussed at an informal meeting in Paris, held in connection with the 
Electrical Congress in July 1932, preparatory to the meeting of the Inter- 
national Electrotechnical Commission which is to take place in Chicago in 
1933. 

The Committee therefore ask to be reappointed. 


KENT’S CAVERN, TORQUAY. 


Report of Commitiee appointed to co-operate with the Torquay Natural 
History Society in investigating Kent’s Cavern (Sir A. Kerry, Chair- 
man; Prof. J. L. Myres, Secretary ; Mr. M.C. Burkitt, Dr. R. V. 
Fave.t, Mr. G. A. Garritt, Miss D. A. E. Garrop, Mr. LacalLte). 


Tue following report has been received from the excavators, Messrs. F. 
eynon and Arthur H. Ogilvie : 


“Work was resumed on October 5, 1931, and ceased on May 12, 1932. 
“Quarrying operations having opened a way into the North-East Gallery, 
it was decided to take the opportunity of making some examination of this 
chamber. The results, however, showed that no previous entrance had 
existed there. Apart from remains of the usual Late Pleistocene fauna, 
L 


290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


only one flint implement and a few flakes rewarded the search, during which 
some 5 ft. of cave earth were removed. 

‘Excavation in the Sloping Chamber was therefore resumed, and was 
rewarded by the discovery, at a depth of 8 ft. below the Upper or Granular 
floor, of two fine specimens of tools—the one an ovate implement of flint, 
more probably Early Mousterian than Acheulean; the other a typical 
Acheulean hand-axe, with twisted edges, of chert. This latter implement 
is the first certain specimen of the Acheulean period so far discovered in the 
Cavern, and completes the series of cultures represented there—Chellean, 
Acheulean, Mousterian (Early and Late), Aurignacian (Middle and Late), 
Solutrean (Early or Proto-Solutrean, and a rather later phase with primitive 
laurel leaf), and an apparently very late Magdalenian with bi-serial and uni- 
serial harpoons with trapezoidal barbs. 

‘The deposit in which the Acheulean flint was found had been to some 
extent overturned, perhaps by flood water. It consisted of a mixture of the 
Late Paleolithic cave earth, with its characteristic fauna, and the much 
earlier deposit of Grit, quite unbrecciated, which elsewhere sometimes 
contained the Chellean tools, while not many feet from the point of discovery 
MacEnery had found remains of Machairodus at the top of the deposit 
immediately under the Upper Stalagmite floor.’ 


The Committee asks to be reappointed, with a small grant for the employ- 
ment of a labourer to remove excavated material after examination. 


PREHISTORIC SITES IN EGYPT. 


Report of Committee (Prof. J. L. Myres, Chairman; Mr.H.J. E. PEAKE, 
Secretary; Mr. H. Batrour) appointed to co-operate with Miss 
Caton-Thompson in her researches in prehistoric sites in the Western 
Desert of Egypt. 


To continue the geological and archzological exploration of Kharga 
Oasis, begun in 1931, Miss Caton-Thompson returned, with Miss Elinor 
W. Gardner as geologist, to examine the tufa deposits and sheets of gravel 
on the eastern scarp of the Oasis, which presented difficulties not resolved 
in the first season’s work. The tufas were found to belong to at least 
three distinct geological horizons ; the last two are dated securely by tools. 
Similarly the gravels must be divided into (a) Plateau Gravels, (b) Terrace 
Gravels, (c) Wadi Gravels ; these also are all three now culturally dated. 
The conspectus of prehistory in the depression extends from Acheulean 
and .Levalloisean, through late Middle Palzolithic (pre-Sebilian), Aterian, 
and Capso-Tardenoisean to Neolithic, and all these were found in situ. 

In the scarp the oldest deposit of the ‘ drift’ sequence is a massive 
crystalline Plateau Tufa with reed impressions but no fauna or human 
evidence: it is provisionally placed as Plio-pleistocene. There followed 
a period of great erosion, forming longitudinal and transverse valleys, also 
without cultural evidence. Then the upper reaches of these valleys were 
filled by great accumulations of angular breccia, representing a long dry 
period, and yielding no tools so far. On the breccia filling, rainfall and 
vegetation permitted palzolithic man to appear. Cellular Wadi Tufas 
yield plant impressions and land shells both palearctic and tropical. ‘These 


PREHISTORIC SITES IN EGYPT—COLOUR VISION 291 


tufas and the Plateau Gravels of this phase yielded Acheulean tools and 
flaking sites with Acheuleo-Levalloisean industry, and were eroded and 
redistributed as Exogyra Gravels at lower levels. In decreasing rainfall, 
with formation of another Wadi Tufa, pre-Sebilian settlements follow, and 
the modern drainage system develops. As streams grew weaker, however, 
narrow channels were cut in maturer valleys with Aterian sites on their 
terraces. The region now became uninhabitable, and the Capsian and 
Capso-Tardenoisean sites, in which primitive grinders and ostrich eggshell 
beads occur, are on the Libyan Plateau. 

On the depression floor the ‘ fossil spring ’ deposits discovered in 1931 
yielded Acheulean, Aterian, and Capso-Tardenoisean sites. 

The explorers reject the fluviatile origin proposed by Dr. Collet for 
Kharga and Dr. Sandford for the Faiyum ; they find no evidence for a 
lake at any period in Kharga, but evidence for wind-borne and spring-borne 
deposits. Nodynasticremains were found prior to ’T'wenty-seventh Dynasty, 
and only one predynastic sherd, on the scarp; probably because the Oasis 
was already uninhabitable. Only under Persian rule did new hydraulic 
skill reach artesian water and give Kharga a second cycle of prosperity. 

While Miss Caton-Thompson remains at home to prepare her materials 
for publication Miss Gardner proposes to continue her geological explora- 
tion in the coming season. ‘The Committeetherefore asks to be reappointed, 
with a further grant. 


COLOUR VISION. 


F thal Report of Committee on Colour Vision (Prof. Sir CHARLES SHERRINGTON, 
Chairman; Prof. H. E. Roar, Secretary; Dr. Mary COoLttins, 
Dr. F. W. Epriwce-Green, Prof. H. Hartrince, Dr. J. H. SHaxpy). 


For testing individuals for defects of colour vision the most practical test is 
some form of standardised lantern. ‘The use of coloured lights is indicated 
as the signals to be recognised in railway and marine work are always coloured 
lights. 

Modifying (neutral) glasses should be used so that the lights can be seen 
at different brightnesses. ‘This is necessary, as some individuals with 
defective colour vision recognise colours by their brightness. 

The colours used should be standardised spectrophotometrically, and 
should include some limited to the extremes of the spectrum, so as to detect 
persons with subnormal sensitivity to light, particularly of the red end of 
the spectrum. 

Coloured traffic lights may be indistinguishable to colour-blind drivers. 
By giving each coloured light a distinct shape, the colour-blind should be 
able to judge by the shape. 


292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


VOCATIONAL TESTS. 


Final Report of Committee on the reliability of the criteria used for assessing 
the value of Vocational Tests (Prof. J. DREvER, Chairman ; Mr. Eric 
Farmer, Secretary ; Dr. W. Brown, Prof. C. Burt, Dr. J. O. Irwin, 
Dr. C. S. Myers). 


THREE types of criteria can be defined : 


(i) Objective criteria in which human judgment does not enter ; 

(ii) Fudgments by performance which are partly objective and partly 
subjective, for they are the judgments by experts on the quality 
of work done ; 

(iii) Fudgments of ability are subjective criteria, for they are the judg- 
ments concerning an individual’s ability. 


There are many sources of error in each of these three criteria, but no 
one way of detecting them. A set of observations can be tested by ‘ Lexis’ 
theory of dispersion’ to see how far it is a valid measure of individual 
differences. If the frequency distribution of a set of observations to be used 
as a criterion has a low or imaginary coefficient of disturbancy, it is an 
unsuitable measure of psychological tests. The frequency distribution of 
all criteria should be examined by this method before they are used to 
measure the value of psychological tests. When a criterion is shown to be 
unreliable the cause of its unreliability can only be discovered by observation, 
which may lead to some better criterion being formed. 

Newbold has devised a method of determining whether the frequency 
distribution of reported accidents is due wholly to factors affecting all the 
members of the group alike, or partly to individual differences in suscepti- 
bility. "The recorded accidents of a group cannot be used as a criterion for 
psychological tests unless their frequency distribution is partly determined 
by individual susceptibility. 

The reliability of judgments of performance and ability can be tested 
by correlating independent judgments ; but judgments intercorrelated for 
this purpose are sometimes not truly independent, in which case their 
correlation coefficients have no value. 

A paper dealing with some of the errors in criteria and methods of 
avoiding them has been accepted for publication in the British Journal of 
Psychology. The Industrial Health Research Board has started an extensive 
investigation in which the after-careers of some 2,000 apprentices will be 
compared with their performances in scholastic and psychological tests 
given at the time of commencing their apprenticeship. 

Both the paper and the investigation are the direct outcome of the interest 
stimulated by the work of the Committee, which has thus served a useful 
purpose. 


MYCORRHIZA IN RELATION TO FORESTRY 293 


INSTRUCTION IN BOTANY. 


Report of Committee appointed to consider and report on the provision made 
for Instruction in Botany in courses of Biology, and matters related 
thereto (Prof. V. H. BLackMaNn, Chairman ; Dr. E. N. M. Tuomas, 
Secretary ; Prof. M. DrumMMonn, Prof. F. E. Fritscu, Sir A. W. HILL, 
Prof. S. Maucuam, Mr. J. Sacer). 


CHIEFLY as the result of the response to two questionnaires widely 
circulated among the secondary schools, the following points emerge : 

(1) That the number of schools including the Biological Sciences in their 
curricula is increasing. 

(2) That this increase is concerned mainly with work on the animal side, 
directly in the form of Zoology, or indirectly as part of ‘ Biology.’ 

(3) That‘ Biology ’ consists of a varying ratio of animal and plant study— 
approximately 45 per cent. of the schools giving it as half and half, 10°5 per 
cent. as one-third plant and two-thirds animal, and 4 per cent. as two-thirds 
plant. 

(4) That ‘ Biology’ has replaced Botany in one-third of the schools 
reporting, and that therefore, in spite of the fact that a number of schools 
have introduced Botany during the post-war period, the study of plant life 
may be decreasing as a whole. 

(5) That the institution and substitution of ‘ Biology’ is largely in the 
pre-matriculation curriculum. 

(6) That the institution of Zoology courses is largely in the post- 
matriculation or Higher Certificate forms. 

(7) That the majority of these changes have taken place within the last 
five years, and that therefore their full effect has not yet been seen in 
examination and University records. 


MYCORRHIZA IN RELATION TO FORESTRY. 


Final Report of Committee (Mr. F. 'T. Brooxs, Chairman; Dr. M. C. 
Rayner, Secretary; Mr. W. H. Guitiepaup). Drawn up by the 
Secretary. 


Ir is considered that soil-inoculation experiments in field plots and in pot 
cultures have now provided convincing evidence of a direct causal relation 
between mycorrhiza formation (with evidence of normal functioning) and 
satisfactory growth of seedlings of three species of Pines: Scots Pine, 
Corsican Pine and Maritime Pine. 

This evidence has been rigidly tested by experiments from which the 
operation of any but the biological factors present in very small quantities 
of humus used as inocula has been excluded.? 

On certain parts of the sowings of the Forestry Commission in the 
Ringwood and Wareham areas, especially in the latter, the young trees have 
either died outright or lingered in a moribund condition showing varying 
degrees of stunted growth. This is marked by more or less complete 
failure to form a root system or make active growth, by an unhealthy con- 
dition of such young roots as are present, and by complete or—in the case 
of stronger plants—almost complete inhibition of mycorrhiza formation. 

Apart from consequences following upon the method adopted in the 


1 No satisfactory experimental proof has ever been provided of this hypothesis, 
first put forward by Frank more than fifty years ago. Incontrovertible evidence 
concerning it was regarded as a first step in the present researches. 


294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


original sowings, and also from those associated with the existence of local 
areas of soil toxicity probably mainly due to defective aeration, it is believed 
that the condition of the moribund and semi-moribund plants described is 
a starvation phenomenon—in large part probably one of nitrogen starvation. 

Tentative experiments with inorganic nitrogenous fertilisers have con- 
firmed the results obtained by others both in field and laboratory cultures— 
viz. that it is difficult to make good deficiencies in this way without serious 
disturbance of the root-shoot growth ratio in species of Pine. 

It is believed that on soils poor in inorganic nitrogen of this type the 
nutrient requirements of the young trees are normally made good by a 
profuse development of mycorrhiza. This view is confirmed by examination 
of the roots of Scots Pine and Maritime Pine in the area adjoining the 
plantations in question, by that of patches of young trees on the sown or 
planted areas that have made surprisingly good growth, and by the remark- 
able fact that the condition of arrested growth described can be relieved in 
the course of one growing season by induced mycorrhiza formation following 
suitable humus inoculation. ; 

It is not believed, however, that this treatment alone will permanently 
remove the trouble on soils where mycorrhiza formation by young trees is 
inhibited or markedly delayed. 

In the area under consideration the view has been reached that the factors 
permitting healthy mycorrhiza formation annually and, therefore, deter- 
mining healthy growth must be sought in the condition of certain organic 
constituents of the humus following upon abnormal decomposition changes. 

Attention is now focused on this aspect of the problem. Following the 
adoption of a working hypothesis, a series of experiments has been carried 
out involving the application of certain organic composts. ‘The materials 
for these composts are of the nature of waste products. 

The treatments have been applied to experimental plots which reproduce 
certain features of the Wareham area as originally sown, and also to sowings 
on a section recently tractor-ploughed. Each compost treatment will be 
applied in duplicate, one series compost alone, the other the same compost 
inoculated with known mycorrhiza-formers of the trees concerned, either 
from pure cultures or from humus material from a native habitat of the 
species. It may be noted that the cultivation of specific root fungi on 
composted and other organic materials has provided and is likely to continue 
to provide a number of independent and intricate problems. 

These field experiments have been duplicated in pot cultures using soil 
from the same area, and this essential part of the work could not have been 
undertaken without the provision of a suitable shelter house such as has 
been erected this summer. 

Existing experimental plots at Wareham and Ringwood are still under 
observation, and intensive study of the roots of seedling Pines from these 
plots is likely to yield interesting comparative data on the causes underlying 
inhibition of mycorrhiza formation, and interference with its normal 
structure and functioning when induced artificially by humus treatments of 
the soil. 

Humus inoculation of exotic Pine species——This aspect of the work was 
considered in the report presented at the London meeting in 1931. It 
raises a matter of considerable practical importance involving the desirability 
or otherwise of applying appropriate humus treatments to seedlings in the 
nursery stage. ‘The experimental data now available in respect to Corsican 
Pine and Maritime Pine at Wareham and elsewhere may be summarised as 
follows : 

(1) Theaddition to seed-beds of small quantities of the appropriate humus 
in the right condition produces a markedly beneficial effect upon the seed- 


MYCORRHIZA IN RELATION TO FORESTRY 295 


lings raised in them. At the end of a year’s growth these have larger shoots 
with longer needles than those of controls raised in the same compost lacking 
humus treatment, and give evidence of more vigorous growth, especially 
towards the end of the season. The root systems are remarkably different : 
those of controls poorly branched with scanty development of sub-lateral 
roots ; those of treated seedlings well branched with abundant sub-laterals, 
all of which become mycorrhizas. The beneficial effect upon growth 
continues during the second year: treated seedlings start growth earlier, 
have longer needles and grow more vigorously. 

These beneficent effects are evidently due to developmental changes 
controlled by factors operating within comparatively narrow limits since 
they are readily influenced by variation in the experimental treatment, as, 
for example, the date of sowing. They are well marked in seedlings from 
sowings up to the end of May, but diminish in those from later sowings. In 
July sowings there is an improvement in the root systems, but mycorrhiza 
is not formed during the first year, and improved growth of the shoot is not 
observable. 

(2) It is evident that the improved growth observed depends upon 
biological causes of a reciprocal kind. Thus, seedlings of Corsican Pine and 
Maritime Pine raised on Wareham soil without treatment are already in an 
unthrifty condition at the end of one year’s growth. Such seedlings do not 
benefit from appropriate humus treatment in the spring of the second year. 
Whether they may do so eventually is a matter of some biological interest, 
but is clearly not one of practical importance. In general, it is clear that 
the effects produced vary directly with the technique used. It is, therefore, 
important that a suitable technique should be devised in using methods of 
humus inoculation for promoting mycorrhiza formation. 

These facts provide a clue to the irregular and often confusing results 
yielded by empirical humus treatments in the hands of foresters. 

(3) The marked stimulation to root development and mycorrhiza formation 
and the improved growth that follow suitable humus treatment do not 
depend upon proved inability of Corsican Pine and Maritime Pine to form 
mycorrhiza with fungus species present in the Wareham and Ringwood soils. 
Both species are capable of forming mycorrhizal associations with indi- 
genous soil fungi—Maritime Pine with comparative ease, Corsican Pine 
apparently with some difficulty. Whether the improvement effected in this 
respect by the introduction of small quantities of native humus is due to the 
introduction of more favourable fungus associates or to other causes is not 
at present known with certainty. 

The significance of mycorrhiza in relation to forestry problems offers a 
stimulating field for research. For various reasons it has been judged 
expedient to concentrate attention on certain aspects of the problem likely 
to yield results of immediate practical interest. 

It is clear, however, that fundamental aspects such as the physiology of 
the nutritive relations between roots and mycelium and the exact nature of 
the beneficent effects observed call for intensive laboratory research. 

All aspects of the problem are bound up with a clearer understanding of 
the conditions controlling decomposition changes in organic soils, calling for 
the close co-operation of the soil chemist. 

The grant of £25 provided by the British Association has been fully 
expended, and the Committee do not ask for reappointment. 

In presenting this final report they desire to record their appreciation of 
the services rendered to the work in its initial stages by the three grants 
provided by the British Association. , 

The continuance of the work on a somewhat enlarged scale has now 
become possible, owing to a grant provided by the Forestry Commission. 


296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


Part of this grant has been expended on the erection of the shelter house 
referred to earlier in this report. 


EDUCATIONAL AND DOCUMENTARY FILMS. 


Report of Committee appointed with the following reference : Educational 
and Documentary Films : To inquire into the production and distribution 
thereof, to consider the use and effects of films on pupils of school age 
and older students, and to co-operate with other bodies which are studying 
those problems (Sir RicHarD GreGory, Bt., Chairman; Mr. J. L. 
HOLianp, Secretary ; Mr. L. Brooks, Mr. A. C. CAMERON, Miss E. R. 
Conway, Mr. G. D. DuNKERLEY, Mr. A. CLow Forp, Dr. C. W. 
Kimmins, Prof. J. L. Myres, Mr. G. W. Outve, Hon. S. Rivers- 
SmitH, Dr. Spearman, Dr. H. HamsHaw Tuomas, Dr. F. W. 
EDRIDGE-GREEN). 


REPORT OF THE FILM COMMISSION. 


THE year which has elapsed since the second Report of the Committee was 
presented at the London meeting has been, for their part, one of waiting 
for the Report of the Commission on Educational and Cultural Films. 
Individual members of the Committee have assisted in the inquiries which 
have culminated in the Report. There has, however, been no call for the 
co-operation of the Committee as a body, and as the Report was not 
published until June, there has been no opportunity for subsequent co- 
operation. Apart from the general quickening of interest which has 
followed the publication of the Report, the Committee are of opinion that the 
Commission have done a great service in maintaining the claim of the film 
to be regarded as an art form characteristic of the present age, and as a mirror 
of national life. 

The Committee note with pleasure that, in the opinion of the Commission, 
the future of the film, both sound and silent, as an aid to education is bound 
up with the 16-mm. projector—a view for which the Committee contended in 
their first Report at the Bristol meeting in 1930. The Committee also note 
that considerable extracts from their first Report, dealing with the two 
types of film material, namely, nitro-cellulose (inflammable) and cellulose 
acetate (non-inflammable), with sub-standard projectors and with illumina- 
tion and eye-strain, have been included in Appendix E of the Commission’s 
Report. On the latter subject there is still room for further research. 
Dr. F. W. Edridge-Green, a member of the Committee, has established the 
fact that if the screen alone is illuminated and the rest of the class-room or 
cinema left dark, conditions of eye-strain arise with concomitant headache in 
the spectators. Illumination must, therefore, be studied as a comparative 
matter of the relation between the general lighting in the room and the 
amount of special light concentrated on the screen. 


REPORTS ON EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF FILMS. 


During the year a number of Reports of inquiries and experiments germane 
to the Committee’s reference have been published, to three of which it is 
proposed to refer, The Report of the Chief Inspector of Schools to the 
London County Council on School Children and the Cinema frankly 
recognises that the film is so considerable a factor in the life of the child 
that a purely negative attitude toward it cannot be maintained—an admis- 
sion which many Education Authorities and Teachers still find it difficult to 
make. He finds that the ordinary film in the ordinary cinema broadens the 


EDUCATIONAL AND DOCUMENTARY FILMS 297 


children’s minds and increases their store of useful knowledge, particularly 
on such subjects as History and Geography, and generally stimulates mental 
alertness and arouses the critical faculty. On the moral side he suggests that 
there is no need for serious alarm, so far as the Elementary School child is 
concerned. He can find no evidence of widespread mischief : ‘ Evil on the 
films never pays,’ and as a rule the children’s sense of justice is satisfied. 
Since the children will go to a public cinema whatever the educator and 
the moralist may say, this well-documented Report should bring a sense of 
relief to older people who do not themselves frequent the cinema, and who, 
on the principle of omne ignotum pro terribili, have perhaps alarmed 
themselves and others unduly. 

The Report of the inquiry into the Value of Films in the Teaching of 
History, made by Dr. Consitt for the Historical Association in 1929, and the 
Report of the experiment with Sound Films in Schools undertaken jointly by 
Local Authorities in Middlesex and the National Union of Teachers in 1930 
and 1931, both emphasise the lack of adequate teaching films. ‘ That the 
films available at present are almost valueless for the purposes of historical 
teaching’ is the conclusion which one instructed critic draws from the 
first Report, and the writer of the second Report commits himself to the 
statement that ‘ So far as we are aware not a single ad hoc teaching film has 
yet been made by any film-producing company in this country’; and,again, 
referring to the films which were the subject of the experiment: ‘ The best 
of them could no more than indicate what might be achieved if there were 
available talking pictures specially designed for education.’ 

With these Reports the first chapter in the story of the relation of the film 
to education may be considered closed. ‘The case which the Committee of 
the Imperial Education Conference in 1923 declared to be no more than prima 
facie, though strong, is surely made out, and further experiment can be 
directed to the exploration of the purposes which the educational film will 
serve. But for such experiments a new type of film is required. There is 
in existence a large amount of film material of high artistic quality, though 
almost entirely of standard size, which has real educational value ; and the 
production of such films is being aided and encouraged by more than one of 
the Government Departments. But these films are of the general interest 
class: they are addressed to the adult rather than the child, and their use in 
the class-room can be at best only illustrative and incidental. 

The immediate need is for films, and especially sub-standard films, made 
for definite educational purposes, taking full account of the methods by 
which, and conditions under which, the education of the child and the 
adolescent is carried on in this country. Of such films there are as yet none 
which are publicly available. On the side of the Industry itself there is no 
difficulty. Many firms have incurred considerable expense in devising and 
constructing suitable projectors and apparatus generally, and are only 
waiting for a lead from the Teaching Profession before proceeding to the 
manufacture of educational films. Such a lead cannot, however, be given 
by an individual teacher, or even by groups of teachers ; for the expense 
involved is large and the Industry must be sure of its market. The lead will 
have to come from some body not less representative than the Films Com- 
mission, which can bring to a focus the views and experience of teachers and 
film experts, and can, as a preliminary, arrange for its conclusions to be tried 
out in a few representative films specially made for the purpose. 


SILENT AND SOUND FILMs. 


It was in some ways a misfortune for the film as an educational instrument 


that the sound film came when it did. But for its advent the simpler and 
L2 


298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC. 


less costly silent film would probably by now have become a recognised 
class-room aid, and films of the kind we still desiderate would be available in 
both quantity and variety. In the Committee’s opinion, the silent film will 
in the long run replace the optical lantern in the class-room. It is easier to 
make and to manipulate, and therefore cheaper, than the sound film, and it 
lends itself readily to the give-and-take between teacher and pupil, which 
is so characteristic of English teaching method. But the sound film has con- 
quered in the Picture House and holds the interest of both teachers and 
children. The Industry, too, has concentrated upon sound films, and the 
silent film is not made to-day, save for special purposes. The sound film 
will undoubtedly have its place in the educational scheme ; and, as things 
are, will probably dominate the situation for a time. 

As though the struggle between sound and silent films were not enough, 
the sound film itself is a battle-ground of opposing types, both of which are 
used in the cinemas and neither of which as yet shows signs of being able to 
oust its rival. In the sound-on-disc type a silent projector exhibits the 
pictures and a gramophone geared up to it reproduces the sound in syn- 
chronisation. In the sound-on-film type there is one instrument, the 
projector, and the sound is reproduced from a track which runs along the 
side of the film. With both types, of course, amplifiers and loud-speakers 
are necessary. Both types of instrument have been made available in the 
sub-standard 16-mm. size during the last few months. It is, of course, a 
comparatively simple matter to gear up a silent projector with a gramophone 
so that they will run in synchronisation, but much more than that is needed 
to secure a realistic correspondence between sight and sound, and a good 
instrument is bound to be costly. 

The sound-on-film system has its own difficulties to overcome in the 
recording of an adequate sound track on 16-mm. film. The minimum 
number of sound variations or cycles which must be recorded in one 
second, if the reproduction is to be smooth, is 3,000. Frequencies up to 
10,000 per second are used now in professional cinema work, and higher 
frequencies still are being experimented with. The rate at which the 
pictures go through the gate in a sound film is usually 24 per second, as 
against a minimum of 16 per second with a silent film, and as there are 
some 40 pictures to the foot of sub-standard 16-mm. film, the corresponding 
sound variations per second have to be recorded in a length of not more than 
7in. The width of the sound track on the narrow 16-mm. film presents 
another problem. The Committee are aware of only two firms which are 
prepared to market sub-standard sound-on-film projectors. Other firms 
are, however, understood to be working at the problem. 

The time has clearly not yet arrived for a considered evaluation of the 
comparative merits of the two types—at any rate in the sub-standard size. 
The two systems will be in competition, which from the point of view of the 
development of cinematography is all to the good, but for the time the pro- 
duction of sub-standard educational sound films of either type will be inevit- 
ably impeded. Whether both types will be so developed as to continue to 


exist alongside, or whether one will become predominant, is a question for 
the future. 


SUGGESTED NATIONAL FILM INSTITUTE. 


The Committee were called into being as an auxiliary for research purposes 
to the Educational and Cultural Films Commission and similar bodies. They 
now ask to be continued so that they may be in a position to deal with any of 
the problems indicated in this Report which may assume special importance, 
or to co-operate with the Film Commission, should such co-operation be 
called for. The Committee are glad to know that the Commission is to 


EDUCATIONAL AND DOCUMENTARY FILMS 299 


remain in existence for another year, during which it is hoped that a National 
Film Institute, as recommended by the Commission, may be launched. 
The foregoing Report has indicated at least one important direction in which 
such an Institute could render good service to education. The Committee 
are also impressed with the need of an Institute to act as a clearing-house 
for the circulation of special films made by University and other research 
departments. Many such films would be made if their circulation could be 
guaranteed, but they are not now made because of the cost. There is also 
a growing number of films made by travellers and private persons which 
would be made available for general use through such an Institute. The 
Committee are convinced that, from their point of view, the establishment of 
a National Institute with adequate funds to carry on its work is an immediate 
necessity. ‘They would like to think that the passing of the Bill to legalise 
the opening of cinemas in certain districts on Sundays has brought such an 
Institute, with adequate funds, within the range of early probability. 


PALZZOZOIC ROCKS OF ENGLAND AND WALES. 


Report of Committee appointed to excavate critical sections in the Paleozoic 
rocks of England and Wales (Prof. W. W. Watts, Chairman; Prof. 
W. G. Fearnsipes, Secretary; Mr. W. S. Bisat, Dr. H. Borton, 
Prof. W. S. Boutton, Dr. E. S. Copsotp, Prof. A. H. Cox, Mr. 
E. E. L. Dixon, Dr. GertrupDE Exes, Prof. E. J. Garwoop, Prof. 
H. L. Hawkins, Prof. V. C. Ittine, Prof. O. T. Jonss, Prof. J. E. 
Marr, Dr. F. J. Nortu, Mr. J. Prince, Dr. T. F. Sipry, Dr. 
W. K. Spencer, Prof. A. E. TRuEMAN, Dr. F. S. WALLIS). 


EXCAVATIONS AT CarREG DyFaNn, CARMARTHENSHIRE, BY Miss Emity Dix. 


THE object of the excavation was to test a suggestion made by Dr. T. N. 
George that some radiolarian cherts exposed at Llandyfan (on the north 
crop of the South Wales Coalfield) overlie part of the Basal Grit of the 
Millstone Grit. So far as known hitherto, such cherts mark the junction 
of the Basal Grit with the underlying Carboniferous Limestone. The 
work was undertaken by Miss Dix and the digging carried out by Mr. 
W. D. Ware. 

A trench near Llandyfan Church proved 12 ft. of black shale and cherts 
(with a few poorly preserved goniatites) resting on a thick grit. Above the 
shales are about 50 to 60 ft. of grit, followed by black shale with banded 
cherts containing wavellite. 

Digging and trenching at Careg Dyfan revealed the following, in descend- 
ing sequence : 

Radiolarian cherts and brown shales containing Euwmorphoceras sp. 
and Posidonomya membranacea. 

(Beds unexposed and inaccessible 9 to 12 ft.) 

Coarse Grit proved for g ft. « 

Plastic Clay series, weathered cherts and fine-grained sandstone. 

The radiolarian cherts at Careg Dyfan are probably of E age (similar to 
those at Bishopston in Gower, on the south crop of the South Wales Coal- 
field), and they are underlain by a thick grit. 
er goniatites have been examined by Mr. R. O. Jones and Mr. W. S. 

isat. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. 


(For reference to the publication elsewhere of communications entered in the 
following lists of transactions, see end of volume, preceding index.) 


SECTION A. 
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES. 


Thursday, September 1. 


Prof. A. M. TynpaLL.—The mobility of positive ions in gases. 


It has been shown by Powell and the author that minute traces of impurity 
may have a striking effect on the mobility of positive ions in a gas. Changes 
in the nature of the ions may be brought about by (1) the formation of a 
cluster of impurity molecules around the ion; (2) the production of ions 
of the impurity by collisions of the second kind ; (3) the phenomenon of 
electron exchange. 

When sources of positive alkali ions are employed traces of impurity are 
less critical because of the low ionisation potential of these metals. A study 
of the mobility of these ions in various gases has led in certain cases to a 
simple law connecting the mobility of an ion with its mass. The apparatus 
then becomes analogous to a mass spectrograph in that it may be used to 
analyse the ions emitted by a given source. When the source of ions is a 
glow discharge the high gas pressures employed permit of the study of 
types of collision processes relatively infrequent at the low pressures more 
commonly employed. 


Sir R. T. Grazesroox, K.C.B., F.R.S., and Dr. L. HartsHorn.— 
Material standards of resistance : the B.A. Coils, 881-1932. 


(Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. See p. 417.) 


Joint Discussion with Section J (Psychology) on The quantitative relation 
of physical stimuli and sensory events (Mr. 'T. SmitH, F.R.S., Prof. J. 
Drever, Dr. J. H. SHaxpy, Dr. WM. Brown, Dr. R. A. Houstoun, 
Mr. R. J. Barttett, Dr. S. G. Barker and Mr. C. G. WINson. 
Experimental demonstration by Dr. L. F. Ricuarpson, F.R.S.) :— 


Prof. J. DREVER. 


The world of sense is at once physical and psychological. The general 
problem of physical science is the more adequate understanding of the world 
of sense, and this is also a problem for the psychologist. The physicist 
studies the processes and patterns of the world of sense as they appear to 
determine one another independently of the individual observer, the psycho- 
logist the processes and patterns as they determine the sensory world as 
experienced. The correlation of the sense experience of the individual 
with the processes and patterns investigated by the physicist presents a 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—A. 301 


problem for the psychologist, but if its solution is to be attempted quantita- 
tively that must rest on the quantitative systems and methods developed by 
the physicist as the only practicable basis. ‘The study of the differences 
between individuals in sensory experience is a second psychological problem, 
and this too, if its solution is to be attempted in quantitative terms, depends 
no less on the quantitative relations and concepts developed by the physicist, 
and most emphatically on the physicist’s units of measurement. Apart 
from quantitative relations, concepts, and units, developed from a point of 
view which eliminates the individual observer, no solution in quantitative 
terms of either of these psychological problems is possible. There are not 
two worlds of sense, one in the mind studied by the psychologist, and 
another outside studied by the physicist. There is one world of sense 
studied by both psychologist and physicist, and the units and methods of 
measurement from the nature of the case must be those of the physicist. 


Dr. J. H. SHaxsy. 


The loudnesses of sounds, though capable of being specified as possessing 
magnitude, yet cannot be arranged on any single definite and unequivocal 
scale. The method of measurement affects the magnitudes assigned to a 
given series of sounds. In particular, phenomena such as sensory adaptation 
make the formulation of a scale of sensations a dubious procedure. 

It is, further, doubtful whether any estimate, other than the purely intro- 
spective, really gives a measure of loudness so much as of the physical 
intensity associated with sounds arranged on a scale more or less arbitrarily 
assumed to be one of loudness, or with the physiological processes of the 
auditory nerve. 

The decibel, though exceedingly useful in specifying intensities, seems 
to agree neither with a scale of equal increments of loudness as subjectively 
judged, nor with the successive steps of a scale based on differential 
thresholds. Even if we concede its use as a ‘ loudness ’ unit, its utility in 
that respect rests on its supposed parallelism with the scale based on the 
Weber-Fechner law ; it is more than doubtful whether this law is valid 
for audition, and in any case the decibel is commonly used between limits 
far surpassing the possible range of Weber’s law. 


Dr. Wo. Brown. 


Although G. T. Fechner’s assumptions as regards the measurement of 
sensation intensities are not theoretically justified, the possibility of direct 
mental measurement in terms of contrastes sensibles or ‘ sense-distances ’ 
was conclusively demonstrated by J. R. L. Delbceuf as far back as 1878. 
The Weber-Fechner law can thus be rewritten in the form 


= R 
SS, = k log p 
0 


where SS, represents a sense-distance, and S, is any finite intensity of 
sensation taken as the conventional zero (not necessarily liminal) ; R, Ry 
are corresponding stimulus values. 

At the two extreme ends of the scale there are deviations from the 
logarithmic law of a continuous and uniform nature. 

The method of constant stimuli, which is based upon the accumulation 
of large numbers of observations and the employment of statistical methods 
in drawing conclusions from them, is the most reliable psycho-physical 
method for solving the quantitative problems of psycho-physics. 


302 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 
Dr. R. A. Houstroun. 


The speaker was certain that sensation could be measured. The results, 
though not very accurate, were much better than nothing, and would 
eventually throw light on the mechanism of sensation. In classifying the 
visible stars into six magnitudes the measurement of the sensation of intensity 
had been used for centuries, and in different parts of the world, with con- 
sistent and satisfactory results. He thought that those who took the contrary 
view defined measurement too narrowly and in such a way as would exclude 
many physical quantities. But it was undesirable to strain too much after 
definitions. Simple experiments made on a photometer bench with a wedge 
photometer and two lamps, on building up a scale of the sensation of 
intensity and halving intervals on such a scale, would bring more conviction, 
and it was desirable that such measurements should be made as widely as 
possible. 

In conclusion he alluded to his own investigations, which showed that the 
sensation of intensity was much better expressed as a function of the loga- 
rithm of the stimulus by a probability integral than by the conventional 
logarithmic function. The integral approximated to the latter at the middle 


point of the range. 


Mr. R. J. BARTLETT. 

As originally stated Weber’s law records the fact that, within limits, the 
change that must be made in the objective physical basis of a stimulus in 
order that the change may be just noticeable is proportional to the amount 
present initially. All measurements made are physical measurements. 
Sensation is not measured, but the amount of change in the objective basis 
is governed by subjective judgments based in sense experience. The judg- 
ments rest on awareness of sameness or difference. The change necessary 
for detection of difference fluctuates in amount, but the various readings 
obtained tend to concentrate about a mean value. ‘The necessary change 
can be expressed as a ‘constant error’ and a scatter value about that 
‘error.’ 

In work reported more fully to Section J it is shown that : 

(1) The ‘constant error’ is a regression towards a central, accus- 
tomed value of stimulus. 

(2) Weber’s law holds for a limited central zone to which we are 
adapted. 

(3) Beyond this zone, in either direction, deviation from the law 
increases rapidly, and when a geometric series of units is used, 
apparently, the deviation is proportional to the cube of the 
‘distance’ of the objective basis of stimulus from the central 
datum value of (1) above. 


-Dr. S. G. Barker and Mr. C. G. Winson.—The psychological basis of 
wool-sorting. 

When wool arrives in the raw state for processing purposes, the first 
stage is to place it in the hands of the wool-sorter, who disintegrates the 
fleece into its constituent qualities. Both the tactile and visual senses are 
employed, and with almost uncanny precision the experienced sorter classi- 
fies the wool according to its subsequent manufacturing performance, 
or in particular to the degree of fineness to which the ensuing yarn may be 
spun. An examination of the methods employed reveals that whilst fibre 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—A. 303 


fineness from quality to quality proceeds in geometrical progression, it would 
seem that the qualities themselves proceed in arithmetical progression. 
A logarithmic law apparently gives the sorter’s relationship between quality 
and fibre fineness for all countries in the world. It is found further that 
the wool-sorter’s work is based on the same psychological factors wherever 
performed. 


Dr. R.A. Housrounand Dr. L. F. RicHarpsON.—Quantitative mental 
estimates of saturation with colour. 


As a preliminary, the results of estimating large intervals of (1) loudness, 
(2) redness, (3) distance on the skin, were exhibited as lantern slides. 

A rotating disc was next shown. Its outer zone appeared grey; its 
central portion a saturated orange-red ; and its intermediate zone was of 
the same hue but less saturated. All three areas were nearly equally bright. 
Each spectator was provided with a segment of a line 100 millimetres long, 
and was asked to put a mark on the line to show where the intermediate tint 
came ona scale of saturation extending from grey at one end to the saturated 
colour at the other. 

Five persons stated that they could not perform the task. 

Fifty-four persons made estimates. The positions, which they marked on 
the lines, were subsequently measured in per cents., calling the grey o per 
cent. and the saturated colour roo per cent., with the following results : 


Least estimate . A : : 5 per cent. 
Lower quartile . , : ‘ Zona 
Median ; . : ; : BO ia tne 
Upper quartile. : : ¢ OR ihe oy 
Greatest estimate ; j é SOn sevens ss 


Five unsigned forms were excluded. Multiple marks on the same line 
were averaged. Various suggested improvements are gratefully acknow- 
ledged. 

On the disc the intermediate zone consisted of nearly equal angles of the 
papers forming the outer zone and central portion. But to reduce contrast, 
the full colour occupied 46 per cent. of the circumference next the grey 
and s6 per cent. at the inner edge of the zone. These facts were not known 
to the observers at the time they made their estimates. 

The median estimate of 38 per cent. is significantly less than the angle of 
51 per cent. A similar deviation towards the unsaturated side was found 
in previous experiments on white, pink and scarlet. 


Friday, September 2. 


PRESIDENTIAL ApprESss by Prof. A. O. RANKINE, O.B.E., on Some aspects 
of Applied Geophysics. (See p. 21.) 

Discussion on Supra-conductivity (Prof. J. C. McLennan, F.R.S., 
Prof. W. J. pE Haas, Dr. W. Messner, Prof. O. W. RicHARDSON, 
ERS.) :— 


Prof. W. J. DE Haas. 


From the experiments previously made, it seemed probable that the 
metals go over into a new phase when they become supra-conduc- 
tive. In order to support this point of view experiments have been carried 
out. Formerly the region of disappearance of resistance was about o"03". 
We found that for good single crystals and small measuring current this 


304 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 


region does not exceed 0:0005°. We investigated the influence of the crystal 
lattice on grey and white tin, which differ only in this respect: grey tin does 
not show supra-conductivity, white tin does. Gold-bismuth alloys show 
the same influence—the alloy becomes supra-conductive though neither of 
the components do; but X-ray experiments showed that it has a crystal 
lattice of its own. 

Investigations of the thermal conductivity of supra-conductors showed 
an influence of the supra-conductive state. At the transition point indium 
shows a small sudden increase of thermal conductivity. When the supra- 
conductivity is disturbed by a magnetic field the thermal conductivity is 
increased for pure metals. The results for PbTl, are very complicated, 
probably as a result of the lack of homogeneity of the alloy. The specific 
heat of tin increases when the metal becomes supra-conductive. In a 
magnetic field, high enough to disturb supra-conductivity, this increase 
disappears. 


Prof. O. W. RicHarpson, F.R.S. 


There is one point on which I should like to hear the opinions of 
Prof. McLennan and Prof. de Haas before this meeting closes. It concerns 
the views of Dorfman to which Prof. McLennan referred. These go 
further than the relations between the frequency and the magnetic field 
necessary to destroy the superconductivity which have been mentioned. 

There is some resemblance, even though it may be only superficial or 
accidental, between superconductivity and ferromagnetism. Following this 
idea, Keesom and his associates at Leiden measured the specific heat of 
superconductors in the neighbourhood of the critical point, where one might 
expect an abnormality similar to the abnormality in the specific heats of 
ferromagnetic substances in the neighbourhood of the Curie point; but 
no such effect could be detected. ‘This, however, is not entirely conclusive. 
The number of electrons concerned in the superconductive phenomenon 
might be too small a fraction of the total number, or of the number of atoms 
present, to exert any appreciable influence on the specific heat, or, alterna- 
tively, there might be some compensating effect on the atoms which might 
counterbalance any changes in the specific heat of the whole substance 
arising from changes in the energy of the electrons. 

Dorfman has pointed out that what is in some respects a more direct test 
of this particular issue can be made if the specific heat of electricity (Thomson 
effect) in the superconductive region of temperature is considered. The 
magnitude of this can be deduced from the thermoelectric measurements 
of Keesom and his associates which refer to lead and tin. ‘These show that 
there is such an abnormality in the Thomson effect. It is true that it does 
not occur exactly at the superconductive critical temperature. For example, 
in the case of lead this critical temperature is 7-2° K.; whereas the anomaly 
in the Thomson effect sets in at about 5° K. and rises to a maximum at a 
little over 10° K., after which it falls. This.anomaly is quite similar to the 
corresponding anomaly in the case of ferromagnetic substances near the 
Curie point. 

If it is admitted that this anomaly in the Thomson effect is associated with 
the establishment of superconductivity, it is a natural inference that it is a 
result of the change in the energy of an electron connected with this pheno- 
menon. On this basis the thermoelectric data enable the difference AW, 
between the energy of a superconducting and a non-superconducting electron 
to be estimated. ‘The interesting fact then emerges that, approximately, 


AW, = vH, = hy 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 305 


where v. is the spin moment of the electron, Hy the magnetic field necessary 
to destroy the superconductivity, 4 is Planck’s constant, and vy McLennan’s 
destructive frequency; AW , Hy and vp are all extrapolated to the 
absolute zero of temperature. In other words, the magnetic energy and 
the vibrational energy required to break up the superconductive structure 
are each approximately equal to the energy of the structure itself. 

What, in particular, I would like to ask Prof. de Haas is this: Does 
he consider it likely that this anomaly in the Thomson effect is really so 
intimately associated with superconductivity ? Or is the disparity between 
the temperature ranges in which the two phenomena manifest themselves 
too great for this to be possible ? 

(In his reply Prof. de Haas was understood to say that he considered 
the temperature disparity to be too great for the effects to be so intimately 
connected (or connected at all, I am not certain), and that he thought the 
numerical agreement was an accident. He added, however, that Keesom 
had recently found a real change in the ordinary specific heat at the super- 
conductive critical temperature.) 


Sir R. T. GLazeBrook, K.C.B., F.R.S.,and Dr. Ezer GriFFitus, F.R.S.— 
Electric and magnetic units. The Paris Conference of Fuly 1932. 


Dr. J. M. Hotm.—The initiation of gaseous explosions by small flames. 


Experiments are described in which a commonly accepted belief is 
disproved—1i.e. that the limiting diameter for propayation along a tube filled 
with an explosive mixture is determined primarily by the thermal con- 
ductivity of the tube material. The variation of the limiting diameter for 
propagation along tubes, and for ignition through circular apertures in thin 
plates, is represented by a series of graphs for explosive mixtures of hydrogen, 
methane and ethyl ether with air. An experimental equation has been 
found to fit the curves. A description is given of an almost spherical flame 
which may burn in certain mixtures for several seconds without producing 
general ignition. ‘The shape of the various types of flame formed by an 
explosive mixture burning at a circular orifice is shown by several photo- 
_ graphs. 

A theory of the failure of flames to travel along small tubes containing an 
explosive gaseous mixture has been developed on the assumption that the 
extinction of the flame is caused chiefly by the cooling effect of the unburnt 
gas in contact with its external surface and an approximate formula, which 
gives reasonable agreement with experimental values, deduced for the 
limiting diameter. 

AFTERNOON, 


Visit to the Physics Department of the University of Leeds, where the 
following demonstrations were arranged : 
Mr. J. EwLes.—Cathodo-luminescence. 
Mr. A. W. Foster.—Some thermo-electric measurements. 
Mr. F. A. Lonc.—Electromagnet protection. 
Dr. J, E. Roserts.—Electron impacts in gases at low pressures. 


Dr, J. E. SHrropKer.—A new method of measuring the temperature 
of flames by the use of «-particles. 


Mr. F. W. Sprers.—The crystalline nature of tin amalgams. 
Dr. J. E. TayLor.—Photographic action of electrons. 


306 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on The conservation of energy and nuclear phenomena (Dr. 
C.D. Exuis; Prof. C.G. Darwin, F.R.S.; Prof.O. W. RicHarpson, 
F.R.S.; Dr. Mott) :— 


Dr. C. D. Ettis. 


The majority of nuclear phenomena appear to be controlled by the same 
general laws that apply to the outside electronic structure. In particular, it 
is possible to explain what is actually observed as the aggregate of a number 
of similar processes, involving, for example, a nucleus and «-particle or 
nucleus and quantum, in each of which energy is conserved. In one case, 
however, that of the $-ray type of radioactive disintegration, this method 
of description meets with difficulties. This problem has often been dis- 
cussed, and it is generally recognised that of the possible explanations 
there are two which deserve special consideration. The first is that energy 
is not conserved exactly in each elementary process, the second is that in 
contradistinction to the non-radioactive elements, the different nuclei of a 
radioactive element are not identically the same. A considerable amount 
of new experimental material has been published in the last year which 
bears on these problems, and which justifies reopening the discussion. 
On the one hand, our knowledge of the nuclei of the lighter elements has 
been extended both from spectroscopic evidence and from the study of 
artificial disintegration, and on the other hand, new experimental methods 
have added greatly to our information about the emission of «-particles 
from the radioactive elements. There appears to be a close connection 
between the energies of the «-particles in the nucleus and the frequencies 
of the y-rays, which is entirely in accord with the validity of the energy 
principle and the principles of quantum mechanics. A detailed considera- 
tion of these points tends only to strengthen the view that the nucleus is 
governed by the same laws as the electronic structure and to render more 
acute the contrast with the f-ray type of disintegration. Important new 
information about the f-ray disintegration has been obtained by different 
workers, and a review of the present position shows it to be now more 
definite and more susceptible to attack. 


Prof. O. W. Ricuarpson, F.R.S. 


We have listened to a most lucid account by Dr. Ellis of a very puzzling 
group of phenomena associated with the emission of electrons, or {-rays, 
by radioactive bodies. I believe this to be one of the most important 
unsolved problems outstanding in present-day physics, and that its ultimate 
solution will be found to be intimately bound up with the structure of the 
nucleus. As we have seen, it leads, on the face of it, to a contradiction of 
the principle of the conservation of energy. 

This is not the first time that this principle has found itself in difficulties. 
On previous occasions it has evaded the difficulty by calling into existence 
a new kind of potential energy and thus balancing the account. This 
method of escape is not possible in the present case, because it would be 
necessary to invoke a special potential energy for each atom concerned in 
B-ray nuclear disruption, or, at any rate, for each of a considerable 
number of groups of such atoms emitting $-rays within a certain range 
of velocities. 

I believe that this difficulty is essentially connected with the smallness 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 307 


of the dimensions of the nucleus. It is not possible to define in any exact 
way the energy of an electron which is in some way confined to such a small 
structure—that is to say, to a region of space whose dimensions are smaller 
than the wave-length of the de Broglie wave of the electron. As the energy 
of the electron when in or attached to the nucleus is incapable of specifica- 
tion, it is not surprising that the energies of the emitted electrons should be 
represented by a curve representing a probability distribution rather than 
by definite discrete values. This is not, of course, an explanation of the 
detailed structure of such distribution curves, but I believe that this struc- 
ture will be found to depend fundamentally, and in some such way as I have 
indicated, on the smallness of the linear dimensions of the nucleus. 


Discuss1on on The neutron (Dr. J. Cuapwick, F.R.S.; M. Le Duc 
DE Brociie; Prof. O. W. RicHarpson, F.R.S.; Dr. N. FEATHER ; 
Mr. P. I. Dee) :— 


Dr. J. CHADWICK, F.R.S. 


An account was given of the evidence which led to the discovery that in 
some cases of artificial transmutation by «-particles, notably those of beryl- 
lium and boron, neutral particles are emitted. ‘The mass of these neutrons 
can be deduced from experiment ; it is probably between 1-005 and 1-008. 
This suggests very strongly that the neutron is not an elementary particle 
but is formed by the close alliance of a proton and an electron. Such a 
particle will have a very small electric field except at very close distances, 
and will therefore only rarely be deflected by atomic nuclei in its passage 
through matter. It should be able to enter easily an atomic nucleus and 
occasionally cause a disintegration. Some cases of disintegration by neutrons 
have already been observed by Feather. 


M. Le Duc DE BROGLIE. 


Experiments on the absorption and scattering of neutrons in their passage 
through matter were described. The relative scattering of different atomic 
nuclei seems to depend markedly on the velocity of the neutron, and he 
suggested that this anomalous behaviour may be analogous to the Ramsauer 
effect. 


Prof. O. W. Ricuarpson, F.R.S. 


These investigations are going to lead to many important developments. 
As an illustration I will mention some interesting possibilities in connection 
with the building-up of nuclei out of neutrons and protons. ‘These have 
been put forward by J. H. Bartlett, but they may be unfamiliar to some of 
you. Starting with the proton H!, we add a neutron and get the hydrogen 
isotope H®. If we add first a proton and then a neutron, we should get in 
succession He® and He’. We can regard this as a building-up process 
analogous to the completion of the K shell in extranuclear atomic structure. 
After this we reverse the order of alternate addition, and so proceed up to 
Ol, We may regard this stage as the nuclear analogue of the completion 
of the L shell. At this stage we change the addition process again, adding 
successively two neutrons, then two protons, and then repeating. We carry 
this on until we reach A**, which we may regard as the nuclear analogue 


308 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 


of the completion of the M shell. In this way we obtain the successive 
structures shown in the table : 


n p n 
H! H? He*® He? | K shell 
n Pp n Pp nD 13 n P n Pp n P 
He?* | Ee? Wie slat er be: be tae Welty C22 SIN ae INe Meee | L shell 
n n Pp Pp n n p Pp n n 
o1s | Ge O18 Fl® Ne?? Ne?! Ne?2 Na?? Mg?4 Mg?® Mg?6 


p Pp n n p Pp n n p Pp | 
A Taye) Site ee SS) Ssh. Sore oe Aeon chrell 


All these are known except He® and He®. Apart from these two excep- 
tions these isotopes, and only these, occur for masses below 37. We might, 
of course, have closed the ‘ K shell’ at H? and started reversing the order 
of alternate addition at that point. ‘This would make the third member 
H®? instead of He®. Above 36 the rules are evidently more complicated. 

I feel confident that the regularities exhibited in the table represent 
something important. (In the unlikely event of this not being the case, 
at least they give a convenient way to remember all the isotopes below 37.) 

I was glad to hear that Dr. Chadwick regarded the neutron as some kind 
of a combination of a proton and an electron. Some authorities with whom 
I have discussed the matter seem disposed to look upon it as some entirely 
new kind of ultimate structure. The only advantage that this seems to 
confer is that it might afford a way of accounting for the inconvenient 
abnormal nuclear spin of a body like N14. I feel that this is too small a 
matter to invoke an entirely new material entity to account for, and that the 
abnormal spin is probably due to something else. ‘There is no known 
a priori reason why, any such new entity should have any particular mass, 
at any rate not a mass approximating to that of H!. The occurrence of 
an entirely new entity with a mass just under that of H! seems to me so 
improbable that, until some new reasons in favour of it are put forward, it 
is hardly worthy of serious consideration. 


Dr. N. FEATHER. 


Experiments were described in which the expansion chamber was used 
to study the disintegration of nitrogen and oxygen by neutrons. It seems 
that the disintegrations are not all of the same type. In many cases the 
neutron is captured and an «-particle ejected ; in others the neutron is not 
captured and the ejected particle may be a proton. 


Mr. P. I. DEE. 


The author described experiments to examine the collisions of neutrons 
with electrons. ‘These are extremely rare, even compared with the nuclear 
collisions : not more than one such collision occurs in a path of 3 metres 
in air. 


Mr. T. Smitrx.—Hamilton and aplanatism. 


AFTERNOON. 
Visit to the works of Messrs. Cooke, Troughton & Simms, Ltd. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 309 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Joint Discussion with Section G (Engineering) on The theoretical and 
practical aspects of the control of humidity in industrial processes. 
(Representatives of the woollen, timber, photographic and cocoa 
industries participated, together with manufacturers of humidity 
control and measuring apparatus.) (Dr. Ezer GrirFitus, F.R.S., 
Mr. J. H. Awpery and Mr. R. W. Powett; Mr. J. Fritu and 
Mr. F. BuckincuHaM; Dr. S. G. Barker and Mr. M. C. Marsu; 
Dr. S. F. Barcray; Prof. S. Lees; and others) :— 


Dr. Ezer GrirFiTus, F.R.S., Mr. J. H. Awpery and Mr. R. W. 
PowELL.—The evaporation of water in an air-stream. 


Mr. J. Frity and Mr. F. BuckincHam.—The theory of drying. 
(1) The problem. Methods of drying. The application of Dalton’s 
Laws. Relative humidity. 


(2) The wet and dry bulb thermometer. Interpretation of its readings. 
The constancy of the wet bulb reading during evaporation and the suggestion 
that this reading is a measure of the total heat of a given mass of any mixture 
of air and water vapour. Discussion of the accuracy of the simplified 
expression : 

(ie eg la se ih 

(3) The proof of the total heat theory. The calibration of a wet bulb 
thermometer as an instrument to measure total heat per pound of any 
mixture of air and water vapour. Comparison of the above calibration with 
that calculated from the latest experimental figures of Awbery and Griffiths. 
Calculation of hygrometric tables from the total heat theory and comparison 
with Awbery and Griffiths’ results. Actual value of the constant K in the 
simplified expression above. 


(4) The application of all the above to the practical solution of drying 
problems. 


Dr. S. G. Barker and Mr. M. C. Marsu.—Controlled humidity in 
woollen and worsted mills. 

Prof. S. Lees —The drying of air, particularly by the silica gel process. 

Dr. F. J. W. WuipeLe.—Continuous records of vapour-pressure. 


Mr. B. G. McLEe_Ltan.—The significance of humidity conditions on the 
making and marketing of foodstuffs. 


Mr. R. S. Wuipepte—The instrument-maker and the control and 
measurement of humidity. 


Dr. A. Fercuson.—Evaporation from plane and spherical surfaces. 
Mr. F. SHort.—Humidity-measuring instruments. 
Mr. R. G. Bateson.—The control of humidity. 


Dr. F. T. Perrce—The influence of moisture on cotton technology. 


310 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 


Discussion on The organisation required for the recording of water level and 
river flow in the British Isles (Capt. W. N. McCrean; Capt. 
J. C. A. RosevearE; Mr. W. J. S. BInnrE; Mr. E. G. BityaM ; 
Mr. J. K. Swates; Mr. C. CLemesHa SmitH; Mr. W. J. M. 
Menzies; Maj. J. G. WirHycomspe; Mr. D. HALTON THOMSON ; 
Vice-Admiral H. P. Doucras, C.B.,C.M.G.; Mr. W. T. Hatcrow; 
Mr. A. W. McPuerson; Mr. J. S. THoms) :— 


Capt. W. N. McCiean.—Introduction. 


After pointing out that water records in the past, owing to lack of 
co-ordination and continuity, have been less useful to the country than 
could have been hoped, the author points out the necessity for an 
organisation to deal with such records, and shows how his own work on 
the Ness Basin has resulted in an organisation which, with possible slight 
modifications, could be applied to other areas. 

This is the ‘ local’ organisation, and the idea is developed to show how 
such subsidiary areas may be brought under a central organisation such as, 
in the case of Scotland, the Fishery Board for Scotland. In England there 
seem to be too many departments and too many opposing interests engaged 
in the collection of water data on different lines, and all these interests would 
be better served by systematic water survey. 

A brief summary of the work already accomplished on the Ness area is 
given as typical of the necessary investigations, and suggestions are made 
that the organisation should be in the hands of local associations, represent- 
ing fairly large areas, for the collection of observations and maintenance 
of records, and that the flow measurements should be carried out by the 
Ordnance Survey Department on the principal river-basins, and by water 
authorities or specialist surveyors in the case of small areas, the whole being 
co-ordinated under a water survey department of a ministry with inspectors 
or area supervisors. 


Capt. J. C. A. RosEVEARE. 


Necessity for full information regarding river flow if true economy is to 
be obtained. 

Little information available at the present time. 

Catchment Boards set up by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries 
under the Land Drainage Act, 1930, are the proper authorities to undertake 
the survey. 

Catchment Boards cover 67 per cent. of area of England and Wales, are 
fully representative of County Councils, and can precept on latter for revenue. 

Catchment area correct unit for water questions. Boundaries determined 
by survey. 

Water survey necessary before Catchment Board undertakes land drainage 
works. 

Catchment Boards interested in water supply for every purpose, and can 
make by-laws for prevention of pollution. 

Government grants to Catchment Boards. 


Mr. E. G. BrLHaM.—The evaluation of general rainfall over drainage 
areas. 
The term ‘ general rainfall’ is used by the British Rainfall Organisation 


to specify the space-average of the depth of rain over an extended area in 
a definite period, such as a month or a year, the terms ‘ average,’ ‘ normal,’ 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—A. 311 


or ‘mean’ being reserved for time averages. It is the general rainfall of 
which a knowledge is required in such studies as that of Capt. McClean on 
river flow. ‘The procedure adopted by the B.R.O. in estimating general 
rainfall consists in measuring, on a rainfall map, by means of a planimeter, 
the areas included between successive isohyetal lines and the boundaries of 
the drainage area, and then working the space-average of the fall per unit 
area. ‘Thus if an area a square miles, within the drainage area, is included 
between the isohyets 7 + 457 inches and r — 567 inches and A is the whole 
area, the general rainfall is given by the expression Lar/A inches. The 
accuracy of the result depends simply on the accuracy of the isohyetal lines, 
and this again depends on the number of rain-gauges and their distribution. 
In regions where gauges are relatively numerous, monthly evaluations of 
general rainfall over drainage areas of moderate size can be made with fair 
precision. 

As an illustration of the part that can be played by the B.R.O. in studies 
on water level and river flow, monthly maps of rainfall over the Tees 
drainage area (prepared for the Department of Scientific and Industrial 
Research in connection with the biological and chemical survey of the 
river Tees) will be shown, with evaluations of general rainfall over the 
sections of the watershed concerned in the level measurements. 


Mr. C. CLemEsHA SmiITH.—Stream-flow measurement. 


Every self-respecting business concern keeps strict account of its assets 
or resources. Water is a national asset of paramount importance—the 
available supply is limited and the demand is always increasing. 

In order that the claims of the various users may be considered and met, 
it is necessary that the quantities available should be known. 

Gauging of streams and rivers is the only accurate method of obtaining 
the requisite knowledge. 

Gauging must be carefully organised so as to cover the whole country 
if water problems relating to domestic supply, trade supply, navigation, 
drainage, flooding, etc., are to be satisfactorily solved. 

The public spirit of Capt. McClean has urged him to initiate an experi- 
ment which may be the germ of the necessary organisation. 

It should be possible to develop an organisation on the following lines : 
The division of the British Isles into suitable areas—possibly watersheds : 
the collection, verification and recording of all existing stream-flow measure- 
ments. The provision of further stations as circumstances permit or 
demand. The publication of results in brief. 

The organisation should be elastic, on lines made capable of expansion— 
use should be made of existing records and observers. ‘The services of 
rivers boards, drainage boards, navigation companies, corporations and 
private observers should be used to the fullest extent. 

Such an organisation involves expenditure, but wise expenditure is true 
economy. 


Mr. W. J. M. Menzies. 


On water flow, of primary importance to salmon, sea trout and trout 
fisheries, depends the ascent of migratory fish and the health, and indeed 
very life, of all fish. 

Exact knowledge of actual flow is of great practical importance in deter- 
mining water available for power or for domestic purposes, in fixing the 
regulated flow allowed from diversion schemes and in computing dilution 
of polluting effluents. 


312 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 


At present exact knowledge is entirely lacking : calculations required for 
vast hydro-electric schemes affecting important Scottish salmon rivers have 
been based entirely on empirical formule. 

Series of accurate figures from gauge posts, maintained by many anglers, 
could be easily obtained under the supervision of a central authority. 

The popular conception of the salmon fisheries of Scotland is as a sport : 
the more important side is commercial fishing. The average annual value 
of net-caught Scottish salmon recently has been almost £500,000 ; 2,000 men 
are engaged taking the fish, and many are employed as ghillies, in making 
boats, ropes, nets, etc. Indirect benefit is derived from money spent by 
anglers in rent and in localities which they visit. Salmon, sea trout and 
brown trout fishing also provide recreation for people of humble means. 

Undue abstraction of water, or a low standard of dilution of pollutions, 
may jeopardise, and even destroy, the valuable commercial asset and 
recreational facilities. 


Maj. J. G. WITHYCOMBE. 


Need for systematic survey of water resources and collection of data, 
including rainfall statistics, maps, profiles, records of run-off and water levels, 
power sites and storage accommodation, existing and potential. 

Catchment areas the best units. 

Catchment Area Boards under the Land Drainage Act. 

Danger of overlapping and duplication without some co-ordinating 
organisation. 

Allocation of water: variety of competing interests; potable supply; 
sewage disposal ; industrial supply ; power ;- land-drainage ; fisheries. 

The Water Resources Committee Report (1921): recommendations 
regarding collection and recording of data, the establishment of a Water 
Commission and Inter-Departmental Committee. 

Situation to-day compared with 1921. 

Advantages of an Inter-Departmental Committee. 

Ministries of Health and Agriculture, Board of Trade, Electricity Com- 
missioners, Department of Industrial and Scientific Research. 

Position of the Ordnance Survey. 

Pending Government action much could be done by a voluntary organisa- 
tion, such as the Land Utilisation Survey. 

University Engineering and Geography Schools might co-operate, 
especially by collecting data relating to low-fall rivers. 

Present neglect of low falls. 

Gauging methods : rating curves ; current meters, weirs. 

Recording systems : maps ; card indexes, folders. 

Importance of geology ; underground water. 

Period necessary to establish co-relation of rainfall and run-off. 

Study of typical rivers. 


Mr. D. Hatton THomson. 


The absence of a nationally organised water survey in this country is 
a remarkable omission in the development of its natural resources. There 
are a national land survey, a national geological survey, and a national 
rainfall organisation, all of which have a bearing on the national water 
resources, but there is no official organisation dealing directly with those 
resources themselves. ‘This omission is probably partly due to the in- 
genuity of the civil engineer in deducing the data he requires by indirect 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 313 


means, but he would be the first to admit that he does so only in default of 
better information. This country is far behind many others in the systematic 
collection of stream-flow and underground-water records. 

It is not sufficient to leave the matter to private enterprise, which usually 
has in view only particular purposes in particular areas. What is wanted is 
(a) continuity and (6) records under different topographical and geological 
conditions in all parts of the country, where they are likely to serve ultimately 
some practical purpose. Thelonger are the records prior to their application, 
the more certainly will they promote development on the most economical 
lines. 

It is suggested that the Geological Survey (as in the United States) would 
be the most appropriate department to organise the work, being almost 
exclusively a fact-finding organisation and independent of any direct interest 
to which the information would ultimately be put. This department has 
already issued many valuable Water Supply Memoirs. 


Vice-Admiral H. P. Douctas, C.B., C.M.G. 


There is no doubt that some form of organisation for the survey of water 
resources would be most useful, and in the long run economical. The 
present somewhat haphazard way of obtaining information is obviously not 
satisfactory, for should it be required at some future time it is doubtful 
whether it would be readily available, or perhaps even not be recorded. 

As regards the Hydrographic Department and the Surveying Service of 
the Navy in respect of observations, a considerable amount has been done 
in the course of the survey of the river Tees, and a discussion on the data 
obtained has already been published by the Department of Scientific and 
Industrial Research. If other water-flow observations are required by us, 
it is an easy matter for the surveyor to obtain them as needed, and, naturally, 
a record is kept in the Hydrographic Department. 

Should such an organisation as that visualised by Capt. McClean be set 

up, it is thought that one of its first duties should be to collect all data 
available from the various departments which could provide them, these 
being added to or checked if necessary from local organisations. 
i, It does not appear that there would be any difficulty for the hydrographic 
surveyor and the Ordnance Survey to carry out such measurements, but it 
would certainly mean increases in staff, although possibly this would be a 
cheaper way of tackling the problem than the organisation suggested 
having its own surveyors. Moreover, local bodies could probably provide 
the data required from their own surveyors more cheaply than the organisa- 
tion, so that all that would be needed is a central organisation of comparatively 
small size to collect, organise and supervise. 


Mr. W. T. Hatcrow. 


The author agrees with Capt. McClean that it would be of great 

assistance to all waterworks and hydro-electric engineers were reliable 
records of stream flow available throughout the country. 
«~A great deal of information exists with respect to rivers already utilised 
for water undertakings, but this is not usually available to all engineers. 
What is more important is that a record should be_kept of the flows of 
rivers which may be utilised in the future. 

As a hydro-electric engineer, the author has been impressed by the 
amount of data which has frequently been placed at his disposal in foreign 
countries, the records of river discharge having been kept, in some cases, 
for many years, although no development has materialised. 


314 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—A. 


Referring to the power developments carried out in the Highlands of 
Scotland, it would have been of great assistance to him had statistics relating 
to the rivers been available when the works were designed. ‘The schemes 
were worked out on rainfall data alone. 

The author considers that there should be a central authority under a 
Government Department to collect the existing data, and to institute, through 
such subsidiary organisations as may be necessary, the measurement of 
rivers not yet utilised. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


ror. ye Notan.—The diurnal variation of the tontsation in the lower 
atmosphere. 


Miss M. D. WaLLer.—A demonstration of the maintenance of vibration 
by the application of cold. 


If a solid block of carbon dioxide be held against a metal, a chattering 
or singing sound will often be heard, due to vibrations of the latter. This 
fact is familiar to some of those who handle carbon dioxide commercially. 

Under proper conditions a very loud note may be produced. ‘Thus, for 
example, let the body to be set into vibration be a somewhat massive tuning- 
fork of high frequency, e.g. 3,000 p.p.s., and let the solid carbon dioxide 
be of high density. "Then when suitable contact is made between one of the 
prongs of the fork and the block, the fork may be set into violent vibration 
which may be maintained for some seconds if the contact be skilfully 
adjusted. 

Bodies of different shapes (bars, discs, rings, etc.) and of different metals 
may be similarly excited, and irregularly shaped bodies will sometimes give 
out much noise. 

In explanation of the phenomenon it would appear that the source of 
energy for producing the vibrations is the heat which is given up by the metal 
to the solid carbon dioxide, and that the efficacy of the carbon dioxide in 
producing vibrations is determined by the fact that it sublimes and that 
considerable gas pressures are produced during the momentary contacts 
of the metal with the block. 


Prof. L. S. PALMER.—Short-wave reception with frame aerials. 


When a frame aerial receives wireless waves comparable in length with 
the frame dimensions, the maximum current depends not only upon the 
tuning, but also upon the ratio of the wave-length to the width and height 
of the frame. The critical frame dimensions also vary with the angle of 
incidence of the wave. By considering the interaction between the currents 
in adjacent parts of the frame, the critical dimensions can be calculated. 
It is then found that for a frame of any given width there are, within one 
wave-length, at least two critical heights for which the received current will 
be a maximum. Furthermore, any increase in the width can be com- 
pensated by a proper decrease in the height, and vice versa. ‘The greatest 
current will be produced in those correctly proportioned frames which have 
the largest area, but increasing the area without maintaining the correct 
dimensions (depending on the wave-length \ and angle of incidence) will 
cause a decrease of current. Thus the areas of the frame are also critical, 
and vary from 0°15 \?, 0-50 A’, etc., to 0-24 A?, 0-73 A, etc., depending on 
the angle of incidence of the waves, 


ys 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A, At. 315 


Different critical dimensions are necessary when frames are used for 
transmission. 

The word ‘ formatised,’ as distinct from ‘ tuned,’ is suggested for such 
critically proportioned frames. 


Prof. D. A. Keys.—Magnetic and electrical surveys over mineral, diabase and 
artificial dikes. 


Magnetic dikes which do not outcrop may be located and their strike 
and dip determined with fair accuracy with the modern types of horizontal 
and vertical magnetic variometers. As a result of calculations and labora- 
tory experiments, magnetic measurements may also be used to determine 
approximately the amount of overburden and to estimate the vertical height 
of the dike. Resistivity and electromagnetic geophysical methods may be 
applied to confirm these results and to distinguish mineral from diabase 
dikes. 

Examples of the variation in horizontal and vertical intensities over 
magnetic models were given. The results of surveys made over buried 
diabase and pyrrhotite nickel dikes in the Sudbury Basin, Ontario, indicate 
the possibilities of these magnetic and electrical methods. The geophysical 
interpretation of the results over the pyrrhotite vein indicated the proper 
strike and dip of the dike and the amount of overburden, as was determined 
from diamond drill records. ‘The electrical methods differentiated the 
diabase from the pyrrhotite dike. 

The strike of these dikes was approximately east-west, but the methods 
may also be extended to buried veins lying in other directions. This 
investigation was carried out in collaboration with Prof. A. S. Eve, F.R.S., 
and Dr. F. W. Lee. 


Prof. G. TeEMPLeE.—Certain aspects of Quantum Theory. 


DEPARTMENT OF COSMICAL PHYSICS (Af). 


Thursday, September 1. 


Dr. R. StoneLey.—The long-wave phase of earthquake records. 


The long-wave phase, the beginning and the maximum amplitude of 
which are respectively designated as L, M on seismograph records, consists 
mainly of waves that have travelled over the surface of the earth. These 
waves are of two types—the Rayleigh-waves, in which there is no displace- 
ment perpendicular to the plane through the vertical and the direction of 
propagation, and the Love-waves, in which the displacement is in this 
direction only. Accordingly, the waves are best: studied in records of 
shocks that arrive in a nearly due easterly or westerly azimuth: the N.-S. 
record then shows the Love-wave and the Rayleigh-waves are recorded on 
the E.—W. and Z records. 

Both types of wave show dispersion—i.e. dependence of velocity on 
period—and the velocity of travel of a given group of waves is the ‘ group- 
velocity.’ The various maxima observed presumably denote the arrival of 
waves of stationary group-velocity. The 7L corresponding to the sudden 
commencement of the surface waves, corresponds to Love-waves of very 
long period, and the velocity of about 4:4 km./sec. is that of distortional 
waves in the ultrabasic substratum below the surface layers, as general theory 


316 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A?. 


leads us to expect. Corresponding to very long Rayleigh-waves is an iL 
(about 4 km./sec.) which travels with the velocity appropriate to Rayleigh- 
waves in the ultrabasic material—i.e. about 4:4 X 0-92km./sec. These 
two onsets, 7Lr and zl, are seen in the velocities found by the late Prof. 
H.H. Turner for L; sometimes he found that for some earthquakes zL 
fitted 0-42 min./deg., while for other shocks he found 0:47 min./deg. 
These are evidently zLy and zLr respectively. 

The observations of group-velocity of Love-waves of known periods give, 
on certain assumptions, an estimate of the thickness of the continental 
granitic layer ; for Eurasia this is about 12 km., if it is assumed that there 
is a tachylyte layer twice as thick as the granitic layer. 

For Rayleigh-waves in a surface layer the calculations are rather heavy. 
The results available show that on the extremely hazardous assumption that 
the floor of the Pacific Ocean is a layer of material of which the rigidity is 
half that of the underlying material (this is roughly the case for tachylyte, 
diorite, or syenite resting on dunite), the thickness of the layer is of the 
order of 20 km. Further calculations are in progress. 


Mr. J. J. SHaw, C.B.E.—Earthquake recording in the heart of London. 


Dr. H. Jerrreys.—WNear earthquakes. 


Mr. E. G. BrtHam.—The climate of York and its variations during the 
sixty years, I87I-1930. 


The paper is mainly devoted to a comparison of the climatological data 
for York (the Yorkshire Museum) during the two periods of thirty years, 
1871-1900 and 1901-30. It has commonly been asserted that since the 
turn of the century winters have become less ‘ wintry ’ and summers wetter 
and less sunny. ‘The data show that in the latter period mean temperature 
has risen in most months, the increase amounting to from 1° to 13° F. 
in January, March, May, October and December. Sunshine increased by 
approximately 30 per cent. in November, and decreased by approximately 
I5 per cent. in February, March and May. Rainfall was on the average 
7 per cent. less in the latter period, the months showing the biggest changes 
being January (plus 12 per cent.), February (minus 15 per cent.), June 
(minus 15 per cent.), July (minus 12 per cent.), September (minus 28 per 
cent.), October (minus 17 per cent.), and December (plus 14 per cent.). 

The following table summarises the results for the four seasons and the 
year, a positive sign indicating an increase in 1901-30 as compared with 
1871-1900 (1881-1900 in the case of sunshine). 


Mean 
Season. ‘Tempera- Rainfall. | Sunshine. 
‘ ture 
Spring (March, April, May) . +0:7°F.  Nochange —9% 
Summer (June, July, Aug.) —o'Ir°F. — 9% —1% 
Autumn (Sept., Oct., Nov.) . » + .0°3°F — 17% +9% 
Winter (Dec., Jan., Feb.) + 1:0°F + 5% — 6% 
Year . 2 i ‘ +o0:5°F — 7% — 3% 


The table supports the popular belief that winters have become milder, 
but there is no support for the supposition that summers have, on the whole, 
deteriorated since 1900. The season showing the most marked change is 
autumn, with 17 per cent. less rainfall and 9 per cent. more sunshine. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—Af, B. 307, 


A similar investigation shows that at Oxford (Radcliffe Observatory) 
corresponding changes of temperature have occurred. Oxford, however, 
has experienced an increase of rainfall amounting to 22 per cent. in spring 
and 14 per cent. in winter, though winter sunshine has increased by 12 per 
cent. 


Mr. M. G. Bennett.— The effect of the spectral transmission of the atmosphere 
upon visibility by artificial light. 
(1) Summary of experimental work bearing on the transmission by the 
atmosphere of light of different wave-lengths. 
(2) Application of the results of this work to the problems of— 
(a) the visual range of point sources of light ; 
(6) the visual range of objects illuminated by the beam of a search- 
light or motor-car headlight ; 
with conclusions as to the effect of the colour of the light on the visual range 
in the two cases. 


Mr. W. M. H. Greaves.—The new transit circle under construction for the 
Royal Observatory, Greenwich. 


‘TELEVISION DEMONSTRATIONS. 


The Marconi Company kindly gave demonstrations of television by 
radio from Chelmsford to the meeting-room of Section A (Mathematical 
and Physical Sciences). 


SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


PRESIDENTIAL AppreEss by Dr. W. H. Mitts, F.R.S., on Some aspects of 
Stereochemistry. (See p. 37.) . 


Discussion on Stereochemistry (Prof. Dr. J. MEISENHEIMER; Mr. T. W. J. 
TayLor and Mr. L. E. Sutton; Dr. N. V. Sipewick, F.R.S.; 
Dr. F. G. Mann; Dr. S. Sucpen; Mr. J. D. BERNAL) :— 


Prof. Dr. J. MEISENHEIMER.—The stereochemistry of oximes, hydroxyl- 
amines and amine-oxides. 


An attempt is made to explain the inconsistency that compounds in which 
nitrogen is 2-co-ordinate should show stereoisomerism, whilst unsymmetri- 
cally substituted tertiary amines have not been found resolvable, although 
in both types a pyramidal arrangement of the valencies must be assumed. 

The possibility that the relatively great stability of stereoisomeric oximes 
is connected with the presence of the hydroxyl-group is excluded by the 
failure to resolve the substituted hydroxylamines Et-NMeOH, HO,SC,H,, 
NMe.OBz. 

The circumstances under which the co-ordination number 3 is associated 
with a pyramidal configuration and the causes that determine the stability 
of a pyramidal arrangement are discussed. 

Stress is laid on the fact that although quinoline oxide shows the greatest 
similarity to the sulphoxides in the arrangement of electrons round the 
central atom, it has proved non-resolvable. 


318 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 


Mr, T. W. J. TayLor and Mr. L. E. Surron.—The configurations of 
the oximes from measurement of electric di-pole moment. 


The configurations of the oximes have been established by the measure- 
ment of the electric moments of certain of their derivatives. For the 
ketoximes this can be done absolutely from the moments of their N-methyl 
ethers. In the case of the aldoximes this method cannot be applied, because ~ 
one and the same N ether is obtained on methylating either of the two 
isomeric oximes. ‘The two O-methy]l ethers of p-nitrobenzaldoxime, how- 
ever, are known, and their relation to their parent oximes is unambiguous. 
By comparing their moments with those of the O-ethers of the closely related 
p-nitrobenzophenoneoximes, whose configurations are known from the 
above argument, the configurations of the aldoximes themselves are 
established. The results show clearly that the modern view as to the con- 
figurations of the aldoximes is correct—i.e. that in the reaction used for 
obtaining configuration, the action of Na,CO; on the acetyl compounds, the 
loss of acetic acid in the 8 series involves groups anti to one another, and 
that the original configurations of Hantzsch and Werner must be reversed. 

Since it was found previously that the one N-methyl ether of p-nitro- 
benzaldoxime has a moment 6:4 xX10!8, it appears that the N ethers of 
aldoximes have the 6 configuration, as has been suspected. 


Dr. N. V. Sipewick, F.R.S.—Molecular di-pole moments and inter- 
valency angles. 


The di-pole moment of a molecule is the vector sum of those of its con- 
stituent links ; hence if these moments are known, the valency angles can 
be calculated. 

Qualitatively it follows that a molecule AB, if polar (NH3, PCl;) is 
pyramidal: if non-polar (BCl;) is plane, with angles of 120°. ABg, if 
non-polar (CO,, CS., NO), is rectilinear ; if polar (H,O, HS, SO,) is bent. 

Quantitatively, by comparing the moment of, say, diphenyl ether with 
that of its para-di-substitution product, e.g. (CI-C,H,).O, we can determine 
the angle between the oxygen valencies (Smyth, Bergmann, Hassel, Sutton). 
The mutual—electromeric and inductive—effects of the moments can be 
eliminated by using substituents of different types. 

The conclusions so far reached are : 


(1) With valency groups of less than eight electrons, two valencies are ap- 
proximately at 180° (mercury diphenyl), and three in a plane at 120° (BCI). 

(2) With a complete octet the tetrahedral arrangement holds. The 
angles found are approximately: of the C—C valencies 110° in diphenyl 
methane, 130° in benzophenone ; of the C—O and C-S valencies in diphenyl 
ether and thioether about 140°. This is in striking opposition to Pauling’s 
theory, which requires smaller angles (about 90°) for oxygen and sulphur. 


Dr. F. G. Mann.—Chemical evidence on the configuration of the 
4-co-valent compounds of the metals of the platinum group. 


Werner’s work on the stereochemistry of complex metallic salts was 
directed chiefly towards the salts of metals showing a co-ordination number 
of 6, and the configuration of such compounds is now beyond reasonable 
doubt. Recent work has therefore concentrated more particularly on the 


stereochemistry of complex salts of metals showing a co-ordination number 
of 4. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 319 


The configuration of the tetramino metallic complex—whether tetra- 
hedral or uniplanar—is still in doubt, however, since the available experi- 
mental evidence remains indecisive. 

The salient points in this evidence are briefly reviewed, and their signifi- 
cance discussed. 


Dr. S. Sucpen.—Planar configuration of diamagnetic nickel complexes. 


The wave-mechanics valency theory of Pauling gives a correlation 
between (a) the space distribution of valency links ; (b) the azimuthal 
quantum numbers of the electron levels taking part in the links; and 
(c) in some cases the magnetic moment of the atoms. 

The case of nickel is of special interest, since not only s and p, electrons 
(with azimuthal quantum numbers 1 and 2) are concerned, butalsod electrons 
(with azimuthal quantum number 3). If one d electron level is concerned, 
then Pauling finds that four strong links should be formed in one plane. 
At the same time the nickel should change from a paramagnetic ion to a 
diamagnetic complex. 

Co-ordination complexes of nickel are found to be sharply divided into 
two groups as regards their magnetic behaviour. One group is paramagnetic, 
the other diamagnetic. Of the latter the double cyanide K,Ni(CN), and 
the dimethylglyoxime are the best-known compounds. 

By synthesising unsymmetrical glyoximes it has been found that the 
nickel derivatives occur in two forms, which are interconvertible. These 
appear to be the cis-trans isomerides required by Pauling’s theory of a 
planar configuration. 


Mr. J. D. BERNAL.—Crystal structure and stereochemistry. 


Friday, September 2. 


Discussion on The constitution of polysaccharides, with special reference to 
fibres (Prof. W. N. Haworth, F.R.S.; Prof. Dr. L. ZECHMEISTER ; 
Prof. Dr. H. StaupINcer; Dr. E. L. Hirst; Prof. Dr. H. Marx; 
Mr. W. T. AstBury) :— 


Prof. W. N. Haworth, F.R.S.—Introduction. 


In a brief historical survey of the development of the constitution of 
polysaccharides, it is shown that the occurrence of cellobiose as preformed 
units in cellulose is established by chemical methods, and that the structure 
of cellulose rests ultimately on the constitution previously assigned to this 
biose. ‘The mutual linking through position 1 : 4 of 8-glucopyranose units 
in chain fashion is thus the fundamental principle of modern cellulose 
structures. Recent work by Haworth and Machemer has indicated that a 
methylated cellulose can be utilised to gain valuable information (1) as 
to the character of the chain, whether open or closed, and (2) as to the 
approximate chain length in this very representative derivative. 'Tetra- 
methyl glucose, in yield of 0-6 per cent., is obtained by hydrolysis of this 
specimen, so that the minimum mean value for the chain length of cellulose is 
givenas 20oglucose units. Similar experiments with intermediate hydrolysis 
products of cellulose have been carried out and their molecular size 
determined. 


320 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 


Prof. Dr. L. ZECHMEISTER.—The enzymatic cleavage of cellulose and 
cellulose break-down products. Relationship between cellulose and 
chitin (in collaboration with Dr. W.GrassMANN and Dr. G. Toru). 


An investigation of the action of enzymes on break-down products of 
cellulose containing a comparatively small number of glucose units has 
revealed unexpected relationships which suggest that the action of enzymes 
is dependent not only on the nature and stereochemical arrangement of the 
groups in the molecule undergoing reaction, but also on the chain length 
of the molecule. This conception opens up a new field of investigation in 
connection with the chemistry of enzymes, the exploration of which is 
important in view of the new idea thus afforded of the relationship between 
enzyme action and the chemistry of the polysaccharides. From Asper- 
gillus extracts an oligosaccharase and a polysaccharase have been separated. 

Chitobiose, the break-down product obtained from chitin, yields an 
acetyl derivative and has chemical properties which show it to be constituted 
analogously to cellobiose, the corresponding break-down product of cellulose, 
and it appears that chitin is to be regarded as built up of continuous chains 
of chitobiose units, joined together in a manner similar to the cellobiose units 
in cellulose. The observation that chitodextrine undergoes a rapid break- 
down, when treated with emulsin, proves the presence of $-linkings in chitin. 


Prof. Dr. H. SraupIncer.—The nature and size of the colloid particles 
of cellulose and related substances. 


The work of Haworth and his school has shown the mode of linking of 
glucose units in cellulose. The question of how many such units are com- 
bined in the molecule can be answered by investigating the nature and the 
size of the colloid particles of cellulose dissolved in Schweizer’s reagent or 
of the acetate or nitrate in organic media. These colloid particles are the 
molecules themselves and, contrary to McBain, Meyer and Mark, have not 
a micellar character. This is shown by the examination of ‘ polymer 
homologous series ’ of break-down products of cellulose, the lower mole- 
cular members of which are recognised, by ordinary chemical methods, as 
thread-molecules of different lengths. These products exhibit a relation- 
ship between their molecular length and their viscosity in solution, which is 
expressed by the viscosity law: se = Km.M, where xsp is the specific 
viscosity, c the concentration, K,, a characteristic constant for each polymer 
homologous series, and M the molecular weight. K,» can now be derived 
from other viscosity measurements—e.g. in the paraffin series and in sub- 
stances with 6-rings. 

These investigations were facilitated by the parallel study of synthetic 
polymeric substances of known constitution. By these methods, cellulose 
in Schweizer’s reagent is found to have mol. wt. 120,o00o—that is, 750 glucose 
residues are combined in one molecule. The mclecules are long threads 
which in one dimension are 500 times longer than in the two others. This 
provides an explanation of the colloid nature of cellulose solutions. 


Dr. E. L. Hirst.—Amylose and amylopectin. 


Analogues of cellulose, containing mutually linked glucose units, are 
represented by starch and glycogen. But whereas in cellulose the units are 
6-glucopyranose, in starch and glycogen they are «-glucopyranose, the model 
of which does not permit of its forming a straight chain pattern such as is 
possible with cellulose. No sure evidence has been available as to the size 
of the molecular unit, and the situation has been rendered complicated by 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 321 


uncertainty concerning the relationships between amylose and'amylopectin. 
Work with Miss M. M. T. Plant has thrown light on both these problems. 
It was found that the essential differences between amylose and amylopectin 
do not depend on the phosphorus content. On careful methylation the 
special characteristics of each modification were retained in the methylated 
derivatives. Methylated amylopectin yielded on hydrolysis 5 per cent. of 
tetramethyl glucose, representing a minimum mean chain length of about 
25 glucose units for amylopectin. Methylated amylose gave the same 
amount of tetramethyl glucose, and it would appear that the differences 
between amylose and amylopectin depend on hydration and micellar 
structure rather than on length of chain. 

Similar work with E. G. V. Percival on methylated glycogen resulted in 
a yield of 8-5 per cent. of tetramethyl] glucose, indicating a minimum chain 
length of about 12 units for this polysaccharide. Glycogen does not retro- 
grade into an insoluble modification as does amylose, and it would appear 
that in glycogen the chain length is insufficient to bring about the micellar 
changes which take place in starch. 


Prof. Dr. H. Marxk.—The space model of cellulose. 


The question of the structure of cellulose is an old and fascinating problem 
of organic chemistry. Many attempts have been made to solve it, but 
they all failed to reach the final point of linking up structure and properties. 
The formula of aniline represents to every organic chemist an expression 
not only of the percentage composition, but also of the properties of the 
substance. But the expression (C,H,,O;)x for cellulose does not represent 
anything but the percentage composition. 

There appeared a favourable chance of making progress in regard to the 
formula of cellulose by building up a model from the molecular point of view. 
Two stages of new knowledge were necessary. The first step was provided 
by the very remarkable progress of the researches in the field of sugar 
chemistry, largely carried on by British chemists. The other was our 
increased knowledge of the size and shape of molecules, which was mainly 
the work of Sir William and Professor W. L. Bragg. The combination of 

_ these two lines of attack, supported by some results of Freudenberg, 
rendered it possible to build up a reasonably accurate and detailed model 
of the cellulose structure which illustrated the peculiarities of its properties 
and behaviour as a high molecular substance. Such a combination was 
first made by Sponsler and Dore, and about two years later with more 
efficiency by K. H. Meyer and his co-workers. 


Mr. W.T. Astsury.—Protein fibres and the formation of polysaccharide 
chains. 


The fruitful combination of the results of organic chemistry with those 
of X-ray analysis has now defined with some precision the concept 
of long-chain molecules in the field both of the polysaccharides and of 
the proteins ; but whereas cellulose appears to be laid down in biological 
‘structures as fully extended chains, protein fibres are undoubtedly built up 
of polypeptide chains in various states of extension. X-rays have as yet 
revealed only two proteins, the fibroin of natural silk and the $-keratin of 
stretched hair, which would appear to be in a fully extended state. Since 
in natural processes the formation of cellulose and other polysaccharides 
seems to be brought about through the intervention of proteins, the pos- 
sibility thus arises that the protein chain may act as a pattern or framework 
down the sides of which sugar units are laid in order to be linked up into a 
: M 
| 


d 


322 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 


polysaccharide configuration. It is an interesting point that the chief 
longitudinal spacings of muscle and unstretched hair are almost equal to 
the length of a glucose residue as it is known in cellulose ; while the fact 
that the crossed cellulose chains of the wall of Valonia ventricosa are laid 
down according to a definite plan indicates that they are formed on a net- 
work pattern in the underlying protoplasmic layer. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Visit to works of Imperial Chemical Industries (Fertilisers and 
Synthetic Products) Ltd., Billingham. 


Sunday, September 4. 
Excursion to Kirkham Abbey. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on Water pollution (survey of the River Tees) (Dr. H. T. 
CatvertT; Mr. J. Loncwett; Dr. R. W. BuTcHER and 
Mr. F. T. K. Pentetow; Dr. B. A. SourHcaTe; Mr. W. B. 
ALEXANDER; Mr. R. BASSINDALE) :— 


Dr. H. T. Catvert.—The purpose and nature of the survey of the 
River Tees. 


Mr. J. LONGWELL.—The decomposition of sewage in river water. 


The self-purification of the upper reaches of the river Tees has been 
studied from the results of chemical analysis combined with measurements 
of the flow of the river—that is, from determinations of the actual quantities 
of the polluting constituents. Rate of self-purification from sewage pollu- 
tion appears to be dependent mainly on temperature. Thus, below Croft, 
where the Tees receives sewage pollution from the Skerne, a much greater 
distance is required in the winter than in the summer for the same amount 
of purification. 


Dr. R. W. Burcuer and Mr. F. T. K. PenteLow.—The effects of 
pollution on the biology of the non-tidal reaches of the River Tees. 


The biological work in the upper reaches of the Tees has dealt primarily 
with ‘ sewage fungus,’ the algz and the macroscopic fauna. Above Croft 
the river is relatively pure, except for short distances below two sewage 
outfalls. At Croft the Skerne joins the Tees and carries a considerable 
quantity of sewage. The area occupied by sewage fungus varies with 
changes in the chemical composition of the water. Large quantities of 
the filamentous alga, Cladophora glomerata, occur in May and June from 
Croft down to the tidal reaches, but only small quantities grow just below 
the two sewage outfalls above Croft. The distribution of some other alge 
appears also to be affected by pollution. The flora, microscopic and 
macroscopic, is much richer below than above the Skerne. Sewage pollu- 
tion also has a marked effect on the fauna, water-snails, leeches and Asellus 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 323 


being most abundant just below Croft. In the Skerne, sewage fungus is 
abundant but Cladophora is absent. Tubificid worms and red chironomid 
larve occur in quantity in the Skerne, but are found only over a short 
distance in the Tees. 


Dr. B. A. Sourncate.—The effects of sewage and industrial pollution 
in the Tees estuary. 


The estuary of the Tees receives large quantities of crude sewage and of 
industrial effuents, mainly in the section from Stockton to Cargo Fleet. 
The principal industrial effuents are coke-oven effluents containing tar 
acids, cyanides, etc., and spent pickle liquor, which is an acid solution of 
iron produced in the cleaning of iron and steel. Oxidation of the sewage 
and effluents occurs in the estuary at the expense of dissolved oxygen. 
Large numbers of fish are killed in the estuary, especially salmon and sea- 
trout smolts during their spring migration to the sea. In 1930 and 1931, 
the death of migrating smolts was not due to the deficiency of dissolved 
oxygen, but to cyanides frequently found in lethal concentrations. Other 
poisonous substances, including tar acids, were not found in toxic concentra- 
tions, and it has been concluded from numerous chemical and physiological 
experiments and observations that, in the absence of cyanides, migrating 
smolts would not have been killed in 1930 and 1931. Laboratory and semi- 
technical scale experiments have demonstrated that cyanides in coke-oven 
effluents can be converted into relatively non-toxic ferrocyanide by treat- 
ment of the effluents with spent pickle liquor and lime. 


Mr. W. B. ALEXANDER.— The effects of pollution on the biology of the 
Tees estuary. 


There is a scarcity of living organisms in the middle portion of the estuary 
of the Tees between Stockton and Middlesbrough. ‘This section is subject 
to the greatest variations in salinity resulting from tidal flow and to the 
greatest amount of pollution. In addition, organisms living on the banks 
must be able to withstand exposure to the air for certain periods at low tide, 
and those living on the bed of the estuary have to withstand the effects of 
movement of bottom deposits and of sedimentation. It was impossible to 
determine, therefore, from a biological survey of the estuary of the Tees 
only, to what extent the flora and fauna are affected by pollution. A survey 
of the relatively unpolluted estuary of the Tay has shown a distribution of 
organisms in the section subject to variations in salinity similar, in general, 
to the distribution in the corresponding section of the Tees, although there 
are some differences. It thus appears that the scarcity of plant and animal 
life in the middle portion of the estuary of the Tees is not primarily due to 
the effects of pollution. 


Mr. R. BassInDALE.—The susceptibility of invertebrate animals to 
potsons. 


Certain animals have a restricted range of distribution in the estuary 
of the Tees as compared with their range in the relatively unpolluted estuary 
of the Tay. The effects on these animals of changes in salinity and of the 
presence of cyanides and tar acids, in concentrations similar to those found 
in the estuary of the Tees, have been determined. In water of suitable 
salinities, tar acids at the maximum concentration found in the Tees are 
not toxic to Neomysis vulgaris, Crangon vulgaris, Gammarus marinus, and 
Corophium volutator. Cyanide at the maximum concentration found in 


324 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—B. 


the Tees is toxic to Neomysis vulgaris and Crangon vulgaris, but not to 
Gammarus and Corophium. 

Experiments on Eurytemora hirundoides and on the Dog Crab (Carcinus 
menas), both of which occur in the most polluted part of the Tees, have 
shown these organisms to be of relatively high resistance to cyanide. The 
lack of certain animals in the estuary as food for fish is of secondary import- 
ance, as the fish are more susceptible than invertebrates to poisons. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Prof. C. H. Descu, F.R.S.—Re-arrangements in the solid state. 


Systems in which a series of solid solutions, stable at high temperatures, 
resolves itself into two or more phases on cooling are of frequent occurrence. 
In most instances the change takes the form of the separation of a new 
phase from solution in the same manner as the crystallisation of a salt from 
water. A solubility curve may be drawn, and eutectoid structures, similar 
to the eutectics formed from liquid solutions, are produced. The iron- 
carbon and iron-nickel systems are familiar examples. In recent years 
another type of re-arrangement has become known, and is typified by the 
gold-copper alloys. A solid solution, homogeneous at high temperatures, 
and having the solute atoms statistically distributed throughout its lattice, 
assumes a new arrangement on cooling through a certain point, the solute 
atoms taking up regular positions and so forming a super-lattice. This 
change is reversed on heating. The number of such systems may be con- 
siderable. The nature of the re-arrangement and its effect on the structure 
of the solids are discussed. 


Discussion on Liquid mixtures (Prof. IrvINE Masson; Prof. J. 
KENDALL, F.R.S.; Dr. N. V. Srpewick, F.R.S.; Dr. J. A.V. 
BUTLER) :— 


Prof. InvinE Masson.—Introduction ; Phenomena in liquid mixtures. 


Prof. J. KENDALL, F.R.S.—Compound formation in liquid mixtures. . 


Compounds existent in liquid mixtures may be divided into two types— 
addition compounds and substitution compounds. In the first type, of which 
acetic acid-aniline is an example, there is a definite increase in molecular 
complexity, and the physical properties (e.g. viscosity, specific conductivity) 
diverge considerably from the mean of the components. In the second type, 
of which phenol-cresol is an example, there is no increase in molecular 
complexity and the physical property-composition curves are more nearly 
linear. 

The main factor inducing compounds of the first type is diversity in 
electrochemical character of the radicals of the components, the extent of 
compound formation in solution increasing with such diversity. The main 
factor inducing compounds of the second type is similarity in the radicals 
of the components, part of an associated molecule being replaced by 
essentially equivalent groups. 

A detailed examination of the two ternary systems ethyl acetate-water- 
alcohol and ether-water-alcohol has been made, and the results obtained 
have been analysed in the light of the above generalisations. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B, C. 325 


Dr. N. V. Sipewick, F.R.S.—Dz1-pole association in liquid mixtures. 


The molecular polarisation of a polar substance in a non-polar solvent 
varies with the concentration, usually being greatest at infinite dilution, but 
rarely (alcohols) rising to a maximum and then falling. ‘This phenomenon 
is called di-pole association. It may be due either to an orientation of the 
molecules by the di-pole forces, or to their polymerisation. Its correct 
interpretation is important as throwing light on the relations between the 
molecules in a liquid. 

The marked case of nitrobenzene, whose molecular polarisation is five 
times as great at infinite dilution as in the pure liquid, has been investigated 
both electrically and cryoscopically by various authors. The ‘ degree of 
association ’ x can be calculated on the hypothesis that non-polar double 
molecules are formed. In benzene the values of x obtained electrically and 
cryoscopically agree roughly up to about 2-normal solutions (x by polarisa- 
tion 0:46, by F.P. 0°57). But the mass-action association ‘ constant ’ 
rises considerably (at vo normal 0:26; at 2-normal 0-39 and 0-77 respec- 
tively). This shows that the association is not due to a definite polymerisa- 
tion, but to an orientation of the polar molecules which diminishes their 
activity. 


Dr. J. A. V. BUTLER.—F ee energies of normal aliphatic alcohols in water. 


SECTION C.—GEOLOGY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


Mr. C. E. N. BromeneaD.—The geology of the York district and the 
eXCUYSIONS, 


REPORTS OF RESEARCH COMMITTEES. (See pp. 284, 299.) 


Miss E. W. GarDNER.—Some problems of the Pleistocene hydrography of 
the Kharga Oasis, Egypt. 


Kharga Oasis, 100 miles W. of the Nile, is a depression 300-400 metres 
below the level of the Libyan Plateau. Eocene and Cretaceous rocks form 
scarps on the northern and eastern sides. 

The Scarp.—Tufa is found along the eastern scarp and is of two types : 

(a) Plateau tufa, a massive rock practically devoid of life. 

_ (6) Wadi tufa, a softer, more cellular type of wider distribution. It 
contains seven kinds of plants, and eight land and eight fresh-water 
gastropods. It is considered to have been formed by chemical aggradation, 
in a manner similar to tufa deposition at the present day in Brazil, and called 
there ‘ Catinga’ type. 

Associated tools date the wadi tufas to three different periods : 

(1) Lower Palzolithic—Acheulean. 


(2) Transitional—Acheuleo-Levalloisean. 
(3) Middle Palzolithic—Pre-Sebilian. 


Of these (2) was the longest and most important. 

The Floor of the depression was supplied in Pleistocene times by ‘ mound ’ 
springs, which are associated in groups. ‘They have been formed by water 
under pressure breaking through Cretaceous clays. 

The structure of the mounds suggests periods of relative quiescence and 


326 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


activity. Associated implements range from Acheulean to Aterian (Early 
Upper Paleolithic). 

(Full accounts of the hydrography and physiographic development will be 
found in the Geological Magazine, September 1932, and in the Geographical 
Fournal, 1932.) 

AFTERNOON. 


Excursion to Helmsley, Stamford Bridge, etc. 


Friday, September 2. 


Symposium on The relations of the Millstone Grit to the Carboniferous 
Limestone (Prof. W. G. Frarnsipes; Prof. G. Hicktinc; Miss E. 
Dix and Prof. A. E. Trueman; Dr. W. B. Wricut; Mr. L. H. 
Tonks ; Dr. R. G. S. Hupson) :— 


Prof. G. HicKL1Inc.—Carboniferous earth-movements in relation to the 
millstone grit problem. 


The Lower Carboniferous rocks of the Pennine area show marked evi- 
dence of contemporary folding, indicated both by changes of thickness and 
facies and by the occurrence of local unconformities. The three main 
tectonic units of the region—the Northumbrian, North Pennine and 
Derbyshire domes—were marked out during this period. On these 
elevations the Lower Carboniferous rocks are relatively thin and unfolded, 
in contrast with the thick development of deeper-water facies found in the 
intervening troughs of south Northumberland and the Bolland-Skipton 
area. The rocks in the troughs are strongly folded, and evidence is adduced 
to show that this folding was largely contemporaneous. The ‘ Millstone 
Grit ’ type of lithology becomes dominant at different horizons in different 
districts, but there is no evidence that any major discontinuity in sedi- 
mentation is associated with the advent of these conditions. 


Miss E. Dix and Prof. A. E. TRUEMAN. 


The problem of selecting a suitable boundary between Lower and Upper 
Carboniferous varies in its nature in different areas. In South Wales a 
natural base is frequently provided by an unconformity which usually 
separates rocks of Carboniferous Limestone type from rocks of more or less 
typically Millstone Grit type. This unconformity is of varying extent. 

The faunal evidence indicates that the mid-Carboniferous unconformity 
is not so great as has appeared to be the case from the interpretations placed 
on the floral records hitherto available. Recently rich floras have been dis- 
covered in the Millstone Grit and the lowest Coal Measures in several parts 
of South Wales which are similar to those of corresponding strata of the 
north of England, Scotland, and Devon. When these floras are taken into 
account the supposed discrepancy between the correlation based on the 
flora and fauna disappears. 

In South Wales the base of the Millstone Grit should be drawn at such a 
position that it will fall within the unconformity, but its actual position in 
terms of palzontological zones is more difficult to fix. There is some 
evidence that it should fall above the zone of E, which appears to be more 
closely related to the Lower Carboniferous of this area. This will, of course, 

‘involve the transference to the Lower Carboniferous of a small thickness 
of rocks hitherto regarded as Upper Carboniferous. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 327 


If this line is accepted it appears that it may fit with the boundary required 
in Scotland. The cephalopod evidence as far as it is known supports this 
view ; particularly is this true of the distribution and range of Tylonautilus 
nodiferus and Anthracoceras glabrum, which are widely known in zone E 
of England and which occur in Scotland in the Upper Limestone Group. 

Mr. Bisat has taken the base of zone E as the base of his Lancastrian, 
but Dr. M. Macgregor has pointed out that it might well be taken at the 
base of zone H. This would accord in general with our views on the evi- 
dence in South Wales, although so far very little is known concerning the 
palzontology of zone H in South Wales. 

As Dr. Macgregor has pointed out, this line would be more in accord 
with that drawn by the late Dr. Kidston on palzobotanical evidence. 
Kidston, it will be recalled, emphasised the importance of a plant break 
which he considered to occur a third of the way up the Roslin Sandstone 
Group of Scotland, this line forming the boundary between his Lower and 
Upper Carboniferous floras. He believed that he was also able to recognise 
this plant break in north Staffordshire. In our opinion this line does not 
coincide with any great floral change of the nature indicated by Kidston. 
The change in flora is merely of similar character to those occurring at higher 
horizons in the Upper Carboniferous, and the importance ascribed to it by 
Kidston probably arose from the examination of an inadequate sequence. 

There is no evidence for a great plant break in north Staffordshire or 
South Wales. Certainly there is a change in flora, but no break of the type 
suggested by Kidston. 


Dr. W. B. WRIGHT. 


The speaker regretted the absence frém this symposium of any con- 
tribution from Mr. W. S. Bisat, whose palzontological work was the basis 
of all modern stratigraphical correlation of marine facies in the Upper 
Carboniferous. Having established in these beds a zonal system of remark- 
able precision and constancy, he was enabled thereby to prove the occurrence 
of extensive transgression and overlap at their base. The very difficult 
problem of establishing the horizon of the uppermost beds of the Lower 
Carboniferous present in any district has been attacked by many of the 
disciples of Vaughan, but by none more successfully than Dr. Hudson, 
who had established the local absence of great thicknesses of the Yoredale 
series. ‘There is thus no doubt as to the existence of a great mid-Carboni- 
ferous unconformity, and interest centres at present rather round its character 
and the reasons for its local absence. In this connection much still remains 
tobe done. Inthe Buxton area, the peculiar conditions of which have been 
so fully described by Prof. Fearnsides, there is definite evidence of emer- 
gence in the karst-like weathering of the limestone surface beneath the 
overlying shales. Further evidence of a similar character has been adduced 
by Dr. Hudson in the Craven district. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Doncaster, Park Nook, Stotfield, etc. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to the Yorkshire coast. 


328 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


Sunday, September 4. 


Excursion to the Yorkshire coast (continued). 


Monday, September 5. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Prof. P. G. H. Boswe tt, O.B.E., F.R.S., on The 
contacts of Geology : the Ice Age and early man in Britain. (See 


Pp. 57:) 


Joint Discussion with Section H (Anthropology) on The contacts of 
Geology : the Ice Age and early man in Britain. 


AFTERNOON. 


Excursion to Bilborough, ‘Tadcaster, etc. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Mr. 8S. Hatt and Dr. A. K. WeLLs.—On rhythmically banded sills at 
Godolphin, Cornwall. 


The sills described outcrop on the coast between Rinsey and Megaliggar, 
south-west of the Godolphin granite, south Cornwall. They are doubtless 
offshoots from the Godolphin mass, and comprise three main sills and 
numerous smaller ones. The sill-rocks are of granitic composition and are 
rich in minerals of the pneumatolytic group—tourmaline, topaz, fluorite and 
apatite—though there is no reason for believing them to be other than 
primary constituents. In all of these sills a striking banding, parallel to the 
lower and upper surfaces, is seen. ‘This is due to pronounced differences 
in (i) texture, coarsely crystalline pegmatitic bands alternating with finer, 
aplitic ones ; and (ii) mineral content, there being more or less regularly 
spaced maxima of coloured mineral, chiefly tourmaline, forming graduated 
dark bands. A less obvious variation in the quartz/felspar and plagio- 
clase/orthoclase ratios becomes evident on microscopic examination of 
serially cut sections. Comparisons are made with other well-known banded 
rocks, the origin of the banding is discussed, and reasons are advanced for 
regarding it as due to a rhythmic crystallisation of the magma after flow- 
movements had ceased. 


Mr. A. 'T. DoLLar.—A_ study of the granites of Lundy Island, Bristol 
Channel. 


Lundy is a high rugged island over three miles long and approximately 
half a mile broad, which lies in the Bristol Channel some twenty-four miles 
due west of Ilfracombe, off the north-west coast of Devonshire. It consti- 
tutes part of a small igneous complex, the relations of which to surrounding 
rock-bodies are problematical. 

About 94 per cent. by volume of the subaerial mass is composed of acid 
rocks, granite predominating, while the remaining 6 per cent. consists of 
contorted and contact-altered argillaceous sediments, together with a suite 
of minor injections, which include banded microgranites, granophyres, an 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 329 


orthophyre (Lundyite), and basaltic or doleritic types, all of which are par- 
ticularly interesting in relation to the granites. Basic dykes have been 
mapped magnetically in several cases. 

A hybrid junction-rock with xenoliths separates the sediments from 
discordant plutonic intrusions. 

Chemically the granitic types are mainly alkaline, with relatively little 
lime, magnesia, or iron, but some rare earths. 

Texturally these rocks range from porphyritic varieties to microgranites, 
granophyres, and fine-grained granite-aplites. 

They are also characterised by pegmatite facies and junction-zones 
involving drusy cavities lined with a distinct assemblage of accessory 
minerals. 

Both in the field and under the microscope it is possible to recognise in 
these rocks the effects of thermal and mechanical stress, differentiation, 
assimilation and pneumatolysis. 


Mr. C. W. Peacock and Dr. H. C. Versey.—Glacial gravels along the 
margin of the Yorkshire Wolds. 


A number of isolated gravels occur between the Vale of York moraines 
and the Humber, at levels ranging from 175 ft. above O.D. down to 50 ft. 
The composition of these gravels is recorded, and they are correlated with 
the Purple Clay and Hessle Clay episodes of the Yorkshire coast. Their 
mode of formation is grouped under (1) marginal drainage gravels ; (2) out- 
wash gravels from Ferriby moraine ; and (3) deltaic gravels round Market 
Weighton. Their relation to the Bielsbeck deposits is also discussed. 


Dr. D. A. Wray.—The physiographic evolution of the southern Pennine area 
in the Upper Carboniferous period. 


The Millstone Grits have been shown by the researches of Sorby and 
Gilligan to be deltaic deposits derived from a large continental mass which 
extended from what is now the North of Scotland towards Scandinavia. 
There is a remarkable similarity in character and thickness of the formation 
along both the eastern and western slopes of the Pennines, but a pronounced 
south-westerly thickening in the higher beds has been proved by Tonks 
and Wright to take place in south Lancashire, where a maximum thickness 
for these beds is recorded. 

The distribution and character of the Lower Coal Measure sediments 
indicate that a marked change in physiographical conditions took place at 
the close of the Millstone Grit period. These sediments were laid down 
in a sinking area extending in an east and west direction across the Southern 
Pennines with the maximum depression taking place in the west. There 
are clear evidences of a slight though pronounced line of contemporary 
uplift along an east and west axis in Yorkshire, and this line of uplift, which 
became more marked at a later period, has produced effects of far-reaching 
economic importance in the higher Productive Measures. 

A thick series of sandy sediments devoid of coals form the upper limit of 
the Lower Coal Measures, and the present writer has endeavoured to show 
this horizon marks a faunal and floral break of some importance in the 
Coal Measure succession. Recent researches appear to confirm these 
conclusions ; while it is at this stage important physiographical changes 
occurred within the Southern Pennine area. 

The major subdivisions of the Middle or Productive Coal Measures can 
now be broadly correlated by means of their non-marine fauna from the 
west of Manchester right across the Southern Pennine area almost to the 

M 2 


: 


330 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 


River Trent in north Lincolnshire. ‘These measures appear to have been 
laid down in a broad geosyncline with the maximum depression taking 
place along the line of the present Pennine axis. 

The Productive Measures are fully represented to the east of the present 
workings in the Yorkshire Coalfield, but there is a marked attenuation of 
each of the main subdivisions in this direction. ‘This is also accompanied 
on the whole by a pronounced deterioration of the more important coals. 
The maximum productiveness of the Yorkshire Coalfield probably lies 
along or close to the present outcrop of the Main Productive Measures. 
The geological evidence at present available suggests that any optimistic 
estimate of the potential resources of the concealed coalfield to the east 
should be accepted with considerable reserve. 


Mrs. S. W. Atty.—Secondary crystallisation of tourmaline in Lower 
Devonian sediments in Michigan, U.S.A. 


Grains of tourmaline showing secondary crystallisation have been 
observed in numerous samples of Lower Devonian rocks from oil-wells in 
the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. The secondary tourmaline occurs as 
a colourless margin attached to well-rounded tourmaline grains. The latter 
are invariably coloured, brown, yellow, pink, etc., and strongly pleochroic. 
The colourless authigenic portion is in complete optical continuity with 
the original grain; it always occurs at one end of the c-axis of the grain, 
and often shows striations on it parallel to this direction. 

The original tourmalines are all well rounded and were clearly deposited 
in the sediment before secondary crystallisation occurred. That this 
process took place within the sediment is plainly evident from the fact that 
the secondary margin has a sharp edge which has not suffered any abrasion. 

The rocks containing these tourmaline grains vary from arenaceous to 
dolomitic, and often contain anhydrite and sometimes oil or brine. They 
belong to the Sylvania division of the Lower Devonian, and form part of 
a synclinal basin of Paleozoic sediments. ‘There is no sign of volcanic 
activity in the region. 


Dr. A. RaistrickK.—Correlation of the Glacial Retreat stages in the north of 
England. 


Mr. J. A. BUTTERFIELD and Prof. A. GiLL1iGAN.—The Conglomerates 
underlying the Carboniferous Limestone of the Sedbergh and Tebay 
districts. 


Conglomerates below the Carboniferous Limestone occur in many isolated 
patches in the N.W. of England, and are especially well developed and 
exposed in the river valleys of the Sedbergh and Tebay areas. Settlebeck 
Gill, Sedbergh, affords a most complete section. ‘The lowest deposits, 
seen resting on the Silurian rocks, consist of fine-grained Sandstones, which 
at the top contain lenticles of conglomerates, and then supervenes a thick 
bed of coarse conglomerate. As the beck is ascended the deposits occur 
in the reverse order, finishing with red sandstone. In the Tebay area the 
sections in the conglomerates show a complete passage through coarse 
red conglomerates, red sandstones, green and grey conglomerates and 
sandstones (including plant-bearing shales), and brown mudstones into the 
Carboniferous Limestone. In this area is an interesting local phase of 
green monogenetic conglomerate occurring as an alluvial fan in the red 
deposits. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 331 


The majority of the pebbles appear to be of local origin, but many are 
of igneous types which are unlike those in the Howgill Fells. Numerous 
pebbles of red crystalline limestone containing crinoids and other fossils 
cannot have been derived locally, and resemble very closely the Keisley 
Limestone. 

The heavy minerals, though plentiful in the fine-grained deposits, com- 
prise only a few types, but these are very interesting and include the 
following: zircons (large, rounded generally, many purple), tourmaline 
(generally rounded, brown, blue and a striking plum-coloured type), 
rutile, apatite, anatase, hornblende, sphene, garnet and abundant ilmenite. 


Dr. W. B. Wricut.—On the occurrence of the pre-glacial shore-line in Achill 
Island, Co. Mayo. 


The extension of the area over which the pre-glacial sea-level in Western 
Europe can be shown to approximate to that of the present day is a matter 
of considerable interest, and the writer therefore wishes to take the oppor- 
tunity of recording the occurrence of an exposure of this shore-line in the 
Island of Achill in the west of Ireland. The locality in which it can be seen 
is known as the Cathedral Rocks, and lies about a mile and a half south of 
the village of River. Here a wave-worn rock platform lies about 20 ft. 
above the corresponding platform of the recent shore. On it are beach 
gravel and rounded blocks locally overlain by blown-sand. The old cliff is 
partially exposed and passes inland behind a bank of drift. Head or scree 
from its degradation extends outward over the beach materials, and boulder 
clay covers the whole, thus establishing its pre-glacial age. The level is 
definitely higher than that of the corresponding beach of southern Ireland. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Kilburn. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Discussion on The origin of Igneous rocks (Prof. A. Hotmes ; Prof. 
H. H. Reap; Dr. A. BRAMMALL; Dr. G. W. TyrreL__; Dr. A. K. 
WELLs ; and others) :— 


Prof. ARTHUR HOLMEs. 


From the fact that basaltic magma fails to produce rhyolites or dacites in 
the inner Pacific, it is inferred that the magmas of these rocks are not normally 
products of differentiation of basaltic magma. ‘The association of acid and 
basic rocks in kratogenic regions and the ‘ contaminated’ characters of 
dioritic and granodioritic rocks in orogenic belts suggest that granite magma 
arises independently of basaltic magma, except in so far as the latter may 
serve as a carrier of heat. Peridotite magmas cannot be accounted for 
otherwise than by refusion. The conditions that would favour the refusion 
of crystal accumulations from basaltic magma would also suffice to produce 
peridotite magma from the upper part of the Lower Layer of the crust. A 
plausible explanation of the genesis of felspar-free alkali rocks is forth- 
coming if a peridotitic parentage be assumed. ‘Thus, in agreement with the 
geophysical interpretation of crustal structure, the evidence of comparative 
petrology leads to the conclusion that at least three types of parental magmas 


332 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 


should be recognised : ultrabasic, basic, and acid. From each of these a 
wide variety of rock-types can be produced by additive and subtractive 
processes of differentiation. Further possibilities of variation are intro- 
duced by mixing of magmas, assimilation, and differential fusion. Magmas 
generated under stress are likely to be abnormal as compared with those due 
to passive refusion, 


SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by the Rt. Hon. Lorp RoruscuiLp, F.R.S., on 
The pioneer work of the Systematist. (See p. 89.) 


Mr. A. J. Woopcock.—WNotes on the natural history of the York district. 
(See Scientific Survey of York and District.) 


Mr. A. Rorsuck.—The numbers and distribution of rooks in the midland 
counties. 


The proper study of a species must include its abundance and distribution, 
especially if its economic position is to be determined. 

The rook (Corvus f. frugilegus) is a colony nester with, usually, con- 
spicuous rookeries. ‘This study has been made in an attempt to ascertain 
the factors which influence the distribution and numbers of this species, 
by taking a sufficiently large area. The area surveyed covers 5,305 square 
miles and includes the five geographical counties of Lincolnshire, Notting- 
hamshire, Derbyshire, Leicestershire and Rutland. 

It is impossible to define a rookery, as it may consist of a single nest, a 
series of disconnected small groups, or a large compact mass. 

Any kind of tree, sound or unsound, may be used, and of any height. 
The site may be in a very sheltered dell or on an exposed hill-top. 

The survey deals with 1,421 rookeries, containing 128,266 birds. The 
average size of a rookery is 45 nests. The amount of food consumed is 
over 4,000 tons per annum. 

Factors which influence their distribution are : available food supply, local 
topography as influenced by the geological formation etc., presence of rivers, 
abundance of grassland, and their relations with mankind. 


Dr. G. S. Carter.—Iodine compounds and the level of activity of animal 
tissues. 


Variations in the level of activity of cells and tissues from time to time 
during their life occur throughout the animal kingdom and in phenomena 
of many different types. The activation of the egg at fertilisation and of 
the sperm in the presence of the egg are examples of these changes, and 
so also are the seasonal and diurnal variations of activity which result in 
hibernation and daily sleep. The experiments to be reported refer to 
these examples, but many others could be given. 

Experiments on the eggs and sperm of Echinoderms have shown that 
substances chemically related to thyroxine play an essential part in the 
manner in which the changes in the level of activity associated with fertilisa- 
tion are brought about, and some experiments on the sperm of the rabbit 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 333 


make it probable that this is also true of fertilisation in the Mammalia. 
It was suggested by Adler that a lowering of the thyroxine content of the 
circulation is the chief cause of the changes which occur in the vertebrate 
at the onset of hibernation. ‘This conclusion is supported by some experi- 
ments on the excised heart of the frog. The temperature-pulse rate curve 
of the heart of the winter frog is different in form from that of the summer 
frog, and it has been found that the addition of thyroxine to the heart of 
the winter frog produces a curve of the form typical of the heart of the 
summer frog. None of several other endocrine substances has this effect. 
Similar results have been obtained with the heart of the tortoise. Further 
experiments which suggest that a similar rhythm in the amount or activity 
of iodine compounds in the circulation plays a part in the production of the 
somatic phenomena of diurnal sleep will be reported. 

Thus, these compounds have been found to be associated with changes 
in the level of activity of animal tissues in several distinct phenomena. 
It is suggested that this conclusion may be generally true, and that the 
activity of animal cells is frequently controlled by the amount of these 
substances present in them. 


Mr. C. BryNeErR Jones, C.B.E.—The origin and development of British cattle. 


Modern British cattle are of many breeds, each possessing some 
characteristic—size, conformation or colour—that distinguishes it from 
other breeds. While to the eyes of the cattle breeder these breeds, if 
pure-bred, are so distinct as to be unmistakable for one another, to the 
zoologist they are all the same thing in the sense that they are all referred to 
one species. Thediversity of breeds in the British Isles is remarkable, and to 
the observer the question that at once suggests itself is, Where did they all 
come from, and what was the primitive stock from which they derive their 
origin ? 

The general opinion would seem to be that the domestication of cattle 
belongs to the Middle Neolithic Period, and that the small short-horned ox, 
known in this country as Bos longifrons and on the Continent generally as 
Bos brachyceros, whose remains are found in Neolithic, as well as in later, 
settlements, represents a domesticated race, which never existed, in Europe 
at least, in the wild state and was already domesticated when it first made 
its appearance on the European continent, having been brought hither by 
migrants from Asia. With the westward trend of human migration, the 
domesticated ox of Neolithic times was eventually brought by its owners 
to Britain. The evidence of its Neolithic and later remains furnishes definite 
proof of variability in which, by a process of selection governed by economic 
and local conditions, the origin of the diversity of type to be seen in modern 
British cattle may be found without having to fall back for explanation upon 
outside influences—Roman, Germanic and Norman—to which historians 
in the past would appear to have attached an undue importance. 


AFTERNOON. 


Dr. C. M. Yonce.—The influence of the processes of feeding and digestion 
upon evolution. 

The simultaneous study of morphology and physiology is essential for 
the full understanding of the living animal. Evolution of function is as 
important as evolution of structure. ‘The evolution of animals is obviously 
largely dependent on their ability to obtain and utilise food and to exploit 


334 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 


new sources of food. There are well-marked correlations between 
(r) habitat and available food of any animal ; (2) type of feeding mechanism ; 
(3) structure of the gut; and (4) nature and relative strengths of the various 
digestive enzymes. In the Protozoa feeding mechanisms of all types are 
present but in all cases digestion is intracellular. Metazoa probably evolved 
from Protozoa with least specialised feeding mechanisms. Porifera are a 
special case. The evolution of extracellular digestion, at first assisting 
intracellular digestion—e.g. Ccelenterata, Turbellaria, Echinodermata, 
many Mollusca—and finally completely replacing this, has enabled animals 
(1) to reduce size of alimentary system; (2) to complete digestion more 
quickly ; and (3) to remove indigestible matter more quickly. Metabolism 
is greatly assisted and the animal more efficient. All the most active groups 
of animals, e.g. Annelids, Arthropods, Cephalopods, Vertebrates, digest 
extracellularly. ‘These animals have most successfully colonised the land. 
If feeding mechanisms and digestive system too specialised, e.g. Brachiopods 
and Lamellibranchs, further evolution almost impossible. Loss of digestive 
system in parasitism leads to degeneration. Development of special 
enzymes permits of the utilisation of new sources of food, e.g. cellulase in 
Teredo and wood-boring Insecta, or greater success in particular habitat, 
e.g. cellulase in Strombidz and Helix, chitinase in some Insecta and in 
Helix, enzyme for digesting collagen in blow-fly larve. 


Prof. F. BALFouR-BROWNE.—The colouration of the cocoons of the Small 
Eggar moth (Eriogaster lanestris, L.). 


In 1886, Poulton described experiments with the caterpillars of the 
“Emperor Moth,’ Saturnia carpini, which, when placed in a black bag, 
formed dark brown cocoons, while caterpillars freely exposed to the light 
with a white environment produced white cocoons. ‘These results he de- 
scribed as due to colour susceptibility on the part of the caterpillars. 

In 1892, Bateson, having repeated these experiments and failed to confirm 
them, showed that pale-coloured cocoons were as frequent in the dark as 
in a well-lighted environment. Some pale cocoons, such as those described 
by Bateson as ‘ thin and papery,’ are abnormal, but most white and cream- 
coloured ones are as thick and firm as the dark ones, and the colour of the 
cocoon is due to the dryness or dampness of the environment in which the 
caterpillar spins up. Pale cocoons are formed under dry conditions, and if 
placed in a saturated atmosphere, even after the caterpillar has pupated, 
these quickly darken to the normal brown colour. 

Therefore Poulton’s suggestion that the colour is protective is reasonable, 
since the caterpillars spin up amongst dead leaves, etc., often below a hedge- 
row, and the dampest places are likely to be those most sheltered and there- 
fore the darkest, whereas the drier places, where the dead leaves are of a 
lighter tint, are more exposed to light and air. 


Dr. J. Gray, F.R.S.—The mechanism of animal movements, with special 
reference to fish. 


‘Three main types of propeller are found in the animal kingdom : (1) jet 
propellers, e.g. the siphons of squids ; (ii) paddles, e.g. the webbed feet of 
swimming birds ; (iii) inclined blades. Of these types by far the commonest 
is the inclined blade wherein the propulsive elements move as surfaces 
inclined to the direction of their own motion through the water. In this way 
pressure is exerted on the blade at right angles to its surface; this pressure 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 335 


has a forward propulsive component. In some cases the moving blades 
are recognisable as such, e.g. the wings of insects, but in other cases the 
whole surface of the body acts as a series of inclined blades which move in 
a definite rhythm and which work reciprocally across the line of forward 
movement ofthe organism. The mechanical principle involved is essentially 
that of the screw-propeller, although the movements are reciprocating 
instead of rotary. This type of mechanism is very widely spread through- 
out the animal kingdom and is particularly obvious in fish, although the 
movements are often sufficiently fast to make photographic records essen- 
tial for accurate study. Essentially the same type of movement is found 
in spirochetes, nematodes, and in many aquatic vertebrates, where the 
reciprocating action of each part of the body is effected by the muscular 
waves which pass along the body. A study of these waves shows that their 
form is closely correlated with the degree of resistance offered to the 
water by the body of the organism. 

Contrary to often repeated statements, the tail fin of most fish is only of 
value as a propeller when the fish is moving at extremely low speeds ; in all 
normal movements the tail fin plays a negligible réle as part of the propulsive 
mechanism ; it is more usually a rudder. 


Friday, September 2. 


Jomnr Discussion with Section K (Botany, q.v.) on Biological balance in 
fresh water. 


AFTERNOON. 


Dr. R. H. Le PELtey.—Lygus simonyi Reut., causing abortion of coffee 
flower buds, and the problem of its control. 


Dr. A. E. Cameron.—The rearing of Hematopota pluvialis L. (the 
Cleg, Tabanide) under controlled experimental conditions. 


Investigation of the cleg, the most common palzarctic species of 
European tabanid, has been almost entirely neglected, despite its potential 
importance in the transmission of parasitic micro-organisms of cattle, as 
for example Trypanosoma theileri. Hitherto the number of larval stages 
has not been ascertained in any European tabanid. In the course of our 
experiments adult females were fed on human and rabbit hosts, and they 
deposited typical tabanid egg-masses. The larve emerging from the eggs 
were reared to the adult stage. Several females partook of a second blood 
meal and oviposited a second time. The fact that two acts of oviposition 
can occur separated by an interval, during which a second host is attacked, 
is of prime significance relative to the biological transmission of micro- 
organisms from one host to another. There is evidence that triplicate 
oviposition may also occur. 

The number of ecdyses of larve hatched from the same batch of eggs, 
and submitted to the same conditions of rearing in all cases, varied 
from seven to nine. Some were univoltine and others demivoltine, even 
from the same egg-batches. It would thus appear as if H. pluvialis were 
heterozygous for univoltine or demivoltine characters. 

The earlier ecdyses are readily overlooked, but the risk of their omission 
has been reduced by a series of measurements of a standard skeletal 
structure—the paired tentorial rods of the larval head capsule—in all 


336 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 


ecdyses recovered. Another reliable index is the number of pedunculate 
bodies in Graber’s organ, of which there are twice as many for any particular 
instar as the number which designates that instar. 


Mr. C. F. A. Pantin.—The origin of body fluids. 


The evolution of a multicellular organism was necessarily accompanied 
by the appearance of intercellular spaces. ‘These spaces are cut off from 
direct communication with the external medium, and the composition of 
the fluid within them is therefore potentially under the control of the 
organism. This has two important consequences: it permits chemical 
intercommunication between different parts of the organism, and by 
endowing the latter with a controlled internal medium it provides an ideal 
environment for the tissues. Such an internal medium may be to a great 
degree independent of the external environment. 

It is from this internal medium that the blood of the higher organisms 
is developed. The organism can only maintain the composition of its 
internal medium by continuous physiological activity. Substances pass 
into the blood from the outside world by way of the body surfaces, the 
respiratory organs and the gut, and to these substances are added the 
products of metabolism. On the other hand, loss of substances takes place 
continuously by the same channels and by the excretory organs. It is 
evident that the blood cannot be in passive equilibrium with the external 
medium. 

In studying the origin of the conditions which maintain the composition 
of the body fluids, investigation may be turned towards the Turbellarian 
worms. In these there is no blood system, and the internal medium is 
restricted to the intercellular spaces. ‘The Triclad Procerodes ulve is able 
to withstand vast changes in the composition of the external medium. 
By studying the conditions which enable it to do this, light is thrown on the 
nature of the mechanisms controlling the internal medium. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to Bylands and Rievaulx. 


Monday, September 5. 


Dr. C. Tate Recan, F.R.S.—Some results of the Dana expeditions. (At 
the Rialto, Fishergate, by the kind permission of the proprietor.) 


Dr. StanLtey Kemp, F.R.S.—Oceanography in the Antarctic. (At the 
Rialto, Fishergate, by the kind permission of the proprietor.) 


A film illustrating work on the Discovery II was shown. 


Prof. A.C. Harpy.—Plankton research in the service of the fishing industry. 
(At the Rialto, Fishergate, by the kind permission of the proprietor.) 


Earlier work was reviewed. Experiments with an instrument, the 
Plankton Indicator, carried out on a number of different fishing grounds by 
herring drifters and patrol ships, were described. During 1930 and 1931 over 
five hundred records of the quantity of fish caught were obtained, together 
with samples of plankton taken at the same time. A positive correlation 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 337 


is found between the number of herrings caught and the number of the 
copepod Calanus, an important food organism in the plankton ; a negative 
correlation is found with the pteropod Limacina. Other negative correla- 
tions are indicated but not yet established. Reference was made to 
the beginning of an experiment in charting the plankton on a broad scale 
by means of continuous plankton recorders on steamship lines across the 
North Sea, with a view to forecasting the conditions on the fishing grounds 
later in seasons. The work here described has been carried out in the 
Department of Oceanography at the University College of Hull, with the 
assistance of Dr. G. T. D. Henderson and Mr. C. E. Lucas, members of 
the research staff. An attempt was made to estimate the commercial 
value to the industry of the results so far obtained with the Plankton 
Indicator. 


Mr. A. C, STEPHEN.—The faunistic divisions of the floor of the North Sea. 
(At the Rialto, Fishergate, by the kind permission of the proprietor.) 


Of the various groups of molluscs which occur the Lamellibranchs are 
by far the most important numerically, and by the major variations in their 
density the northern North Sea may be divided into three distinct zones : 
(a) the coastal zone occupying the narrow strip within the 20-fm. line ; 
(6) the wide zone of low density occupying much of the area beyond ; and 
(c) the north-eastern portion of the North Sea, where the density is again high, 
but where all the forms are dwarfed. ‘The fauna of the southern North Sea, 
below the 30-fm. line, is similar to that of the Scottish coastal zone, so 
that the division into three zones still holds good. ‘The echinoderms follow 
much the same course. 

A number of workers have accepted the ‘ community ’ concept, but the 
results from Scottish waters show that, for the North Sea at least, a division 
by zones provides a better method. Species occur in certain zones, but 
spat may fall in any part of the zone, causing great fluctuations in density 
of any species. A species may be abundant in one part of the zone at one 
period and absent at the next. ‘These fluctuations have an economic aspect. 


AFTERNOON. 


Jomnt Discussion with Section H (Anthropology) on The Primates and 
Early Man (Dr. C. Tate Recan, F.R.S.; Dr. A. B. APPLETON ; 
Dr. S. ZUCKERMAN). 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Symposium on Applied Helminthology :— 


Prof. R. T. Lerper.—General introduction and the applications of 
helminthology to medicine. 


Dr. T. W. M. Cameron.—APplications to veterinary medicine. 
Dr. Marjorie J. TRIFFITT.— Applications to agriculture and horticulture. 
Dr. T. SourHWELL.— Applications to fisheries. 


Mr, F. J. BRown.— Zoological aspects. 


338 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D, E. 
Dr. J. N. OLtpHam.—Helminths as biological controls of pests. 


Dr. B. G. Peters——The scope and aims of the Bureau of Agricultural 
Parasitology. 


AFTERNOON. 
Dr. MicuaEL GraBHAM.—Subtropical ichthyology. 


Miss R. C. BamBer (Mrs. BIsBEE)—The impurity of the Mendelian 
Recessive. 


Mr. W. C. MILLER.—A sheep-goat hybrid. 


Prof. C. J. Parten.—The mystery of bird-migration. 


Opportunities of making repeated observations at Irish Light-stations 
have convinced me that migrating birds endeavour to find their way by 
reacting to their environment, and often profiting by experience in varying 
degrees according to the exigencies of the situation. Birds possess an 
‘eye-brain’; their sense of vision is extraordinarily acute and by no 
means indiscriminating. It seems unreasonable to brush aside the idea 
that migrants may obtain guidance by taking stock of landmarks. Further- 
more, the sense of hearing can play a part. ‘The wash of the waves is 
a reminder to hug the coast—the guide-line of primary importance. ‘The 
courses of great rivers are followed by overland migrants. It is noteworthy 
that most remarkable fraternities are often formed en route, thereby affording 
inexperienced juveniles the opportunities of being piloted by adults who 
have been over the ground. In thick weather migrating birds often go 
astray, and, arriving at unaccustomed haunts, are classified as rare and 
accidental vagrants. When the gloom deepens the voyagers become sorely 
handicapped, while a dense and prolonged fog will put the brake effectually 
onmigration. It is surmised that birds may be endowed with a special sense 
of direction—an unconscious, unerring instinct. Herein lies the mystery 
of migration which furnishes an inadequate and illogical hypothesis, which 
field observations carried to a further degree will tend to dispel. 


SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Prof. H. J. FLEURE on The geographical study 
of Society and World Problems. (See p. 103.) 


Prof. P. F. KenDALL.—The physical setting of York. 


York is not the capital of the three Ridings of Yorkshire, but constitutes 
a division of its own as the seat of the Archbishopric. Its geological posi- 
tion is similarly detached, standing upon the lowest rocks of the Secondary 
series, the Triassic sandstones, into which many wells penetrate. 

The three Ridings do not correspond exactly with the geological structure 
—the North Riding embraces not only the area of Archean, Ordovician, and 
Silurian rocks and Lower Carboniferous rocks of the west, but also includes 
an inlier of Coal Measures and Permian at Ingleton and the belt of Magnesian 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 339 


Limestone, which enters the Riding at the Tees, the Triassic sandstones and 
Marls of the Vale of Mowbray, and the Jurassic delta of the Cleveland Hills, 
which divides the town of Filey from the parish church. 

The West Riding, economically the most important of the three divisions, 
comprises the remaining portion west of the Ouse, and by consequence the 
coalfield, down to the Notts-Derbyshire boundary. 

The East Riding is of simpler structure than the other two, consisting 
mainly of the Chalk formation and a fringe of Triassic and Jurassic rocks by 
extensive deposits of glacial origin. On the seaward side they constitute the 
coast-line from Sewerby to Spurn Point. 

In this review the Quaternary deposits should not be ignored, for it is to 
them that York owes its existence. ‘Two terminal moraines,! at York and 
Escrick respectively, gave a dry-shod passage across the swampy plain. 
The low grounds are mainly occupied by ‘ Warp’ clays, which resulted from 
the melting of a glacier that received tributaries from the valleys of the Tees, 
Swale, Ure, Nidd and Wharfe. 

The city before the arrival of the Romans appears to have been cut off on 
the east by an extensive tract of woodland, of which traces remain in such 
names as Sutton-in-the-Forest. Strensall Common is the last remains of 
the ancient Forest of Galtres. 

The open valley of Triassic rocks, which extends north and south from the 
city, not only gave direction to the Roman roads, but also in later times 
invited invasion whether from north, south, east or west; and the many 
battles which have been fought within a few miles of York attest the 
vulnerability of the site. 

Harold Godwinsson, keeping watch near Hastings for the coming of the 
Norman, was diverted from his main purpose by news of the descent on the 
Northern coast of a Danish fleet under Harold Hardrada and English 
Harold’s unworthy brother Tostig. ‘The news brought English Harold by 
a wonderful march up from Sussex, and at Tadcaster he got word that the 
invaders had defeated the men of York at Fulford, and taking hostages had 
withdrawn to Stamford Bridge. English Harold followed and defeated the 
Danes, and Harold Hardrada and Tostig were slain. Historians have 
wondered why the Danes retired to Stamford Bridge, but an inspection of 
a geological map would have answered the question—Stamford Bridge is at 
the convergence of the two moraines, and the Danish fleet lay at Riccall at 
a convenient distance for reinforcements to be called up, but they came too 
late. 


Prof. A. Hamitton THompson.—The growth and development of York in 
history. 


Prof. E. G. R. Taytor.—Early literature, in English, on natural waters. 


An analysis of early printed geographical literature, in England as else- 
where, shows that interest was focused on man to the neglect of his physical 
setting. Even in so-called topographical works the main theme was local 
history, while in narratives of travel and discovery the writer dealt almost 
exclusively with personal incidents, and with the manners, customs, condi- 
tions and institutions of the peoples encountered. Other branches of geo- 
graphical literature included disquisitions on the sphere, purely mathematical 
in character, and technical works for travellers, such as rutters, road-books 


1 For these and other features, cf. the Scientific Survey of York and District, 
appendix to this volume. 


340 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 


and guides: of physical and even economic geography there is very little 
trace. 

Natural calamities, suchas floods and earthquakes, called forth a vernacular 
literature from 1570 onwards, and in such works attention was necessarily 
drawn to physical conditions and phenomena, while the literature of curative 
springs and wells, beginning at much the same period, is of importance in 
the history of geographical thought as forming, with rare exceptions, the 
earliest literature of individual towns and villages and the earliest hydro- 
graphical literature, apart from translations from the classics. Some score 
in all of works of this class appeared before 1650—a date taken roughly 
as the term of a ‘ pre-scientific’ period of geography. 

The content, authorship and geographical aspects of each are briefly 
examined. 


AFTERNOON. 


Excursion in and about York. 


Friday, September 2. 


Mr. F. Etcee.—Human geography of the moorlands of north-eastern York- 
shire. 


This region consists of a high barren moorland plateau trenched by 
cultivated dales with isolated farms about half-way down the slopes. 
Villages are few and chiefly modern. The climate is decidedly wetter and 
colder than that of adjoining areas. Ironstone is the chief mineral, and has 
been utilised in the Middle Ages and modern times. Poor coal seams in 
the moorland sandstones were formerly worked. 

The earliest inhabitants were Mesolithic food-gatherers whose flint 
implements occur on the sandy central and North Cleveland watersheds. 
There is little sign of further occupation until the Mid-Bronze Age, when 
the region was settled in suitable areas. Sites are well preserved in Esk- 
dale, Ryedale, etc. Their distribution foreshadows that of the present 
farms. The Late Bronze and Early Iron Age cultures areabsent. Romano- 
British settlements are unknown. Celtic fields and place-names indicate 
a scanty British population, possibly post-Roman, for the region was 
shunned by the Angles. ‘The Domesday survey only shows settlement 
in Eskdale. The occupation of other dales by Scandinavian stock probably 
took place after 1086. ‘The character and history of the moorlands indicate 
that their inhabitants were often refugees. 


Mr. G. H. J. DaysH and Mr. E. ALLEN.—Features of the industrial 
geography of the north-east coast. 


The North-East has an occupational specialisation in close relationship to 
the natural facilities afforded. ‘The populationis gathered in proximity to the 
coast, with particular concentration at points where natural opportunity for 
development has been available. Such points have required artificial im- 
provement to render them useful for industry, and have in turn exercised 
control upon the location of the industrial sites and the extent of the built-up 
areas. ‘The major type of industrial specialisation, and the degree to which 
it has been developed at any one of these particular groupings, have been 
clearly determined by their individual relationship to the natural resources 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E, 341 


of the region asa whole. Examination of the economic life of the area shows 
conclusively its basis in the winning of coal. Coal-mining is the largest 
single occupation, and coal shipments provide the largest item of trade. 
Basic industries have been developed, and in each a fundamental connec- 
tion with coal may be discerned. There is important regional specialisation 
within the area. Its southern portion contains almost the whole of its iron 
and steel industry and constructional engineering. Other activities tend 
to be developed along each of the three main rivers, with the Tyne taking 
the first position in importance. During the prolonged economic difficul- 
ties of the post-war period the Tyne gained relatively to the Wear and Tees, 
notably in shipbuilding and marine engineering. ‘This makes complex 
the question as to where future development in the North-East may be 
anticipated. Successful industrial activity does not depend upon natural 
advantagesalone; organisation too is important. 'The spaciousness of 'Tees- 
side does not provide, therefore, either an obvious or a simple answer, though 
it may well be that it is in this that the answer may finally be found. 


Mr. W. B. Crump.—The wool-textile industry of the Pennines in its physical 
setting. 


Much of the cotton region of Lancashire had formerly a share in the 
woollen and worsted industries that are now restricted to the West Riding. 
This wider textile region of the Pennines viewed as a whole is almost co- 
terminous with the Millstone Grit and Lower Coal Measures where these 
are adjacent. ‘The industry thus had at its service abundant soft water and 
water-power, iron and coal. Its market-towns, to which the cloth was 
brought for sale, were, with one exception, situated upon or near to the 
Lower Coal Measures. The higher, wilder country of the Millstone Grit, 
scored by innumerable cloughs and narrow valleys, was their hinterland ; 
wool was spun and cloth was woven in its upland villages and scattered 
farmsteads along the flanks of the moors. This is the historic weaving 
district, and cotton has inherited the tradition. Fulling-mills driven by 
water-power began the descent into the valley bottoms before 1300, and 
more so after the dissolution of the monasteries. After 1780, when first 
scribbling-mills and then spinning-mills sprang up on every little stream and 
canals threaded the valleys, the descent became an avalanche. But manu- 
facturing still clung to the uplands, for weaving was long done on the hand- 
loom, and when the power-loom came the manufacturer could often find 
an outcrop of coal on the hillside to drive his steam-engine. 


Mr. H. C. K. Henperson.—The distribution of occupations in the West 
Riding, with particular reference to textiles. 


The source material for this paper consists of the 1921 Census, the List 
of Mines and the large-scale maps. 

The method adopted has been to construct circular graphs to a scale 
relative to the total number of persons occupied in each of the districts 
quoted in the Census. Angular divisions represent the proportions em- 
ployed in the several groups of occupations—by this means it is possible to 
delimit the extent of respective activities of the population ; in this case, 
that of the textile industry is of most interest. Thus it is found that the 
region of textile workers is essentially to the west of the coalfield, and that, 
once the mining region is entered, the textiles die out just as suddenly as 
the mining increases in importance ; similarly, southwards there is a sudden 
change in the leading industry from textiles to metallurgy. Makers of 


342 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 


textile goods assume importance in three small areas—around Leeds, 
Huddersfield, and to the west of Halifax. 

For obvious reasons, a base map of a limited number of related facts was 
essential as a background to the circular graphs—accordingly the latter have 
been drawn on a map (1: 63,360) showing the area of the worked coalfield 
(List of Mines) as distinct from the Coal Measure outcrop, and the signi- 
ficant breaks of slope. 

To develop the material on the textile industry further, a second map of 
circular graphs, using the total number of textile workers as the basis, and 
having angular divisions proportional to the number engaged in the indi- 
vidual processes, has been prepared, with the object of examining whether 
processes have any development of regional specialisation similar to that 
of the Lancashire region. A specialised distribution of finished products 
has frequently been noted, but attention is here directed to processes, not 
products. 

This map reveals that in some cases a regional specialisation does exist— 
for example, dyeing is localised in two districts, one around Guiseley and 
the other in the neighbourhood of Halifax ; again, finishing is confined to 
two areas, around Guiseley and southwards from Halifax to New Mill ; 
doubling is mainly in the Calder Valley, while combing is most important 
in the north-western part of the textile region, as one might expect, since 
this is the worsted area ; winders are more numerous in the south-western 
part of the region, while spinners and weavers are present throughout, 
though in the Calder Valley spinning is relatively of greater importance than 
elsewhere, and some degree of specialisation in weaving occurs in the districts 
to the immediate south and west of Leeds. __ 

Comparisons will be drawn with the textile region of Lancashire, which 
has been mapped and studied on similar lines. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Howden, to study ‘ Warping ’ in the Vale of York. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to the Vale of Pickering, Scarborough and Flamborough 
Head, returning via the Wolds. 


Sunday, September 4. 


Excursion to Boroughbridge (Isurium), Richmond, Swaledale, 
Wensleydale and Ripon. 


Monday, September 5. 


Dr. VAUGHAN CorNIsH.— Esthetic principles of town and country planning. 


The hygiene of Town and Country Planning has long been studied in a 
scientific way, but in regard to esthetic amenity it has been tacitly assumed 
that any educated and cultured person is equipped with the necessary 
knowledge. This assumption is entirely erroneous, for, in fact, the condi- 
tions which determine scenic beauty can only be ascertained by systematic 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 343 


study. The aspect of the matter which best rewards investigation is that 
of harmonious grouping, since the character of the new features of construc- 
tion is largely determined by considerations beyond possibility of adminis- 
trative control. 

In the present paper the author emphasises the preponderating import- 
ance to regional planning of (1) architectural elevations which will take 
their place quietly in the rural landscape, particularly in respect of tone and 
colour; (2) a large increase of tree-planting and gardening in the towns 
to relieve the hardness of line and harshness of surface which make the 
merely architectural landscape inexpressibly fatiguing to the eye, no matter 
how excellent its design may be ; (3) the compact instead of radial arrange- 
ment of suburbs, permitting a definite grouping of architectural and natural 
features ; and (4) the reservation of selected areas of wild scenery as National 
Parks and Sanctuaries for rare species of animals and plants, in order that 
our predominantly urban population shall not lose touch with that spon- 
taneous aspect of nature which has so profound an influence upon the 
nobler aspirations of the mind. 


Dr. P. W. Bryan.—Type patterns in the geographical distribution of 
buildings. 


This paper examines characteristic patterns of settlement. Man engages 
in activity to satisfy his desires. He adapts and modifies his natural sur- 
roundings, or the natural landscape. In the process he is forced by nature 
to modify his activities to fit into his surroundings. The concrete expression 
of his activity in relation to nature is the cultural landscape, that is, the 
natural landscape as modified by man. The cultural landscape takes 
various forms as man endeavours to satisfy his desire for shelter, cultivated 
products, raw materials, power, manufactures, exchange, transport, govern- 
ment, recreation, and the gratification of the esthetic senses. 

Of these forms the shelter or building is the most universal. The distri- 
bution of buildings in the landscape forms readily recognisable patterns. 
These patterns vary in response to the number of people, the type of activity 
carried on, the time-period factor, and the physical setting. The more 
characteristic of these patterns observed in England and Wales are classified 
and compared with characteristic patterns in other parts of the world. 


Mr. W. Focc.—The ‘ Sug’ in Morocco. 


In Morocco, even where sedentarism is dominant, there are no shops 
in the douars, and no exchanges between douar and douar, and, apart from 
the few towns of the coast and interior, commercial life takes place at fairs. 
Of these there are three types: (a) ‘ mouggar,’ large annual fairs held 
on the borders of the Sahara; (b) ‘ amara,’ annual religious festivals, 
which are also fairs ; (c) ‘suqs’ or weekly fairs. It is with the latter that 
the present paper is concerned. They are much more general in develop- 
ment than the annual fairs, and, although their primary function is exchange, 
it includes the administering of tribal justice and legal settlements. ‘They 
i fundamental significance in the social and political life of the country 
also. 

The ‘suq’ is ephemeral, but for the few hours of its weekly existence 
functions like a European market-town, and, in the life of Morocco, seems 
to take the place of such. As the ‘suq’ is not expressed by anything 
permanent such as buildings, its existence as a characteristic institution 
of Moroccan life seems to explain a dominant feature of the geography of 


344 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 


Morocco—i.e. the lack of towns in the well-populated parts N. and W. 
of the Atlas Mountains. 


Capt. J. G. WitHycomBe.—Population maps. 


Need for showing the distribution of population on a map. 

Practical uses : social, administrative, commercial and political. 

Value as an instrument of research enhanced if it forms one of a series 
of distribution maps uniform in scale and style and so readily comparable. 

Convenience and availability of the International 1/1,000,000 Series as 
base maps for showing distributions of all sorts. 

The work done by the Sub-Committee of Section E of the British Associa- 
tion which was appointed to consider the production of a Population Map 
of Great Britain. 

The specimen map of Hampshire on the scale of 4 miles to 1 in. 

Reasons for adopting the 1/1,000,000 scale. 

Method of compilation. Scale of densities to show both rural and urban 
conditions on map of the 1931 Census. 

Possibility of producing a series of retrospective population maps illus- 
trating the growth and drift of population during the past 120 years. 


Dr. E. H. Setwoop.—The classification of communities by means of 
occupations. 

Some indefinite knowledge of types of towns has for years been con- 
sidered part of geography, but the issue of exact figures of occupations in 
the census returns has provided the possibility of ascertaining standards 
for the classification of communities, rural and urban, and the purpose of 
this paper is to define and classify the communities of England and Wales 
on an occupational basis. 

First it was found necessary to reduce the thirty-three categories so skil- 
fully arranged by the Registrar-General, and by adding occupations of similar 
character to reach the following list of groups: fishers, land-workers, 
miners, ‘ craftsmen,’ transport-workers, traders, ‘ professionals,’ ‘ servants ” 
and clerk-storekeepers. 

For ease of comparison the numbers in each group were stated as per- 
centages of the total number of workers in the community. 

It was thus found possible to classify the 1,719 communities of England 
and Wales as: 

(a) Land-working, 

(6) mining, 

(c) ‘ craft,’ 

(d) transport, 

(e) ‘ service,’ 

(f) unspecialised or ‘ balanced’; with modifications of (a), (6), 
(c) and (e). 

The distributions of communities of similar occupational character have 
been mapped for the country as a whole, and London on a larger scale. 

Certain correlations between occupational groups have been found, and 
the ratio of occupations in urban and the surrounding rural areas calculated. 
‘ Saturation-points ’ of some groups have been ascertained. 


AFTERNOON. 
Dr. G. W. TyrreLL.—The geographical distribution of volcanoes, 


Dr. J. Georc1.—Some geophysical results of Alfred Wegener’s Greenland 
Expedition, 1930-3T. 


| 


| 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 345 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Mr. G. V. JAcks.—Recent changes in the wheat areas of the world. 


During the last twenty years the world’s wheat area has increased by 
over 20 per cent., and production by over 25 per cent.; the increase in 
population over the same period has probably not been more than 14 per 
cent. At present there is probably underconsumption, as well as over- 
production of wheat. The reasons for the discrepancy between supply 
and demand are very complicated. ‘They may be classed as economic, 
scientific and political. Economic conditions have played a large part in 
causing the recent expansion of the great wheat-fields of the world, but other 
influences have also been at work in varying degrees in different countries. 
Each of the great wheat areas of the world is considered separately, and the 
conditions that have affected the cultivation of wheat in them are analysed. 


Dr. S. W. Wootpripce.—The physical basis of the historical geography of 
south-east England. 


Attention is called to the need for more accurate reconstruction of the 
geographical environment of the early phases of settlement in S.E. England. 
The area covered embraces the London Basin, the Weald and East Anglia. 
In order to secure a framework for such reconstructions a tentative scheme 
of regional subdivision is proposed. Subdivision is guided by considera- 
tions of soil, vegetation and water-supply, and the regions proposed have 
the character and status of the French pays. In the resultant aggregate 
picture of geographical conditions, attention is drawn to the extent and dis- 
tribution of areas suited to early clearing and settlement, and of ‘ negative ’ 
or barrier regions. Particular emphasis is laid upon the almost continuous 
block of negative country which crosses the area west of London, extending 
from the Chiltern plateau to the Rother Valley. The mutual relations in 
space and time of the several important regional centres of early settlement 
are considered, and a number of archeological and historical hypotheses 
are examined in the light of the geographical facts. 


Dr. MatrHews.—The temperature anomalies of the Chilean coastlands in 
relation to the classification of their climates, with special reference to 
Képpen’s classification of climate. 


A number of factors combine to give the Chilean coastlands a high degree 
of abnormality in temperature régime. Among the features of temperature 
régime three—namely, (a) the abnormal defect of summer temperature ; 
(6) the very low annual range of temperature; and (c) the slow change 
of temperature with latitude—are of especial significance to the problem of 
climatic classification. 

_ In brief, while the Chilean coast shows a normal range of climates through 
desert, steppe, Mediterranean to constantly humid climates, only two of the 
temperature divisions, out of the total of six recognised by K6ppen for the 
other western margins of the continents, can be found by the use of his 


_ unmodified criteria. Thus, the hot desert and steppe of Képpen is not 


recognisable from the temperature data if only mean monthly temperatures 
are considered. (Actually these mean monthly temperatures are such that 
a rigid adherence to the Képpen criteria would entail the inclusion of the 
Chilean desert in the cold desert, grouping them in absurd alliance with 
Mongolia!) Again, the olive-growing area of Chile fails to attain to the 


346 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—E. 


standard of warmth demanded for Képpen’s ‘ Olive climate’ ; finally, rigid 
adherence to the K6éppen criterion of a tundra climate would entail the 
classification of the western coast of Chile south of 52° S. in the tundra 
climates (as has been done in Képpen’s latest map in the Handbuch der 
Klimatologie, Band 5, Teil G), in spite of the fact that frost is rarely experi- 
enced along the coast. 

It is shown that, by a consideration of mean maximum as well as of mean 
monthly temperatures, satisfactory delimitation of the temperature divisions 
of the Chilean climates can be made. But it is also shown that the criteria 
which apply to certain of the regions are not applicable to other, generally 
similar, areas—in fact, certain of the Chilean regions have no exactly 
comparable homoclimes. 

In these circumstances, a larger question is raised—namely, the possibility 
of obtaining a satisfactory climatic classification to apply to both hemispheres. 
As a basis of discussion new maps of isonomalous lines are prepared. ‘These 
are constructed for the midwinter and midsummer months for the world, 
and show departures from the average temperature of the parallels irrespec- 
tive of the hemisphere in which they occur. It may be called a map of total 
isonomalies in order to distinguish it from the map of isonomalies in which 
departures from the average temperatures of the parallels of each hemi- 
sphere are mapped. ‘The former is much mote significant from the view- 
point of classification, as it throws into full relief the difference between 
climatically comparable—but not necessarily really similar—areas of the two 
hemispheres. 


Capt. T. E. Loncrietp.—The subsidence of London, 


The paper deals with surface subsidence in the London district. This 
subsidence has been confirmed by a recent, and still continuing, relevelling 
of London. 

The principal lines of levels in this area have been completed, and it is 
from these that the deductions have been made. 

At the same time the opportunity has been taken of comparing the results 
which were obtained when levelling was carried out in 1865, 1895 and 1914. 

A comparatively new method is described by which levels can be trans- 
ferred across water up to distances of about a mile, as this method has 
enabled the levelling network to be connected with accuracy across the 
estuary of the Thames at Dagenham and Tilbury. 

In addition to the more or less general sinkage disclosed in the London 
area a number of cases of purely local subsidence have come to light and 
are described. 


Mr. E. Jacoss.—The Hull fishing industry. 


This paper gives prominence to certain aspects of the Hull fishing indus- 
try. The foundation of the trawl fishing at Hull, by Brixham fishermen, 
some eighty years ago, is noted. This is followed by a survey of the geo- 
graphical expansion of fishing operations, and the factors responsible for 
the same are discussed. 

In conclusion, the most recent developments of the industry and its 
allied undertakings receive comment. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Coxwold, Ampleforth Gap and Rievaulx. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 347 


Wednesday, September 6. 


Mr. A. Austin Mitier.—The physiographic evolution of the lower Wye 
valley. 


The meanders of the river Wye were developed on a surface of post- 
Liassic age, but of this surface no relics can be identified with certainty. 
During the process of dissection of this stage the river reached maturity at a 
height of about 500 ft. above the present river-bed, and produced an exten- 
sive peneplain at this level, into which the river is remarkably entrenched. 
A third phase of still-stand at about 200 ft. above present level is indicated 
by the preservation on several spurs and meander-cores of bevelling at this 
altitude. ‘The river is now entrenching itself into this stage. 

The two latter stages are tentatively correlated with fairly well-defined 
platforms of marine denudation on the north shore of the Severn Estuary 
at about 400 ft. and 150 ft. respectively, which are briefly examined. 

In the process of adjustment the river has effected minor changes in its 
course and abandoned some entrenched meanders at different levels. 


Mr. D. L. Linton.—Some aspects of the physiography of southern Scotland, 


Thirty years ago Mackinder put forward the thesis that in the south- 
eastward-flowing portions of certain Scottish rivers we may see the remnants 
of an original consequent drainage system whose streams flowed con- 
tinuously from the Minch to the Scottish Border. In doing so he realised 
that such eastward-flowing streams as the Aberdeenshire Dee and Don, 
the Tummel, the Earn, the Forth, and the Tweed found no place in this 
scheme, but he did not therefore abandon it. Later workers adopted this 
idea completely. Mort suggested an Argyllshire source for the Galloway 
rivers ; Gregory found no difficulty in carrying a reversed Lower Clyde 
eastwards to the North Sea at Berwick ; Peach and Horne found themselves 
forced to draw conclusions as to the origin of the Tweed not in accord with 
the accepted principles of river development. 

This preconception as to the nature of the river system from which the 
present Scottish drainage has developed, led in the southern uplands to a 
failure to realise two important points. The first is the very great extent 
to which the original drainage has been modified by the growth of sub- 
sequent streams. The second is that in addition to the classes of streams 
already recognised in the region, viz. : 


(a) the south-eastward or south-south-eastward-flowing streams, such 
as the Nith and the Gala, of supposed consequent origin ; 

(b) the unexplained east-flowing Tweed, matched by the Forth and 
the South Tyne just beyond the limits of the region ; 

(c) the subsequent streams such as Ettrick and Yarrow, 


there exists an important series of right-bank tributaries to the Tweed 
flowing from south-south-west to north-north-east. 

In the present communication evidence is brought forward to show 
that the Tweed must be regarded—together with similar major east- 
flowing rivers—as a consequent trunk stream, receiving both left- and 
right-bank consequent tributaries, of which the Gala and Jed are types. 
Further south a second series of minor consequents flowing south-south- 
east and including the Nith, Esk, and Rede, were received as left-bank 
tributaries by the east-flowing Tyne, while to the north the Forth had a 
similar origin and function. 


348 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E, F. 


Mr. A. N. Harris.—Factors controlling port sites, with special reference to 
western India. 


A brief review of the physical geography of W. India. The ancient ports 
were situated in regions of relatively great productivity and attracted the 
trade-routes to them. The most productive regions were the Indus Delta 
country, the Cambay country and southern India, so that the ports had 
wretched sites which were doomed to decay. ‘The process of preparing the 
sites of the modern ports of Bombay and Karachi was a relatively slow one, 
in which both nature and man were concerned, and it was not until com- 
paratively recent times that the sites were made fit to support great ports. 

The changes in the regions in which port sites are located may be attributed 
to the fact that in ancient times ports were in regions of increment, owing to 
the difficulty of land transport, whereas in modern times improved land 
transport has obviated the necessity of ports being within the region of 
surplus production, but a first-class site is required. 


EXHIBIT. 


Exhibition of Dr. Tempest Anderson’s collection of photographs of 
volcanic phenomena, in a room adjoining the Section-room. 


SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND 
STATISTICS. 


Thursday, September 1. 


Prof. J. CoatmMaNn, C.I.E.—International migration in the twentieth century. 


Any discussion of migration nowadays must recognise that the problem 
which it presents is a complex one, composed of many factors, biological, 
political and economic. 

For our present purpose the chief interest is on the economic side, but 
since this side cannot be studied in isolation we must take at any rate the 
main features of the biological and political sides into account. 

Biological._—Differential birth-rates and effect on population, growth and 
pressure. Effects on the flow of migration. How birth control affects 
the problem. 

Political—Migration policies of the chief countries concerned, both 
countries of migration and receiving countries. 

Economic.—The economic aspects of population growth. What countries 
can sustain growing populations by reason of natural resources, potential 
industrial development, etc. What countries must find outlets for their 
surplus people. 

Where are the possible outlets and what sorts of outlets will they provide— 
i.e. for settlers on the land, or in industrial or other urban pursuits? The 
present and future balance of agricultural and industrial occupations, and 
the effects of changes in this balance on our subject. Present-day trends 
in the flow of migration. Economic consequences of migration on both 
the countries of migration and the receiving countries. Migration is 
primarily an economic problem, and like all other major economic problems 
has become an international problem. Possible direction and limits of 
international action in regard to migration. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 349 


Prof. L. Ropsins.—Consumption and trade fluctuation. 


The paper commences by an examination of the view that trade de- 
pression is caused by insufficient buying by consumers. An attempt is then 
made to outline positively the influence of variations of consumption on 
the course of trade activity. 


Friday, September 2. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Prof. R. B. ForrEsTER on Britain’s access to 
Overseas Markets. (See p. 119.) 


Dr. F. C. BEnHamM.—Some theoretical aspects of Public Finance. 


Public finance as a science. 
The traditional defence (e.g. by Edgeworth) of progressive taxation. 
An alternative defence. 
Public finance and Equilibrium Theory, with comments on— 
(a) Wicksell’s ‘ Solution.’ 
(b) Pigou’s views on ‘ Taxes and Bounties to Correct Maladjustments.’ 
(c) The Marshall-Wicksell argument for certain State undertakings. 
The special question whether an income tax differentiates against 
saving, with particular reference to the views of Irving Fisher. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on The Location of Industries (Dr. BRINLEY 'THoMas; Mr. 
J. JEWKEs) :— 


Dr. BrinLey THomas.—The volume and direction of the movement of 
labour into south-east England since 1920. 


The general trend of new industrial development in this country, as is 
well known, has been in favour of the South-East during the last decade. 
Though a substantial body of information is available from Ministry of 
Labour and Population Census figures, these sources do not enable us 
to examine the volume and direction of the movement of labour that has 
taken place.’ The statistical results embodied in this paper are founded on 
a special return made available through the courtesy of the officials of the 
Ministry of Labour, which shows for each office (excluding the smallest 
rural ones) in the S.E. Division the number and origin (by Division) of all 
‘foreign ’ unemployment insurance books which were first issued outside 
the S.E. Division as revealed in the exchange of books in July 1932. 

The volume of the inflow of insured labour since 1920 is examined, 
together with the relative contributions from each of the other Divisions. 
The varying degrees of absorption of adult and juvenile labour in different 
parts of London and surrounding areas are analysed. Finally a rough 
attempt is made to relate the labour mobility shown by the analysis with 
the location of new industries. 


Mr. J. JEWKES. 
The increasing attention now being devoted to the theory of location of 
industry is mainly the result of the failure of the attempts to deal with 
unemployment by the transfer of labour, and the speculations of how far 


350 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—F. 


it is possible, or desirable, to encourage mobility of capital to offset the 
apparently increasing immobility of labour. Those who argue for some 
control of the geographical distribution of new capital investment may 
merely point out how dangerous it is to have large parts of the country 
mainly devoted to one industry, or, in the extreme case, they may support 
schemes for comprehensive national industrial planning. 

Any analysis of such matters involves answers to the questions: How 
far is the present location of industries rational in the sense of being the 
most economic which could be devised ? What should be the features of 
such a rational location? Is manufacturing industry under private enter- 
prise becoming less or more localised, and is it, in any movements taking 
place, rendering the task of preventing the maladjustment of labour more 
or less difficult ? 


Prof. G. C. ALLEN.—The economic position of Fapan. 


The purpose of the paper is to consider, in outline, the main features of 
Japan’s economic structure and to examine, in particular, her position as an 
international trader during the post-war period. 

The extent to which Japan may be considered to possess a ‘ planned 
economy.’ Instability of her economic system as a result of her rapid 
industrial and commercial growth. The highly specialised character of 
her export trade ; her dependence on the American market and on economic 
“penetration ’ in China and Manchuria. Liability of her export trade to 
extreme fluctuations ; inelasticity of her import demand ; effect of these 
characteristics on her balance of payments. Rigidity of her economic 
structure and her difficulty, through financial and social causes, in adjusting 
herself to changes in world prices and trade. 

Japan’s international trade and balance of payments after 1914 reviewed 
in the light of these characteristics. 1914-20, the period of prosperity and 
the development of an export surplus ; 1920-23, the over-valuation of the 
yen and its consequences ; 1924-26, the depreciation of the exchange value 
of the yen and the post-earthquake boom ; the financial crisis of 1927 and 
the subsequent adjustments; benefits secured by Japan as a result of 
‘ American prosperity’ and of the competitive weakness of the British 
cotton trade in Oriental markets; the return to the gold standard in 
January 1930. The damaging effects of the collapse of ‘ American 
prosperity ’ and of the renewed resistance to Japanese ‘ penetration * in 
Asia ; the abandonment of the gold standard at the end of last year. Some 
political consequences of the economic crisis in Japan. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Mr. C. R. Fay.—Reconciliation of producer and consumer within the Co- 
operative Movement. 


The reconciliation of producer and consumer has two main sides to it. 

The first is the relation of the industrial producer to the industrial con- 
sumer. ‘This raises the question of trade unionism and co-operation. 
Trade unionists should not use the movement as a means of securing rates 
and conditions which they cannot secure from ordinary employers. If 
they do, they damage ultimately their own bargaining strength. Con- 
cessions made by the C.W.S. as employers call in return for stronger support 
by the retail societies. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—F. BI 


The second side is the relation of the consumers’ movement to agriculture, 
at home and abroad. Numerous problems arise here : 


(a) Direct farming by the societies and wholesales. This is of small 
value when it is incidental; and in fact it is largely a legacy of 
history, but it may be important in the future, as part of a co- 
ordinated agricultural policy. 

(6) The contact of the home farmer with the movement. No contact 
is of any value unless it is on a quality basis. Organisation is 
as necessary to the producing farmer as trade unionism is to the 
wage-earner. 

(c) The attitude of the movement towards organised marketing on a 
national or regional basis. This is a vital problem in the milk 
industry to-day. The movement must adapt itself to commodity 
selling, but must not sell out to it. The societies and their whole- 
sales must retain their traditional unity. ‘The new orientation of 
producer and the State versus the consumer needs careful watching, 
both in marketing and in fiscal policy. 

(d) The relation of the movement to agricultural co-operation over- 
seas—e.g. in Denmark, Canada, New Zealand, and elsewhere. 
Here, elasticity is better than a rigid contract, which obstructs the 
blending of consumers’ demand. 

(e) Intertrading and the international mobilisation of co-operative 
credit. Intertrading between wholesales has no dangers. Inter- 
trading between organised producer and organised consumer is 
greatly obstructed by tariffs. International mobilisation of co- 
operative credit must not be allowed to freeze the banking resources 
of the consumers’ movement. Special aid to agriculture is the 
task of the several States concerned. 


Dr. E. RoLL.—Effects of the world depression on the Banking Systems of 
Central Europe. 


It was the peculiar sensitiveness of its credit systems to economic and social 
tension and political interference which made Central Europe the storm- 
centre of the panic of 1931. 

It is well known that the crisis of confidence began in the autumn of 1930 
when the results of the German elections revealed a state of great political 
instability. Since then, events in all Central European countries, as well 
as the adopted remedial measures, show considerable similarity. We find 
that in all countries the banks lose a considerable proportion of their deposits, 
varying from 11 per cent. in Czechoslovakia to 30 per cent. in Austria, 
Hungary and Germany, and reaching even greater proportions in Rumania. 
These losses are accompanied by decreases in the gold and foreign exchange 
reserves of central banks, by increases in the note circulation, and by con- 
siderably increased stocks of discounted bills.’ In some countries the 
traditional liberal credit policy was sufficient to stop the run, in others more 
radical measures had to be introduced. ‘They comprised as a rule very 
stringent regulations for dealings in foreign exchange, the guaranteeing 
by the State of the deposits of insolvent banks, together with a radical re- 
organisation—again with State help—of their capital structure. 

In Germany, owing to the scale on which difficulties appeared and 
remedies had to be applied, these measures amounted to a virtual trans- 
formation of the entire character of the banking system. An unprecedented 
writing off of losses—by means of capital reductions, amalgamations and 


352 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 


State subsidies—had to take place. In addition the Reich had to provide 
funds—in the form of fresh share capital—to enable the banks to carry on. 
The Reich now possesses the majority of shares in two and an important 
holding in the third of the largest Berlin banks. Combined with the 
increased importance of previously existing public banks, this new develop- 
ment gives the State virtual control over the entire German banking system. 
It is impossible at the moment fully to gauge the significance of this increased 
influence of the State; nor is it possible to predict with certainty the 
developments in the immediate future. It is, however, fairly certain that 
a return of the banks to their full private status will not be possible for 
a long time. Moreover, political developments have already lifted this 
question out of the realm of economic considerations. As for the ability 
of the State to manage the banking system, it is more than doubtful whether 
the Reich will be able to undertake the issuing and promotion business, 
although the pure deposit banking might be administered publicly. It is 
not impossible, therefore, that we may see a new specialisation arise ; and 
the most important result of the events of last year may be the final dis- 
appearance of the ‘ mixed ’ type of German credit bank. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Prof. J. R. BELLERBY.—Jnflation ; the international remedy. 


It is widely agreed that the remedy for depression in this country involves 
a recovery of 30 per cent. or more in wholesale prices. This in turn would 
entail the expansion of credit and possibly of currency. Under every 
definition these measures would be termed ‘ inflation’: let us then boldly 
describe the remedy by its true name and set our minds to the task of 
developing it. Its difficulties and possible ultimate dangers need careful 
examination. 

The most serious risk is not that inflation may be overdone, but that 
we have lost all power to set it in motion. The traditional methods of 
expanding credit by reducing the Bank Rate and buying securities are 
apparently ineffective. There is a ban on public works. And no State 
action seems now possible for creating that psychological effect which 
might set the wheels of industry in motion. ‘There remains one suggestion, 
which is put forward here for criticism. In essence, it is that new money 
should be created by the banks and transferred, via the Government, to 
to the needy as a gift outright. 


Mr. J. Morcan Rees.—Some assumptions underlying the problem of 
equilibrium between Production and Consumption. 


Equilibrium is defined for the purpose of this paper as that production 
of goods and services which can be consumed at a given price level such 
as would occupy the maximum productive powers and give maximum 
employment. 

The classical economists and the problem. Certain underlying as- 
sumptions no longer valid. Economic realities and the persistence of 
dis-equilibrium. Do these realities force economic analysis towards an 
ethical basis ? 

Where initiative rests. Responsibility should be conscious for main- 
taining a balance. The monetary system and the relation between price 
levels, bank rates and unemployment. The power of money and credit ; 
policy of central banks towards stabilisation of price levels. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—F*. 353 


Difficulties which prevent general adjustment between production and 
consumption. International monetary policy and the regulation of industry. 
Past failures of all attempts at regulating agricultural production. A world 
central bank and what it could do. Control of currency and credit. 
Regulation and distribution of international loans. Assuming failure to 
secure international co-operation, what the Bank of England could do. 
Consequences of a managed currency and control of investment: some 
degree of planning and a managed industry. The worst method—tariffs. 

Competition and prices not automatically self-adjusting or sufficient to 
secure equilibrium. Need for the professionalising of modern business. 


DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIAL CO-OPERATION (F*). 


Thursday, September 1. 


AFTERNOON. 


Discussion on The preparation and uses of statistics for the business executive 
(Chairman: Dr. W. H. Coates; Mr. A. G. H. Dent; Dr. E. S. 
Pearson ; Mr. F. W. PatsH) :-— 


Mr. A. G. H. DENT. 


In most business problems the judgment of executives has to be based 
on relevant statistics. The essential statistics needed are internal to the 
company and external, the former dealing with operating results; the 
latter with markets, competition, the industry itself, and the general 
economic position. 

The statistician’s task is to analyse and interpret raw material figures, 
presenting a report which is intelligible to an executive who has not had 
specialised training in the handling of figures. The objective is to assist 
him. to operate and control efficiently ; to base decisions on the most 
accurate presentation of figures ; to understand existing conditions, and to 
foresee important changes. Executive judgment begins where statistical 
presentation ends. 

A statistical report should consist of concise statements backed up by 

figures and charts. The advantages of the graphic system are: ease of 
reading and preparation, simplicity, compactness and comprehensiveness, 
wide scope and vivid presentation. ‘This system enables an executive to 
grasp otherwise unco-ordinated masses of figures rapidly. 
_ The most important field for statistical work is the company budget, in 
which demand, orders received, sales invoiced, accounts receivable, expenses, 
net profits, etc., are estimated ahead, interpreting company policy. This is 
the figure fabric of a company’s existence, and needs to show clearly the 
relationship between groups of figures, the effects of varying policies, and 
of probable external changes. 

There is need for an adequate statistical treatment of accounts figures, 
which may be considered as raw material data for studies. New forms of 
statistical control are developing, suchas ‘ Higher Control,’ which co-ordinate 
and relate company figures and give the managing director a complete inter- 
related picture of company operations and their results. Commencing with 
orders, the data can be worked through to the final net profit, relating 
balance-sheet, profit and loss account, operating position, showing operating 
ratios, long-period movements and current figures. 

N 


354 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F*. 


The technique of statistical analysis is applicable to special investigations, 
to market studies and to such company statistics as purchasing, covering 
raw material prices, stocks, production and consumption ; applying equally 
to personnel activities, where data of wage rates, employment, cost of living, 
salaries, etc., have to be marshalled and understood. 

In statistical presentation consideration should be given to the correct 
use of the term ‘ average’ and to frequency distributions. In the charting 
field the straightforward line chart, the moving annual total, the ratio or 
semi-logarithmic scale chart, Z chart, and ordinary bar and circle charts 
represent important methods of presenting data now in use. 


Dr. E. S. PEARsON.—Statistical methods in the quality-control of 
output. 


A characteristic feature of modern industry lies in the attempt to make 
the same thing again and again, yet itneeds but little consideration to realise 
that there is no field in which this result has been or is, indeed, ever likely to 
be completely achieved. Whether we measure the ‘ sameness’ of a thing 
by linear dimensions as in the diameter of a shaft or the length of a screw, 
by tensile strength as in cotton thread or steel wire, by electrical resistance 
as in parts of telephone equipment, or by one of many other methods, we 
find that the recorded measures are not identical. And these differences are 
not merely due to errors in measurement, but exist in the things themselves 
that we have produced. We may record an average value, but we are also 
forced to recognise the existence of variation about that average. 

An analysis of this variation will often, however, enable causes of trouble 
—or lack of control—to be located and consequently eliminated. It is 
possible to summarise the results of such analysis in certain simple control 


charts which indicate the position and extent of the trouble and the effect of 
its removal. 


Mr. F. W. PatsH.—The selection and interpretation of business statistics 
in the light of recent research into the causes of the trade cycle. 


Friday, September 2. 
AFTERNOON, 


Discussion on The selection, training and placing of administrative per- 
sonnel, including the study of the ‘ Case Method’ as an instrument in 
education and training for management (Chairman : Dr. J. A. BowiE; 
Mr. JuLes MENKEN ; The Hon. J. F. A. BRowne) :— 


Mr. JuLes MENKEN.—The Case Method. 


The Case Method uses problems drawn from the experience of business 
firms for instruction in the principles of business administration. Cases, 
which are problems in written form, constitute the basis of class discussions 
designed to develop the habit of analysis and quality of judgment increasingly 
required in modern business. 

The successful use of the Case Method involves a large number of factors, 
including the selection and training of teaching staff and case collectors, the 
development of confidence amongst firms which supply material, the plan- 
ning and organisation of the subject-matter treated, the collection of the 
right facts and their presentation in a suitable way, and, last but by no means 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F*. 355 


least, students sufficiently mature in mind and experience to participate 
profitably in case discussions. 

Teaching by the Case Method is likely to be slow. The method is 
relatively unsuited for the orderly communication of systematised knowledge, 
particularly where the variables involved are comparatively few. On the 
other hand, the method is very flexible ; and where, as in business, variables 
are numerous and independent, where appropriate relative weights must 
somehow be attached to factors themselves incommensurable, there the 
Case Method provides one valuable instrument for developing a suitable 
technique of analysis and attack, and for training the qualities of practical 
judgment which business decisions require. 


The Hon. J. F. A. BRowNE.—Some suggestions for co-operation between 
the universities and industry and commerce in the matter of place- 
ment. 


The scope of this paper is not to consider those who have been trained as 
specialists in some subject, such as chemists, physicists, or engineers, but 
rather those who have taken a university degree in more general subjects, 
and who leave the universities not specifically qualified for any definite 
vocation. 

Some consideration of what leaders of industry and commerce look for 
in recruitment, and of the great variety of opinions held by them as regards 
the qualifications of university men. 

What the universities claim for the university man. 

Some suggestions for discussion and consideration of various aspects of 
the problem on both sides: What industry has already done ; a more specific 
description of its requirements ; more systematic selection; the problem 
of the small firm ; what the universities have already done; the functions 
of Appointments Boards ; the danger of more specialised training. 

A general appeal for the consideration of the university woman. 


Monday, September 5. 
AFTERNOON. 

Discussion on The techniques, possibilities and limitations of the measure- 
ment of human effort as ai basis of monetary reward (Chairman : 
Dr. C: S. Myers, C.B:E., F.R.S. ; Dr. C. H. Nortucott; Dr. G. H. 
MILEs) :— 


Dr. C. H. Nortucotr.—Possibilities and limitations. 


Financial reward may be expressed in relation to time or to quantity. 
Effort is most easily correlated with reward in terms of quantity of produc- 
tion. But human activity, if spontaneous, is irregular and variable; it 
becomes measurable when standardised and mechanised. Within what 
limits do industrial processes permit of measurement? Less and more 
scientific methods of measurement. Consideration of possibilities and 
conditions. 

Limitations arise from : 

(1) Degree to which motivation of human effort may be affected by 
financial rewards ; 
(2) Reflex effect of proposals upon motivation. 

Consideration of incentives of non-financial kind, and of the safeguards 

necessary in financial incentives to secure full effort. 


356 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F*, G. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
AFTERNOON. 
Discussion on Fashion cycles (Chairman : Mr. Epwarp A. FILENE) :— 


Mr. R. F. Witson.—Colour and colour cycles. 


Historical considerations. Colour as a factor in interpretation of national 
group-psychology. The part played by colour in religion, war, commerce, 
etc. Similarity of human emotional responses (individual and collective) 
to certain colours throughout the ages. Relation of cycles of colour in- 
fluence to changes in national outlook. International reactions in uses of 
colour. Effects of improved international communication on extent of areas 
affected by colour cycles. Influence of esthetic appreciation upon national 
commerce. Influence of recent industrial-economic changes and techno- 
logical progress upon colour cycles. Influence of personal prestige and 
publicity upon new cycles. Effects of modern living and trading conditions 
upon the nature of ‘ cycles of colour.’ 


SECTION G.—ENGINEERING. 


Thursday, September 1. 
Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, O.B.E—The suppression of noise. 


Noise is generally regarded as an attendant evil of present-day civilisation, 
though the problem is really one of long standing. There is, however, a 
steadily increasing volume of public opinion which is making its influence 
felt beneficially in many directions. 

The problem of noise suppression is largely bound up with that of noise 
measurement, and although the latter is one of some complexity, bound up 
as it is with physiology and psychology, the physics of acoustical measure- 
ment has made great strides in recent years owing to the exactitude and 
facility of electrical methods. By such means, noises can be analysed into 
spectra, and their loudness can be measured by the microphone. Alterna- 
tively, noises can be matched aurally against some calibrated standard of 
loudness. 

The unit of intensity now generally adopted in noise measurement is the 
decibel, which corresponds approximately to a 25 per cent. increase in 
energy. Such a scale of geometrical progression is a rough fit with the 
sensation scale of loudness. The decibel has the further advantage of 
corresponding approximately to the least change of loudness which can 
be detected under ordinary conditions. The auditory range of loudness 
embraces about 120 decibels. 

The best way of suppressing noise is to silence it at its source, failing 
which a policy of isolation is likely to be more effective than one of 
absorption. All three expedients have been resorted to, each with partial 
success, in the modern aeroplane liner, so that in the aggregate the noise 
heard by the passenger, which was formerly intolerable, is now but little 
louder than he would experience in a train. 

For the study of noise and associated problems new acoustic laboratories 
are being erected at the National Physical Laboratory. Each of the experi- 
mental rooms is as completely isolated as possible, the massive double walls 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 357 


are on independent foundations, and the rooms are asymmetric both in 
plan and elevation. 


Mr. R. BortaseE MatrHews.—Rural electrification and the grid. 


As the greatest field for the use of electric power from the grid is in rural 
areas, a rural area is defined and its prospects are analysed. ‘Three hundred 
and twenty authorised undertakers are concerned with supplying electricity 
in rural areas. For various reasons, however, the farm load has been 
comparatively neglected. As the institution of the grid ensures a low 
price for current at the smaller centres, this should facilitate rural develop- 
ment. The general principles associated with the supply of rural areas are 
dealt with, the Mid-Lincolnshire and Rutlandshire Rural Electrification 
Scheme (covering an area of over 1,600 square miles) being taken as an 
example and some particulars thereof given. 

The possibilities of considerably reducing the cost of rural distribution 
lines are briefly discussed, followed by a consideration of the possibilities of 
the farm load, in which emphasis is laid on the fact that the future of British 
farming will undoubtedly lie in intensive cultivation rather than in the 
adoption of modern prairie methods. ‘To-day farming is carried on too 
much after the fashion of a weaver with a hand loom, i.e. with antiquated 
methods and machinery, yet farmers in the aggregate already use more 
power than that employed in all the other industries combined. Hence, 
the suggestion is made that, in view of the existence of the grid, this power 
should be electric. As the 300 ordinary uses of electricity on farms are 
now generally well known, brief reference is made to the new and larger 
farm apparatus such as the 30-h.p. rain cannon, 150-h.p. hay-drying and 
disintegrating plants, 250-h.p. electric ploughs, and 80-h.p. combined 
harvester-threshers. Reference is also made to electric soil heating, to 
moving platforms for continuously milking cows, to the auxiliary industries 
(e.g. those concerned with the manufacture of alcohol, beer, flour, starch, 
sugar, etc.) and the like. 

In conclusion a brief reference is made to the necessary policy in 
connection with propaganda activities and tariffs. 


Dr. C. C. GarrarD.—The electric propulsion of ships. 


This paper does not set out to prove the economic advantage of electric 
ship propulsion. The fact that (excluding war vessels) ships built, or 
building, with turbo-electric propulsion have a total shaft horse-power 
exceeding one million, and Diesel-electric vessels with a total of more than 
100,000 horse-power, renders such proof unnecessary. Ninety per cent. 
of all these vessels have been built in the United States. ‘This is to be 
attributed in part to the stimulus afforded by the adoption of electric 
propulsion for the capital ships of the American Navy. The recent 
reversion of the battleship New Mexico to geared turbines was not due to 
any dissatisfaction with the electrical equipment, but to quite other reasons. 
The decision to adopt electric propulsion for any vessel is not so much a 
question for the electrical engineer as the naval architect, who must take 
into account the whole of the ship as a means of transporting passengers 
and merchandise. The effect upon the revenue-earning capacity is more 
important than the reduction in fuel cost. In the case of liners, generally 
speaking, electric propulsion results in greater efficiency, while for vessels 
of the self-unloading type, which require large amounts of power in dock, 
it is a necessity. In other cases, the ease of control and manceuvre is 


358 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—G. 


a determining factor. With electric propulsion bridge control is possible. 
The author advocates the greatest possible use of automatic control, and 
maintains that the great reliability such gear has shown in land practice 
will be repeated at sea. The propulsion equipments of the Viceroy of India, 
Monarch of Bermuda, and E.M.V. Cement Karrier are considered in some 
detail, as well as the various systems of electric propulsion and the circum- 
stances which determine a choice between them. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Blackburn Aeroplane and Motor Co., Ltd., Brough. 


Friday, September 2. 


PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS by Prof. Mites WaLkER, F.R.S., on The Call to 
the Engineer and Scientist. (See p. 119.) 


Mr. A. P. M. FLeminc.—An engineer’s review of the Soviet enterprise. 


Dr. Miles Walker’s Presidential Address discusses some of the problems 
associated with world economic conditions, and suggests the part that the 
engineer can play in their solution. His proposals have suggested to the 
writer the desirability of considering what bearing the huge experiment at 
present conducted in Soviet Russia has on these economic conditions. 
This review of the Soviet enterprise is made ‘from a first-hand study of 
conditions in Russia, primarily from the standpoint of the engineering 
objectives and the plan and achievements thus far. 

The Soviet plan envisages the development of the natural resources of 
one-sixth of the earth’s land surface, comprising practically all the kinds of 
material wealth necessary for human well-being, and the distribution of these 
resources to the 150 millions of people confined within its borders. The plan 
to achieve this result within a comparatively short time, and the considerable 
measure of success that has attended the beginnings of the operation, justify 
very serious consideration of the scheme and the method in which it is 
carried out, especially when one appreciates that the economic difficulties 
that confront the rest of the world are largely those that relate to the dis- 
tribution of the existing ample productive facilities. The carrying out of 
the Russian enterprise rests essentially upon an engineering basis, and 
especially upon the provision of an abundant supply of cheap power. The 
underlying basis is summed up in Lenin’s formula that ‘ Electrification plus 
Soviets equals Socialism.’ The basic factors in the engineering aspect of 
the enterprise include the pursuit of hydro-electric developments on a 
large scale, the establishment of the manufacturing facilities for engineering 
plant, the setting up of metallurgical and other enterprises required for the 
supply of raw materials, and the application of the most advanced methods 
of engineering to agricultural developments, transport and communication. 
Associated with, and ancillary to, all these is the development of education, 
and particularly the training of personnel to replace the vast numbers of 
foreign experts that have been employed in connection with these develop- 
ments. Consideration is given to the subject principally from the engineer- 
ing aspect, and without reference to its political significance. 

Some comparison is made between the methods adopted in the Soviet 
enterprise and elsewhere. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 359 


Dr. F. W. Carter, F.R.S.—Magnetic noise in dynamo-electric machines. 


The paper deals with vibrations in dynamo-electric machines caused by 
the movement of the magnetic field with the rotor of the machine; and 
particularly with such as result in the objectionable howling noises which 
certain machines emit. 'The vibrations are shown to be due to one or other 
of the members having a toothed magnetic structure, which causes periodic 
variation in the field, and consequently in the mechanical traction on the 
structure. The conditions favouring vibration are elucidated, and the 
relation between the frequency of vibrations and the numerical data of the 
machine determined. It is shown, moreover, that certain harmonics in 
the periodic magnetic forces which act on the teeth are essential to the 
vibration ; and methods for computing the forces are discussed, applicable 
particularly to synchronous machines. In an appendix a comparison is 
made between two machines from the point of view of vibration, and it is 
estimated that one has some eighty times the potency of the other in pro- 
ducing sound. In a second appendix certain features of the sound from 
travelling wave sources are discussed, and it is shown that the sound 
produced is not effectively broadcast unless the pulse of distortion which 
produces it travels around the machine with speed greater than that of 
sound in air. 


Prof. E. G. Coxer, F.R.S., and Dr. RutH Levi.—French and British 
cleavage tests of timber. 


The need of maintaining a sufficient supply of useful timbers is a matter 
of world-wide importance, and the numerous scientific and other questions 
which arise have led to the establishment of a number of State laboratories 
for the study of these problems. Among these the mechanical properties 
of timber take an important place, and numerous standard tests have been 
devised which are in process of co-ordination, in order that the results from 
all sources shall be strictly comparable. 

This co-ordination is especially difficult for a material like timber, which 
has unlike properties in different directions, and although the grain of 
timber is one of its most prized characteristics, yet its presence renders a 
scientific classification of its mechanical properties a task of the utmost 
complexity. 

At the suggestion of Sir Alfred Ewing, many of these timber tests have 
been investigated by photo-elastic means, using transparent and isotropic 
materials. 

This procedure affords stress distributions of more simple types than 
occur in actual test members of anisotropic bodies like timber ; nevertheless 
they afford considerable aid in ascertaining the actual nature of the practical 
tests employed, and also help to explain some of their anomalies. 

Cleavage tests are usually made on notched specimens of timber so designed 
as to ensure fracture along the grain at a place of minimum cross-section. 
This does not always happen, and photo-elastic investigations of French 
and British standards prove that the minimum cross-sections are not places 
of maximum stress intensity. 

The paper describes these experimental observations in detail, and shows 
that various cleavage tests now made are not properly co-ordinated. 

The suggestion is made that a better form of test might prove to be a 
simple tension test with the grain of the timber arranged perpendicularly 
to the line of the load, 


360 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to Leeds district to visit :— 


(1) Savile Pit and Whitwood Silkstone Pit (Messrs. Henry Briggs, 
Son and Co., Ltd.) for an inspection of a new method of supporting 
underground roadings and of surface arrangements. 

(2) Yorkshire Coal Owners’ Association Rescue Station, Wakefield, 
for demonstrations of breathing apparatus, model underground galleries, 
etc. 

(3) Kirkstall Super-Power Station (using pulverised fuel) of the 
Leeds City Electricity Dept. 


(4) Yorkshire Post printing works. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on Railway traction :— 


Sir Sreymour B. Tritton, K.B.E.— Steam power. 


The technical press having dealt exhaustively with details of the modern 
steam locomotive and the high speeds recorded, it is impossible to introduce 
novel proposals, but a résumé is set forth for discussion. 

The general design has altered little from the earlier types, but details 
have been altered out of all recognition. 

The energy obtained by explosion in the internal combustion engine is 
compared with the elastic drive of steam. 

The tendency of present-day propulsion is by prime mover running at 
high speed with a reduction gear to the driven member. Examples: marine 
turbine, the road motor-car, and, on rails, locomotives of the ‘ Sentinel ’ 
type. 

Development of the powerful steam locomotive on these lines is 
questionable. 

The boiler—the vital part of the locomotive—and its development to its 
present form seems to have reached the limit, and the water-tube boiler, in 
the author’s opinion, is the form in which most progress can be made, 
though other forms using very high pressures are referred to. 

The progress made with the boiler has been followed by that of valve 
gears, especially of the ‘ poppet ’ type. 

The use of special steels and alloys is essential to the development of the 
steam locomotive if its weight is to be kept within permissible limits of the 
restricted ‘ loading gauge’ of this country. 


Sir Henry Fow.Ler.—Oil engine power. 


At the inception of what is called the internal combustion engine, its 
application to railway transport was naturally considered by engineers. 
It will be remembered that Sir Frederick Bramwell, about fifty years ago, 
looked to it supplanting the steam engine in every direction. Our President, 
Sir Alfred Ewing, dealt with this in his address last year. 

The use of a heavy and cheaper oil by Diesel and others made the matter 
a more practical proposition, whilst recent developments have given us a 
more flexible engine. A great deal of work has been done on the subject 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—G. 361 


and many interesting experiments carried out. The proposition offers 
considerable advantages in many directions. The greatest difficulty, 
undoubtedly, is the provision of a perfectly satisfactory transmission and 
power unit at a price which makes the problem a feasible one from an 
economic standpoint. Many experiments have been and are being carried 
out in various parts of the world, and the matter is receiving increasing 
attention from all interested. 


Mr. F. LypaLtt.—Electric power. 


The paper deals with the use of electrical energy for the propulsion of 
trains. The energy may be transmitted to the trains from an external 
source by means of track conductors, or may be derived from storage 
batteries carried on the trains. Both alternatives are distinguished from 
other forms of traction by the absence of steam or gases resulting from 
combustion ; electric traction is, therefore, practically indispensable for 
underground railways. 

On the subject of battery traction, reference is made to the Drumm 
battery and its application to railway work on the Great Southern Railways 
of Ireland. The possibility of using similar batteries for other service 
conditions is considered. 

The justification for electrical operation of surface railways depends upon 
either an increase in the net revenue, such as results from the electrification 
of suburban railway systems, or a reduction of the working expenses, as in 
main line schemes. The special features of suburban electrification are 
well known. The reduction of working expenses in main line operation is 
dependent upon a number of factors, the three principal items, which 
together make up fully 75 per cent. of the working expenses, being (x) fuel 
or electrical energy, (2) wages of drivers and firemen, (3) maintenance of 
locomotives. Each of these three items is discussed in some detail. 


AFTERNOON. 


Excursion via Northallerton to Darlington for an inspection of 
permanent way, rolling-stock, rail-cars and track-widening operations of 
the L.N.E. Railway and of the Works of the Cleveland Bridge and 
Engineering Co. Ltd. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Jomt Discussion with Section A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 
g.v.) on The theoretical and practical aspects of the control of humidity 
in industrial processes. 


Prof. W. Cramp.—A new system of lighting at the coal face. 


Modern mining conditions involve the use of much complicated machinery 
at the coal face. Such machinery cannot safely and efficiently be worked 
without adequate light. The usual illumination is far too small, yet the 
only satisfactory way of augmenting it is to supply lighting circuits from 
the power mains—an arrangement hitherto precluded in gassy pits because 
of obvious dangers. The present proposal is an attempt to render such 
a supply safe, flexible and convenient. The system, which may be 
demonstrated, is arranged as follows : 

N2 


362 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 


(1) From each phase of a lighting transformer fed from the power mains 
a series circuit is connected between phase and neutral, the neutral wire 
being earthed. 

(2) In each such circuit the primaries of a number of special transformers 
are connected in series without switches. The secondary of each trans- 
former feeds one lamp in an appropriate fitting. 

(3) The transformers are constructed so that the lamp, tail, secondary 
and yoke can easily be withdrawn as one unit; and this is the method of 
extinguishing or removing a lamp. 

(4) The characteristics of the transformers are such that no matter 
whether a lamp be in place, withdrawn, or even short-circuited, the primary 
circuit is not substantially disturbed. 

(5) The most vulnerable portion of the circuit then becomes the lamp. 
It is proposed to use a fitting provided with a glass which will withstand 
the shock of an explosion or of shot-firing, in which case the secondary 
voltage would be either 12 or 25. If this is not considered satisfactory, 
recourse can be had to the special lamp recently designed by Dr. Wheeler. 

The advantages of the system are: simplicity of connection, low voltage 
on each primary and each secondary, and the removal or extinction of any 
lamp without opening a switch and with no risk. 


Mr. J. Gitcurist and Dr. R. H. Evans.—Elasticity and hysteresis of rocks 
and artificial stone. 


In this paper is described a new method of investigating the elastic 
properties of rocks, part of which consists in allowing a column of the 
material to stand for a long time under a given load, and then to vary this 
through a small range. ‘The strain so obtained is termed the short range 
strain, from which we can calculate the short range modulus. In general, 
for stone and concrete, the short range strain decreases with increasing load, 
and the modulus increases. ‘This short range strain, with certain limitations 
for concrete, is a constant magnitude found always on returning to the same 
average load; it is independent of time. The sum of the short range 
strains integrated between two given loads differs from the actual strain 
obtained when observations are made in the ordinary manner. The 
difference between this integral short range strain and the actual strain is 
a time effect. ‘The authors suggest that this conception of a short range 
strain combined with the time effect gives clearer ideas of the stress-strain 
relations of the materials in question. For example, the elastic hysteresis 
loop can be explained in terms of these two effects. 


AFTERNOON. 


Visit to L.N.E.R. Carriage Works, Signalling School and Museum, 
York. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Prof. F. Bacon.—Cracking and fracture in rotary bending tests. 


The primary aim of the experiments described has been to reproduce in 
laboratory tests the features found on the fractured faces of rolls, shafts 
and axles which have failed in service by the gradual spreading of cracks. 
The investigation arose from the desire to interpret the various markings 
of simple geometric form often found on the freshly fractured faces of the 
chilled iron rolls used in the hot mills of sheet and tinplate works. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—G. 363 


Two fatigue-testing machines are described which have been specially 
developed to study (a) the various stages of the crack-spreading process ; 
(6) the modifications caused by the contact pressure of loaded rollers ; 
(c) the influence of periodically varying the limits of successive cycles of 
alternating stress. 

Attention is drawn to certain constantly recurring features of service 
breakages which have been successfully reproduced in the laboratory tests. 
It is shown that some of these are related to the direction of rotation. 
Various methods of crack detection are illustrated and compared, and the 
possibilities of fracture study as an aid to diagnosing causes of failure are 
discussed. Some examples of corrosion fatigue are included in which the 
corroding agent is a mixture of wet steam and air. 

A collection of the author’s photographs will be placed on view previous 
to the reading of the paper. 


Dr. H. Corton and Mr. F. A. Houcu.—The pulling into step of a 
synchronous-induction motor. 


The investigation of the transition from induction motor to synchronous 
motor running involves the solution of a differential equation necessitating 
a very laborious step process, in consequence of which the mathematical 
solution of the problem has been confined to a few special cases. In 
America solutions have been made by means of the integraph, a machine 
which is not available in this country, and which also has the disadvantage 
that it is a purely mechanical contrivance giving the operator no insight 
into the real nature of the problem under investigation. 

The present research deals with a solution obtained from the examination 
of the motion of a mechanical model whose equation of motion is the same 
as that of the synchronous-induction motor. Cinematograph films were 
taken while the model was in motion and the angular position at any instant 
determined from these. The advantages of the method are: (a) the con- 
stants of the model can be altered at will, so that the performance of any 
motor can be imitated ; (6) the motion to be examined is a slow slip motion 
and not the high speed of an actual motor, on which the slip motion required 
is superposed ; (c) the model can be made very cheaply ; (d) other pheno- 
mena—e.g. re-synchronising after falling out of step—can be investigated in 
addition to the pulling into step. 

There were many difficulties to be overcome before a suitable model was 
developed, and these are described in the complete paper. 


Dr. T. F. WaLi.—The economical control of the speed and power factor of 
three-phase induction motors. 


The problem of the economical control of the speed and power factor 
of three-phase induction motors by cascade connection with alternating 
current commutator machinery has become one of rapidly increasing 
industrial importance. The investigation of this problem is greatly 
facilitated by the use of the complex quantity method of treatment. In the 
first part of the paper some of the characteristics of the standard equation 
for the circle diagram are considered, when this equation is expressed in 
terms of complex quantities with the slip as the variable. In the next 
part of the paper it is shown how the most favourable circle diagram for 
the purpose in view may be chosen at will and the motor operated on a 
shunt characteristic with the same circle diagram and having any desired 
no-load speed. In the last part of the paper the conditions are established 


364 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G, H. 


for one method of operating an induction motor so that a considerable drop 
in speed is obtained as the load comes on. ‘This system is suitable for cases 
in which heavy variations of the load occur and a flywheel set is used to 
screen the network from the fluctuating load. 


REPORTS OF COMMITTEES : 
(1) Earth pressures. (See p. 287.) 
(2) Electrical terms and definitions. (See p. 289.) 
(3) Stresses in overstrained materials. 


SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


Discussion on Who were the Romans? (Prof. H. J. Rose; Prof. P. S. 
Nose; Prof. J. L. Myres; Dr. D. RanpaLi-Maclver) :— 


Prof. H. J. Rose.—Early Rome, the evidence from religion. 


To reconstruct the earliest religion of Rome is practically impossible, 
and recent researches have but emphasised the difficulty of the task by 
pointing out the importance of certain rather neglected pieces of evidence. 
It may, however, be said with some confidence : (1) That so far as the cults 
can tell us anything of so remote a period, they testify to a mixed people, 
for (a) some deities, certainly very early, have for their province the fertility 
of the soil, while others deal with the increase of cattle, thus suggesting 
a people part pastoral and part agricultural; (b) there are to be found, 
alongside of survivals from the Stone and Bronze Ages, definite Iron Age 
features. (2) That the level of civilisation was not very high, all the 
worship suggesting a barbarous folk, mostly polydaimonistic, having very 
little industry or trade. (3) That the people were nevertheless sufficiently 
advanced to be receptive of foreign influence and able to assimilate it, as is 
shown by demonstrably early borrowings (a) from other Italian peoples; 
(6) from Greek sources ; (c) probably also from Etruria, though here the 
extent of the indebtedness is a highly controversial point. 


Prof. P.S. NosLe.—Linguistic evidence. 
Prof. J. L. Myres.—The plebs. 


AFTERNOON. 
Rev. A. Ratne.—The beginnings of York. 
The object of this paper is to examine the evidence for and against the 
existence of a pre-Roman York. 


(a) Was there a British tribal headquarters on the site of York ? 
(6) Was there any kind of British occupation ? 
(a) seems ruled out by the fact that Aldborough (Isurium Brigantium) 
occurs as a tribal headquarters before A.D. 100, and as it was the usual 
Roman policy to leave native local government undisturbed, it is probable 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H. 365 


that in the pre-Roman period Isurium was the centre of native government 
in the district. 

(b) Was there any kind of British occupation? The evidence is against 
this. Few British objects have been found on the site of York. No certain 
British interment has been discovered. The British name underlying 
the Roman form ‘ Eburacum’ is a descriptive name and not the name of 
a settlement. The geographical evidence points to there being a river- 
crossing on the site of York in pre-Roman times ; indeed, here was the only 
possible crossing-place for a great distance to the north or south of York. 
There is known to have been a British trackway leading to the river. If the 
site of York was a tribal crossing-place, it affords a cogent reason why the 
Romans chose the site for a legionary fortress. 


Mr. I. A. Ricumonp.—Recent discoveries at Birdoswald, Hadrian’s Wall. 


Since 1927 excavations at Birdoswald (Camboglanna) by Mr. F. G. 
Simpson, M.A., Hon. F.S.A. Scot., and the writer have been devoted to 
studying the sequence of the three frontier works of Roman date that 
approach one another at this point and are overlaid by the milliary cohort- 
fort which was laid out in connection with the last of them, Hadrian’s Stone 
Wall. The first procedure was accurately to define the periods of occupa- 
tion of the Stone Wall fort. These proved to be four, running from 
¢. A.D. 124 to c. A.D. 196, from c. A.D. 208 to 297, from c. A.D. 297 to 368, and 
from c. A.D. 368 to 383, the second and third being defined by epigraphic 
evidence, the others by numismatics. The stratified pottery related to 
these periods now forms a firm basis for dating elsewhere. 

Below the Stone Wall fort, excavation has now revealed three occupations. 
The earliest preceded the Vallum and was destroyed by it. The second, 
a small fort of Trajanic type, is contemporary with the Vallum and goes 
typologically with the forts of the Stanegate. The third overlies the 
demolished Vallum and is in turn cut through by the ditch-system of the 
Stone Wall fort: it should therefore be the fort going with the Turf Wall. 
Work this season is expected to reveal the form of these structures and to 
define more clearly their period. At present they provide an unrivalled 
example of complicated but beautifully distinct stratification. 


Mr. F. Evcre.— The camp on Eston Hills. 


This is perched on the edge of a sandstone cliff at Eston Nab (800 feet), 
in the extreme north-east of Yorkshire. It consists of a semicircular 
rampart and outer fosse about 350 yards in circumference. Excavations 
undertaken by the Cleveland Naturalists’ Field Club, 1927-29, point to 
a Bronze Age date. Fragments of a coarse, reddish-brown pottery asso- 
ciated with small pieces of calcined human bone, flint implements, stone 
pounders, etc., and found on the site of hearths, are similar to those of the 
Late Bronze Age in the Heathery Burn Cave, co. Durham. No hut sites 
were discovered, but on the cliff-edge about half-way between the rampart 
ends there was a burial-place with cremations, a decayed Bronze Age 
food-vessel, leaf-shaped flint arrow-heads, scrapers and flakes. No objects 
were found at the bottom of the fosse excavations, which were impeded by 
a thick infilling of heavy sandstones falling from a wall, the foundations of 
which can be traced on the inner side of the rampart. No Iron Age objects 
were found, and this accords with their general absence from north-east 
Yorkshire, where Bronze Age, especially Mid-Bronze Age remains are the 
dominant feature. 


366 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


Mr. PuiLip CorDER.—Roman Malton and some neighbouring sites. 


The Roman fort at Malton is situated half-way between the legionary head- 
quarters at York and the coast, on the eastward extremity of the Howardian 
hills. It is connected with Lincoln by the road which crosses the Humber 
at Brough. 

The earliest occupation, probably under Cerialis, covered at least 
22 acres. Shortly after this a permanent fort of 84 acres was established, 
perhaps by Agricola, and presently received a massive revetment of stone. 
The consolidation of the northern frontier by Hadrian led to the withdrawal 
of the garrison, but occupation of the site was resumed early in the third 
century. ‘Towards the end of the century the fort was deliberately 
abandoned, but again during the fourth century there was continuous and 
intensive occupation ; indeed, it is probable that Malton served as base 
to the coastal signal stations during its closing years. 

Two sites in the neighbourhood are of special interest. In 1926-27 
boys from Bootham School excavated two pairs of pottery kilns at 
Crambeck, about 5 miles from Malton, where manufacture began late in 
the third and continued throughout the fourth century. The products of 
this pottery had a very wide distribution in the northern military area. In 
1929-30 an extensive villa site was excavated at Langton, 4 miles south- 
east of Malton. Here a small fortified enclosure of the first century was 
succeeded by a definitely civil occupation, which probably began in the 
third century and was intensive in the fourth, particularly during the last 
thirty years of the century. 


Sir FLunpers Petrie, F.R.S.—Copper and Bronze in Palestine. 


The excavation of Ancient Gaza in 1932 has been on the palace site 
and the cemeteries. ‘The latest palace is limited to the XVIIIth dynasty 
of Egypt, as no later remains were found. The earliest is after the Copper 
Age of the Vth-VIth dynasties, as the pottery of that age had entirely 
ceased. As it was contemporary with the great fosse round the hill, which 
is of North Syrian type, the invaders from that region, who formed the 
VIIth-VIIIth dynasties, were probably the builders of the first palace. 
Three other palaces are between the first and last, probably belonging 
to the XIIth and the Hyksos age of the XVth and XVIth dynasties. 
The earliest palace was about 150 ft. wide, built with dressed slabs of 
sandstone for the wall basement, 6 ft. wide. Much foreign painted pottery 
was found, mainly in the early palace levels ; it can be classed by the levels. 
Of earliest period is the cemetery of the Copper Age, with ledge-handle 
jars, and copper daggers of large size. 


Friday, September 2. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Dr. D. Ranpati-MaclIver on The place of 
Archeology as a science, and some practical problems in its development. 


(See p. 147.) 
Discussion. (Mr. R. U. Sayce.) 


Mr. J. W. Crowroot.—Excavations at Samaria. 


The Harvard expedition to Samaria which discovered the famous Hebrew 
ostraca of the ninth century suspended operations in 1910, and no 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 367 


archzological excavations have been conducted on the site until 1931, 
when the present joint expedition started work. 

The city stood on an isolated ridge in the centre of the northern kingdom, 
easily defensible and commanding the main road from north to south. 
There are, however, no springs near, and in consequence, except for a small 
settlement in the Early Bronze Age, it was apparently unoccupied until 
about 880 B.c., when Omri chose it as the capital of his kingdom. It is 
with the remains of the Israelite period during the next 150 years that this 
paper deals. 

The place was defended in Israelite times by two great walls. Ofthe lower 
of these, which may be called the City wall, only fragments have been found : 
it followed the irregular outline of the ridge and it was built mainly upon 
a natural terrace against the rising rock. A magnificent section of this wall 
was uncovered in 1931: the foundation course was laid in an excavated 
rock trench, and the upper courses were built of carefully dressed stones 
laid with an accuracy and regularity to which there is no parallel of this 
date in Palestine. Of the upper Palace wall more has been found: the 
main portion of it was set out in the form of a rectangle enclosing more 
than eight acres of ground. Red guiding lines can still be traced on some 
of the rock trenches, showing with what precision it was planned: the 
dressing, bonding and jointing of the masonry show equal fineness of 
execution. 

Of the buildings within these walls very little of the Israelite period has 
been found: the only architectural details which have come to light are 
three early caps of the Proto-Ionic Cypriote type. 

The most illuminating relics of the time, however, are a series of small 
ivory plaques which were discovered in the last campaign. They come from 
the decorations of furniture, probably from beds or thrones or cabinets : 
the motifs are drawn indifferently from various fields, Egyptian, Assyrian, 
Anatolian and the like, and they are brilliant examples of the eclectic art 
which has been connected in turn with Cyprus, Phenicia and Syria. 
The nearest parallels are the ivories found in 1928 at Arslan-Tash, near 
Carchemish, on one of which an inscription of Hazael, King of Damascus, 
occurs. ‘They provide the most vivid illustration of the wealth and luxury 
in Samaria which was denounced by the Hebrew prophets. 


AFTERNOON. 


Miss Kitson CLarK.—Some invasions of Yorkshire. 


The superficial geography of Yorkshire is particularly marked, and has 
greatly influenced the history and prehistory of the county. Distribution 
maps of selected periods show that the same causes lead to the same effect. 
At the same time they make clear the difference between penetration by 
a primitive race and invasion by a civilised nation. Comparison of the 
Early Iron Age, the Roman and the Anglo-Saxon Ages illustrates this point 
in Yorkshire. 


Dr. A. RatstricK—Roman West Yorkshire. 


This paper puts on record several finds of Roman coins, fragments of 
pottery, etc., that have been discovered at various times in Craven, West 
Yorkshire—i.e., roughly, the country between Wensleydale and Nidderdale 
on the north, Ribblesdale on the west, and the Elslack-Ilkley Roman road 
onthe south. Some of these finds have received casual comment in the past; 


368 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


but none have yet been adequately recorded. The finds of coins are from 
several localities in upper Wharfedale, between Kettlewell and Grassington, 
from some of the caves, Dowkerbottom, Victoria, Kelco, etc., and in 
Nidderdale. The possible dates of the coins found reveal a curious hiatus 
present over the whole area—separating two main periods in each of which 
there are several coins to represent each emperor’s reign. The coins lie 
in the two groups of dates A.D. 54-187 and A.D. 250-380, with no repre- 
sentatives of the gap A.D. 187-250. ‘The remains of mining activity lie in 
the earlier group of dates, three pigs of Roman lead from the area having 
dates A.D. 81, 81, and 98. The tracing of this gap over wider areas and its 
interpretation are reserved for further work, though it would seem to offer 
strong corroboration of the rebellion on the Pennine area, suggested by 
Collingwood and Haverfield, around a general date A.D. 155. The second 
important feature of these finds is the support they give to the suggestion 
of a Roman road down Wharfedale from Bainbridge camp to Ilkley camp. 
The sites of the finds have been mapped, and cluster markedly around a 
line along which at various points, Grassington, Cray, Hebden, and Apple- 
treewick, ancient road foundations have been excavated at depths up to ro ft. 
below present ground level, many of the finds being actually on this line 
of old road. Over Stake, and near Cray, this old road is still well preserved, 
and affords a pleasant by-pass from the busier modern roads. Along this 
line are large areas of Romano-British settlement, at Kettlewell, between 
Kettlewell and Coniston, at Grassington, and near Appletreewick, from 
which quantities of pottery and other objects have been excavated. This 
road would pass by Addingham and Middleton to Ilkley, and continue after 
crossing the river as the long-known Roman road along Otley Chevin to 
the camp near Adel. f 


Mr. A. L. ARMSTRONG.—Discovery of rolled Aurignacian tools in a boulder 
clay of North Lincolnshire. 


Dr. AxEL BorTuius.—Domestic architecture under the Roman Empire. 


Visit to places of interest in York. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to Pickering and Sleight Moors, Whitby and Scarborough, 
to examine relics of early man and evidences of glaciation. 


Monday, September 5. 


Joint Discussion with Section C (Geology, g.v.) on The contacts of 
geology : the Ice Age and early man in Britain. 


Miss A. I. RicHarps.—The Babemba tribe of N.E. Rhodesia. 


Mrs. Ropert AITKEN.—The Kivas at Hano. 


Hano, near the Hopi village of Walpi, Arizona, is a settlement of Tewa 
and ano elements from New Mexico. Hano kivas are influenced in form, 
use and ownership by Hopi custom. The existence of two kivas only 
in Hano at present is fortuitous, and not connected historically with the 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 369 


New Mexican moiety system ; there is evidence for the existence of a larger 
number in recent times. 


Miss E. D. Eartoy.—The tribes of Mogambique. 


The Mogambique tribes have been classified by Aires d’Ornelas, 
Pereira Cabral, Schapera, Junod (Thonga) and Torday. 

The classification accepted in the Anthropological examination for the 
post of Administrador (native commissioner) is as follows : 

Divisions of the Bantu race living in the colony of Mocambique, from 
north to south: Macua, Mocaranga, Thonga, Zulu (Portuguese spelling 
employed in this list) : 

Macua : Subdivisions—Macuas, Malomués, Makondes, Mavias, Borores. 
Mocaranga : Subdivisions—Massengas (Asenga), Maraves, Macanjos, 
Maganjas, Massingires, Machonas, Manicos, BaNyai (and VaNdau). 
Thonga : Subdivisions—BaTonga, MChopes (BaChopi), Maguambas, 

Mabaluecos, Valengues (VaLenge), Matembes, Maputos, Mabaloios, 
Cossas, Bilas, Rongas. 
Zulu : Subdivisions—Vatuas, Mafites, Matabele, Angonis, Ajaus (Yao). 

Pereira Cabral uses the alternative term Landin for the Ronga (not for the 
Angoni), and the tribal name Ronga for the Thonga. 

The BaZaruto of the Islands are not mentioned in any classification, 
but are ethnologically important. 

The VaNdau of Sofala are scattered remnants of the BaRozwi and 
MakKaranga. 

There are a few Bushmen families living on the banks of the Aluize 
(Inhambane district). 

Some tribes are noted for their initiation ceremonies and scarification. 

Most are clever at handicrafts (pottery, basket-making, wood-carving, 
metal-work). 

The main occupations are hunting, fishing and agriculture. 


Dr. M. A. Murray.—The Royal Tail-Festival in ancient Egypt. 


The ‘totem’ of the invading dynastic kings was the falcon; the in- 
digenous ruling house had a cattle-totem. When therefore the foreign 
conqueror intermarried with the native royal house he had to join his wife’s 
tribe and adopt her totem. The Tail-festival was the initiation of the king 
into the Cattle-tribe, when a tail was affixed to his girdle to show that he 
had become a bull. 


Prof. V. Sux.—(i) Human races on the basis of serological tests. 


The present paper is the outcome of over 3,000 precipitation tests and 
over 4,000 blood groupings. 

1. On the basis of the precipitation tests the biological value of the 
different races is discussed. For the present study the serum from Eskimos, 
Kalmucks, Gipsies, European Jews and different Europeans— nordic,’ 
‘alpine,’ ‘ dinaric,’ etc.—was used ; we had fifteen antisera and twenty-five 
sera at our disposal, and dilutions up to 1 in 20,000 were used. As a result 
of these studies the following conclusions were arrived at: all the different 
European ‘ races,’ like the ‘ nordic,’ the ‘ alpine,’ the ‘ dinaric,’ etc., ‘ race,’ 
are not true races at all, but only types or not fully established races in process 
of making. Only those distinct and geographically separated groups, 
the Eskimos and the Kalmucks, and the Eskimos and the Europeans 


370 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 


as a whole gave well-marked differences. Hence ‘nordic,’ ‘alpine,’ ‘ dinaric,’ 
etc., have not the immunologic specificity of the old races like Mongols, 
Negroes, etc. 

2. The results on blood groups are based on more than 4,000 cases, and 
the general results of our work on blood groups with regard to the different 
anthropological traits, as, for instance, colour of eyes, colour of hair, seem 
to lead to the conclusion that the racial significance of blood groups is but 
very small and that, at least, it has been grossly overrated. Our previous 
studies on the decay of teeth amongst different races led us to the investiga- 
tion of the condition of teeth with regard to blood groups. Amongst the 
3,000 records on blood groups from Brno we had 700 young men between 
the ages of eighteen and twenty-two whose teeth we were able to examine. 
Generally speaking, we found the highest percentage of faultless teeth 
amongst people with blood group I (8 agglutinogen), and the same holds 
true for sets of teeth with very little decay. This investigation gives a 
strong hint that blood groups seem to belong to the constitutional qualities, 
and therefore can be found all over the world. 


(ii) Eyebrows and eyelashes in man. 


The present paper is the outcome of nearly 600 observations on eyebrows 
and eyelashes made by one of our students, Mr. Rozprym, of the Anthro- 
pological Institute, Masaryk University in Brno, Czechoslovakia. Mr. 
Rozprym studied the different forms—colour of eyebrows and eyelashes in 
relation to sex and age, and also with regard to heredity, and arrived 
at the following conclusions: (1) There are several forms of eyebrows 
which do not change with the age of the subject. (2) The position of the 
eyebrows in relation to the upper orbital margin depends on age, for with 
advancing age the eyebrows sink below the upper margin of the orbit. (3) 
Amongst the common forms of eyebrows a distinct sexual dimorphism has 
been observed, the ‘ even’ form being found in 70 per cent. in women and 
the ‘ double’ form in 71 per cent.in men. (4) The colour of the eyebrows 
occurs in the same shades as the colour of the hair, is independent of the 
form of eyebrows, and is hereditary. (5) There are only very few forms of 
eyelashes, yet the noticeably long and curved eyelashes are decidedly an 
infantile form, fall out during the age of puberty and are replaced by an adult 
form. There is no correlation between the colour of eyelashes and the colour 
of eyebrows and of hair, for quite blond types have dark eyelashes. ‘The 
longest eyelashes are in the upper lid and in front of the pupilar opening of 
the eye. It would be of great interest to follow up this study amongst 
different races of mankind—Negroes, Mongols, Ainus, Weddahs, etc. ; in 
other words, to study it in races with very little and very much hair. And 
in addition to this a thorough survey of these characters in apes and monkeys 
should be of very much interest and value. 


AFTERNOON. 
Jont Discussion with Section D (Zoology, g.v.) on The Primates and 
early man. 


Dr. Cyrit Fox.—The frontier dykes of Wales. 


A survey of the running earthworks of the Welsh Marches has been in 
progress for seven years. 

These earthworks, linked with natural obstacles, form a continuous 
frontier from the estuary of the Dee to the estuary of the Severn, a distance 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. Sra 


as the crow flies of some 120 miles. They are closely related to the natural 
division between highland and lowland, and are the work of the lowlanders. 

The chief work is Offa’s Dyke. This is duplicated in the north of the 
frontier by Wat’s Dyke, which extends for some 30 miles. In addition, 
short cross-valley and cross-ridge dykes are widespread in the central 
region crossed by the main work. 

Evidence supporting the attribution of this main work to King Offa, 
757-796, has been obtained by excavation. It is held to be probable that 
the whole series are Mercian, and of the period c. A.D. 700-850. 

Interesting facts bearing on the distribution of forest and agricultural 
land in the eighth century in the Welsh Marches, and on the constructional 
technique of these running earthworks have been obtained in the course 
of the survey and will be referred to. 


Mr. J. P. WiLLIaMs-FREEMAN.— The Chichester earthworks. 


Miss G. Caton-THompPSON.—Recent discoveries in Kharga Oasis. 


Field work has established along Palzolithic sequence covering Acheulean, 
Acheuleo-Levallois, Middle Palzolithic (pre-Sebilian), Aterian, Capsian 
to Capso-Tardenoisean, and Neolithic. The pre-Sebilian is an interesting 
and apparently new facies of Mousterian culture. ‘These industries were 
all found in situ, in dead springs, gravels, or silts, enabling close relative 
dating for local physiographic stages throughout the Pleistocene. ‘Thus 
tufa deposits, hitherto undated in Egypt, are-shown to synchronise with 
Acheulean to pre-Sebilian times, but to extend no later. Moister conditions 
undoubtedly prevailed from the Acheulean to Aterian (early Upper Palzo- 
lithic) period, when reversion to a norm of aridity, witnessed for pre-human 
times by breccias and loess-like deposits, and suitable to lat. 25° N., becomes 
marked. The oncoming of the dune-belts occurs between Aterian and 
Capsian times. Neolithic man, whose great flint-mines and hearth- 
mounds were explored, was finally driven from the depression by failure 
of the Pleistocene springs, discovered in 1930-31 and re-examined last 
season. The region appears to have been abandoned until the sixth 
century B.Cc., when the Persians refertilised it by means of deep artesian 
borings, and inaugurated the classical period of Kharga’s prosperity. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Mr. J. G. D. Crark.—The Mesolithic Age in Britain. 


Mr. A. Leste ARMSTRONG.—The pre-Tardenots and Tardenois cultures of 
North Lincolnshire. 


Researches in North Lincolnshire have revealed a series of stratified 
sections and occupation sites, forming a continuous sequence of industries, 
embracing late Upper Palzolithic and the whole of the Mesolithic periods. 
The earliest of these is a late Developed Aurignacian (Creswellian) station, 
discovered by Mrs. E. H. Rudkin, on the western escarpment of the 
Lincolnshire Cliff, above Willoughton, excavated in February of this year, 
and which yielded a wide range of characteristic tools and other evidence. 

Sheffield’s Hill, near Scunthorpe, is a similar occupation site, but of later 
date than that of Willoughton, evidencing the final phase of the native 
Developed Aurignacian culture upon which the early Tardenois culture 
was imposed. Risby Warren, Scunthorpe, as a result of eleven years’ 


372 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H. 


systematic research, has provided evidence of a stratified sequence of 
occupation levels ranging from the latest phase of Developed Aurignacian 
(Creswellian) at its base, free from Tardenois influences, to the earliest 
Neolithic; also successive Neolithic and Bronze Age occupations. 
Tardenois culture is represented by several horizons and can be broadly 
classified as early and late. By reason of the extent of this site, the abund- 
ance of stratified material and the numerous occupation zones representative 
of the whole 'Tardenois period, it is claimed that Risby Warren is the type 
station for this culture in England. 


Rev. H. G. Wittiams.—Pygmy flints from the Cleveland Hills. 


Introduction.—How I first became interested in prehistoric flints in 1927. 
Bransdale and Farndale the scene of my researches. How I was led to 
discover my first pygmy site at Farndale Head: abundance of flint on this 
particular part of moor. Ignorance at first. Specimens sent to British 
Museum and information received. Interest aroused and greater and more 
intensive search made. Most of pygmies found on surface. Later on flint 
found under turf by digging. Best specimens, however, on surface. 
Turf in most places not deep. Sand underneath and pygmies lying on 
sand or just in turf. Further discoveries made about half a mile to the 
east of the site. Odd chippings found, but in no great quantity. A site 
discovered on Blakey Ridge. Cores and flakes fairly abundant, but im- 
plements scarce. Flint here mostly white. A few implements found near 
Danby by Mr. R. W. Crosland and forwarded to Middlesbrough Museum. 
Further discoveries made in Bransdale.. Pygmy flakes found above Stork 
House onmoor, but notabundant. Apparently sites on this moor, but unable 
to locate them. Only two or three good specimens found, the best being a 
knife and a‘ needle.’ In 1931 more chippings found in another direction 
by one of the dalesmen. Nosearchmade. Tosumup: little digging done, 
finds mostly on surface and comprising the following : cores, knives, small 
triangles, ‘needles,’ gravers, scrapers, points, etc., few micro-gravers 
and burins, and two or three thumb flints (small). 


Mr. F. BuckLtey.—Mesolithic artifacts from the Pennine Chain. 


Not much of the Pennine Chain has yet been thoroughly searched for 
traces of Mesolithic occupation. Conclusions must therefore be drawn 
from excavations on specially favoured sites—e.g. at both ends of the 
Standedge Ridge (Yorks.), where the whole Chain narrows down to 
a single ridge. Mesolithic man was bound to pass that way, if he avoided 
the valleys. In the peat are found stray Bronze Age and Neolithic tools ; 
in the soil under the peat the occupation sites of various, Mesolithic peoples 
have been excavated. These contain the relics of two distinct races of 
Tardenois folk, called locally the ‘ Narrow Blade’ and the ‘ Broad Blade’ 
industries. The former made numerous small geometric tools, perhaps 
as teeth for harpoons; they used open-air encampments and wandered 
freely over all the hills. The ‘ Broad Blade’ people made few geometric 
tools, but many pointed blades. They travelled only along the watershed 
ridge, and erected huts or wigwams on their camping sites. "The Micro- 
Graver is common to both industries; small Angle Gravers and True 
Gravers are found. The hearths have yielded wood remains, giving data 
as to tree distribution in Mesolithic times. 


DISCUSSION on papers previously communicated. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 373 


AFTERNOON. 


Rev. Dr. E. O. James.—Folklore and archeology in north-west Spain and 
Portugal. 


Certain legends of the Santiago type connected with pilgrimage centres 
in North-West Spain and Portugal collected during recent visits to the 
district are discussed in relation to their archzological setting. In Galicia 
and the adjoining region south of the Minho falling in Portugal, there 
is evidence of important ancient settlements, connected in many cases with 
mining operations and megalithic monuments, having had a continuous 
occupation from the early periods of the Bronze Age to Christian times. 
Around these centres a sacred tradition has collected, the analysis of which 
throws some light on the anthropological and historical causes which gave 
rise to the sites and have made them places of pilgrimage throughout the 
ages. The development illustrates how a tradition may be raised to new 
activity by the impact of extraneous cultural influences and so acquire 
a new functional value. 


Rev. Canon J. A. MacCu.tocu.—Were fairies an actual race of men? 


Were fairies ghosts of an earlier race? They are connected with burial- 
mounds, and parallels exist between fairies and ghosts. On the whole, 
they are distinct in origin, though the Brownie (house-fairy) may be an 
exception. Were fairies an actual race transmuted—Neolithic men, Picts, 
or an earlier pygmy folk? Pygmies in tradition and fact. Their likeness 
tofairies. Folk-tales about dwarfs and, to a less extent, about fairies suggest 
an actual people. Examples—dislike of a higher civilisation ; migration 
legends ; underground dwellings; dislike of iron; stone weapons and 
fairies. 

Some traits of dwarfs and fairies suggest an early race. Others are 
animistic in origin. Even where groups of elfin beings (Polynesian, 
Melanesian, African) seem to be transmuted human folk, they have non- 
human traits. An early pygmy race cannot be the sole cause of belief in 
fairies. ‘Traits of elfin beings are also those of supernatural groups with 
no human ancestry. 

The fairy creed suggests animistic or pre-animistic ideas attached now 
to groups of imaginary beings, now to races viewed traditionally. Man 
regards the beings of his belief as like himself. There has been interaction 
between animistic beliefs in imaginary beings and traditions of earlier 
races regarded more and more from an animistic point of view. 


Mr. I. C. Peate.—Welsh folk culture. 


Welsh culture is essentially a peasant culture, and is based to a large 
extent upon love of craftsmanship. The craftsmen have always been 
considered the pillars of the rural society, and their craft is a tradition 
handed down from father to son through countless generations. A case 
in point is that of the wood-turners, who still produce wooden utensils of 
designs strongly reminiscent of prehistoric prototypes from, e.g., the Swiss 
lake shore dwellings. In the same way, the Welsh quilters work upon 
patterns which revert to medieval times, if not earlier, while many of the 
customs associated with carpentry, etc., are almost certainly of pre-Christian 
origin and may be compared with similar practices in Brittany. ‘The same 
emphasis upon craftsmanship is to be noticed in the spiritual life of the 
people. Poetry has been looked upon as primarily a craft practised by a 


374 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H, I. 


select class of bards who had to conform to strict regulations and undergo 
set tests. "The development of the Welsh strict metres affords an interest- 
ing study in literary craftsmanship of an extremely high order. In post- 
Reformation times this love of craftsmanship found expression in (amongst 
other things) the perfection of pulpit oratory and in the development of the 
Eisteddfod as a venue for folk expression. 


Dr. A. H. Smitu.—A survey of Yorkshire place-names. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Mr. O. Davies.—Mining in Greece in pre-classical times, 


The paper makes an attempt to collect our knowledge on the sources of 
gold, silver, copper, tin and iron in Greece in the Bronze and early Iron 
Ages. It embodies a number of the author’s own discoveries in this field on 
Greek soil, and also investigates how far these metals at various dates were 
imported from abroad. Some attempt is also made to discuss the method- 
ology of the subject, particularly in regard to testing the source of ancient 
specimens of copper by means of the impurities they contain. 


Mr. M. E. L. Mattowan.—The prehistoric civilisations of Nineveh. 
British Museum Excavations, 1931-32. 


During the season 1931-32 Dr. Campbell Thompson, Director of the 
British Museum Expedition to Nineveh, financed by Sir Charles Hyde, 
entrusted me with the task of making a prehistoric sondage of Quyunjik. 
Mrs. Campbell ‘Thompson and my wife assisted us in drawing the pottery. 

We dug down through no less than g2 ft. to virgin soil. Of the total 
depth, 72 ft. represented the prehistoric period, an accumulation probably 
greater than any yet dug in the Middle East. 

Our classification of the material comprises five distinct cultures: 
Ninevite 1-5. 

Ninevite 5.—The latest culture ; wheel-made painted pottery, remark- 
able incised pottery, Sumerian seal impressions, c. 3000 B.C. 

Ninevite 4.—Erech red slip ware, seal impressions of the Jemdet Nasr 
period, c. 4000 B.c. 

Ninevite 3.—Infant burials in urns, grey burnished pottery, seal im- 
pressions with exquisite animal drawings, earliest Ninevite examples of 
metal. 

Ninevite 2.—Brilliant painted pottery in three colours on a burnished 
slip. These show affinities with the early ware of Carchemish and Tall 
Halaf, but the pottery from the latter site is probably a late stage of 
a development not found at Nineveh. The earlier stages bore affinities to 
the Samarra ware. 

Ninevite 1.—Coarse plain and incised ware, cannot be placed much later 
than 5000 B.c. 


SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY. 


No meetings of this Section were held, in view of the XIVth Inter- 
national Physiological Congress at Rome. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 375 


SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY. 


Thursday, September 1. 


Discussion on The interim report of the committee on the reliability of the 
criteria used for assessing the value of Vocational Tests. (Mr. E. 
FARMER.) 


Joint Discussion with Section A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences, 
g.v.) on The quantitative relation of physical stimuli and sensory 
events. 


AFTERNOON. 
(Section meeting in two divisions.) 
Division i. 


Dr. J.W. Cox.—Some experiments in formal training in the acquisition of 
skill, 


(1) The problems.—The ‘ transfer’ problem is generally stated: ‘ How 
far does the training of any mental function improve other mental functions ?’ 
The answer may depend on (1) the kind of ‘ training,’ which may vary from 
mechanical unaided repetition (‘ practice ’) to skilled instruction (‘ training ’ 
proper), (2) the function trained, (3) the relation of (2) to the ‘ other’ 
function, and (4) the modus operandi of the ‘ transfer.’ The experiments 
were planned to examine these problems in the field of manual assembly 
operations. 

(2) General method—I1. The ‘ practice’ experiment.—(a) All subjects 
were tested initially on a number of manual operations of varying com- 
plexity. (5) They were then divided into groups, each of which practised 
daily a different operation. (c) On completing their ‘ practice’ all were 
re-tested as in (a). A further ‘ control’ group did (a) and (c), but not (6). 

II. The ‘ training’ experiment.—The same procedure was then followed 
by a new group, with the exception that (b) now took the form of ‘ training ’ 
based on introspective analysis of the former ‘ practice’ and of approximately 
the same length, and a further period of ‘ practice’ at another operation 
followed (c). 

(3) Subjects—Experiment I. ‘Adults’: 33 practisers, 17 controls ; 
Schoolboys : 40 practisers, 38 controls. Experiment II. ‘ Adults’: 
36 trainees, 18 controls. 

(4) Results —Graphical and statistical examination of scores indicated a 
“transfer ’ effect in II, but nowhere in I. Trained subjects also did better 
than controls of equal initial ability in the subsequent ‘ practice,’ both as 
regards ‘ ability ’ and ‘ rate of progress.’ 

(5) Discussion on the interpretation and significance of the results in 
relation to the above problems. 


Mr. H. E. O. James.—The estimation of the directions of sounds. 


Dr. J. D. SuTHERLAND.—Quickness and intelligence. 


The use of time-limit tests with instructions to work at high speed has 
raised important questions—viz. the validity of such measures as measures 


376 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 


of intelligence, and the related problem of a factor of quickness existing 
independently of intelligence. Previous work shows that the time-limit does 
not invalidate the measure. On the second question evidence is conflicting, 
but data are presented showing that such a factor does not exist in any 
noteworthy amount. 


Division 2. 


Dr. F. W. EpripGe-GRreENn, C.B.E.—The relation of the classification of the 
colour-blind to the tests for colour-blindness. 


The classification of mankind according to the number of colours seen in 
the spectrum—namely, heptachromic, hexachromic, pentachromic, tetra- 
chromic, trichromic, dichromic, and absolutely colour-blind—is a very real 
classification and does not involve any theory. In addition we have those 
with a defect of light perception—namely, shortening of the red or violet end 
of the spectrum or defect in light perception of any portion of the spec- 
trum. ‘These defects are quite distinct from those in which the luminosity 
curve is normal. For practical purposes we are only concerned with the 
dichromic and trichromic—namely, those who see two or three colours in the 
spectrum respectively, and those who have shortening of the red end of the 
spectrum, preventing them from seeing a red light at the requisite distance. 

A properly constructed lantern and spectrometer are perfectly efficient 
tests, especially when combined. ‘This applies to all grades of colour vision, 
even a comparison between the normal and supernormal. 

It is obvious that a man cannot pick out a colour which he cannot see, 
neither will he be able to recognise the colour of the light when shown in 
the lantern. 


Mr. W. O’D. Pierce.—Individual differences in colour discrimination. 


The National Institute of Industrial Psychology, at the request of a colour 
printing firm, undertook the investigation of individual differences in 
colour discrimination. An account of the preliminary work has been given 
by Mr. Hudson Davies in British Association Report (1928), p. 606. The 
colour test described has been given to over 400 individuals ; of whom 147 
Were experienced colour workers, 81 were without colour discrimination 
experience, and 40 worked under unusual dark room conditions. 

The results on the test show that the experienced workers always give 
better average results than workers without colour experience. A high 
correlation was found between the ranking on colour discrimination and 
results on the test for industrial colour workers. Dark room experience 
was found to lower the colour discrimination of the worker. Previous 
training in discrimination was found to aid workers in carrying out the test. 
The results show that although experienced colour workers do better on the 
test, the colour discrimination of many of these workers was much lower 
than the discrimination of the best untrained workers. The workers 
tested were drawn from the artificial silk, cotton, wool, and colour printing 
industries. The results obtained show that the test can be used to select 
workers to meet the varying requirements of these different industries. 

The test indicates the following types of individual colour differences : 
(a) Differences in total colour discrimination for red, yellow and blue 
colours; (b) Differences in the score on each colour series with the same 
total colour discrimination ; (c) Differences in the variations made on repeti- 
tion of the test: some subjects improve steadily, other subjects vary 
without improvement and some subjects give relatively constant scores ; 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 377 


(d) Variations in the after-image responses of different individuals to colour 
stimulation. The after-excitation effects were shown to lower the colour 
discrimination of some subjects. 


Dr. M. Cotiins.—Variations of colour memory with wave-length. 


A series of experiments has been carried out over a period on colour 
memory. Colours of different wave-length, ranging over the entire 
spectrum, were learned and tested at intervals for immediate and permanent 
memory. Difficulties in learning were encountered at various wave-lengths. 
If the results are graphed, the graph shows a peak of difficulty beginning at 
\ 670 and rising higher at \ 660, a greater peak about A 545 with its summa- 
tion at \ 535, and a third smaller peak in the region of blue. Representative 
colours in the red, green, blue and yellow regions were also tested under 
conditions of dark adaptation, the eye being dark-adapted (a) for five 
minutes, (b) for thirty minutes. 


Friday, September 2. 
Dr. W. Brown.—Suggestion, hypnotism and the will. 


The contrast between will and suggestion is brought to a point in the 
so-called law of reversed effort—‘ Where the will and the imagination are 
in conflict, the imagination always wins.’ In this statement the word ‘ will ” 
must refer to ‘ effortful wish,’ rather than to the completed act of will, and 
it is found that suggestion treatment can often strengthen will-power by 
contributing to an adequate control of the imagination, enabling the indi-. 
vidual to envisage and imagine success with an adequate degree of vividness. 
Autosuggestion, in a state of mental and physical relaxation, can in some 
cases bring about a remarkable facilitation of the will-act, followed by per- 
manent effects. This is due to its influence on deep-seated springs of 
action in the subconscious. 

In a still more striking way hypnotism may in certain instances reorientate 
subconscious psychical forces to produce a transformation of character and. 
a corresponding enhancement of will-power in certain directions. 


Prof. R. H. WHEELER.—A comparison of Gestalt with other modern trends. 


Part I deals with the historical background of Gestalt psychology, 
emphasising the reasons, both theoretical and experimental, why a revolution 
is occurring in the science. 

Part II contrasts Gestalt psychology with associationism, conation 
psychology, Freudian psychology, neogenetic psychology, self-psychology, 
and behaviourism. In this section, also, it is explained why Gestalt psycho- 
logy has been so universally misunderstood and, therefore, misrepresented 
by its critics. 

Part III contains a brief summary of the principles of the new psychology, 
and, an effort to correlate it with developments among other sciences, 
including physics, general biology, physiology, neurology, and social 
science. Many modern writers are sensing a new era in human thought 
which will express itself in the recovery of orthodox scientific and social 
theory from its present chaos. Gestalt psychology is presented as one 
phase of a new enlightenment, going back in part, but not wholly, to the 
point of view of the ancient Greeks, 


378 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—J. 


Mr. R. Knicut.—How animals behave. 


Most people believe that some animals, like dogs, cats, horses, elephants 
and monkeys, have minds ofasort. But this belief is a precarious inference, 
not a fact which we directly observe. Scientists, like Kéhler and Lloyd 
Morgan, who attempt to justify it, usually argue, not from physiological 
similarities between men and animals, but from observations of animal 
behaviour. They urge that some of the responses of animals to new 
situations, and to training, are such as could arise only from mental activity. 
In this way K6hler tries to show that chimpanzees possess ‘ insight,’ and 
Lloyd Morgan to persuade us that some animals enjoy not only sensation 
and perception but also retrospection, reflection, and forethought. This 
method of reasoning, however, is full of pitfalls, and a critical examination 
of the crucial examples put forward by those who believe in animal minds 
makes it plain that they are inconclusive. And, on the contrary, recent 
experiments in the training of animals, carried out in the Department of 
Comparative Psychology in Aberdeen University, showed once again how 
comprehensive trial-and-error is in animal behaviour, how large a part is 
played by conditioned reflexes, how adequate is the Pavlovian thesis, and 
how easily animals can acquire an entirely undeserved reputation for 
intelligence and other mental characteristics. 


AFTERNOON. 
(Section meeting in two divisions.) 
Division 1. 
Jomnt Discuss1on with Section L (Educational Science) on Industrial 
psychology and psychological selection in York (Dr. V. Moorrexs ; 


Dr. Nortucott; Dr. C. W. Kimmins; Sir RIcHARD GREGORY, 
Bart.) :— 


Dr. V. Moorrees.—Some aspects of psychology as applied at the Cocoa 
Works in York. 


Dr. Norrucotr.—A statistical note on the results of psychological 
selection at the Cocoa Works, York. 


During the years 1923-31 inclusive, 1,287 individual girls have been 
engaged by Rowntree & Co., Ltd., after psychological tests. Of these, 
I22 or 9°5 per cent. proved inefficient and were dismissed. Analysing 
these 122, we find 58 were engaged on the responsibility of the Employment 
Department, without the concurrence and in some cases against the advice 
of the psychologist. ‘The remainder were recommended but proved to be 
failures, 21 of them on grounds mainly of character and temperament, the 
others being straight contradictions between forecast and result. Before 
the application of psychological tests, 19:5 per cent. were proved, on the 
experience of 2,002 girls engaged in 1919-22, to be misfits. Psychological 
selection has practically halved the number of misfits, and, judged purely 
by degree of variance between forecast and workroom results, has been 
right in 95 per cent. of instances. 


Mr. J. A. FRAser.—Incentives to learning an industrial process. 


A study was made of five groups of workers engaged in learning a pattern- 
assembling process under industrial conditions. The groups commenced 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—J. 379 


learning at different times, and were subjected to different conditions of 
incentive. 
Data were obtained relative to the effect upon rate of learning of : 

(a) a time-rate basis of payment ; 

(6) an appeal made to the workers for increased output ; 

(c) a monetary reward paid to one worker who responded to the appeal 
by increasing output by 40 per cent. ; 

(d) the introduction of a piece-rate system of payment ; 

(e) the age and previous earnings of the workers. 

The following conclusions are suggested : 

(a) that, as an incentive to learning the industrial process concerned, a 
time-rate basis of payment was ineffective ; 

(6) that an appeal elicited a favourable response from one worker only ; 

(c) that anticipation of a monetary reward did not produce a favourable 
response from all workers, nor was a favourable response always 
immediate ; 

(d) that the introduction of a piece-rate system of payment produced 
immediately a favourable response from most workers; 

(e) that the effectiveness of an incentive was, to some extent, dependent 
upon the age and social responsibilities of the workers. 


Division 2. 
Mr. R. J. BartLett.—The difference threshold for lifted weights. 


Working with arithmetical and geometrical series of weights by methods 
of fractionation, ranking and standard comparison, it was found that : 

(1) The nature of the field is of prime importance. Actual results 
from small containers differ greatly from those from large con- 
tainers weighted similarly, but obey the same laws. 

(2) Apparently, for any given set of containers uniform in size, 
shape and appearance, there is a zone of weight to which we are 
accustomed and adapted. In this zone Weber’s law holds. 

(3) The threshold is a summation of ‘ constant error’ and ‘ scatter 
error.’ 

(4) Outside the ‘Weber zone’ the ‘constant error’ is the more 
important factor. 

(5) The ‘ constant error’ is a regression towards a value, within the 
‘Weber zone,’ coincident with the ‘ expected weight’ of the 
given container. 

(6) With practice the regression diminishes and the ‘ Weber zone’ 
extends. 

(7) The law of regression, using geometric units, is of the form 
y=cx®, where y is the regression, x the deviation of stimulus from 
the datum value of (5), and c a constant. 

(8) This cubic law holds for published results of the lower values for 
brightness, sound intensity, and pitch. 

(9) The ‘scatter error’ about the ‘ best equal value ’ approximates to 
Weber’s law, but would seem to decrease slowly as the stimulus 
scale is ascended. 


Dr. J. O. Inwin.—A critical discussion of the single factor theory. 


The theory of the single General Factor (Spearman’s ‘ g ’) has been used 
extensively in the field of mental tests. While the vanishing of the ‘ tetrad 


380 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS. J. 


differences ’ is a necessary and sufficient condition for the existence of a 
single general factor, three theoretical difficulties arise. The first is the 
difficulty of the sampling problem, but this is not discussed in the present 
paper. The second difficulty is that the condition that the ‘ tetrad differ- 
ences ’ should vanish is not sufficient to determine ‘ g’ uniquely. Some 
experimental work is given to show the effect this would be likely to have in 
practice. ‘The third difficulty is that if new test scores are formed by linear 
combinations of the old, even if the ‘tetrad differences’ vanish for the new 
scores, the latter will not necessarily lead us to the same value of ‘ g’ as the 
old. ‘Those linear transformations for which ‘ g’ is invariant should have 
a particular psychological importance. 


Dr. S. J. F. Poitpotr.—An approximation to a theoretical curve of output. 


It has been suggested by the present writer (‘ Fluctuations in Human 
Output,’ B.7.P. Mon. Supp., 1932) that the curve of output can be expressed 
as the sum of a large series of waves. Necessary conditions seem to be that 
the periods concerned shall be whole number multiples of a common unit, 
and that the waves converge on a common trough somewhere near the 
origin of the curve. 

In arriving at an approximate outline for such a curve, waves were assumed 
of periods 2 to 360 times the common unit, inclusive. Amplitude 
measures were, however, not calculated in the ordinary way. With so large 
a number of waves, it seemed sufficient to assume that the mean amplitude 
over any given short length of curve should be inversely proportional to 
the number of waves therein coming to the centres of troughs. 

Comparisons between the curve so obtained and actual output curves 
show that there are definite points of resemblance. 


Sunday, September 4. 
Visit to the Retreat Mental Hospital. 


Monday, September 5. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADprREss by Prof. B. EDGELL on Current constructive theories 
in Psychology. (See p. 169.) 


Prof. W. McDoueaL, F.R.S.—A third report on a Lamarckian experiment. 


Since my second report, made in 1929, the stock of rats trained to a 
specific task has shown further increase of facility, the thirtieth generation 
making in the curve of training twenty errors per rat, where the ancestral 
stock made 148 errors. This report is mainly concerned with experiments 
designed to test two questions: (a) Can this increased facility be due to 
“social transmission? (5b) Can it be due to favourable selection? 'The 
experiments of the former group are of three kinds: (1) omitting training 
of one or more generations; (2) rearing under foster-mothers ; (3) cross- 
breeding females of untrained stock with males of trained stock. The 
latter experiment consists in practising strongly adverse selection on eleven 
generations during training. Facility continues to increase under training 
in spite of adverse selection. 


Dr. T, G. MarrLanp,— Disorientation and vertigo. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 381 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Dr. E. MILLER.—Temperamental differences in the behaviour disorders of 
children. 


It is important in the study of behaviour in children to determine what is 
due to the emotional disturbance and what is due to the constitutional 
peculiarities of the child. Every child is born into the world with a tem- 
peramental bias, which colours its responses to life and its situations. 

Apart from this general consideration it is necessary to discover who are 
the candidates for the varieties of behaviour disorders—that is, whether sub- 
jective or neurotic disorders are found amongst one or other temperamental 
groups or types, and whether delinquency occurs in those with a specific 
temperamental make-up. A research is described which attempts to 
discover whether descriptive clinical categories agreed with the findings 
during test situations of temperamental peculiarities. Mobility, prudence, 
and persistence were taken as temperamental types of reaction appearing 
from a study of the history of a case and from the behaviour during tests 
situations (Binet Simon and Performance Tests). It was found as a 
result of observations and scoring during test periods that age correlated 
poorly with mobility, but well with prudence and persistence. Further, that 
prudence and persistence correlated with one another well, but mobility 
less well with prudence and persistence. While there was a general agree- 
ment with these test period findings and the clinical investigations, there 
was room for the working out of tests for temperament of a more or less 
quantitative type based upon clinical observation, which would show up 
basic temperamental endowment independent of the specific emotional 
disturbances. 


Miss L. G. Firpes.—The relation between educational backwardness and 
behaviour difficulties in children. 


Children who exhibit markedly antisocial or asocial behaviour are apt to 
suffer from educational backwardness (i.e. to be more behind in their school 
work than their mental ability warrants) much more than socially adjusted 
children. Clinical examination of over a thousand cases of problem children 
reveals backwardness in over 50 per cent. of the cases. 

Attempts to analyse the reasons for this situation suggest two main types 
of relationship between backwardness and difficult behaviour : 

(a) Cases in which the backwardness itself, determined by environmental 
factors, is the cause of unacceptable conduct ; 

(6) Cases in which the backwardness is only one form of maladjustment, 
and is not its main determinant. 


Suggestions for the prevention and handling of backwardness rest on 
a realisation of the causative factors in any particular case. 


Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S.— Recent evidence of the value of 
vocational guidance. 


Nearly every civilised country is adopting ‘improvements’ in vocational 
guidance, founded on scientific experiment and systematic method. But 
hardly any of those countries which have introduced these ‘ improvements ’ 
have taken steps to ascertain and to demonstrate exactly how far they are 
really superior to the older, more haphazard methods. In Great Britain more 
determined attempts have been made than elsewhere to fill this important. 


382 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 


gap in our knowledge. Eight investigations have recently been conducted, 
and are here considered—seven of them wholly or conjointly by the National 
Institute of Industrial Psychology, three of them incomplete, and seven of 
them with the express object of ascertaining the value of the newer methods 
of vocational guidance as compared with the older. In three of these eight 
investigations ‘ control’ groups were formed, consisting of individuals who 
received only the current methods of vocational guidance. These were 
followed-up in their after-careers and compared with the results of a similar 
follow-up of strictly comparable ‘ experimental’ groups who had been 
vocationally guided according to the newer, more systematic, more scientific 
methods. Whether control groups were formed or not, comparisons were 
also made between those persons who took and those who rejected the 
advice received. ‘The criteria used in these comparisons included (a) the 
number and duration of the posts occupied by those advised during 
the follow-up period, (b) their degree of satisfaction with their work, (c) the 
degree of their employers’ satisfaction with their work, (d) their wages 
earned, etc. Five investigations relate to elementary schools, two to public 
and other secondary schools, one to a junior technical school and a technical 
college. 

The numerical tabular data, obtained from these eight investigations and 
presented in this communication, afford striking evidence of the value and 
vast superiority of the mew methods of vocational guidance. Indeed, in 
several instances the average results of the current methods of guidance 
employed in this country appear to be more favourable when the advice 
received is rejected than when it is followed. 


Dr. A. Macrag.—Demonstration of modern vocational guidance methods. 


Dr. G. H. Mites.—Some psychological problems in market research. 


AFTERNOON. 


Dr. Lt. Wynn Jones.—The prediction of common reactions as a psycho- 
logical method. 


Studies of free association by means of the Jung or Kent-Rosanoff word 
lists proved useful in the diagnosis of conduct. The former is intended 
for locating complexes, the latter for ascertaining the frequency of unusual 
associations when care has been taken ‘ to avoid such words as are especially 
liable to call up personal experiences.’ 

In the present preliminary study the Kent-Rosanoff list was employed 
and the instructions were radically modified. ‘The subjects on hearing the 
stimulus-word were to write the word which they considered would be 
given by most individuals. The results of this modification are : (1) The 
test may be administered as a group test ; (2) Inhibitions due to complexes 
are reduced so that the recording of the reaction-times may be discon- 
tinued, a procedure which is questionable in the Kent-Rosanoff test; 
(3) Various methods of marking were tested and there were available for 
comparison three scales by Leeds graduates: Verbal Tests of Intelligence 
(Tomlinson’s West Riding Scale), Gowda’s Non-Verbal Tests of Intelli- 
gence, and Karvye’s Fluency Tests; (4) There is a need of frequency 
tables for special use with school children, irrespective of whether the 
Kent-Rosanoff or the present procedure of asking the subject to predict 


the reactions of his fellows is employed. Especially is this the case with 
‘ problem ’ children. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J, K. 383 


Prof. W. McDoueaLt, F.R.S.—A new statement of the native bases of 
intelligent and instinctive behaviour. 


These two closely allied questions are still very obscure and controversial. 
We may distinguish broadly two kinds of units of innate organisation 
underlying all instinctive capacity—namely, on the one hand, propensities, 
and, on the other hand, abilities, some predominantly cognitive, others 
predominantly executive or motor in function. Abilities are merely 
‘machinery’ without driving power; they become differentiated and 
multiplied through all learning processes. The position of any creature or 
species in the scale of intelligence is in the main a function of the number 
and variety of its innate abilities; the richer its endowment of native 
abilities, the more adaptable will be its behaviour. 

The lower animals have few abilities, and each ability is ‘ geared ’ closely 
to some one propensity ; such an innate and fixed conjunction of an ability 
and a propensity constitutes in the strictest sense an “ instinct.’ 

In the higher animals more numerous native abilities are linked more 
loosely to the propensities, so that any propensity may activate any ability. 
In man this is carried to a further point, and the slow maturation of his 
native abilities obscures their nature and renders the expressions of his 
native propensities highly unspecific and variable. 


Dr. R. W. Pickrorp.—Some observations on reading compound passages. 


SECTION K.—BOTANY. 


Thursday, September 1. 
Dr. T. W. WoopHeap.— Yorkshire plant ecology. 


Yorkshire provides a greater variety of habit conditions than any other 
county, and consequently has a very varied flora. The vegetation will be 
considered in relation to the following natural divisions. In the west, the 
Pennine Uplands, which include Upper Teesdale with Mickle Fell rising to 
2,596 ft., the calcareous North-Western Dales, and the Millstone Grit and 
Coal Measures area of the Middle and Southern Pennines. The Permian 
ridge extending from north to south, and cut through by the rivers from the 
western dales, and its significance in plant migration. The great Central 
Plain, overlaid by glacial and post-glacial deposits, and to the north-east 
the Oolitic Hambleton and Cleveland Hills and the eastern dales. ‘To the 
south the Vale of Pickering, and beyond the chalk wolds and wold dales ; 
to the south-east, the gently undulating Plain of Holderness covered by 
glacial and alluvial deposits ; and a coast-line ranging from precipitous cliffs 
to sand dunes and mud flats. The distribution will be considered of 
northern and southern species which reach their limit in Yorkshire, also 
the effect of the maximum glaciation and that of the last Ice Age on the 
history of the vegetation. 


Dr. G. E. Du Rretz.—The problem of bipolar plant distribution. 


In New Zealand, Australia, and southernmost South America isolated 
populations are found of several boreal species, some of which occur also 
on high tropical mountains. Analogous types of distribution are found 
also in many genera and higher taxonomic units. Long-distance migration 
under present geographical conditions cannot explain all these bipolar 


384 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


populations, nor can the theory of transtropical migration during the 
Pleistocene glaciations, since fossil evidence shows that many bipolar dis- 
tributions are much older. We must obviously go back at least to the more 
continuous connection between boreal and austral floras, probably formed 
by the high mountain-ranges of the Tertiary period. Some bipolar popula- 
tions show evident traces of a transtropical connection along the American 
Cordilleras, others across the Malayan archipelago, still others along both 
these transtropical bridges. The occurrence of a bipolar population both 
in the Australasian and the Magellanic regions is no proof that both trans- 
tropical bridges have been used by this population, since there is ample 
evidence also of a trans-antarctic connection. ‘Though there is an evident 
relation between bipolar distribution and the Alpine Orogen, or the great 
Mesozoic-Tertiary fault system, there are also facts suggesting that 
epeirogenetically uplifted highlands bordering the alpine geosynclinales 
may have formed transtropical bridges of still greater importance for the 
development of the present bipolar populations. 


Mr. T. K. Rees.—Al/gal associations of a salt marsh. 

Whilst investigating the general ecology of marine alge in the Lough Ine 
district, Co. Cork, a close study was made of a small salt marsh situated at 
the extreme south-west corner of the lough. The marsh, which consists 
of eight islands separated by mud, is peculiar in that there is a sudden 
transition from a Zosteretum to a general salt-marsh association (9 sp.) 
limited by a Juncetum. The following algal communities occur : 


1. Pan association subdivided into (a) Fringing benthos ; (6) Plankton ; 
‘(c) Loose-lying colonial community; (d) Myxophycean community of 
-decaying vegetation. 

2. Scattered association of Salt-marsh Fuci, including limicolous forms of 
F, vesculosus, F. spiralis and Pelvetia. 

3. Catenella-Bostrichia association, growing on roots or rhizomes or 
colonising bare mud. Rarely pure, frequently mixed with— 

4. Gelatinous Myxophycee association, widely distributed, especially on 
or between marsh Fuci and Catenella-Bostrichia. 

5. Association of Filamentous Alge on bare soil, subdivided into a 
Myxophycez sub-association dominated by Oscellatoria-Lyngbya, and a 
Chlorophycez sub-association dominated either by Rhizoclonium implexum 
or Enteromorpha torta. 

6. Rivularia association, either pure or merging into 2, 3 and 4. 

7. Algal epiphytes on Zostera. 

8. Vegetation of vertical banks, with four distinct zones : (a) Oscillatoria- 
Ulothrix ; (6) Vaucheria; (c) Vaucheria-Rhizoclonium ; (d) depressions 
and overhanging banks dominated by Catenella repens. 

The main ecological factors appear to be biotic. 


Dr. A. Ratstrick and Dr. K. B. BLackBuRN.—Peat investigations in the 
north of England. 

These investigations so far have followed three main related lines: 
First, a statistical investigation of tree pollen caught and preserved in the 
peat, used as evidence of the phases in post-glacial afforestation of the area 
as a whole ; secondly, the examination of individual peat deposits and bogs 
with the object of elucidating their botanical history, using the pollen of 
plants that have grown in situ, and the plant remains preserved in the peat. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 385 


The deductions from the tree pollen work provide a time-scale which can 
be applied to the individual peat deposits. The stratigraphy and distribu- 
tion of the peat areas make possible a linkage with late glacial and post- 
glacial physiographic conditions. ‘The peats so far examined include hill- 
top peats, woodland peats, pond peats, and shore-line peats. Our results 
agree well both among themselves and with the results obtained in similar 
work on the Continent. It is not proposed in this paper to discuss the 
stratigraphical aspect of the work. 


Mr. N. WoopueapD and Mr. L. M. Hopcson.—Pollen analysis of Snow- 
donian peats. 


Detailed analyses of seventeen peats situated in the Nant Ffrancon valley 
and its tributary corries have been made. The peats vary considerably in 
depth and extent, but show a homogeneous texture with ‘ forest’ layers in 
most of the upland areas. They show an abundance of tree pollen, and their 
pollen diagrams agree in the main with those established for the Pennines. 
The deepest peat in Cwm Idwal has Pinus and Betula dominant, in the lowest 
layer so far investigated, with Alnus and Corylus in association. Alnus 
ousted Pinus, but soon died out completely, giving place to a Pinus associa- 
tion remarkable for its high frequency (71 per cent.). This maximum 
occurred, according to Scandinavian authorities, in the late Boreal time, 
the upper limit of which is marked by decreasing Pinus and increasing 
Alnus. The latter reached a second maximum in the moist Atlantic period, 
but Pinus seems to have lingered in Caernarvonshire long after it had died 
out in the North of England. As onthe Pennines, Betula supplanted Alnus 
in the drier conditions of the sub-boreal period, but Alnus remained abundant 
in the wetter parts of the valley. 

Corylus appears more or less uniformly at all layers in all the peats. 
Quercus pollen is uncommon. In view of the present distribution of 
Fraxinus in woods near the sea, it is interesting to note that its pollen has 
been found only in the lower-lying peats near the coast. 

Historical records show that the Forest of Snowdon was laid waste in the 
reign of Elizabeth, and the valley is now almost treeless. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Askham Bog. 


Friday, September 2. 


Jot Discussion with Section D (Zoology) on Biological balance in fresh 
water (Dr. W. H. PearsaLL; Dr. W. RusHton and Mr. H. D. 
Stack; Dr. R. W. Burcuer; Mr. R. S. A. BeaucHamp and Mr. P. 
Uttyott; Dr. L. Lroyp; Prof. F. BaLFour-Browne; Dr. G. S. 
Carter; Mr. J. T. Saunpers; Prof. H. S. HoLpEN) :— 


Dr. W. H. PrearsaLt.—The water-algal balance. 


Dr. W. RusuTon and Mr.H. D. Stack.—Observations on the relation- 
ships between the flora and fauna in the upper part of a chalk stream. 


The paper records the results of weekly and bi-weekly samplings from 
selected stations in a four-mile stretch of the River Test (Hampshire) over 
a period of eighteen months, with a view to gaining information which will 
lead to an improvement of the fishing conditions. 

oO 


386 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


The work has been concerned mainly with the relationships of the micro- 
and macro-flora to the fauna, especially the Trichoptera, Ephemeride, 
Mollusca, and Gammarus, both as sources of food and for purposes of 
protection. 

Methods tending to the encouragement or discouraging of certain forms 
of life are being studied experimentally. These are discussed, and the 
further lines of study they suggest are indicated. 


Dr. R. W. Butcuer.—The effect of organic effluents on the biological 
balance in running water. 


Four characters of organic sewage effluents may be considered to react 
on the biology in running water: (1) Deposition of fine silt ; (2) deoxy- 
genation of the water ; (3) bringing in of nutrient matter ; (4) the increase 
or introduction of salts that affect the biology in other ways than nutrition. 

Silt is trapped by masses of plants in swift waters, or deposited in slow 
waters. ‘This deposit increases the fertility of the river-bed, and helps 
locally with deoxygenation of the water. 

Deoxygenation of the water affects the fauna much more than the flora. 
Serious deoxygenation exterminates most of the animals except chironomids 
and tubificids. Lesser oxygen deficiency increases the fauna of clean and 
foul mud and reduces considerably the fauna of stony stretches. Although 
deficiency of oxygen also kills fish, it is not known what is the minimum 
amount of oxygen in which a fish can survive. 

The extra nutrient matter supplied by organic effluents has a very marked 
effect on the flora. Sewage fungus is abundant in waters rich in organic 
matter. Certain alge, such as Cladophora glomerata, Navicula radiosa and 
Cocconeis placentula, are very abundant when organic matter is present 
in smaller amounts. 

Other salts contained in sewage that affect the flora and fauna are chlorides, 
sulphides and calcium salts. 

Summarising, organic efluents, when dilute, alter the character of the 
flora and fauna, but at the same time increase the volume. Especially do 
they cause the growth of the sewage-fungus community and the advent of 
chironomids and Tubifex. If still stronger, they deprive the water of oxygen, 
reduce the fauna and increase the volume of sewage fungus. In extreme 
cases polluted waters have hardly any dissolved oxygen, but show a heavy 
growth of sewage fungus and a fauna dominated by Chironomus and Tubifex. 
When an organic effluent ceases partial recovery is rapid, but absolute 
recovery probably takes some years, especially with water-borne fauna. 


Mr. R. S. A. Beaucuamp and Mr. P. ULLyotr.—Factors affecting 
the distribution of Planarias. 


In England the commoner species of stream-living Triclad are Planaria 
alpina and Polycelis cornuta. Both these animals are stenothermal for cold, 
and at no stage in its life-history can either resist the effects of drying. 
Consequently they are only found in streams which have a permanent 
supply of water. 

In hard water Planaria alpina and Polycelis cornuta occupy successive 
stretches of the uppermost reaches of the stream. 'This zonation, which is 
controlled by temperature, indicates the presence of calcium, since in soft 
water it does not occur. 

Of the two species Planaria alpina is the more sensitive to the organic 
content of the water, so that this species is sometimes absent from streams 
colonised by Polycelis cornuta. 'The reason for the absence of Planaria 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 387 


alpina is not its non-viability in such water, but because its behaviour 
changes under these conditions. The animal becomes persistently nega- 
tively rheotactic, and so is never able to colonise streams with an organic 
content above a certain value. 

The presence of Planaria alpina may be taken as an indication that the 
supply of water is not only constant, but also of very low organic content. 


Dr, L. Ltoyp.—Polytoma as an indicator of oxygen deficiency. 


Previous applications of the aerotaxis of certain micro-organisms as indi- 
cators of the oxygen tension in water have been by microscopic methods. 
The reaction here described, being macroscopic, has a more practical interest. 
The organism employed is obtained in culture in a medium heavier than 
and not readily miscible with water. A sample of the culture is placed in a 
narrow upright tube and the water to be tested is run on to this to a chosen 
height. The organisms gather in blanket-like formation at the junction 
of the fluids, and this mounts the tube at a speed which is influenced by the 
oxygen tension. Spirillum is present in the culture employed and accom- 
panies Polytoma in the blanket. Nitrates and nitrites in the water cause a 
proportionate lag in the climb. Variations in the activity of the cultures 
prevent as yet absolute readings being obtained, and the test is read in rela- 
tion to controls of a standard water. The test is thought to be a possible 
biological alternative to the Oxygen Absorption Tests as applied to con- 
taminated waters, and is probably more selective in its action than the 
chemical reagents. Details of the technique are demonstrated and various 
tests set up which show the delicacy of the reaction. A grading of waters 
by means of the Polytoma reaction is contrasted with that obtained by their 
chemical analysis. 


AFTERNOON. 


Prof. S. G. Paine.—Bacteria in relation to the decay of stone. 


During recent decades biology has been found to enter many fields 
where its influence was least expected. In soil chemistry it has helped 
to explain much of the phenomena which result in the conversion of rock 
into fertile soil, and now we find our building stones, though for the most part 
removed from conditions where bacterial action is possible, yet subject to 
destruction by soil bacteria in much the same way as the native rock. At 
the Glasgow meeting of the Association, R. M. Buchanan showed that 
bacteria were associated with decaying stone ; Stutzer and Hartleb, in 1899, 
suggested that nitrifying bacteria may contribute to the disintegration of 
cement, and the nitrifying bacteria were believed by J. E. Marsh (1923) 
to be responsible for a considerable part of the decay of college buildings 
at Oxford. The present paper embodies the results of seven years’ investi- 
gation of the problem of stone decay under the egis of the Building 
Research Department of the Scientific and Industrial Research Board. 
Common air and water organisms are nearly always present in decayed 
stone in surprisingly large numbers. It has also been clearly shown that 
organic matter present in rain-water is sufficient to allow of the development 
of acid bacterial products which attack progressively the substance of the 
stone. The presence of nitrifying bacteria has been established, and perhaps 
most significant of all a new autotrophic bacterium capable of oxidising 
sulphides, sulphites and thiosulphates has been discovered. Much of the 
formation of the sulphate incrustations previously believed to be due to 
sulphur dioxide of the atmosphere will probably be found to be due to the 
action of these micro-organisms. 


388 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


Prof. Dame HELEN GWyNNE-VAUGHAN and Mrs. WILLIAMSON.—Varta- 
tions in the formation of the fruit in the Ascomycetes. 


The fructification of the Ascomycetes may be homothallic or hetero- 
thallic in origin ; it may originate in a normal sexual process, or the sexual 
apparatus may have partly or wholly disappeared. In either case nuclei 
formed by the union of those from one or of two complementary mycelia 
may pass into the ascogenous hyphe. ‘The sheath may be formed from 
branches of a single mycelium, from branches originating separately from 
two mycelia, or from branches derived from a region where two mycelia 
have fused. Variations are present in the types of gametangia and of 
ascogenous hyphe. 


Mr. C. G. C. CuHeEsters.—An interesting Phycomycete associated with 
a diseased condition of Antirrhinum. 


The fungus described in this paper was obtained from the roots 
and stems of diseased Antirrhinum seedlings. ‘The actual disease was 
caused either by Rhizoctonia Solani or by Phyllosticta Antirrhini, and this 
fungus was present as a secondary organism. Later it was obtained in 
quantity from nursery soil. Its exact systematic position is doubtful, but 
there is evidence that it occupies a position close to the Zygomycetes, in 
that its ‘ resting-spore ’ is formed by the conjugation of two hyphal branches. 
The mature ‘ resting-spore’’ is somewhat similar in appearance to that of 
one of the higher members of the Chytridiales, but so far no motile stage 
has been observed in the life-history. "The normal means of reproduction 
is by the germination of intercalary spores. The mycelium produced in 
culture is white and forms a thick skin on the surface of the medium, from 
which dense aerial hyphe arise. ‘These bear numerous intercalary spores. 
Within the medium and in the neighbourhood of the inoculum nests of 
branched hyphz give rise to structures which are here termed ‘ resting- 
spores.’ When mature each of these consists of a thick-walled terminal 
spore borne on a thin-walled swollen stalk, which is attached to the mycelium 
by a branched hypha. So far the resting-spore has never been observed to 
germinate. The fungus grows well as a saprophyte in soil and can infect 
weakly or etiolated Antirrhinum plants. 


Mr. A. H. CampBeLL.—Black lines in timber caused by Xylaria polymorpha. 


A preliminary attempt has been made to classify the black lines associated 
with wood-rots into groups, in order to provide a basis for research and to 
facilitate the statement of results. 

The black lines formed in the substratum by the genera Nummularia, 
Ustulina, Hypoxylon, Daldinia and Xylaria comprise such a group. 

The black lines formed by Xylaria polymorpha have been investigated 
morphologically and culturally and their actual formation has been observed. 
As a result the suggestion is made that the black lines are the marginal 
zones of entostromata in the substratum comparable to those occurring in 
Diaporthe. 

An account is given of a Xylaria polymorpha black line superimposed 
upon the zone line formed by the attack of Fomes applanatus on beech wood. 


Semi-popular lecture by Dr. E. J. BUTLER on Tropical plant diseases, their 
importance and control. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 389 


Saturday, September 3. 
Excursion to Newtondale, Beck Dale, etc. 


Sunday, September 4. 
Excursion to Lake Gormire and Sutton Bank. 


Monday, September 5. 


PRESIDENTIAL ApprESS by Prof. J. H. PriestLey on The growing Tree. 
(See p. 185.) 


Dr. R. N. Atpricw BLaKe.—The influence of nutrition on the relative root 
and shoot development of forest tree seedlings. 


The majority of plants, among them seedlings of five representative 
conifers and of Casuarina equisetifolia, respond to increase of the supply of 
nitrogenous salts by a decrease of relative root weight. There are indica- 
tions that this generalisation may be extended and that relative root weight 
is depressed by an increase of the supply of all nutrients normally obtained 
from the soil. American work shows that plants with a high carbohydrate/ 
nitrogen ratio have relatively heavy roots, and vice versa. Root-branching 
of Corsican pine seedlings is less dense the greater the supply of ammonium 
nitrate. 4 

This response of the plant to nutrition can be explained readily on 
teleological grounds, but as yet there has been advanced no satisfactory 
analysis of the reaction along causal lines. 

For the forester this reaction of the tree seedling to nutrition may be of 
considerable importance in connection with problems of manuring in forest 
nurseries. 


Dr, L. CuatK.—Multiperforate end-walls of vessel segments. 


Scalariform perforations are common among the less advanced woods, 
and are associated with long vessel segments and oblique end-walls. Reti- 
culate-scalariform and foraminate perforations may be regarded as variations 
of the scalariform type. 

Amongst the more highly specialised woods—e.g. in the Bignoniaceea— 
there occurs a type of perforation which is superficially very similar and for 
which the term pseudo-reticulate is suggested. These perforations occur 
in only a few of the vessels, the others having simple perforations ;_ the 
segments are very short and the end-walls are horizontal. Their reactions 
with stains are unusual. ‘Two types can be distinguished. Their origin 
and function are discussed, and some suggestions made for revising the 
terminology applied to perforations. 


Mr. B. J. RENDLE.—The study of wood anatomy as a link between botany 
and forestry. 


The paper deals briefly with the development of wood anatomy along 
various lines, following the early descriptive period which culminated in 
Solereder’s Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. 

In studying the anatomical structure of wood, whether from the point 
of view of systematic botany, plant physiology, silviculture or timber- 
utilisation, it is necessary to distinguish clearly between characters which 


390 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


are due to the influence of environment (biological characters) and those 
which remain unaffected by variations in conditions of growth (inherent 
characters). Certain of the anatomical characters of wood are eminently 
susceptible to climatic and edaphic influences. Intensive research in wood 
anatomy is required to formulate correlations between silvicultural factors 
and the technical properties of timber, and to establish the systematic 
anatomy of wood on a sound basis. A recently formed organisation 
designed to advance the study of wood anatomy by international co-opera- 
tion between interested persons and institutions is outlined. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Dr. H. BANcrortT.—A contribution to the geological history of the Diptero- 
carpacee. 


A collection of fossil dicotyledonous woods from the slopes of Mount 
Elgon, an extinct volcano on the borders of Kenya and Uganda, contains a 
considerable proportion of specimens showing typically dipterocarpaceous 
structure, the outstanding features of which are secretory canals and 
heterogeneous, uni-, bi- and narrowly multiseriate rays. 

The Dipterocarpacez are represented in Africa at the present day only 
by Monotes and Marquesia, two genera in which the wood-structure is 
divergent from that typically associated with the Dipterocarpacee, having 
(in the material so far examined) no secretory canals, and uniseriate rays 
only. : 

The Elgon fossils, which are apparently of late Tertiary age, are therefore 
of interest, as indicating a former distribution of the true dipterocarpaceous 
type, more extended than at the present time. 


Prof. H. S. Hotpen.—A fossil plant of doubtful affinities from Autun. 


The material of the plant described consists of small linear-lanceolate 
leaves with recurved margins, these being traversed by an unbranched 
tangentially flattened midrib composed of spiral tracheids. The stomata 
flank the midrib and are confined to the lower side. The leaves are believed 
to have a petiole with a monodesmic trace, circular in transverse section, 
the xylem of which consists wholly of spiral tracheids. 'The name Bertrandia 
autunensis is suggested as appropriate. 


Dr. H. DuerpeN.—Tracheidal variation in ferns. 


An examination of the xylem elements of certain fossil and living ferns 
shows that the pit-closing membrane is present between the pits on all 
the walls in Metaclepsydropsis duplex, Diplolabis Rémeri and Botryopteris 
cylindrica. In Stauropteris burntislandica the membrane is absent between 
the pits on all the walls, whilst in Pteridium aquilinum it is absent from the 
pits on the oblique end-walls only. In Osmunda regalis, O. cinnamomea 
and Todea barbara the membrane is present between the pits on some 
of the walls, but the pits on many of the walls are true perforations, the 
closing membrane having disappeared. 


Miss M. G. AsHton.—The development, morphology and anatomy of the 
winter bud of Glaux maritima L. 


Glaux maritima L. perennates by a winter bud fixed by long storage 
roots, and arising as an axis of the second or third order. Such buds arise 
on non-flowering plants and seedlings, in the axils of lower leaves and 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 391 


cotyledons. They have one root and develop into either non-flowering 
plants with buds—axes of the second order—or, when strong enough, into 
non-flowering plants with horizontal axillary runners—axes of the second 
order—bearing triarch adventitious roots at their nodes, and axillary buds— 
axes of the third order. These give rise to flowering plants with stronger 
runners and buds. After the flowering of the plant, these buds produce 
three or four endogenous roots, and rotate until they are at right angles 
to the axis of the runner. Each bud receives two traces from the con- 
tinuous xylem of the runner and has a prominent lateral bud in the axil of 
the lowest leaf, opposite to the region of attachment, which will form next 
year’s runner. Cambium and phloem are abundant in the stem region, but 
there is little xylem. The roots are pentarch, with no root hairs or xylem 
plate. On development of the bud into a plant, the roots form xylem plates 
and triarch laterals. The base of the stem develops continuous xylem, 
which, higher up, gives place to eight discrete bundles, four cauline and 
four leafy. 


Prof. J. Doyte and Mr. W. T. Saxton.—Contributions to the life-history 
of Fitzroya patagonica F. D. Hook. 


Fitzroya, a Chilean genus with one species, is one of the rarer conifers 
whose development has not previously been worked out. Its general 
morphological relations with the Callitrinean forms lend particular interest 
to its study. 

The megaspore mother-cells, formed early in autumn, are variable in 
number, but commonly numerous, although only one develops. The 
pollen tube growth is precocious, deeply invaginating the top of the female 
gametophyte while the latter is still in the vacuolated stage. The peculiari- 
ties in the ‘endosperm’ development of Cryptomeria as described by Lawson 
seem here to be repeated. The archegonial complex is rather loose and 
indefinite and lateral archegonia occur. The early pro-embryo completely 
fills the archegonium, walls being formed at the end of the second post- 
fertilisation division. Later embryo stages show considerable variation. 
In general, Fitzroya presents an interesting link between the strictly 
Cupressinean type and the Callitrinean type. 

Some abnormalities in the stamens which seem to bear on the morphology 
of that structure in conifers are illustrated. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to the Wolds, Pocklington, etc. 


Wednesday, September 7. 


Miss W. Parke and Dr. M. Knicut.—Life cycles of certain members of the 
Mesogloiacee. 


The problem of the ‘ over-wintering’ of algal species described as 
“summer annuals’ has been investigated in the case of Mesogloia vermi- 
culata Le Jol. and Castagnea virescens Thur. Cultivation of spores from 
unilocular sporangia have resulted in the growth of minute plantlets of 
ectocarpoid habit bearing plurilocular sporangia. ‘The zoids from the latter 
may repeat the filamentous phase for some weeks or even months, but 
eventually, in the early spring, some of the plantlets produce plurilocular 
sporangia, the liberated zoids from which behave as gametes, fuse in pairs 
and give rise to a plantlet of disc habit from whose surface finally arise 


392 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 


groups of upright threads whose interweaving re-establishes the macro- 
scopic summer form. There has thus been demonstrated a microscopic 
phase which may serve to maintain the existence of the species during the 
winter and at the same time represent the alternate haploid gametophytic 
phase of the life cycle. 

The results of culture experiments have been confirmed by careful col- 
lection of material in the open field throughout one complete year. Stages 
corresponding to those obtained in cultures have been obtained from the 
localities where the summer form of the plants is normally distributed. 


Dr. E. AsHpy.—The physiology of hybrid vigour in maize. 


The aim of the experiments was to find a physiological interpretation of 
hybrid vigour in certain strains of maize. Populations of inbred lines, 
their reciprocal F, crosses, the F, and the F; generations were grown, and 
the relative rates of increase in dry weight or wet weight followed through 
the grand period of growth. 

The F, hybrids in every instance showed hybrid vigour, and were there- 
fore heavier than their parents. ‘They did not, however, show any increase 
in relative growth rate, or efficiency index. ‘The efficiency indices were, in 
fact, inherited from one parent, the higher efficiency index being dominant. 
In the F, and F; populations there was less hybrid vigour and the efficiency 
index segregated out. 

Hybrid vigour was not due to increased efficiency index ; but was found 
to be nothing more than the maintenance of an initial advantage in embryo 
weight of the hybrids. 

Reciprocal F, crosses exhibited different degrees of hybrid vigour, though 
they had the same efficiency indices. ‘This too is due to an initial difference 
in their embryo sizes. 


Dr. N. L. PeNston.—Some aspects of potassium distribution in plants. 


Dr. T. WHITEHEAD.—On the respiration of healthy and leaf-roll potatoes. 


Infection with the virus of leaf-roll has no direct effect on the respiration, 
in oxygen or in nitrogen, of potatoes at any stage in the life-cycle. Immature 
tubers, whether healthy or diseased, respire at a higher rate than do mature 
tubers after storage. After sprouting, the rate rises rapidly to a maximum 
in the young plant and falls gradually with tuber formation. 

In comparing the respiration of healthy and leaf-roll plants at each stage 
it was found that the diseased immature tubers show a higher rate than 
comparable healthy ones, but this falls to the same, or slightly lower, level 
in mature tubers before sprouting. Whilst still in the sprouting stage the 
healthy plant shows the higher rate but, with the unfolding of the leaves, the 
rate of respiration of the diseased plant quickly exceeds that of the healthy 
and remains higher when tuber formation has begun. When, however, very 
young plants are allowed to assimilate, the healthy plant respires at a higher 
rate than the diseased until the latter accumulates a definite excess of carbo- 
hydrates in the leaves, after which the diseased plant again respires at the 
higher rate. 

It is suggested that these differences can be correlated with the failure of 
autolysis in the infected seed-tuber, and the accumulation of excessive 
amounts of translocatory carbohydrates in the diseased foliage. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*. 393 


DEPARTMENT: OF FORESTRY (K*). 


Thursday, September 1. 


CuHarRMAN’s Appress by Mr. T. B. Ponsonsy on A system of forestry 
for the British Isles. 


British woodlands must be economic, beautiful, and they must hold game. 
The existing system of clear-cutting followed by replanting results in 
monotonous and unpicturesque woods, which are very inefficient as game 
reserves, and their value as an economic investment is decidedly doubtful. 

The Selection type of forest is more beautiful and of greater sporting 
value. Its economic value only is in dispute and is here discussed. 

In the hands of experts, the Selection wood can give returns, both as to 
quantity and quality, that are as good as, or better than, those yielded 
by the even-aged methods. The objection raised against the system by 
competent critics is not based on any sylvicultural insufficiency, but on the 
high standard of management required. 

An outline is given of management suitable as the basis of large forests 
worked on the Selection system, and an indication given for the management 
of smaller areas. 

It is very important to obtain some measure of natural regeneration 
which we, along with all countries which have adopted ‘ clear’ cutting 
methods, have so unfortunately lost. It is only by natural regeneration 
that we can obtain trees suitable to each of our very varying districts. The 
agricultural analogy for the importation of exotic seeds does not hold good 
in that it is not possible to alter the soil conditions, both chemical and 
physical, in the forest in the same way as can be done in agricultural land. 


Discussion. (Mr. A. C. Forses, O.B.E.; Dr. A. S. WatT.) 


Mr. R. C. B. Garpner, Secretary British Wood Preserving Association.— 
Timber preservation on estates. 


The durability in service of oak and larch appears to depend to a great 
extent upon the conditions under which they have been grown, and it is 
not safe to rely too implicitly upon the reputation for durability which these 
timbers have acquired. Examples will be given which bear out this con- 
tention. Where supplies of these timbers have become depleted satis- 
factory use can be made, by adequate preservative treatment, of many timbers 
which are not naturally durable, such as birch, beech, alder, elm and poplar. 

Treatment under pressure gives the best results, but eminently satis- 
factory results can be obtained in the open tank by the heating and cooling 
method. This method can be carried out also in a simple and inexpensive 
plant for the treatment of the butt-ends of fence posts, which will be fully 
described. 

Statistics of the life in service of most of the home-grown timbers, both 
treated and untreated, and under varying conditions of soil and rainfall, 
are given, together with slides showing the forms of pressure, open-tank 
and butt-treatment plants, in use on estates in Great Britain. Creosote 
and water-soluble salt preservatives will be described, and their advantages 
and limitations for various classes of work will be indicated. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Castle Howard. 


304 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*. 


Friday, September 2. 


Discussion on Exotic Contfers and the factors governing their introduction 
(Mr. F. R. S. Batrour; Mr. A. C. Forszs, O.B.E.) :— 


Mr. F. R. S. BaLrour.—Conifers in Scotland. 


Deals first with the two arborescent native species. In former days there 
were great forests of Scots pine in many Highland straths, notably in the 
Great Glen of Scotland, in Deeside and Strathspey. Yews are undoubtedly 
indigenous, of which there are great trees in most Scottish counties, often 
connected in fact or fancy with historical events. 

Instances of tree-planting from the records of the early seventeenth 
century are given. 

The first exotic conifer to be introduced was Norway spruce, fo!lowed by 
the Silver fir from Central Europe and early in the eighteenth century by the 
Tyrolese larch. At about that time coniferous trees from the New England 
colonies first made their appearance. 

In the first half of the nineteenth century came the introductions from 
the Himalayas, Caucasus and other regions of the Northern Hemisphere of 
the Old World. 

The expedition of David Douglas to the Pacific coast of North America in 
1825 and following years was the most important event in the history of 
conifers in Scotland. Mention is made of the fine species introduced by 
Douglas and subsequently by other explorers from that region. 

The value of the tree species introduced by other Scotsmen is discussed, 
the first being James Cunningham, who went to Amoy in 1698, and the last, 
George Forrest, who died in S.W. China in January 1932. 


Mr. A. C. Forses, O.B.E.—The silvicultural value of exotics in Ireland. 


Down to the end of the seventeenth century the Irish forest flora was 
the poorest of any part of Europe, except possibly that of the far North. 
Great Britain received additions to her native flora during Roman and 
Saxon occupations, and trees like the English elm, Spanish chestnut, walnut, 
and sycamore, had become acclimatised and widespread in Britain before a 
tree was planted in Ireland. 

Few, if any, broad-leaved species thrive better in Ireland than in Great 
Britain. In the case of conifers, the reverse is often the case. Conditions 
generally favour the growth of many Western American species. The 
Irish climate compares favourably with that of Wales, Cornwall, and 
Devonshire for producing Douglas fir, Sitka spruce, Tsuga, Thuya, Japanese 
larch, etc., but sea-winds off the Atlantic check the height-growth of many 
species at a comparatively early age. 

Of the many species which can be grown in Ireland, only twelve or fourteen 
are of economic importance, and three-fourths of these are exotics. A serious 
problem which faces the forester is to decide where conifers should replace 
broad-leaved trees, and how far indigenous species should be replaced by 
exotics. In solving this problem diseases, hitherto unnoticed or dis- 
regarded, will probably receive increasing attention. 


Dr. J. Burtt Davy.—The cricket-bat willow problem. 

At the request of the Forest Products Research Laboratories, an investi- 
gation into the systematy of the cricket-bat willow has been commenced by 
the author. Complaints had been received from growers that, after spending 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*. 305 


time and money on the production of willow timber, many sound trees 
were rejected by buyers, as unsuitable for bats. 

Preliminary investigations showed that soil, soil-moisture, or climate 
could not be the cause of the trouble, since trees growing on the same soil, 
and alternately with trees accepted by buyers, were rejected, although 
perfectly healthy, sound and straight, and of the right size. 

There were indications, however, that the differences in quality might 
be correlated with botanical differences. It was found that at least four 
different strains of Salix alba var. cerulea occur in plantations of cricket- 
bat willows. 

Methods of cultivation are described. Attention is called to the need 
for further systematic and for genetical work, and for thorough practical 
tests of the timbers of the different strains, of both sexes. 

The paper is illustrated by lantern-slides showing the habit-characters of 
the tree, the conditions of cultivation, and the catkin peculiarities of the 
several strains. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Ribston Hall Estate. 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to Rievaulx and Gilling. 


Sunday, September 4. 


Excursion to the Forestry Commission, Allerston. 


Monday, September 5. 
(Meeting with Section K, Botany, q.v.) 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Miss M. M. Cuatraway.—Tile-cells in the rays of the Malvales. 


Certain genera of the Malvales have rays containing a peculiar type of 
cell (‘ Ziegelsteinformige,’ Moll and Janssonius) which has not been observed 
elsewhere. These cells are apparently the result of more frequent tangential 
divisions than the normal ray cell, and differ from the erect cells of hetero- 
geneous rays in shape and position in the ray. They are devoid of contents 
and can be divided into two types. Type A, tile-cells two or more times as 
high as the procumbent cells ; usually not more than four cells correspond 
to one procumbent cell (radial section) ; conspicuous on radial and tangential 
sections, but not on transverse. Type B, tile-cells equal in height to the 
procumbent cells; often eight to twelve cells corresponding to one pro- 
cumbent cell (radial section); conspicuous on radial and transverse sections, 
but not on tangential. 

An attempt has been made to follow the development of these cells from 
the cambium in fresh material, and to discover their function in the rays of 
the Malvales. Comparison with genera from other families in which rays 
without procumbent cells occur shows that their cells differ in structure 
from tile-cells, and probably also in development and function. 


396 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*. 
Dr. W. B. R. LawLaw.—The enemies of the Elm Bark Beetle and their 


significance as a bionomic control. 


This paper gives a brief résumé of the Elm Beetle, its appearance, life- 
history and type of damage. The causes of its attack are discussed more 
fully on the basis of its being a primary or a secondary pest, along with its 
relationship in this respect to the attacks of the Dutch Elm Disease 
(Graphium ulmi). 

The natural enemies recorded are mentioned, those noted in Britain 
being dwelt on briefly. 

In conclusion, the different types of bionomic pest are considered, the 
Elm Beetle allotted its apparent place, and the consequent importance of 
its enemies discussed. It is considered that, although food is the prime 
factor in the presence and increase of this pest, yet parasites and predators, 
essentially a secondary factor, may on occasion prove the most important 
one in the control of the pest, when the problem of dealing with the food 
factor becomes impracticable. 


Mr. P. Harris.—Research in woodworking. 


This paper deals with the experimental work in this connection being 
undertaken at the Forest Products Research Laboratory, Princes Ris- 
borough; describes the methods employed in carrying out the tests, and 
indicates where further research would be profitable. 

Woodworking research is concerned with investigations into the effect 
of variation in shape, setting and speed of the cutting tool and rate of 
movement of the wood on the finish produced, the energy consumption of 
the machine and the life of the cutting edge. This involves a study of the 
principles underlying the cutting action of tools and the influence thereon 
of the elastic properties of the wood. ‘The fundamental knowledge so 
obtained is of assistance in determining the optimum conditions for 
machining individual species of timber to ensure economy of working. 
Determination of the behaviour of the timber when worked under these 
conditions allows comparison of its working qualities with those of a well- 
known timber, such as home-grown oak, for hardwoods or imported red or 
yellow deal for softwoods. Measurement of the energy consumed in 
certain of the machining operations, estimation of the quality of the finish 
by means of special recording apparatus, and the opinion of the operator 
concerning the finished surface and the relative ease of working, provide 
the data in these investigations. 


Dr. M. H. O’Dwyer.—Recent advances in the chemistry of the hemi- 
celluloses of wood. 


For many years hemicelluloses were considered to be true carbohydrates, 
but in 1926 the author showed that hemicelluloses from English beechwood 
contained, in addition, uronic acid anhydrides. On further investigation 
a certain percentage of methoxyl (2 to 4 per cent.) was found in each hemi- 
cellulose examined. About 0-4 per cent. methoxy] is present in a substance 
of a lignin-like character obtained after hydrolysis of the hemicelluloses 
with 72 per cent. sulphuric acid. There are indications that part, at least, 
of the remainder is attached to the uronic acid molecule. 

In the preparation of the hemicelluloses the importance of a knowledge 
of methods employed in drying the wood, its moisture content at time of 
preparation as well as sylvicultural details, such as the identification of the 
species and the age of the wood, cannot be too strongly emphasised. The 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—RE*, L. 397 


author found that the percentage amounts of hemicellulose A obtained from 
English oak decreased rapidly as methods of drying the wood became more 
drastic. ‘There was also a difference of 60 per cent. in the response to 
acetylation of hemicellulose A from beechwood of 80 and 140 years growth, 
showing that the nature of the hemicellulose alters with the age of the tree. 


AFTERNOON. 
Excursion to Buttercrambe. 


SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE. 
Thursday, September 1. 


Tue Fitm IN EDUCATION :— 


Sir Benjamin Gotr.—Zntroduction. 


The film must be used to help the teacher, not to replace him ; he must 
be supplied with good apparatus of as simple a kind as possible, and there 
must be a plentiful supply of good and suitable films easily accessible. We 
must bring the teacher and the film-maker nearer together—they must 
understand each other, not simply wait for the other one to do something. 
It is hoped that a Film Institute may be set up to help this work, and the 
reception given to the report of the Commission on Educational and Cultural 
Films seems to show that there is a wide recognition of the necessity for help 
and advice in the matter of films in education. It is hoped that such an 
institute may act as a clearing-house for information on the production and 
distribution of educational and cultural films, including information as to 
research undertaken abroad. There will be work of many kinds for such an 
institute to do in creating a demand for films of a good kind and in advising 
teachers as to sources and conditions of supply, types of films available, and 
the apparatus and conditions of projection. The institute must bring the 
producer and the teacher together and show how they can help each other. 
There is a great work to be done, and it can only be done successfully if we 
all pull together. I do not presume to say what subjects require films or 
what kind of film each subject requires ; each of you knows what help he 
would be glad to have, and we must all be ready to say what we want and to 
co-operate in the preparing of the films we should like to have. It is 
important for school purposes that the films must not be too long, or the 
pupils’ interest will flag, and the teacher must look upon it as a help, not as 
something which is taking his place for a time. 

We have fallen on unfortunate times financially, and cannot expect a supply 
of apparatus for every school just now, but I would stress the necessity of 
seeing that in all new school buildings for older pupils there should be 
provided the wiring and other arrangements which are necessary for film 
apparatus when it can be provided, and I hope we shall be able to get 
education authorities to see to this. In the meantime there are methods 
of hiring the necessary apparatus, and in view of the rapid improvements in 
scientific apparatus to-day this may be a wise procedure. 


Mr. A. C. CAMERON.—The film as a cultural force. 


The film has a threefold place in national life: as an instrument of 
visual and oral instruction, as a means of entertainment, and as an art form. 


308 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


It claims the serious consideration of educators, not merely as a visual aid 
but as a cultural influence for good or ill which we cannot neglect. 

A teacher who uses a film in his class-room is linking up his lesson with 
the outside life of his pupils and is drawing into service the experience of 
their leisure. An adult population which reads few books has turned to 
the cinema as its staple solace and enjoyment. A generation of film-going 
children is learning to pick up quickly points and illusions on the screen. 
It is part of this current that we want to turn into the channels of the class- 
room, as one aspect of childhood’s relation with the film. 

But it is in public cinemas that the film has its strongest hold on national 
life, and therefore its great cultural and social influence both on children 
and adults ; and its constructive use is a form of national planning from 
which the finest intelligences of the country should no longer hold aloof. 


Mr. R. Gow.—The teaching film. 


If the cinema is to be developed for class-room teaching, it would seem 
desirable to establish the technique of the ‘ teaching film ’ as soon as possible. 
The production of films is costly, and misdirected experiment is likely to 
prove wasteful. It is possible to approach a subject in education in a 
variety of ways, and, similarly, it would be possible to produce an educa- 
tional film in a variety of styles. Just as one text-book cannot hope to please 
every teacher, so one teaching film may not be generally acceptable. But 
the supply is necessarily limited by the expense, and the needs of the teacher 
must be closely studied. 

So far, experiment has been chiefly concerned with attempts to prove that 
there is a place for the film in the class-room. Future experiment must 
concern itself with the kind of film for the class-room. The extent of 
co-operation required of the teacher must be decided. ‘The proper use of 
sound must be thoroughly explored. Inshort, we shall have to ask ourselves 
once again: ‘ What is the aim of teaching ? ’ 


Mr. F. A. Hoare.—Educational cinematography. 


Never before has the prospect of real progress in the educational use of 
cinematography been so hopeful as it is to-day. Coincident with the 
experimental work carried out by the Historical Association and that con- 
ducted jointly by the National Union of Teachers and certain Local Education 
Authorities with sound films in schools, the large-scale investigation of the 
Commission on Educational and Cultural Films has proceeded. The 
publication of the Commission’s Report in June this year has been followed 
by Governmental action and by Parliamentary provision for the establish- 
ment of a Cinematograph Fund under the Privy Council Office ‘ for the 
purpose of encouraging the use and development of the cinematograph as 
a means of entertainment and instruction.’ ‘The exercise of a wise discre- 
tion in the development of this project should provide a powerful stimulus 
to the film industry. 

Educationists have come to regard the cinematograph as an additional 
visual aid in education, directly in the line of succession with such well- 
established instruments as the blackboard, picture, chart, diagram and the 
lantern slide, or the more novel episcope and epidiascope. The educational 
function of the sound film is, however, more than merely illustrative. It is 
the modern method of imparting knowledge and conveying facts, and by 
reason of its dynamic nature it renders the old method of picture and 
printed word somewhat obsolete. It is also pre-eminently the medium for 
correlating class-room work with the life of the world outside school. The 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—L. 399 


sound film of a coal-mine or factory, for example, if properly made and 
faithfully reproduced, provides, by an illusion of reality, vicarious experi- 
ence of the real things of life without which the pupil and the student must 
continue to suffer from the cramping effects of a limited mental horizon. 
Geography, economics, science, history, and nearly every subject of the 
curriculum stand to-day in urgent need of this vitalising and invigorating 
quality, which the cinematograph can impart and without which their 
school treatment must tend to be ‘ a sterile commerce with abstractions.’ 

If this claim can be justified, as those who have experimented believe, the 
problem of films and projectors assumes a new importance. Quality is the 
first essential if the reproduction of events, processes and personalities upon 
the screen is to be realistic and can be absorbed by the student into his 
personal experience. This modern mechanical equivalent of the ventrilo- 
quist’s art has reached its present stage of perfection by the continuous 
efforts of equipment makers and studio technicians, so that the spectator 
loses consciousness of the mechanism and submits to the ‘illusion of 
reality.’ Technical advances in photography, and in the recording of 
sound both on film and on disc make an interesting scientific study. ‘Their 
practical outcome, from the educational standpoint, is the present standard 
and sub-standard equipment now available to schools. Have these 
technical advances made possible the universal adoption of cinematography 
in schools? Is the expenditure involved in securing the best films and 
reproducing equipment (i.e. the best technically and educationally) economi- 
cally justified ? In the writer’s view both these questions must be answered 
in the affirmative. The engineer and the film producer have co-operated 
in the production of an educational device whose power we can hardly 
estimate. The way for the educationist is now opened up. 


Mr. J. W. Brown.—The film in adult education. 


1. Influence of mechanical aids in general. 

Recognition of gramophone, film, broadcasting, as forces in national 
life. Special contribution of film to education; it cannot, however, supplant 
the teacher. 


2. Adult Education audiences—Classification in terms of needs. 

Film for higher technical instruction, and scientific record in work of 
university standing; film for use in technical schools, demonstrating 
application of mechanical principles, etc.; film for use in industry to de- 
monstrate processes to the worker and to train apprentices, etc. ; film for 
training in a special subject—e.g. agriculture ; film for propaganda; teaching 
or interest film ; film of special artistic merit or cultural interest for local 
film groups or societies; general interest film for special bodies—e.g. 
Educational Settlements, Institutes, etc. 


3. Development of use of Film constructively in Adult Education. 

Demand from bodies of all kinds for film of general interest and for 
teaching films will justify the production of special films. Work of extra- 
mural departments of universities and adult educational associations in 
organising the demand for films and_advising on their production, etc. 
Value of film in discussion group. 


4. Difficulties of securing Films. 
Need for Film Institute which would perform an important function in 
arranging to distribute at reasonable cost suitable films to bodies requiring 


400 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


them, either direct through its central film library or indirectly through 
a trade organisation. 


5. Methods of other countries. 
6. Commission on Educational and Cultural Films. 


Recommendation for establishment of permanent central organisation 
which would advise and aid production. 


Discussion on The film in education. (Dr. F. Consitt; Miss 
Mary FIELD.) 


DEMONSTRATION of silent and sound sub-standard films by the 
Western Electric Co., Ltd., R. C. A. Photophone Ltd., and 
Ensign Ltd., of films arranged and recorded in collaboration 
with British Instructional Films Ltd. 


Discussion on The film in education. (Prof. J. L. Myres; Mr. J. L. 
HOLLAND, with reference to report of the committee on educa- 
tional and documentary films.) 


SumMMaTION. (Mr. G. T. HANKIN.) 


AFTERNOON. 
Visit to St. Peter’s School. 


Friday, September Ze 


PRESIDENTIAL ADpREss by Mr. W. M. HELier on The Advancement of 
Science in Schools : its magnitude, direction and sense. (See p.209.) ! 


THE SCOPE AND EQUIPMENT FOR SCIENCE TEACHING IN SENIOR SCHOOLS 
(INCLUDING RuraL ScHoots) :— 


Mr. F. J. THorPE.—The teaching of science in senior schools, with 
special reference to work in a county area. 


Increased attention to history of Science has evoked a philosophy of science 
teaching based on that study. The slogan ‘Science is Méasurement ” has 
gone, and the ‘ Heuristic Method ’ broadened into en aphasis on the unique- 
ness of Science as first-hand investigation into everyc lay problems presented 
to appeal to the child’s sense of values though not ne :cessarily to the adult’s. 
Lesson plans devised on these lines must com: mence with everyday 
problems or with model-making, the work must be generally experimental 
and individual and the instructions so framed that tk 1¢e maximum of personal 
effort is required from the pupil. An attempt sh puld be made to form a 
provisional hypothesis and test this by further exper iments and applications. 
Qualitative investigations are more suitable than quantitative for pupils 
from 11 to 15 years of age. Careful records sho. iid be made and precise 
use of terms developed, as this forms part of the cultural value of science. 
In Scattered county areas this work has to be atte mpted in existing school 
buildings. An ordinary class-room may be ade ted with little expense. 

* In the absence of the President owing to an accid vent, the address was read by 


Mrs. Cosslett-Heller. The Chair of the Section was + A.W. Pickard- 
Cambridge, faken by Dr. / Pickar 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—L. 401 


As ‘specialist teachers are not always available, the work should be under 
supervision and help given by refresher courses for teachers and by grouping 
the schools round some central institution of higher education. 


Miss A. A. SCORRER.— Science for senior girls. 


Value of and necessity for science teaching in schools now recognised. 

Extensive choice of matter—must be related to experience, hence variety 
in type of course. 

Historical development of science teaching among girls—early popularity 
of nature study—introduction of practical subjects, cookery and laundry, 
opened up new matter for science lessons—health teaching a further 
extension, leading to hygiene and human physiology. 

Effect of Prime Minister’s Committee’s Report on Natural Science in 
Education (1918). 

Modern conception of general science course. 

Recommendations of Hadow Reports. 

Examination of typical syllabuses in use. 

Equipment—specialist teacher—specially provided room—apparatus— 
books. 


Capt. F. W. Merritr.—aA course for older scholars in rural schools. 


Content of the Course.—Simple study of the physics and chemistry of air, 
water, and soil. Simple experimental lessons-on mechanics and physics. 
Elementary study of the conditions of the healthy growth of plants and 
animals. Simplehygiene. Personalhygiene. Care in handling foodstufts, 
milk, etc. Differentiation of the course for girls; relation of the science 
teaching to the work done in the domestic subjects room. 


The danger of attempting to cover too much ground. 


Experiments in practical science which have been successfully undertaken 
by children of average intelligence, and their application to rural pursuits 
and industries. 


General observational work (not done by formal lessons).—Daily weather 
and meteorological records. Continuous study of a particular tree, plant, 
or hedgerow. Interest in local geology, wild flowers and grasses. 


Equipment.—Account of an actual rural science practical room. The 
minimum of apparatus required. Home-made apparatus. Provision 
which may be made for rural science teaching in schools where (a) no 
practical room is available ; (6) no gas available. 


Mr. F. BootHroyp.— The science of things around us. 


Practical Nature of Course Utilisation of interest in environment ; 
direct appeal of working models ; difficulties to be met and overcome in 
getting models to work ; development of interest in instructive hobbies ; 
education for leisure hours. 

Aims.—Building up a body of useful scientific knowledge ; appreciation 
of law and order in Nature ; development of keen perception and observa- 
tion, logical reasoning (inductive and deductive); encouragement of 
initiative and inventive genius. 

Method.—Pupils work from sheets or cards of instruction ; individual 
work by pupils essential ; applications many and directly related to environ- 
ment of pupils. 


402 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


Equipment.—Good laboratory for not more than twenty-four pupils per 
teacher ; usual experimental apparatus with addition of useful materials 
from cars, engines, cycles, clocks, taps, etc.; work-bench with vice and a 
few simple tools. 


Content of Course.—(1) Preliminary training in study of some appliance 
involving simple scientific principles. (2) Two years’ general course in 
science ; study of physics and chemistry of air and water ; applications 
chosen to suit environment of pupils. (3) For third and fourth years, con- 
centration on some branch of science rather than an attempt to give a 
smattering of all. 


Examples of Expression Work.—Working models by pupils (age 10-14) 
will be on view to illustrate various points in the paper, with examples of 
note-making and useful working diagrams for teaching purposes. 


Discusston. (Mr. W. EasTerBY.) 


REPORT OF COMMITTEE : 


On the teaching of general science in schools, with special reference 
to the teaching of biology. 


AFTERNOON. 


Jomt Discussion with Section J (Psychology, g.v.) on Industrial psychology 
and psychological selection in York. 


Monday, September 5. 
EDUCATION IN YORKSHIRE :— 


Sir J. B. Battie, O.B.E.— Applied science in Yorkshire. 


Applied science in so far as it falls within the Education Section is not 
concerned either with the achievements or discoveries of applied science or 
with the industrial developments of applied science. It is desirable at the 
outset to explain the nature of applied science and the distinction and rela- 
tion between pure and applied science. They are equally scientific in 
method, and are mutually interdependent in principle and in fact. The 
historical development of instruction in applied science in Yorkshire started 
from the mechanics’ institutes, was taken up by the technical colleges and 
reached its final stage in the incorporation of applied science in the curricu- 
lum of the universities of Yorkshire. Technical instruction is inseparable 
from applied science: but technical education, whether lower or higher, 
is primarily craft instruction with scientific instruction and investigation 
occupying a secondary place. Applied science in the restricted sense sub- 
ordinates craft instruction to scientific training and investigation. Co- 
ordination between all forms of technical instruction and applied science is 
a desideratum. Statistics of attendance and expenditure show a great 
advance on the extent of technical education in Yorkshire in the last twenty 
years. 

The work of the applied science departments of the universities is carried 
on in close association with the pure science departments. Applied science 
in the universities, as well as in the technical colleges, has been intimately 
connected with the industries of Yorkshire from the first, and has been 
much encouraged and supported by them. The work of the applied science 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 403 


departments of the universities has been supplemented by and has been 
co-ordinated with that of the Industrial Research Associations financed by 
the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. 

Certain directions in which applied science should be further developed 
in the technological departments of the universities are indicated. 


Discussion. (Prof. C. H. DEscu.) 


Dr. Joun Stronc.—The future training of teachers with special 
reference to training colleges. 


Three years ago the Board of Education inaugurated a system whereby 
the two-year training colleges were brought into relationship with the 
universities. The nexus of this arrangement is the examination for the 
teacher’s certificate. Formerly this examination was conducted by the 
Board of Education; now it is conducted by local bodies consisting of 
representatives of local educational interests, including representatives of the 
relative university. In the Yorkshire area there is an Administrative Board 
with boards of studies and boards of examiners, the latter consisting of 
internal and external examiners. The external examiner is normally a 
professor or lecturer in the university. 

The institution of an internal examination and the contact with the 
university is a move in the right direction. The quality of the work done 
in the Yorkshire training colleges approximates in many cases to that of 
the pass degree in the universities, and a large number of the students 
have the ability to take a pass degree. Approximately 70 per cent. of those 
who entered the colleges this year hold a matriculation certificate or its equi- 
valent, and of these 15 per cent. have gained the higher school certificate. 

These facts point to the necessity of providing for these students further 
facilities for obtaining degrees. This would mean (1) lengthening the 
course of training; (2) the institution of a degree having a more definite 
relation to the future work of such teachers ; (3) the recognition of some of 
the work in the training colleges as of university standard. 


Discussion. (Mr. R. R. KIMBELL.) 


Prof. T. H. Szarts.—Extra-mural facilities offered for adult education 
by the universities and the local education authorities in Yorkshire. 


Mr. G. H. Tuompson.—Facilities offered for adult education by 
voluntary bodies in Yorkshire. 


The paper describes the activities of voluntary organisations, whose main 
purpose is to stimulate interests of a non-vocational character, and takes 
no account of facilities provided by professional or technical associations 
for their members. It directs attention to the change in the character of 
adult education during this century. 

During the latter part of the nineteenth and the early years of the twentieth 
century, the facilities offered by voluntary organisations were largely 
miscellaneous in character, and the costs were borne wholly by the voluntary 
organisation. 

Now the chief features of adult education are continuity and intensive 
study, and a large proportion of the cost is contributed by public or semi- 
public bodies. 

A very notable fact is that this change in character has largely been 
achieved by working people acting in co-operation with ‘ learning’ in its 
individual and corporate capacities. 


404. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—L. 


The paper reviews in some detail what is now being done by the chief 
organisations, and the way itisdone. It concludes by attempting to analyse 
the reasons why the natural and physical sciences have not had a larger 
share in the modern adult education movement. 


Discussion. (Mr. A. S. RowNTREE.) 


Mr. E. WaLKER.—Continued education of adolescent boys and girls in 
Yorkshire. 


I. THE Area. 
Geographical ; economic; population ; the Local Education Authorities. 


II. THe ScHoot LEAVER. 
(i) His starting point. 
(ii) His further needs. 
(a) As a citizen. 
(b) As a worker. 
(iii) Attitude to voluntary education. 
(iv) Aims in further education of :— 
(a) The pupils. 
(b) The Authority. 
(v) Duration of continued education. 
(vi) Results :— 
(a) For the individual. 
(b) For the community. 


III. ExTENT AND VARIETY OF CONTINUED. EDUCATION. 
Facilities at various stages: admission, scholarships and exhibitions, 
range of fees. Specialisation in vocational work; non-vocational 
instruction. 


IV. Some PROBLEMS. 
(i) The start. 

(ii) Inducements to continue. 

(iii) Distribution of provision among Authorities : considerations 
of density of population, accessibility, costs, financial arrange- 
ments. 

(iv) Correlation of instruction: procedure towards uniformity of 
syllabuses, standards, administration. 

(v) Publicity and co-operation of industry. 

(vi) Control of the stream : examinations, progressive specialisation. 

(vil) The goal: recognised stages, National Certificates, recognition 
by industry. 

V. SOME SUGGESTED SOLUTIONS. 
(i) Administrative. 

(ii) Educational. 

The aims of the Yorkshire Council for Further Education. 


Discussion. (Mr. H. W. Locke.) 


EVENING. 
Symposium on The place of science in the education of boys and girls up to 
sixteen years of age: 


Sir RICHARD GREGORY.—General introduction of problem. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—L. 405 


Sir ARNOLD WiLson.—From an industrial point of view. 
Mr. DonaLp Gray.—From the economic point of view. 


Dr. W. W. Vaucuan.—From literary, cultural and historical point of 
view, and general survey as Chairman. 


Prof. W. W. Watts.—From field and open-air (out of school) point of 
view. 


Tuesday, September 6. 
Domestic SCIENCE AS A REAL EpucaTING INSTRUMENT :— 


Miss H. Masters.—Domestic science and domestic subjects. 


Domestic science and domestic subjects are frequently used as inter- 
changeable terms, but in the School Certificate they appear as separate 
subjects and in different groups, and, speaking generally, there seems to be 
considerable confusion with regard to the exact nature of the subjects covered 
by these terms. An outline of the main developments which have led to the 
inclusion of these subjects in the school course is helpful at arriving at an 
understanding of their relationships to each other and of the attitude usually 
adopted towards them. There is need for much more general recognition 
of the educational, as distinct from the utilitarian, value of domestic subjects, 
and for some modification in the outlook of the teachers of both science and 
practical subjects. In both these branches there has been a tendency to 
adhere too closely to traditional methods of approach. Special difficulties 
peculiar to the teaching of practical subjects, and which have to be taken 
into account in the training of the teacher, call for some consideration. 

The prospects are favourable, but progress lies in the development of 
a craftsmanship dependent on the merging and not on the separation of 
science and art. 


Miss M. C. PEpperR.—Domestic science and mental training. 


Domestic science compared with the pure sciences—the predominance 
of craft and the necessity for development of skill. 

The problem of teaching the art, developing skill, and at the same time 
proceeding so as to preserve the spirit of discovery and adventure. How far 
the teaching of domestic subjects should be by observation and imitation. 

Difficulties inherent in the complexity of (a) the materials, e.g. foodstuffs ; 
(b) processes, e.g. bread-making ; (c) apparatus, e.g. gas-stoves, inall branches 
of domestic science. 

The value of these subjects for mental training inherent in their value 
as practical subjects developing co-ordination of hand and eye, bodily con- 
trol leading to quick, accurate movements economic in effort, developing joy 
in practical work and making it a useful, productive form of self-expression 
with valuable zsthetic possibilities. 

Suggestions for methods of organising and teaching domestic science, 
based on the realisation of its possibilities as a ‘ real educating instrument.’ 


Miss M. WeDDELL.—The secondary school course in domestic science. 
(a) Typical lessons to-day: two methods of approach, ‘ methods of 
purpose ’ and ‘ methods of exercise.’ 
Range of syllabuses. 


406 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L. 


(6) Contrast between Domestic Science and other ‘ craft ’ subjects. 


(c) Cultural value to the pupil : 
(1) Interpreting her surroundings, historically, zsthetically, scien- 
tifically, socially. 
(2) Developing personal skill, with physical self-control. 
(3) Offering purposes with an immediate appeal, and immediate 
application. 
(4) Offering social and moral training. 


(d) Relative value for backward and advanced pupils. 
(e) Difficulties in its way: 
(1) Ignorance of the subject and its aims on the part of those 
interested in education. 
(2) Absence of records of experiments in method. 
(3) Isolation of its teachers. 


(f) An appeal for further discussions and research in such topics as : 
Study of its apparatus and methods in relation to fatigue among 
children. 
Tests for craft ability and achievement. 
Analysis of the methods of successful craft-teachers. 
Further experiments on possible developments—e.g. joint training 
in speech and craft. 


Discussion. (Mr. A. H. WHIPPLE.) 


RELATION OF TECHNICAL TO SECONDARY EDUCATION :— 


Sir Percy Watxins.— The secondary school: its contribution to 
technical education. 


For large numbers of their pupils Secondary Schools are the only edu- 
cational avenues of approach to industrial and commercial careers. ‘The 
criticism is often heard that many of the pupils do not find their true place 
in those spheres. 

Is it possible that the courses of Secondary Education given in many 
schools have not adequately recognised the cultural instruments that are 
available for exercising, quite suitably, the native faculties of those of their 
pupils who are the most likely to make good recruits for industry and 
commerce ? 

The attitude of many schools appears to be: ‘ Let us give each of our 
pupils the kind of education we provide in this school, and then let each 
pupil, with that equipment, acquit himself as best he can in the work of 
the world.’ Might not the attitude more properly be: ‘ Let us discover 
the special interests and aptitudes of our pupils, and let us provide suitable 
courses of instruction to meet their diverse needs. Then, let us see whether 
we can advise each pupil, in the light of his own individual equipment thus 
obtained, as to the niche in the world that he is likely to fill most happily 
and most successfully.’ 


Mr. J. PaLey YorKE.— The present position and future possibilities. 
“Secondary ’ education represents a definite generation in the family 
of Primary, Secondary and University education. ‘ Technical ’ education 
represents several generations within itself and has been regarded as a 
separate and collateral family. It has been kept in the background as a 
family of distant relatives of doubtful habits and manners. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L, M. 407 


This is due to general lack of knowledge of its aims and methods even by 
many who profess to be educational experts. It has the boring effect of 
forcing its exponents into the position of apologists. ‘Technical education 
is not a scheme of acute specialisation at all ages and stages. 

There is to-day practically no conscious relationship between Technical 
and Secondary education. Some of the products of Secondary Schools 
do proceed to Senior Technical Courses—both full-time and part-time 
courses—but not by any generally organised scheme of transfer. 

So far as Junior Technical Schools are concerned, they have travelled 
along roads parallel to those of Secondary Schools, but separated by almost 
impenetrable barriers. 

There could and should be a conscious relationship between Secondary 
and Technical Schools and a scheme of transfer of suitable pupils. 

The joyous fact that Junior Technical Schools enjoy freedom from any 
system of rigid examinations should not be an unsurmountable barrier— 
but we would not be prepared to sacrifice that freedom. 

We claim that ‘ classical’ and ‘ modern’ Secondary Schools are not the 
only educational highways. We are building new highways. They may 
have some of the ugliness of new arterial roads, but they can and will be 
beautiful. With unbiased and intelligent co-operation they can be planned 
to provide valuable by-passes and to link up every part of the educational 
country. 


Mr. P. Aspott.—The co-operation necessaiy or possible. 

The range of technical education lies between the junior technical school, 
ages 13-16, and the university graduate. The problems of co-operation 
are : 

(1) Are relations possible between the two types of education at corre- 
sponding ages? 

(2) Should the work in secondary schools be in any way anticipatory of 
the work to follow in the higher technical schools ? 


Discussion. (Mr. J.H. Hatiam ; Mr. S. H. Moorrie.p.) 


AFTERNOON. 


F Visit to Bootham, Friends’, Boarding School for Boys, and The 
Mount Boarding School for Girls. 


SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE. 


Thursday, September 1. 


PRESIDENTIAL AppreEss by Prof. R. G. WuiTE on Sheep Farming: a 
distinctive feature of British agriculture. (See p. 229.) 


Mr. W. C. Mitter.—Certain aspects of the genetics of the sheep and their 
potential economic significance. 

This paper is intended to focus attention on the incorporation of a know- 
ledge of sheep genetics into certain methods of sheep-breeding. The diffi- 
culties encountered in determining modes of inheritance of characters in 
the larger domesticated animals are discussed. 


408 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


It is suggested that by the use of the knowledge of the genetics of fleece 
colours in sheep a plan might be adopted which would reinforce the financial 
returns of the crofter, small-holder, etc., who has not facilities for keeping 
a large enough flock to constitute the minimum economic unit under present 
conditions. ‘The plan requires the parallel development of home industries, 
such as spinning, knitting, and weaving, and aims at the production of 
pleasing, natural-coloured luxury goods. 

Evidence is presented from an analysis of detailed flock records to indicate 
that abnormally low fertility in the male may be transmitted to his female 
progeny, and may be exhibited by them as a higher infertility rate than the 
normal for the flock. 

Abnormalities in development of lambs are briefly reviewed, and further 
evidence is offered to indicate that many deformities appear to behave as 
simple Mendelian recessive lethals or sub-lethals with adverse effects upon 
the flock or breed concerned, due to the inability of owners to recognise 
their genetic basis. 


Mr. J. Hammonp and Mr. J. Epwarps.—Scientific aspects of mutton 
production. 


Requirements are discussed in the light of present economic conditions, 
special attention being directed to methods whereby income per ewe might 
be increased by more intensive production and more rapid returns. Aspects 
dealt with are: (1) Fertility of the ewe, how it may be improved by 
breeding and selection for the twinning character, and by feeding or flush- 
ing before conception for an increase in the number of eggs shed. The 
opinion is advanced that an attempt must be made to secure more than one 
crop of lambs per year, resulting in a greater return per ewe and a better 
seasonal distribution of the lamb supply. (2) The growth of the lamb after 
birth is considered. Emphasis is laid on the need for a continuous and good 
milk supply, the avoidance of a check in growth during the early stages of 
development and the provision of young, succulent, protein-rich forage. 
(3) The development of mutton qualities is discussed. A study of the 
differing rates of growth of the various parts of the animal’s body provides 
a scientific explanation of the term ‘ early maturity,’ and the process by 
which this quality can best be achieved is seen to be a consistently high plane 
of feeding. Such treatment not only satisfies market requirements, but also 
reveals genetic capabilities, pointing to strains either possessing or lacking 
the characters sought. 


Dr. A. H. H. FRraser.—Some economic aspects of the Scottish sheep 
industry. 


The historical development of the industry is traced. Its development 
has been influenced by political changes, the Union of the Parliaments in 
1707, and the suppression of the Jacobite Rebellion of 1745; and by 
economic causes, such as changes in the value of wool and in the public taste 
for mutton. The climate and vegetation of the country have constantly 
checked the full exploitation of economic possibilities. The result, as seen 
to-day, is a compromise between what man desires and what nature permits. 

The system of breeding is described by which the various commercial 
crosses are derived from the two foundation Scottish breeds, Blackface and 
Cheviot. It is pointed out that the whole system depends upon the surplus 
sheep from hill stocks, and the consequent danger of the progressive 
decrease in the numbers of hill sheep is emphasised. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 409 


Suggestions are made regarding the most profitable lines of research in 
the industry and for improvement in its business organisation. 


AFTERNOON. 


Excursion to Leeds University Farm, Askham Bryan, 


Friday, September 2. 


Discussion on Crop production, with special reference to the increased use 
of mechanical power (Dr. H. J. Denuam; Mr. S. J. WriGHT; 
Mr. A. J. Hosier ; Mr. D. R. Bomrorp) :— 


Dr. H. J. Dennam.—Basic problems of mechanised farming. 


The rapid spread of mechanised farming in Great Britain introduces a 
number of problems in the displacement of labour. These are in many 
respects parallel to those which existed in the industrial situation at the 
beginning of the last century, with the difference that there is no appreciable 
export trade to absorb increased production, but a substantial volume of 
imports which can be reduced. Mechanised farming can be treated under 
the two headings of extensive—large-scale—production of a crop of low 
value per acre, and intensive—small-scale—production of high value per 
acre. ‘The two forms, and intermediates, may exist side by side on one 
farm. 

Extensive mechanisation on rich land involves displacement of labour, 
and on poor land finds place for more hands. The opening up of old 
wheat and cereal land would result in increased employment and would 
render available more land for crops of higher value. The reduction of 
labour on large-scale units provides additional resources for subsidiary 
enterprises. 

The main object of mechanisation is to render farming a more rational 
or economic process. This can be done by making the farmer more inde- 
pendent of seasonal and climatic conditions, and by reducing the amount 
of seasonal employment. 

Specific problems of mechanisation are to adapt machinery originally 
designed for large acreages and small yields for use in small fields and heavy 
crops, and to extend the lower limit of the size of unit on which they can 
be used. The process may be hastened by the return of the agricultural 
contractor and the development of co-operation. 

The reduction of unnecessary transport, as exemplified on the Hosier 
farm, isan important feature of any mechanised system. ‘This is particularly 
the case with manure, and the future of stock farming in this country will 
be largely dependent on the proper observation of this principle. 

There is a large field for development in the future in the mechanisation 
of tropical and sub-tropical crops in the Empire in conjunction with cheap 
labour. 


Mr. S. J. Wricut.—The réle of the tractor in reducing farming costs. 


The economies which the tractor effects arise from the fact that it allows 
one man to control a power output equal to that of several teams of horses. 
On the other hand, both the capital expenditure involved and the compara- 
tive lack of flexibility of a tractor as compared with a team of horses make 
the planning of the whole outfit in relation to the work of great importance. 


410 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


In other words, while the tractor offers great opportunities for saving, it 
probably offers still greater opportunities for wasting both time and money. 

It is not generally realised that of two tractors of equal power and equal 
reliability, one may be capable of hauling a three-furrow plough, while 
the other on the same land may be overloaded with two furrows. This 
difficulty arises from the fact that every tractor is designed to give a definite 
working power, while running at certain speeds. If the draught of the 
plough does not fit in with these, the tractor must always be working at a 
disadvantage. 

For grassland farming the ideal tractor would probably be something 
utterly different from any of the standard tractors marketed at present. 
The ruling conditions are quite different from those of arable farming, and 
the number of ‘ one-horse’ jobs to be done will eventually make smaller 
power units an essential. 


Mr. A. J. Hoster.—Some problems of extensive farming with mechanised 
equipment. 


The problems of overproduction and low prices are accentuated by 
the application of science. Science must be applied to distribution and 
consumption. 

For ten years the author has been doing pioneer work in agriculture, 
firstly in the successful establishment and mechanisation of open-air dairying, 
and secondly in the mechanisation of haymaking and the making of stack 
ensilage. 

For the large mechanised poultry farm the author has adopted a folding 
system whereby poultry can be folded over the land. They are in small 
houses holding twenty-five hens. By this means the land may be fertilised 
cheaply. The folding pens are so constructed that cows can be turned out 
among them without fear of injury. 


Mr. D. R. BomrorD.—Some problems of intensive farming with 
mechanised equipment. 


The paper discusses the economic selection of machinery from the 
farmer’s point of view. 

Details of recent attempts to use machinery, particularly as regards row 
crops. 

The national aspect of mechanisation. 


DISCUSSION. 


AFTERNOON. 
East RIDING AGRICULTURE :— 


Dr. S. E. J. Best—Geographical and historical aspects. 


The East Riding can be divided into nineteen Soil Regions, each with an 
individuality, though within each, largely owing to glacial action, there are 
minor variations. This area has a higher percentage of arable land than 
most counties, with a low percentage of permanent grass, and almost no 
rough grazing. ‘The percentage areas of the chief cereal and root crops are 
well above the average for England and Wales, and the yield per acre is 
seldom below. There are less cattle per 100 acres, and almost as many 
sheep, though on the Wolds the number of sheep is above the average. 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 411 


The process of enclosures was slow in East Riding, and by 1850 there 
were still large common lands, especially on the Wolds. The turnip crop 
was not established until the nineteenth century, and then the Norfolk 
rotation and sheep-folding revolutionised Wold farming. Graphs showing 
changes of agricultural population during the last century reflect agricultural 
prosperity and depression, and different Soil Regions give characteristic 
curves. The graph of Wold land population is always slightly below the 
average ; of good medium-heavy land always above, and the graph of light 
land cuts across the average. 


Mr. J. StRacHan.—The present position, 


(See Scientific Survey of York and District, appendix to this volume.) 


Saturday, September 3. 


Excursion to Wheldrake, Thornton, Southburn, Garton Fields, Sled- 
mere and Malton. 


Monday, September 5. 


Discussion on Increasing and cheapening stock production (Prof. J. A. S. 
Watson ;y Dr. N. C. Wricut; Mr. H.R. Davipson; Mr. W. A. 
STEWART) :-— 


Prof. J. A. S. Watson.—Reducing production costs of beef. 


The home beef industry suffers under two chief disadvantages as compared 
with its main overseas competitor. On the one hand, the British national 
herd includes a large and increasing proportion of the dairy breeds, and 
hence necessarily produces a quantity of material that is of second-rate 
value for beef production. ‘This problem should be approached from the 
broad national point of view, as it is in fact already being approached in 
Ireland. 

The second disability arises out of the shortness of the British grazing 
season, which varies from five to seven months, while some competing 
areas approach the ideal of twelve months’ grass. In this country the cost 
of production, in terms of live weight increase, is nearly two anda half times 
as high in winter as in summer. Roots, which form the basis of the 
traditional winter ration, are very expensive to produce on account of their 
high requirements of hand labour. It seems probable that the average 
cost of producing energy in this form has been higher, over a period of 
years, than the cost of an equivalent amount in the form of purchased 
maize, etc. The root crop does not lend itself to mechanisation, which 
alone could permit any substantial reduction in costs. ‘The paper discusses 
some possible alternatives. 


Dr. N. C. Wricut.—Wastage in dairy cows. 


During recent years a number of investigations have been carried out 
with the object of ascertaining the length of life of dairy cows, and the 
causes of premature disposal of milking stock. 

As regards length of life, data relating to annual disposals from herds 
appear to be difficult to interpret and, in some cases, undoubtedly give 


412 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


erroneous conclusions. On the other hand, estimates based on age-dis- 
tribution studies appear to be fairly reliable. Such estimates indicate that 
the average milking life of dairy cows extends to about four years, the average 
total length of life, therefore, being about 64 years. This indicates that, in 
general, dairy cows very frequently fail to attain the age of maximum milk 
production. 

With regard to causes of loss, disease plays the largest part, accounting 
for between 40 to 50 per cent. of the annual disposals of stock. With the 
exception of Johne’s disease, the incidence of which is somewhat localised, 
the major diseases responsible are reproductive diseases (including abortion 
and sterility), mastitis and tuberculosis. It is of urgent importance that 
immediate measures should be taken to combat these diseases. It is sug- 
gested that more emphasis should be laid on the need for “ field ’ investiga- 
tions, rather than that research into the diseases of dairy cattle should be 
more or less limited to small-scale laboratory experiments. 


Mr. H. R. Davipson.—Pig recording as a factor in increasing and 
cheapening pig production. 


Investigations into the financial results of pig-keeping carried out recently 
show that this branch of production has, on the average of farms, been carried 
on at a loss, amounting in some cases to from 5 per cent. to 20 per cent. per 
annum on capital. Detailed costs of production on a well-run commercial 
herd show that with food at rd. per lb. the cost of producing a bacon carcase 
is 15s. 8d. perscore. During the five years 1926-30 the average cost of food 
has been just on 1d. per lb., and the average price of baconers 16s. gd. per 
score. It has therefore been possible to produce baconers at a profit of 
1s. Id. per score, or approximately 7 per cent. on cost of production. The 
difference between these figures for possible profit and actual loss are shown 
by recording to be due to (1) a small number of pigs weaned per sow year, 
and (2) poor age-for-weight results. ‘These account for extra costs of 1s.54d. 
and 1s. 24d. per score respectively, or a total of 2s.8d. This obliterates the 
possible profit and produces a net loss of 1s. 7d. pér score, or approximately 
9 per cent. on cost, which is in line with the costing results quoted. The 
possible improvements which might be brought about by genetic improve- 
ment are calculated at g}d. per score and s}d. per score respectively. 
The total of 1s. 24d. is not sufficient to outbalance the loss of 1s. 7d. Poor 
Weaning and age-for-weight results are shown to be largely due to faulty 
management and feeding, which pig recording demonstrates and thereby 
helps to cure. While there is much scope for further improvement of pure- 
bred stock, this is not the major problem in increasing pig production by 
reducing costs of production. Pig recording, by bringing to light weak 
points of management and policy, is suggested as the most important single 
factor in achieving this result. 


Mr. W. A. Stewart.—Adaptation of Swedish systems of housing and 
recording to English pedigree pig production. 


In Scandinavia pig housing has been carefully studied and tested. Special 
attention is paid to warmth, lighting, ventilation, cleanliness and labour- 
saving arrangements. Constructional details are such that it is possible to 
maintain a high level of hygienic conditions. This results in a relatively 
low incidence of disease, and in conjunction with other factors helps to 
secure a high average number of pigs reared per litter. A small ‘ isolation 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 413 


hospital ’ is generally provided for sick or ailing pigs ; in this way the spread 
of infectious or contagious disease is to a considerable extent controlled. 

Certain Scandinavian constructional points have been applied to pig 
housing in England with satisfactory results. 

Pig recording was instituted in Sweden by the Pig Breeders’ Society of 
Malméhus to ascertain the productive capacity of sows. Records preserve 
information regarding the number of pigs born and reared per litter, the 
number and weight of the litter at three weeks old, their average weight, 
variation in weight, their sex, and the number of teats of each female. 
Three weeks is considered the best age at which to weigh to give a true 
measure of the sow’s milk yield. Records constitute the only reliable guide 
to productive capacity and maternal qualities of sows. 

Large white sows at Moulton Farm Institute are now recorded on these 
lines, and the figures obtained have demonstrated the importance and value 
of recording. 

Careful selection of breeding sows according to records leads to a lowering 
of the cost of production of pedigree breeding stock. 


DISCUSSION. 
AFTERNOON. 


Discuss1on on The nature and importance of the clay fraction of soils 
(Prof. G. W. Rosinson; Dr. C. E. Marswatt; Dr. R. K. 
SCHOFIELD) :— 


Prof. G. W. Rosinson.—Clay composition in relation to soil survey 
and soil classification. 


The significance of the composition of the clay fraction depends upon 
the extent to which it can be identified with the fraction of the soil resulting 
from chemical weathering—i.e. the weathering complex. For most pur- 
poses, the assumption of this identity does not involve a serious error. 

A broad distinction may be drawn between clays with high and clays 
with low SiO,/R,O, ratios. ‘There is some justification for regarding a 
SiO,/R,O, ratio of 20 as critical. Clay fractions with SiO,/R,O, ratios 
greater than 2-‘0 occur under conditions in which removal of silicic acid is 
inhibited by deficient leaching, as in arid soils; by impeded leaching, as 
in ground-water soils ; or by the protective effect of the calcium-ion, as in 
carbonate soils. 

Clay fractions with SiO,/R,O; ratios of 2:0 or less are found under 
conditions of free leaching, resulting in desaturation. Where leaching 
takes place in the absence of acid humus, as in brown earths, red loams, and 
red earths, the removal of silicic acid results, in soils of primary weathering, 
in the formation of clay fractions with SiO,/R,O, ratios less than 2:0. 
In the presence of acid humus there is a differentiation, owing to the 
migration of sesquioxides from A to the B horizons. 

The study of the composition of the clay fraction may prove valuable in 
the definition of soil series. 


Dr. C. E. MarsuaLt.—The study of the clay particle. 


The accepted definition of clays on the basis of particle size involves the 
soil worker in three interconnected groups of problems. First, there are 
the purely physical problems, such as the extension of mechanical analysis 
into the clay fraction itself. With this as starting-point the study of the 


414 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


more complicated physical properties of the clays, such as plasticity, etc., 
follows naturally. 

Then a group of mineralogical problems of some complexity presents 
itself. The usual methods of identification and characterisation break down 
when dealing with clay particles, and a new technique must be devised. 
The density, refractive index, and double refraction can still be determined, 
using modified methods. The fact that even the smallest particles of clays 
show a high double refraction indicates that clays are essentially crystalline, 
whilst the actual values of the double refraction serve to differentiate between 
different clay minerals. The study of the double refraction of clays also 
leads to the conclusion that where the base exchange capacity is high, a 
large proportion of the cations concerned have definite positions in the 
crystal lattice. 

Lastly come physico-chemical problems associated both with the minera- 
logical character and the surface properties of the particles—e.g. coagulation 
and base exchange. 


Dr. R. K. ScHorreLD.— Water films in clay. 


Many of the properties which characterise clay in the agricultural and 
general sense arise from a special relationship which exists between the solid 
matter of the individual particles and the water which surrounds them and 
links them together. The forces at work here are not capillary forces as 
ordinarily understood, which arise from the pressure difference across 
sharply curved menisci. Ordinary capillary forces could not give rise to 
the swelling which takes place when a block of dry clay is moistened. 

If the uptake of water by dry clay is controlléd by allowing it to come to 
equilibrium with an unsaturated atmosphere of fixed relative humidity, it 
is found that the amount taken up bears a close relationship to the base 
exchange capacity. As base exchange must occur on ‘active spots’ 
distributed on (or possibly through) the clay particles, it would seem that 
the water taken up from an unsaturated atmosphere is in some way associated 
with these active spots. 

Under saturated conditions no direct connection exists between the water 
content of the clay and its base exchange properties. Here the question as 
to why the clay particles, which have been separated by the penetration of 
water between them, should still cohere across this water film deserves 
special attention. 


DISCUSSION. 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Discusston on The distribution of agricultural products (Mr. E. M. H. 
Lioyp; Mr. F. J. PRewett; Mr. T. G. HEeNperson; Mr. J. M. 
Care; Mr. C. S. Orwin) -—— 


Mr. E. M. H. Liroyp.—Planning and world markets ; attempts to 
regulate supplies in the marketing of primary products. 


Attempts to control economic forces by deliberate planning, particularly 
in the distribution of agricultural products, have been stimulated by the 
catastrophic fall of prices. ‘Tariffs are supplemented by quotas or quantita- 
tive restriction of imports. Prices may be raised by subsidies or by restric- 
tion of production. Exports may be stimulated by bounties or limited by 
monopolistic control. ‘These measures may be statutory or voluntary, but 


SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 415 


are generally unco-ordinated and on a national basis. Finally attempts may 
be made by international agreement to limit supplies offered in world 
markets by export quotas, centralised plan for withholding stocks, and 
restriction of production, e.g. Chadbourne Sugar Scheme. 

Many of these schemes are designed as purely emergency measures. If 
prices rose, producers themselves might be the first to demand their removal. 
But some are designed as permanent measures of economic planning, as 
under the Agricultural Marketing Act in the United Kingdom. 

Pre-requisites of successful permanent planning are (1) greater stability 
in the purchasing power of money (a field offering the clearest scope for 
world planning) and (2) more accurate, complete and up-to-date economic 
intelligence. (Statistics of stocks are specially deficient.) 

Regulation of supplies is a matter of degree. Schemes may be divided 
into two main categories : (1) regulation of flow of supplies to avoid short- 
term fluctuations, e.g. South American chilled beef shipments ; and (2) regu- 
lation of stocks and production with a view to maintenance of a remunerative 
price level, e.g. coffee and sugar. Schemes of the former kind present far 
fewer difficulties than the latter, and where successful represent a peér- 
manent advance in the technique of agricultural marketing. 


Mr. F. J. PRewetrt.—The milk marketing dilemma. 


Milk is a standard commodity, of fluctuating production and constant 
demand, but, at lowest production, equal to consumptive demand. Varia- 
tions in production make necessary an alternative utilisation of this season- 
ably recurring surplus in some less perishable form than milk—that is, in 
the form of butter, cheese, cream, condensed and dried milk. In addition, 
there are large parts of the country where liquid consumption cannot 
account for more than a very small proportion of the milk output, so that 
manufacture on a large scale is always required. But, owing to the 
natural protection from imports which the liquid market enjoys, and the 
consequently higher price that is represented for milk imports in the form 
of butter, cheese, etc., every milk producer who is marginal, or even outside 
the range of the liquid market, endeavours to sell on it rather than turn his 
milk into commodities which come into direct competition with low-priced 
imports. As a result of this conflict within the home industry, of a pro- 
tected and an open market, agreements towards ‘ rationalisation,’ which 
in reality have been confined to the liquid trade, have broken down. No 
“rationalisation ’ will be achieved until the whole dairy industry, liquid and 
manufacturing, is regarded as a single unit, with milk as the commodity, no 
matter whether sold liquid or made into butter or cheese. This involves 
a flat price for all milk, and some sacrifice in money from the favoured 
producers for the liquid market in order to secure themselves from the 
encroachment of manufacturing producers, whose mere existence at present 
depresses liquid prices and makes effective price and supply stabilisation 
impossible. 


Mr. T. G. Henperson.— Agricultural marketing organisation in 
Scotland. 


The organisation of farmers in Scotland for the marketing of agricultural 
produce has lagged behind that for the purchase of agricultural require- 
ments, and that because the former type of organisation encounters numerous 
factors of great difficulty and no little complexity. The difficulties of 
adjusting agricultural production to market demand, and the effect of 


416 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 


modern inventions in bringing areas of production formerly remote into close 
touch with the principal markets, however, render the question of marketing 
organisation a pressing one. 

The present position in Scotland is examined in some little detail. 
Marketing organisations for such commodities as milk, wool and eggs have 
existed for some time, and the experiences gained are set forth. 

Some notice is taken of the general considerations affecting the success 
of co-operative undertakings. 

The use likely to be made of the Agricultural Marketing Act, 1931, is 
discussed, together with some of the implications which may arise therefrom. 


Mr. J. M. Cate.—The Scottish ‘ National Mark.’ 


The Agricultural Produce (Grading and Marking) Act, 1928, authorises 
the Department of Agriculture for Scotland to make regulations pre- 
scribing ‘ Grade Designations ’ and Grade Designation marks for Scottish 
agricultural and horticultural produce. The commodities in respect of 
which regulations have been made are eggs, tomatoes, beef, malt flour and 
extract, ware potatoes and canned fruit. The principle of the schemes is 
entirely voluntary; this has advantages, but makes it possible for indifference 
or hostility to restrict their usefulness. Speaking generally, producers are 
in favour of grading and marking ; consumers appear to be rather apathetic ; 
while the attitude of traders varies from cordial support to active enmity. 
Schemes under the Marketing Act could include provisions for grading and 
marking ; these schemes would be voluntary in origin, but when matured 
would be fortified with compulsory powers. 


THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 
STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 
1865-1932 


BY 


SIR RICHARD T. GLAZEBROOK, F.R.S., AND 
DR. L. HARTSHORN. 


(From the National Physical Laboratory.) 
Ordered by the General Committee to be printed in extenso. 


THE original Electrical Standards Committee of the British Association was 
appointed at the Manchester meeting in 1861. In their first Report 
(Cambridge, 1862) they point out that they had first to determine ‘ what 
would be the most convenient unit of resistance, and second, what would 
be the best form and material for the standard representing that unit.’ 

The C.G.S. system of measurement was the outcome of their delibera- 
tions on the first question, and they determined to adopt as a practical 
standard of resistance the ohm equal to 10° C.G.S. units of resistance. 
Experiments were made at King’s College by Maxwell and Fleeming Jenkin 
to obtain the ohm in a material form, and Reports giving the result of these 
were issued in 1863 and 1864. Experiments were carried out by Matthiessen 
and Hockin to determine the best form and material for a series of standard 
coils. ‘The Reports which followed give an account of the process of these 
_ experiments, and in Appendix A to the 1865 Report we have their final con- 
clusions and a description of the form of standard coil they recommended. 
As a material for the wire of which the coil was constructed an alloy con- 
taining 66 per cent. silver and 33 per cent. platinum was chosen, for 
reasons given in the Report. It was agreed that copies of the standard 
should be made and preserved at Kew Observatory, and the Report for 
1867 contains a table of the values of the standards in question. A copy of 
this is given as Table I. The Committee was dissolved in 1870. 

Soon after Maxwell’s appointment as Cavendish Professor at Cambridge 
the coils, with the bridge used for their comparison, were brought to the 
Cavendish Laboratory and were used by Chrystal and Saunder in their 
work on Ohm’s Law in 1876. 

Lord Rayleigh became Cavendish Professor in 1879 and was immediately 
interested in electrical measurements. Various investigations, particularly 
those of Rowland at Baltimore, and some deductions from Joule’s work, had 
thrown doubts on the accuracy of the absolute measurements of the British 
Association Committee. These doubts were confirmed by measurements 
made at Cambridge by himself and Schuster, and from 1881 onwards 
there was great activity at the Cavendish Laboratory and elsewhere in 
connection with the question of electric units. 

P 


418 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


Tas_e I. 
COMPARISON OF B.A. UNITS TO BE DEPOSITED AT KEW OBSERVATORY. 
By C. Hockin. 


The following table shows the value of the different copies of the B.A. 
units that have been made for preservation at Kew: 


Tempera- 
tures at 
which 
Material of Coil. Nowe Date of Observation. eorauee Observer. 
ance 
ee 
s 
1G 

(January 4, 1865 TSG C.H. 
Platinum-iridium alloy . 2 |+June 6, 1865 16-0 A.M. 
February 10, 1867 16:0 C.H. 
January 4, 1865 15°3 C.H. 
Platinum-iridium alloy 3. | +4June 6, 1865 15°8 A.M. 
February 10, 1867 15°8 C.H. 
: {January. 5, 1865 15°6 A.M. 
Gold-silver alloy . : 10 (Rebruary xo;r1867 7.6 C.H. 
April 10, 1865 15°3 A.M. 
Gold-silver alloy . ; 58 |4June 6, 1865 15°3 A.M. 
February 10, 1867 50 3 C.H. 
January 7, 1865 15°7 C.H. 
Platinum . ! : 35 |4August 18, 1866 15°7 A.M. 
February 10, 1867 Tee 7 C.H. 
January 7, 1865 15°5 C.H. 
Platinum . : s 36 [August 18, 1866 1509 A.M. 
February 10, 1867 57 C.H. 
February 15, 1865 15‘2 C.H. 
Platinum-silver alloy . 43. | ,March 9, 1865 15°2 A.M. 
February 10, 1867 15°2 C.H. 
February 2, 1865 160 A.M. 
Mercury . : ‘ I. | 4July 18, 1866 16°0 A.M. 
February 11, 1867 16°7 C.H. 
February 3, 1865 14°8 A.M. 
Mercury . E . | IL. |+August 18, 1866 14°8 A.M. 
February 11, 1867 14°8 C.H. 
Mercury . z epee 1S February 11, 1867 17°9 C.H. 


STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 419 


During 1879-81 a very careful comparison of the coils was made by 
Dr. Fleming. It was clear that their relative values had changed appreciably 
since 1867, and he adopted as a definition of the B.A. unit the mean value 
of the resistance of all the coils at the temperatures at which they were 
originally said to be correct. For his comparisons he employed Carey 
Foster’s method, and devised a special form of bridge which after this time 
was employed for the purpose for many years. 

The Electrical Standards Committee was reappointed at the Swansea 
meeting in 1880, and in the following year 1881, at York, one of the present 
authors (R. T. G.) became connected with the work; he was formally 
appointed Secretary at the Southport meeting in 1883, and from that date 
up to the year 1919 the coils were in his charge. They are still at the 
National Physical Laboratory. The Committee was dissolved in 1912, 
when its Reports were collected in a volume published by the Association 
under the editorship of Mr. F. E. Smith (now Sir Frank Smith, Secretary, 
Royal Society). Up to that date comparisons of the coils among themselves 
were continually in progress. Between 1881 and 1884 their values were 
determined in ohms and also in terms of the length of a column of mercury 
by Lord: Rayleigh and Mr. Glazebrook. In 1888 a further very detailed 
examination of their values was made by Mr. Glazebrook and Mr. Fitz- 
patrick. In 1908 Mr. F. E. Smith reported very fully on their values and 
on the changes which had occurred; while the concluding portion of this 
paper consists of an account of a comparison made during the current year 
by Dr. Hartshorn at the National Physical Laboratory and a discussion of 
the results up to date. 

The records show that most of the coils have changed appreciably during 
their long life, but that the two platinum coils marked 35 and 361 in the 
original table have remained unchanged. 


TABLE II. 


RESISTANCE OF MERCURY COLUMN 
I00 CM. LONG AND I SQ. MM. SECTION AT 0° C. 


IN B.A. UNITs. 

Value found in 1881 by Lord Rayleigh, 
corrected for temperature of cups . =o0'953 88 B.A.U. 
Value found in 1888 by R. T. G. » =0°953 52 B.A.U. 


RESISTANCE OF 1 B.A. UNIT 
IN TERMS OF LENGTH OF MERCURY COLUMN. 


Value found in 1881 by Lord Rays 


leigh . : = 104°842 cm. 
Value found in 1888 by R. fl Res G. . = 104°875 cm. 


The relative changes are known during the period in question, and 
Table II, based on Sir Frank Smith’s Report of 1908, is of importance 
as showing that during the period 1880 to 1888 the value of the B.A. 
unit expressed in terms of mercury remained unaltered. The diagram and 
tables given later in the Report enable the changes which have taken place 
to be followed in detail. 


1 About 1880 the coils were re-marked, and these coils have since been known 
as D and E. 


420 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


TABLE III. 


RESISTANCE OF CoILs F AND FLAT 
IN TERMS OF MERCURY. 


(LENGTH OF COLUMN OF I SQ. MM. SECTION AT 0° C.) 


Values found by Lord Rayleigh in the 


year 1881 : 
Fat 16-0°C. . . : ; = 104°805 cm. 
FLAT at 16°0° C. ; : : = 104'871 cm. 


Values found by Mr. Smith in 1908 
for the resistance of the coils in 
1881, assuming them to have altered 
between 1881 and 1908 by the 
amounts shown in the British 
Association Reports : 


F at 16:0° C. 


5 104.°808 cm. 
FLAT at 16:0° C. 


= 104°874 cm. 

The next table (Table III) gives the values of two of the platinum-silver 
coils examined by Lord Rayleigh in 1881 and Sir Frank Smith in 1908. It 
shows that, allowing for the recorded alterations in these coils during that 
period, the value assumed for the B.A. unit was satisfactorily known. The 
point of most importance which emerged from Sir Frank’s measurements 
of 1908 was the permanence of the two platinum coils. A reference to 
Table I shows an apparent change of 0-2 in the standard temperature 
of No. 36 (E) between 1865 and 1867. It would appear from Table IV 
that this apparent change was not a real one but arose from some error in 
the 1867 experiments. At any rate Table IV, which is brought up to date 


TaBLe IV. 


Differences between the Values for the Platinum Coils 
D and E at 16:0° C. 


Wear Difference E—D. Waar Difference E—D. 

: Parts in 100,000. Parts in 100,000. 
1865 59 1888 60 
1866 59 1908 60 
1867 —I 1932 59 using o*1 amp. 
1876 63 60 using 0°12 amp. 
1879-81 50 65 using 0-2 amp. 


Note.—A change in temperature of o-1° C. causes a change in resistance of the coils of 
31 parts in 100,000. 


by the inclusion of Dr. Hartshorn’s observations of 1932, gives the values 
observed for the difference E — D between these coils, and shows that with 
this one exception this difference has lain between 0:00059 B.A.U. and 
0:00063 B.A.U. during the whole sixty-seven years of their life. This will 


STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 421 


appear all the more remarkable when it is remembered that an error of 0-1 
in the temperature means a change of resistance of 0*00031 B.A.U., while 
a variation in the measuring current of from o:1 to 0:2 ampere produces 
an alteration of 0:00006 B.A.U., a larger amount than the whole change 
observed. 

The inference is clear that during this period these two coils have retained 
their values unaltered, and this is confirmed by the following statement of 
values taken from a later table in this Report : 


Values * of Coils D and Ein B.A. Units in 1888, 1908 and 1932, 
obtained from Comparison with Mercury Tubes, assuming 
the Resistance of 1 metre of Mercury to be 0°95352 B.A.U. 


: 1888. 1908. 1932. 
Collier age es spp) ‘wine 
I*OOOI13 I *ooot2 I*OoOortl 
E 1*00073 1*00072 I ‘00071 


* See Table VII. 


We come now to the detailed account of the recent work at the National 
Physical Laboratory by one of us (L. H.). 

The old standard resistance coils of the British Association, made in 1865 
by Matthiessen and Hockin, have been re-measured during 1932, and a 
comparison. of the results with the old values is of considerable interest. 

Several features in the construction of the coils make it impossible to 
obtain the same precision in these measurements as is obtained with modern 
coils. The coils are embedded in solid paraffin wax, so that the attainment 
of thermal equilibrium with the bath containing them is not easy. It is, 
therefore, difficult to obtain the temperature of the coil itself, and as in some 
cases the temperature coefficient of the material is very large, the accuracy 
is almost entirely limited by the thermal conditions. Also the coils have no 
potential terminals. However, preliminary measurements having shown 
that certain of the coils had probably remained nearly constant over a period 
of more than sixty years, it was considered desirable to aim at an accuracy 
of r part in 100,000 in the present determinations. ‘This requires an 
accuracy in temperature measurement for certain of the coils of -- 0*003° C., 
and although it is hardly likely that this could be realised, the general con- 
sistency of a large number of observations has shown that the temperature 
was usually correct to + o:o1° C. The coils were immersed in a bath of 
water, which was surrounded on all sides by cork lagging, and kept through- 
out the measurements in a constant-temperature vault. ‘The measurements 
were made by means of a Smith bridge, assembled with standard manganin 
coils in an oil-bath, kept by means of a thermostat at 20° C. in an adjoining 
room. The terminal rods of the B.A. coils dipped into mercury cups, and 
from these cups double leads passed to the bridge in the adjoining room. 
The resistance of these leads is eliminated from the results by taking two 
readings in the manner described by Smith. 'Thus the observer did not 
have to approach the coils during the resistance measurements. The 
thermometer dipping into the water-bath was read from a distance by means 
of a telescope ; readings were taken at intervals during each day, as well as 
before and after the resistance measurements, and it was always ascertained 


422, THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


that the temperature had remained constant to o-or° C. for several hours 
before each measurement. The mercury thermometer used was graduated 
in hundredths of a degree, and was calibrated on the hydrogen scale. 

A factor of some importance is the heating effect of the measuring current. 
This has, of course, long been known, but as the magnitude of the effect is 
surprisingly large for some of the coils, and as no record of it appears to 
exist, it was measured in each case. The procedure was as follows: The 
galvanometer circuit was kept permanently closed, and when balancing the 
bridge the current was reversed, but was allowed to flow for as short a time 
as possible. Readings were obtained, first with as small a current as would 
give the required sensitivity, then with rather larger currents. The rela- 
tion between bridge reading and the square of the current strength was 
always approximately linear, and thus the resistance corresponding to ‘ zero 
current’ and to any other values of current was readily obtained. The 
actual value of current used in the older comparisons is not known, but the 
usual practice was to connect two quart size Leclanché cells in series with 
the bridge, which had an over-all resistance of a little more than 1 ohm, 
when 1-ohm coils were being compared. A trial experiment has shown that 
the total current obtained in this way is about 0:5 ampere, which means 
that the current in each coil was about 250 mA. This probably represents 
the maximum current used in the older comparisons. Its heating effect 
has been found to cause an error of as much as § parts in 10,000 for certain 
of the coils, but there is no doubt that in the more recent comparisons, par- 
ticularly those of 1908, there is no question of an uncertainty of this magni- 
tude. An examination of the results suggests that a current of the order 
of 120 mA. was used on this occasion, and for purposes of comparison this 
will be assumed to represent the standard condition. The results of the 
1932 Measurements given in Table V show the values for ‘ zero current,’ 
120 mA., and the maximum correction, i.e. the difference between the values 
for ‘ zero current’ and 250 mA. ‘The values obtained in 1908 are given 
alongside of those for 1932 with 120 mA. for the purpose of comparison. 

A glance at Table V is sufficient to show that there have been no very 
large changes in the values of the coils in the last twenty-four years. In all 
cases the change is less than 2 parts in 10,000, which must be considered very 
satisfactory behaviour, the more remarkable since, so far as is known, the 
coils are connected to the terminal rods by means of soft soldered joints. 
In spite of this fact and also of the presence of the paraffin wax in which 
the coil is embedded, the coils are probably as satisfactory as standards of 
‘resistance as when they were first constructed sixty-seven years ago. The 
paraffin wax has become discoloured, being now yellow with age, and in 
some cases having acquired a greenish tinge from its chemical action on 
the copper terminal rods, and on this account the insulation was suspected 
as early as 1886. However, at that time the leakage resistance between 
coil and case was measured and found to be of the order of 8,000 to 
10,000 megohms. ‘The insulation was again tested in 1890 and found to 
be. several thousand megohms. Measurements made in 1932 gave the 
following values : 


INSULATION RESISTANCE, 1932. 


Insulation Resistance. Insulation Resistance. 
Coil Megohms. Coil Megohms. 
A. i : 9,000 E - : 1,000 
B. 1 , 40,000 F : 3 300 
Cha : ; 1,000 G f . 4 
D. : 4,400 FuaT. ; 200 


ee 


STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 423 


The value is definitely low in some cases, but not low enough to affect 
the resistance measurements by an appreciable amount. 

In the following paragraphs the significance of the results is considered 
from several points of view of practical importance. 


TABLE V. 


RESULTS OBTAINED IN 1932 FOR THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 
STANDARD RESISTANCE COILS OF 1865. 


Values at 16:00° C. in terms of the B.A. Unit determined by the relation 
1 International Ohm = 1:01367 B.A. Units.* 


Value for wales tor Heating 
Coll | Material | 2289, fort20amp.| Value» [Correction | Temperature 
1932. 3322 250 mA. 
A | Pt-Ir I:000 55 | 1-000 67 | r-000 50 | 49 X Io075 148 X Io0-5 
B | Pt-Ir I*000 32 | 1:000 42 | 1-000 26 | 44 X 1075) 148 X 10-5 
Cc Au-Ag I-OOI I5 | r-o0Or 16 | r-oor or | 4 X 10-5 70 X 10-5 
D Pt I:000 I2 | 1-000 19 | 1-000 20 | 28 xX 1075} 308 xX 10-5 
Be) sPt I-000 69 | I:000 79 | 1-000 80 | 40 X I0->}| 306 Xx I0-5 
F | Pt-Ag I*OOI 02 | 1-001 05 | 1-000 88 | 11 X 107% 27 X 1388 
G | Pt-Ag I-OOI OI | I-OOI 04 | I-00 03 | 13 X 10-5 28) i Loss 
Frat| Pt-Ag 1-000 48 | I-000 50 | I:000 53 | 9 X 107 24 Xp107° 


* In 1892, in accordance with the experiments made at the Cavendish Laboratory, the 
value of the ohm (10° C.G.S. units) in B.A.U. was taken as 1-01358 B.A.U., and became 
the unit in general use. In 1903 it was shown by Mr. Smith that this unit was equal to 
106 *291/106-300 international ohms. Thus the international ohm = 1-01367 B.A.U. 


(i) The Platinum Coils D and E. 


From an examination of the available data in 1908 Mr. F. E. Smith con- 
cluded that the platinum coils had probably remained constant since 1867, 
but that all the other coils had changed. ‘The question of constancy is of 
such importance that a special study has been made of these two coils. 
About forty observations were made on each coil in the temperature range 
15° to 17° C. over a period of four weeks. The results, expressed in terms 
of the B.A. unit of Table V, could be represented as follows : 


CoilD . . Rr=1:'000 12 + 0°'003 08 (t — 16:00° C.) 
ColE . . Rt=1:000 69 + 0:003 06 (t — 16°00° C.) 


The mean deviation of all the observed points from the values calculated 
from these equations was 2°5 parts in 100,000, which corresponds to a tem- 
perature difference of 0:008° C. Greater accuracy could not be expected 
from coils of this construction, and it may be concluded that the coils are at 
present in a stable condition represented by these equations. The values 
given in 1908 for the resistance of the coils D and E at 16-o0° C. are 8 and 


424 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


II parts respectively higher than those given above. However, the above 
values are corrected to correspond to ‘ zero current,’ and no such correction 
was made in previous measurements. The magnitude of the correction 
is shown in Table IV, and it will obviously account for a discrepancy of this 
order. It was found that when the current through the coil was 0:12 ampere 
the 1908 values were reproduced to 1 part in 100,000. It is interesting to 
note that, owing to the difference in the heating corrections for the two coils, 
the value for the difference between them varies with the current. The 
values for this difference, obtained on various occasions, have been given in 
Table IV, from which we conclude that this difference has remained con- 
stant since 1865, and that the measuring current used was of the order of 
0°12 ampere. (The low value of 1867 has long been considered as due to 
an observational error.) 

The values obtained for the temperature coefficients are of interest. The 
following table shows the values obtained on various occasions : 


"TEMPERATURE COEFFICIENTS OF THE PLATINUM COILS. 
B.A. UNITs PER 1° C. 


Coil. 1880. 1888. 1908. 1932. 
x TOR x hice XuTOw ais x 107 
308 308 312 308 

E 304 302 314 306 


It is evident that the temperature coefficient of the wire is still very near 
to its original value, although it is far removed from the value for pure 
platinum (about 400 x 1075). 


(ii) The Variations in the Alloy Coils. 


Having satisfied ourselves that the platinum coils had remained unchanged, 
the changes in the other coils were examined. It was not considered neces- 
sary to take so many observations on these coils as on the platinum ones, 
but in each case a few observations were made at a temperature slightly 
above 16° C. and a few at a temperature slightly below 16° C. The value at 
16:0° C. was deduced from the two sets. In every case the difference 
between the two sets of values was consistent with the 1908 value of the 
temperature coefficient, which is reproduced in Table V, together with the 
resistance values at 16:0° C. and the heating correction. 

In the older British Association Reports the values assigned to these coils 
were usually obtained on the assumption that the mean value of the coils at 
the temperatures at which they were originally stated to be correct had not 
altered: in other words, the results were expressed in terms of the mean B.A. 
unit at the time. Mr. F. E. Smith showed in 1908 that it would almost 
certainly be more correct to assume that the platinum coils alone had 
remained unaltered, and our results support this conclusion. Acting on 
this assumption, and taking the old values for the differences between the 
coils, Mr. Smith was able to give a table of the values of the coils in terms 
of the original B.A. unit (1867). Our results enable us to bring this table up 
to date (Table VI). This table is of great interest as showing the most 


425 


STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 


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426 THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


probable variations in the values of the coils throughout their whole existence. 
The values are plotted in Fig.1. It is apparent from this diagram that the 
values for 1876 are all comparatively high. At this time the temperature 
was only observed to 0-1° C., and an error of this amount for the platinum 
coils would lower all the values to those shown by the dotted lines, which 
values are regarded as rather more probable than those tabulated. 


Tue B.A. STANDARD RESISTANCE COILS. 


Values in terms of the Original B.A. Unit (1867). 


AB — Platinum-Iridium 
& — Gold-Silver 

DE — Platinum 
FGH®& 

FLAT — Platinum-Silver 


1-00100 


ye one part in ten thousana 
100000 | 


1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 
Fie, 1. 


The curves show clearly the remarkable constancy of the coils in the last 
twenty-four years, even in the case of coils F and G, which had changed 
very considerably before that time. 'This constancy is probably the result 
of the storage of the coils at constant temperature throughout the whole 
period. On one or two occasions between 1879 and 1888 the coils had 
been tested in melting ice, and it was considered that this was probably the 
cause of some of the observed changes. ‘Throughout the whole of the recent 
observations the temperature has not differed from 16-0° by more than 1° C. 


STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 427 


Two other interesting tables of values recording the history of these coils 
were given by Mr. F. E. Smith in 1908, and these have also been brought 
up to date. ‘Table VII records the values of the coils in terms of the B.A. 
unit in general use during the period 1891-1903, and Table VIII gives the 
values obtained on a number of occasions in centimetres of mercury. 


TABLE VII. 


VALUES OF ColLs at 160° C. in B.A. Units in 1888, 1908 and 1932, 
obtained from Comparison with Mercury Tubes, assuming the Resistance 
of 1 metre of Mercury to be 0:953 52 B.A.U. 


Coil. 1888.* 1908. 1932.T 
A I*000 68 I*000 42 I*000 59 
B T*000 25 1°000 18 I*000 34 
Cc I*000 67 I*000 93 I‘oor 08 
: D I1*000 13 I*000 12 1000 II 
: E 1*000 73 I*000 72 I‘000 71 
F F ©°999 70 1‘000 80 I*000 97 
G 0°999 36 1*000 95 1*000 96 
4H 0°999 63 0*999 64 _ 
: FLAT 1*000 23 I*000 45 I*000 42 
M4 


* Values subject to a probable error of 4 parts in 100,000, due to the fact that the 
~ terminals of the mercury tubes were not exactly at o° C. No correction has been made 
’ for this, since the probable error of the observations was of this order. 

{ Values for a current of 0-12 ampere (see Table V). 


(iii) The Value of the B.A. Unit. 


When changes in the relative values of the coils were first noted, the 
B.A. unit was taken, as already stated, to be the mean value of the six coils 
_A, B,C, D, E and G at the temperatures at which they were originally stated 
to be equal. This has been referred to as the mean B.A. unit for the year 
in question. The data now available show that the changes in the unit so 
defined have been approximately as given in Table IX (p. 429). 
The value generally used for the ratio of the international ohm to the 
B.A. unit is— 


I international ohm = 1-013 58 B.A. unit (1892), 


this being the value accepted in 1892. However, as the coils were changing 
in a manner not accurately known, it is evident that the unit in practical use 
at the Laboratory, normally the mean of all the coils, was a variable quantity. 
For example, in 1903 Mr. F. E. Smith made an estimation of this ratio, 
taking the platinum-silver coils as standards of reference (these are the ones 


THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


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STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 429 


which can be measured most accurately), assuming they were accurate in 
1888 and estimating from the records the changes which had occurred since 
that time. The value obtained was— 


I international ohm = 1:013 67 B.A. unit (1903), 


and this value has been used at the Laboratory for some years. It is to be 
noted that, in the light of our present knowledge, neither of the above values 
represents the original B.A. unit. It follows from Table VI that this unit 
is determined as nearly as can be ascertained by the relation— 


I international ohm = 1-014 39 B.A. unit (1867). 


Tasie IX. 

RELATIVE VALUES OF THE MEAN B.A. UNIT. 
Year. Value. Year. Value. 
1867 . 1°000 00 1888 . 1°000 53 
1876 . 1I°000 43 1908 . 1°000 76 
1879-81 . 1:000 18 1932 . I:000 85 


Of course since 1903 mercury tubes have formed the fundamental 
standards, and the more recent values have not influenced any actual 
measurements. 


APPENDIX. 
THE MANGANIN RESISTANCE COILS. 


In 1895 the British Association obtained from Otto Wolff of Berlin 
resistance standards of the pattern used at the Physikalisch-Technische 
Reichsanstalt, and described by Dr. St. Lindeck in the British Association 
Report for 1892. ‘The wire is of manganin insulated with silk, and after 
winding the coil was heavily coated with shellac varnish and then baked. In 
use the coil is completely immersed in oil, and the outer case was perforated 
so as to allow the oil to come into contact with the wire and thereby control 
its temperature. Four such standards each of nominal resistance 1 ohm 
were obtained, and in due course deposited at the National Physical 
Laboratory. The temperature coefficients of these coils were found to be 
only 1 to 2 parts in 100,000 per 1° C., and it became a comparatively 
simple matter to compare them with an accuracy of 1 part in a million. 
They therefore largely displaced the old B.A. coils for general standardising 
work. 

The history of these coils is shown in the following table and chart. Two 
of them, Nos. 1690 and 780, have shown remarkable constancy, and even 
at the present time they are probably the most satisfactory standard coils 
which the Laboratory possesses. In 1911 each of these two coils was pro- 
vided with an oil-tight case, which was filled with paraffin oil and her- 
metically sealed. The improvement in performance which followed this 
treatment is very striking, and leaves little doubt that most of the changes in 
resistance previously observed were due to the variations in atmospheric 
humidity. The coils numbered 381 and 147 were not hermetically sealed. 
The change in resistance of 381 from 1908 to 1932 is of the same order as 
that shown by most of the older B.A. coils ; the change in 147 has been very 


THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 


430 


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STANDARDS OF RESISTANCE, 1865-1932 431 


much larger. This was found to be a relatively poor coil as early as 1903, 
and it was not measured in the interval 1903-31, but it is interesting to note 


1900 1905 1910 1915 1920 1925 1930 = 1932 


that at the present time the value is quite stable from day to day, and that 
the average rate of change of resistance 1s smaller than that of many modern 


ile, 
Hi L. H. 


EVENING DISCOURSES. 


FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE 
FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 2, 1932. 


PLANT PRODUCTS OF THE EMPIRE 
IN RELATION TO HUMAN NEEDS 


BY 
SIR-A.) W. HILL K.C.M.G), FR.S. 


WHEN we come to consider human needs in the light of products derived 
from plants, it is interesting to notice how ‘ relative’ they are and how they 
tend to change in the course of time. 

Those plants which yield food, beverages, spices and drugs in particular, 
as well as those yielding timber for construction and fuel, fibres for clothing 
and cordage, etc., and fodder for cattle, have always been of primary and 
universal importance, and may be regarded as among the essential needs of 
the human race. 

There are, however, constant changes and new developments in human 
needs as regards the vegetable kingdom, which to some extent may be 
regarded as artificial or induced, since they are concerned with some of the 
vagaries or artificial needs of our modern civilised conditions. 

As a contrast with the primitive conditions of early life in Britain, when 
our ancestors were content to clothe themselves with skins which they dyed 
with woad, the modern desire for gramophones may be cited, for some 
gramophone needles are made from the spines of a Prickly Pear (Opuntia) 
and are sold in packets for the purpose. Opuntias, as is well known, have 
overrun much of N.E. Australia since they were introduced there from 
America. ‘Then there is the desire of some youths to appear well dressed 
by the addition of a stiff white collar, which may be composed of celluloid. 
For the manufacture of these articles, which do not need the washtub, large 
quantities of camphor are employed in addition to cellulose derived from 
vegetable sources. 

Another somewhat deplorable human need, at any rate when carried to 
such excesses as we see it in America, is the present induced human need— 
or rather craving—for newspapers which is resulting in the destruction of 
the magnificent forest trees of the Empire in Canada and Newfoundland. 
Yet another human need of quite recent growth, depending on the vegetable 
kingdom and so largely supplied by the British Empire, is that of motor 
tyres, and every sort of rubber article made from the rubber contained in the 
latex of Hevea brasiliensis. This Brazilian plant was first sent out through 
Kew to the Far East ; and to this introduction our propensities for scrib- 
bling may perhaps be attributed, since our modern human need for fountain- 
pens is satisfied from our rubber supplies. 


PLANT PRODUCTS OF THE EMPIRE} 433 


To supply the needs of the traffic of London, until recently the magnifi- 
cent Jarrah trees (Eucalyptus marginata) of Western Australia have been 
felled to supply wood blocks for paving the streets of the capital of the 
British Empire, while many other Empire timbers furnish sleepers for our 
railways. 

I may also perhaps—with the permission of our medical friends—be 
allowed to allude to our present-day habits of cleanliness !—I might almost 
say our excessive craze for washing, and for the use of soaps with their 
many and varied perfumes. For all this we are dependent on the vegetable 
kingdom, since the oils and fats which are the basis of our soaps, as well as 
the essential oils which furnish the scents, are derived in the main from 
plants cultivated in one or other of our tropical possessions, and in many 
cases introduced to our domains from other parts of the world where they 
are found in the wild state. 

Socrates has said, ‘ I hold that to need nothing is divine, and the less a 
man needs the nearer does he approach divinity ’; but in these modern days 
we have to follow the general trend of events, and the economic botanist 
seeks to satisfy our human needs, whether natural or artificial, as far as he 
may be able. 

Fortunately for Great Britain, it is possible to meet the growing demand 
from the vast resources of the Empire ; and this year, meeting at York— 
close to Hull, one of the great centres of applied botany, the home of one of the 
largest seed-crushing and oil-extracting centres of the world, not forgetting 
also the manufacture of cocoa and chocolate in York itself—and with the 
deliberations at Ottawa fresh in our minds, it seems fitting more seriously 
to consider some of the contributions which the plant products of our Empire 
make to satisfy our present-day human needs and cravings. 

The subject is so vast that, were I to speak of all the plant products of the 
Empire which help to minister to our daily wants and enter fully into our 
domestic economy, little as we think of it, I could easily address you for 
several hours and thoroughly exhaust your patience. I must, however, 
confine myself to the more essential products, and first let me draw your 
attention to some of the food products which are supplied to us from our 
overseas dominions and colonies. 

Among these may be mentioned wheat, which comes to us from Canada 
and Australia; rice from the Federated Malay States, Burma, British 
Guiana and West Africa ; tapioca from the Federated Malay States; and 
sugar from the West Indies, British Guiana and Natal. 

The home market is largely dependent on fruits coming to us from all 
parts of the Empire, which include— 

Bananas from the West Indies. 

Citrus fruits from the West Indies, Australia, South Africa, Palestine and 
Cyprus. 

Apples from Canada, Australia, New Zealand. 

Grapes from South Africa and Australia (raisins). 

Pineapples from Jamaica, South Africa, Straits Settlements. 

Pears and Peaches from South Africa. 

Edible Oils are furnished by West Africa (palm oil), Malaya, Ceylon, the 
West Indies and the Pacific Islands (coconut oil or copra). Ground-nuts we 
get from India and West Africa, while the essential oils include geranium oil 
from Kenya, patchouli from the Seychelles, and clove oil from Zanzibar. 

Foods for animals bulk largely in imports to this country from overseas, 
including linseed from Canada and India ; cotton, rape and ground-nuts 
from India; the last with palm kernels we also get from West Africa; all of 
which are the main constituents of various oilcakes. 


434 EVENING DISCOURSES 


Important Food Accessories—Spices and condiments are supplied from 
India and the colonies, and include pepper, cloves, nutmegs, cinnamon, 
desiccated coconut, and ginger. Among beverages may be mentioned cocoa, 
tea, coffee and wines (South Africa and Australia). 

Gums, Resins and Drying Oils, of great importance in our manufactures, 
include linseed from India and Canada, tung oil (experimental in many 
parts of the Empire), rubber from Malaya, Ceylon and Southern India, gum 
arabic from West Africa, the Sudan and Somaliland, kauri gum from New 
Zealand, balata from British Guiana, and turpentine from India, British 
Honduras and the Bahamas. 

Among some important Drugs, Medicines, etc., may be mentioned cinchona 
from India, chaulmoogra, which has recently been introduced to many of our 
tropical colonies as a cure for leprosy, and liquorice grown at Pontefract. 

Tobacco comes to us from South Africa, Nyasaland, Rhodesia, Jamaica, 
Mauritius, Cyprus and India. 

Clothing includes cotton from India, the Sudan, the West Indies, Nigeria, 
Uganda, etc. 

Tanning materials include wattle barks from South and East Africa, and 
sumach from Cyprus. 

For transport we have timber for ships, wharves and lock gates ; fibres for 
ropes (Mauritius hemp, and sisal from Kenya and Tanganyika) ; kapok for 
lifebelts. 

In the more thickly populated parts of the Empire, the possibility of 
exporting vegetable products is dependent on the peoples of these countries 
being able to provide themselves with food. In the humid tropics the main 
food products consist chiefly of rice and root-crops such as taroes, eddoes, 
tannias, yautias, yams, tapioca and sweet potatoes, while in the dry tropics 
they consist of sorghums and various small millets, numerous pulse crops 
largely replacing the necessity for meat. In certain parts of Africa, also, 
the plantain and banana are the staple food crops of certain tribes. This is 
an aspect of Empire production which is liable to be lost sight of, as the 
resulting products do not appear on the world’s markets, and attention is 
only drawn to their importance in times of famine and crop failure. 

There is also an immense amount of vegetable production within the 
Empire, grown as grazing and fodder for live stock, which comes to this 
country in the form of dairy produce, wool, meat, etc. 

There are, again, vegetable industries which have disappeared or are 
disappearing on account of the production of synthetic substitutes, or on 
account of changes in fashion. Of the former, indigo, camphor and vanilla 
are examples ; of the latter, Sea Island cotton, and most spinning fibres. 
Jute is decreasing in demand on account of the bulk handling of grain, etc., 
while cotton and flax have a strong competitor in artificial silk. All these 
are, or were, important Empire products. 


THE USES OF PHOTOELECTRIC CELLS 435 


SECOND EVENING DISCOURSE 
TUESDAY, SEPTEMBER 6, 1932. 


THE USES OF PHOTOELECTRIC CELLS 


BY 
C. C. PATERSON, O.B.E. 


THE photoelectric cell has been known to science for years. It is a device 
which passes an electric current only when light falls on it, and has been 
evolved as a consequence of the study by physicists of the connections 
between light, electricity and matter. The electric currents given by these 
cells are so minute that until recently only the physicist with his delicate 
apparatus was able to measure them, but with the advent of the thermionic 
valve with its power of magnifying currents, the engineer-physicist realised 
the possibility of applying the photo-cell to numerous everyday uses. 

So numerous and varied, indeed, are these applications that I can only 
describe a few typical ones, chosen to illustrate particular properties of these 
cells. 

The emission of negative electricity from a brightly illuminated zinc 
plate was demonstrated by Hallwachs after he had received a hint from 
the work of Hertz. This emission is now called the photoelectric effect. 
(Demonstration—The image of an electroscope was thrown on to the screen, and 
the collapse of the leaves showed the discharge of electricity from an electrically 
connected zinc plate when this was illuminated with light from an arc lamp.) 

Modern photo-cells employ more highly sensitive surfaces than zinc, 
and the sensitive surface is enclosed in an evacuated bulb. 

This type of cell passes an electric current strictly proportional to the 
illumination falling on it—a property which enables the cell to be used 
for a number of quantitative purposes, such as the measurement of area. 
(Demonstration—A photo-cell was exposed to the light from a uniformly 
illuminated opal window. The decrease in electric current consequent upon the 
reduction of the radiating area by the interposition of an irregularly shaped 
surface (e.g. an animal hide) gave a measure of the area of the surface.) 

Certain types of cell respond most strongly to light of one colour, while 
other types are more affected by other colours. This can be demonstrated 
by exposing a photo-cell to a spectrum thrown on a screen. (Demonstra- 
tion—A cesium cell and a potassium cell exposed to spectral colours gave 
their maximum response in the infra-red and in the blue respectively.) 

We now come to consider in more detail the practical application of the 
photo-cell. As an example of simple ‘ trigger-action ’ we may take the case 
of the photoelectric street-lighting unit which switches on the lights at the 
approach of darkness, extinguishing them again in the morning. (Demon- 
stration.) This ‘ trigger-action’ is also used for counting objects as they 
pass along amoving band. (A demonstration of a photoelectric counter which 
counted red balls rolling along a track but allowed blue balls to pass without 
recording their passage was given.) 

The fundamental properties of photo-cells make it possible to employ 
them in photometry instead of the human eye. The fact that cells respond 


436 EVENING DISCOURSES 


differently from the eye in the matter of colour necessitates the use of filters 
and other devices in photoelectric photometry. It is also possible to measure 
the temperature of lamp filaments very accurately by means of a ‘ bridge’ 
employing red-sensitive and blue-sensitive cells. (A demonstration of the 
use of such an apparatus to detect slight changes in light-colour was then given.) 

Since legislation is now making it illegal to allow the emission of black 
smoke from factory chimneys, it is fortunate that we have in the photo-cell 
a means of continuously indicating (or recording) the density of the smoke in 
furnace flues. A beam of light passes across the flue and falls on a photo- 
cell connected in a valve circuit with an indicator placed in the furnace room. 
The passage of dense smoke partially obscures the light, and the indicator 
(perhaps reinforced by an alarm bell) gives warning that the stoking is not 
being efficiently performed. (This principle was demonstrated with the aid 
of a glass-fronted box into which smoke could be blown.) 

Thus far we have considered cases where the cell controls indicators, 
counters, etc., but, with the assistance of gas-filled relays and contactors, 
powerful machines may be actuated by light impulses. An electric door- 
opener operated by the interception of a beam of light by a person approach- 
ing the door is an example of this. When the person has both hands 
occupied, such a device has very real value in saving time and labour. 
(Demonstration.) 

Although a great many people are familiar with talking films, compara- 
tively few are aware that without the photo-cell this method of sound 
reproduction would be impossible. The passage of light and dark strips 
recorded on the edge of the film, through a beam of light falling on a photo- 
cell, causes minute variations in the current through the cell. These 
fluctuations are amplified and passed into a loud-speaker, where they are 
converted into sound. (Demonstrations of reproduction and of the special 
‘ recording lamp’ used for recording the sounds on the films were given at this 
point.) 

By means of photo-cells used in much the same manner as that already 
described it is possible to produce sound-waves of any desired wave-form, 
or ‘ tone-quality.’ (Demonstration.) Since it is largely the tone-quality 
which determines the recognisable characteristics of musical instruments, 
this principle may be of service in the construction of electrical musical 
instruments. 


CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF 
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 


Tue Conference met in the Exhibition Buildings, York, on September 1 
and 6, and in the absence of the President, Sir David Prain, through 
illness, was presided over by Dr. A. B. Rendle, who read the President’s 
Address (below) after the following resolution had been unanimously 
passed by the delegates : 


‘That the warm greetings of the Delegates of Corresponding 
Societies assembled in conference at York be sent to the President, 
Sir David Prain, with an expression of their sincere sympathy with him 

_ in his illness, and earnest hopes for his complete and speedy recovery.’ 


The Conference was attended by a large audience, and 53 delegates 
signed the register, representing 59 societies. 


Thursday, September 1. 


ADDRESS ON 


LOCAL SOCIETIES AND THE CONSERVATION 
OF WILD LIFE 


By Lt.-Cot. Sir Davip Pratn, C.M.G., C.LE., F.RS., 
President of the Conference. 


Last year the Corresponding Societies’ Committee recommended the 
Council of the British Association to instruct the President of this York 
Conference to direct attention to ‘ the assistance local societies can render 
to the preservation of the amenities of their own areas and especially of the 
flora and the fauna of the countryside.’ We know now that the time was 
ripe. ‘The recommendation was accepted and acted upon by the Council 
of the Association on November 6, 1931 ; on November 27 the Council 
for the Preservation of Rural England set up a Wild Plant Conservation 
Board. 

The message of the Association to its corresponding societies is precise. 
It is not now necessary to explain why local societies should help to preserve 
their local amenities and the flora and the fauna of their areas. Members 
of all local societies share the views expressed by the President of the Council 
for the Preservation of Rural England to a local society at Harrogate in 
1930, and by the Chairman of the Estates Committee of the National Trust 
in his Rickman Godlee Lecture at University College, London, in 1931. 
What delegates to this Conference are asked to do is to beg their respective 
societies to consider how they can assist in preserving the amenities of their 
own areas and especially the flora and the fauna of their own sections of the 
countryside. 


438 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


The message is neither a reasoned appeal to the intelligence of the 
delegates now present, nor is it an emotional appeal to their sentiments. It 
is a practical appeal to their collective will—an appeal to which they must 
respond, if local societies are to do anything to promote objects every one 
here has at heart. ‘That appeal is made now, on behalf and in the name of 
our Organising Committee, with a confidence based on the belief that 
‘where there is the will, there should be a way.’ To pretend that the way 
will be easy, would be idle and foolish; local societies will have to face 
difficulties so great that often the best they can hope to do is to find a way 
round them. It may not be amiss to consider some of these difficulties : 
“to be forewarned ’ is sometimes equivalent to being forearmed. 

One of the difficulties with which a local society will often have to contend 
is a lack of sympathy and understanding between its members and those 
of their neighbours who manage local public affairs. ‘The search after 
knowledge for its own sake, and the application of knowledge on behalf of 
the community are equally praiseworthy, and may be equally time-absorbing 
pursuits ; they are, however, intrinsically so unlike that mere lack of leisure 
may be enough to prevent mutual understanding. But while it requires 
two to disagree, it is always open to one to encourage sympathy. The 
objects of a local society as a rule make a more special appeal to its members 
than the general needs of the local community do: attempts to promote 
sympathy and establish understanding between local societies and local 
authorities are, therefore, less likely to be initiated by the latter. This does 
not make the establishment of mutual sympathy and understanding less 
desirable: all it indicates is that, as a rule, efforts in this direction must 
originate with local societies. One of the primary objects of any local 
society is to promote regional solidarity : one consequence of this fact is 
that a local society is at least as ‘ representative’ of its local area as any 
specially elected local authority can possibly be, and at the same time 
escapes all risk of becoming pledged to the support of particular political 
principles or devoted to the promotion of particular private interests. The 
mere existence of a local society should suffice to show a local community 
that the pursuit of knowledge and the management of public affairs are 
closely related activities. Nothing but good can accrue to a local area in 
which those elected to conduct its public business hold friendly intercourse 
with, and make it their practice to consult, those of their neighbours who 
may be engaged in adding to knowledge of any kind. 

Never is this benefit more likely to be evident than when a local society, 
anxious to preserve the amenities of its own area, finds it necessary to seek 
support. As the President of the Council for the Preservation of Rural 
England remarked at Harrogate, towns ‘ must expand and the suburb is 
a straggling compromise between town and country, ill-planned from the 
urban point of view and equally disregarding the landscape as such.’ This 
applies as truly to the ‘ town-dormitories ’ that spring up so rapidly outside 
most urban boundaries before urban councils can take steps to extend their 
areas. Until forcible annexation takes place, parish and district councils, 
though able to insist that the dwellings in these dormitories shall comply 
with building regulations prescribed by the State, may have but a limited 
right to declare what type of building should be erected, and may have no 
power to decide that a particular site is unsuited for building upon. It is 
not difficult to appreciate why a particular local council may at times feel 
debarred from taking an active part in the efforts of a local society to preserve 
the amenities of its own area during the desecration of an estate advertised 
by a speculative builder as ‘ripe for development.’ But this affords no 
reason why a local society should neglect the duty of establishing friendly 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 439 


contact with the local authority concerned : the latter, if sympathetic, may 
refrain from action that might impede the efforts of an energetic local 
society. 

We are all well enough aware that if every area in England possessed an 
active and influential local society and if every local society could rely on 
the support of its own municipal, or county, or district, or parish council, 
there would still be no assurance that the amenities of a single local area 
could be preserved : there are difficulties with which neither local authorities 
nor local societies can cope. 

The main cause of these difficulties is a divergence of interest on the part 
of dwellers in towns and on that of ‘ those that reside much in the country.’ 
This fact was familiar to classical authors ; in this country it inspired that 
‘Song of Corydon’ so effectively recited by the President of the Council for 
the Preservation of Rural England in his address on ‘ The Personality of 
English Scenery’; we can detect its influence in the letters written by 
Mr. White of Selborne during the early phases of the Industrial Revolution. 
For the moment, however, we are more concerned with modern manifesta- 
tions than with the earlier history of this divergence of interest which, for 
a brief period, was so completely suppressed that we may be justified in 
considering its present prevalence as neither a survival nor a recrudescence, 
but as a new manifestation the origin of which deserves consideration. 

The temporary disappearance of the ancient divergence of urban and 
rural interests which, it is fair to admit, was most warmly expressed by those 
who lived in the country, was one of the consequences of an appeal to English 
rural economy made by the captains of industry in manufacturing towns 
who were directly responsible for that Industrial Revolution which has done 
so much, since the days of the Rev. Gilbert White, to destroy the amenities 
and the flora and the fauna of the countryside by creating clouds of smoke 
that obscure the sun, discharging acrid fumes that vitiate the air, emitting 
fetid waste that pollutes our streams, and heaping barren mine tailings on 
what once was fertile soil. If those who cared for the amenities of their 
own areas at first failed to realise what the effect of these industrial activities 
- must be, they were afforded a prolonged opportunity of appreciating the 
force of the saying that ‘ what cannot be cured must be endured.’ This 
endurance had to continue till those who seek knowledge for its own sake 
brought partial relief by convincing captains of industry that they could 
reduce their costs if they consumed their smoke and might increase their 
gains if they turned some of their waste to economic account. 

The migration to manufacturing towns of an appreciable proportion of 
the population of the countryside, which was another consequence of the 
Industrial Revolution, explains the appeal made by urban interests to rural 
economy for food to meet the needs of workers in towns no longer able to 
share in the task of raising food for themselves. The very change in social 
conditions which induced this urban appeal helps to explain the readiness of 
the response made to it by rural economy. But compliance with the request 
involved extension of cultivation; extension of cultivation involved the 
issue of legislative injunction for the tillage of manorial waste, and the grant 
of legislative sanction for the enclosure of common land. Mere extension 
proving insufficient, English agriculture adopted the intensive methods of 
cultivation whose continued improvement has characterised its practice, 
through good report and ill, ever since. This has gone on, not only at 
home but in our overseas possessions, and not only in raising food for British 
workers but in supplying much of the raw material that has made British 
work possible since the Industrial Revolution began. Thanks to this activity, 
the divergence of interest between rural and urban dwellers, of which the 


440 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


“Song of Corydon’ supplies such clear evidence, gave place to a mutual 
understanding beneficial to both and advantageous to the commonwealth 
asawhole. Without the food and the raw material that rural economy was 
able to place at the disposal of manufacture, the Industrial Revolution might 
have beenarrested. But for this demand on rural economy, English highways 
might not have received the macadamised surface which enabled those on 
whose aid industrial enterprise and rural economy alike depended for the 
distribution of food, raw material and finished goods, to substitute wheeled 
vehicles for more archaic means of transport. 

But this was not the only advantage, nor, from the standpoint of local 
societies, was it the most outstanding benefit that England owed to the 
establishment of a rational understanding between rural and urban interests. 
Compliance with the legislative injunction to make economic use of manorial 
wastes caused rural economy to give attention to afforestation as well as to 
agriculture. Lines and belts of trees converted exposed highways into shady 
avenues and supplied shelter for fields in which crops were grown and herds 
were tended. Open spaces, neglected since their exploitation and spoliation 
by an earlier generation, and hitherto deemed unsuitable either for grazing 
or for tillage, were changed into woodland glades. ‘To these activities many 
areas in England owe the amenities they now possess and the shelter for the 
flora and the fauna of the countryside they now provide. 

If, twenty years ago, it could be said with some justice that, thanks to her 
rural economy, England could boast amenities which went far to compensate 
for the outrages inflicted on the countryside by her industrial system, we 
can hardly say this now. We have seen the effects of the substitution, in 
the utilisation of our timber supplies during the war, of the methods of 
commercial exploitation for those of forest management. We know that 
much of this damage is reparable, and that a sympathetic Forestry Com- 
mission, itself unsympathetically regarded, has the requisite work in hand. 
But we also know that the damage done during a season of exploitation often 
takes a century to repair, and there are many local areas where few of us 
may hope to see again the countryside we once knew. Nor is this all. We 
have seen, since the war ceased, and still see every day, damage done to our 
amenities that might easily have been avoided but that never can be repaired. 
This damage is not wholly due to the unrestrained activity of speculative 
builders. We observe public authorities taking an active part in the destruc- 
tion of groves and avenues while engaged in modifying highways to meet the 
requirements of modern traffic, yet remaining powerless to prevent the 
conversion of their ‘ improved routes ’” into ‘ ribbon communities.’ 

This particular result, as most of us know, is one of the indications that 
urban interests no longer sympathise with or desire to understand rural 
requirements. We have been familiar, since the days of the statesman who 
told us, truly enough, that ‘ we are all socialists now,’ with the pious hope of 
ardent urban reformers that the day may come when the highway from York 
to London shall have become one long, unbroken street. This urbane 
policy has already substituted for countless once beautiful examples of rural 
scenery the bungaloid tentacles of our larger towns. ‘The author of The 
Path to Rome has explained more clearly than its advocates themselves the 
intellectual attitude which inspires the policy : ‘ Whenever you see a lot of 
red roofs nestling, as the phrase goes, in the woods of a hillside in south 
England, remember that all that is savagery ; but when you see a hundred 
white-washed houses in a row along a dead straight road, lift up your hearts, 
for you are in civilisation again.’ 

Our hearts need not be unduly cast down because, for the past half-century, 
urban and rural aims and interests have been out of tune once more: we 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 441 


can, like our forbears, school ourselves to endure what we cannot cure. 
But most local societies, anxious to preserve the amenities of their own areas, 
must be prepared to face the opposition of convinced and earnest members 
of an influential school of thought, and may find that opposition supported 
by skilful propagandists influenced less, perhaps, by sympathy with urban 
ambitions than by prejudice against rural interests, who manifest their real 
feelings most clearly when they profess urban sympathy with rural wrongs 
as a means of enlisting rural support for urban policy. They have ready to 
hand the most powerful of weapons for their purpose—‘ the lie that is half 
a truth.’ 

But members of local societies are able to observe that when urban social 
reformers make the ‘ enclosure of commons’ the basis of a charge that 
English rural economy, a century and a half ago, deprived the rural popula- 
tion of certain hitherto acknowledged rights and privileges, the speakers omit 
to remind their hearers that this was the result of législative action taken to 
enable English agriculture to comply with a request made by English industry. 
It may be conceded that the agricultural response to this industrial appeal 
was as free from altruism as the appeal which induced it. But there is no 
indication that the agricultural response was inspired by selfish motives : 
on the contrary, the benefits which accrued to rural economy were devoted 
to the advancement of public interests. That the industrial appeal may 
have been less unselfish than the agricultural response, is suggested by the 
fact that, the moment English industry found it possible to obtain supplies 
of food from other sources, English urban sympathy with English rural 
interests vanished like a ‘ morning mist.’ 

The impatience evinced by the representatives of urban constituencies 
when the needs of English agriculture are explained or discussed is due to 
something more than lack of understanding: it is in accordance with a 
familiar natural law. If it be true that ‘ gratitude for favours received ’ is 
one of the traits which distinguish instinct from reason, it is equally true 
that one of the traits which distinguish reason from instinct is the pro- 
pensity of man as an animal to dislike those he finds it convenient and thinks 
it safe to treat unjustly. This trait is perhaps more collective than individual, 
seeing that it is most manifest in social groups that are class-conscious and 
in members of the community who regard party allegiance as of more conse- 
quence than their duty to the State. But all those who serve the State in 
any capacity are only too familiar with what guides the action of most 
Government departments. Nor are many of us in our private capacities 
unaware of the existence of the tendency : we find ourselves, as members of 
committees, ready to approve lines of action and to adopt courses of policy 
which, as individuals, we should hardly dream of pursuing. 

Nevertheless rural residents have more reasons than one for regarding 
with some forbearance the attitude towards country interests adopted by 
denizens of towns. If urban industrial workers enjoy the advantage of de- 
voting their lives to tasks that demand constant attention, they suffer the 
drawback of having to expend their energies on occupations that soon cease 
to arouse interest in the labour they involve: the rural labourer enjoys the 
twofold benefit, thanks to the differences of the seasons, of variety of occupa- 
tion and corresponding diversity of attention. ‘This reduction of the urban 
industrial worker to the condition of a machine renders him especially 
susceptible to corresponding influence from those whose interest is served 
by misleading him. When the agencies engaged in the distribution of food, 
raw materials, and manufactured goods borrowed from Industry the idea of 
harnessing steam, they secured legislative sanctions as inimical to hitherto 
recognised rights as anything ever granted to rural economy. In the lay-out 


442 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


of their permanent ways and depots these agencies manifested as little 
regard for rural amenities as had been shown by the producer of minerals 
or the manufacturer of goods. All that prevented these new ‘ common 
carriers’ from obtaining control of the destinies of the producers, the 
manufacturers, and the consumers they exist to serve was their devotion to 
the doctrine that ‘ competition is the life of trade.’ It is, however, fair to 
say that these common carriers did nothing overt to impair the harmony of 
rural and urban interests induced by the Industrial Revolution, until the 
use of steam was extended to seaborne traffic and supplies of food raised 
overseas under extensive methods of cultivation could be offered to dwellers 
in English manufacturing towns at prices with which supplies raised inten- 
sively in England could not well compete. The result has been that agri- 
culture, the industry which, so far as the world at large is concerned, is 
more important than all other industries combined—it supplies the food 
required by the workers’ of all other industries as well as of its own—has, so 
far as this country is concerned, ceased to be an economic occupation. The 
adoption by English industrial interests of the attitude towards English 
agricultural interests, that mankind generally adopts towards whatever it 
has injured, is therefore only natural. 

The most outstanding statistical consequence of the Industrial Revolution 
in this country has been that with us the urban population now out-numbers 
the rural population. The most important political effect of this statistical 
fact has been that we now enjoy a franchise which makes it expedient for 
our legislators so to regulate taxation as to lose fewest votes. ‘To meet this 
requirement as far as possible, they have adopted the expedient of taxing 
the dead. This method, like various other‘: human devices, betrays the 
defects of its merits. What may, when applied to the recompense of 
industry, be a justifiable confiscation of the earnings of an individual and 
serve as a salutary discouragement to the unsocial crime of thrift, has, when 
applied to the resources of rural economy, effects indistinguishable from 
those of alevy on capital. The practical effect of this legislative discrimina- 
tion, applied under the pretext of uniformity, in the treatment of rural as 
contrasted with urban interests, which directly concerns local societies, is 
the sure and by no means slow elimination of what has, ever since the 
Industrial Revolution began, been the greatest safeguard of our amenities 
and especially of the flora and the fauna of the countryside. 

The appeal of our Organising Committee to the delegates of the corre- 
sponding societies now present in conference is, therefore, in essence, the 
expression of a hope that henceforth local societies may be prepared to 
undertake, on behalf of their own areas, a duty that has hitherto been 
carried out by that type of rural economy which our urban electorate has 
succeeded in paralysing and is determined to destroy. That the assistance 
of local societies will be welcomed by what stillremains of the expiring agency 
we are assured. Unfortunately this very fact warns us that the opposition 
local societies are certain to meet from urban dwellers taught to regard 
rural amenities as relics of savagery and to consider rows of bungalows as 
signs of civilisation, will be the more implacable. 

There are other difficulties which deserve the attention of local societies. 
The “ common carriers ’ authorised to form and maintain roads of their own 
on which they may use for haulage either coal or current, have now to face 
the active competition of opponents able to use petrol engines on the old 
public highways, provided these be supplied with a new and smoother 
surface at the expense of the community. This favoured agency now enables 
urban residents, who wish to do this, to visit ‘ places of historic interest or 
natural beauty’ with an ease and comfort which the lay-out of railway 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 443 


systems and the dictates of railway time-tables denied them. These visits 
would be more welcomed by country dwellers if the visitors could be induced 
to take back to town the unsightly litter with which they love to lard the 
countryside. Local societies who endeavour to modify this urban custom, 
may find ample scope for the exercise of their powers of persuasion. 

Thanks to the energy of the Commons, Open Spaces and Footpaths 
Preservation Society it is now in the power of rambling clubs, hiking 
parties and stray wayfarers to plan outings free from the fear of finding that 
some speculative builder or sporting tenant has meanwhile barred against 
them some ancient right of way. ‘This advantage carries with it increased 
tisks to the flora and the fauna of the countryside, the prevention of which 
may call for all the judgment and tact that local societies can command. 

The public spirit of many modern teachers has led to the creation of an 
energetic Nature Study Union which, notwithstanding its many merits, 
has the disadvantage of endangering the flora and the fauna of the country- 
side. Local societies, anxious to conserve the wild life of their own areas, 
must now be at pains to guide the enthusiasm and temper the zeal which 
are apt to prompt earnest teachers to provide material for study, and to 
encourage pupils to make competitive collections, on a scale so lavish that 
little of what is rare in the wild life of a particular locality is likely to be left 
for ‘ those that come after.’ 

The conditions of individual local societies vary so much that any action 
taken in response to the appeal now made must he left to the unfettered 
judgment of each. There are, however, a few general considerations to 
which any local society will do well to attend. The first and most important 
of these is the maintenance of a sympathetic understanding with the various 
local authorities in its own area. ‘This is desirable as a matter of general 
policy, apart altogether from threats of danger to the amenities of that area. 
Members of local societies may not feel disposed to devote attention to the 
details of local public affairs, yet may have special knowledge that would be 
invaluable to local administrators : they should regard it a duty to place 
their experience at the service of their own local authorities, if or when 
invited to do so. One of the benefits to an area which has a local society on 
friendly terms with its various local authorities, is the possibility that such 
a society may be asked to give disinterested and impartial advice in cases 
where the interests of independent local authorities threaten to clash. 
Almost as important is the duty of local societies to remember the truth of 
Mr. A. P. Herbert’s reminder that ‘ it is far too commonly assumed in the 
shires that all the really silly things happen in town,’ and that the tendency 
to make use of half-truths is as marked in the case of advocates of rural 
interests as in that of advocates of urban interests. A season rarely passes 
without public complaint of the action of some district council in the 
management of its roadside trees. Less frequent, but just as pungent, are 
the attacks on officers of the Forestry Commission for their management of 
the public woodlands entrusted to their charge. It is true that criticisms 
of the kind rarely receive the sanction of local societies : it is, unfortunately, 
almost as true that local societies, who should be in a position to enlighten 
the public of their own areas as to the real facts, rarely take pains to defend 
their own local authorities when the latter are attacked in this way. It is 
the duty of a local authority to attend to the comfort and the safety of its own 
section of the community: it is the duty of the Forestry Commission to 
further the economic interests of the State. When a local authority lops the 
trees in an avenue; when a forestry official substitutes soft-wooded for broad- 
leaved trees, both are carrying out necessary operations. ‘The attacks to 
which both are subjected are based on half-truths: it is not ‘ what they do’ 


444 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


but ‘ how they do it’ that leads emotional critics to object to their action. 
The more ground there may at first sight appear to be for complaint, the 
more manifest is the fact, either that in the area affected there is no local 
society competent to advise its local authority, or that, if the area possesses 
a local society, that society has failed to fulfil its primary duty of establishing 
a sympathetic understanding with its various public authorities. 

A local society which has established such a sympathetic understanding 
will be in a position, when the amenities of its own area are menaced, to 
seek the aid of its own local authority as well as of some appropriate national 
organisation. The local appeal should at least defer precipitate local action; 
the national appeal will ensure sympathetic attention, and may bring helpful 
advice. Whether the threat be to the general amenities of the area or to some 
special view-point or beauty spot, a local society can hardly fail to benefit by 
the experienced advice of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England 
or that of the Executive Committee of the National Trust. Ifthe damage be 
due to the modification of an existing thoroughfare or the making of a new 
one, it is probable that it will be beyond the power of a local authority or 
a local society to do more than palliate the mischief. In such a case a local 
society can count upon advice as to means and methods from such organisa- 
tions as the Road Beautifying Association, the Green Cross Society, or the 
Men of the Trees. 

Experience shows that there is only one safe course possible if the 
amenities of a local area are to be preserved : the threatened view-point, 
beauty spot, or piece of landscape must be purchased outright and rendered 
inalienable. The price demanded will usually exceed what a local society 
can afford to pay, but this drawback need ‘not deter a courageous local 
society from securing an option to purchase, and thus preventing the 
immediate desecration of the threatened amenity. The right to buy having 
thus been secured, an appeal for funds to complete the transaction can now 
be made, and in launching that appeal the moral support of the National 
Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty, and of the Council 
for the Preservation of Rural England, will be of vital consequence to the 
local society concerned. 

Such a property having been acquired, and the amenities of its local area 
thereby preserved, the local society responsible must consider the question 
of ownership. Unless a local society be empowered by charter to that effect, 
it may not be in a position to declare the property inalienable ; even if so 
fortunately situated, there can be few local societies whose members will 
venture, during a period like the present, to impose on their successors a 
burden which modified social and political conditions may conceivably 
render unbearable. The obvious alternative is to request an organisation 
like the National Trust, whose existence seems assured so long as England 
remains true to herself, and whose powers include the right to declare any 
of its properties inalienable, to accept the property. It is hardly necessary 
to remind delegates present that acceptance by the Trust of this respon- 
sibility will be dependent on two conditions : the local society offering the 
property must be able to satisfy the Trust that the property offered is in fact 

a place of natural beauty,’ and must provide evidence that funds adequate 
to meet the recurrent expenditure the proper maintenance of the property 
must entail are in fact available. 'The existence of the first condition is men- 
tioned in order to remind the delegates of all local societies of the advisa- 
bility, before asking the Council for the Preservation of Rural England to 
lend moral support to an appeal for funds, and the practical wisdom—if 
possible before obtaining an option to purchase—of securing from the 
National Trust a verdict that the amenity it is wished to safeguard is in fact 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 445 


“a place of natural beauty.’ The existence of the second condition is men- 
tioned for two reasons : one of these will appeal to the delegates of all local 
societies, since all can appreciate that while there may be room for difference 
of opinion as to the esthetic value of a particular property, there can be no 
doubt as to the cost of its maintenance. The other reason may appeal to 
delegates of local societies in Yorkshire ; they, at least, are aware that their 
own county is, and has long been, one of the English counties that has been 
most backward in its support of the National Trust. 

The more especial appeal of the Organising Committee that local societies 
should assist in conserving the wild life of the countryside, raises questions 
more difficult to resolve than those connected with the safeguarding of local 
amenities. If a property acquired to safeguard a local amenity be handed 
over to the National Trust, the Trust, through a managing committee, will 
endeavour to conserve the wild life in the property: if a local society be 
compelled to assume ownership, we may anticipate that it will endeavour to 
do what the Trust would otherwise have done. But absolute protection of 
wild life in properties acquired to safeguard amenities is not easily provided : 
properties acquired to safeguard amenities must remain accessible to the 
public they benefit. If, however, the funds required for the maintenance, 
as apart from the acquisition, of such properties be adequate, indirect pro- 
tection of this wild life can in time be made reasonably effective, especially 
if the local area is so fortunate as to possess a local society on good terms 
with its local authorities : the society will know what should be done, the 
public authorities will be in a position to enforce the necessary regulations. 

Delegates may think, and indeed may hope, that local societies can count 
upon the help of their local press in their efforts to safeguard the amenities 
of their own areas. There is some reason for such hope. ‘The press tries 
to save us the trouble of forming opinions of our own regarding public 
affairs and does much to protect our personal liberties against every en- 
croachment save those of D.O.R.A. Even in its gossip columns, which 
we have high legal authority for hoping to see discontinued, we were 
surprised to read at Easter praise given, by a writer who has visited the 
South Coast, to the National Trust and the Council for the Preservation of 
Rural England, for their support of the local society at Lynton which is 
endeavouring to preserve Watersmeet from the speculative builder and thus 
arrest ‘the rapid transformation of rural England into a vast chequer- 
board of bungalow towns, power-stations and petrol-dumps, the blight that 
has already overtaken the Sussex downs,’ and to prevent the further dis- 
figurement ‘ of that incomparable rural England whose passing we shall 
some day mourn too late.’ Such a paragraph may well encourage local 
societies to establish a sympathetic understanding with their local press as 
well as with their local authorities, and to lose no time in doing so lest the 
influence of local editors be lent in default to the legislators whose sym- 
pathies local societies must welcome, but whose understanding of the 
problem in hand is such as to lead them to imagine that rural amenities 
can be safeguarded by means of a town-planning bill. 

But whatever sympathy the press may express with efforts to safeguard 
amenities, it is not to be counted upon yet to lend its aid to those anxious 
to conserve wild life. A writer professing to be the individual who had been 
on the Sussex Downs at Easter, at Whitsun visited the Chilterns. There the 
sight of a local policeman preventing the picking of the bluebells of a private 
citizen led him to reflect that ‘ an English holiday is not without its humorous 
occasions,’ and to remark some weeks later that, on hearing a “ broadcaster 
solemnly denounce the people who pull up wild flowers by the roots as a 
public nuisance that might become a public menace,’ he ‘ could not help 


446 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


feeling that our self-constituted wild-flower protectors are sometimes 
prone to an almost ludicrous exaggeration.’ Fortunately we now possess, 
thanks to the action of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England, 
an efficient Wild Plant Conservation Board, which includes representatives 
of most of the organisations that have the preservation of the flora of the 
countryside at heart. Though there are various points connected with this 
general problem as to which diversity of opinion is legitimate, there is 
reason to think that the practical measures taken by particular local societies 
may have to be guided by local conditions quite as much as by general 
principles. But until this new Board has had time to formulate recom- 
mendations which the Council for the Preservation of Rural England is in 
a position to endorse, no useful purpose can be served by the expression of 
individual views as regards debatable points. What is of immediate conse- 
quence is that local societies can now depend on the assistance of a body 
able and willing to aid them in conserving the flora of the countryside from 
those dangers that menace it everywhere except on railway embankments 
and in railway cuttings, whose owners are still permitted to prevent trespass 
on their property without being held up to ridicule or subjected to censure. 
What is of almost equal value is that we now possess an organisation capable 
of reminding wild-flower protectors of the truth of Mr. Herbert’s remark as 
to the fondness for folly which advocates of rural and urban interests share. 

In one respect the new Wild Plant Conservation Board has an advantage 
over any local society: it can treat the preservation of the flora of the 
countryside as a self-contained activity, whereas our Organising Committee 
hopes that local societies may be able to assist in conserving the fauna as 
well as the flora of their own areas. Perhaps the Council for the Preservation 
of Rural England may one day be able to set up a comparable Conservation 
Board for our fauna, in spite of the obvious difficulty that whereas the 
protection of our flora admits of some uniformity of system, in the case of 
our fauna it is far from certain that measures called for as regards the pro- 
tection of bird-life would be necessary or might be adequate as regards the 
protection of insect-life. Anyhow, until such a Conservation Board is set 
up, local societies can rely, as in the past, on the help of organisations like 
the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds or the Entomological Society. 

The conservation of ‘ a place of natural beauty,’ secured in order to safe- 
guard the amenities of a local area, can never be passive. Passive manage- 
ment of an estate means mismanagement, and is as detrimental to its appear- 
ance as it is to the fauna it may shelter and to the flora which adorns it. 
Those entrusted with its conservation will doubtless keep in mind the 
sound maxim that ‘ when it is not necessary to change, it is necessary not 
to change.’ But they will observe, what the casual visitor may be pardoned 
for failing to notice, that ‘ change and decay ’ are as inevitable in wild nature 
as in human affairs, and that ‘ leaving things to take their natural course ’ 
means the gradual replacement of forms of plant- and animal-life which it 
is desirable to maintain, by forms whose increase must be carefully watched 
and may need to be rigidly controlled. If the approval of intelligent visitors 
is to be merited, those in charge of such a property must excercise an 
unceasing ‘ constraint of nature’: if the criticism of visitors whose emotions 
are untempered by knowledge is to be avoided, those in charge of such a 
property should, in doing what is necessary, strive to use ‘ the art that 
conceals art.’ 

But the conservation of the wild life of a local area may call for some- 
thing more than the protection of the flora and the fauna present in a 
property acquired to safeguard local amenities. That local area may 
include places which the National Trust might not feel justified in regarding 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 447 


as places of natural beauty, yet which the Linnean, the Zoological, or the 
Entomological Societies might agree with a local society in thinking worthy 
of protection as being the home of some rare plant ; the haunt of some rare 
bird ; the breeding-ground of some rare insect ; the place where birds of 
passage assemble prior to migration or seek repose when they return. Again, 
the only hope of preserving such a spot may be to purchase it and convert 
it into a ‘ sanctuary.’ 

It is hardly necessary to say to the delegates of local societies that while 
the acquisition of a sanctuary is indistinguishable from the acquisition of 
an amenity, the management of the two must differ in principle. While an 
amenity must remain accessible to the public, a sanctuary must be made as 
nearly as possible inviolate : the conservation and supervision by competent 
caretakers of any sanctuary must be more rigid and relatively more expen- 
sive than in the case of a property secured to safeguard local amenities. It 
is even less necessary to remark that it is, if possible, more undesirable that 
members of a local society should impose on their successors the responsi- 
bility of ownership of a sanctuary than that of ownership of an amenity. 
It may, however, be worth while to point out that this burden is just as 
unnecessary in the one case as in the other. A sanctuary need not be ‘a 
place of natural beauty’; even if it be, in fact, entitled to be so regarded, 
the National Trust may be debarred from accepting the burden of owner- 
ship because a sanctuary becomes valueless unless access to it be denied. 
But local societies may approach the Society for the Promotion of Nature 
Reserves, a body empowered by charter to own sanctuaries of the kind. 
That Society will require to be satisfied that the property offered to it is, in 
fact, suitable as a sanctuary, and will be as careful as the National Trust to 
satisfy itself that the funds provided for its maintenance are adequate. If 
it be desirable that a property to be acquired in order to safeguard local 
amenities be declared in advance by the National Trust ‘ a place of natural 
beauty,’ it will be even more advisable to have it declared in advance by the 
appropriate authority that a property to be acquired as a sanctuary is in 
fact suitable as a ‘ nature reserve.’ In connection with a proposed sanctuary 
it must be remembered that questions of expenditure may arise which do 
not occur in the case of properties acquired to safeguard amenities. Where 
a stretch of woodland, subject in the past to a periodic ‘ coppice-fall,’ is 
acquired so as to ensure the continued existence of some rare plant, it may 
be essential to maintain the old practice, even if there be no longer any 
demand for hoops and faggots, lest the species whose preservation is aimed 
at be choked and disappear. Similarly, where a piece of fenland is acquired 
because it is the breeding-ground of some rare insect, the invasion of 
shrubby vegetation must be carefully and constantly checked, while there 
must be a seasonal cutting of reed and sedge, though there may no longer 
be a demand for thatch, lest the conditions become unsuitable for the insect- 
life the ‘ sanctuary ’ was acquired to preserve. Necessities of the kind— 
those quoted are mentioned from actual experience—will enable local 
societies to satisfy the friends to whom they may appeal for funds that, in 
the case of a ‘ sanctuary,’ money for maintenance is as essential as money 
for purchase, and that the endowment of a ‘ sanctuary’ may call for more 
capital than its acquisition. ‘These necessities enable us to realise, further, 
that to acquire a ‘ sanctuary,’ and then leave it without adequate protection 
and careful management, means an unpardonable waste of effort and 
resources. Since the proper maintenance of a ‘sanctuary’ may often 
entail more extensive interference with natural growth than the proper 
maintenance of ‘a place of natural beauty ’ usually demands, it may often 
be impossible for those in charge of a ‘ sanctuary ’ to carry out their duties 


448 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


so unobtrusively as to escape the attention of those whose esthetic feelings 
outweigh their acquaintance with the factors that condition wild life. 
Local societies will, however, be able to meet criticism by reminding those 
who bring it that neglect to regulate the factors which condition wild life 
may mean a sacrifice of that life more to be regretted, because the cruelty 
involved is more refined and more prolonged, than the destruction caused by 
those unsympathetic barbarians who find the fact of their rarity a sufficient 
incentive to the slaughter of rare creatures and the uprooting of rare 
plants. 

Local societies will sometimes find, and as time goes on will do so more 
often, that the agencies inimical to wild life in their own areas have become 
so powerful that the establishment of a ‘ sanctuary’ is impracticable, and 
that the only means of conserving the wild life once characteristic of the 
neighbourhood is to acquire a suitable site and convert this into an ‘ asylum ’ 
for such plants, insects, and birds known to have at one time been native 
there, as can be placed in or attracted to the ‘asylum.’ ‘The question is 
sometimes asked whether and, if so, how far it is permissible to treat a 
“nature reserve’ as both a ‘sanctuary’ and an ‘asylum.’ ‘The answer 
must be left to the judgment of individual local societies: the only practical 
general consideration is the bearing of the decision on ownership. A 
‘ sanctuary ’ is no longer such when access to it ceases to be strictly limited, 
whereas an ‘ asylum for wild life’ must be at least as freely open to the 
public as ‘ a place of natural beauty.’ Its accessibility to the public should 
prevent the Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves from accepting 
ownership of any ‘ asylum for the conservation of local wild life’; its artificial 
origin should preclude the National Trust from doing so. 

Another question sometimes raised is whether, and how far, a collection 
of plants representative of a local area may be appropriately included ina 

‘public garden.’ In this case the answer is simple: provided the local 
authority owning and maintaining the ‘ public garden’ can be persuaded 
by its local society to permit the collection of local plants to be treated as 
a distinct section of the establishment, the suggestion, ideal in itself, has the 
added advantage of solving the otherwise difficult question of ownership, 
since this would be vested in the appropriate ‘local authority.’ This 
suggestion is one which may be appropriately considered at a conference in 
York because, although it be true that York as a county has been and still 
is backward in its efforts to assist the National Trust to preserve English 
amenities, it is also the case that certain Yorkshire towns have been, and are 
still, singularly public-spirited in the support they have given to the main- 
tenance of their public gardens. It should therefore be an easy task for 
local societies to persuade their own local authorities to follow what is 
already a recognised policy and, when establishing public gardens, to devote 
one section of these gardens to the purposes of ‘ an asylum for local wild 
life.’ If Yorkshire should lead, other counties would follow. 

In connection with the question of establishing, wherever possible, a 
series of ‘ asylums for local wild life ’ it may be possible for local societies 
to render the cause we have at heart a further service. Since such an 
asylum must be,on a small scale,a combined zoological and botanical garden, 
there must of necessity be vivaries and nurseries attached. In these 
vivaries and nurseries can easily be raised not only all the material required 
for the maintenance of the collections in the ‘ asylum,’ but also all the 
material required by the teachers of nature study and their pupils in the 
local schools. It may well be that on a local society may fall the burden of 
collecting the funds required, not only for the establishment but also for 
the maintenance of an ‘ asylum for wild life.’ But this task accomplished, 


CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 449 


it ought not to prove difficult to obtain the consent of a local council to 
accept the burden of ownership. 

Delegates present will, it is hoped, understand that what has been said 
must not be regarded as committing in any way the members of the 
Organising Committee who have suggested the subject now dealt with, or 
the members of the Council of the British Association who have asked that 
the subject be considered at this conference. If what has been said be 
objected to, the fault lies with the speaker. Briefly summarised, his belief 
is that local societies can best help to safeguard the amenities of their own 
areas by taking a more active part than many of them have taken in the past 
in securing possession of ‘ places of natural beauty ’ and handing these over, 
with adequate endowment funds, to the National Trust. His belief also is 
that local societies can best help to preserve the flora and the fauna of the 
countryside by securing, whenever possible, suitable ‘ sanctuaries for wild 
life * and handing these over, with adequate endowment funds, to the 
Society for the Promotion of Nature Reserves. They can do something 
to repair the damage already done, and the destruction already caused, by 
establishing and if possible endowing local gardens and parks, equipped 
with adequate vivaries and nurseries, and persuading their local authorities 
to take over these ‘ asylums for the conservation of wild life.’ Local 
societies should avoid, at all costs, the burden of ownership of any of these 
safeguards: it is always an unsound principle to possess watch-dogs and 
bark oneself. 

Local societies may anticipate many difficulties and much opposition, 
some of it due to self-interested motives, but more of it due to misunder- 
standing. This need not discourage them, provided they are on good 
terms with and enjoy the sympathy of their own local authorities. With 
that behind them, local societies can do much: if they neglect to establish 
cordial and sympathetic relationships with their own local authorities, local 
societies can hardly hope to render much assistance either in the preservation 
of the amenities of their own areas or in the conservation of the flora or the 
fauna of the countryside. 


At the conclusion of the President’s Address, Dr. Vaughan Cornish 
dealt with the Conservation of Wild Life in Relation to the Scheme for 
National Parks, urging the importance of taking steps without undue 
delay to preserve representative regions of wild scenery in England for the 
recreation of the people. He pointed out that the establishment of pro- 
tected nature reserves within the wider area of a national park is not 
incompatible with the free recreation of the people, for which such parks 
would be established, since, while the breeding ground of rarer animals 
and birds would be protected, the birds themselves would be free to fly 
far beyond, and even rare flowers would spread beyond the protected 
area, which would really add to the enjoyment of the main area in which 
the people would roam without restriction. Thus there is no insuperable 
difficulty in the co-operation of sociologists and naturalists in the scheme 
for national parks, and any conflict of aims is more apparent than real. 

A discussion followed in which Prof. F. G. Baily, Mr. H. Burgess, 
Prof. J. E. Duerden, Mr. H. E. Forrest, and Mr. H. E. Salmon took part. 


450 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES 


Tuesday, September 6. 


Mr. T. Sheppard in the Chair. 


Captain T. Dannreuther, R.N., described a Scheme for Recording 
Immigrant Insects, in which he invited the co-operation of the societies 
in correspondence with the British Association, especially those in the 
midland and northern counties of England, where observers could render 
valuable assistance by keeping watch for and recording the appearance of 
insects known to be migrants. The collective results of such records would 
prove of importance and scientific value on a subject where knowledge 
is lacking for want of systematic observation and available data. The 
scheme is an adaptation of a card-indexing system devised by Dr. C. B. 
Williams for tabulating records of insect migration. Captain Dannreuther 
pointed out that hitherto such records have been fortuitous, and it is 
hoped that with the aid of local observers such records will continue to be 
kept systematically, with a view to analysis and subsequent publication. 

As to the scientific value of such records, he called attention to the 
existing lack of knowledge of the habits and true habitats of certain well- 
known migrants, and instanced several species of the commoner butterflies 
and moths observed in England during the spring and summer, which it 
is known cannot survive our winter months, while, unlike migrant birds, 
there are no apparent return flights to balance the migration. A number 
of lighthouse- and lightship-keepers from Land’s End eastward as far as 
the north-east coast are acting as observers with the consent of the Trinity 
Brethren, and he urged that the assistance of the Corresponding Societies 
would be valued in keeping observation in their own areas, and forwarding 
the records to him upon the approved cards for tabulation. Such cards, 
together with further information, can be obtained from Captain T. 
Dannreuther, R.N., Windycroft, Hastings, Sussex. 


Cf. Report, Hastings and St. Leonards Nat. Hist. Soc. (1930-31); 
Hastings & East Sussex Naturalist, 4, 5 (1932); Bull. S.E. Union Sct. 
Socs., 60, June 1 (1932); Entomologist, 65, 832. 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF 
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 


AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS. 


The titles of discussions, or the names of readers of papers in the Sections 
(pp. 300-416), as to which publication notes have been supplied, are given 
below in alphabetical order under each Section. 

References indicated by ‘ cf.’ are to appropriate works quoted by the 
authors of papers, not to the papers themselves. 

General reference may be made to the issues of Nature (weekly) during 
and subsequent to the meeting. 


SECTION A. 


Humidity control, discussion.—Engineering, 1384, 3483, pp. 436-438, 
Oct. 14 (1932) ; ibid., 184, 3484, Oct. 21 (1932). 

River-flow discussion.—Water & Water Eng., 34, 408, Sept. 20 (1932) ; 
tbid., Oct. 20 (1932); Surveyor, Oct. 7 (1932); expected to appear in 
Engineering. 

Television demonstration.—Electrician, Sept. 9 (1932); Elect. Review, 
Sept. 9 (1932). 

Awbery, J. H.—To appear in Nature, School Sci. Rev.; Engineering, 
134, 3483, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Barker, Dr. S. G——On ‘ Wool sorting,’ Textile Manufacturer, 58, 693, 
P. 347 (1932). On ‘ Humidity control,’ Textile Mercury, Sept. 23 (1932) ; 
Textile Manufacturer, 58, 693, p. 347 (1932); to appear in extenso in 
Journ. Text. Inst. 

Bateson, R. G.—Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Buckingham, F.—Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Chadwick, Dr. J.—Yorks. Post, Sept. 6 (1932); Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 
186, p. 692 (1932). 

Feather, Dr. N.— Yorks. Post, Sept. 6 (1932); cf. Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 
186, p. 709 (1932) ; Nature, 180, p. 237 (1932). 

Frith, ].— Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Glazebrook, Sir R. T.—On ‘ Electric and magnetic units,’ Elect. Review, 
Sept. 30 (1932) ; Electrician, p. 343, Sept. 16 (1932) ; to appear in Nature, 
School Sci. Rev., Engineering. 

Griffiths, Dr. E—On ‘Electric and magnetic units,’ Elect, Review, Sept. 30 
(1932) ; Electrician, p. 343, Sept. 16 (1932); to appear in Nature, School 
Sci. Rev., Engineering. On ‘ Evaporation of water,’ to appear in Nature ; 
Engineering, 184, 3483, pp. 436-438, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Holm, Dr. J. M.—Cf. Phil. Mag., pp. 18-56, July (1932); further 
paper expected to appear in Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. ( 1933)- 

Q2 


452 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


Houstoun, Dr. R. A.—Cf. Journ. Gen. Psych., 3, pp. 295, 299 (1930) ; 
Brit. Fourn. Psych., 20, pp. 27-37 (1929) ; ibid., 20, pp. 181-189 (1929) ; 
ibid., 20, pp. 362-364 (1930); ibid., 20, pp. 365- 367 (1930); ibid., 19, 
pp. 158-166 (1928) ; ‘ Vision and Colour Vision ’ (Houstoun), ‘Longmans, 
Green & Co. (1932). 


Lees, Prof. S.—Engineering, 184, 3483, Oct. 14 (1932). 

McClean, Capt. W. N.—Fourn. Inst. Water Eng., 32 (1927); ibid., 30 
(1925) ; Geog. Fourn., '76, July (1930) ; Proc. Roy. Soc. Edin. (1930) ; River 
Flow Records, Sept. (1929)—March (1931). 

McLellan, B. G.—Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Marsh, M. C.—Textile Mercury, Sept. 23 (1932) ; Textile Manufacturer, 
58, 693, p. 347 (1932) ; to appear in extenso in Journ. Textile Inst. 

Meissner, Dr. W.—Ergeb. d. exacten Naturwiss., 11, pp. 219-263 
(Springer) (1932). 

Palmer, Prof. L. S—Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 186, pp. 193-209 (1932) ; Proc. 
Inst. Radio Engs., 20, pp. 1345-1367 (1932). 

Peirce, Dr. F. 'T —Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Powell, R. W.—To appear in Nature, School Sci. Rev., Engineering. 

Richardson, Dr. L. F.—Cf. Journ. Gen. Psych., 3, pp. 295, 299 (1930) ; 
Brit. Fourn. Psych., 20, pp. 27-37 (1929); ibid., 20, pp. 181-189 (1929) ; 
ibid., 20, pp. 362-364 (1930); zbid., 20, pp. 365-367 (1930); zbzd., 19, 
pp. 158-166 (1928). 

Short, F.—Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Smith, C. C—Yorks. Post, Sept. 7 (1932). 

Tyndall, Prof. A. M.—Tyndall and Powell, Proc. Roy. Soc., 129 (1930) 
and 186 (1932) ; Powell and Brata, Proc. Roy. Soc. (in press). 

Waller, Miss M. D.—Expected to appear in Proc. Phys. Soc. 

Whipple, Dr. F. J. W.—Engineering, 134, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Whipple, R. S.—Engineering, 184, 3483, p. 437, Oct. 14 (1932). 

Winson, C. G.—Textile Manufacturer, 58, 693, p. 347 (1932). 


DEPARTMENT Af. 


Bennett, M. G.—May appear in Illuminating Eng.; cf. Quart. Journ. 
Roy. Met. Soc., 58, 245, p. 259, July (1932). 


Jeffreys, Dr. H.— Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Geophys. Suppt., 8. 


Stoneley, Dr. R— Monthly Notices, R.A.S., Geophys. Suppt., 2, pp. 429- 
433 ; Gerlands Beitrége z. Geophys., 29, pp. 417-435. 


SECTION B. 


Water pollution, discussion.— Surveyor, 82, p. 297, Sept. 30 (1932) ; 
Gas World, Coking Section, 97, p. 108, Oct. 1 (1932) ; Times, Sept. 6 (1932) ; 
Lloyd’s List, Sept. 6 (1932) ; expected to appear in Chemistry and Industry, 
Nature, Water & Water Eng., Report Water Polln. Res. Bd., H.M.S.O. 
(1931-32), Survey of River Tees (Pt. II—Chem. and Biol.), H.M.S.O. 
(1931-32). 

Cf. Reports Water Polln. Res. Bd., H.M.S.O. (1927-28, 1928-29, 1929-30, 
1930-31) ; Survey of River Tees (Pt. I—Hydrographical), H.M.S.O. (1931) ; 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 453 


“Salinity of water retained in muddy foreshore of estuary,’ fourn. Marine 
Biol. Assoc., 18, 297 (1932) ; ‘ Investigation into causes of death of salmon 
and sea-trout smolts in estuary of river Tees,’ Biochem. Fourn., 26, 273 
(1932); ‘ Apparatus for studying growth of Epippyhi algz, with special 
refnce. to river Tees,’ Trans. Northern Naturalists’ Union (1931). 

Alexander, W. B.—To appear as Technical Paper of Water Pollution 
Research Board ; cf. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 18, 1, p. 297, May (1932). 

Astbury, W. T.—Cf. Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 109, 443 (1932); Ann. Rep. Chem. 
Soc., 28 (1931) ; Journ. Text. Inst., 23,17 (1932) ; Nature, 180, 309 (1932). 
Publications also expected : ‘ Colloid Aspects of Textile Fibres,’ Faraday 
Soc., Dec. (1932) ; Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc., A; Proc. Roy. Soc., B. 

Bassindale, R.—To appear as Technical Paper of Water Pollution 
Research Board ; cf. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc.,18, 1, p. 297, May (1932) ; 
Nature, 129, 3247 (1932). 

Butcher, Dr. R. W.—To appear as Technical Paper of Water Pollution 
Research Board ; cf. Nature, 129, 3247 (1932). 

Desch, Prof. C. H.—Cf. ‘ Chemistry of Solids ’ (Desch), McGraw-Hill 
(New York). 

Hirst, Dr. E. L—¥ourn. Chem. Soc., p. 2375 (1932). 

Mann, Dr. F. G.—Chemistry and Industry, p. 771, Sept. 16 (1932). 

Mark, Prof. Dr. H.—Cf. ‘ Chemie und Physik der Cellulose’? (Mark); 
Springer (1932). 

Masson, Prof. I—Expected to appear in Nature. 

Pentelow, F. T. K.—To appear as Technical Paper of Water Pollution 
Research Board ; cf. Nature, 129, 3247 (1932). 

Southgate, Dr. B. A——To appear as Technical Paper of Water Pollution 
Research Board ; further paper to appear in Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. ; cf. 
ibid., 18, 1, pp. 297-298, May (1932) ; Nature, 129, 3247 (1932). 

Staudinger, Prof. Dr. H.—Cf. Liebigs Ann., 474, 259 (1929); Ber. d. 
deutsch. chem. Ges., 68, 2308 (1930); ibid., 68, 2317 (1930); ibid., 68, 2331 
(1930); zbid., 68, 3132 (1930); ‘ Die hochmolekularen organischen Verbind- 
ungen-Kautschuk und Cellulose’ (Staudinger), Springer, Berlin (1932). 

Sutton, L. E., and Taylor, T. W. J— Expected to appear in Journ. Chem. 
Soc.; cf. ibid. (1931). 

Zechmeister, Prof, Dr. L.—Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges., 62, 722 (1929) ; 
ibid., 64, 854 (1931) ; ibid., 64, 2028 (1931) ; ibid., 65, 161 (1932) ; Natur- 
wissenschaften, 34, 639 (1932) ; Ber. d. deutsch. chem. Ges. (in print). 


SECTION C. 


Igneous rocks, discussion.—To appear in Geol. Mag. 

Brammall, Dr. A.—On ‘Igneous Rocks,’ to appear in Geol. Mag. 

Dix, Miss E—Expected to appear in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. ; cf. Geol. 
Mag., 68, p. 529 (1931) ; Proc. Geol. Assoc., 40, p. 192 (1932). 

Dollar, A. T. J —Geol. Mag., 69, 816, June (1932). 

Gardner, Miss E. W.—Geol. Mag., Sept. (1932); to appear in Geog. 
Journ. 
Holmes, Prof. A.—To appear in Geol. Mag. and Nature. 


Trueman, Prof. A. E——Expected to appear in Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin. ; 
cf. Geol. Mag., 68, p. 529 (1931) ; Proc. Geol. Assoc., 40, p. 192 (1932). 


484 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


SECTION D. 

Le Pelley, Dr. R. H.—Cf. Bull. Ent. Res., 23, 1, March (1932), and a 
subsequent issue. 

Pantin, C. F. A.—Cf. Journ. Exp. Biol., 8, pp. 63, 73, 82 (1931); Biol. 
Rev., 6, p. 459 (1931) ; further work to appear in Journ. Exp. Biol. 

Southwell, Dr. T.—Memoir (New Series, No. 2), Liverpool Sch. Trop. 
Med. (Univ. Press, Liverpool) ; Ceylon Journ. Sci., B, 15, Pt. 1; ibid., 15, 
Pt. 3; ‘Cestoda. Fauna of British India ’ (Southwell) ; Spolia Zeylanica, 
7, Pt. 27 (1911); Parasitology, 5, 1 (1912); Fourn. Econ. Biol., 8, Pt. x 
(1913); ‘On some Fish Parasites’ (Southwell), Bihar and Orissa Govt. 
Press, No. 2 (1913); ‘Cestodé and other parasites of Indian Fish’ 
(Southwell), Dept. of Agric., Bihar and Orissa (1913); Recs. Ind. Mus., 9, 
Pt. 2, No. 1 (1913); tbid., 9, Pt. 5, No. 19 (1913); fourn. & Proc. As. 
Soc. Bengal, N.S.,10, No. 6 (1914); Recs. Ind. Mus., 11, Pt. 4, No. 3, 
16-17 (1915) ; ibid., 12, Pt. 1, No. 2 (1916) ; Fourn. Parasitology, 4 (1918) ; 
Recs. Ind. Mus., 15, Pt. 2, No. 9 (1918) ; ibid., 19, Pt. 1 (1920) ; Ann. Trop. 
Med. & Parasit., 15, No. 2 (1921); Mem. Ind. Mus., 5 (1921); Amn. 
Trop. Med. & Parasit., 16, No. 4 (1922); ibid., 16, No. 2 (1922); Recs. 
Ind. Mus., 25, Pt. 2 (1923) ; Ann. Trop. Med. & Parasit.,17, No. 3 (1923) ; 
ibid., 18, No. 1 (1924); zbid., 18, No. 4 (1924); ibid., 21, No. 3 (1927); 
ibid., 22, No. 3 (1928); ibid., 22, No. 4 (1928) ; ibid., 28, No. 1 (1929) ; 
ibid., 28, No. 3 (1929). 

Stephen, A. C.—Expected to appear in Trans. Roy. Soc. (Edin.). 

Zuckerman, Dr. S.—To appear in monograph form. 


SECTION E. 

Cornish, Dr. V.—Cf. ‘ National Parks and Heritage of Scenery’ (Cornish), 
Sifton Praed (1930) ; ‘ Scenery of England ’ (Cornish), C.P.R.E. (1932). 

Elgee, F.— Yorks. Herald, Sept. 3 (1932) ; cf. ‘ Early Man in NE. York- 
shire ’ (Elgee), Gloucester (1930). 

Fogg, W.—To appear in Geography. 

Jacobs, E.—Fishing News, Sept. 17 and 24 (1932); Yorks. Herald, 
Sept. 7 (1932). 

Longfield, Capt. T. E—— Yorks. Herald, Sept. 7 (1932); ‘ Subsidence 
of London ’ (Longfield), H.M.S.O. (1932). 


Selwood, Dr. E. H—May appear in extended form in Scot. Geog. fourn. 


SECTION F. 
Allen, Prof. G. C_—Econ. fourn. (History Suppt.), Jan. (1933). 


Bellerby, Prof. J. R.—Expected to appear as pamphlet, Richard Clay 
& Son. 


Robbins, Prof. L.— Yorks. Post, Sept. 2 (1932). 
Thomas, Dr. B.—Cf. Economica, Nov. (1930) ; Econ. Fourn., June (1931). 


DEPARTMENT F*, 
Bowie, Dr. J. A—Cf. ‘ Education for business management’ (Bowie), 
O.U. Press (1930) ; ‘ American schools of business ’ (Bowie), Pitman (1932). 
Browne, Hon. J. F. A——Education, Sept. (1932). 
Dent, A. G. H.—Electrician, p. 340, Sept. 16 (1932); to appear in 
Business. 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 455 


SECTION G. 

Railway traction, discussion.—Railway Gazette, pp. 296, 319, Sept. 9 
(1932) ; Electrician, pp. 341-342, Sept. 16 (1932). 

Bacon, Prof. F.—In extenso, with plates, Engineering, 184, 3480, pp. 354 
and 372-376, Sept. 23 (1932). 

Carter, Dr. F. W.—Electrician, p. 341, Sept. 16 (1932) ; Engineering, 184, 
3478, p. 306, Sept. 9 (1932) ; to appear in extenso, Engineering. 

Coker, Prof. E. G.—Engineering, 184, 3478, pp. 306 and 311-313, Sept. 9 
(1932). 

Cotton, Dr. H.—Electrician, p. 343, Sept. 16 (1932) ; Engineering, 134, 
3480, p. 355, Sept. 23 (1932). 

Cramp, Prof. W.—Electrician, pp. 342-343, Sept. 16 (1932); Engineer- 
ing, Sept. 16 (1932); Times, Sept. 8 (1932); ibid., Sept. 16 (1932); cf. 
Trans. Inst. Mining Engs., 188, 1, pp. 1-23. 

Evans, Dr. R. H.—Engineering, Oct. 28 (1932). 

Fleming, A. P. M.—Engineering, 134, 3478, pp. 306 and 308-310, Sept. 9 
(1932) ; Elect. Review, pp. 357-358, Sept. 9 (1932); Electrician, pp. 340- 
341, Sept. 16 (1932) ; Iron & Coal Trades Review, p. 378, Sept. 9 (1932) ; 
Colliery Guardian, pp. 526-527, Sept. 16 (1932). 

Fowler, Sir H.—Engineering, p. 318, Sept. 16 (1032). 

Garrard, Dr. C. C.—Electrician, Sept. 9 (1932) ; Engineering, 184, 3477, 
p. 268, Sept. 2 (1932) ; zbid., 184, 3478, p. 306, Sept. 9 (1932). 

Gilchrist, J.—Engineering, Oct. 28 (1932). 

Hough, F. A.—Electrician, p. 343, Sept. 16 (1932); Engineering, 184, 
3480, p. 355, Sept. 23 (1932). 

Kaye, Dr. G. W. C.—Engineering, 184, 3478, pp. 305 and 314-316, 
Sept. 9 (1932); Electrician, Sept. 9 (1932); Engineering, p. 432, Oct. 7 
(1932). 

Levi, Dr. R.—Engineering, 184, 3478, pp. 306 and 311-313, Sept. 9 (1932). 

Lydall, F.—In extenso in Engineering, p. 325, Sept. 16 (1932) ; Elect. 
Review, Sept. 9 (1932) ; Modern Transport, 27, 704, Sept. 10 (1932). 

Matthews, R. B.—Electrician, Sept. 9 (1932); Elect. Review, Sept. 2 and 9 
(1932) ; Engineering, 184, 3477, p. 286, Sept. 2 (1932) ; ibid., 184, 3478, 
PP. 305-306, Sept. 9 (1932). 

Tritton, Sir S. B— Engineering, p. 341, Sept. 16 (1932); Railway Gazette, 
pp. 296, 319, Sept. 9 (1932) ; Modern Transport, 27, 704, Sept. 10 (1932). 

Walker, Prof. M.—Elect. Review, Sept. 2 (1932). 

Wall, Dr. T. F.—To appear in Engineering. 


SEcTION H. 

Caton-Thompson, Miss G.—Man, 82, 158 (1932); Geog. Fourn., Nov. 
(1932). 

Clark, J. G. D.—Cf. ‘ Mesolithic Age in Britain’ (Clark), Camb. Univ. 
Press. 

Corder, P.—‘ Sci. Survey of York and District’ (see Appendix), pp. 56-61 ; 
¢f. Reports Nos. 1, 2 and 3 on Roman Malton and District (Yorks. Archeol. 
Soc.). 


456 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


Crowfoot, J. W.—Quart. Statement, Palestine Expl. Fund, Jan. and July 
(1932), Jan. (1933). | 

Davies, O.—Expected to appear in Nature and in book form. Cf. Ann. 
Brit. School at Athens (1931) ; Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst. (1932). 

Elgee, F.—Cf. ‘Early Man in N.E. Yorkshire’ (Elgee), Gloucester 
(1930). 

James, Rev. Dr. E. O.—Folk-Lore, Sept. 30 (1932). 

MacCulloch, Rev. Canon J. A.—Folk-Lore, Dec. (1932); cf. Hastings’ 
Encyc. of Relig. & Ethics, 5, pp. 678-689; ‘'The childhood of fiction : 
a study of folk-tales and primitive thought ’ (MacCulloch), London (1905) ; 


‘ Medieval faith and fable ’ (MacCulloch), London (1932) ; Folk-Lore, Dec. 
(1921) ; Gallovidian, 1'7. 


Murray, Dr. M. A.—Expected to appear in Ancient Egypt. 


Myres, Prof. J. L.—On ‘ Who were the Romans?’ to appear in ‘ Fest- 
schrift fiir Dr. C. G. Seligman’ (edited Prof. B. Malinowski), E. Evans 
Pritchard and J. Schapera (1933 or 1934). 


Peate, I. C_—Welsh Outlook, Nov. (1932) ; cf.‘ Guide to Welsh Bygones ’” 
(Peate), Nat. Mus. Wales (1929); pp. 175-188, ‘ Studies in Regional 
Consciousness and Environment’ (Peate), Oxford (1930). 


Petrie, Sir F.—‘ Gaza II ’ (Petrie), Univ. Coll. Lond. (1932) ; ‘ Decorative 
Patterns of Ancient World’ (Petrie), Brit. Sch. Egypt. Arch. (1932) ; Ancient 
Egypt, June (1932). 

Rose, Prof. H. J—To appear in Greece and. Rome. 


Suk, Prof. Dr.—On ‘ Human races on basis of serological tests,’ expected 
to appear in Human Biology (New York); cf. Publ. de la Fac. des Sci., 
Nos. 124 and 125, Univ. Masaryk (Brno, 1930) ; ibid., 150, Univ. Masaryk 
(Brno, 1932); Lancet, Nov. 14 (1931). On ‘ Eyebrows and eyelashes in 
man,’ expected to appear in Fourn. Roy. Anthrop. Inst.; cf. Publ. de la Fac. 
des Sci., 142, Univ. Masaryk (Brno, 1931). 


Williams-Freeman, J. P—Expected to appear in Sussex Archeol. Collins. 


SECTION J. 


Collins, Dr. M.—Expected to appear in Brit. Journ. Psych. ; cf. ibid., 22, 
4, PP. 344-352. 2 


Farmer, E.—To appear in Brit. Journ. Psych. 
Irwin, Dr. J. O.—Expected to appear in Brit. Journ. Psych. 


Knight, R.— Yorks. Herald, Sept. 3 (1932) ; Vet. Record, Oct. 1 (1932) ; 
Nature, Oct. 29 (1932) ; to appear in extended form in Brit. Journ. Psych. 


Macrae, Dr. A.—Cf. ‘ Talents and Temperaments ’ (Macrae), Nisbet and 
C.U. Press and Appleton, New York. 


Miller, Dr. E——Expected to appear in Brit. Journ. Educ. Psych. 
Myers, Dr. C. S.—YFourn. Nat. Inst. Indust. Psych., Dec. (1932). 
Northcott, Dr. C. H.—To appear in Human Factor. 


Pickford, Dr. R. W.—To appear as ‘ The process of synthesis in reading ’ 
in Brit. Journ. Psych. 


REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 457 


SECTION K. 
Aldrich-Blake, Dr. R. N.—Forestry, 6, 1, pp. 40-52 (1932) ; further data 
expected to appear as Oxford Forestry Memoir No. 14. 


Ashby, Dr. E.—Cf. ‘ Inheritance of Physiol. Characteristics,’ Ann. Bot. 
(1930 and Oct. 1932). 


Campbell, A. H.—Timber Trades Fourn., 122, p. 669 (1932) ; Ann. App. 
Biol., 20 (1933). 

Duerden, Dr. H.—Expected to appear in Ann. Bot. 

Gwynne-Vaughan, Prof. Dame H. C. I.—Ann. Bot., July (1932). 

Lloyd, Dr. L.—To appear in Journ. Hygiene. 

Paine, Prof. S. G.—May appear in Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 

Penston, Dr. N. L.—To appear in Ann. Bot., as No. 4 of series ‘ Physiol. 
importance of mineral elements in plants.’ 

Rees, T. K.—To appear in Journ. {Ecology ; cf. Fourn. Ecology, 19, 2, 
Aug. (1931). 

Rendle, B. J—Expected to appear in Nature. 

Rushton, Dr. W., and Slack, H. D.—Expected to appear in Journ. 
Salmon & Trout Assoc.; cf. Ann. App. Biol., 9, 1, Apr. (1922); 
ibid., 10, 2, July (1923); Proc. Inst. Water Eng., 29 (1924); ibid., 
80 (1925); Fourn. Inst. San. Eng., 28, 2 (1924); Journ. Soc. Eng. (Inc.) 


(1927) ; Fourn. Pub. Works & Transport Cong. (1929) ; Journ. Salmon & 
Trout Assoc., ‘ Biol. Notes’ (1920-32). 


Williamson, Mrs.—Ann. Bot., July (1932). 


DEPARTMENT K*, 
Balfour, F. R. S.— Scotsman, Sept. 3 (1932) ; cf. Report, Conifer Conf. of 
Roy. Hort. Soc. (1931). 
ag Dr. J. B.—To appear in Quart. Fourn. Forestry; cf. ibid., 25 
1931). 
Rorbes, A. C.—Expected to appear in Journ. Roy. Eng. For. Soc., Jan. 
1933). 
Gardner, R. C. B.—Timber Trades Fourn., p. 810, Sept. 24 (1932). 
Harris, P.—Timber Trades Fourn., Sept. 10 and 17 (1932). 
Laidlaw, Dr. W. B. R.—Roy. Scot. Forest. Journ., Oct. (1932). 
O’Dwyer, Dr. M. H.—May appear in Fourn. Soc. Chem. Ind. ; cf. Biochem. 
Journ., 17, 501 (1923) ; ibid., 20, 656 (1926) ; ibid., 22, 381 (1928) ; ibid., 
25, 2017 (1931). 
Ponsonby, T. B.—¥ourn. Roy. Scot. Forest. Soc., Oct. (1932); cf. ibid., 
Apr. (1931), Oct. (1931), Apr. (1932). 


SECTION L. 
Domestic science, discussion.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 15 (1932). 
Education in Yorkshire, discussion.— Yorks. Post, Sept. 6 (1932). 
Film in education, discussion.—Yourn. Educ., pp. 668-672, Oct. (1932) ; 
to be published by Commission on Educational and Cultural Films. 


Science in education of boys and girls up to sixteen, symposium.— 
Schoolmaster, Sept. 15 (1932). 


458 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


Technical and secondary education, discussion.—Yourn. Educ., p. 697, 
Oct. (1932). 

Abbott, P.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 22 (1932) ; Fourn. Educ., Oct. (1932). 

Desch, Prof. C. H.—Cf. ‘ Science and Adult Education,’ Brit. Inst. 
Adult Educn. (1927). 

Holland, J. L.—Yourn. Educ., p. 697, Oct. (1932). 

Masters, Miss H.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 15 (1932). 

Moorfield, S. H.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 22 (1932). 

Myres, Prof. J. L.—To appear in report of discussion to be issued by 
Commission on Educational and Cultural Films. 

Pepper, Miss M. C.—/Schoolmaster, Sept. 15 (1932). 

Strong, Dr. J.—Schoolmaster, p. 350, Sept. 15 (1932). 

Watkins, Sir P.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 22 (1932) ; Journ. Educ., Oct. (1932). 

Weddell, Miss M.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 15 (1932). 

Yorke, J. P.—Schoolmaster, Sept. 22 (1932) ; fourn. Educ., Oct. (1932). 


SECTION M. 


Best, Dr. S. E. J.—Cf. ‘ East Yorkshire, a study in Agricultural Geo- 
graphy ’ (Best), Longmans, Green & Co. (1930). 


Bomford, D. R.—To be published as brochure by Inst. Res. Agric. Eng., 
Oxford. : 

Denham, Dr. H. J.—Implement & Machinery Review, Oct. 1 (1932) ; 
Field, Oct. 1 (1932) ; Times, Sept. 5 (1932) ; to appear in Engineering and 
as brochure issued by Inst. Res. Agric. Eng., Oxford. Cf.‘ Occasional notes 
on Mechanised Farming, No. 2 ’ (Denham, Wright and Newman), Inst. Res. 
Agric. Eng., Oxford (1932). 


Fraser, Dr. A. H. H.—To appear in Scot. fourn. Agric.; cf. Trans. 
Highland & Agric. Soc. Scot. (1932). 


Henderson, T’.. G.— Scotsman, Sept. 7 (1932). 


Hosier, A. J.—Field, Oct. 15 (1932) ; to appear in “ Occasional notes on 
Mechanised Farming’ (Inst. Res. Agric. Eng., Oxford); cf. paper to 
Farmers’ Club, Oct. (1927). 


Prewett, F. J—Cf. ‘ Marketing of Farm Produce, II, Milk, 1927’ 
(Clarendon Press) ; ‘ Survey of Milk Marketing ’ (Prewett), Clarendon Press 
(1927); ‘ Survey of Milk Marketing in Derbyshire ’ (Prewett), Clarendon 
Press (1928) ; ‘ Milk Production on Arable Land’ (Prewett), Clarendon 
Press (1929) ; ‘ Problems of Milk Distribution ’ (Prewett), Clarendon Press 
(1932) ; ‘ Manufacturing Milk ’ (Prewett), Clarendon Press (in press). 


Stewart, W. A.—Northampton Mercury & Herald, Sept. 16 (1932). 
Strachan, J.— Yorks. Herald, Sept. 3 (1932); Appendix, p. 89. 
Watson, Prof. J. A. S.— Yorks. Post, Sept. 6 (1932). 

Wright, Dr. N. C.—Scot. Journ. Agric. (Jan. 1933). 


Wright, S. J—To be published as brochure by Inst. Res. Agric. Eng., 
Oxford ; cf. ‘ Occasional notes on Mechanised Farming ’ (Denham, Wright 
and Newman), Inst. Res. Agric. Eng., Oxford (1932). 


for 1 MU a\ 
; 12 JAN 33 


i Ste 


APPENDIX 


A 
SCIENTIFIC SURVEY 
OF 


YORK 


AND DISTRICT 


PREPARED FOR 
THE YORK MEETING 


1932 


BY VARIOUS AUTHORS 


CONTENTS. 


I.—York in its Regional Setting. By A. V. WILLIAMSON.... se 
II.—Geology. By C. E. N. BROMEHEAD...............+-- 8 
III —The Climate of York. By E.G. BitHam ............ 13 
IV.—Yorkshire Plant Ecology. By Dr.T.W.WoopHEaD .. 22 
V.—Zoology. By A.J. A. Woopcock .................. 28 


VI.—Historical Geography. By Prof. HAMILTON THOMPSON 35 
VII.—Prehistoric Archzology in Yorkshire. By FRANK ELGEE 40 


VIII.—Roman Excavations at York. By the Rev. A. RAINE.... 52 
IX.—Roman Malton and District. By PHitip CoRDER...... 56 
X.—Education in York. By Gro. H. Gray .............. 61 
ole Indiasthies OMIM OLK ei... s si sis e 3 esl als © ale» cys -ees ee 76 
XII.—Features of Engineering Interest in York and District. 

By HY RALUPTONO Mii smc eees oe do SG. oe 77 
XIII.—Buckingham Works, York ...............20200eceaes 87 
XIV.—Agriculture. By James STRACHAN, H. T. Jonegs, D. H. 

FINDLAY, W.S. GiBsoN, and W.E. GELLING .... 89 


XV.—The First Meeting of the British Association, York, 1831. 
By Dr. O: J. Ri HOwaARtHe <6 . 4) Seen). ee 97 


A SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF 
YORK AND DISTRICT 


I. 
YORK IN ITS REGIONAL SETTING 


BY 
A. V. WILLIAMSON, M.A. 


Nortu of the line of the Humber, the essential English Lowland protrudes 
its tongue between the low-swelling eastern flanks of the Pennines and the 
bold scarps of the Yorkshire Wolds and the North York Moors until its 
tip is twisted seawards against the East Durham Plateau. The tip is 
known as the Vale of Tees ; the rest forms the vale which is named, not 
from the principal river meandering over it, but from the city seated on 
the river and centrally located within the area. 

The Vale of York lies in latitudes roughly midway between the north 
and south of Britain, and the fact that while structurally united to the 
Lowland South the area is also intimately related, through its surface 
deposits and river system, to the Upland North enhances, geographically, 
the significance of its intermediate location. Its historical associations 
and its economic adjustments, past and present, also serve to emphasise 
that intrinsic ‘ betweenness ’ which is the basis of the vale’s claim to a 
regional individuality apart from the recognition it enjoys as a great 
corridor of through routes. 

From the low and indeterminate water-parting between the Tees and 
the Swale, which marks its entry from the north through the ‘ Northaller- 
ton Gate,’ the vale extends south for about 50 miles to the line of the lower 
Aire and the Humber. Thus north and south it merges into areas of 
similar plan, although historically the marshlands along the Aire-Humber 
line were, of course, for long a significant hindrance to movement. Modern 
industrialism, however, has orientated the Tees lowland to the estuary at 
its mouth, and the development of the Yorkshire coalfield has so trans- 
formed the landscape spreading southwards from about the Aire as to 
differentiate it clearly from the essentially rural region to the north. A 
lowland of drift soils, on which arable cultivation co-exists significantly 


4 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


with the raising of livestock, primarily cattle (i.e. mixed farming in the 
fullest sense), the vale contrasts strongly with the highlands framing it ; 
with the Pennines and North York Moors devoted mainly to sheep, and 
with the Wolds characterised by a rural economy based on sheep and 
barley. Probably the 200-foot contour marks, as near as may be, the 
limits of the essential vale region to east and west. On the east there is 
a real break of slope at this height and a fairly noticeable change in land 
utilisation. Westwards, however, the chosen contour only indicates the 
beginning of a foothill zone, 5 to 10 miles wide, spreading to the Pennines 
proper. Over this zone, from place to place, farming allied to that of 
the vale persists, thanks to the red loams derived from the Magnesian 
Limestone on which the zone is developed. 

Along its southern margin the vale is about 30 miles wide, and this 
width is fairly well maintained as far north as York, i.e. over the southern 
half of the region. Northwards it tapers and in the latitude of Ripon 
becomes suddenly constricted to a corridor less than half as wide as in 
the south. 

Within, the boundaries given, the Vale of York embraces rather more 
than 1,000 square miles, the whole of which is less than 200 feet and much 
of it below 50 feet above sea-level. Developed basically by river action on 
rocks, mainly sandstones, of the Triassic series, the vale is covered by 
deposits of glacial and fluviatile origin, varying in depth from 25 to 
go feet, and the underlying rocks only appear as isolated outcrops in one 
or two places. 

In a bird’s-eye view the floor of the vale appears monotonously level ; 
in detail it is frequently undulating or hummocky, but the only coherent 
relief features of real significance are two terminal moraines which extend 
across it as crescentic ridges some fifty feet above the general level. Of 
these the more noteworthy one runs from Sand Hutton in the east through 
Upper Helmsley, Grimston Smithy and Heslington to York, and then loops 
south-westward through Copmanthorpe, Bilbrough and Healaugh with 
minor ridges straggling towards Tadcaster and Wetherby. The other, 
lying a little further south, observes a rough parallelism to the first and 
stretches from Stamford Bridge through Newton, Sutton-on-Derwent, 
Wheldrake and Escrick to Stillingfleet, then dies down westwards through 
Acaster Selby and Bolton Percy. ‘They afford dry going above the marsh 
and floods, and from time immemorial the most important transverse 
route in the vale has been identified with the more northerly ridge. 

The vale is watered, rather than drained, by the Ouse and its tribu- 
taries. The Ouse collects the drainage of an area four times as large 
as the vale, and all its tributaries save one flow from the Pennines to its 
right bank. The exception is the Derwent, which joins the Ouse after 
that river has received all its Pennine affluents except the Aire, i.e. not 
far above the head of the Humber estuary. All the rivers of the vale are 
prone to overflow in certain reaches, but the Derwent is notorious in this 
connection. The extent and peculiar shape of its catchment area—this 
covers some 800 square miles and includes most of the North York Moors 
and the Vale of Pickering—causes the Derwent to swell very rapidly after 
rain (its volume may be quadrupled within 24 hours), and this, combined 


YORK IN ITS REGIONAL SETTING 5 


with the shallowness and irregularity of its bed, frequently infested with 
reeds which operate to accentuate the sluggish flow of its waters, makes it 
an exceptionally ill-famed river. Flooding is most frequent and wide- 
spread at Stamford Bridge, and along the tidal reach of the river, i.e. below 
Sutton, especially in the Bubwith neighbourhood. The rise of the tide 
up the Ouse tends to pond back the Derwent, and also to silt up its lower 
course with warp (tidal sediment). The river is especially shallow near 
its junction with the Ouse; in places it is only 3 feet deep, whereas it 
should be 12 feet at low tide. The Derwent enters the Ouse in an 
upstream direction at an angle of about 30 degrees. At one time it 
joined the Ouse 44 miles further down. Bubwith, seated on a hairpin 
bend of the Derwent midway between the confluence of this river with the 
Ouse and the entry of the Pocklington Canal, is as it were caught between 
two fires ; and perhaps the presence of a raised road and bridge adds to 
its troubles. Extensive areas of swamp and marsh have been reclaimed, 
but the problem of drainage remains acute in the southern part of the vale, 
particularly the south-central, where the high sub-surface water-table is 
a reflection of it. 

The vale is characterised by a medley of soils varying within narrow 
limits, so that a summary account is of little value. South of the York 
moraine, however, sandy loams—light, easily-worked soils—are pre- 
dominant, while alluvium occurs immediately along the rivers, and there 
is also warp. ‘The latter embraces ‘ natural’ warp, which spreads along 
the Derwent extending south-eastwards from Sutton-on-Derwent, and 
‘ artificial ’ warp, which displaces the foregoing south of the Selby-Hull 
railway and reaches to the Humber. The alluvium, heavy and frequently 
liable to flood, is generally under grass ; so also the natural warp, which 
is an infertile stratified lacustrine deposit of glacial parentage. By con- 
trast, the artificial warp is of high fertility and carries a variety of crops. 
North of York natural warp spreads north-west for some 10 miles up the 
centre of the vale. This is girdled by sandy loams, which are again broken 
by alluvium along the rivers, while towards the marginal uplands they give 
place to boulder clay. Finally, the latter predominates across the extreme 
north of the vale, where it passes into the ‘ Northallerton Gate.’ The 
strength of the clay here in the north has long caused it to be esteemed as 
wheat land, but the greater part is under grass. Regarded as a whole, 
the soils of the vale support good crops, particularly when adequately 
sweetened with lime, which is to hand in the margins of the vale. In the 
eastern part of the area beneficial results have accrued in the past from 
marling, a practice hardly surviving now. Many of the lighter soils are 
also improved by running sheep on them. ‘The agriculture of the vale is 
one important manifestation of the ‘ betweenness’ of the region (see, 
further, Chap. XIV). 

Climatically the vale enjoys conditions approximating to those which 
support the arable lands par excellence of England, and with a mean July 
temperature of 60° F. the region just has a sufficiency of summer 
warmth to ripen wheat, which, north of the vale, will ripen only in excep- 
tionally favoured spots. Rainfall, which is liable to occur practically 
every other day, decreases from an annual total of just under 30 inches 


6 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


near the marginal uplands to barely 25 inches in the centre of the region. 
The wettest month is October, and the late summer receives a noteworthy 
share of rain, but September is comparatively dry. The fact that July 
and August are credited with few rainy days in relation to the amount of 
rain which they receive, so that rain is most intense at this time, is due to 
a high frequency of thunderstorms. September favours the harvest, but 
the heavy falls of late summer frequently deplete the yield of various 
crops. (Climatic details for York will be found in Chap. III.) 

The city of York stands where the Ouse, changing direction from 
south-east to south, breaks through the more northerly of the two morainic 
ridges already noted, and at a point where the river is joined by a left-bank 
tributary, the Foss. The latter, meandering south, enters the Ouse at 
a sharp angle just within, i.e. north of, the ridge. The moraine, on 
reaching the Ouse from the east, loses its identity as a ridge and widens 
north and south along both banks of the river into a complicated series of 
elongated mounds. ‘Thus boulder clay is heaped upstream as far as the 
bend at Clifton ; sands and gravels sprawl downstream to Bishopthorpe 
and Fulford, and, indeed, struggle as far as the southern moraine at 
Escrick. A little west of the Ouse the moraine regains individuality, but 
rather as a series of minor ridges than as a single major feature. Asa 
result of these complications the land rises most steeply from, and 
achieves its maximum elevation along, the banks of the Ouse immediately 
above the point where the Foss enters it ; it is flanked there by boulder 
clay. ‘This applies especially to the left bank or north side, as it may be 
called just here. It was on this side, on the low eminence in the angle of 
the confluence, overlooking the Ouse and the marshy terrain spreading 
along and beyond the Foss, with forest and more marsh on the third side, 
that the Roman fortress was built ; and this area has persisted as the core 
of the city from its genesis. Placed at once both in the geographical 
centre of the vale and at the crossways of its arterial natural routes, the 
north-south route by the river and east-west route wid the moraine, the 
settlement also clearly enjoyed a good command over the surrounding 
low-lying lands and a large measure of natural security. 

Despite the march of time, the salient features of the lay-out of Roman 
York can still be recognised. Stonegate adheres fairly faithfully to the 
line of the Via Principalis, High and Low Petergate to that of the Via 
Pretoria, while Blossom Street, Bootham, Monkgate and Walmgate 
represent the original approach roads to the gates of the castra. The 
suburban, i.e. extra-mural, development which marked later Roman times 
was identified mainly with the high ground on the south side of the Ouse 
and chiefly the neighbourhood where the railway station now stands. 
Subsequent expansion followed very much in the Roman wake and 
resulted in further walls being erected. ‘Those built under the Normans 
were closely related to the walls which followed later in the medizval 
age, and are preserved to-day. On the north-east and north-west the 
latter conform almost exactly in alignment to the Roman walls, while to 
the south-west they enclose roughly the area of Roman suburban settle- 
ment. On the south-east there is an extension from Feasegate to Paragon 
Street. The absence of walls in the vicinity of the Foss is sufficient 


/ 


o 
J 


Pe eS en eee ee ee ae 


a] 


YORK IN ITS REGIONAL SETTING 7, 


evidence of the significance, historically, of its marshes. After a lapse of 
centuries, Drake’s map of 1736 shows very little settlement outside the 
medizval walls; only a few dwellings in their immediate shadow in 
Bootham, Monkgate and Marygate. Life and property were not yet 
altogether secure, and economically the city was languishing. Significant 
extra-mural expansion was delayed yet another hundred years. With the 
arrival of the railway, fresh life was breathed into the city, following three 
centuries of decline due, in large measure, to the decay of the Ouse as an 
artery of traffic. The railway reached York in 1839 (eight years after the 
birth of the British Association in the city), and in response houses, 
primarily of the working-class type, began to spring up beyond the walls 
mainly to the south and the north-east. The influence of the gravel ridges 
in connection with these and later developments is discernible, revealing 
itself in the arms of dwelling-houses extending in the directions of Escrick 
and Bishopthorpe, along the Mount, and to the village of Acomb. 
More recently, expansion has been particularly marked to the north of the 
city and on its east side ; this continues. Noteworthy in this connection 
are the Cocoa Works Model Village at Earswick and the Corporation 
Housing Scheme at Tang Hall. The limitations placed upon the expan- 
sion of population north-west and south-east along the banks of the Ouse 
remain as ever. Within about a mile and a half of Ouse Bridge, in both 
directions, the river is liable to flood. Such land, however, provides open 
space and in places is suitable for industrial purposes. ‘The present centre 
of industry is in the neighbourhood of Foss Island. It is not possible here 
to enlarge upon the town-planning proposals for York and its rural 
neighbours to the north, east, and south. It must suffice to say that the 
demarcation of zones within the area incorporated under the scheme, and 
the ring and other arterial roads now being developed, will, it is hoped, 
ensure the healthy expansion of population and industry, and meet the 
acute need for relieving the traffic congestion in the heart of the city while 
also preserving its ancient and historic monuments in an appropriate 
setting. 

Economically, York retains its age-old place as a route centre and the 
principal market town of a rich agricultural region. Before 1757, when 
the lock was built at Naburn, about 5 miles below the city, the Ouse was 
tidal up to York, and the golden age in her economic history depended 
upon the sea-going boats that tied up to her quays. Early in the sixteenth 
century the silting of the Ouse was already beginning to agitate certain 
minds, and, with the progressive increase in the size of sea-going boats in 
later days, the tonnage reaching the city dwindled until in the eighteenth 
century it ceased. The Ouse is still serving the city, however, and about 
140,000 tons per annum are at present carried to and from York by the 
waterway. The boats most commonly employed carry from 80 to 110 tons, 


chiefly coal, gravel and cement. A larger type, able to accommodate 


a cargo of about 230 tons, is favoured for the transport of grain and seeds 
for crushing. 
1 It is realised that it is natural for a town to expand along its approach roads, 


and as these gravel ridges carry such roads they have attracted houses to them, 
Yet it is fair to claim a direct influence as above. 


8 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


Some reference has already been made to the part played by the railway 
in relation to modern York, and its importance cannot be overestimated. 
In the decade 1841-51, immediately following the introduction of the 
railway, the city’s population increased by over a quarter as against 10 per 
cent. during the previous ten years. The formation of the North Eastern 
Railway in 1854, with headquarters at York, was a further stimulus, while 
the opening of the Carriage and Wagon Works in 1884, and its expan- 
sion in following years, were reflected in further substantial growth of 
population. 

Since it became the headquarters of the North Eastern Area of the 
London and North Eastern Railway Company, the importance of York 
as a junction has been enhanced from a regional standpoint, while it is 
worth recording that the whole of the main-line traffic between Don- 
caster and Newcastle is controlled from here. 

As some indication of the part played by York as a collecting and 
distributing area it may be noted that roughly 1,900,000 goods wagons, 
nearly three-quarters of them laden, pass through the railway marshalling 
yards in a year. The city itself receives 490,000 tons of rail-borne 
goods per annum, of which the largest item is coal, and sends out 
145,000 tons of goods a year, the details of which afford a clue to its 
industries. The main item is refined sugar from the local factory, and 
second to this is confectionery, which represents York’s principal industry 
apart from the railway itself ; oil-cake is another important item. The 
first two commodities travel far afield, while the third feeds the agricultural 
area round about. Some 6,300 wagons of livestock are also despatched 
each year—a reflection of the fact that as a market York handles more cattle 
than any other centre in England and Wales. 


I wish to acknowledge my debt to F. H. Graveson, Esq. (Assistant to 
the Divisional General Manager, N.E. Area, L.N.E. Railway) ; to F. J. 
Spalding, Esq., B.A., LL.B. (Town Clerk of York) ; and to F. Spurr, Esq. 
(City Engineer and Surveyor of York). The work of my own students 
has also been helpful. 


Il. 
GEOLOGY 


BY 
C. E. N. BROMEHEAD, B.A. 


THE immediate neighbourhood of York is not of great interest to the 
general geologist, since no rocks older than the glacial deposits are exposed. 
Even to the glaciologist it has become of less interest since the last visit 


| 


GEOLOGY 9 


of the British Association ; at that time (1906) several large brick pits at 
Dringhouses afforded sections of a thick deposit of laminated clays, but 
these are now either filled in or flooded. 

Were the superficial deposits to be removed the position of York would 
be seen to lie in the centre of a plain occupied by Triassic rocks. This 
plain, the Vale of York, is bounded on the west by the uprise of older 
rocks less easily eroded than the sandstones and marls composing the 
Trias, on the east by newer rocks overlying it. ‘To the north-north-west 
the plain narrows towards the Tees valley, and is known as the Vale of 
Mowbray, southwards it widens to the Humber and is continued in the 
Vale of Trent. The western margin is everywhere formed by Permian 
rocks, of which the dominant member is the Magnesian Limestone, but at 
the base of these is a great unconformity. In the south they are underlain 
by the Coal Measures, forming the great Yorkshire coalfield. During the 
meeting of the Association a visit will be paid to the Conisborough area, 
where beds near the top of the Middle Coal Measure will be seen imme- 
diately beneath the Permian, but not far from Tadcaster the whole of the 
Coal Measures is cut out and the Permian rests on Millstone Grits. A 
geological excursion to Tadcaster and Bramham will demonstrate this point. 
The northern boundary of the ‘ concealed coalfield ’ beneath the Permian 
and Trias is not known, but the balance-of evidence is in favour of a west 
to east line. It may safely be assumed that no Coal Measures are present 
beneath York. 

The eastern margin of the Triassic plain is formed, from north to south, 
by the high ground of the Hambleton Hills, the Howardian Hills, and 
the Wolds. The two former consist of Jurassic rocks, the last of chalk. 
It is impossible in this short account to give a detailed description of the 
beds or to discuss the many interesting problems which their characters 
and distribution suggest, but sufficient may be said to indicate the main 
points which will arise on the various excursions. In the Hambleton 
Hills the escarpment shows a complete succession from Lower Lias to the 
Calcareous Grit. In the Howardian Hills the highest ground is occupied 
by beds belonging to the Lower Oolites. These two blocks are separated 
by a trough due to faulting, known as the Gilling Gap, in which most of 
the ground is occupied by Kimeridge Clay. The gap forms a connection 
between the low-lying ground of the Vales of Mowbray or York on the 
west and the Vale of Pickering on the east. 

Due east from York and at a distance of about 12 miles is the escarpment 
of the Chalk Wolds. It is recorded that when William Smith first visited 
York he climbed to the top of the Minster tower and saw the Wolds in the 
distance. From the form of the ground he recognised that the rock was 
chalk, thus confirming his ideas of stratigraphy. Prof. Kendall has 
suggested that that day was the birthday of stratigraphical geology. A 
word of warning may be inserted here. From the same or any other 
elevated viewpoint, the visitor to York will see in the distance a white 
horse cut on the scarp of the hills ; if he comes from the South of England 
he may assume that he is looking at the chalk, but he would be wrong. 
This white horse is cut in Corallian rock on the flank of the Hambleton 
Hills, almost due north from York, 


10 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


If our visitor now asks why the hills rising above the Triassic plain 
should be of Jurassic rocks to the north and of Cretaceous rocks to the 
east, he has hit upon one of the most interesting phenomena in Yorkshire 
geology. Near the town of Market Weighton the Upper Cretaceous 
strata rest on Lower Lias. As this neighbourhood is approached from 
north or south the Jurassic beds of North Yorkshire and of Lincolnshire 
successively thin out and disappear. Moreover, several of them, which 
show evidence of having been deposited, when well developed, in com- 
paratively deep water, change their character ; instead of deep sea mollusca 
they contain beds of oysters, clearly indicating the proximity of a shore-line 
or, at least, of shallow water. ‘The known area of non-deposition centres 
round Market Weighton, and the disturbance is usually spoken of as 
that of the Market Weighton Axis, but the direction taken by the axis is 
a matter for speculation. Opportunity to study the variations of several 
members of the Jurassic sequence and their successive overlaps will be 
afforded on the excursion to Wharram, etc. 

Such, in brief outline, is the ‘ solid ’ geology of the York neighbourhood. 
In glacial times the Vale of York was invaded by a glacier which came over 
Stainmore and descended Teesdale. The north-west corner of the 
Cleveland Hills divided this stream into two branches ; one descended the 
Vales of Mowbray and York, the other continued towards the sea and then 
turned south along the coast, being driven inland by ice from Scandinavia, 
which filled the North Sea. The Vale of York glacier brought with it 
boulders of such rocks as Shap Granite, Brockram from the Vale of Eden, 
and carboniferous rocks from the Pennines; a fine example of the first- 
named may be seen at the southern end of the up platform of the excursion 
station. It was joined in its southward course by tributary glaciers from 
the dales of West Yorkshire, Swaledale, Wensleydale, Nidderdale, Wharfe- 
dale and Airedale, but no glaciers originated in the hills to the east. There 
a number of glacial lakes was formed, as the natural drainage was 
obstructed by the ice in the Vale of York and along the coast. These 
lakes and the many channels by which they discharged have been described 
by Prof. Kendall in a classic paper. The largest lake occupied the 
Vale of Pickering and overflowed along what is now the Derwent Gorge, 
from Malton to Kirkham Abbey. These will be seen on the excursions, 
as will a fine series of overflow channels near Kilburn. On the long 
excursion to Robin Hood’s Bay those members who prefer exploring the 
moors to studying Lias zones and boulder clay cliffs on the coast will 
find many glacial features to interest them. 

Detailed interpretation of the glacial phenomena around York will be 
a subject of discussion during the meeting and many of them will be seen 
on the excursions. We do not wish to anticipate what will be said then, 
but mention must be made here of the two great crescentic ridges, composed 
in part of gravel but more largely of boulder clay, which cross the Vale, as 
indicated in the previous chapter. The outer, or more southerly, of these 
merges to the west in the marginal deposits. The inner ridge, known asthe 
‘York Moraine,’ after curving round through York, passes westward into 
a complex of ridges and mounds. From York narrow ridges of gravel also 
extend southwards and south-westwards towards the ‘ Escrick Moraine.’ 


GEOLOGY II 


Apart from these elongated mounds the boulder clays and gravels are 
mostly buried beneath late glacial and post-glacial clays and muds. York 
owes its position to the morainic mounds which provided a feasible route 
across the swampy vale at the tidal limit of the river Ouse. One swamp, 
indeed, survives to the present day. Askham Bog, on the left of the road 
and railway as one approaches the city from the Leeds direction, lies in a 
hollow amongst the glacial ridges, from which there is no natural drainage 
outlet. It is, in fact, the remnant of an inter-morainic lake.1 The flat 
tract of Knavesmire, now the racecourse, occupies a somewhat similar 
position ; in the early summer of 1932 it partially resumed the lake-like 
condition. 

Since the immediate neighbourhood of York affords little opportunity 
for studying the local geology in the field, it may be well to draw the 
attention of visiting geologists to the chief features of interest in the 
geological department of the museum and to certain points in what may 
be called the ‘ human geology ’ of the city. The museum and grounds of 
the Yorkshire Philosophical Society will be open without charge to all 
members of the British Association for the period of the meeting. In the 
latter may be seen a few of the larger glacial boulders discovered in 
the district and brought here for preservation. In the main building of the 
museum the geological collections have been vastly improved under the 
care of the present honorary curator, Mr. 5S. Melmore. One of the chief 
treasures is the collection of mammalian remains from Kirkdale Cave, 
rendered world-famous by Dr. Buckland. The specimens have recently 
been cleaned and re-labelled, and are so arranged that all can be readily 

_ inspected. The cave is, or rather was, situated about a mile and a half 
_ west of Kirkby Moorside, but has been so largely removed by quarrying 
as to be hardly worth a visit from the geological point of view. The 
_ remains in the museum are probably the finest example of the contents of 
| an early Pleistocene hyena den in the world. In the same room will be 
_ found an important collection of fossil bones from the pre-glacial beach 
_ deposits of Sewerby, near Bridlington, and many mammalian fossils from 
_ the drifts in various parts of the county. 
One room is devoted almost entirely to Saurian remains from the 
- Yorkshire Lias ; these include what is thought to be the largest nearly 
complete Saurian known, a specimen of Ichthyosaurus crassimanus. In 
the main geological gallery the attention of paleontologists will naturally 
be drawn to the large number of type specimens, mostly Phillips’s, which 
_ have been brought together and well displayed by Mr. Melmore. Other 
| groups specially worthy of notice are the shells from the glacial beds of 
Bridlington, etc., the specimens from the famous sponge-bed in the chalk 
of Sewerby and Flamborough cliffs, and the plants from the Middle 
Estuarine and Corallian rocks of North-East Yorkshire. 
In other departments of the museum are many exhibits which throw 
interesting lights on the history of economic geology. In the Hospitium, 
_ which houses most of the Roman antiquities, the lead coffins and water- 
_ pipes show the lavish use of that metal by the Romans. ‘There is no 


1 Reference to the botany of this bog will be found in Chap. IV, and to its 
zoology in Chap. V. 


i 


12 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


inscribed pig of lead, but a cast is shown of one from near Pateley Bridge, 
belonging to the reign of Domitian. ‘The Romans were, therefore, mining 
the lead of the West Yorkshire dales at an early date; it has been sug- 
gested that one of the main objects of the Roman conquest of Britain was 
the exploitation of her mineral wealth. In this connection we may mention 
a unique Roman lead-pouring ladle from Walsingham Moor in the 
Ethnographic Room. Gowland long ago pointed out that Roman pigs of 
lead showed a kind of stratification, indicating that the mould was filled 
in a number of successive stages. Here we have the ladle actually used 
for pouring in the molten metal ; it is of bronze, and holds about two and 
a half pints. 

The Romans also appreciated the jet from the Upper Lias of the 
Whitby region. Some of the ornaments made of this material, par- 
ticularly the carved portrait heads, surpass anything that has been done in 
more recent times. The jet was brought to the important city of York 
and carved there, as shown by the undressed lumps and partially carved 
ornaments on the railway station site. 

An important question in local economic geology is that of building 
materials. York is situated in a clay plain and nearly all the houses are of 
brick. A considerable number of ancient oak-framed buildings survive 
and add greatly to the attractions of the picturesque streets. The clay 
plain north of the city was formerly occupied by the Forest of Galtres, a 
name probably meaning gall or oak trees. About nine miles away, in 
the Tadcaster district, the Magnesian Limestone affords excellent building 
stone, and the principal buildings, the Minster, the city walls, and the 
churches are of this material. The Romans were quick to realise its 
value ; the multangular tower in the museum grounds is a fine example 
of their work. The blocks are well hewn, though comparatively small. 
The wisdom, or shall we say the honesty, of the Roman quarrymen in 
selecting sound stone is noticeable if we contrast the weathering of their 
work with that of Magnesian Limestone in any of the medizval buildings. 
They also used it to some extent for inscribed monumental tablets and 
statuary, but for this class of work usually preferred gritstone from 
further west. In the Saxon period the use of Magnesian Limestone died 
out. Prof. Kendall has remarked that throughout Yorkshire pre- 
Conquest work in churches is always executed in gritstone, even when 
this had to be brought from a distance and the limestone was available on 
the spot. In York the tower of St. Mary’s, Bishop Hill Junior, dates 
from before the Conquest ; the lower part is largely of limestone, but it is 
obvious that the blocks used have been taken ready-made from the Roman 
wall. When this source was exhausted, the gritstone was used. The 
point is borne out by the fine series of Anglian crosses in one of the rooms 
of the architectural department of the museum (in the basement). The 
date of the magnificent, though mutilated, figure of Our Lady and Child 
in the Chapter House of the Minster has been a matter of dispute 
amongst antiquaries. The fact that it is of Tadcaster stone is strong 
evidence for a post-Conquest date, say first half of the twelfth century. 
Another good instance of the use of this stone for sculpture is the figure in 
the museum known as Our Lady of York, and for delicacy of carving the 


GEOLOGY 13 


extensive remains of the shrine of St. William, also now in the museum, 
are unsurpassed. No more ornamental stone is available anywhere near 
York. Purbeck ‘ marble ’ has been much used in the Minster ; the effigy 
of Archbishop de Gray (c. 1255) in the south transept is one of the finest 
examples of the use of this material in the country. More accessible was 
the alabaster of the Chellaston district of Derbyshire. Apparently some 
of the mineral was brought by water down the Trent and up the Ouse, 
and a York school of alabaster carving arose in the fifteenth century. 
Water-carriage was probably used by the Romans to bring stone from 
Tadcaster, but the writer has learnt that the trip down the Wharfe can 
to-day be somewhat arduous, even for a small boat. No particular source 
can be assigned for the gritstone used before the Norman Conquest, but 
in more recent times Rough Rock from the Scotgate quarries near 
Huddersfield has been used in the Castle. 

Some of the above notes are as much archzological as geological. Perhaps 
we may close with an appeal to archzologists. Between Boston Spa and 
Newton Kyme the Wharfe is crossed by a Roman road ; the exact site of 
the ford can be located with some precision, but even when the river is low 
the water there is something like 20 feet deep, while an easy fording can 
be made on a bed of gravel 200 yards up-stream. In other words, the 
river Wharfe has cut back this shallow about 200 yards in, say, 1,700 years. 
It would be of interest to geologists and to geographers if archzologists 
would collect similar figures in as many localities as possible. 


Ill. 
THE CLIMATE OF YORK 


BY 
E. G. BILHAM, B.Sc., D.I.C. 


Tue following account of the climate of York is based on observations 
made by the Yorkshire Philosophical Society at a station among the ruins 
of St. Mary’s Abbey, in the grounds of the Yorkshire Museum, 56 ies 
above mean sea-level. The Society acquired the site in 1827, and the 
meteorological observations date back to 1832. In 1871 the station 
became a ‘ telegraphic reporting station’ of the Meteorological Office, 
and the records preserved in the Office go back to that date. In 1899 
the station reverted to the status of a ‘ normal climatological station "—that 
is to say, a complete set of readings was taken twice daily, at gh. and 2rh. 
G.M.T. It has maintained that status to the present day. 

In 1881 a sunshine recorder of the new Campbell-Stokes type was set 


14 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


up on the roof of Bootham School, no suitable site being available in the 
Philosophical Society’s grounds. Records with the same instrument were 
made continuously until 1930, when the old recorder was replaced by 
a new instrument. We thus have available a record of sunshine dating 
back to the original introduction of the Campbell-Stokes instrument. 
The chimneys of buildings westward of the site cut off a little sunshine 
near the time of sunset, but the loss from this cause is not serious. There 
is also a slight cut-off by the Minster towers, to the south-east, from 
November to February. 

The observing station in the Philosophical Society’s grounds may be 
regarded as thoroughly representative of the City of York, but it is rather 
too much shut in for satisfactory observations of wind. It is proposed, 
therefore, to restrict this article to the discussion of the climatological 
elements other than wind. 

In Fig. 1 curves are given showing the annual variation of the more 
important elements. Following the standard practice of the Meteoro- 
logical Office, the averages of temperature (daily maximum, minimum 
and mean), rainfall and sunshine refer to the period 1881 to 1915. A 
relatively short period is sufficient to give satisfactory averages of humidity, 
and those given in this article refer to the ten years 1921-30. Extremes 
of temperature refer to the sixty years 1871 to 1930. 


RAINFALL. 


Referring to Table I, we see that October, with 68 mm., is normally 
the wettest month, and February, with 38 mm., the driest. ‘The summer 
holiday months, July and August, are only slightly less wet than October. 
There is a very pronounced dip in the annual rainfall curve at September, 
a feature found in the annual curves at most British stations. The 
number of days of rain is highest (18) in October, November and De- 
cember, and lowest (13) in June and September. The wettest month of 
any name was October 1903 with 177 mm., but September 1918 
gave the highest fall reckoned as a percentage of the monthly normal. 
It is of interest to mention that no rain actually fell in the calendar 
month of February 1891. The 2 mm. credited to that month fell 
in a shower at about 6 a.m. on March 1. This amount, however, was 
entered to February 28 in accordance with the convention whereby the 
‘ rainfall day ’ terminates at 9 A.M. on the day of reading. 

To judge from the statistics given in the last column but one, York is- 
relatively free from heavy individual falls of rain. ‘The highest recorded 
fall is 58 mm., on July 25, 1886—a relatively low figure when it is re- 
membered that we are dealing with a period of nearly sixty years In five 
of the twelve months the highest daily fall has only slightly exceeded an 
inch (25-4 mm.). 

With an annual fall of 618 mm. York is one of the driest spots in 
Yorkshire. Its rainfall is, in fact, almost exactly the same as that of 
London (Camden Square, 622 mm.). The wettest year, 1912, yielded 
138 per cent., and the driest year, 1921, 66 per cent. of the average for 


1 This record was surpassed on May 21, 1932, when a fall of 70 mm. occurred. 


THE CLIMATE OF YORK 
CLIMATIC CHART FOR YORK. 


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SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


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THE CLIMATE OF YORK 17 


the period 1881-1915. From a map given by Dr. J. Glasspoole in 
British Rainfall, 1925, p. 266, we may estimate the ‘ standard deviation ’ 
of annual rainfall as 17 per cent. of the normal yearly fall. The driest 
three consecutive years—1g04, 1905 and 1906—yielded a mean rainfall 
equal to 88 per cent. of the normal—a figure which may be compared with 
the standard value of 80 per cent. ordinarily adopted by water engineers. 
Of the last ten years, four (1924, 1925, 1926 and 1929) have given an 
annual fall appreciably below normal. This is a point of some interest 
in view of the fact that in the same period the rainfall over England and 
Wales as a whole has been excessive in every year except 1929. 


"TEMPERATURE. 


Table II gives monthly and yearly averages of daily maximum, daily 
minimum and ‘ mid-temperature’’ (mean of maximum and minimum) 
referred to the standard period 1881-1915, along with particulars of the 
highest and lowest readings in each month from 1871 to 1930. The 
means for the year may be compared with similar data for other low-lying 
inland towns : 


Height. Mean Max. Mean Min. see obi 

ange. 

ft. or. ° FS me A 

York : swO50 55°4 41-2 14°2 

Lincoln. aT: 55°6 41°4 14°2 

Norwich . ee) 55°4 41°9 1345 

Cambridge A BPs 40°6 16°7 

Nottingham . $2 55°6 41-1 14°5 
London 

(Westminster). 27 57°0 44°0 13°0 

Bath , 5 66 57°0 41°9 LOPE 


The mean monthly data call for no special comment. In regard to the 
extremes it is interesting to note that 60° has been reached in every month 
of the year, and that readings below freezing point have occurred in 
every month except June, July and August. The highest summer 
temperatures are a trifle low for an inland station. The situation of the 
station renders it rather liable to low minima, and we see that a reading of 
zero Fahrenheit occurred in 1879. A further point of interest is that in 
most months the extreme minimum occurred during the thirty years 
preceding 1900, and the extreme maximum in the thirty years subsequent 
to 1900. The same year, 1921, yielded both the highest and lowest 
readings in July. 

The long series of observations at York provides an opportunity of 
investigating the vexed question of changes of temperature within the 
period covered by living memory. I give below the mean values derived 
from the observations during the two periods of thirty years—1871~-1900 
and 1g01-1930—for January, July, and the year. 

B 


18 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 
January. July. Year. 
Period. 
Max. | Min. |Mean| Max.| Min. |Mean} Max.) Min. |Mean 
1871-1900 | 42°6| 32-3 | 37°5 | 68-9 | 52°0 | 60°5 | 55-1 | 40-8 | 47-9 
1901-1930 | 43°9| 34°9 | 39°4 | 68-9 | 52-7 | 60-8 | 55-4 | 42-1 | 48°7 


It will be seen that for January there has been a substantial rise both 
in the mean maximum and mean minimum, resulting in a rise of about 


two degrees in the mid-temperature. 


July shows little change, but in 


the whole year there is a rise of about a degree in the mid-temperature, 
the main proportion of which is contributed by a rise in the minimum. 
It is impossible to be certain that the whole of these differences are real ; 
they may be due in part to the growth of trees or other changes in the 


environment of the observing station. 


Also a slight rise in the mean 


minimum may be expected from the fact that from 1871 to 1899 the 


TasLe I].—TEMPERATURE. 


Mean| Highest Daily |Mean| Lowest Daily Fe ae 
Max. Max. Min. Min. i a 
ure. 

Ets | OU |, OS, (4) OR 
Jan. 42°9 | 60 6th, 1916 | 32-9 | 3. #15th, 1881 37-9 
Feb. 44°7. | Ox 16th; 19270133 °5° 15. 3 8th, 1895 39°1 
March | 48-5 | 73. 28th, 1929 | 34°5 | 8 oth, 1883 41°5 
April . | 54°2 ("78 24th, 1803 | 37-7 | i1 2nd,1917 46-0 
May 60-4 | 82 seat ne 42°9 | 24 18th, 1891 51°7 
June 66-5 | 88 27th, 1878 | 48-7 | 34 st, 1898 57°6 

22nd,1873 
July 68-9 | 89 roth, 1921}| 52°1 | 37 5th, 1921 60°5 
7th, 1923 
Aug. . | 67-9] 90 th, rgrr | 51-4 | 37. r4th, 1887 | 59-7 
Sept 63*°7"|-g2 Ist, 1906 | 47°4 | 30 26th, 1885 55:6 
Oct. 55°3 | 78 Est, T9OS {| Al“S | 23" '2ath, Tozen Ae awd 
Nov 48-4 | 66 20g ro27 | 3770-|' T4 roth, haan 43°0 
Dec. 43°8 | 60 5th, 1898 | 34:1 | © 7th, 8th, 39:0 
1879 
Year a 41 BEPt. lous aa. Oo eee game 48-3 
1906 1879 
* + (max. + min.). 


——$. 


THE CLIMATE OF YORK 19 


readings referred to the 24 hours ended 8h., while during the last 30 years 
they referred to the 24 hours ended 21h. As they stand, however, the 
figures accord with the general belief that our winter climate has become 
milder—a conclusion which is supported by other statistical evidence. 


HumiIpIity. 


The data of Table III are based on daily observations of dry and wet bulb 
thermometers in a Stevenson screen at gh. and 21h. during the ten years 
1921-30. On the basis of the results obtained at our observatories it 
may be assumed that the average of the readings at gh. and 21h. agrees 
within about 2 per cent. with the average for the whole day, in all months. 


Tas_e [I].—Humipiry. 


Vapour Pressure. | Relative Humidity. 
Mean of Mean 

abe eae gh.and2th. Minimum. 

mb. mb. WA Ue vf a 
Jan. . 7-0 7e3 87 86 87 78 
Feb. . ; 6:7 6-9 86 86 86 68 
March : ghee 722, 80 83 81 62 
April 7°8 7 Dalle 74v | 179 77 55 
May . 9°5 a le FR EG 75 54 
June 4 Le | rit 70 76 73 51 
July . sae es 7. tt ol. Te 75 57 
Aug. . 13°4 13°6 Oi 80 79 58 
Sept. rly EBRO 12°2 80 83 81 60 
Oct. . 9°8 9°9 83 86 84 66 
Nov. Al Ae | 86 87 87 66 
Dec. a iy Ske 87 87 87 74 
Year 9°4 9°5 80 82 81 63 


The yearly means are almost identical with those for Kew Observatory, 
Richmond, Surrey, and the annual variation is very similar. It may be 
said, in fact, that in regard to relative humidity the York figures are typical 
of those usually obtained at low-lying inland stations. 

Relative humidity is an element subject to a large diurnal variation, 
and we cannot, therefore, regard mean values for the day, or at fixed hours 
in the morning and evening, as giving a complete statement in regard to 
this important climatic factor. It is possible, however, to arrive at an 
approximation to the mean diurnal minimum of relative humidity by taking 
advantage of two well-known facts: (a) that the minimum relative 
humidity occurs, on the average, at the same time as the maximum 


20 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


temperature ; (b) that the diurnal range of absolute humidity (vapour 
pressure) is very small. Inspection of observatory statistics shows that 
the vapour pressure at 21h. is, on the average, within about o-2 mb. 
of the vapour pressure at 14h. or 15 h., the normal time of occurrence of 
the maximum temperature. We may, therefore, calculate approximate 
mean minimum values of relative humidity from the relationship : 


Minimum relative humidity = 
Vapour pressure at 21h. 
x I00. 


Saturation pressure corresponding to maximum temperature 


The data given in the last column of Table III and plotted in Fig. 1 
have been calculated in this way. Data for other stations are not avail- 
able for comparison, but it has been thought desirable to give the figures 
for York, partly because of their intrinsic interest and partly to illustrate 
the fact that more information can be obtained from humidity data based 
on readings at morning and evening hours than is sometimes supposed. 


SUNSHINE. 


The normal daily duration of bright sunshine is given in the second 
column of figures in Table IV. The third column gives the percentage 
of the astronomically possible sunshine, the figures being obtained by 


TaBLeE IV.—SuNSHINE AND MISCELLANEOUS PHENOMENA. 


Sunshine. Mean Number of Days of : 

Length | Bright | Per Snow lying ., |Thunder- 

of Day. |Sunshine.| cent. eee at gh. eo storm. 

Hrs Hrs. 
Jans 7°95 0°97 12 a2 3-2 orl Ov! 
Feb. . 9°67 1°99 21 2°8 251 0°3 orl 
March | 11°77 3°26 28 2°6 jee 0-7 orl 
April. | 13°96 | 4-60 33 o°8 fo) 1-0 PG 
May . | 15°89 5°48 35 fot fo) 0:8 2°3 
June . | 16-96 5283 34 ) fo) O°4 aL | 
July . | 16°48 5°48 33 fe) fe) op 2°8 
Muay. . | 54-79 4°87 33 fe) fe) Or! 2°9 
Sept. . | 12°69 AP ay 33 fo) fo) 0-2 0-7 
Oct! Lous to1g92 2°65 25 orl orl O74 O°4 
Nov. . 8-53 1°43 17 1°*3 O°5 orl 0:2 
Dee. 2. 7°40 0°77 10 B-5 2:9 0-2 0°3 
Mears. ik223 3°46 28 |14°4 | 10-0 A 4a) aemate 


| 
| 


THE CLIMATE OF YORK 21 


expressing the mean recorded sunshine in each month as a percentage of 
the mean length of the day. Situated as the recorder is among the 
chimneys of York, there is no doubt that the record is greatly affected by 
local smoke obscuration. In December and January the mean duration 
of sunshine bright enough to affect the Campbell-Stokes instrument is 
under one hour per day—a value comparable with that found in large 
manufacturing cities. During the summer months, however, sunshine is 
relatively abundant, the mean values for June and July approximating 
to those for Scarborough. The mean value for the year is distinctly low, 
as will be seen from the following comparative data : 


Yearly Mean Percent. of 
Duration. Possible. 
Mork.) ? Z . 3°46 hours 28 
Durham : : 2 RR OG ITI SS 29 
Nottingham . ! Spe Oot Re 30 
Cambridge . ; Any a ones 35 
Coventry : . < LEAR eh Bh: 
London (Westminster) . 3°30 ,, 27 
Birmingham . ; At SP2Ra ef 28 


MIscELLANEOUS PHENOMENA. 


The last four columns of Table IV show the mean number of days of 
occurrence of snow, snow lying at g h. over more than half the surrounding 
country, hail, and thunderstorms. These means are based on the ten 
years 1921-30. Snow occurs on about fourteen days a year, and thunder 
on twelve—figures which indicate about the usual frequency of these 
phenomena at low-lying inland stations in the North of England. 
Thunderstorms are most frequent in July and August, when they occur 
on about one day in ten, and rare in the winter months. Unfortunately, 
statistics are not available from which to give similar tables for ground 
frost and fog. 

I am indebted to the Director of the Meteorological Office for providing 
facilities for the extraction of the data in this article from the official 
records preserved in the Office. 


22 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


IV. 
YORKSHIRE PLANT ECOLOGY 


BY 
T. W. WOODHEAD, Ph.D. 


NEARLY a century ago, John Phillips, one of the founders of the British 
Association,! gave an outline of the geology and vegetation of Yorkshire 
which has greatly influenced the writings of subsequent workers. He 
pointed out that the county provides an ideal area for the study of vegeta- 
tion in that it contains within its boundaries an almost unequalled range 
of habitat conditions, and strata ranging from the Silurian slates of 
Sedbergh, the calcareous and siliceous series of the carboniferous system, 
through a succession of beds to deposits of pleistocene times. This 
area has attracted many workers, and the flora of the three Ridings has 
been admirably described by John Gilbert Baker for the North Riding, 
F. Arnold Lees, the West Riding, and J. F. Robinson, the East Riding. 
The vegetation of the Pennines has been mapped and described by 
W. G. Smith, W. M. Rankin, C. E. Moss, and F. J. Lewis. F. Elgee 
has described the Clevelands, and the vegetation of that area has been 
mapped by W. G. Smith, but the maps remain unpublished. On 
these works the following account is mainly based, and to them readers 
are referred for fuller details ; I am also indebted to Prof. Goode for an 
account of the East Riding. 

The Pennine uplands form the western border of the county. In 
the extreme north-west is Upper Teesdale followed by the north-western 
calcareous dales, the rest consisting of the gritstone and coal-measure 
country of the middle and southern Pennines. Upper Teesdale is part 
of the Cross Fell massif, and Mickle Fell, 2,59: ft., is the highest part 
of the county and is of interest in that it formed part of an extensive 
nunatak area during the glacial maximum, hence provides many interest- 
ing problems for the botanist, and is noted for its arctic alpine rarities 
and species of closely restricted range, some of which may be relics of 
a preglacial flora. Species of special interest are Thalictrum alpinum, 
Draba incana, Potentilla alpestris, Dryas octopetala, Primula farinosa, 
Bartsia alpina, Pyrola secunda, Polygonum viviparum, Tofieldia palustris, 
and Equisetum pratense. 

Especially interesting on account of their limited distribution in Britain 
are Helianthemum canum, Potentilla fruticosa, Saxifraga Hirculus and 
Gentiana verna ; the wonderful blue of the last on these Fells suggests 
a Swiss Alpen-weisen in summer. 

The Tees, which forms the northern limit of the county, enters at 


1 See Chap. XV. 


YORKSHIRE PLANT ECOLOGY 23 


Cauldron Snout and passes over an irregular series of basaltic cliffs, 
bordered by a ridge of Scar Limestone. These cliffs provide a contrast 
and variety both in scenery and vegetation, and the limestone, at the 
point of contact with the intrusive rock, has been changed into a coarsely 
granular ‘ sugar ’ limestone, on which many of the rare plants are found. 
On the basalt is an extensive development of Juniper. 

Proceeding southwards, extensive moorlands are developed on the 
non-calcareous Yoredale grits and shales. Sphagnum bogs cover a large 
area and Sphagnum is the chief peat-former ; at the base of the peat are 
remains of trees, especially birch. Across Stainmore is a broad pass 
between the Vales of Eden and Tees and the Vale of York, covered with 
boulder clay. 

The north-western calcareous dales again offer a striking contrast, 
and include the sources of the Swale, Ure, Nidd, Wharfe and Aire. 
This is a deeply dissected area with only peaks of limited extent rising 
above 2,000 ft., e.g. Whernside, Ingleborough and Penyghent. ‘This 
district almost rivals Teesdale in the interest of its flora, occurring chiefly 
on the great limestone scars and pavements, as at Kettlewell, Arncliffe, 
Malham, Gordale, Settle and Ingleborough. The higher ground, 
capped with Millstone Grit, is covered with cottongrass moss, ling and 
grass-heath predominating on the higher slopes and extending some 
distance over the leached limestones below. A striking feature in the 
landscape is the white limestone walls dividing pastures which provide 
excellent grazing for sheep. 

The scar woods of the Mountain Limestone bear a rich flora ; ash is 
the dominant tree, oak is rare in the dales except on the alluvial plains of 
the rivers. ‘There is much hazel as an undershrub, also Prunus spinosa, 
P. padus, Holly, Cornus sanguinea, Viburnum Lantana, and Rubus saxatilis. 
The more interesting plants of the ground flora are Aquilegia vulgaris, 
Actea spicata, Viola odorata, Spirea Filipendula, Geranium sylvaticum, 
Saxifraga umbrosa, Galium boreale, Polemonium ceruleum, Melampyrum 
sylvaticum, Lathrea squamaria, Orchis apifera, Convallaria majalis and 
Melica uniflora. In the scar woods of Upper Wharfedale occurs the 
rare lady’s slipper (Cypripedium Calceolus). In the neighbourhood of 
Settle, Malham, and Gordale occur Actea spicata, Poitentilla alpestris, 
Saxifraga stellaris, Ribes petreum, Galium boreale, Hieracitum crocatum, 
Bartsia alpina, Primula farinosa, Polygonum viviparum, Aspidium Lonchitis 
and Nephrodium rigidum. On Ingleborough occur Saxifraga oppositifolia, 
S. aizoides, Sedum villosum, Epilobium alsinifolium, Salix herbacea, Carex 
rigida, Poa alpina and P. rigida. 

A small area in the neighbourhood of Sedbergh is on the Silurian 


slates, and on Howgill Fells and Cautley Crags occur Alchemilla alpina, 


Saxifraga stellaris, Circea alpina, Epilobium alsinifolium, Meum Athaman- 
ticum, Pyrola secunda, Hymenophyllum unilaterale and Lycopodium alpinum. 

While the moors above 1,250 ft. are generally dominated by cotton- 
grass, which forms peat five feet or more in depth, the moors west of the 
Swale, from Masham Moor to Pately Moor, and further south, Burnsall 
Moor, Blubberhouse Moor and Rombalds Moor have a shallower peat 
and are dominated by Calluna, cottongrass being subordinate. It is 


24 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


significant that this moorland area has a lower rainfall than that either to 
the north or south. 

South of the Aire gap the cottongrass moss is again dominant, and 
from here to the southern limit of the county the district is composed 
entirely of rock of the Millstone Grit series and the Coal Measures. In 
this gritstone area few species occur excepting those of wide distribution, 
one of the most interesting being Trientalis europea on Soil Hill on the 
moors between Halifax and Keighley, its most southern station in Britain. 
Others of interest are the cloudberry (Rubus Chamemorus), forming grey- 
green patches on the dark cottongrass moss, and the rarer bearberry 
(Arctostaphylos Uva-urst). 

Sphagnum bogs are infrequent and of small extent and often bear a 
network of the slender stems of cranberry (Vaccinum Oxycoccus). On 
the summit plateau of the Pennines is probably the greatest development 
known of cottongrass moss. Buried trees are common at the base of the 
peat, birch, oak, hazel and occasionally pine, which are the remains of the 
Pennine forest submerged by peat during Atlantic time. Over con- 
siderable areas retrogression is going on, the peat being completely 
removed, revealing patches of bare stony ground slowly becoming 
reinvaded by hair-grass and mat-grass. The better drained slopes are 
covered by bilberry, crowberry, and grass-heath, with an extensive 
development of bracken up to the higher springs on the clough sides. 
Relics of the Birch-Oak-Heath Forest occupy the rock terraces and 
slopes too steep or stony for cultivation.- This type degenerates into 
the Calluna moor and grass-heath. 

On the Coal Measures at lower levels moist oak woods prevail on the 
deeper soils over the shales and have a richer ground flora, but the oak- 
heath type is frequent on the Coal Measure sandstones. Oak is the 
dominant tree in these woods, but is often replaced by plantations of 
sycamore, and to a less extent by beech, elm, and pine. In the river 
valleys are relics of the Alder-Willow thicket. Fringing the moorland 
is upland pasture, where the dark sandstone walls contrast strongly 
with the white walls of the calcareous dales. In the Coal Measure 
area hedgerows are more frequent, especially over the shales, but they 
usually have a poor flora. Arable land is rare on the foothills and in the 
dales of the Pennines, the land being largely given up to pasture. 

Cutting off the carboniferous rocks to the east is the Permian ridge 
or Magnesian Limestone tract which runs through the county from 
north to south and forms a boundary between the western uplands and 
the great central Vale of York ; this ridge is cut through by the rivers 
flowing from the Pennines and in part is covered by drift carried down 
by former glaciers of the dales. 

This tract provides several contrasts to the dark soils and pastures 
of the Coal Measures. The rainfall is low and the fertile soil favours 
a rich and varied vegetation. The reddish soil of the ploughed fields 
in the spring contrasts with the vivid green of the pastures, and the 
rich hedgerows have a varied flora both in shrubs and herbaceous species. 
Little uncultivated land exists in the tract, yet it is one of considerable 
interest to the botanist. Trees are usually abundant and of fine growth ; 


el ————— —— 


YORKSHIRE PLANT ECOLOGY 25 


the dominant tree is ash, but beech is abundant and grows well and to 
a large size. If beech is native in the county (and that is doubtful) the 
Permian tract, also the slopes of the Chalk Wolds, provide good con- 
ditions for its development. Natural woodlands do not occur, but 
there are extensive parklands and plantations with fine trees in great 
variety, and Studley Park, near Ripon, contains most of the woodland 
trees grown in Britain. 

The few uncultivated lands are either hazel copse or grassy common, 
as Hook Moor, near Aberford. Typical examples of Permian vegetation 
may be seen at Thorpe Arch, Boston Spa, Jackdaw Crag and the neighbour- 
hood of Knaresborough ; the more interesting shrubs in the hedgerows 
are barberry, holly, maple, spindle tree, purging buckthorn, and black- 
thorn, and of herbaceous species found on this tract are Anemone Pulsa- 
tilla, Helleborus viridis, Actea spicata, Reseda lutea, Helianthemum vulgare, 
Cerastium aquaticum, Arenaria tenuifolia, Linum perenne, Geranium 
sanguineum, Sison Amomum, Pastinaca sativa, Asperula cynanchica, 
Dipsacus pilosus, Arctium intermedium, Inula Conyza, Carduus ertophorus, 
C. acaulis, Campanula patula, Chlora perfoliata, Atropa Belladonna, 
Linaria Elatine, Calamintha Nepeta, Hottonia palustris, Daphne Laureola, 
D. Mezereum, Orchis pyramidalis, Ophrys apifera, Spiranthes autumnalis, 
Carex divulsa, C. digitata, C. ornithopoda, C. strigosa, and Brachypodium 
pinnatum. 

Most of the above species are of special interest when we consider 
their distribution in Britain, and when indicated on a map the Permian 
ridge is seen to be a great line of postglacial migration or persistence 
of southern species which reach their northern limit in Yorkshire. Exclud- 
ing critical genera and species, about sixty-five species reach their northern 
limit in Yorkshire and twenty more species reach their limit across the 
Tees in Durham, and their distribution can be traced along the ridge, 
then eastwards to the calcareous Hambleton and Howardian Hills and 
chalk Wolds, and westwards to the mountain limestones of Upper Wharfe- 
dale and Upper Teesdale. Along the great tract of Grits and Coal 
Measures these species are almost absent. On the other hand northern 
species reaching their southern limit in Yorkshire find their chief centres 
on the limestones of Upper Teesdale and the north-western dales, to a 
less extent on the calcareous eastern dales and to only a slight extent on 
the Permian, Millstone Grits and Coal Measures. 

The north-eastern or Oolitic hills include the Hambleton and Howardian 
Hills bordering the Vale of York and the North York Moors and Cleve- 
land Hills. The glacial geology of this area has been admirably described 
by P. F. Kendall and the natural history and vegetation by F. Elgee. 

The North York Moors rise to over 1,400 ft. and the subsoil is formed 
from the sandstones and shales of the Lower Oolite. Running in a 
synclinal depression of the Oolite is the Esk. Its principal tributaries 
join it from the south and form a succession of dales cut down into the 
Lias ; the main ones are Basedale, Westerdale, Fryupdale, and Glaisdale, 
and near the coast, Iburndale. The Cleveland Moors are the finest 
heather moors in Yorkshire ; ling is the dominant plant, but in the 
moister hollows and slacks bell-heather and cottongrass predominate, 


26 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


the last occurring on deep peat. Changes seen in the vegetation are 
closely related to the glacial history of the area ; in parts formerly occupied 
by the glacier lakes bracken is conspicuous, also on the moorland slopes 
of the valleys. The moist overflow channels are occupied by peat, 
with an abundance of cottongrass, rushes and sedges, and make a marked 
contrast with the surrounding heather moor. Plantations of conifers 
form a zone along the lower margin of the moorland, but afforestation of 
the heather moor, as at Allerston Moor, is seriously hindered by the 
presence of moor pan. 

Draining these moors to the south are the tributaries of the Derwent 
which form a series of well-wooded and picturesque dales, including 
Forge Valley, Newtondale, Rosedale, Farndale, Bransdale, and Bilsdale, 
each with an interesting flora. In Forge Valley and in the neighbourhood 
of Hackness occur Helleborus viridis, Aquilegia vulgaris, Actea spicata, 
Cornus suecica, Atropa Belladonna, Myrica Gale, Spiranthes autumnalis, 
Eptpactis enstfolia, Maianthemum bifolium, Osmunda regalis and Equisetum 
hyemale. At the head of Newtondale is a small branch glen, the Hole 
of Horcum, noted as a station for Cornus suecica, one of the few montane 
plants found in the east but absent from the western calcareous dales. 
Other plants of interest in Newtondale, in addition to some above-men- 
tioned, are Tvollius europeus, Astragalus hypoglottis, Carduus eriophorus, 
Inula Helenium, Salvia verbenaca, Neottia nidus-avis, Habenaria albida, 
Ophrys mucifera, Gagea lutea and Convallaria majalis. 

In Ryedale and the neighbourhood of Helmsley a similar flora occurs, 
and there is one of the stations of the lady’s slipper orchid. The Vale 
of Pickering is a flat low-lying tract, extending from the coast inland 
for thirty miles. It is intersected by streams from the dales and contains 
many carrs and marsh lands. 

The Howardian Hills comprise two narrow parallel terraces which 
extend from the calcareous hills eastwards to the Derwent and are situated 
on the south-west of the Vale of Pickering and separate it from the 
Vale of York. The northern terrace is composed of calcareous beds 
of the Lower Oolite ; the southern one of Lower Oolite based on Lias. 
This tract furnishes a great variety of surface and vegetation—moorland, 
woodland, parkland (including Castle Howard), also Terrington Carr, 
a well-known heathery swamp, and though there are no montane species, 
there are as many of the rarer species to be found within an equal area 
as anywhere in Yorkshire excepting Upper Teesdale. 

The Hambleton Hills form a calcareous range with an elevation of 
1,100 ft. At Boltby Scar, Whitestone Cliff and Roulston Scar are 
three fine precipices formed of calcareous grit. Whitestone Cliff is 
a perpendicular cliff 100 ft. deep, the base of which is covered with 
fallen debris from the summit. At the foot of this cliff is Lake Gormire, 
the largest tarn of the East Yorkshire Hills. These grits rest upon 
Oxford Clay, rendering them unstable, and a landslip thus produced 
closed one end of what was probably a glacial lake overflow channel 
and obstructed the drainage. Except for the drainage from the hill 
bank no streams flow into it, and its waters are mainly supplied by 
rain and diminished by evaporation. The following plants occur here 


YORKSHIRE PLANT ECOLOGY 27 


and along the hillside to Roulston Scar: Trollius europaeus, Draba 
inflata, Viola lutea, Stellaria nemorum, Geranium sanguineum, Lathrea 
squamaria, Primula farinosa, Trientalis europea, Gagea lutea, Acorus 
calamus, Lycopodium selaginoides and Pilularia globulifera. 

The Vale of York is a low-lying, richly cultivated tract extending from 
the Tees to the Trent and covered by thick beds of alluvial muds, silts, 
and glacial deposits of gravels, sands and clay. Formerly a wet, marshy 
area, drainage and enclosure have taken place from 1670 onwards, and 
now the greater part of it is highly cultivated. Small areas, however, 
still retain a primitive vegetation. Strensall is the site of a military 
camp, for which it has been greatly modified, with the loss of many 
interesting plants. Askham Bog, two miles from York, is perhaps the 
most primitive area, and preserves the conditions which formerly pre- 
vailed over a wide area of the Vale of York. Here the drainage is held 
up by two minor loops of the York moraine and has never established 
a proper drainage system. ‘The bog and adjoining brick ponds have a 
rich marsh and aquatic flora, which was described by the Rev. W. C. Hey 
as consisting of ‘ pools bordered by flags, sedges, bulrushes and marsh 
ferns, jungles of Osmunda, with birch, willow and blackthorn. The 
Bog ‘is a tangled mass of flags and sweet gale and various low-growing 
trees.’ Since then some of the ferns have been almost exterminated. 

The Chalk Wolds form a crescentic ridge of hills rising to 800 ft., 
running north from the Humber to Grimston, then turning east to the 
coast at Flamborough Head. The chalk is hard, similar in character 
to a normal limestone, very porous, and strongly calcareous, except 
where it is covered with boulder clay. Along the northern edge a bold 
escarpment overlooks the Vale of Pickering, and another along the western 
edge commands a view of the Vale of York, the strata dipping towards 
the Plain of Holderness. On both slopes, dales are cut deeply into the 
chalk. Many of these are dry and often covered with chalk and flint 
gravel. The Wolds are highly cultivated, woodlands are few, and there 
is very little natural vegetation. Areas of natural chalk grassland are 
few ; the largest is Millington Pastures in the Londesborough district. 
The escarpments and dales provide a suitable habitat for the beech, 
which is a commonly planted tree, and Robinson, who refers to it as 
‘the tree of the Wolds,’ regards it as native. Owing to the extreme 
porosity of the chalk, bogs and marshes are absent, and only around 
the base do springs occur which afford habitats for aquatic and marsh 
plants. 

East and south-east of the Wolds lies the Plain of Holderness, covered 
entirely with glacial and alluvial deposits. A long tongue of land extends 
to the south-east, ending in the hook of Spurn. Much of Holderness 
_ is only a few feet above sea-level, its highest point being about roo ft. 
The soil is a stiff clay except for certain gravelly morainic ridges and 
the alluvial valleys of the streams. The soil conditions favour agriculture 
_ and market gardening and also afford good pasturage ; as a result practi- 
cally the whole area has been changed by extensive drainage and culti- 
vation, and little native vegetation persists. In strong contrast to the 
previous divisions of the county heaths are absent. ‘The species most 


28 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


worthy of note are Vicia lathyroides, Lathyrus palustris, Rosa pimptnelli- 
folia, Bupleurum rotundifolium, Cicuta virosa, Sium latifolium, Cnicus 
eriophorus, Lactuca virosa, Atropa Belladonna, Pinguicula vulgaris, Poly- 
gonum Bistorta, Epipactis palustris, Habenaria viridis, Acorus Calamus, 
Lemna gibba, Damasonium stellatum, Lastrea Thelypteris and Botrychium 
Lunaria. The cowslip is very abundant in the damp meadows, adders- 
tongue fern is common, so also are Geum rivale and Hottonia palustris. 
Holderness is the home of the hawthorn, and nowhere is it more beautiful 
and luxuriant. 

The coast line is very varied, the most striking part being the magnifi- 
cent chalk cliffs of Flamborough and Bempton. South of Flamborough, 
the coast consists of low cliffs of glacial deposits undergoing constant 
erosion, which renders plant colonisation impossible. ‘These clay cliffs 
pass into the long sand and shingle spit of Spurn Point, which takes the 
form of a slightly curved and greatly elongated sandhill, partially pro- 
tecting the Humber from the open sea. Spurn is the most interesting 
botanising ground in the district, and the following plants may be found: 
Claytonia perfoliata, Erodium moschatum, Trifolium scabrum, Blackstonia 
perfoliata, Erigeron acre, Sueda maritima, and Hippophae rhamnoides. 
Convolvulus Soldanella also is plentiful, and Spurn is particularly attractive 
when this plant and Ononis are in full flower. 

The fourth part of the coast is that of the south, bordering the estuary 
of the Humber between Spurn and the Wolds. Here the plant habitats 
are formed by the banks of mud and sand: which are constantly being 
deposited and eroded by the river and the tides. These banks afford a 
most interesting series of successional vegetation states. Glyceria mari- 
tima, Scirpus maritimus, Armeria maritima, Cochlearia spp., Glaux mari- 
tima, Triglochin maritimum and Aster Tripolium are conspicuous, and the 
last-named often grows to great size. 


V. 
ZOOLOGY 


BY 
A. J. A. WOODCOCK. 


THE area to which this account refers is contained within a circle of twenty 
miles radius, with its centre at York. A brief description of the area will 
be given first, and then some of the more interesting districts within easy 
distance of York will be mentioned. The western edge of the area 
includes the junction of the north Pennine Dales with the Plain of York. 
Through these dales the following rivers enter the district : the Swale 


ZOOLOGY 29 


(16 m.1), the Ure (8 m.), the Nidd (24 m.), the Wharfe (26 m.) and the 
Aire (30 m.). These all flow into the Ouse (45 m.). The lower parts of 
the tributaries and the whole of the Ouse are wide, deep and slow-flowing, 
and form the drainage system of the long, flat plain which crosses the 
district from north-west to south-east, and comprises most of our area. 
The Foss (18 m.) drains the northern part of the plain and joins the Ouse 
at York. On the north lie the North York Moors, and from these the 
Rye (16 m.) flows into the Derwent (38 m.), which proceeds southwards 
to join the Ouse below Selby. Beyond the Derwent Valley we extend to 
the Wolds, which form our eastern boundary, and in this area the only 
waterway of any importance is the Pocklington Canal. 

We include, therefore, elevated heathlands to the west and north, 
country of the ‘ down ’ type to the east, while the central portion and that 
to the south are flat alluvial lands, of which the major part is cultivated 
very intensively, leaving but a small fraction in a wild or primitive state. 
That which is still untouched, however, comprises, as would be expected, 
several most interesting districts, which will well repay a visit. Of those 
which are readily accessible from York, Askham Bog is perhaps the most 
noteworthy. This is a genuine piece of unspoilt fenland, situated three 
miles from York on the road to Tadcaster, and is probably the sole remain- 
ing representative of a distinct type of country, once prevalent in the 
Plain of York. Its surface is virgin peat, which reaches to a depth of 
8 feet, and rests upon clay. Though dwelling-houses have extended very 
near to it, especially within recent years, and it is perhaps no longer so 
rich a hunting-ground as formerly, it is still a very famous place, and the 
records of its fauna extend back for a period of just over a hundred years. 

Flat, sandy commons are a feature of the plain. They are characterised 
by hummocky surfaces of coarse grass, heather-covered spaces, and in the 
wetter parts rushes and cotton-grass, frequent marshy hollows, and woods 
of pine and birch and sallow. Left as these commons have been in an 
uncultivated state, they have a rich and varied fauna. The nearest is 
a stretch which begins with Strensall Common, about five miles to the 
north-east of York, and extends to the districts known as Sandburn and 
Stockton Commons. At Sandburn the wooded area is much increased. 
Of the part actually at Strensall that nearest to York has been occupied 
by the War Office as a military camp for many years, and rendered useless 
from the point of view of the naturalist, but the rest is good. 

Skipwith Common is smaller in extent, about nine miles south from 
York ; the area of ponds and marsh is greater than at Strensall. 

Allerthorpe Common is a region of about a square mile in area, about 
fourteen miles east of York. It has all the characteristics already described, 
and, though surrounded by well-cultivated country, is itself untouched, 
and abounds in many good things. 

Of wooded areas there are the districts around Castle Howard and 
Kirkham Abbey, fifteen miles to the north-east, and the thickly wooded 
region of Aldby Park and Buttercrambe, about seven miles east. ‘There 
is woodland at Stillington, and still further to the north we adjoin the 
richly wooded district of Byland. 


1 The distances indicate the length of the rivers contained by our area. 


30 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


We possess most types of fresh water, with the exception of large lakes 
and mountain tarns. The following are quite close to the city. Hob 
Moor (2 m.) contains old brick workings, giving both deep and shallow 
clay-bottomed ponds. The Ings begin beyond the city, and extend along 
the banks of the Ouse. They are water meadows of alluvial deposit with 
ditches and hollows periodically flooded. Bootham Stray (2 m.) is a flat 
stretch with ponds and ditches, typical of the grass-lands of the district. 
Stockton Common, already mentioned, contains private fish-ponds, old 
‘ stews,’ and marl-pits typical of the arable lands. ‘The Foss is a silted-up, 
overgrown, disused water-way, extremely rich in its varieties of aquatic 
life. The above description is intended to give a rapid survey of the 
regions which the York naturalists have found most productive, in order 
that members of the British Association may readily select places to visit 
with the greatest advantage. 

The various forms of life to be found in these regions are now to be 
discussed. In the account of them which will be given such species as 
would be almost certain to be present will not be mentioned. 


Birps AND MAMMALS. 


The Derwent Valley is a nesting place for large numbers of snipe, 
redshank, and green plover, but during the past three years the heavy 
floods during the season of incubation have destroyed large numbers of 
nests. During the winter these flooded areas are the resort of many 
thousands of mallard and widgeon. There are also large numbers of teal, 
pochard, tufted and golden-eyed duck. 

Skipwith Common has also been adversely affected by floods. A colony 
of about 500 pairs of black-headed gulls has been established here for 
many years. About ten pairs of shoveller have nested here, as also do the 
pochard, mallard and teal. ‘There are also always several pairs of nightjars 
during the summer months. The green plover is becoming scarce in this 
area, because its nests are raided by the black-headed gulls, and when 
situated on arable land, much of which has been reclaimed from the 
common, many eggs are destroyed by farmers’ rollers. 

The thickets of birch and sallow in Askham Bog are the summer 
haunts of sedge warbler, reed bunting and the garden and blackcap 
warblers. ‘The rarer reed warbler has nested here in recent years, and so 
has the grasshopper warbler. ‘The sparrow-hawk, kestrel and jay occur, 
and also the coot, little grebe and snipe. Askham Bog was once the 
haunt of the bittern. 

At Strensall Common was once a colony of black-headed gulls, but they 
were driven away by the soldiers from the camp, who constantly raided 
their nests. Numbers of duck, which nested on the marshy parts, also 
suffered from the same cause. A few pairs of mallard and tufted duck 
still occur. Curlews may often be seen and heard, and in recent years 
several pairs have nested on the common. The long-eared owl and tawny 
owl nest in the fir thickets, and so also does the great spotted woodpecker. 
The jay and carrion crow, the sparrow-hawk and the kestrel also occur in 
good numbers. Ringdoves nest here in large numbers, and the rarer 
stockdove occurs. 


ZOOLOGY 31 


The adjoining woods of Sandburn are famous fox coverts, and both 
otters and badgers occur. ‘The red squirrel, once common, has given way 
to the grey. 

In the thickly wooded region of Castle Howard and Kirkham are to be 
found all the common species of birds and mammals. The lesser spotted 
woodpecker nests near the Castle, and every year a few pairs of pied 
flycatchers are observed. ‘The large lake is a famous bird haunt. Usually 
there are three pairs of great crested grebe nesting there, and about six 
pairs of reed warblers. Mallard and tufted duck, coots, moorhens, and 
little grebes nest abundantly. ‘Turtle doves are summer visitors to all 
these woods, and at Kirkham Abbey is a famous colony of badgers, which 
has an ancient history. Otters are also often seen in the vicinity of the 
pretty falls in the river Derwent at Kirkham Abbey. Sandpipers, 
dippers and kingfishers occur at this point, but they are considerably 
more numerous a little higher up the river and along the course of the 
river Rye. 

Aldby Park and Buttercrambe Woods have very extensive bird 
populations, and in 1931 a pair of nuthatches reared their brood successfully 
at Aldby Park. ‘They thus set up a new record. Turtle doves are very 
numerous here during the summer months. 

The landrail has decreased most markedly during recent years in the 
whole of the York district. Since its tendency to decrease was first noticed 
it has been the subject of special observation, and only six were noted in 
1930, and four in 1931. A few years ago this bird was very abundant on 
Clifton Ings, and could be heard constantly during a summer evening 
walk along the river bank for two or three miles. Now it is very 
unusual to hear one. 

Before the war there was a large heronry at Stillingfleet, and as many 


as fifty-six nests were counted at one time in the heron wood. ‘This 


wood, however, was cut down and the herons displaced, with the result 
that very small parties are scattered over that area, the largest being in the 
Shireoak Wood at Healaugh, a region of 400 acres. Here from six to ten 
nests are protected annually by Sir Edward Brooksbank. 


FRESH-WATER FAUNA. 


In the extremely flat district within ten miles of York the sluggish 
rivers are inhabited by ‘ coarse’ fish. These are plentiful, and all species 
on the British list have been taken with the exception of the spinous loach. 
The sturgeon occasionally ascends the Ouse as far as Naburn Lock, but 
has not been recorded lately. On the other hand, the burbot eel has 
appeared in the river Derwent this year, two having been caught during 


_ May, at Elvington. The burbot was once common in our rivers, but has 
_ become exceedingly scarce. Lampreys ascend the main stream and its 


tributaries, and have been reported recently in the Isle Beck at Thirkleby, 
and in the Skirpenbeck, near Stamford Bridge. The flounder is also 
plentiful in suitable waters; specimens of both the flounder and the 


_ lamprey were taken from the York Waterworks settling beds during 


netting operations, the flounder in 1929, the lamprey in 1931. 
The streams from the lower slopes of the Moors and Pennines in the 


32 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


northern and western parts are, of course, swifter, and here any many 
good trout and grayling streams, mostly preserved waters, which are 
periodically restocked. The Yorkshire Fishery Board has a committee 
for netting and restocking. The Board’s coarse fish rearing ponds are 
from five to seven miles to the north-east of York, and here fish, mostly 
perch and roach, are bred to replenish the various waters. This year 
(1932) the Board has established a trout hatchery at Keld Head, near 
Pickering. 

The Ouse with its tributaries is an important salmon river, the salmon 
ascending the Ouse as far as Aysgarth, and they enter the Derwent during 
flood periods. Salmon parr have recently been caught in its tributary, the 
Rye. The Report of the Yorkshire Fishery Board for 1931 shows that 
823 salmon were caught in the Ouse during that year, the average weight 
being 10 lbs. 3} ozs. 

It is noteworthy that in the two runs of the salmon up the Ouse, the one 
in the spring and the other in the autumn, the fish take the left-hand fork 
of the river at the junction of the Swale with the Ouse, thus passing into 
the Ure. Though both rivers are free from pollution, the Ure is a salmon 
river, the Swale is not. Mr. S. H. Smith, F.Z.S., of the Yorkshire 
Fishery Board, is at present engaged in researches with a view to the 
restoration of the Swale as a salmon river. A very full account of the 
present position of this research may be found in the Naturalist, April 
1932, and there is a further reference in the Report of the Yorkshire 
Fishery Board for 1931. Briefly the argument is as follows. There is an 
obstruction at Topcliffe Weir. After the building of the weir Swale 
‘ homing ’ salmon would be unable to return, and so in time the Swale has 
ceased to be a salmon river. If, then, salmon were to be reared in the 
Swale now, and then found after a period of years to be returning to try 
the Swale, the construction of a fish pass at Topcliffe would be justifiable. 
The results of Mr. Smith’s investigations will be awaited with great 
interest. 

In connection with the restocking of the waters by the Board, Mr. Smith 
is carrying out interesting experiments with selected fish, which are 
measured and marked before being released. The results of these, 
up to date, are to be found in the Board’s reports for 1929, 1930, and 1931. 

On the occasion of the last visit of the British Association to York in 1906, 
the Handbook, in dealing with the fish fauna of the district, said : ‘ With- 
out doubt the greatest curse our fish fauna has to face is the constantly 
increasing pollution of our streams.’ It is satisfactory to find that since 
that date the Yorkshire Fishery Board has got this matter in hand, and 
considerable progress has been made in the prevention of pollution. 

The common frog and toad, the crested newt and the smooth newt are 
plentiful, but there is no recent record of the palmated newt. 

The flatness of the district results in much stagnant water and sluggish 
streams, conditions suitable for ensuring an abundance of the smaller 
Crustaceans, but not for the fresh-water crayfish, which is only sparingly 
distributed. ‘Two very recent accounts of the prevalence of the crayfish 
in Yorkshire are contained in the Naturalist for 1930 and 1931. 

The Mollusca are very richly represented. About forty-four fresh-water 


ZOOLOGY 33 


species occur in the area, most of them abundantly. Nine of these have 
been added to the list since the visit of the British Association in 1906. 
The Foss, once a navigable river, has been allowed to silt up, and being 
unscoured by any fast-flowing current, has become a most profitable 
centre of study for all kinds of fresh-water biology, but its Mollusca are 
particularly important, some thirty-four species having been recorded 
from that river alone, practically within the confines of the city itself. 


INSECTS. 


The areas previously described are all noteworthy hunting-grounds. 
The Lepidoptera have been studied very carefully and continuously, so 
that our records are very full. The reproach in the Handbook of 1906 
about the neglect of the so-called Microlepidoptera no longer holds. Of 
butterflies, the Peacock, the Comma, and the Wall are rare, and the 
Wood Argus does not occur. About thirty-three species are recorded 
as having occurred, but this number includes, of course, the very 
occasional wanderers, such as the Clouded Yellow and the Camberwell 
Beauty. It is interesting to note that, as a rule, the annual arrival of 
our Painted Lady butterflies is about five to seven days after the record of 
the insect’s appearance upon the South Coast, that is, usually, during the 
first week in June. The White-Letter Hairstreak, after being unnoticed 
for many years, has again been found in the north of our district. The 
Duke of Burgundy occurs in Newton Dale, just out of our area, and the 
Brown Argus on the Wolds at Millington. 

Of moths, the following have been given to me as the ‘ best things ’ to 
be obtained in the localities mentioned. At Askham Bog: Acronycta 
leporina, Leucania impudens, Cenocalpa lignata, Collix sparsata and 
Scotosia vetulata. At Strensall and Sandburn: Palimpsestis or, Cybosia 
mesomella, Agrotis agathina, Eurois occulta, Xanthia paleacea, Acidalia 
straminata, Triphosa dubitata, Eucosmia undulata, Epione vespertaria 
(parallelaria). ‘This common has the distinction of being the one locality 
in England for Epione vespertaria, although odd specimens have been 
taken once or twice in other places. At Sledmere: Abraxas ulmata, 
Asthena blomeri. At Pickering : Trichiura crategi, Ortholitha bipunctaria. 
At Millington : Parasemia plantaginis, Ino geryon. At Cropton: Aplecta 
nebulosa, Lithomoia solidaginis, Xanthorhoe tristata. At Hovingham and 
Garrowby: Eupithecia pusillata. At Wass: Plusia interrogationis, At 
Gilling : Venusta cambrica. 

The Coleoptera of York have been investigated for many years, and 
the records extend back for more than a century. Amongst the pioneers 
was Archdeacon Hey, who began in 1840, and whose records include much 
that is of the greatest interest, particularly with respect to the water 
beetles of Askham Bog. But the pools of Askham are not all what they 
were at the time of the visit of the British Association in 1906. ‘They have 
not been drained, as have so many pieces of fenland which the naturalists 
of a former generation knew, but have silted up with the accumulated 
_ dead leaves of the trees growing round them, and these in the pools them- 
selves have formed a thick, souring mass very destructive to insect life, 

c 


34. SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


and some of the greatest rarities seem, from the more recent records, to 
have become quite extinct. 

Of the Carabidae, Carabus monilis is common, and C. nitens occurs in its 
own type of locality. Blethisa multipunctata is still at Askham Bog, and 
Miscodera arctica is found at Allerthorpe Common and Stillington 
Common. Of the Longicornia, Rhagium bifasciatum is very abundant at 
Strensall, and Strangalia armata is to be found at Askham Bog. Clytus 
arietis is common at Kirkham. The York plain is very rich in Chrysomelid 
beetles. Chrysomela graminis is still abundant annually on Clifton Ings, 
and again at Skipwith Common, while Melasoma populi is to be found in 
numbers both at Allerthorpe and Strensall. Gastroidea viridula appeared 
in enormous numbers on the Ings last year. 

It is not surprising that the dragonflies are well represented, when we 
consider how well supplied with ponds the district is. "The Agrionids are 
abundant about most waters. Both Calopteryx virgo and C. splendens are 
found. Clifton Ings is their nearest habitat, and there are records for 
Buttercrambe and Castle Howard. schna grandis has been taken on 
Clifton Ings, and of the other AXschnas, juncea is the most frequently 
found. Libellula quadrimaculata is in some years exceedingly common 
on the larger ponds both at Strensall and Skipwith. 

In the Naturalist for years back are very good lists of the insect fauna of 
Yorkshire, and the reader who consults its pages will be able to appreciate 
the great amount of systematic entomology which is being carried out in 
Yorkshire by the members of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union. 

No account of the natural history of the district would be complete 
without a reference to the special charms of York itself. Though not at 
all a small city, its associations are essentially rural. Its older parts have 
generous gardens, even in the centre of the city, and the extent to which 
these are frequented by birds is quite unusual. The dawn chorus in the 
spring and early summer causes comment from the visitor from another 
town, when he hears it for the first time. 

For several years a pair of kestrels has nested in the main tower of York 
Minster, a pair of barn owls in the turrets of the Theatre Royal, and 
another pair in Bootham Bar. A pair of tawny owls frequents Bootham 
Park, and another pair the Museum Gardens. ‘The kingfisher, which is 
found along the banks of the Ouse, may be regularly seen on the river 
within the city boundaries. A few minutes’ walk from the houses in 
Clifton will enable one to put up a snipe, and curlews may often be heard 
calling when we walk through the streets during the quiet of night. 

A pair of otters has for some years reared young on the river Ouse, and 
usually they may be seen during the night watches in the vicinity of the old 
Guildhall and Common Hall Lane—in other words, in the very heart of 
the city. Otters are often found along the course of the river Foss, and 
at several other points on the outskirts of the city. The grey squirrel 
frequently comes into the gardens of the houses in Clifton. 

The Yorkshire Philosophical Society, intimately associated with the 
foundation of the British Association, has rich natural history collections 
in its Museum. These include general collections of a very complete 
nature, and in addition the following special collections of local import- 


ZOOLOGY 35 


ance: the Hey Collection and the North Collection of Land and Fresh 
Water Mollusca, the Allis Collection of Lepidoptera, and the Hey 
Collection of Coleoptera. In view of what has been said already about 
the work which Archdeacon Hey began in 1840, and carried on till his death 
in 1882, the value of the last-mentioned of these collections will be easily 
understood. 

Much of the valuable work of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society is 
carried out by its York and District Field Naturalists’ Section. This is an 
association with a very long history, which was reconstituted in 1874. 
At the present time it is considering the question of the compilation of a 
totally new Flora and Fauna of the area to which this account has reference, 
and it is hoped to make a beginning with the publication of this during 
the course of the coming year. The Field Naturalists’ Section is pre- 
paring an exhibition in connection with the forthcoming visit of the 
British Association, and in this it is hoped to gather together much that 
will be representative of the biology of the district, and be an illustration 
and amplification of the substance of this account. Its members will also 
be very pleased to give any information on the subjects of which they 
have special local knowledge. 

The Annual Report of the Yorkshire Naturalists’ Union, published in 
the Naturalist, surveys yearly the fauna of the district, and the same 
journal gives records of newly discovered species and the occurrence of 
rare and occasional visitors. ‘There are also available the very complete 
local records kept for many years back by the York Naturalists’ Sectional 
Recorders. ‘These are kept in the library of the Yorkshire Philosophical 
Society. As pertaining particularly to birds, we have also ‘ The Birds of 
Yorkshire,’ by T. H. Nelson and W. E. Clarke, and ‘ The Art of an Old 
Wildfowler,’ by S. H. Smith, which applies in particular to the birds of 
the Derwent Valley. 

In conclusion, I have to express my very great indebtedness to Mr. S. H. 
Smith, who supplied me with his invaluable notes on the birds and mam- 
mals ; to Mr. A. Smith, who gave me all his records of local Lepidoptera ; 
and to Mr. C. Allen, for his information on the fresh waters and their 
fauna. 


VI. 


HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 


BY 
PROF. HAMILTON THOMPSON, D.Litt., F.B.A., F.S.A. 


Art the point at which York first comes definitely into history, during the 
Roman occupation, its importance seems to have been inferior to that of 
the city of Isurium, on the site of Aldborough, close to the junction of 


36 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


the Ure and Swale. The advantages, however, which its central position 
gave it as the military headquarters of the district, led to its connection 
with the Roman roads which skirted the edges of the plain. The present 
road which runs east to the Wolds at Garrowby Hill united it to the road 
from Brough on the Humber to the Roman station on the Derwent at 
Malton ; while the normal approach from the south is represented by the 
road which leaves York by Micklegate Bar, and, running south-south-west 
to Tadcaster, joins the road from Doncaster and Castleford to Isurtum on 
Bramham Moor. A road also led from York north-west to Isurium, 
approximately on the line of the modern road to Aldborough and Borough- 
bridge. Protected on the north by the forest land on the left bank of the 
Ouse, the roads which joined York to the rest of the country ran east and 
west ; and the Roman Eburacum, midway between two lines of road 
which ran from south to north, held the communications and commanded 
both at once. 

The Romans, then, made Eburacum, a name in which the Celtic 
appellation of the place was latinised, a strategic centre which became the 
capital of the northern province of Britain, and, at any rate in the later 
days of the Empire and in face of the danger with which Picts and Scots 
threatened the north, the headquarters of their power in the whole country. 
Of its history during the earliest period of Teutonic invasion nothing can 
be said. Ida, the founder of the Northumbrian kingdom, made his home 
far to the north on the basaltic rock of Bamburgh ; and, south of the Tees, 
another Anglian chieftain, Elle, made himself master of Yorkshire and 
founded the kingdom known as Deira. His famous son, Eadwine, who 
united both the northern kingdoms and, ruling from the Firth of Forth 
to the Trent, pushed his conquests beyond the Pennines and to the borders 
of Wales, certainly recognised the importance of York. It would be, 
perhaps, incorrect to speak of York as his capital, for he made his residence 
in various parts of his realm, and, where the king was, there was the capital 
for the time being. But, with the conversion of Eadwine and his court to 
Christianity, it was within the walls of the Roman city that the king 
received baptism and the metropolitan church of the north was founded. 
Although after the death of Eadwine in battle at Hatfield, east of Doncaster, 
in 633, the Northumbrian kingdom was again divided, and York itself 
played only an incidental part in its subsequent reunion under Oswiu, 
the city was the natural metropolis, civil and ecclesiastical, of Deira. In 
the middle of the eighth century, during the decline of the kingdom, the 
bishop of York first took the title of archbishop, and the school established 
in connection with the cathedral church became, under its famous master 
Alcuin, for the time being one of the most celebrated centres of education 
in Europe. 

By virtue of its position on a tidal river at the head of a great estuary, 
York offered itself as an objective to invaders who came from the lands 
across the North Sea. In 867 the Danish host, after wintering in East 
Anglia, came up the Humber and, taking advantage of civil war between 
two rival kings, conquered York. From this period began that epoch of 
Danish colonisation which has left its indelible mark upon the place- 
names of the East and North Ridings, and decided the eventual form 


HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 37 


of the name York itself. To the Danish conquest we probably owe 
the civil division of Yorkshire into the three Ridings, with York, the seat 
of the Danish jarl, at the point where they meet. It is interesting to notice, 
however—a point which has been generally overlooked—that until within 
the last hundred years the wapentake of Ouse and Derwent in the East 
Riding, which lies south of York between the two rivers, was included for 
ecclesiastical purposes with the parishes of the North Riding archdeaconry 
of Cleveland. Although there is no evidence for the division of the 
diocese of York into archdeaconries before the Norman Conquest, yet 
the archdeaconries, when they came, followed the civil limits of the 
Ridings pretty closely ; and this exception seems to point to an early 
arrangement by which the North Riding originally extended further 
south. 

In the events of the Norman Conquest York played a conspicuous part. 
While the Conqueror was preparing for his invasion of England, Harold’s 
brother, Tostig, who had been dispossessed of his earldom of Northumbria, 
joined with the Norwegian king Harold Hardrada in an attack upon York 
from the Humber. The brother earls Edwin and Morcar were defeated 
by the invaders at Fulford on the outskirts of the city, and the imminent 
danger of York compelled Harold to abandon his preparations for defence 
in the south and march in haste northward. He entered York from the 
west and won a victory over the Northmen at Stamford Bridge, on the 
Derwent, where Harold Hardrada fell. But this swift campaign enabled 
William to land in England unopposed, and, a fortnight after Stamford 
Bridge, Harold, unable to recover lost ground with a tired and straggling 
army, was defeated and slain at Hastings. 

During the three years that followed, York was the danger point of the 
North of England to the foreign conqueror. The Anglo-Danish popula- 
tion of the city, so recently saved from one invader, now prepared to resist 
another and uphold the claims of the English prince, Edgar the /Etheling, 
to the throne. In 1068 William came from the siege of Exeter to York 
and quelled the revolt temporarily. But the garrisons of the castles 
which he founded on either bank of the Ouse were unable to hold them 
in his absence against the rebels, who allied themselves with a band of 
Danish marauders. York was set on fire by the Norman soldiers, and for 
the slaughter which ensued William took condign vengeance by laying 
waste the whole country from York to the Tees and Tyne. It was long 
before Yorkshire recovered from this visitation, and the extent of William’s 
punitive operations is seen in the record of wasted land which, sixteen 
years later, appeared in Domesday Book. 

The foundation of castles at York was part of the strategic plan by 
which the Conqueror imposed his dominion upon his English subjects. 
The castle, the symbol of feudal lordship, was imported into England from 
Normandy, and was intended at once to protect and to overawe the town 
in its vicinity. Castles of earthwork with timber defences rose in the 
neighbourhood of towns, especially at the crossings of rivers, which had 
come into importance during the Danish wars. At York, William’s 
first castle, the mound of which remains close to Skeldergate Bridge, 
was founded on the right bank of the river ; but shortly afterwards was 


38 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


superseded by one upon the opposite bank in the strong position formed 
by the meeting of the Ouse and the Foss. 

The extent of medizval York is still clearly visible in the walls by which 
the city isencircled. The original settlement and the Roman city had been 
upon the left bank of the Ouse, but by the time of the Norman Conquest 
the city had already spread across the river, and the present walls, follow- 
ing the Roman lines of defence in their north-east portion, surround this 
wider area and gradually took the place of the wooden stockade, which 
was its first defence. Communication between the two parts of the city 
was furnished by Ouse Bridge at the east end of Micklegate. The four 
gateways or bars of the city gave access to main roads. Through Micklegate 
Bar passed the western road to Tadcaster, from which branched the north- 
western road to Boroughbridge and Catterick. Bootham Bar, the north 
gate, led to the roads through the forest of Galtres to Easingwold and 
Helmsley. On the east side, the road to Malton and Scarborough passed 
through Monk Bar, and through Walmgate Bar, on the south, the road to 
Market Weighton and Beverley. Standing at the junction of these 
main thoroughfares, York was the centre of communication for all parts 
of the county and permanently maintained the importance which it had 
acquired in Roman times. 

Throughout the Middle Ages, York formed the main barrier against 
the constant inroads of the Scots east of the Pennines and was the base of 
the English offensive for the Scottish campaigns of the fourteenth century. 
Not only was it upon the direct way from London to the Scottish border 
at Berwick ; it also was on the route to Carlisle and the Solway by the 
road which, branching westward from the road to the north beyond 
Catterick, crosses Stainmore to the valley of the Eden. Modern roads 
and railways have made light of the mountainous regions of north-western 
England, which the medizval traveller avoided and through whose passes 
Scottish forays into Craven and the dales of Yorkshire met with little or 
no opposition ; and, in our changed conditions, the former importance of 
York as the key to the whole line of the border may easily be overlooked. 
Scottish warfare was of a desultory kind, and the raids which were its 
habitual method were conducted upon no strategic plan. The vales of 
York and Mowbray were from time to time the scene of battles, of which 
the most famous was the battle of the Standard, fought in 1138 some miles 
north of Northallerton, on the rising ground between the vale of Mowbray 
and the basin of the Tees. None of the later battles fought on the soil 
of Yorkshire against the Scots were more than skirmishes, such as the rout 
suffered at Myton-on-Swale in 1319 by the levies hastily armed by 
Archbishop Melton, and the affair near Byland Abbey in 1322, in which 
Edward II narrowly escaped capture. Although in the first of these the 
English defeat was severe and attended by considerable slaughter, it was 
not followed up by an attack on York, which lay in safety behind the 
fighting-line, screened by its outer belt of forest-land. If the open 
country-side suffered from the depredations of the Scots, it was equally 
exposed to plunder from the defenders, who retaliated upon them from 
the base at York ; and the English army, which won the battle of Neville’s 
Cross, near Durham, in 1346, and was billeted in the North Riding, 


HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY 39 


especially upon monasteries, wrought havoc which reduced their 
entertainers to poverty. 

During this period York was from time to time the royal headquarters, 
the scene of parliaments summoned for the defence of the realm, and, in 
the imminence of danger from France in the Hundred Years’ War, the 
place to which the royal exchequer and the offices of government could be 
temporarily transferred. In the later days of feudal warfare it became an 
object of contention between rival parties. Thomas of Lancaster, the 
rebellious cousin of Edward II, occupied a strong position in Yorkshire, 
commanding the valleys of the Aire and Calder from his great castle of 
Pontefract ; and his hold upon the approaches to the city was broken only 
by his defeat and capture at Boroughbridge upon the Ure in 1322. The 
neighbourhood of Pontefract to York and the support which the house of 
Lancaster could command from its tenants in the county secured the 
unopposed march of Henry IV from his landing-place at the mouth of 
the Humber in 1399, a success repeated by Edward IV in 1461, when the 
position of the Lancastrian cause in Yorkshire was precarious. In the 
interval between these two events the strife between the houses of 
Lancaster and York had arisen. The central battles of the Wars of the 
Roses were fought upon the main approach to York from the south. In 
1460 the battle of Wakefield, fought at Sandal, south of the Calder, was 
followed by the triumphant entry of Margaret of Anjou and her royal 
husband into York ; but the success of that year was reversed in the next, 
when the Yorkists forced the passage of the Aire at Ferrybridge and won 
a complete victory at Towton, in the country between the Aire and Wharfe. 

In all these military operations the rivers of Yorkshire have played 
a large part, and it is within the area watered by the western tributaries of 
the Ouse that the strife of rival parties for supremacy in the north has been 
contested. he rally points of the rebels in the Pilgrimage of Grace, 
after York had been seized, were Pontefract and Doncaster. It is notice- 
able that, while warfare throughout the Middle Ages again and again 
came near the gates of York, it stopped short of the city. From the time 
when the Conqueror quelled the Anglo-Danish rebellion in 1070 to the 
era of the Civil Wars in the seventeenth century, York suffered no siege, 
and the nearest approach to a battle close to its walls was the abortive 
muster of an ill-disciplined crowd on Shipton Moor, north of the city, in 
1405, to meet a royal army, which was followed by the summary execution 
of Archbishop Scrope. But in 1642 York was besieged by a Parliamentary 
army under Fairfax. ‘The siege was relieved by the Earl of Newcastle, 
whose defeat of Fairfax at Tadcaster gave Pontefract to the Royalists and 
isolated the Parliamentary base at Hull. Early in 1644 York was again 
besieged. Prince Rupert, coming from Lancashire at the end of June, 
relieved the city ; but his attack upon the besiegers, who were about to 
retreat along the line of the Wharfe, ended in the battle of Marston Moor, 
to the west of York, on July 2, and the surrender of York to the Parliament. 

If York was thus important as a military base in a disturbed age, its 
communications by road and water gave it a commercial pre-eminence as 
the chief market of Yorkshire, and the centre of northern trade, Its 
citizens received from Henry IJ, soon after the beginning of his reign, the 


40 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


grant of a gild merchant, which was confirmed by John. Subsequently 
it enjoyed the full activity of vigorous civic life, controlled, as in other 
large towns, by the gilds of the various crafts, but possessing its strong 
organisation of merchant traders with a monopoly of foreign trade. It is 
probable that in prehistoric days it was a trading settlement in which the 
flint-workers of the Wolds found their market, and that its commercial 
advantages were thus recognised before it became a great political and 
ecclesiastical centre. So long as merchant ships could come up the Ouse 
to the wharves of this inland port, it retained a position in trade independ- 
ent of its significance from other points of view in national history. With 
increase in the tonnage of ships, it lost the eminence which it held in this 
department, and its commerce shifted to more convenient ports. Similarly, 
the industrial revolution, which converted the villages of the West Riding 
into great towns, left York on one side and created new emporia for trade 
which far surpassed it in size. York, however, secure in its long prestige 
and rich in the possession of historic monuments of unsurpassed interest, 
the centre of a wide agricultural district untouched by modern develop- 
ments of industry, survived the decline of its former commercial prosperity. 
Its accessibility from all parts of the county by an admirable system of 
roads and its position midway between the manufacturing region of the 
Pennine valleys and the great expanse of rural country which stretches to 
the coast still made it the natural centre of the public life of Yorkshire. 
With the coming of railways, as already indicated in Chap. I, York, on a 
main line from London to Scotland, developed new activity and became 
the nucleus of a system which sent out branches following with little 
variation the historic routes which had carried traffic for centuries. With 
railway communication, the way was open for new manufactures ; and 
to-day, with the revival of road traffic on a scale undreamed of by the 
promoters of railways within the last century, the geographical situation 
of York is a permanent asset to her prosperity which no passing changes 
can alter. 


VIL. 
PREHISTORIC ARCHAOLOGY IN 
YORKSHIRE 
1906-1931 


BY 
FRANK ELGEE. 


Durinc the quarter of a century since the British Association last met 
in York, our knowledge of prehistoric Yorkshire has been considerably 
extended. ‘The year 1905 had seen the publication of J. R. Mortimer’s 


PREHISTORIC ARCHAEOLOGY IN YORKSHIRE 41 


Forty Years’ Researches in East Yorkshire—the greatest contribution to 
Yorkshire prehistory that had appeared since Greenwell’s British Barrows 
in 1877, from which it differs in being exclusively a Yorkshire book by 
atrue-born Yorkshireman. It marked the close, as it were, of the barrow- 
digging phase, which had dominated prehistoric archeology in Yorkshire 
throughout the Victorian Age. In the last twenty-five years this method 
of research has been much less pursued. ‘The distinctive features of the 
period have been the establishment of an earlier human occupation than 
had previously been realised ; the exploration of West Yorkshire, the pre- 
history of which had hitherto been little studied ; a study of the distribu- 
tion, succession, and origins of prehistoric cultures; the discovery of 
numerous settlement sites unknown or very imperfectly understood by 
nineteenth-century archeologists ; and the beginnings of a critical survey 
of earlier records and researches in order to winnow the chaff from the 
grain. Moreover, collections of prehistoric antiquities in museums con- 
tinued to develop, notably at York, where the Yorkshire Museum has 
been enriched by the Mitchelson, Boynton, and Harland collections ; 
and at Hull, where the Mortimer Museum of Prehistoric Archzology, 
formerly at Driffield, was opened in 1929. Smaller instructive collections 
have also been established in the museums of Bridlington, Hornsea, 
Huddersfield, Middlesbrough, Skipton, and other towns. 

The first general survey of the prehistory of Yorkshire appeared in 
the Victoria County History in 1907 (13), a useful summary of our know- 
ledge at that time. The possibility of a Paleolithic period is hinted at ; 
the importance of the Neolithic Age is over-stressed on unsatisfactory 
evidence ; and there is no consciousness of a widespread Mesolithic 
culture. Origins and distributions are not discussed. A topographical 
list of antiquities is still the only one for the whole county that has been 
published. Even at the time it was admittedly far from complete, and 
now, of course, it is much more so. Nevertheless it is the indispensable 
skeleton for that exhaustive list which we hope will be prepared in the 
future. 

It will be most convenient to adopt a chronological order in this survey, 
beginning with the Paleolithic Age. Figure references in brackets are to 
the bibliography at the end of this section. 


PALZOLitTHic AGE, 


The occurrence of a Lower Paleolithic hand-axe near Bridlington,! and 
an abundant Pleistocene fauna in caves and the drift, had shown that there 
was no reason why remains of Palzolithic man should not occur. So 
efforts have been made to discover Palzolithic implements in the drift and 
other superficial deposits, with the following results. 

In 1922 and again in 1931, E. R. Collins described and figured a series 
of implements, made of local chert, from Upper Nidderdale (14-15). 
He arranges them in four series, according to what he considers to be the 
age of the deposits in which they occur. 

(x) Implements from a deposit probably due to the final melting of the 


1 Evans, Ancient Stone Implements (1897), 580, 582. 


42 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


ice, and lying below the peat (6 in.15 ft.) which covers the tops of the 
moors. ‘They include triangular points made from tabular blocks of 
chert, cores and flakes; a massive scraper; and a flake with bulb of 
percussion. As there is nothing in their form or technique which is 
comparable to well-known Palzolithic types, Collins finds it impossible 
to date them ; though, as they are an advance on implements from lateral 
moraines, he thinks they might be Upper Paleolithic. 

(2) Implements from terraces and river gravels, consisting of material 
apparently washed out of the lateral moraines of the Nidderdale glacier 
at the end of the Ice Age. He records four rolled implements from 
these beds. 

(3) Implements from lateral moraines at Scar (980-1100 ft.), and at 
Byer Beck (g50-1050 ft.).. They are mostly sharp, but a high percentage 
are slightly rolled. They include lozenge-shaped points and ‘ beaks’ ; 
a heart-shaped tool with a cutting-edge on one side, the other being in 
its natural state ; a massive triangular implement (1? lb.) ; and a steep- 
sided scraper with boldly trimmed edge and flat base. 

(4) Implements from river-bed gravels between Goyden Pot Hole 
and Manchester Hole. These are massive, much rolled, and with few 
exceptions patinated a light chestnut colour. The smallest number of 
blows has been used in making them. They include types that resemble 
early Chellean hand-axes. They occur at the very bottom of the dale, 
where they were deposited by the glaciers which swept them off an old 
land surface. 

J. P. T. Burchell has recently described a tortoise-core industry of 
flint points, scrapers, and gravers from Danes’ Dyke, Flamborough. 
They occurred on an old land surface below a weathered deposit, which, 
on being cut back, proved to possess all the features of a boulder-clay, 
containing chalk fragments and an abundance of Cheviot and Scottish 
erratics. At Beacon Hill this deposit was more earthy though containing 
the same kind of erratics. At its base, and resting on the surface of the 
Upper Purple Boulder-clay, or, where that is absent, on gravels, sands, 
and loams, he found a similar industry. He assigns both to the Upper 
Mousterian culture (10). 

Burchell regards the Danes’ Dyke clay as the result of direct glacial 
action. On the other hand, the Geological Survey regard the Beacon 
Hill bed as a land-wash, comparable to the Coombe deposits of the south 
of England, and not a true boulder-clay, If Burchell’s views are right, 
then the industries ante-date the last glaciation of Yorkshire; if the 
Geological Survey are right, then they must be post-glacial. 

A deposit similar to that at Beacon Hill caps the well-known glacial 
sections at Kelsey Hill and Burstwick, ten miles east of Hull. It contains 
similar erratics, and in it Burchell found scattered flakes and cores, and, 
at its base, signs of an occupation level. 

Below this bed is a rather stoneless clay which he calls the ‘ Hessle’ 
boulder-clay of inland sections, and which, because of its colour, he equates 
with the Upper Purple clay of Danes’ Dyke and Flamborough. If this 
correlation is correct, then the deposit cannot be the Hessle clay—a term 
reserved for the foxy-red clay with Cheviot and Scottish erratics—for the 


PREHISTORIC ARCHEOLOGY IN YORKSHIRE 43 


Upper Purple clay of the coast does not contain these erratics, being a 
deposit of the western ice. 

However this may be, the clay at Kelsey overlies sands and gravels 
usually considered to be the moraine of the western ice. They have 
yielded bones and teeth of mammoth, rhinoceros, reindeer, bison and 
walrus. In them Burchell found several flint implements, of which he 
figures a Levallois flake and an ovate hand-axe, and which he refers to 
the Early Mousterian culture. These appear to be the first Yorkshire 
implements from a deposit containing Pleistocene fauna. 

In 1922 R. A. Smith figured a flint implement found at a depth of 4 ft. 
in undisturbed boulder-clay in Lower Eskdale, N.R. He compared it to 
Mousterian points (43). 

As the writer has not yet been able to examine the sections or the 
implements recorded by Collins and Burchell, he is not in a position to 
criticise their conclusions, which, it must be admitted, have not met with 
general acceptance (37). ‘That their researches are serious attempts to 
throw light on the Palzolithic Age in Yorkshire cannot, however, be 
gainsaid, whatever the ultimate verdict may be. 


MEeESoLitTHic AGE. 


The researches of Woodhead (46) into the history of vegetation on the 
southern Pennines have shown that post-glacial times can be subdivided 
into an Arctic Period, c. 10000-7000 B.c.; a warm Boreal Period, 
7000-5000 B.C. ; and a wet Atlantic Period, 5000-3000 B.c. It is possible 
that the Arctic Period was contemporaneous with the deposition of the 
Hessle clay in East Yorkshire. In the Boreal Period the more genial and 
drier climate enabled scrub and woodland, interspersed with dry sandy 
heaths, to spread over the southern Pennines, now treeless and thickly 
clothed with peat formed in the wetter climates of the Atlantic and later 
periods. 

On the original sandy surface below the peat thousands of pygmy- 
flint implements and other tools of the post-Palzolithic or Mesolithic 
Age have been discovered at altitudes above 1,000 ft. on the Huddersfield 
Pennines by Buckley (7-9), Petch (31), Woodhead (46), and others. 
They are recorded by Armstrong from the Sheffield Moors (4). They 
occur on the northern Pennines, and also on the Eastern Moorlands, 
where Elgee (18) has observed sites below shallow peat at 800-1,300 ft. 

These implements were the work of tribes of food-gatherers and hunters, 
who wandered over and camped on the high, drier sandy grounds during 
the genial Boreal Period. They avoided the swamps of the valleys and 
lowlands, though there seems no reason why they should not have camped 
on the many sandy tracts in those areas. 

The Pennine pygmy-flints have been divided into a broad blade industry 
resembling the early T'ardenoisian culture of Belgium, and a narrow blade 
industry almost certainly originating from the Aurignacian culture of 
Upper Palzolithic times, and so well developed at Cresswell in Derbyshire. 
Aurignacian chert flakes and tools have been found on Windy Hill 
(x,000 ft.), on the Pennines west of Huddersfield, below a densely packed 
early 'Tardenoisian floor containing over 5,000 flints, including 100 broad 


44. SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


blade pygmies. The two industries have each been subdivided into an 
earlier series, characterised by angle and true gravers, and a later, often 
patinated, series distinguished by the typical Tardenoisian micro-graver. 
Important sites have been located on Warcock Hill, Marsden, where the 
stratigraphy has been ascertained ; White Hill and Lominot with broad 
blade pygmies ; March Hill (1,340 ft.), which has yielded more than 
6,000 flints and 500 tools of a narrow blade industry ; Cupwith Hill, with 
100 micro-gravers ; and Dean Clough, with typical small pear-shaped 
points. The Eastern Moorland sites have furnished Chatelperron points, 
angle-gravers, and other implements with Aurignacian affinities. 

The more or less contemporaneous Baltic Maglemose culture is repre- 
sented by two bone harpoons and typical flint hand-axes from Hornsea 
and Skipsea in Holderness. Armstrong described these at the Hull 
meeting of the British Association in 1922, when their authenticity was 
challenged by Sheppard (3, 36). Their genuineness is now generally 
accepted. A perforated reindeer antler and boar tooth implement found 
in 1889 in the Elland Cave on Malham Moor, W.R., must also belong to 
the same culture,” such tools being frequent in the Baltic region. 

A bone harpoon found many years ago in the Victoria Cave, Settle, and 
regarded as Neolithic by Boyd Dawkins, is now known to belong to the 
Mesolithic Azilian culture.’ 


NEOLITHIC AGE. 


The period between the end of the Mesolithic Age and the beginning 
of the Bronze Age is obscure, despite the statement that ‘ Yorkshire 
possesses a vast amount of evidence upon which the story of man during 
this important period can be constructed ’ (13). The truth is exactly the 
reverse ; there is little or no evidence of a lengthy period of pastoral 
and agricultural life without a knowledge of copper or bronze. ‘This 
so-called Neolithic Age is based chiefly on the doubtful evidence of flint 
and stone implements, many of which we now know to have been made 
and used in the Bronze Age, such as tanged flint arrow-heads, perforated 
stone battle-axes, and even ground and polished axes, usually regarded as 
typical Neolithic implements. 

Some axes may be earlier, notably the type with conical butt, rounded 
section, and slightly incurved sides, so abundant near Bridlington, where 
there was an extensive axe-manufacturing industry (38). Made of basalt 
or greenstone from the local drift, they are often much weatherworn, 
a condition bespeaking a considerable antiquity—an inference supported 
by their resemblance to axes from the upper levels of the Danish shell- 
mounds. From Bridlington they were conveyed to other parts; examples 
are known from Aldborough, Sheffield, Cleveland, Durham, the Cam- 
bridge region, and elsewhere. 

As a class the Yorkshire axes await systematic study to throw light on 
their ages and origins. Many further examples have been found and 
recorded since 1906. Elgee has discussed the distribution of those in 


2 Now lost, but represented by a cast in Manchester Museum. 
3 In Giggleswick School Museum. 


PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY IN YORKSHIRE 45 


North-East Yorkshire, where they are most frequent on the coast, Lime- 
stone Hills, and in the Vale of Pickering. Their almost complete absence 
from the Eastern Moorlands is significant in view of the intensive and 
widespread Mid Bronze Age culture of that region (18). 

Again, the unchambered long-barrow culture of East Yorkshire, also 
regarded as typically Neolithic, overlaps the Early Bronze Age. The 
long barrows excavated by Greenwell (19) and Mortimer (27) have 
been reviewed by Elgee (18), who considers them a degenerate and late 
expression of the chambered long-barrow culture of the south-west. 
Raistrick (33) has described a stony long barrow at Bradley, near Skipton, 
the first and only known example in West Yorkshire. Its primary inter- 
ment lay in a cist, not a chamber, a circumstance indicative of Early 
Bronze Age influences, when cist-burial was frequently practised. 

The Yorkshire long barrows give no support to the theory that their 
builders were prospecting for metal, for they are concentrated on the 
Wolds, Howardian and Limestone Hills, non-metalliferous areas, then 
scrub and grassland, suitable for pasturage. 


THE BRONZE AGE. 


The excavation of hundreds of round barrows in East Yorkshire between 
the Tees and the Humber by Bateman (6), Atkinson (5), Greenwell (19, 
20), and Mortimer (27) laid the foundations of our knowledge of the 
Yorkshire Bronze Age. The most important barrow excavations in the 
period under review were those carried out by W. Hornsby and his 
colleagues on the Cleveland coast (23-25). Raistrick (32-33) has described 
the contents of some West Riding barrows, our knowledge of which falls 
far below those of East Yorkshire. 

The relative chronology of the pottery from the barrows was fully 
established by the late Lord Abercromby in his monumental work on 
British and Irish Bronze Age pottery (1). He proved that the oldest 
barrow pottery was the beaker or drinking-cup, 150 having been found in 
Yorkshire. This ware was introduced by invaders from the Rhinelands, 
who almost invariably interred their dead in deep graves under round 
barrows, and used simple bronze knives, awls, and flat axes of Early 
Bronze Age type. 

These invaders were chiefly brachycephalic and of rather stocky stature. 
Amongst them, however, were members of a tall dolichocephalic race, 
to which Elgee has recently directed attention, and which he assigns to 
the stone battle-axe folk of Central Germany and Denmark, who possessed 
similar physical characters (18). Seven skeletons of this type have been 
recorded.* 

More or less contemporaneous with beakers was the food-vessel ware, 
a totally different kind of pottery, which, as R. A. Smith has shown, was 


4 From Duggleby Howe, C.I. 68-8, S. 6 ft. 3 in. (27, pp. 31, 39); Aldro (with 
beaker), C.I. 70, S. 5 ft. 11-3 in.; Garton (with food-vessel), C.I. 72, Sn On tee 
-03 in.; Garton (with beaker), C.I. 72, S. 5 ft. 10:3 in.; Mortimer (Ja. 
Inst., vi, 330-4), Borrow Nook (Mid-Wolds), three (one C.I. 70°51), nearly 
6 ft. high (29, p. 492). See also (30). 


46 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


derived from the highly decorated Neolithic bowls (41). Food-vessels 
are essentially a north-country pottery with its chief centre in Yorkshire, 
whence come 340 examples. Their provenance reveals the mingling of 
the Early Bronze Age invaders with the long-barrow people, a mingling 
that led to the extinction of the beaker ware, the spread of cremation at 
the expense of inhumation, and ultimately to the homogeneous insular 
culture of the Mid Bronze Age. For cremation led to the custom of 
depositing the ashes of the dead in urns which at first only differed from 
food-vessels in being larger. The transition is well displayed by several 
Yorkshire urns, notably one from Hinderwell Beacon, N.R., which not 
only resembles a food-vessel in shape, but was also associated with a small 
food-vessel (25). In time the urn developed into large and small vessels 
with overhanging rims, the most abundant and most widespread species 
of prehistoric pottery in Yorkshire, 400 to 500 being known with the 
certainty that many more await discovery. ‘The contemporary incense 
cups, of which 170 have been found, can also be traced back to the food- 
vessel. Elgee suggests that they held offerings to the cremated dead (18). 

Elgee has dealt in detail with the distribution of these wares in East 
Yorkshire (18). Beakers are most abundant on the Wolds (130 examples) ; 
with isolated examples from near Thirsk, Pickering, and Whitby in North- 
East Yorkshire ; and a few from the West Riding. Food-vessels show a 
wider distribution. ‘They are most numerous on the Wolds (254 examples), 
on the limestone hills between Pickering and Scarborough, and thence 
sparingly northwards along the coast. Fewer than a dozen are recorded 
from the West Riding. 

Both wares are practically absent from the moors and dales of North-East 
Yorkshire, where, however, urns are very numerous, more so than on the 
Wolds, on which they are comparatively rare. They have occurred on 
the Howardian Hills, in the Vale of York north of Boroughbridge, and in 
Airedale, Calderdale, the Don Valley, and elsewhere in West Yorkshire. 
The increase of population during the Bronze Age is convincingly revealed 
by these figures and distributions. 

Elgee ascribes many settlement sites on the Eastern Moorlands to what 
he terms the urn culture. They are marked by large urn barrows on 
the ridges and by cemeteries, often containing hundreds of cairns probably 
covering inhumations, standing stones, flint implements (scrapers, three- 
tanged arrow-heads and ruder tools), irregular cultivation plots, sometimes 
forming low terraces or lynchets on slopes, and hut-pits. Many settle- 
ments are now the site of farms of which they were the forerunners, and 
the position of which is often just below the moor edge or well down the 
sides of the dales. Others survive on spurs between valleys, the best 
preserved occurring on Glaisdale, Danby, and Crown End Riggs in 
Eskdale. ‘These spurs were defended by single, double, or even 
quadruple cross-ridge ditches and ramparts, strengthened by parapets of 
rude upright stones such as can be well seen on Crown End and Guis- 
borough Moor (18). A further account of these sites will be given in a 
paper on the human geography of the Eastern Moorlands (Section E). 

A semicircular camp on Eston Nab (800 ft.) in the extreme north-east 
of the county has been partially excavated and will be described in a paper 


PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY IN YORKSHIRE 47 


to Section H. Potsherds from hearths within it are identical with those 
associated with Late Bronze Age implements in the Heathery Burn Cave, 
Co. Durham, an association not observed at Eston Nab. 

The Bronze Age of West Yorkshire has been studied by Raistrick, 
who gives plans of stone circles ; also of two disc barrows (near Askrigg 
in Wensleydale), the first that appear to have been noted in the county (32). 
These structures all seem to date from the Mid Bronze Age. Urns have 
been found within stone circles (Danby, N.R.),° and earthen circles 
(Todmorden, W.R.).6 The impressive Thornborough and Hutton Moor 
circles near Ripon were assigned to a late phase of the Early Bronze Age 
by Crawford (17) on the evidence of a single food-vessel from a barrow 
situated between two of the Thornborough circles. A Mid Bronze Age 
date is equally probable, because cremations and urns have more frequently 
been found in the neighbourhood. 

Even Yorkshire’s greatest megaliths—the Devil’s Arrows near Borough- 
bridge in the same region—may be no earlier than the Mid Bronze Age. 
There is no evidence of a large Neolithic or Early Bronze Age settlement 
there, for only a large community would have erected such colossal stones. 
The megaliths of the Eastern Moorlands also occur in a region rich in 
Mid Bronze Age remains. In this region they take the form of monoliths 
on or near barrows, circles (with urns), rows, and groups of three stones 
adjoining urn barrows (18). There is no evidence that the Yorkshire 
megaliths were erected by metal or jet traders, nor that there was any 
far-flung trade in Whitby jet (18). The excursion on September 3 will 
give members the opportunity of seeing many prehistoric remains on the 
Eastern Moorlands. 

Raistrick has dealt with the dispersion of bronze implements and has 
shown how they were carried from the Wold area across the morainic 
ridges at York and Escrick into West Yorkshire (32). Kitson Clark first 
called attention to this route by which flint was conveyed from East to 
West Yorkshire, where in its natural state it is unknown (11). The main 
route led through the Aire Gap, and evidence is accumulating to show that 
it formed a cross-country trade-route between Ireland and Denmark 
in the Bronze Age. 

Elgee has also studied the distribution of bronze implements, especially 
the socketed axe and leaf-shaped sword of the Late Bronze Age. It 
shows that the chief settlement areas of this age were Holderness, the 
northern margin of the Vale of Pickering—both lowland areas—and, to 
a less extent, Calderdale, Airedale, and round Ripon. As these imple- 
ments have never been found with urns, or on the surface of the Eastern 
Moorlands where the urn culture was dominant, he follows Crawford and 
Peake in ascribing their introduction to invaders. He also suggests that 
the pressure of these and later invaders drove the urn people into the 
Moorland country where they may have survived into the Iron Age or 
even later (18). 

Further discoveries of bronze implements, chiefly late, have from time 
to time been made. Many have been recorded by Sheppard, who has 
5 Atkinson, Gent. Mag., xiv, 440-4, 1863. 

8 Proc. Yorks. Geol. Soc., xiii, 447. 


48 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


also described those in the Hull, Whitby, Scarborough, and Doncaster 
Museums (39). 

A Late Bronze Age spear-head and socketed axe were found in the lake- 
dwellings at Ulrome and Barmston in Holderness. ‘Though discovered 
fifty years ago, these dwellings were not critically described until rgr1 (42). 
At Ulrome there was evidence of a much older structure associated with 
numerous perforated ox-bone adzes, implements which suggest Maglemose 
affinities. Pottery from the later dwellings proved habitation in Iron Age 
and Roman times. 

Recent excavations in the Pickering lake-dwellings, discovered in 
1895, show that they were more or less contemporaneous with those of 
Holderness (12). 


Earty [Ron AGE. 


The most important addition to our knowledge of this age is the Hall- 
statt site on the Castle Hill, Scarborough, the first of its kind to be found 
in the north of England. It consisted of more than thirty rubbish pits, 
which were revealed during F. G. Simpson’s excavations of a Roman 
coast-guard fort, below which they lay. In the pits and on the surface 
in which they were sunk were scattered numerous potsherds of Hallstatt 
type, associated with Late Bronze Age implements and a fragment of an 
iron pin. The overlap of the Late Bronze Age and Hallstatt cultures is 
here very clearly displayed. The pottery indicates that the Castle Hill 
settlers probably came directly across the North Sea from the Rhinelands 
(44-45). 

Otherwise we have no evidence of a widespread Hallstatt culture in 
Yorkshire. Bronze must therefore have remained in use until superseded 
by iron in La Téne times. 

As is well known, East Yorkshire is unusually prolific in La Téne 
chariot-burials, which were fully described by Greenwell and Garson 
(21). Since 1906 one has been discovered at Hunmanby (40), and 
another at Pexton, near Pickering (26). 

The associated skeletons were chiefly those of a moderately dolicho- 
cephalic and mesatacephalic race from 5 ft. 2 in. to 5 ft. 10 in. high in 
the men ; and from 4 ft. 11 in. to 5 ft. 7 in. in the women. Thus the 
charioteers were quite different from the Early Bronze Age folk, and they 
must have been new-comers to East Yorkshire. That they came from 
Gaul is proved by the resemblance of their interments to the chariot- 
burials of the Marne, the neighbourhood of Paris, etc. Historically they 
were a branch of the Parisii, who gave their name to Paris and, according 
to Ptolemy, inhabited East Yorkshire c. A.D. 160 (18). 

The chief centre of La Tene culture was the Wold area, especially 
at Arras, between Market Weighton and Beverley, and at the Danes’ 
Graves near Driffield. Here large cemeteries of small round barrows 
containing chariot-burials are indicative of permanent settlements. At 
Atwick, twelve to sixteen miles south-east of the Danes’ Graves, numerous 
pit-dwellings were discovered by W. Morfitt, and described by Greenwell 
and Gatty (22). At the time they were supposed to be Neolithic, but 
pottery found in them is certainly Iron Age. Usually the pits were 


PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY IN YORKSHIRE 49 


about 5 ft. deep, of elongated form, a few even being 40 ft. long by 
g-io ft. wide. They were all excavated in boulder-clay, and were filled 
with a hardened blackish mud overlain by soil. Rough stone hearths 
occurred in them, round which lay potsherds ; broken bones of ox, 
horse, sheep or goat, pig, red deer, and in one instance the complete 
skeleton of a dog; heavy stone pounders ; and rude flint knives and 
flakes. 

La Téne culture is sparingly represented on the limestone hills near 
Pickering. Elsewhere in North-East Yorkshire it is practically unknown. 

Recent research is revealing that Iron Age sites are numerous and 
widespread in West Yorkshire. On the plateau of the Great Scar Lime- 
stone in Wharfedale, Raistrick finds saucer-shaped barrows, often 
encircled by a trench, up to 30 yards in diameter. They have yielded 
iron knives, coarse pottery, bronze and iron ornaments, and multiple 
burials. Adjoining the barrows are extensive lynchets and cultivation 
plots of Celtic type. ‘Twelve lynchet groups occur in Upper Wharfedale, 
one of the best preserved in the High Close Pasture north of Grass- 
ington (16). The cultivators lived in huts, the circular foundations of 
which can be seen in Grass Wood and elsewhere. In them iron knives 
with deer-horn hafts, like those from the barrows, have been found ; 
also spindle-whorls of stone, pottery and lead (one of Roman type), 
saddleback querns, pounders and charred barley, the most ancient 
evidence of this cereal in Yorkshire (35). 

In Littondale, Celtic fields are associated with regular enclosures of 
rough masonry 5 ft. wide at the base, and in places still 3 ft. high—the 
ruins of circular and rectangular dwellings or chambers, ranged round 
a rectangular space with two entrances (35). 

The folk who lived on these sites must have been the Brigantes who 
dominated West Yorkshire in Roman times. Their origins are obscure. 
Most probably they were descended from the urn folk of Yorkshire 
who had been subjugated by the Late Bronze Age invaders and amongst 
whom La Tene culture spread after the invasion of the Parisii. 

In the 1912 volume of the Victoria County History there is an admirable 
survey and list of earthworks, with many plans (2). This account 
stripped our earthworks of much error and pedantic lumber that had 
gathered round them. They are chiefly classified under types, for the 
age of many was, and still is, unknown. The survey clearly demonstrated 
the medizval age of such works as Skipsea Brough, E.R., long regarded 
as prehistoric on little or no satisfactory evidence. 

Other works are shown to have been medizval boundary banks or 
park enclosures. To the latter class the great earthworks at Forcett 
and Stanwick Parks, N.R., almost certainly belong, though they are still 
often supposed to be Brigantian strongholds of the first century. This 
ascription was based solely on the statement that Early Iron Age antiquities ” 
were discovered within them, whereas they actually occurred at Langdale, 
a mile to the south outside them (2). Nothing has been found within 
the works to prove their Brigantian origin. 

In all probability the Brigantes constructed hill-top camps like the 

7 In the British Museum. 
D 


50 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


oval work at Wincobank near Sheffield (Roman potsherds at bottom of 
the fosse) ; the Castle Hill, Almondbury, the original features of which, 
an oval rampart and ditch, have been disturbed by a Norman motte and 
bailey castle, and whence Brigantian coins have been recorded (31) ; 
and the village on Ingleborough mountain, comprising numerous circular 
hut-foundations which have yielded Roman potsherds,® and enclosed 
by a massive drystone wall built on the precipitous edge of the level 
summit. These and similar works in West Yorkshire were no doubt 
constructed to oppose the Roman invaders. 

We have yet no evidence of pre-Roman La Tene camps. Whether 
they will be found on the Wolds, the centre of the earliest La Téne 
culture, future research must decide. For at the present juncture it is 
not possible to form any definite conclusions about the plexus of earth- 
works in that region. In the first place, since the Wolds have been 
enclosed and cultivated, the earthworks have been greatly interfered 
with. Mortimer envisaged them as well as it was possible, and his 
account is full of detailed interest (27). In the second place, their 
complexity is the outcome of a long period of occupation by varied peoples 
from long-barrow times onward, and this in itself makes research work 
still more difficult. It has been too readily assumed that they are all 
prehistoric—many no doubt are, but the possibility of others being 
Anglian or medieval should be borne in mind. A similar warning 
holds good for the Scamridge Dykes and other earthworks in North-East 
Yorkshire, concerning which nothing further can be related here, but 
a sketch of them has been given by Wheeler (45), and they will be dealt 
with in the forthcoming Archeology of Yorkshire in Methuen’s County 
Archeology Series. 


SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY. 


1. ABERCROMBY, J.: Bronze Age Pottery of Great Britain and Ireland, 
2 vols., 1912. 
2. ARMITAGE, Etta S., and Montcomerig, D. H.: ‘ Ancient Earth- 
works,’ Vict. County Hist. Yorks, ii, 1912. 
3. ARMsTRONG, A. L.: ‘ Maglemose Remains of Holderness,’ Proc. Preh. 
Soc. East Anglia, iv, 1923; Rep. B.A., 1922. 
4. ARMSTRONG, A. L.: ‘ Flint and Stone Implements of the Sheffield 
District and their Distribution,’ Proc. Sorby Scientific Soc., i, 1929. 
5. ATKINSON, J. C.: Papers in Gentleman’s Magazine, 1861-5. 
6. BATEMAN, T.: Ten Years’ Diggings in Counties of York, etc., 1861. 
47. BuckLey, F.: A Microlithic Industry of the Pennine Chain, etc., 1924. 
8. BuckLey, F.: A Microlithic Industry, Marsden, 1921. 
g. BuckLey, F.: ‘ Yorkshire Gravers,’ Proc. Preh. Soc. East Anglia, iii, 
Part 4, 1922. 
10. BURCHELL, J.P. T.: ‘ Upper and Lower Palzolithic Man in Yorkshire,’ 
Proc. Preh. Soc. East Anglia, vi, 1930. 
1r. CLarK, E. Kitson: ‘ A Prehistoric Route in Yorkshire,’ P.S.A., xxiii, 
IQIl. 
12. CLiarK, M. Kitson,and others : ‘ Iron Age Sites in the Vale of Picker- 
ing, Y.A.7., xxx, 1930. 
13. CLincu, G.: ‘ Early Man,’ Vict. County Hist. Yorks, i, 1907. 


8 Information supplied by Dr. A. Raistrick. 


PREHISTORIC ARCH/EOLOGY IN YORKSHIRE 51 


. Cotuins, E. R.: ‘An Early Paleolithic Implement in Yorkshire,’ 


Proc. Preh. Soc. East Anglia, ii, 1922. 


. Cotuins, E. R.: ‘ Paleolithic Implements of Nidderdale,’ Proc. Preh. 


Soc. East Anglia, vi, 1930. 


. CurwEN, E.: ‘ Ancient Cultivations at Grassington,’ Ant., ti, June 


1928. 


. CrawrorD, O. G. S.: ‘The Thornborough Circles,’ Brit. Assoc. 


Excursions Handbook, Leeds, 1927. 


. Excess, F.: Early Man in North-East Yorkshire, Gloucester, 1930. 
. GREENWELL, W.: British Barrows, London, 1877. 
. GREENWELL, W.: ‘ Recent Researches in Barrows in Yorkshire,’ etc., 


Arch., lii, 1890. 


. GREENWELL, W.: ‘ Early Iron Age Burials in Yorkshire,’ Arch., lx, 


1906. 


. GREENWELL, W., and Gatty, R.A.: ‘ The Pit Dwellings of Holder- 


ness,’ Man, x, 86-90, 1910. 


. Hornspy, W.: ‘ British Barrows near Brotton,’ Y.A.¥., xxiv, 1917. 
. Hornssy, W.: ‘ British Barrows near Boulby, Y.A.¥., xxv, 1918. 
. Hornspy, W.: ‘ British Remains at Hinderwell Beacon,’ Y.A.7., xxv, 


1920. 


. Kirg, J. L.: ‘ Tumulus near Pickering,’ Rep. Yorks. Phil. Soc., 1911. 
. Mortimer, J. R.: Forty Years’ Researches in British and Saxon Burial 


Mounds in East Yorkshire, London, 1905. 


. Mortimer, J. R.: ‘Opening of Two Barrows in East Yorkshire,’ 
Y .A.f., XXi, IQII. 
. Mortimer, J. R.: ‘ Barrow at Borrow Nook, E.R.,’ Y.A.#., xx, 1909. 


. Mortimer, J. R.: ‘Stature of our Ancestors in East Yorkshire,’ 


Naturalist, 313-17, 1911. 


. Petcu, J. A.: ‘ Early Man in the District of Huddersfield,’ Tolson 


Museum Publications, no. 3, 1924. 


. Ratstrick, A.: ‘ Bronze Age in West Yorkshire,’ Y.A.#., xxix, 1930. 
. Ratistrick, A.: ‘ Prehistoric Burials at Waddington and Bradley, 


W. Yorks,’ Y.A.7., xxx, 1931. 


. Ratstrick, A.: ‘ Bronze Age Settlement of the North of England,’ 


Arch, Aeliana, viii, 1931. 


. RatsTRick, A., and Cuapman, S. E.: ‘ Lynchet Groups of Upper 


Wharfedale,’ Ant., iii, June 1929. 


. SHEPPARD, T’.: ‘ The Maglemose Harpoons,’ Naturalist, 1923, 169-79 ; 


1930, 193-4. 


. SHEPPARD, T.: ‘ Paleolithic Man in Yorkshire,’ Naturalist, 1931, 


287-92. 


. SHEPPARD, T.: ‘ Prehistoric Bridlington,’ Naturalist, 1923, 197-203. 
. SHEPPARD, T.: Papers on Yorkshire Bronze Implements, etc., 


Naturalist, 1917-18, 1921, 1923-4, 1926, 1928, 1930. 


. SHEPPARD, T.: ‘ Chariot Burial at Hunmanby,’ Y.A.7., xix, 1908. 
. SMITH, R. A.: ‘ Development of Neolithic Pottery,’ Arch., lxii, 1911. 
. SmiTH, R. A.: ‘ Lake Dwellings in Holderness,’ Arch., lxii, 1911. 
. SmiTH, R. A.: ‘ Flint Implements of Special Interest,’ Arch., |xxii, 


1922. 


. SmiTH, R. A.: ‘ Pre-Roman Remains at Scarborough,’ Arch., Ixxvii, 


1927. 


. WHEELER, R. E. M.: Prehistoric Scarborough, Chap. I, ‘ History of 


Scarborough ’ (editor, A. Rowntree), 1931. 


. WoopHEAD, T. W.: ‘History of the Vegetation of the Southern 


Pennines,’ Tolson Museum Publications, no. 5, 1929. 


52 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


VIII. 
ROMAN EXCAVATIONS AT YORK 


BY 
THE REV. A. RAINE, 
HON. SECRETARY, YORK ROMAN EXCAVATIONS COMMITTEE. 


THE object of this article is to outline the story of the York Roman 
excavations, 1925-8, and to give a summary of their results. In 1922 the 
idea of carrying out some scientific excavation at York was mentioned 
to Sir C. R. Peers by the writer. In 1923 H.M. Office of Works granted 
permission for work to be begun at the north-east angle of the Roman 
fortress, where it was hoped to find some remains of a corner tower. 

In order that the work might be co-ordinated with other Roman excava- 
tions in Yorkshire it was decided that it should be carried on under the egis 
of the Roman Antiquities Committee of the Yorkshire Archeological 
Society. On May 2, 1925, a meeting was held at the Mansion House, 
York, and a General Committee was chosen, of which the Archbishop 
of York (Dr. Lang) consented to be President, the Lord Mayor Chairman, 
and Edwin Gray, J.P., the Hon. Treasurer. Mr. 5S. N. Miller, Lecturer 
in Roman Antiquities at Glasgow University, was asked to undertake the 
direction and supervision of the work. Mr. Miller was in charge through 
the four seasons of excavation, and published two reports on the work 
in the Journal of Roman Studies. From first to last the York City Cor- 
poration rendered every possible help, not only giving generous financial 
assistance, but also allowing us to employ their experienced workmen 
and to use their tools and materials. 

The object of the excavations was to gain some definite information 
about the history of the legionary fortress, about which little was known. 
Certain obvious limits to the work were plain from the beginning. The 
area within the line of the fortress wall is almost completely covered with 
buildings, so the excavation had to be limited to the defences which lie 
beneath the existing medizval walls and rampart. It was felt, however, 
that work on the defences would in all probability give us the historical 
data we needed ; and, further, there was a possibility that at the north-east 
corner we might find some structural remains which could be left open, 
and give to York another monument of its greatness in Roman days. 

For a detailed account of the excavations the reader is referred to the 
Journal of Roman Studies, 1926 and 1928. 

The work lasted for four seasons : 

1925, September—October. Excavations were begun at the north- 
east corner, and unexpectedly fine remains of the tower were brought to 
light. A trench was also cut at the one available unoccupied spot along 
the eastern defence line. 


ROMAN EXCAVATIONS AT YORK 53 


1926, July—October. The work at the north-east corner was com- 
pleted and an examination was made of the south-west corner tower, 
better known as the Multangular Tower, in the grounds of the Yorkshire 
Philosophical Society. 

1927, September—October. The fortress wall was laid bare in three 
places, one on the west, two on the north side. 

1928, September—October. A search for an outer defence line on 
the west was conducted in the gardens of the Territorial Association 
and of the School for the Blind. 


HisTorIcaAL RESULTS OF THE EXCAVATIONS. 


First Period.—The fortress was founded in the governorship of Quintus 
Petilius Cerealis, A.D. 71-74—probably in71. The area of this first fortress 
has not yet been determined, the line of the north and east defences alone 
having been discovered. It is hardly likely that it was intended to house 
two legions. ‘The probability is that it enclosed an area of 60 to 70 acres. 
The defences consisted of a double ditch and an earthen rampart sur- 
mounted by a strong wooden fence. ‘The internal buildings were probably 
of wood. It is quite possible that the first fortress may have been intended 
to be temporary, and that Cerealis and his successors planned to erect 
a permanent fortress elsewhere, but in any case the choice was good, as 
the site commanded the tribal crossing of the Ouse and had good water 
communications. The earthen rampart, with postholes, was found in 
six of our trenches. Remains of wooden structures of the first fortress 
period were discovered when erecting the new York Public Library, near 
the south-western corner tower. 

Second Period—An imperial inscription, dated a.D. 108-109, found in 
1854 on the site of the eastern gateway, recording some work accom- 
plished by the ninth Legion, which then garrisoned the fortress, is generally 
taken as dating the first stone fortress wall. A fragment of this wall was 
found by us in 1925, and part of a barrack block of the same date was 
discovered in 1927. York had now become a stone fortress. 

About A.D. 115 occurs the mysterious disappearance of the ninth Legion ; 
the presumption is that somewhere it was trapped and annihilated. If 
this was the case it would be expected that some traces of the disaster 
would be found in the fortress. Dateable objects found in relationship 
with the walls of the north-east corner tower favour a date for its con- 
struction early in the second century A.D. ‘The fortress wall at this point 
dates from late in the second or early in the third century. The tower 
walls may, therefore, belong to the first stone fortress of A.D. 108-109, or 
they may be a reconstruction c. A.D. 120. It is possible that the tower 
was damaged after the annihilation of the garrison. Further, a few 
fragments survive of what must have been an important inscription, 
found outside the western gateway of the fortress. This inscription, 
containing the titles of the Emperor Hadrian, who visited Britain a.p. 120, 
quite possibly recorded work done on the western gateway and defences. 
If this was the case, then they may have received damage when York was 
without a legion. Further, a leg of a gilded bronze statue of an emperor 


54 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


was found in 1820 at Milsington, in Roxburghshire. This dates before 
A.D. 120 and must, says Sir George Macdonald, have been taken from 
a fortress. ‘There does exist some evidence, then, that York received 
damage after the destruction of the ninth Legion. 

Third Period—Our excavations at the north-east corner revealed that 
the fortress had received great injury towards the close of the second 
century A.D., and that the fortress wall had been so seriously damaged 
that it had to be entirely rebuilt. This reconstruction took place in the 
reign of Commodus or Septimius Severus, ‘ following upon a serious 
disaster, which is no doubt to be connected with the troubles that broke 
out at the accession of Commodus and led to the abandonment of Scotland 
c. AD. 182.’ This reconstructed wall is still standing at the north-east 
corner to a height of sixteen feet, and is a most impressive relic of the 
Roman occupation. From the north-east corner the wall has been ex- 
posed to rampart level for a considerable distance, and part of an interval 
tower has been laid bare. The complete excavation of the interval tower 
cannot be undertaken for another three years, part of it being in a yard 
leased by the Corporation. Structurally it appears to be of the same 
character as the corner tower. Its excavation should supply important 
evidence bearing on the conclusions arrived at respecting the corner 
tower. 

In the second season of the excavations, 1926, not only was the work 
at the north-east corner completed, but also an examination was made of 
the south-west corner. The work here is different in character from that 
of the north-east corner, the tower projecting outside the fortress wall. 
It was found that the tower and stretch of wall adjoining belonged to the 
reign of Constantius at the beginning of the fourth century. The ditches 
were of the same date and part of the same defence system. We found 
here no trace of the earlier defences we had discovered at the north-east 
corner. 

The work, therefore, to be carried out during the third season of digging 
(1927) was obvious. It was to attempt to define the extent of the earlier 
and later defence systems. It was already known that the Constantian 
wall ran from the south-west corner as far as the western gateway of the 
fortress. We now cut a trench in the Canon’s garden half-way between 
the western gateway and the north-west corner, and once again found the 
Constantian wall. It plainly continued to the north-west corner. Two 
trenches were cut in the north line of defence between Monk Bar and 
the north-west corner, at a wide interval, and in each case remains of 
the earlier defence system were found. ‘The junction point of the earlier 
and later defences plainly lies at the north-west corner. Excavation 
here, unfortunately, is impossible. 

We had now arrived at this—the defences on the north and east sides 
of the fortress had been found to date from c. A.D. 71 to c. A.D. 200; 
the defences on the south and west sides of the fortress dated from the 
beginning of the fourth century ; the junctions of the earlier and later 
systems are almost certainly at the north-west and south-east corners. 
The further question now demanded an answer—Whereabouts on the 
west and south lay the line of the early defences? No trace of them 


ROMAN EXCAVATIONS AT YORK 55 


was discovered in the course of our excavations of the fourth-century 
defences on these sides. 

A clue to the answering of this question was found during the excava- 
tion, referred to above, in the Canon’s garden. Underneath the rampart 
belonging to the Constantian fortress wall were found remains of several 
apartments of a barrack block: under the floors were discovered potsherds 
that dated the structure to the early part of the second century. The dis- 
covery of this barrack block here presumed an earlier defence line outside 
the fourth-century defences. In 1928, our last season of excavation, in 
the garden of the Territorial Association and also in one of the gardens 
belonging to the School for the Blind, lying outside the fourth-century 
wall, we attempted to find some trace of the earlier defences. Although 
in this we were not successful, it must be remembered that during this 
last season scarcity of funds forced us to limit our operations very strictly. 
It was impossible to make the extensive examination that may be necessary. 
One significant discovery, however, was made—namely, that of a very 
heavy Roman road pointing from the fortress towards the old ford of 
the Ouse at Clifton. This road was not coming from the fourth-century 
gate but from a point in the fourth-century wall some sixty yards south 
of the gateway. ‘The presumption is that this road led to the gateway 
of the earlier defences on the western side. It is possible that the earlier 
defences on the southern side were discovered in 1883, when a massive 
Roman wall was found under the General Post Office in Lendal running 
parallel with the later defences. 

It would seem to follow, then, that Constantius, at the beginning 
of the fourth century, reduced the size of the fortress. At the same time 
reconstruction took place within the fortress itself. In the summer 
of 1928, in preparing for the construction of an underground lavatory 
near to the south-east corner, it was found that barrack buildings had 
been levelled and a building of different character had been erected, 
probably, so far as the evidence went, at the beginning of the fourth 
century. This finding has been confirmed, and the evidence for a 
Constantian reconstruction on a large scale has been greatly strengthened 
by the discovery in 1930, in digging cellaring for the Mail Coach Inn 
in St. Sampson’s Square, of extensive remains of a large bath-house. 
Owing to the public-spirited generosity of the owners, the Tadcaster 
Brewery, these remains have been preserved. This bath-house stands 
on a site that in the earlier fortress would normally be covered by barracks. 
The structure with its bonding courses and similarity to the work at 
the south-west corner dates itself to the beginning of the fourth century. 
As Mr. S. N. Miller suggests (Roman York: Excavations of 1926-7, 
p. 98), the probable inference will be that the Roman garrison no longer 
lived in the fortress in permanent quarters, and that this will lend support 
to the view ‘ that the military authority in Britain followed the practice, 
originally authorized by Severus, of allowing the legionaries to live a 
family life in the settlements and cities outside the walls of their strong- 
holds.’ 

York almost certainly suffered damage during the troubles of A.D. 367, 
when the sixth Legion must for a time have abandoned the fortress. 


56 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


It is perhaps to this period that we must assign the filling in of the north- 
eastern corner tower. In the excavations we found that within the 
Roman period the basement of the tower had received a very compact 
filling consisting largely of burnt matter, and this had been strengthened 
by a row of massive blocks of limestone in two courses extending from 
the fortress wall to the back wall of the tower. The south-west corner 
tower in the grounds of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society seems to 
have been solidified and strengthened in a similar way. The filling in 
this latter case was removed in 1831. 

Such, very briefly, are the results of the work carried out by Mr. S. N. 
Miller for the York Roman Excavations Committee, 1925-8: This 
work has given us for the first time definite data for the history of the 
Roman fortress of York. It has, of course, supplied us with a number 
of new problems that await solution, but these problems in no way affect 
the main conclusions. 


IX. 


ROMAN MALTON AND DISTRICT 


BY 
PHILIP CORDER, M.A., F.S.A. 


Matton.! 


ANTIQUARIES have long been aware of the existence of a large Roman 
fort or camp at Malton, but nothing was known of its history before 
excavation was undertaken by Dr. J. L. Kirk, F.S.A., in 1927. Malton 
is situated rather less than half-way between the legionary headquarters 
at York and the Yorkshire coast, on a tongue of land, the eastward ex- 
tremity of the Howardian Hills, dominating the Vale of Pickering to the 
north, and having the river Derwent on the south and east. To the 
south-east lay the ford over the river, discovered in 1862, from which 
roads led to the coast and southwards along the western edge of the 
Wolds to Brough-on-Humber, and so south to Lincoln. This road 
not only provided the natural line of advance for the troops who first 
occupied the site in the first century, but may well have been the normal 
route from Lincoln to York, as it avoids marshy land and awkward river 
crossings. 

The earliest occupation of the Malton site was probably during the 
campaign of Petilius Cerialis against the Brigantes, about a.p. 71. It 
consisted of a large camp of at least 22 acres and probably much more, 


* The Defences of the Roman Fort at Malton. By Philip Corder, 1930. (Yorks. 
Arch. Soc.) 


ROMAN MALTON AND DISTRICT 57 


with roads and wooden buildings. An early ditch, part of the northern 
defences of this camp, was traced in the autumn of 1931, and is remarkable 
in turning twice through an obtuse angle in a length of 350 ft. Not long 
after this, perhaps under Agricola, a permanent fort of 8} acres was 
established on the site, with a rampart of sandy clay river silt, 30 ft. wide, 
and internal buildings of wood. Early in the second century the rampart 
was raised and widened and a massive revetment of stone, 10 ft. wide at 
its base, added to it. The headquarters building, of which only slight 
traces remain, was similar in construction to this wall, and was probably 
contemporary. 

The north-east gate of this period was a single gate flanked by unusually 
massive towers, and here was found evidence to suggest that a partial 
rebuilding of the defences in stone had been begun at an earlier period. 
To provide a stable foundation for the stone wall, the innermost early 
ditch had been filled up and, on at least two sides of the fort, two great 
ditches about 23 and 35 ft. wide were dug. On the south-east side, 
facing the river, however, there was only one ditch. 

The consolidation of the northern frontier in the reign of Hadrian led 
to the withdrawal of the garrison from Malton, and although there is 
evidence of continued occupation of the civil settlement south of the 
river at Norton during the second century, the fort seems to have lain 
empty until it was reconditioned, probably under Severus, early in the 
third century. The internal buildings may have served as a quarry for 
the inhabitants of Norton, for at first the new buildings were again of 
wood. The rebuilding of the north-east gate, and perhaps of the fort wall, 
testifies to the reoccupation of the fort, and the abundance of coins and 
pottery suggests a peaceful occupation lasting until late in the century. 
The fort was then abandoned, for, spread along the back of the north-east 
rampart and underlying later roads and buildings, was found a thick 
deposit of charred wheat, in some places more than a foot thick. This 
can only be explained as a deliberate destruction of the contents of the 
granaries, undertaken before a withdrawal. It cannot be precisely dated. 
Probably early in the fourth century it was followed by a complete 
rebuilding of the north-east gate, a single arch 11 ft. in span being flanked 
by guard-rooms 6 ft. wide. Coins of Carausius, however, are relatively 
plentiful, and it is at least possible that the rebuilding of the fort may 
belong to a rather earlier period. 

Throughout the whole of the fourth century Malton was in full occu- 
pation. The internal buildings were of stone : in the north corner—the 
only internal area excavated—these were rectangular hutments with 
narrow spaces between. In the floors of these houses, and even in one 
of the guard-rooms of the contemporary north-east gate, were found 
as many as thirty-one skeletons of newly-born infants, sometimes buried 
in lime, but more often merely laid in the floor. This suggests a much 
laxer discipline than in the earlier Empire. 

That the fort was destroyed in the disturbances of A.D. 369 seems 
probable. Its reconstruction by Theodosius provided one very interesting 
feature. On the north-east side the fort wall must have been so ruined that 
no attempt was made to reconstruct it. Instead, a new ditch was dug, 


58 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


cutting through the surviving core and removing, throughout most of its 
length, even its footings of blue clay and stone. The north-east gate, 
which had suffered severely, was again patched up. Among other 
buildings of this period was an apsidal-ended structure on the north-east 
rampart near to the north corner. ‘This was built over the ruins of an 
earlier square building. Adjoining it was an open paved yard, containing 
a large semicircular hearth, which itself overlay a blacksmith’s forge. 

Pottery similar to that found in the coastal signal stations was found in 
great abundance at this level, and it seems safe to conclude that the fort 
served as base to the signal stations at Filey and Scarborough, with which 
it was directly connected by road. 

The final period of the occupation has left no recognisable building, 
but is characterised by roughly metalled or cobbled areas. Such a road 
surface, rutted by wheeled traffic, and sealing beneath it quantities of 
calcite-gritted ware, was found overlying the remains of the north-east 
gate. The most striking feature of this last phase of the defences is two 
rectangular trenches, 6 ft. wide, cut across the causeway leading into the 
north-east gate. 


Tue LANGTON VILLA.2 


In March 1926 the late Rev. C. V. Collier, F.S.A., partially excavated 
two hypocaust chambers on the East Farm, Langton, about four miles 
south-east of Malton. His untimely death led to the intermission of the 
work, which was completed by Dr. J. L. Kirk, F.S.A., and the present 
writer in 1929-30. ‘The ground on which the settlement is situated has 
a slight southward slope ; it is sheltered on the north by Langton Wold, 
which separates it from the Malton fort. ‘The excavations covered an 
area of about 3 acres, and revealed an unexpected military occupation in 
the first century, succeeded by a civil occupation which probably began 
late in the second century or early in the third century. This continued 
throughout the fourth century, and the abundance of coins and pottery 
contemporary with the coastal signal stations indicates a flourishing civil 
occupation in the last thirty years of the century. 

The earliest occupation was a small fortlet of 0-31 acre, defended by 
a well-cut V-shaped ditch and having a single entrance near its south 
corner. Its southern defences were supplemented by a second, smaller 
ditch. No traces of rampart or internal buildings were found, but this 
is not surprising, as the site was covered by successive later occupations. 
In the filling of this early ditch was an interesting collection of sherds, 
the bulk of which were hand-made calcite-gritted ware similar to that 
found recently on the Iron Age sites on the Costa and at Thornton-le- 
dale. With it, however, was a small group of Flavian sherds, among 
which rustic ware predominated. 

The evidence of coins and pottery for a civil occupation of the site 
before the latter part of the third century is very slight. Built inside 
the eastern end of an earlier stone building was a complete small bath- 


2A Roman Villa at Langton, neay Malton, E. Yorkshive. By Philip Corder 
and John L. Kirk, 1932. (Yorks. Arch. Soc.) 
3 Y.A.J., vol. cxvili, 1930. 


ROMAN MALTON AND DISTRICT 59 


house, consisting of a single hypocaust chamber into which led a tile-built 
flue, 9 ft. long, which heated a warm bath or cauldron, built in a small 
rectangular recess. Opening out of the hypocaust were a cold bath and 
a tiny cement-lined semicircular recess, retaining its lead outflow pipe. 
Pottery found in the flue and stoke-hole showed that the whole structure 
had gone out of use before the beginning of the fourth century. 

Some 55 yards to the west, and north of the early fortlet, was a small 
corridor house, originally 52 ft. long and 1g ft. 6 in. wide, probably 
erected in the first half of the fourth century. It partly overlay an earlier 
rectangular building that may have been an earlier dwelling-house. 
This corridor house originally consisted of two hypocaust chambers 
with separate furnaces, joined by a corridor. One of these rooms had 
opening from it a small cement-floored rectangular chamber that had 
the appearance of a bath. Subsequently the house was enlarged by the 
addition of a veranda on the southern side and two additional hypocaust 
chambers at the front and back of the house, but at opposite ends. ‘Two 
of the hypocaust chambers were certainly provided with tesselated pave- 
ments, having a design in red, white, yellow and black, while the walls 
of all four were covered with coloured plaster. 

Probably contemporary with the house were two long rectangular 
buildings to the south-west, overlying the site of the early fortlet. The 
easternmost of these showed two distinct periods of occupation. In its 
southern end lay a single hypocaust chamber, 8 ft. long by 6 ff4.in. 
wide, its floor originally supported on pile of square tiles and its walls 
decorated with red and white plaster. It was served by a flue long 
enough to provide means for heating a cauldron or warm bath. The 
whole was probably a minute bath-house. Along with the building in 
which it stood it had been destroyed, probably in the second half of the 
fourth century, when it was incorporated in a larger room and the tesserae 
from its floor used as road metal for the road leading into the east side 
of the main building through a gate which was provided with sockets 
and slots for a timber frame. 

The whole settlement was bounded on the south and partially on the 
north by a ditch. That on the south twice crossed the ditch of the 
early fortlet, the existence of which must have been unknown to its 
makers. It also underlay the footings of one of the long rectangular 
buildings, and must belong to an early phase of the civil occupation. 
Probably contemporary with the corridor house, and to the north of it, 
the footings of a substantial boundary wall were traced for 320 ft. 

Several other structures on the site were of special interest. West 
of the house and to the north of the buildings just described was a circular 
building, 15 ft. 9 in. in internal diameter and having a circular patch 
of paving in the centre. This building is without parallel, and most 
probably was a horse mill or manual mill. There was a good deal of 
evidence to indicate that corn production was the principal occupation 
of the inhabitants. One small room contained a layer of burnt wheat on 
its floor. Close to this was a rectangular platform, 30 ft. wide and 35 Th 
long. Its construction was peculiar. A pit of these dimensions had 
been dug on the site of an earlier building and filled in with layers of 


60 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


stones and earlier building material, roughly coursed herring-bone 
fashion, but without clay or mortar. The motive would appear to have 
been to obtain a dry surface, which suggests that this was the threshing 
floor. ‘Two kilns, not for pottery, were found on other parts of the site, 
and these may have been used for drying grain. 

The well of the settlement was cleared to its bottom, 44 ft. 6 in. from 
the surface. With the exception of its top 8 ft., it was cut through 
rock 6 ft. in diameter. From 13 ft. 6 in. to 20 ft. the filling consisted 
of sticky black soil with little stone. This marked the final destruction 
of the site. Below this the well was choked with stones and rubbish, 
animal bones of horse, ox, sheep, pig, deer, dog, cat, mole, goose, fowl, frog, 
and small birds and rodents, together with pottery of signal station types. 
At the very bottom in the black silt were preserved part of an ash bucket, 
and twigs of oak, alder, walnut, sweet chestnut, willow, sycamore, cherry, 
elder and heather, half a walnut and several hazel nuts. With these 
was a complete jar of Crambeck type, fragments of several others, and 
a coin of Constantine I (c. A.D. 335-337) in mint condition. It is clear 
that the well was either dug or last cleared out soon after A.D. 335, and 
was in use, if only as a rubbish pit, until the close of the occupation, 
c. A.D. 395 or later. 


THE CRAMBECK PoTTERY.! 


In 1923 the chance discovery of Roman sherds at Jamie’s Craggs, Cram- 
beck, about five miles from Malton, by a young geologist from Bootham 
School, York, led to excavations in the adjoining field by a party from the 
school under the present writer. In 1926-7 two pairs of pottery kilns, 
two interments, and a very large quantity of sherds were discovered. The 
earliest occupation of the site was represented by a coin of Nerva and a 
little Samian ware of the first half of the second century. The kilns, 
however, were much later and were working from the end of the third 
century, their output increasing throughout the fourth up to the troubles 
of A.D. 370. Pottery manufacture seems to have restarted here during 
the last thirty years of the century. Since the completion of the excava- 
tions Crambeck ware has been identified from many late sites in the 
north. It was used in great quantities on Hadrian’s Wall, and has been 
found as far north as Traprain. It must be concluded that the kilns 
excavated represent only a part of a very extensive pottery manufacture. 

The kilns were stoked in pairs from a common stoke-hole, a roughly 
circular pit dug below ground level. From this, stone-lined flue passages, 
roofed with slabs, led into the furnaces. These were semi-permanent 
structures consisting of circular or pear-shaped clay-lined pits, roofed 
at ground level with flat unsupported clay platforms, pierced with 
numerous small holes to allow the passage of hot gases to the pots stacked 
above for firing. The ovens must have been temporary structures 
rebuilt for each firing of the kiln, and their composition is conjectural. 
They were probably of turf and branches, for the furnaces were not 
provided with chimneys and all the gases must have passed through the 

4 The Roman Pottery at Crambeck, Castle Howard. By Philip Corder, 1928. 
(Yorks. Arch. Soc.) 


ROMAN MALTON AND DISTRICT 61 


oven itself. Rough bricks and tiles formed their furniture, and squat 
clay cylinders were commonly found, and must have been used as supports 
and to facilitate the even passage of the gases through the furnace. The 
pots manufactured were commonly hard well-finished grey ware, but a 
type of reeded flanged mortaria in pale buff and smooth rose-red ware 
were also made. Smooth whitish-yellow ware with decoration in red 
paint was manufactured here in the late fourth century. 


OTHER SITES IN East YORKSHIRE. 


Numerous other Roman sites in the Malton area have been partially 
explored or identified. Among them are the waste heaps of a pottery 
at Knapton,° about seven miles from Malton on the road to Filey. Here 
extensive manufacture of hand-made cooking pots in calcite-gritted 
Ware was carried on in the third and fourth centuries, but, so far as we 
know, their distribution was confined to Malton and district, 

Another series of pottery kilns, somewhat similar to those at Crambeck, 
were explored in 1930 at Throlam, near Holme-on-Spalding Moor. 
Here a great mound about roo ft. in diameter, locally known as Pot Hill,® 
was composed largely of broken sherds. In its centre were found a 
series of superimposed kilns. The best preserved of these differed 
from the Crambeck kilns in having a vertical chimney and two rough 
pillars supporting its oven floor. The vast quantity of pottery examined 
mostly fell into five types, of a rather earlier nature than those made at 
Crambeck. It may be conjectured that the products of this pottery 
and of other similar pottery sites in the neighbourhood were designed 
mainly to supply the fort at Brough-on-Humber, though Throlam types 
have been found at Langton. 


x 
EDUCATION IN YORK 


BY 
GEO. H. GRAY, 
SECRETARY FOR EDUCATION, YORK. 


OUTSTANDING amongst the names of the great whose birth or careers are 
enshrined in the long history of York is that of one, Alcuin, in the eighth 
century. Alcuin’s fame was that of a scholar in days when prowess 


5 A Roman Villa at Langton, etc. By Philip Corder and John L. Kirk, 1932, 
Appendix. (Yorks. Arch. Soc.) 

® The Roman Pottery at Throlam, Holme-on-Spalding Moor, East Yorkshire. 
By Philip Corder, 1930. (Yorks. Arch. Soc.) 


62 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


was largely confined to activities other than those of the mind. It was 
at the York St. Peter’s School, long established even then, that Alcuin 
in turn studied, taught, and administered. 

It is the aim of the present-day educationists to build not unworthily 
upon the tradition handed down from their city’s past, and to maintain 
or enhance the reputation as a centre of learning that has been con- 
tinuously attached to York. It is only comparatively recently that the 
service of education was placed upon a permanent and broad basis by 
the formation of statutory authorities for this specific purpose. The 
credit for the voluntary provision of such education as was available for 
the general population in pre-Education Act days largely belongs to the 
Church, and the status of York as a cathedral city was an educational 
advantage. 

On the other hand, the legacy received by the twentieth-century 
Education Committee, of a large number of small and antiquated school 
buildings, has been found an embarrassment peculiar to York, and one 
from which the education authorities of cities of modern growth are free. 

It is just over a century ago that in York, as elsewhere throughout 
the country, a beginning was made in the provision of education upon a 
general basis that has now fully accomplished its first object in the elimina- 
tion of illiteracy. 

In 1826 it was ascertained by a house-to-house visitation that of the 
children of the labouring population 25 per cent. of those between the 
ages of 6 and ro years and 33 per cent. of those between 10 and 13 did 
not go to any day school. Of those children between the ages of 12 and 
14, 11 per cent. could not read. It is surprising to find that of the total 
number of children who escaped the day school, 40 per cent. were to be 
found in the Sunday schools. 

In the dame schools of that day it is recorded that the average pro- 
fessional income of the teachers did not equal the wages of a child of 
12 years of age in the industrial districts. These schools were generally 
destitute of proper books—sometimes possessing none at all, and seldom 
more than mutilated fragments. Yet we find that they catered for 
13 per cent. of the whole number under instruction in York. 

The first serious attempt to make a general provision was in the opening 
of schools of the National Society and the British Schools in the years 
following 1828. The extracts from statistics on p. 63 show the rapid 
progress from that time. 

The pioneer work of the York School Board established in 1889 was 
energetically followed up by the Education Committee who succeeded 
them in 1903. ‘To-day it can justly be claimed that the city of York is 
one of the leading areas in educational progress, an area in which there 
are provided for the rising generation facilities for education that compare 
very favourably with those available in any part of the country. 

The provision of the type of education corresponding to our present- 
day secondary education began early in York, but its growth was slow 
up to quite recent times. 

The St. Peter’s School has provided education for successive genera- 
tions since A.D. 627, and is still a school with a national reputation. The 


EDUCATION IN YORK 63 


Children Population 


Year. PEPER AY attending of York 
* | (in thousands). | (in thousands). 
— 1837 8 I 30 


First Education 
Act ‘ . |, 1870 28 5 43 
Appointment of 
York School 


Board . . | 1889 31 10 67 
Appointment of 

York Educa- 

tion Committee | 1903 24, 13 77 
Present day . | 1932 29% 12 86 


* 49 departments. 


advanced courses in science and mathematics and other combinations of 
subjects have received the official recognition of the Board of Education. 
The majority of the pupils are boarders, and there is a preparatory school 
attached. 

Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar School, founded in 1546, is a recog- 
nised secondary school and accepts both boarders and day boys. An 
advanced course in science and mathematics is provided, and there is 
accommodation for preparatory school pupils. 

The next school, in chronological order, is the Bar Convent Secondary 
School for Girls, opened at St. Mary’s Convent, Blossom Street, in 1686, 
and now recognised by the Government for purposes of grant aid. This 
is a Roman Catholic school for girls, and there is also a preparatory 
department. 

These schools held the field alone for a long period. They were 
followed in the early part of the nineteenth century by the two schools 
of the Society of Friends. 

Bootham School was opened in 1823, and is a boarding school attended 
by children of members of the Society and others, from a wide district. 
The school has gained a reputation of its own and many of its old boys 
have made a high mark in their subsequent careers. John Bright was 
educated here, and a number of men who have attained prominence in 
the scientific world began their studies at Bootham. 

The Mount School ‘s the complementary school for girls, and cele- 
brated its centenary last year. All are boarders, and there is a preparatory 
school for young children who are all day pupils. 

The York College for Girls, conducted by the Church Schools Company, 
Ltd., in Petergate, was opened in 1908. ‘The boarders are accommodated 
at Burton Grange, Clifton. 

The Queen Anne Secondary School for Girls, Queen Anne’s Road, 


64 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


Bootham, the first secondary school built by the local education authority, 
appeared in 1910. An advanced course in modern studies is provided. 

Nunthorpe Secondary School for Boys was opened by the local educa- 
tion authority by converting a mansion with extensive grounds to school 
purposes in 1920, and the accommodation has been augmented by 
subsequent additions to the buildings. There are advanced courses 
in science and mathematics and modern studies. 

The Mill Mount Secondary School for Girls, the second girls’ school 
provided by the Education Committee, was also a large residence similarly 
converted to educational purposes in the year 1920, and the accommo- 
dation here is shortly to be increased by the erection of a new wing. 

The St. John’s Diocesan Training College for men teachers has been 
in existence since 1846. ‘This college is recognised by, and earns a direct 
grant from, the Board of Education, the local education authority not 
being concerned in its management. The college is residential, and 
houses over 180 students. His Grace the Archbishop of York is Chairman 
of the Governors of the College. St. John’s is in a group of scholastic 
buildings in Lord Mayor’s Walk, and fronts a stately avenue of lime 
trees planted along the outer edge of the moat of the ancient city wall on 
the east side of the Minster. 

Besides the ordinary academic work of a training college, St. John’s 
is well equipped for games, and its curriculum includes training to an 
advanced stage in handicraft, a subject that is assuming more importance 
in the schools. The proximity of the river Ouse provides well-used 
facilities for rowing, a sport very popular among the students. 

St. William’s College, near the Minster, founded for the clergy of the 
Minster, is now a House of Convocation. 

In spite of York’s long tradition of learning and the development of 
higher education up to the stage of public school, secondary school, 
and teachers’ training college, the opportunities for the founding of a 
university in the ancient capital have unfortunately been neglected. The 
county town and cathedral city of the adjoining shire can boast the 
Durham University. In Yorkshire the honour of founding universities 
or university colleges has fallen to the cities of Leeds, Sheffield and Hull. 
Alderman J. B. Morrell, on the occasion of the coming-of-age celebrations 
of the Queen Anne School in 1931, is quoted as saying ‘ York has missed 
the crowning achievement it ought to have, and that is, a university 
here.’ The city of York provides in very many respects an ideal position 
for a university centre. The city’s long history, its geographical position 
in the county, the pastoral setting on the banks of a noble river, the 
ecclesiastical and architectural dignity attaching to the city, and the 
position of York as a railway centre for the North, all combine to meet 
the requirements of a site for a university. There is little doubt that, 
had York in the renaissance of education possessed wealthy citizens 
imbued with the desire to leave their wealth to found a university in 
their native city, such as appeared in other parts of the county, York 
would to-day have been the seat of a university. 

To ensure that the more brilliant pupils in the schools of the city shall 
not be prevented by lack of means from proceeding to a university, the 


EDUCATION IN YORK 65 


Education Committee every year award four major scholarships, each 
worth £65 per annum. 

From the St. Peter’s School are given three leaving exhibitions, value 
£50 per annum. The Education Committee also make direct grants 
to the university of Leeds of about £500 per annum. 


ELEMENTARY EDUCATION. 


With regard to the elementary schools, when the York School Board 
came into being in the year 1889 there were in the city 16 Church of 
England schools, 4 Roman Catholic, and 3 Wesleyan schools, some of 
these school buildings dating back to the year 1832. All the new ele- 
mentary schools built since that date have been, with one exception, the 
work of the local authority, first the School Board and now the Education 
Committee. The new St. Aelred’s School on the Tang Hall housing 
estate has been provided by the Roman Catholic community. Much, 
however, has been done to improve the old voluntary school buildings by 
extensions and adaptations. The Manor C.E. School was transferred 
from schoolrooms adjoining the Yorkshire School for the Blind at King’s 
Manor into the block of buildings in Marygate that formerly housed 
the Boys’ Industrial School. 

The old premises were absorbed by the Yorkshire School for the 
Blind, and, with appropriate alterations to the Marygate buildings, the 
premises of the old Industrial School were made to serve admirably the 
purposes of the Manor C.E. Boys’ School, first as an ordinary elementary 
and later as a higher grade school. In the Walmgate area the old George 
Street Wesleyan School was purchased by the managers of the adjoining 
St. George's R.C. School, to extend the R.C. School accommodation. 
To this school was added a new wing containing woodwork and science 
centres. 

The issue of the Hadow Report in 1926 gave the lead for drastic and 
far-reaching changes in organisation of elementary schools throughout 
the country. 

The York Education Committee: had been considering, during two 
years, schemes of reorganisation for their elementary schools, in 
which between 12,000 and 13,000 children are taught. Their selected 
scheme was submitted to the City Council, and approved in general 
principle without any commitment to details, one month before the issue 
of the Hadow Report. The central principle of the new organisation 
is the recognition of the age period 11-12 years as a definite pyscho- 
logical turning point in the mental growth of child life. It is intended 
that at this point a break shall be made by a transfer from junior school 
education, irrespective of the individual child’s attainments. ‘These, 
however, as shown by examination and school records, decide the type 
of school to which the transfer should be made, whether to secondary 
school, central selective (higher grade) or to central non-selective (senior) 
school. The conventional school organisation formerly obtaining was 
that of the infants’ school for the age groups from under five years up to the 
eighth or ninth year, and mixed schools thereafter up to Standard VII 
at 14 years of age. In York an early start was made, but for such 

E 


66 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


comprehensive and far-reaching changes it was found necessary to spend 
a good deal of time in negotiating with the managers of the voluntary 
schools before agreement could be reached. The first instalment of 
the York Reorganisation Scheme was put into operation after the mid- 
summer vacation of 1927. The complete scheme, which is on the lines 
of the Hadow Report, and now in complete operation, provides that 
with a few exceptions of infants schools pure and simple, there shall 
be junior schools for children from 5 to 11 years of age, and there- 
after the choice of (a) secondary school, (5) higher grade, that is, central 
selective, or (c) senior, that is, central non-selective school. In the 
higher grade and senior schools the classes are not allowed to exceed 
40 scholars. The future type of school for the developing child in his 
eleventh year is settled in an annual general examination held throughout 
the city. The direction then taken is not made irrevocable, as provision 
is made in order that children who prove to be ‘ late developers ’ may 
change their school at a later age. 

The first instalment of the York scheme provided eight higher grade 
schools, that is, schools of the type known as Central Selective. It was 
possible to do this without special building operations, except as regards 
extension work, by using existing buildings with the necessary adaptation, 
and without displacing any existing scholars. This consideration neces- 
sarily meant a transition stage of four years, which has now been completed. 
The schools of this type are planned to provide a four years’ course 
for children from 11 to 15 years of age. No obstacle, however, is 
placed in the way of children leaving after the third year, at the age of 
14 years, but every encouragement is offered for them to stay and complete 
the fourth year. After the second year the curriculum takes on a bias 
towards either commercial or technical studies, and science is given a 
place of importance in the time-table. 

The Board of Education, in conveying their approval to the York 
Education Committee’s scheme of reorganisation, stated that they ‘ desired 
to record their appreciation of the comprehensive nature of the scheme 
which had been carried out.’ 

In January 1930 the non-selective central schools were organised, to 
be known as senior schools. The present number of senior schools is 
seven, and it is the aim of the Education Committee to give in these 
schools a type of instruction directed to the needs of the child whose 
manual ability is more pronounced than the academic. Woodwork and 
metalwork for the boys, housecraft for the girls, and handicrafts for 
both, have their appropriate share in the spacing of time in the curriculum. 
Laboratories for science in the branches of chemistry and physics are 
provided for all the seniors whether in the senior, higher grade, or secondary 
school. ‘The remaining schools have been organised as junior schools, 
that is, to take all children from 5 to 11 years of age, or, in a few cases, 
as purely infants’ schools. 

The eight higher grade or central selective schools are organised in 
four boys’, three girls’, and one mixed schools. There are two Church 
of England, two Roman Catholic, one Wesleyan, and three Council 
schools. 


EDUCATION IN YORK 67 


The seven senior or non-selective central schools are all mixed, and 
include one Church of England, one Roman Catholic, and five Council 
schools. 

The junior schools are organised as follows :— 

6 Junior mixed only (8 to 11 years). 
16 Junior mixed with infants (5 to 11 years). 
10 Infants schools with Std. I. (5 to 8 years). 

Private Adventure Schools—Schools of this type which formerly 
played an important part in education have fallen in number from twenty 
to about half-a-dozen schools. 

Blue Coat and Grey Coat Schools—Another type of school is found 
in York in the Blue Coat Charity School, formerly known as the Blue 
Coat Boys’ and Grey Coat Girls’ Schools. ‘These schools were estab- 
lished in 1705 and are controlled by their own trustees and a committee, 
but are recognised by the Board of Education as efficient and grant- 
earning. ‘They are chiefly supported by subscriptions and endowments. 
The boys are housed and educated at St. Anthony’s Hall, Peaseholme 
Green, a building with a long history dating from its erection in the 
year 1450 by one of the ancient city guilds. It has at different times 
served a variety of purposes, having been used as a hospital, where the 
wounded from the battle of Marston Moor were received, a workhouse, 
playhouse, and prison. 


ScHooL ARCHITECTURE. 


The educational progress in organisation, curriculum, and teaching 
power has been accompanied by an equal improvement from the archi- 
tectural point of view. The large solidly-built schools of two storeys 
which still stand as a monument to the progressive efforts of the School 
Board forty years ago are not being duplicated in modern school building. 
The maximum of sunlight and air is now a primary consideration, and 
the schools recently built conform to this ideal in their design and struc- 
ture. They are mostly one-storey buildings, and in the Queen Anne 
Secondary School for Girls (1910) the Knavesmire Council Schools 
(1916), the Tang Hall Council Schools (1928), and St. Aelred’s Roman 
Catholic School (1932) the process of development is seen. 

The classrooms of the Tang Hall School, which all face south, can be 
opened out fully on two sides to the air and sunshine, according to the 
weather conditions. Glass-covered verandahs run along the south side 
of each classroom. 

The demolition of slum property and the gradual transfer of city 
dwellers to the suburbs will, no doubt, result in schools being erected in 
healthy and, if possible, beautiful surroundings. 

It is probable that, in time, many of the old city schools will become 
obsolete. 


TEACHING STAFF. 


A comparison, useful in showing the increased value of the education 
of the city’s children since the formation of the Education Committee 
under the Act of 1902, is in the quality of the teaching staffs as evidenced 


68 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


by the training and academic qualifications of the present members of 
school staffs, and the reduction that has taken place in size of class. The 
following are the numbers of teachers engaged in elementary education 
in York, then and now. The reduction in number of scholars in elemen- 
tary schools is partly accounted for by the transfer of large numbers of 
children to the secondary schools :— 


Y Certifi- | Uncertifi- | Supple- | Total No.of | Scholars 
kim cated. cated. mentary. | Teachers. | (thousands). 
1903 167 76 ay 280 13 
1932 307 46 6 359 12 


The following graph illustrates the comparison :— 


1903 1903 


Certificated Uncertificated 
(167) (76) 


1932 


\ RX 
Certificated Uncertifi- Supple- Total 
(307) cated mentary (359) 
Graduates (46) (6) 


(23) 


To help towards ensuring an adequate flow of recruits to the teaching 
profession the Education Committee encourage young people who wish 
to become trained teachers by pre-training facilities of secondary and 
higher education, and by the grant of financial assistance in the two 
years before the age of entry to college or university. Under the 
scheme of pupil-teacher probationers now in operation, fifteen girls and 
boys who have satisfactorily completed their secondary school course 
at 16 years of age are selected for appointment as probationers for the 
two years before their entry to a training college or university at the age 


EDUCATION IN YORK 69 


of 18 years. When circumstances necessitate, persons 17 years old are 
accepted for one year. 


CARE OF SuB-NORMAL CHILDREN. 


Twelve years ago the Education Committee began to make special 
provision for children unable by reason of physical or mental defect to 
keep pace in the ordinary school classes. A large residence in its own 
grounds at Fulford Cross, Fulford Road, was purchased and adapted for 
the purposes of special schools. An Open Air School for delicate children 
(120) is conducted in hutments in the grounds. ‘The permanent building 
is used for classes of children (110) who are too backward mentally to 
profit by ordinary class instruction in the elementary schools. Both 
sets of special scholars receive meals at school, and under these conditions 
it is possible to make the special arrangements necessary for the welfare 
of these types of children. Children whose defect is that of eyesight 
and who, whilst far removed from actual blindness, are still so weak- 
sighted that they also are unable to benefit in the ordinary school class 
are organised in a special class for myopic children held on the premises 
of the Castlegate Council School. ‘Those whose handicap is more pro- 
nounced are sent to one or other of the residential institutions available 
in different parts of the country. At present blind children from York 
are in the Yorkshire School for the Blind (York) and in the Sheffield 
Institution for the Blind. York children suffering from deafness are 
educated at special schools at Doncaster, at Manchester and at Boston Spa, 
and arrangements are made for epileptic children at Stornthwaite, near 
Kendal,and Lees Moss, near Manchester. Children requiring institutional 
treatment for mental defects are sent to the Beacon School at Lichfield. 

Now that an orthopedic hospital has been opened at Kirbymoorside, 
near York, the crippled children in our schools found to require operative 
and residential treatment are sent there. 

The child whose defect is that of nonconformity to moral and ethical 
standards, or whose home circumstances are such as to make it hopeless 
for him to develop in any wholesome manner in his home environment, 
is sent away to some industrial or truant school. 

In 1894 we had 110 children in these schools which are scattered up 
and down the country. The total has now been reduced to 13. It is 
gratifying to know that the falling off in the number of committals to 
industrial schools is not peculiar to York, as 200 industrial and reform- 
atory schools throughout the country have been closed in the last decade. 
This improvement is probably due to (i) the happier school conditions ; 
(ii) improvements in the homes ; (iii) restrictions placed on the sale of 
intoxicants. 

The Fairfield Special School consists of a class conducted by the Health 
Committee of the Corporation in their Fairfield Sanatorium, situated 
some three miles north of the city, on the Skelton Road. In this class 
the children from time to time resident in the sanatorium are able to 
continue their elementary education during the process of their restoration 
to health. In these circumstances the number of scholars in the class is 
variable, but there are generally about twenty children of different ages. 


70 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


MeEpIcAL INSPECTION. 


For two years before the medical inspection of school children was 
made compulsory by Act of Parliament (1907) the York Education 
Committee had been carrying out a voluntary scheme of medical inspec- 
tion of their scholars, and had taken steps to lay the foundation of the 
school medical service as it exists to-day. 

The children’s health and physical welfare become, on their first ad- 
mission to school, the concern of the school medical staff. The school 
doctor examines every child on at least three occasions in the course of his or 
her school career, viz. :—on first admission to school, between the ages 
of 7 and 8 years, and, finally, on attaining the age of 12 years. Medical 
inspection is also continued in the secondary schools. Physical defects 
or disease found in the course of inspection are dealt with as may be 
appropriate. Minor ailments of all kinds are treated at the school clinic, 
which is at present housed in temporary premises in Piccadilly. It is 
hoped that very shortly, the exact date depending upon considerations 
of finance, fresh premises, more nearly adequate for this important 
branch of school work, will be secured. There is a dental section, 
opened ten years ago, which carries out this important branch of work 
in the conservation of general health. Defects of eyesight and related 
trouble are treated at the clinic, and where spectacles are prescribed 
these are supplied under contract at the expense of the parents, who are 
permitted to pay by instalments where desired. 

Comparative figures taken over a period of 20 years show that cases 
of defective teeth were reduced from 89 per cent. to 67 per cent. of the 
children examined, defective vision from 14 per cent. to 13 per cent., and 
cases of ringworm of the scalp from 284 to 59. 


FEEDING OF NECESSITOUS CHILDREN. 


The malnutrition of children consequent upon poverty of the parents 
has become the concern of the Education Committee, because it was 
found that an ill-nourished child was unable to assimilate the instruction 
provided and that, apart from other considerations, it would be a waste 
of the public money spent upon elementary education to attempt to 
teach hungry children. At five meals centres in different parts of the 
city, hot dinners prepared on the premises are provided at noon on five 
days each week throughout the year, including school holidays. Last 
year, over one hundred thousand free meals were served for the benefit 
of 500 to 600 children. Inthe interests of child nourishment the Education 
Committee at the beginning of 1932 inaugurated a self-supporting scheme to 
provide pure fresh milk to the children requiring it. Under this scheme, 
which is managed by the head teachers, sealed bottles containing one-third 
of a pint, for which each child pays 1d., are delivered to the schools every 
morning. From a return compiled after the first three months it was 
shown that over three thousand children were taking the milk each 
morning. 


EDUCATION IN YORK 71 


PLAYING FIELDS AND ORGANISATION OF GAMES. 


Efforts are being made to provide the elementary school children 
with suitable playing fields, and four large playing areas have been secured 
in different districts. ‘Three are in use and the fourth is in preparation. 

The Schools’ Athletic Association render splendid service in organising 
and training the scholars, and the teachers give a large part of their own 
time to this work. 

York has produced Association football teams which have beaten 
teams from such large centres of population as Manchester, Sheffield, 
Hull and Leeds. Swimming is also taught, over 400 new swimmers being 
added to the list each year. 


SECONDARY SCHOOLS. 
Very few cities of similar size are so well provided with secondary 
schools either in number, quality or variety. The Education Committee 
have provided three :— 


No. on 
Register. 
(1) Nunthorpe Secondary School for Boys’. 2 S4tO 
(2) Queen Anne Secondary School for Girls . . 400 
(3) Mill Mount Secondary School for Girls. :  24O 
= 1060 
and in addition, officially recognised by the 
Board of Education as ‘ efficient,’ there are :— 
* St. Peter’s Public School for Boys . ; He a6 
Bootham, Friends’ Boarding School for Boys . 143 
* The Mount Friends’ Boarding School for Girls 176 
Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar School . - 444 
York College for Girls, Petergate . : PHB ie) 
* Bar Convent Secondary School . : . 187 
oa 1318 
2378 


* Including preparatory department. 


There is also Elmfield School, just over the city boundary, but this 
school is to be closed this summer. 

It is gratifying to know that arrangements have been made for city 
minor scholarships to be tenable at eight of the schools referred to. 

Each year the local education authority award about 200 scholarships 
tenable at secondary schools. 


ScIENCE INSTRUCTION IN YORK SCHOOLS. 


Science has long occupied an important place in education in this city. 
Before the appointment of the Education Committee in 1903, two schools 


72 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


of science and art were conducted by a technical instruction committee 
working under the City Council. The principal part of the work of 
these schools was, however, on the art side. 

For the students in the present evening institutes there are classes in 
experimental science and in workshop science as part of the Preparatory 
Trades Course. At the Technical Institute, Clifford Street, there are five 
laboratories, for chemistry, physics, electrical engineering, mechanical 
engineering and building science, respectively. These laboratories are 
used in connection with classes in the following subjects :—chemistry, 
including courses in pharmacy and in bakery science, physics, applied 
mechanics, machine design, engineering science, electrical engineering 
science, magnetism and electricity, telephony, mechanical engineering 
and building trades. 

Adequate provision for scientific studies is made at the various 
secondary schools in the city, of which brief details are given below. 

St. Peter’s School—The chief subjects taught in the science work 
of this school are chemistry and physics. The work is begun in the 
preparatory department, where boys are introduced to some of the 
more elementary parts of each subject. In addition, a certain amount 
of natural history is done at this stage. At 13 to 14 years of age boys 
enter the senior school, where they continue the study of chemistry 
and physics up to school certificate standard, most of the boys taking 
these two subjects in the certificate examinations of the Northern Univer- 
sities Joint Board. 

After the school certificate stage, boys begin to specialise. In the 
Modern VI form chemistry and physics are studied in preparation for 
the Higher Certificate and university scholarship examinations. Botany 
and zoology may be studied and facilities for work in these two subjects 
are given to boys who wish to take their first medical examination while 
still at school. In addition to the ordinary work of the curriculum, the 
school possesses a Scientific Society of about 50 members. They hold 
frequent meetings during the two winter terms, at which lectures are 
given either by the boys themselves or by members of the staff. Trienni- 
ally the Society organises a large scientific exhibition in the school, the 
object of which is to illustrate some of the advances and discoveries 
made in as many branches of natural science as possible. ‘The demonstra- 
tions arranged are for the most part carried out by the boys themselves. 
During the summer term an excursion is organised to some interesting 
part of the country within 30 miles of York. An attempt is made to learn 
something of the natural history and geology of the region visited, 
while note is also made of anything of archeological interest. The 
Society publishes annually an account of its doings under the title 
Proceedings of the St. Peter’s School Scientific Society. 

Bootham School (Boys)—There are laboratories for chemistry, physics 
and biology, with a well-equipped observatory, and meteorological in- 
struments which are read daily by the boys. 

The sixth form work for the Higher Certificate, Inter B.Sc., University 
scholarships, first M.B. examinations, the science subjects being chemis- 
try, botany and zoology. The fifth form take chemistry and biology 


EDUCATION IN YORK 73 


to the school certificate and matriculation standard, and it is hoped to 
add physics to the curriculum next year. 

In the lower forms the boys take chemistry, physics, biology, nature 
study, elementary zoology and botany, and practical gardening. 

The School Natural History Society was founded in 1834, and has 
had a continued and successful career, producing many eminent scientists 
and field naturalists. It has regular meetings in winter and will shortly 
hold its 800th meeting. In summer many excursions are arranged. 

The Mount School (Girls)—There is one laboratory at this school, 
and an observatory with an excellent telescope which is found of great 
assistance in certain scientific studies. 

Biology is now being substituted for botany as the main science subject 
up to the school certificate standard. ‘Those pupils who so desire will 
take chemistry in addition, but in any case work in elementary physics 
and chemistry is included in the biology course. The work after matri- 
culation is arranged according to the needs of the individual, whether 
working for College Entrance, Higher Certificate, or the first M.B. 
examination. 

Girls who are taking advanced physics join classes at Bootham School. 
Pupils proceeding to careers such as those of nursing, physical training 
or massage often take a general course for one or two years after matri- 
culation, and this course may include zoology, botany, mechanics, or 
anatomy. 

A Scientific Society organised by staff and pupils gives opportunities 
for out-of-school work in natural history, field botany and scientific 
experiment. Meteorology is part of the work of the Scientific Society, 
and records taken in the observatory are kept. 

Archbishop Holgate’s Grammar School (Boys)—The science work at 
this school includes nature study and general elementary science in the 
junior school ; physics, pure and applied mathematics, inorganic and 
organic chemistry in the middle and upper forms. ‘The standard reached 
is that of the Higher School Certificate of the Northern Universities 
and the Intermediate Science of the London University. Scholarships 
or exhibitions in mathematics and science have been gained directly 
from the school to Oxford, Cambridge, Leeds, Sheffield and Edinburgh 
universities. 

Bar Convent Secondary School (Girls).—At this school there is one 
laboratory for science subjects. In the fourth and fifth forms the science 
syllabus of the School Certificate Examination of the Joint Board of 
the Northern Universities is followed, covering chemistry, physics and 
botany. In the lower forms the curriculum gives a progressive course 
in elementary science. 

York College for Girls—There is one laboratory at this school for 
chemistry and physics, and pure and applied mathematics are taken to 
the stage of the Higher School Certificate of the Joint Board of the 
Northern Universities. Physics is taken to the subsidiary stage of the 
same examination. One of the advanced courses conducted on the 
lines of those recognised in other secondary schools by the Board of 
Education is in science and mathematics. 


74. SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


Queen Anne School (Girls)—The school is provided with three well- 
equipped laboratories for chemistry, physics and botany, respectively, 
and the curriculum includes a substantial course of science as part of the 
general education of every pupil. Chemistry or botany, or both, are 
taken by the entrants for the First School Examination, the necessary 
physics and biology being included in the work of the lower forms. 
Those who show taste and aptitude for science proceed to an advanced 
course which includes botany, chemistry, physics and mathematics. 
State scholarships in science were won in 1929 and 1931. The objective 
of the science curriculum is to train the girls to understand and to apply 
the methods of scientific reasoning and investigation and to appreciate 
the wide field of interest opened out by the study of natural science. 

Mill Mount School (Girls)—There is at present one science laboratory, 
for chemistry, physics and botany. A new laboratory, for biology and 
physics, is included in the plan of extensions that are to be proceeded 
with as soon as the official sanction recently applied for has been received. 

The fourth form take chemistry and botany in the syllabus for the 
School Certificate Examination of the Joint Board of the Northern 
Universities. 

The science pupils in the fifth and sixth forms take chemistry, botany 
and physics, generally grouped with mathematics for the Higher School 
Certificate Examination. 

In the first three years the science part of the curriculum is devoted 
to the preliminary stages. The science side of the school is being built 
up by the gradual substitution of biology for botany in the second year. 

Nunthorpe School (Boys)—At this school there are four laboratories, 
the last having recently been provided for advanced physics. The 
ordinary school course in science is one of four years and leads up to the 
School Certificate Examination in chemistry and physics conducted by 
the Joint Board of the Northern Universities. The boys of the fifth 
and sixth forms taking the advanced course in science and mathematics, 
study chemistry and physics according to the syllabus of the Higher 
School Certificate Examination. 

Apart from the formal work in classroom and laboratory there is a 
school Scientific Society which hears lectures delivered by visitors or 
by the pupils themselves, holds discussions, and arranges visits to places 
of scientific interest. 

So far as the public elementary schools are concerned, a general science 
training is provided for in the curricula of the higher grade (central 
selective) and senior (central non-selective) schools. For the use of 
science classes in the higher grade schools six laboratories have been 
provided within the past few years, and the scholars of one of the schools 
have the privilege of using a laboratory on adjoining premises. All the 
seven senior schools have either had laboratories provided or rooms 
adapted for the purpose. 

Diocesan Training College (St. John’s).—Those students who wish 
to take advanced science can choose between a two-year course in advanced 
chemistry and a similar course in advanced physics, both these courses 
being based upon practical work in the college laboratories. ‘There is 


EDUCATION IN YORK 75 


also a two-year course in gardening, the practical side of which is developed 
in the gardens of the new hostel at Heworth Green. For those students 
who have only a little knowledge of biology but desire to be able to teach 
nature study, a one-year course in elementary biology is available. Finally, 
in the education course, lectures are given to all students on the teaching 
of science. There are two laboratories provided for the use of the 
students. 


FURTHER EDUCATION. 


The School of Art, which has now 327 pupils on register, provides 
group courses of instruction in junior art, industrial art, architecture, 
painting, sculpture, design and crafts, and the teaching of art. The 
courses of instruction aim at giving a sound training in the subjects 
suitable to the needs of the artistic profession, trade, or craft in which. 
the student is engaged or is interested, and to develop individual artistic 
ability. The school is working on modern lines and every effort is made 
to link up art with industry. 

The Day School of Commerce, which was first opened in the year 1920, 
in temporary premises in Bootham, now meets at the Technical Institute. 
The school provides specialised courses of instruction for students who 
desire to obtain positions in the commercial world. The curriculum, 
however, has not been confined within narrow limits, and it has been 
the aim of the school to give a liberal education to all its students in 
addition to a training in commerce. The steady growth of the school 
testifies to its usefulness. There are now 120 students on register. 
Qualified pupils from this school seldom fail to find employment. 

The Technical Institute, Clifford Street, provides day courses of instruc- 
tion for engineers, railway carriage builders, and others, and evening 
courses for those engaged in the building trades, mechanical engineering, 
electrical engineering, motor engineering, carriage and wagon building, 
telegraphists, chemists, printers, bakers and confectioners, and for those 
wishing to prepare for the A.M.I.M.E. Examination, Matriculation or 
the Inter B.Sc. There are 135 day students, and 457 attending evening 
classes. 

Evening Institutes are held on the premises of four of the large Council 
schools, namely, Fishergate, Park Grove, Scarcroft Road, and Poppleton 
Road, where group courses of instruction are provided leading up to 
the trade courses at the Technical Institute and to the senior commercial 
classes at the Evening Institute of Commerce. Recreative classes are 
also held at Layerthorpe Evening Institute. The Evening Institute of Com- 
merce is held at the Castlegate Council School and on the Queen Anne 
Secondary School premises. Advanced classes are held in commercial 
subjects, languages, economics, banking, etc. Provision is also made at 
this institute for retail traders’ apprentices, butchers and grocers, etc. 
The number of students in attendance last session was over 660. 

The York University Extension Society was formed over fifty years aga 
as a voluntary organisation making itself responsible for organising, 
during the winter months, courses of evening lectures by lecturers eminent 
in their particular spheres. The subjects are of social, historical, literary 


76 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


and scientific importance and are held in the Tempest Anderson Hall. 
His Grace the Lord Archbishop of York is President of the Society. 

The Workers’ Educational Association has an active branch in York, 
of which his Grace the Lord Archbishop is also President. Classes of 
university tutorial standing in courses of one or more years’ duration are 
conducted for adults each winter at as many as four centres. The 
subjects of the courses and arrangements generally are decided in advance 
by the prospective students. 

A Juvenile Employment Bureau is conducted by the Education Committee 
and exists for the purpose of assisting school-leavers to find employment 
in suitable occupations and to ensure that, so far as possible, working 
conditions are reasonable for young people. The age range covered by 
the bureau is 14 to 18 years. For those over 16 years the work has to 
be carried out under the Unemployment Insurance Acts. The super- 
vision and licensing of street traders and of child artistes are additional 
duties of the Education Committee in this department. 


XI. 
INDUSTRIES OF YORK 


Tue following table has been kindly supplied by Mr. A. N. Shimmin to 
indicate the chief industrial activities of York. 


EsTIMATED INSURED POPULATION (1931 RETURNS). 


Cocoa, Chocolate and Sugar Confectionery . : . 7106 
Distributive Trades . : : : : . - 4147 
Building . F : 1 27RF 
Railway Carriage and Wagon Building. : ’ - 2403 
Railway Service : . . 1380 
Printing, Publishing, Bookbinding ’ ! . 19978 
Tramway, Bus and other Road Transport. ; OyeB2u 
‘ Local Government Service : : ‘ : dp 1807 
Hotel, Restaurant, Club Service . : : : Lte6¥70 
National Government Service. : : t lath 652 
Gas, Water, Electricity . e 3 e AN6Bin 
General Engineering and Iron- founding i , dis! 479 
Professional Services : 3 . 458 
Scientific and Photographic Apparatus. ‘ j ssdnasg 
Public Works Contracting . : : , ‘ SARE Ly 
Drink. : = t ler 
Laundries, Dyeing, Dry- cleaning : : : P9978 


Repair of Motor Vehicles and Cycles . ; ] iaqz6n 


INDUSTRIES OF; YORK 77 


Bread, Biscuit, Cake-making : ; : ‘ ap Xe 
Entertainments and Sport . i : ; 5 ag 328 
Glass Bottles. ¢ ; t E ; , 9 ZI 
Furniture, Upholstery : ; j : : b> bd 
Bricks, Tiles, Fireclay Goods. ‘ : ; » en T64 
Canal, River and other Transport ‘ : ‘ yoht49 
Tailoring, Dressmaking and Millinery ‘ : say ag 
Tanning, Currying, Leather Dressing . : f eee 
Total. . 26,391 
1 Other Industries . 1,649 
Total Insured Workers . 28,040 

XII. 


FEATURES OF ENGINEERING 
INTEREST IN YORK AND DISTRICT 


BY 
H. R. LUPTON. 


York having been for centuries the most important city on the route 
from the English capital to the Scottish Border, it is natural that in the 
railway should now be centred her main features of engineering [interest. 
Accordingly a brief description of the L. & N.E.R. carriage works, 
signalling school and museum, all in York, will first be given, followed 
by a short note on the permanent way to Darlington and some other 
features which will be available for inspection by Section G (Engineering). 

Other local engineering features of interest are the Buckingham Works 
of Messrs. Cooke, Troughton & Simms, Ltd. (the subject of a separate 
notice), and of Messrs. Adams Hydraulics, Ltd., the power plant at 
Messrs. Rowntree’s and at Messrs. Terry’s Chocolate Works, and the City 
Electric Power Station. 

Going rather farther afield, the Section has arranged excursions to the 
Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Co. Ltd., of Darlington ; to the Blackburn 
Aeroplane & Motor Co. Ltd., of Brough ; and in the Leeds district to the 
Savile and Whitwood collieries of Messrs. Henry Briggs, Son & Co. Ltd. ; 


1 This group covers 44 industries represented by firms employing less than 100 
operatives each. 

In York there are 1,202 firms, and more than half of these employ 20 workers 
orless. Sixty-seven firms employ between 21 and 50 operatives each ; forty-three 
firms from 51 to 250 operatives, and seven firms more than 250 operatives each. 


78 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


to the Rescue Station of the Yorkshire Coal-Owners’ Association ; to 
the new grid power station at Kirkstall, and to the works of the York- 
shire Post, each among the most modern of their kind in the kingdom. 
Notes on each of the above are appended, and it is only regretted that 
space does not admit of descriptions of the countless other items of 
engineering interest which the district affords. 


YORK CARRIAGE AND WAGON WORKS. 


The York Carriage and Wagon Works were opened in 1884, but since 
this date several extensions have been made, and the works now cover 
an area of 62 acres, including 18 acres of roofed buildings. ‘The number 
of hands at these works is normally about 2,750, but owing to the present 
trade depression and forced economies this number has been reduced, and 
is now a little over 2,000. 

Until the amalgamation of the various railway companies now forming 
the London & North Eastern Railway in 1923, the whole of the carriages 
and the greater portion of the wagons required for the North Eastern 
Railway were constructed at these works, and also the maintenance of 
this stock was undertaken here. Since the amalgamation the carriage 
works have been considerably developed, and now permit of the larger 
portion of the carriages and special wagons required for the London & 
North Eastern Railway being built here, in addition to a greater number 
of carriage repairs, and the erection of new steel bogies and underframes 
for the other sections of this Company. The machinery is everywhere 
of the most modern type ;_ processes have been radically altered wherever 
productiveness can be thereby improved—as evidence, the rapid increase 
in the use of welding; components are made to jig throughout, and 
assembly is carried out on the progressive system, each receiving in the 
course of its route through the shops the attentions of successive gangs, 
all in accordance with a definite time-table. As a result, great savings 
have been made. The time taken from the laying down of the floor of a 
vehicle to its leaving the shops has been reduced from 54 weeks to 10 
days, while the ‘ heavy repairs’ of a carriage now take 20 days in place 
of 12 weeks. Carriage wheels are re-turned in three-eighths of the time 
formerly required, and that often without removing as much metal as 
formerly, thus prolonging life. 

The Carriage Works are now capable of giving an output of four new 
complete 61 ft. 6 in. vestibuled bogie carriages, and the repairing of 77 
carriages (17 heavy and 60 light repairs) per week; also, in order to 
avoid duplication of expensive plant being laid down, and thus reducing 
overhead charges at the Company’s different carriage works, all carriage 
underframes complete with bogies are built here, and delivered to the 
various centres. 

The Wagon Works, where only repairs are now undertaken, are con- 
nected to the Carriage Works by a footbridge over the main goods line, 
and turn out between 500 and 600 repaired wagons each week. 

The Carriage Works contain : 


Forge and Smiths’ Shops, with drop hammers, presses, steam hammers, 
etc. 


FEATURES OF ENGINEERING INTEREST 79 


Acetylene Welding Shop, the use of this process having greatly increased 
both for welding and cutting. 

Punching and Shearing Shed. 

Iron Machining Shop, containing an interesting ‘ Landis ’ type screwing 
machine, probably the only one in the country capable of screwing, direct 
off the die-head, a 2-start ? in. pitch knuckle form thread. 

Interesting drilling and milling machines—the last process is being 
widely extended—and turret lathes are also to be seen. 

Frame Shop, where the components,' assembled on jigs, are erected into 
complete underframes. 

Channel Straightening Shed. 

Hair-teasing Shed. 

Timber Drying Shed. ‘Tests are now being carried out with a view to 
adopting the artificial method and so reducing the amount of timber to be 
held on stock. 


The following are some of the woods used for carriage building and 
stocked in this shed : 


English Oak. 

American Oak from the United States and Canada. 
Dantzic Oak from Stetting. 

Oak from the Polish forests, and Wainscot from Austria. 
Honduras Mahogany from Central America. 

Mahogany from Tabasco and Cuba. 

Teak from East India and Burmah. 

Walnut from South Europe. 

Sycamore from our own country. 

Hungarian and British Ash. 

Kaurie Pine from New Zealand and Jarrah from Australia. 


These are all what are termed hard woods. 


Soft Woods : 


Yellow Pine from Canada. . 

Dantzic Fir from Poland and Russia. 

Pitchpine from North America. 

Spruce, commonly known as white wood, from Norway and Russia. 


Sawmill—entered after passing through the Timber Log Yard, and 
containing some very fine wood-working machinery. The Log Bandsaw has 
a cutting speed of 30 ft. per minute through a 24 in. diameter log of oak. 
The Band Re-saw has speeds running up to 120 ft. per minute, depending 
on the depth of cut. In both cases the saws are thinner than formerly, 
this not only doubling the speed, but also lessening the waste of timber. 

The new planing and moulding machine works at about four times the 
speed of the old type of plant, all the five cutting heads being separately 
motor-driven. 

Other notable machines are the Automatic Finger-Feed Planing Machine, 
which, despite its somewhat ominous-sounding name, in fact renders much 
safer a previously rather dangerous operation ; a Triple Drum Sander and 
a Wadkin’s Wood Milling Machine or Recessor, which automatically per- 
forms no fewer than nine operations. 

Building Shop, where, as already mentioned, the work is carried out 
in a series of progressive stages, which has resulted in a 70 per cent. saving 
of time. 


80 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


There are seven different stages, consisting of : 

Stage 1. Building the floor on the underframe. 
. 2. Assembling body-sides or quarters fully glazed, body ends 
and partitions. 

3. Roof fitted. 

5 4. eek made waterproof by covering with canvas and white 

ead. 

eS 5. Hanging platform doors. 

6. Varnishing exterior. 

S 7. Again varnishing the exterior. 


At Stage 3 the interior work begins and continues until the body reaches 
Stage 7, when the coach is ready for going into the Varnish Shop for final 
varnish. The gangs preparing the component parts are arranged adjacent 
to the stage at which the parts are required, the labourage thus being reduced 
toaminimum. The panelling is given two coats of varnish prior to being 
erected at Stage 2. All the body platform doors are first fitted into a steel 
jig, which is an exact replica of the standard doorway, thus making all body 
doors interchangeable. 

Paint Shop. 

Repair Shop, run, as in the case of the Building Shop, on a progressive 
system. 

Brake Shop. 

Lifting Shop, where all running gear is overhauled, containing a wheel 
balancing machine, two Journal Live-Centre Turret Lathes, two remarkable 
Craven Wheel Lathes and a spring-testing machine. 

Electric Shop. Lighting is now almost universally electric. 

Plumbers’ and Brass-finishers’ Shop. 


From the bloom and the log to the finished carriage—the complete 
metamorphosis is here performed. Everything has been speeded up, 
yet standards have been imposed which more than maintain quality. 
Thus are ensured the safety and comfort of the travelling public, for which 
the British railways have always held a most enviable reputation. 


Tue L. & N.E.R. SIGNALLING SCHOOL. 


The rapidly extending use of electrical signalling methods has brought 
with it an ever-increasing difficulty in finding men with the necessary 
knowledge and experience to maintain the new electrical installations as 
they are brought into use. The mechanical signal fitter previously in 
charge of the mechanical installation at a given place has rarely sufficient 
technical knowledge to be put in charge of the new electrical installation ; 
consequently an electrical signal fitter from the electrical construction 
gang has to be stationed at the new installation for maintenance purposes ; 
as there may be also in the same locality a telegraph lineman to maintain 
the telegraph and telephone installation, it is possible to have in the same 
neighbourhood three men of different grades dealing respectively with 
the closely allied works of the maintenance of mechanical signalling, 
electrical signalling, and telegraphs. 

It would obviously open up a much wider and more attractive field of 
effort for the staff, and be an economy from the Company’s standpoint as 
well, if men could be trained to carry out all three classes of work in any 


FEATURES OF ENGINEERING INTEREST 81 


given locality, and it is with the object of giving such training that the 
Railway Signalling School has been formed. The school is also used 
for the lectures on Block Rules and Regulations hitherto held in the old 
classroom on Toft Green. 

The objects of the school are therefore : 


1. (Technical) To give to the staff dealing with the construction and 
maintenance of signal, telegraph and telephone installations instructions in 
the principles of electrical and mechanical signalling and of telegraphy and 
telephony. 

2. (Operating) To enable the students attending the lectures on block 
rules and regulations and general rules to become conversant with the 
operating side of signalling. 


With the above objects in view, the school has been equipped with a 
model railway layout incorporating five signal boxes designed to show 
every possible use that can be made of track circuiting. There are also 
full-size working models of various apparatus met with in signalling and 
telegraph installations. 

To describe within the limits of the present article the system of working 
and of instruction would be impossible, but a short explanatory demon- 
stration will be given at the School. 


THE RatLway Museum, YorK. 


The Railway Museum is in two sections, viz. : 

(1) The small exhibits section, consisting of three main rooms and an 
ante-room, in which are preserved the smaller and more perishable 
relics, including prints, photographs, books and time-tables. 

(2) A large building, formerly a locomotive fitting shop, in which are 
preserved the more bulky exhibits, including historic engines, 
early railway carriages, the world’s first iron railway bridge, and much 
early signalling apparatus ; also what is probably the finest collection 
in existence of early rails and obsolete permanent-way equipment. 


In the Small Exhibits Section are preserved the original survey and 
plan of the Stockton and Darlington Railway prepared by George 
Stephenson, tools used by him in building his early locomotives, and a 
number of Stephenson letters. In this section are also preserved a 
number of petitions on parchment containing many hundreds of signatures 
of inhabitants of the North of England, praying that the houses of Parlia- 
ment should pass the Bill for the Stockton and Darlington Railway. 
Here are also to be seen a large number of prints, prospectuSes, booklets, 
time-tables, railway tickets, signalling apparatus, seals and small relics 
relating to the numerous railways promoted in the North of England 
during the early part of the nineteenth century. 

A room is devoted to the Briggs Collection, bequeathed by Mr. Isaac 
Briggs of Wakefield, consisting of prints and books relating to the civil 
engineering side of railway development. 

In the Large Exhibits Section are preserved an engine (partly rebuilt) 
constructed by George Stephenson in 1822 for the Hetton Colliery 

F 


82 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


Railway, also (re-erected) an iron girder bridge designed by George 
Stephenson in 1824-5 for the horse-worked portion of the Stockton and 
Darlington Railway. This is claimed to have been the first iron railway 
bridge in the world. 

Other engines to be seen include a single-wheeled passenger engine 
designed by Patrick Stirling for the Great Northern Railway in 1870 ; 
the ‘ Gladstone ’ engine built to the design of William Stroudley (1882) 
for the London, Brighton ‘and South Coast Railway, and the ‘ City of 
Truro,’ designed by C. J. Churchward for the Great Western Railway, 
which, on May g, 1904, is claimed to have achieved the highest authentic 
speed ever recorded for a railway train, viz. 102-3 m.p.h, 

The permanent way exhibits, rails, etc., form an especially fine collection 
and include examples of types of rails used from the time of Outram 
(1797) to the present day, notably portions of cast-iron rails from the 
original Stockton and Darlington Railway ; specimens of rack rail (with 
pinion wheels) used for. the Blenkinsop engines of 1812, and portions of 
cast-iron and wrought-iron rails used by George Stephenson for the 
Stockton and Darlington Railway in 1825. ‘The specimens of early 
rolling stock include two carriages from the Bodmin and Wadebridge 
Railway (1834)—one open and one closed—and some examples of early 
chaldron wagons. 

Another of George Stephenson’s inventions—the dandy cart, of which 
a life-size model is shown—is interesting, partly from a humanitarian 
point of view. ‘The open-backed dandy cart was attached to the rear of a 
set of horse-drawn trucks. When the top of an incline was reached the 
horse was uncoupled from the front, to step into the dandy cart at the 
rear and so to secure a well-earned ride downhill. 


‘THE PERMANENT WAY, YORK—DARLINGTON. 


The main portion of the York Station is built on a curve of 17 chains 
radius and the main line platforms are a third of a mile in length. 

On leaving York Station on the west side will be seen a new coaling 
plant, comprising a reinforced concrete bunker situated above the two 
railway tracks ; loaded coal wagons are raised up an inclined hoist and 
tipped in the bunker. Engines are coaled on the tracks below. 

Three miles north of York, the river Ouse is crossed on a stone viaduct, 
and one section of the work of doubling the main line tracks begins, one 
track on each side. This section terminates at Beningbrough Station, 
54 miles from York. 

At Alne, 11 miles from York, is the junction with the Easingwold 
Light Railway, on the east side. 

From this point and for some miles it is possible to see the White 
Horse cut in the hillside near to Coxwold, looking forward to the right at 
a distance of 8 miles. 

A second portion of the widening of the main line begins at Alne, an 
additional line being constructed on the west side as far as Pilmoor 
Junction, 16 miles from York. 

Otterington, 263 miles from York, is the starting point of a further 
section of widening. An additional line is being constructed on the 


FEATURES OF ENGINEERING INTEREST 83 


west side. ‘This section terminates at Northallerton, where an additional 
line has been constructed to connect the low-level Leeds to Stockton line 
with the up main line. ‘This necessitated the construction of a bridge 
under the main line without interruption of traffic. 

At 2 miles north of Northallerton water troughs are constructed 
between the rails. From“these the engines may collect water while 
travelling at speed by lowering a scoop, the water being replenished by a 
supply pumped from a nearby stream into a control tank. 

At Croft Spa, 3 miles farther on the journey, the river Tees is crossed, 
and on the west side at a lower level may be seen a singie track railway, 
which formed part of the original Stockton and Darlington Railway now 
used as a goods branch for Croft village. 

Darlington is now reached, and on the east side will be seen the line 
to Middlesbrough, etc., and beside it and the main line are the works 
of the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Co. Ltd. 

In Darlington Station is mounted Locomotive No. 1, which George 
Stephenson drove when opening the Stockton and Darlington Railway 
in 1825. 

Messrs. ADAMS HypDRAULIcs, LTD. 


Messrs. Adams Hydraulics, Ltd., specialise in all manner of plant in 
connection with sewerage and sewage-disposal. This mainly falls under 
three heads : 


(a) Sewerage Ironwork—mainly manhole covers, gully grates, vent 
columns and sewer-flushing syphons. 

(6) Sewage Lifting Plant—automatic compressed-air sewage ejectors, 
automatic sewage lifts and sewage pumping plant. 

(c) Sewage Works—all types of valves and fittings used on sewage 
disposal works, revolving distributors, sludge plant, mechanical screening 
apparatus, detritus lifting plant, penstocks, etc. 


CLEVELAND BRIDGE & ENGINEERING Co. LTD. 


Established over fifty years ago, the Cleveland Bridge & Engineering 
Co. Ltd., of Darlington, have for many years been one of the largest and 
most important bridge-building companies in the United Kingdom. The 
business of the company is primarily that of bridge-building, and the 
reputation of the company has largely been built up in this connection, 
but in addition to bridges they carry out the construction of all structures 
in steel, such as workshops, power stations, pipe lines and dock gates. The 
company are contractors as well as structural engineers, and when they 
undertake a contract they carry out the whole of the work, including 
foundations and all building work, themselves. They are, in fact, 
specialists in all kinds of foundations. 

Two well-known bridges manufactured and erected by them, including 
the foundations, are the King Edward Bridge over the river Tyne at 
Newcastle, and the Victoria Falls Bridge over the Zambezi river. Among 
more recent contracts may be mentioned : 


Two airship sheds at Cardington, and also the steelwork for the mooring- 
masts in Cardington, Egypt and India. 
F2 


84 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


The floating landing-stage for the Port of London Authority at Tilbury 
(which was opened by the Prime Minister on May 16,1930). ‘This stage is 
1,100 ft. long and will accommodate ocean-going liners. 

The supply and erection of steel pipes for carrying the water supply for 
the Corporation of Calcutta, the diameter of the pipes varying from 3 ft. 
to 5 ft., the weight involved being about 17,000 tons. 

The Coventry Power Station, which was designed and built by the 
Cleveland Bridge & Engineering Co. Ltd., of Rugby ; and 

A new wagon works for the London & North Eastern Railway at Faver- 
dale, Darlington, the contract for which included all site levelling, drainage, 
foundations, roads and buildings. 


A new bridge over the Nile, near Alexandria, has just been completed 
for the Egyptian State Railways. 

Later contracts, on which the firm is now engaged, include a ferro- 
concrete bridge over the Thames at Chiswick and a bridge over the 
Zambezi in Portuguese East Africa, of a total length, bank to bank, of 
24 miles, with about 30 miles of approach railway. ‘This bridge being 
founded mainly on sand, the piers have to be sunk 110 ft. below low- 
water level. 


THE BLACKBURN AEROPLANE & Motor Company, LTp. 


Originally established in Leeds, the above company has now moved 
its whole works to its erection and test base at Brough, where the excep- 
tional facilities for both land and sea-plane tests are of great advantage. 

The success of the company’s products last year, including the winning 
of the King’s Cup Air Race and the Grosvenor Cup, are an indication 
of the quality of their machines, while the record. time (thirty working 
weeks) in which they delivered a new ‘Iris III’ Flying Boat to the 
Royal Air Force indicates efficiency in manufacture. 


City oF York ELectric LIGHTING DEPARTMENT. 


At the Foss Islands generating station there are four turbo-generating 
sets, two of 6,000 kw. and two of 3,400 kw. each, with the appertaining 
steam-raising plant, switch gear, etc. 

At the Linton Hydro-electric Works there are two water turbines of 
500 and 250 kw. respectively, a visit to which, by motor launch, has been 
arranged. 


Messrs. ROWNTREE’S Cocoa WorRKS. 
The power plant services at Messrs. Rowntree’s cocoa works ° 
comprise : 

(1) Electricity —Obtained from the York Papo agpn at 3,000 volts A.C. 
and mostly converted to 230 volts D.C. 

(2) Steam.—There are three boiler houses, in the newest of which two 
large water-tube boilers are at present being erected. 

(3) Refrigerating Plant—Six ammonia compression units cool brine 
for circulation in the factory. 

(4) Water Supply —Partly obtained by pumping from artesian wells 
and partly from the city supply. 


FEATURES OF ENGINEERING INTEREST 85 


Messrs. J. TERRY & Sons, Lip. 
The power plant services at Messrs. 'Terry’s works comprise : 
(1) Electricity —Obtained from the York Corporation at 6,000 volts 
A.C, 


(2) Steam—For process work, etc., provided from water-tube boilers 
of the Babcock type. 


(3) Refrigerating Plant—Two ammonia compressor units together 
with water cooling towers. 


(4) Air Conditioning Plant of the Premier type. 


(5) Water Supply Services —Partly from city supply and partly obtained 
by means of centrifugal pumps from the river. 


Messrs. Henry Briccs, Son & Co. Lrp., WuHiITwoopD COLLIERIES. 
SAVILE Pir. 


Modern screening plant, new headgear and Heapstead winding engines, 
ambulance room, etc. Air locks where the ordinary air of the surface is 
kept separate from air which has travelled round the mine workings. At 
the pit bottom a new method is employed for supporting the roadways 
by means of steel arches and reinforced concrete. In some parts of the 
actual coal face compressed air driven coal-cutting machines are employed. 
A visit has been arranged to this pit, for an inspection underground, for 
a limited number only. 


Messrs. Henry Briccs, Son & Co, Ltp. WuHITWooD SILKSTONE Pit. 


The new power house at this colliery contains two turbo alternators 
generating power at 3,300 volts, one a mixed-pressure unit and the other a 
high-pressure unit. ‘There is also in the power house one of the latest 
12-stage turbo air compressors. Simultaneous decking is in use in the 
large shaft, whereby a great saving of time and consequent increase in the 
capacity of the shaft is obtained. There are four main jigging screens 
which are fed by power-driven tipplers. The washery is used for washing 
medium-sized coal, and an Ariel flight is used for taking away the dirt 
rejected during the process of washing. Some idea of the magnitude of 
this colliery is given by the fact that its sidings aggregate about 4o miles. 


YORKSHIRE CoaL Owners’ ASSOCIATION. WAKEFIELD RESCUE STATION. 


From this station, which has its permanent staff with a resident super- 
intendent, a rescue team complete with self-contained breathing apparatus 
can proceed to a colliery at a moment’s notice. The apparatus for dealing 
with underground fires and for the actual rescue work after colliery 
explosions can be seen, and there are also model underground galleries 
representing a mine, which are used for training men in this dangerous 
work, 


City of Leeps ELECTRICITY DEPARTMENT, KIRKSTALL POWER STATION. 


The new Kirkstall Power Station of the Leeds Corporation is a 
‘ selected ’ generating station under the auspices of the Central Electricity 
Board. 


86 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


The ultimate capacity for which the station is designed is 
200,000 kw., but at present only two units have been installed, each of 
25,000 kw. The site is most favourably placed as regards fuel supply and 
the provision of ample cooling water and has exceptional rail and canal 
facilities. 

Pulverised fuel is used, mainly for the following reasons : 

(a) It enables a very cheap grade of fuel to be burnt. 

(6) It confers a flexibility in steam generation almost equal to that 
obtainable with oil. 

(c) It allows of the use of very large and efficient boiler units (15,000 kw. 
each). 

(d) Combustion is so perfect that atmospheric pollution by carbon is 
impossible. 

(e) The fact that the pulveriser plant is on a separate site of large area 
allows of the adoption of coal-treatment plant for the extraction of bye- 
products should this be found in the future to be desirable. 


The boilers are of the Stirling type and work at a pressure of 475 lbs. 
per sqin. ‘They are provided with superheaters giving a temperature of 
750° F. ‘The combustion chambers have water-cooled rear and side walls 
with a water-screen above the ash pit to cool the ash particles below 
fusing point before they settle. Economisers and regenerative air-pre- 
heaters are provided. Dust-extractors of the centrifugal type preserve 
the high standard of atmospheric purity obtaining in the locality. 

The generating units are of 25,000 kw. each and run at 3,000 R.P.M. 
The high-pressure stages (16 in number) are of the impulse type and the 
lower pressure reactive. The low-pressure stages are arranged on the 
double-flow principle so as to secure axial balance. 

The alternators generate at 11,000 volts, but some of the power is trans- 
formed to 6,600 volts for linking up with the older station at Whitehall 
Road, while a portion is raised to 132,000 volts in the adjacent Central 
Electricity Board Transformer Station. 


YORKSHIRE Post: WoORKS AND OFFICES. 


The following are the chief departments : 


Telegraph Room—containing Murray-Multiplex machines on which 
five different news stories are received simultaneously over a single 
private wire from London. 

Telephone Room—where telephonists take news stories direct from 
district correspondents on to the typewriter. 

Sub-Editors’ Office—where copy is received from the reporters and from 
the telephone and telegraph rooms by overhead automatic conveyors and 
arranged by the sub-editors in the form to appear in the paper. 

Half-Tone Room—where blocks are made for reproduction of news 
pictures, cartoons, etc. 

Case Room.—Here the news is set in type on 56 linotype machines, 
which are available for complete explanation and demonstration. There 
is also a Ludlow machine on which large display type headlines for news 


FEATURES OF ENGINEERING INTEREST 87 


columns and advertisements are set. In this room galley proofs are 
taken of everything that is set, and when these have been checked by the 
readers any necessary corrections are made. The galleys of type, blocks 
for illustrations and advertisements are then assembled into the complete 
page forme. 

Stereo Room—An impression of each page forme is taken, and the 
resulting mould is used for casting the semi-cylindrical plates which are 
to be mounted on the rollers of the rotary presses. Plates are cast on the 
junior auto-plate machine and trimmed to uniform thickness on the 
auto-shaver. The plates are cast at such a speed that a special water 
supply is necessary for cooling them. 

Machine Room.—The plates which have been sent down on a lift from 
the stereo room are assembled on the rollers of the rotary presses. The 
paper enters a machine from reels, and after passing between the rollers, 
where it receives the ink impression of all the pages, it emerges from the 
folders in the form of complete newspapers, folded and counted. From 
here the papers are sent to the Dispatch Department. 


XIII. 
BUCKINGHAM WORKS, YORK? 


Tue foundation of the firm long known as Troughton & Simms dates 
back to Newtonian times. The new investigations into natural laws then 
made gave great stimulus to the working scope of instrument makers. 
The first owner is thought to have been Thomas Wright, though he may 
have taken over the business from John Rowley, for whom he had made 
orreries (for demonstrating the motion of planets). He was succeeded 
by Benjamin Cole (1751-82), who manufactured instruments chiefly for 
navigation, some of which can be seen in the Science Museum, South 
Kensington. During Cole’s period Edward and John Troughton, uncle 
and nephew, were in business as chamber masters employed principally in 
dividing and engraving for the trade. A second Edward Troughton, 
brother of John, and afterwards Fellow of the Royal Society, was appren- 
ticed to his relatives, and in 1782 the two brothers took over the business of 
Cole. After the death of John, Edward Troughton remained proprietor 
till 1826, during which time the celebrated transit instrument was con- 
structed for Pond, the Astronomer Royal. He also constructed the 
famous dividing engine now housed at the Science Museum. In 1826 
the firm amalgamated with William Simms, senior, who carried on a 


1 Summarised from information supplied by Messrs. Cooke, Troughton & 
Simms, Ltd. 


88 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


similar business in Aldersgate Street, London, and became established at 
136-138 Fleet Street. During this partnership the historic 36-in. 
theodolite was constructed for the great Trigonometric Survey of India. 
The firm retained the name of Troughton & Simms through the partner- 
ships which followed up to 1916, when it became incorporated. It is 
probable that the introduction of the micrometer microscope by Edward 
Troughton was the most important advance ever made in the scientific 
comparison of measures of length. The instrument, although of simple 
construction, was capable of determining differences of length of one 
ten-thousandth part of an inch. Troughton’s 5-ft. scale also has 
become historical owing to its great accuracy. 

Of Thomas Cooke, founder of the branch of the firm bearing his name, 
Samuel Smiles relates that as an amateur he made his first object glass out 
of the bottom of a thick glass tumbler. He began the manufacture of 
refracting telescopes in 1836 at York. About 1852 he commenced making 
turret clocks and effected many improvements in them. In 1855 
Buckingham Works were established. In 1868-70 he constructed what 
was then by far the largest equatorial refractor in the world (25-in. 
aperture). ‘This instrument, the Newall telescope, is still in regular use 
at Cambridge Observatory. Cooke early turned his attention to the 
design and manufacture of surveying instruments ; the first important 
meridian instruments made by him were a pair of 5-ft. transits for the 
Trigonometric Survey of India. 

The ‘ Cooke’ photographic lens is known all over the world ; his 
surveying instruments have played their part in connection with such 
engineering achievements as the Forth Bridge, the Assouan Dam, etc. 
Captain Scott located the South Pole with a Cooke theodolite. The 
Franklin-Adams star charts owe their excellence to the fact that they were 
taken by means of Cooke astro-photographic lenses on an equatorial 
mounting of the English type specially made by this company. 

In 1922 a fusion was effected between these two old-established firms 
under the name of Cooke, Troughton, & Simms, Ltd., with works at 
York and at Charlton, London, S.E. 17. 

Opportunities will be given to the members of the British Association to 
visit the works at York. All the optical work of the firm is done at the 
York factories, and a representative selection of the following optical glass 
work will be on exhibition: Mangin mirrors, heliograph mirrors, spherical 
mirrors, astronomical objectives, small telescope objectives, microscope 
objectives, various types of lenses and prisms. A general selection of 
surveying instruments will also be shown, including the ‘ Tavistock ’ 
double-reading theodolite, and a new transit instrument (under con- 
struction) for Greenwich Observatory. 


AGRICULTURE 89 


XIV. 
AGRICULTURE 


INTRODUCTION 


BY 
JAMES STRACHAN, M.A., B.Sc. 


THE aim of this chapter is to supply a few notes on the agriculture around 
York, which may be of use to members of the Association interested in 
agriculture. 

York, as indicated in earlier chapters, is built on the great central plain 
of Yorkshire that lies between the uplands of the Wolds and the Hambleton 
Hills in the east, and the low slopes of a belt of Magnesian Limestone 
country in the west that runs almost north and south in a line west of 
Tadcaster. Behind, still further west, rise the shoulders of the Pennines. 
This great plain lies so low that the rise and fali of the tides of the sea are 
felt many miles inland along some of the great rivers that flow through its 
fertile acres, such as the Ouse, Aire, Don and Derwent. Drainage is 
often a problem, and in very wet seasons much of the land is liable to 
become water-logged or even flooded. 

In character the soil is very variable. There are sands, clays, peats and 
warps, but the lighter types of soil predominate. In this region is grown 
the bulk of Yorkshire’s potatoes, carrots, peas (for picking green) and sugar- 
beet. For the first three products a great market is at hand in the 
industrial area in the west, and for the sugar-beet there are factories at 
York and Selby. : 

Agriculture in the plains differs in some respects from that of the 
surrounding country. The contrast between its fertile fields and the wild 
moors of the Hambleton Hills is enormous. The rolling uplands of the 
Wolds in the east look pleasant enough with huge arable fields of corn, 
clover and turnips, but the shallow soil is generally not suited for sugar- 
beet—which is subsidised—nor for potatoes and carrots, which by their 
bulk are protected to some extent from foreign competition, the full force 
of which the products of the Wold farmer have had to meet. In the 
west of Yorkshire there is more grass land and more dairying. ‘The 
farmer in the plains is usually primarily interested in his crops. 

Marshall, in 1788, in his book The Rural Economy of Yorkshire, writes 
as follows : 


‘The Vale of York is various in fertility. The fens at its base 
and a heathy plain, part of the ancient forest of Galtres, north-east- 
ward of the city of York, are drawbacks upon its productiveness, 
In a general view, however, it has not in this country its equal. The 
vales of Gloucester and Evesham are more fertile but less extensive. 


go SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


The wide flat which lies between the hills of Surrey and Kent and 
the Downs of Sussex may vie with it in extent but not in general 
fertility. If we estimate the Vale of York by the number and 
copiousness of its rivers and by the richness of its marginal banks, it 
would perhaps be difficult in any country to equal it.’ 


THE SOILS OF THE VALE OF YORK 


BY 
H. T. JONES, M.Sc. 


The whole of the Vale of York is covered by transported material, 
except for a few outcrops of Jurassic and Triassic rocks, and in some 
parts the depth of the drift exceeds 150 feet. The relations of the 
glaciation of this area, to which reference has been made in earlier sections, 
are therefore of first importance. 

The Teesdale glacier terminated at the Wheldrake moraine, which 
sweeps in a crescent form from Stamford Bridge to Bolton Percy. On 
the retreat and subsequent advance of this glacier, another moraine was 
formed extending from Sand Hutton in the east to Healaugh in the west, 
and passing through York and the University Farm at Askham Bryan. 
The first moraine consists of a ridge of boulder-clay of a reddish colour 
and derived mainly from Triassic material ; the other contains a large 
proportion of gravel consisting of Shap Granite, Bunter and Carboniferous 
Limestone. ‘The melt-waters from the glacier were hemmed in on the 
east by the North Sea glacier covering Holderness and the mouth of the 
Humber ; consequently a large lake was formed in the southern part of 
the Vale. The deposits of this lake are of such a depth as to obscure the 
Wheldrake moraine along portions of its length, especially in the neigh- 
bourhood of Escrick. The soil so formed shows enormous variation in 
texture, soil reaction and other characteristics. Within a very small 
compass, representatives of the lightest and the heaviest soils may be 
found. ‘This variation is most pronounced in the district south of Escrick 
and in the neighbourhood of Everingham, and is naturally reflected in 
the cropping capacity of the soil. 

The sandy soils (post-glacial sands), containing between 3 per cent. and 
8 per cent. of the clay fraction and about 4 per cent. organic matter, are 
deficient in lime and require liberal manuring. ‘They depend for their 
fertility on a fairly high water table, for their water-holding capacity is 
very low. With adequate manuring, they are suitable for potatoes, 
this being the most important crop in the Selby area. Sugar-beet, how- 
ever, is to some extent displacing potatoes, but can be grown successfully 
only if the soil be limed. 

The heavy soils (lacustrine clay) almost invariably contain a high 
percentage of calcium carbonate (about 10 per cent.). Owing to diff- 
culties of cultivation only a relatively small proportion of the clay is under 
the plough, and the area under grass is increasing annually. On a few 
farms this material is used for marling the sandy sour soils, as much as 
80 tons per acre being applied. 


AGRICULTURE gt 


The warp area in the southern part of the country and along the banks 
of the Derwent, Ouse, and Humber contains perhaps the most fertile 
soil in Yorkshire. Except on the oldest warps, liming is not necessary, 
and with the new warp several good crops may be obtained without 
manuring. Along the banks of the Derwent and the Ouse, and especially 
of the Don, flooding causes serious damage periodically, the land being 
only 10 to 20 ft. above sea-level. 

In the northern half of the Vale of York, boulder clay and glacial sand 
and gravels form the chief soils. ‘The sandy soils are very deficient in 
lime, and until soil sourness is corrected, cropping is confined to oats, rye, 
and potatoes. When lime is applied, however, it is possible to grow good 
samples of barley of high malting quality. Good crops of sugar-beet also 
are possible under these conditions, but the area under this crop is com- 
paratively small. In these soils, as in the sandy soils south of York, iron 
pans are common. ‘These pans have developed under forest conditions 
and occur in hard layers 2 or 3 inches thick at a depth of a foot or 18 inches 
below the surface. 

The boulder clay of this area is reddish-brown in colour, and although 
it contains material originating in Scotland and Cumberland, the biggest 
proportion is of Triassic origin, and has probably been churned up by the 
glacier from the solid rock beneath. This soil does not contain a very 
high percentage of the clay fraction, and is amenable to cultivation. It is 
also fairly well supplied with lime, and is therefore suitable for most crops. 

The mechanical analysis table following illustrates the wide variation 
in physical composition shown by the soils in the Vale of York: 


MEeEcHANICAL ANALYSIS OF SOME SOILS IN THE VALE OF YORK 
(1928 Meruop).* 


I 2 3 4 5 6 
Coarse sand. lag \ Tak = lly hae he \ ih Nile, > el adam: 4 
Fine sand . . 29°8t 45°91 10°5t 67°27 45°25 26°27 
om. ; SP ZN ggPaaegat ar 4eag 19S" 52" 2g"hik P26" 15 
Clay . : Be UG* to Baa go Ae ger aaa 
Moisture. BEDE IGIOT Berg) Ugg EO Oe eee ae 
Loss on ignition . 3°09 6:22 10°40 1°79 r1-0r 10°84 


Key to Soils. 


1 “Introduction to the Scientific Study of the Soil,” 2nd edition, p. 152 
(N. M. Comber). 


92 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


THE NORTH-EAST OF YORK 


BY 
D. H. FINDLAY, B.Sc. 


To the north-east, the low-lying basin of the Vale of York is bounded 
by the low ridge of boulder clay already mentioned, which extends in 
a curve from York through Stamford Bridge and northwards towards 
Sheriff-Hutton and Brandsby. Beyond this ridge, in the north-east, 
runs the higher oolitic limestone ridge of the Howardian Hills. In this 
north-east sector there is an enormous variation in the soil, from lightest 
sand to heavy clay, and corresponding differences are found in the crops. 

In the low-lying basin, nearest to York, the soil of which is mainly of 
lacustrine origin, the general average is a medium to light soil, compara- 
tively easy to cultivate, but there is a wide divergence from the mean. 
Towards the north, the proportion of sand increases, and in the districts 
of Strensall, Sutton-on-Forest, Stillington and Raskelf there are areas 
of very light blowing sand which soon tend to become acid and under 
natural conditions revert to moorland. A serious problem in this basin 
is drainage, as much of it is at a low level. With the silting-up of its chief 
drainage stream—the river Foss, a tributary of the Ouse—a large area is 
becoming waterlogged. 

On the glacial ridge mentioned above, which lies behind the basin, 
boulder clay predominates, but patches of glacial sand occur, and in the 
vicinity of Stamford Bridge it is not uncommon to find a light land crop 
such as rye or carrots in one field and a crop of wheat or beans in the next. 

It cannot be said that the farming of the area is specialised in any par- 
ticular direction. The market of York, with its proximity to the industrial 
West Riding, offers an outlet for a great variety of agricultural commodities. 
Of recent years, the York farmer has been provided with an additional 
string to his bow by the erection of a sugar-beet factory a few miles from 
the city. On the whole, mixed farming is the rule, there being few farms 
which have not a fair proportion of grass, and arable farming is combined 
with stock husbandry. 

With such a wide variation in soil, it is not unexpected to find that 
practically all the common agricultural crops are represented. Of the 
cereals, oats and barley are widely grown, whilst wheat and rye are also 
common. Of the fallow crops, swedes, turnips and mangels are grown 
extensively for stock feeding, and considerable areas of potatoes and sugar- 
beet are grown for sale. ‘The beet crop is scarcely so popular since the 
price was reduced, but there is still quite a large area. On the sandy soils 
occasional crops of carrots may be seen. Pulse crops are not grown 
extensively, but there are a few crops of beans and occasional crops of 
green peas. The‘ seeds’ ley is usually for one year only, and in most cases 
is mown, two cuts often being obtained. 

In regard to live stock, dairying, cattle-feeding and pig-keeping are the 
most important sections. Sheep are also kept, mainly as ‘ flying flocks,’ 
but it ison the higher ground of the limestone hills and the Wolds that 
the sheep become of greater importance. 


AGRICULTURE 93 


York is a consuming centre for liquid milk, and there is a number of 
dairy herds around the city. Pork butchers abound in York, and in many 
other Yorkshire towns, and so provide an outlet for large quantities of 
pig meat. It is unfortunate that a co-operative attempt to provide an 
outlet for bacon pigs at the Sherburn-in-Elmet Bacon Factory has met 
with comparative failure. 


THE NORTHERN PORTION OF THE VALE OF YORK 


BY 
W. S. GIBSON, B.Sc. 


North-west of York extends a portion of the Vale of York about 30 miles 
long and 10 miles broad, varying in altitude from 50 to 150 ft. above mean 
sea-level. In most of this area the soil is light and the boundaries are 
fairly clearly defined. Northallerton, the capital of the North Riding, 
stands midway along its northern edge, a belt of Magnesian Limestone, 
continuous except where eroded by such rivers as the Ure, lies along its 
western side, and the heather-clad Hambleton Hills rise steeply to form 
a boundary in the east. On these hills are pastured mountain sheep, 
usually of the Scotch Blackface and Swaledale breeds. 

Beyond Northallerton lies a belt of heavy boulder clay, cold, wet, and 
difficult to work. Much of it is at present under permanent grass, which 
responds well to phosphatic manuring, but if neglected, rapidly grows 
thorns and soon deteriorates. 

The limestone on the western edge is quarried at intervals and burnt 
for agricultural and other purposes. It is therefore interesting to record 
that the Lower as well as the Upper Magnesian Limestone occurs near 
the soil surface. The latter produces when burnt a quicklime containing 
less than 5 per cent. of magnesia, but the magnesia content of the former 
may be as high as 40 per cent., and must be used with caution on certain 
classes of soil. The soils overlying these limestones vary in depth, but 
the farms have a large proportion of arable land. The thinner soil is 
‘barley and sheep land,’ and is farmed on a four or five course rotation, 
the sheep often being grazed in summer on special one-year leys, con- 
sisting almost entirely of clovers, and folded in winter on roots. Clover 
sickness and ‘ finger and toe’ are troublesome, and the soil requires a 
periodic liming despite its origin. On the deeper soils potatoes are an 
important crop that combine good yield and quality. West of this lime- 
stone belt lie the foothills of the Pennines. 

The northern portion of the Vale of York is drained by the river Swale, 
which is joined by the Ure to form the Ouse. ‘The Ouse is later met by 
the Nidd. Of these rivers, the Swale in particular is liable to rise rapidly 
after rain in the uplands, and when a rapid rise is accompanied by a south- 
east wind serious flooding occurs. The Swale is embanked throughout 
its length in the Vale, and on account of the low level of the surrounding 


94 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


land, there is little fall over wide areas for the field drains. These rivers 
have left extensive deposits of alluvium in the past, and much of this land 
is under permanent pasture which will fatten cattle, but wet seasons are 
very troublesome. 

In some areas, e.g. Sessay district, there is rye and potato land of a very 
hungry type, deficient in lime and organic matter, but, if lime is applied, 
the quantity must be regulated with care, as excess, besides encouraging 
common scab in potatoes, may so accelerate the breakdown of organic 
matter as to cause a deficiency. In fact, there is a danger that over-liming 
may lead to the ground becoming waste land, carrying perhaps only a few 
silver birch saplings. 

The sands near Thirsk which overlie clay do not drought badly and 
are very productive when well managed. In this district some farms 
have recently had as much as 60 per cent. of their total acreage under root 
crops, including carrots and sugar-beet. Rotations here, as in other parts 
of the Vale, are not followed closely, but of late there has been a tendency 
to introduce three-year leys in order that the following potato crop should 
require less farmyard manure, since for economic reasons fewer cattle are 
now purchased for feeding than formerly. On one farm in this area the 
rotation is potatoes, sugar-beet, barley, three years ley. Large quantities 
of fertilisers are used on this land and shoddy is much esteemed. Liming 
is carried out systematically, and more particularly since sugar-beet has 
come into prominence. 

Cattle are reared to some extent on most farms throughout the district, 
and large numbers of cattle are bought in for feeding throughout the year. 
Many are brought from Cumberland and Westmorland, from other cattle- 
rearing districts of Yorkshire, and from Ireland. The majority are of the 
Shorthorn type. Dairying is not a main feature. 

Of the pure breeds of sheep the most important is the Wensleydale, 
which is crossed with the Swaledale or Scotch Blackface to produce the 
Masham. ‘The Masham is often crossed again with the Wensleydale ram 
to produce the ‘ twice-crossed’’ sheep much used for folding on roots. 
Many half-breds (Border Leicester x Cheviot) are also bought in from 
the North, and both these and the Mashams are often crossed with a 
Down ram for the production of early lamb, Suffolks and Oxfords being 
principally used as tups for this purpose. 

Pigs also are to be found on most farms, the majority being Large Whites 
and their crosses. <A local blue and white breed, sometimes known as 
the Durham breed, still survives, principally on the northern and eastern 
boundaries of the area. Poultry are kept extensively, Thirsk being one 
of the principal markets in the North of England for poultry produce. 

The whole area is predominantly agricultural and there are no large 
towns. Much produce goes northwards to the Teeside industrial area 
and the bulk of the remainder to the manufacturing towns of the West 
Riding. ‘The local market towns serve as clearing centres for this purpose 
and include Northallerton, Bedale, Thirsk, Ripon, Boroughbridge and 
Easingwold. 


AGRICULTURE 95 


THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF THE VALE OF YORK 


BY 
W. E. GELLING, B.Sc. 


Bounded on the north by the terminal moraine from Stamford Bridge 
to Tadcaster, on the west by the Magnesian Limestone series, and on the 
south by an intermittent series of chalk and limestone, lies the most fertile 
area in the county, probably second only to the East Midland counties 
in England. 

Transport is facilitated by the number of navigable rivers and uniting 
canals. The Ouse, Derwent, Wharfe, Aire flow over this highly culti- 
vated area of low-lying mead and ploughland. Each of these rivers is 
tidal many miles from its mouth. Boats from the Humber, sailing up the 
Ouse to York, pass by Goole and Selby, two towns that have developed 
into important marketing and distributing centres for the disposal of the 
produce of this productive area. 

The soil varies from heavy clay to sand so light that it can be blown 
by the wind into heaps in sheltered spots, but for the most part it is light 
in texture and very permeable to water, but resists drought fairly satis- 
factorily owing to a high water table. Much of the land is liable to be 
waterlogged in a very wet season, and in the past two years a great deal of 
damage has been caused by flooding. ‘The absence of walls and hedges 
and the scarcity of fences indicate that stock-raising is of secondary 
importance. 

Adjoining the Ouse, the banks of which are on the average about 
8 ft. above soil level, is an exceedingly fertile area of warp known locally 
as ‘Ings Land.’ It has been drained by the banking of the Ouse, into 
which water is pumped during excessive rainfall. An extensive area of 
warp occurs south of Howden and around Goole. Much of it is ‘ natural ’ 
warp, so called because it has been laid down without man’s intervention, 
but there is some ‘ artificial’ warp, particularly south of Staddlethorpe, 
which has been built up bit by bit through controlling, by means of 
sluices or lock-gates, the entry and exit of tidal waters charged with 
silt on to the area to be warped. The land must of course lie below high- 
water level. A bank is raised round the area selected, which must not 
be too big for the warping drain, as the speed with which the water is run 
on and off has an important effect on the texture of the warp. After 
warping, full crops may often be obtained for ten years and over without 
the addition of any manure whatsoever. This fact gives some idea of 
the fertility of virgin warp. 

There is a wide gulf between these rich new soils and some of the poor 
hungry sands met with in other parts of the Vale, which are naturally 
deficient in plant food, humus and lime, all of which are abundant in the 
virgin warp. 

It has been claimed that all kinds of crops are to be found in the area 
except hops, and that even hops were grown at one time. The neighbour- 
hood of Selby is noted for its excellent potato land. Maincrop varieties 
are chiefly grown. Ten tons per acre is quite a common yield. With 


96 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


earlies, there is some danger of damage from late spring frosts. For 
marketing, the tubers are classified according to variety and the class of 
soil on which they are grown—limestone, sand, warp. In certain fields, 
in recent years, potato eelworm (Hederodera Schachtii) has become a 
scourge. 

Peas for pulling green in pod are grown on a large scale, and upwards 
of three hundred bags, forty pounds in weight, have been pulled per 
acre, but the crop is a great gamble, both as regards yield and price. 
There is a small acreage of peas for canning, which has been slightly 
increased in recent years owing to the opening of a small canning factory 
at Hambleton. 

Carrots is an important crop, particularly in the Pocklington and 
Market Weighton areas, and, grown in rows 14 in. apart, as many as 
twenty-eight tons of roots per acre have been weighed off the land. 

Through the erection at York and Selby of two sugar-beet factories, 
sugar-beet now occupies an extensive acreage, but owing to climatic 
factors there appears to be only a limited scope for remunerative increased 
yields in response to the parental attention offered in its cultivation. 
Sugar-beet has been introduced largely at the expense of swedes and 
mangels, which for feeding purposes have been replaced by sugar-beet 
pulp. 

Flax growing has been subject to many vicissitudes and is at a standstill 
once again. Good-bodied soils suit this plant best, and, manured without 
the inclusion of quick-acting nitrogenous manures (which are said to 
reduce the quality of the fibre) two tons per acre of flax straw may be 
regarded as a moderate yield. Mustard is grown for seed fairly extensively 
on the warp areas near Howden and Goole, where good quality is obtained. 
The seed is used largely for making the well-known condiment. 

Of the cereals, wheat is confined principally to the heavier soils and warps, 
but not entirely, for ‘ Little Joss’ is to be found on the sandy areas where rye 
predominates. Winter oats, both black and white, take a fair share of the 
cereal area, but only a small amount of barley is grown. Autumn-sown 
cereals are becoming increasingly popular as they tend to check certain 
weeds that are troublesome and they can be harvested earlier than spring 
corn, Greater opportunity is thus given for autumn cultivation. 

No fixed rotation is followed. A one-year ‘ seeds’ mixture is intro- 
duced very often primarily with the object of benefiting the potato crop 
that is generally taken after it. Odd acres of lucerne are found, but usually 
the small yields obtained restrict its popularity. 

The smaller villages near the Ouse, such as Naburn, Cawood, Hemin- 
brough and Howden, are noted for their market-garden crops, particularly 
celery, broccoli and beetroot. In the bend of the Ouse in its western 
bank just north of Selby is some of the richest land in Yorkshire, known 
as Wistow Lordship. Here are to be found bulb-fields of daffodils, 
narcissi and tulips. At Crocky Hill, near York, hard and soft fruits are 
extensively grown, and some good fruit is also produced in Church Fenton 
and district. At Osgoby, near Selby, is situated the county Demonstration 
Fruit Centre. Howden is the best locality for glass-house plants, 
tomatoes being a speciality. 


AGRICULTURE 97 


The farmer concentrates on the output of the arable land over this area 
as a whole. Very few cattle are fattened on grass in summer. ‘There is 
little dairying, and stock rearing is of minor importance, but a large number 
of cattle, chiefly Irish, are fattened in the fold-yards in winter, in order to 
supply manure for maintaining the humus content and the fertility of the 
land. Little or no straw is sold off the farms. Large numbers of sheep, 
principally cross Down hogs, are folded on the beet tops and swedes where 
grown to consolidate the lighter land and to manure it, and pigs and 
poultry find a place on most farms. 


XV. 


THE, FIRST’ MEETING’ OF ‘THE 
BRITISH ASSOCIATION, YORK, 1831 


BY 
O. J. R. HOWARTH, Pb.D. 


WHEN David Brewster, in 1831, made the first concrete proposal for the 
foundation of a ‘ British Association of Men of Science,’ and for calling 
a meeting of the ‘ cultivators of science ’ for that purpose, he addressed it 
to John Phillips, the Secretary of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, on 
the grounds that York was centrally situated for a general meeting such 
as was contemplated, and that the society already established there was 
flourishing and well managed. He himself, and others who, under his 
inspiration, took active part in the foundation of the Association, lived and 
worked in Edinburgh, but that was obviously not a geographical centre 
from which to launch a British national scheme. Nor, for that matter, 
was London ; moreover, it was desired to avoid the appearance of invad- 
ing the ground occupied by the major learned societies whose headquarters 
were in the capital. ‘Therefore Brewster chose York, and he chose well. 

The origin of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society in 1821 is traced to 
the scientific examination of the bones of various extinct animals which 
were recovered from the floor of Kirkdale Cave, near Kirkby Moorside, 
beneath the hills of the North Riding. A number of these specimens 
came into the hands of James Atkinson (1759-1839), an eminent surgeon 
of York, and certain fellow-citizens of his, who took action to ensure that 
they should form the nucleus of a Yorkshire museum of natural history 
and antiquities. ‘The Yorkshire Philosophical Society was brought into 
existence to maintain the museum, and received from the Crown a grant 
of land in York which had been part of the site of a palace built by James I. 
Here the museum still stands, adjacent to some of the famous Roman 
fortifications of the city, and the beautiful ruins of the Abbey of St. Mary. 


98 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


In 1831 it was thus described: ‘ The collections of natural history are 
distributed in five apartments, the three largest of which are arranged 
round the lecture-room and lighted from above. In one of these are the 
cabinets of minerals, in another a suite of 12,000 geological specimens 
disposed in the order of the strata, and the third contains collections in 
the various departments of zoology. The lecture-room affords seats for 
300 persons.’ Roman and other antiquities were also exhibited, and 
there were a library and a laboratory. 

The creation of an institution of this nature in ten years was evidence of 
successful organisation, and the Council of the Society, in acting upon 
Brewster’s proposal, did so promptly and efficiently. And enthusiasm 
for science in Yorkshire was not confined to its capital, for when the 
Committee of Management set to work to circularise all the scientific 
institutions known to them concerning the proposed meeting, they dis- 
covered thirteen in London and twenty-six in the rest of the country, of 
which nine were in Yorkshire—a laudable proportion. 

Here, then, in the premises of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society, the 
British Association was brought to birth on September 26, 1831, and 
continued its meetings on following days. More than that, it annexed 
the existing officers of the Society as its own. The first President of the 
Association was the President of the Society, Viscount Milton, afterwards 
third Earl Fitzwilliam. The first Vice-President, William Vernon 
Harcourt, the treasurer, Jonathan Gray, the secretaries, John Phillips and 
William Gray, held those offices respectively in the Yorkshire Society. 
To two of them, Harcourt and Phillips, our grateful remembrances are 
especially due to-day. 

William Vernon, born in 1789, was a son of the then Archbishop of 
York. The family assumed the name of Harcourt when the archbishop 
succeeded to the famous Harcourt estate of Nuneham, near Oxford. 
William Vernon Harcourt was destined for the navy, and served as a mid- 
shipman, but left the service to take holy orders, and became a Canon of 
York in 1824. He was also a man of high scientific attainments at a 
period when these were still a not uncommon accompaniment of dis- 
tinction in the Church. He was initiated into the study of chemistry by 
Isaac Milner, Dean of Carlisle, who also was successively Professor of 
Chemistry and of Mathematics in the University of Oxford. Harcourt 
was intimate with Wollaston and Humphrey Davy, and imbibed an interest 
in geology from Buckland. He maintained his own chemical laboratory, 
and carried out researches in such subjects as the long-continued action of 
heat on minerals, and the refractive power of variously compounded 
glasses. ‘To his scientific accomplishments there was added administra- 
tive ability of no mean order. He took a leading part in the working of 
various important philanthropical institutions in York; and as for the 
British Association, he was from the first its chief organiser and law-giver. 
He subsequently was one of its honorary general secretaries for several 
years, and its President in 1839. It was Harcourt who at the first meeting 
of the Association in York took the lead in formulating the objects of the 


1 These two held the office corresponding to the present local secretaryship ; 
Phillips was subsequently appointed Secretary of the Association. 


THE FIRST MEETING OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION 99 


Association, laying down rules for its guidance, and assembling its 
mechanism, and the speech in which he did so is a masterpiece in its 
appreciation of the then position and the future of science, as well as in 
the grasp it revealed of the organisation of the Association, which remains 
to-day fundamentally as Harcourt conceived it. The objects of the 
Association, as now stated in its first statute, are in Harcourt’s own words : 
‘to give a stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific 
enquiry ; to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate science in 
different parts of the British Empire with one another and with foreign 
philosophers.’ Perhaps the use of the comparative degree in the opening 
phrase would not have been adopted to-day ; perhaps the term ‘ philoso- 
phers ’ would not (the more is the pity) have been used as synonymous 
with men of science ; but essentially Harcourt’s statement of objects is 
that which the Association has pursued, unvaried, for a century. 

John Phillips came to York as an orphan boy with his uncle William 
Smith, a land agent and the founder of English stratigraphical geology. 
In Phillips the love of science was born of a scientific environment. He 
helped Smith to hang his maps and diagrams when lecturing in York, and 
he thus came under the influence of Harcourt and other members of the 
Yorkshire Philosophical Society. In 1826 he was appointed keeper of 
the Society’s museum, and he arranged collections and lectured in other 
local museums such as Scarborough. In later years he was Professor of 
Geology in King’s College, London, and subsequently in the University 
of Oxford, succeeding to the chair which had been Buckland’s. His 
services to the Association culminated in his Presidency in 1865. 

At the Jubilee meeting of the Association in York in 1881 Archdeacon 
Hey gave a paper on the foundation in 1831, and his reference to the family 
of Gray may be appropriately quoted here. ‘ Our notice of the York 
Founders of the British Association would be incomplete without reference 
to one who was associated with Professor Phillips as one of its secretaries 
at the first York meeting, and held the office of treasurer to the Yorkshire 
Philosophical Society up to the time of his death, William Gray was the 
only son of Jonathan Gray, first treasurer of the British Association, an 
Alderman of York, much respected for his personal character, and perhaps 
slightly dreaded for the pungency of his wit. He was the grandson of 
William Gray, a man whose name deserves to be held in remembrance as 
the earnest and munificent promoter of every good work, the friend of 
William Wilberforce, the firm ally of that little band which broke down the 
cruel system prevailing in our lunatic asylums ; one of the first founders of 
and workers in our Sunday schools. He outlived his son Jonathan, and 
died in 1845 in his ninety-fifth year. William Gray the younger was a 
man who through life was engaged in active professional duties. For 
some years he was a member of the Corporation, and served the office of 
Lord Mayor. Through life he was a lover of science and a cultivator of 
literature.’ 

To Phillips fell the honour of delivering the first lecture to the 
Association ; during the opening evening he addressed the audience extem- 
pore upon the geology of Yorkshire, and exhibited specimens. From this 
until the closing day, the following Saturday, some twenty-six scientific 


100 SCIENTIFIC SURVEY OF YORK AND DISTRICT 


papers were read to the meeting, and generally appear, in the phrase of 
a contemporary newspaper account, to have ‘ elicited much interesting 
conversation.’ Not unnaturally their subjects depended largely upon the 
chance of individual men of science attending the meeting and coming 
prepared with something to say ; but the classification of subjects is not 
without interest. Six of the communications were on geology and 
mineralogy, five on magnetism and electricity, four on optics, three on 
light and lighting, three were physiological, two meteorological, two 
chemical, one astronomical. Zoology and botany were notably unrepre- 
sented, while the other fields of science which have since come within the 
purview of sections of the Association were as yet explored by few, if 
any, inquirers. 

On the Tuesday evening there was a dinner in the York Tavern, which 
began at five o’clock, an hour mercifully out of fashion now. There was 
a long list of toasts, mostly of distinguished members present and the 
institutions represented by them ; and it is recorded that the toasts of 
Lord Milton and Harcourt, and the Council of the Yorkshire Philosophical 
Society were ‘drunk with three times three.’ It is a point of some 
significance that there was a general toast of provincial scientific societies, 
and also one of mechanics’ institutes, for these exemplify the far-sighted 
views of the founders of the Association. They were aiming at co- 
operation with local scientific institutions, and that co-operation was in 
future years to be achieved, through the establishment of the system of 
corresponding societies, and that of public lectures given during the 
annual meetings, which in accordance with the spirit of the Victorian era 
were initiated in 1867 as ‘ lectures to the operative classes.’ Later in the 
week the members were entertained to a ‘ grand concert,’ and also were 
hospitably received by the Archbishop of York. 

It was, therefore, no matter for wonder that at the conclusion of the 
meeting, Murchison, the President of the Geological Society and one of 
those, outside York, most active in the establishment of the Association, 
said that to the city of York, ‘ as the cradle of the Association, they should 
ever look back with gratitude ; and whether they met thereafter on the 
banks of the Isis, the Cam, or the Forth, to this spot, to this beautiful 
building, they would still fondly revert, and hail with delight the period 
at which in their gyration they should return to this, the point of their 
first attraction.’ He moved ‘ that the cultivators of science here assembled 
do return their most grateful thanks to His Grace the Archbishop of York, 
the Patron, and to the Officers and Members of the Yorkshire Philosophical 
Society, for the very liberal manner in which, by the use of their Halls 
and Museum, and by their obliging and unwearied efforts to provide every 
accommodation and comfort to the visitors, they so essentially con- 
tributed to the success and prosperity of this Association.’ The motion 
was seconded by Brewster and supported by Dalton, and may fitly be 
echoed at the 1ooth meeting of the Association.1 


1 The Annual Meetings were intermitted during two years of the Great War. 


INDEX 


References to addresses, reports, and papers printed in extended form are given 


in italics. 


* Indicates that the title only of a communication is given. 


When a page reference to a paper is given in italics, it is to a note of its 
publication elsewhere, or to a note of other publications by the author 


on the same subject. 


References preceded by the abbreviation Appdx. will be found in the appendices 
immediately preceding and following this index. 


AxspBoTtT, P., Relation of technical to 
secondary education, 407, 458. 
Achill Island, pre-glacial shore-line, 

by Dr. W. B. Wright, 331. 

Administrative personnel, training 
and placing, discussion by Dr. 
J. A. Bowie, J. Menken, Hon. 
J. F. A. Browne, 354, 454. 

Advancement of Science in schools : 
its magnitude, direction and sense, 
by W. M. Heller, 209, 400*. 

Agricultural products, distribution, 
discussion by E. M. H. Lloyd, 
F. J. Prewett, T. G. Henderson, 
J. N. Caie, C. S. Orwin, 414, 458. 

Agriculture, East Riding, discussion 
by Dr. S. E. J. Best, J. Strachan, 
410, 458. 

Agriculture, N. Vale of York, by 
W.5S. Gibson, Appdx. 93. 

Agriculture, S. Vale of York, by 
W. E. Gelling, Appdx. 95. 

Agriculture, York district, by J. 
Strachan, Appdx. 89. 

Agriculture, N.E. of York, by D. H. 
Findlay, Appdx. 92. 

AITKEN, Mrs. R., Kivas at Hano, 
368, Appdx. 123. 

Alcohols, free energies in water of 
normal aliphatic, by Dr. J. A. V. 
Butler, 325*. 

ALDRICH-BLAKE, Dr. R. N., In- 
fluence of nutrition on forest tree 
seedlings, 389, 457. 

ALEXANDER, W. B., Effects of pollu- 
tion on biology of Tees estuary, 
323, 452, 453. 
gal associations of salt marsh, by 
T.K. Rees, 384, 457. 


Algal-water balance, by Dr. W. H. 
Pearsall, 385*. 

ALLEN, E., Industrial geography of 
N.E. coast, 340, Appdx. 123. 

ALLEN, Prof. G. C., Economic 
position of Japan, 350, 454. 


Atty, Mrs. S. W., Secondary 
crystallisation of tourmaline in 
Lower Devonian sediments, 


Michigan, 330. 

Amine-oxides, stereochemistry, by 
Prof. Dr. J. Meisenheimer, 
317. 

Amylose and amylopectin, by Dr. 
E. L. Hirst, 320, 453. 

Animal behaviour, by R. Knight, 
378, 456, Appdx. 124. 

Annual meetings, table, xii. 

Antarctic oceanography, by Dr. S. 
Kemp, 336*. 

Antirrhinum, diseased, Phycomycete 
in, by C. G. C. Chesters, 388. 

APPLETON, Dr. A. B., Primates and 
early man, 337*. 

Archeology, as a science, by Dr. D. 
Randall-Maclver, 147, 366*. 


discussion by R. U. Sayce, 
366*. 
Archeology, prehistoric Yorkshire, 


by F. Elgee, Appdx. 40, 454. 
Archeology and folklore in N.W. 
Spain and Portugal, by Rev. Dr. 
E. O. James, 373, 456. 
ArmstTrRONG, A. L., Pre-Tardenois 
and Tardenois cultures of N. 
Lincolnshire, 371. 
Rolled Aurignacian tools in 
boulder clay of N. Lincolnshire, 
368*. 


R 


102 


Artifacts, Mesolithic, from Pennine 
Chain, by F. Buckley, 372. 

Ascomycetes, variation in  fruit- 
formation, by Prof. Dame H. 
Gwynne - Vaughan and Mrs. 
Williamson, 388, 457. 

AsuBy, Dr. E., Physiology of hybrid 
vigour in maize, 392, 457. 

AsHTON, Miss M. G., Winter bud 
of Glaux maritima L., 390. 

Astpury, W. T., Protein fibres 
and formation of polysaccharide 
chains, 321, 453. 

Aurignacian tools, rolled, in boulder 
clay of N. Lincolnshire, by A. L. 
Armstrong, 368*. 

Autun, fossil plant, by Prof. H. S. 
Holden, 390. 

AwBeErRY, J. H., Evaporation of water 
in air-stream, 309*, 451. 


Babemba tribe of N.E. Rhodesia, 
by Miss A. I. Richards, 368*. 

Bacon, Prof. F., Cracking and 
fracture in rotary bending tests, 
362, 455. 

Bacteria and decay of stone, by 
Prof. S. G. Paine, 387, 457. 

BaILuig, Sir J. B., Applied science 
in Yorkshire, 402,457, Appdx.124. 

Baity, Prof. F. G., Conservation of 
wild life and national parks, 449*. 

Batrour, F. R. S., Conifers in 
Scotland, 394, 457. 

BALFOUR-BROWNE, Prof. F., Colour- 
ation of cocoons of Small Eggar 
moth (Eriogaster lanestris L.), 
334, Appdx. 123. 

BaMBER, Miss R. C., Impurity of 
Mendelian Recessive, 338*. 

BancrorT, Dr. H., Geological his- 
tory of Dipterocarpaceez, 390, 
Appdx. 124. 

Banking systems of Central Europe, 
effect of world depression on, by 
Dr. E. Roll, 351. 

Barctay, Dr. S. F., Control of 
humidity in industrial processes, 
309*, 451. 

Barker, Dr. S. G., Controlled 
humidity in woollen and worsted 
mills, 309*, 457. 

Psychological basis of wool- 

sorting, 302, 451. 


INDEX 


BarTLETT, R.J., Difference threshold 
for lifted weights, 379. 

Quantitative relation of physical 
stimuli and sensory events, 302. 

BASSINDALE, R., Susceptibility of 
invertebrate animals to poisons, 
323, 452, 453. 

BaTESON, R.G., Control of humidity, 
309*, 451. 

BeaucHamp, R. S. A., Distribution 
of Planarias, 386. 

Beef, reducing production costs, by 
Prof. J. A. S. Watson, 411, 458. 
Behaviour, intelligent and instinc- 

tive, by Prof. W. McDougall, 383. 

Behaviour difficulties and educa- 
tional backwardness, children, by 
Miss L. G. Fildes, 381. 

Behaviour disorders, children, by 
Dr. E. Miller, 381, 456. 

Behaviour of animals, by R. Knight, 
378, 456, Appdx. 124. 

BELLERBY, Prof. J. R., Inflation, 
352, 454. 

Bending tests, rotary, cracking and 
fracture in, by Prof. F. Bacon, 
362, 455. 

BENHAM, Dr. F. C., Public finance, 
349. 

BENNETT, M. G., Effect of spectral 
transmission of atmosphere on 
visibility by artificial light, 317, 
452. 

BERNAL, J. D., Crystal structure and 
stereochemistry, 319. 

Best, Dr. S. E. J., East Riding 
agriculture, 410, 458. 

BityaM, E. G., Climate of York, 
and variations, I87I-1930, 316, 
Appdx. 13. 

Rainfall over drainage areas, 
310, 451, Appdx. 123. 

BINNIE, W. J. S., Water-level and 
river flow in British Isles, 310*, 
451, Appdx. 123. 

Biological balance in fresh water, 
discussion by Dr. W. H. Pearsall, 
Dr. W. Rushton and H. D. Slack, 
Dr. R. W. Butcher, R.S. A. Beau- 
champ and P. Ullyott, Dr. L. 
Lloyd, Prof. F. Balfour-Browne, 
Dr. G. S. Carter, J. T. Saunders, 
Prof. H. S. Holden, 385, 457. 

Bipolar plant distribution, by Dr. 
G.E. du Rietz, 383, Appdx. 124. 


INDEX 


Bird-migration, by Prof. C. J. 
Patten, 338. 
Birdoswald, Hadrian’s Wall, by 


I. A. Richmond, 365. 

BisBEE, Mrs., Impurity of Mendelian 
Recessive, 338*. 

BLACKBURN, Dr. K. B., Peat investi- 
gations in N. England, 384. 

BLackKMaN, Prof. V. H., on Instruc- 
tion in botany, 293. 

Body fluids, origin, by C. F. A. 
Pantin, 336, 454. 

Boetuius, Dr. A., Domestic archi- 
tecture under Roman Enppire, 
368*. 

Bomrorp, D. R., Intensive farming 
with mechanised equipment, 410, 
458. 

BooTuroyp, F., Science teaching in 
senior schools, 401. 

BosweELL, Prof. P. G. H., Contacts 
of Geology: Ice-age and early 
man in Britain, 57, 328*. 

Botany, instruction, report on, 293. 

BowtE, Dr. J. A., Selection, training 
and placing of administrative 
personnel, 354*, 454. 

BRAMMALL, Dr. A., Origin of igneous 
rocks, 331*, 453, Appdx. 123. 

Britain’s access to Overseas Markets, 
by Prof. R. B. Forrester, 119, 
349%. 

Brociiz, M. LE Duc be, Neutron, 


307. 

BROMEHEAD, C. E. N., Geology of 
York district, 325*, Appdx. 8. 

Brooks, F. T., on Mycorrhiza in 
relation to forestry, 293. 

Brown, F. J., Zoological aspects of 
helminthology, 337*. 
Brown, J. W., Film 

education, 399, 457. 

Brown, Dr. W., Physical stimuli and 
sensory events, 301. 

suggestion, hypnotism and will, 
377, Appdx. 124. 

BrowneE,. Hon. J. F. A., Co- 
Operation between universities 
and industries in placement, 355, 
454. 

Bryan, Dr. P. W., Type patterns 
in geographical distribution of 
buildings, 343. 

BuckincuaM, F., Theory of drying, 
309, 451. 


in adult 


103 


Buckingham Works, York, Appdx. 
87. 

Buckiey, F., Mesolithic artifacts 
from Pennine Chain, 372. 

Buildings, type patterns in geo- 
graphical distribution, by Dr. 
P. W. Bryan, 343. 

Bureau of Agric. Parasitology, by 
Dr. B. G. Peters, 338*. 

Burcess, H., Conservation of wild 
life and national parks, 449*. 

ButcHer, Dr. R. W., Biological 
balance in fresh water, 386. 

—— Effects of pollution on biology 
of non-tidal reaches of Tees, 322, 
452, 453. 

Butter, Dr. E. J., Tropical plant 
diseases, 388*. 

Butter, Dr. J. A. V., Free energies 
of normal aliphatic alcohols in 
water, 325*. 

BUTTERFIELD, J. A., Conglomerates 
underlying Carboniferous Lime- 
stone of. Sedbergh and T'ebay 
districts, 330. 


CatE? “J M:: 
Mark,’ 416. 

Call to Engineer and Scientist, by 
Prof. M. Walker, 131, 358%, 
455. 

CALVERT, Dr. W. T., Purpose and 
nature of survey of River Tees, 
322, 452. 

Camboglanna, discoveries, by I. A. 
Richmond, 365. 

CamerOoN, A. C., Film as cultural 
force, 397, 457. 

Cameron, Dr. A. E., Experimental 
rearing of Hzmatopota pluvialis 
L. (the Cleg, Tabanidez), 335. 

CaMERON, Dr. T. W. M., Applica- 
tions of helminthology to veteri- 
nary medicine, 337*. 

CAMPBELL, A. H., Black lines in 
timber caused by Xylaria poly- 
morpha, 388, 457. 

Carboniferous Limestone, relations 
to Millstone Grit, symposium by 
Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, Prof. 
G. Hickling, Miss E. Dix and 
Prof. A. E. Trueman, Dr. W. B. 
Wright, L.H. Tonks, Dr.R.G.S. 
Hudson, 326, 453. 


Scottish ‘ National 


104 


CarTER, Dr. F. W., Magnetic noise 
in dynamo-electric machines, 359, 


455. 
Carter, Dr. G. S., Iodine com- 


pounds and level of activity of | 
| Climate of York, by E. G. Bilham, 


animal tissues, 332, Appdx. 123. 
Case method, by J. Menken, 354. 
Cathodo-luminescence, by J. Ewles, 

305*. 

CaToN-THOMPSON, Miss G., Recent 

discoveries in Kharga Oasis, 371, 


455. : 
Cattle, British, origin and develop- | 


ment, by C. B. Jones, 333. 

Cells, uses of photoelectric, by C. C. 
Paterson, 435. 

Cellulose, enzymatic cleavage ; 
relationship with chitin, by 
Prof. Dr. L. Zechmeister, 320, 


453. 
Cellulose, nature and size of colloid 
particles, by Prof. Dr. H. 


Staudinger, 320, 453. 
Cellulose, space model, by Prof. 
Dr. H. Mark, 321, 453. 
CuHapwick, Dr. J., Neutron, 307, 
451. 
CuaLk, Dr. L., Multiperforate end- 
walls of vessel segments, 389. 
Chalk stream, flora and fauna, by 
Dr. W. Rushton and H. D. Slack, 
385, 457- 
Cuattaway, Miss M. M., Tile-cells 
in rays of Malvales, 395. 
CuesTers, C. G. C., Phycomycete 
in diseased antirrhinum, 388. 
Chichester earthworks, by J. P. 
Williams-Freeman, 371, 456. 
Children, behaviour disorders, by 
Dr. E. Miller, 381, 456. 
Children, educational backwardness 
and behaviour difficulties, by 
Miss L. G. Fildes, 381. 
Chilean coastlands, temperature ano- 
malies with reference to K6ppen’s 
classification, by Dr. Matthews, 


345. 
CuiarK, J. G. D., Mesolithic Age in 
Britain, 371*, 455. 
CiarK, Miss K., 
Yorkshire, 367. 
Clay fraction of soils, discussion by 
Prof. G. W. Robinson, Dr. C. E. 
Marshall, Dr. R. K. Schofield, 


413. 


Invasions of 


INDEX 


Cleavage tests of timber, French and 
British, by Prof. E. G. Coker and 
Dr. R. Levi, 359, 455. 

Cleg, Tabanidz, experimental rear- 
ing, by Dr. A. E. Cameron, 335. 


316, Appdx. 13. 
Coal-face lighting, 
Cramp, 361, 455. 
Coatses, Dr. W. H., Statistics for 
business executive, 353*. 
CoaTMAN, Prof. J., International 
migration in twentieth century, 


by Prof. W. 


348. 
Coffee flower buds, abortion caused 

by Lygus simonyi Reut., by 

Dr. R. H. le Pelley, 335*, 454. 

CoKeER, Prof. E. G., French and 
British cleavage tests of timber, 
359, 455- 

CoLtiins, Dr. M., Variations of 
colour-memory with wave-length, 
377, 456. 

Colour, quantitative mental estimates 
of saturation, by Dr. R. A. 
Houstoun and Dr. L. F. Richard- 
son, 303, 452. 

Colour and colour cycles, by R. F. 
Wilson, 356. 

Colour-blind and tests for colour- 
blindness, by Dr. F. W. Edridge- 


Green, 376. 

Colour discrimination, individual 
differences, by W. O’D. Pierce, 
376. 


Colour memory, variation with wave- 
length, by Dr. M. Collins, 377, 
456. 

Colour vision, report on, 291. 

Common reactions, prediction, as 
psychological method, by Dr. 
Ll. W. Jones, 382. 

Compound formation in liquid mix- 
tures, by Prof. J. Kendall, 324. 

Conference of Delegates, 437. 

Conglomerates underlying Carboni- 
ferous Limestone of Sedbergh 
and Tebay districts, by J. A. 
Butterfield and Prof. A. Gilligan, 
330. 

Conifers, exotic, factors governing 
introduction, discussion by F.R.S. 
Balfour, A. C. Forbes, 394, 457. 

Conservation of energy and nuclear 
phenomena, discussion by Dr. 


INDEX 


C. D. Ellis, Prof. C. G. Darwin, 


Prof. O. W. Richardson, Dr. 
Mott, 306. 
Conservation of wild life, local 


societies and, by Lt.-Col. Sir D. 
Prain, 437. 

Conservation of wild life, 
national parks, discussion by Dr. 
V. Cornish, Prof. F. G. Baily, 
H. Burgess, Prof. J. E. Duerden, 
H.E. Forrest, H. E. Salmon, 449. 

Cownsit1T, Dr. F., Film in education, 
400*, 457. 

Consumption, equilibrium with pro- 
duction, by J. M. Rees, 352. 

Consumption and trade fluctuation, 
by Prof. L. Robbins, 349, 454. 

Contacts of Geology : Ice-age and 
early man in Britain, by Prof. 
P. G. H. Boswell, 57, 328*. 

discussion, 328*, 368*. 

Co-operative movement, reconcilia- 


tion of producer and consumer | 


within, by C. R. Fay, 350. 

CorperR, P., Roman Malton, 366, 
455, Appdx. 56. 

CornisH, Dr. V., Conservation of 
wild life, and national parks, 449, 
454. 

Town and country planning, 
342, 454. 

Corresponding Societies, conference 
of delegates, 437. 

Corton, Dr. H., Pulling into step 
of synchronous-induction motor, 
363, 455. 

Cotton technology, influence of 
moisture, by Dr. F. T. Peirce, 
309*, 451, 452. 

Council, Report 1931-32, Xvill. 

Cows, wastage in dairy, by Dr. N.C. 
Wright, 411, 458. 

Cox, Dr. J. W., Formal training in 
acquisition of skill, 375. 

Cramp, Prof. W., Lighting at coal 
face, 361, 455. 

Cricket-bat willow problem, by Dr. 
J. B. Davy, 394, 457. 

Crop production by mechanical 
power, discussion by Dr. H. J. 
Denham, S. J. Wright, A. J. 
Hosier, D. R. Bomford, 409, 
458. 

Crowroot, J. W., Excavations at 
Samaria, 366, 456. 


and | 


105 


Crump, W. B., Wool-textile industry 
of Pennines, 341. 

Crystal structure and __ stereo- 
chemistry, by J. D. Bernal, 319. 


Dana expeditions, by Dr. C. T. 
Regan, 336*. 

DANNREUTHER, Capt. T., Scheme 
for recording immigrant insects, 
450. 

Darwin, Prof. C. G., Conservation 
of energy and nuclear phenomena, 
306*. 

Davipson, H. R., Pig recording, 412. 

Daviss, O., Mining in Greece in 
pre-classical times, 374, 456. 

Davy, Dr. J. B., Cricket-bat willow 
problem, 394, 457- 

Daysu, G. H. J., Industrial 
geography of N.E. coast, 340, 
Appdx. 123. 

Deer, P. I., Neutron, 308. 

Delegates, conference, 437. 

DenuHaAM, Dr. H. J., Mechanised 
farming, 409, 458. 

G 


DENT, A. H., Statistics for 
business executive, 353, 454, 
Appdx. 123. 


Descu, Prof. C. H., Applied science 
in Yorkshire, 403*, 457, 458, 
Appdx. 124. 

Re-arrangements in solid state, 
324, 453. 

Difference threshold for lifted 
weights, by R. J. Bartlett, 379. 
Di-pole association in liquid mix- 

tures, by Dr. N. V. Sidgwick, 325. 

Dipterocarpacez, geological history, 
by Dr. H. Bancroft, 390, Appdx. 
124. 

Discourses, evening, 432. 

Disorientation and vertigo, by Dr. 
T. G. Maitland, 380*. 

Dix, Miss E., Millstone Grit and 
Carboniferous Limestone, 326, 453. 

Dotiar, A. T., Granites of Lundy 
Island, 328, 453. 

Domestic science as educating 
instrument, discussion by Miss 
H. Masters, Miss M. C. Pepper, 
Miss M. Weddell, A. H. Whipple, 
405, 457. 5 

Douctas, Vice-Adml. H.P., Organi- 
sation required for recording 


106 


water-level and _ river-flow in 
British Isles, 313, 451, Appdx.123. 

Doytte, Prof. J., Fitzroya patagonica 
J. D. Hook., 391, Appdx. 124. 

DrevER, Prof. J., Quantitative rela- 
tion of physical stimuli and 
sensory events, 300. 

—— on Vocational tests, 292. 

Drying of air, silica-gel process, by 
Prof. S. Lees, 309*, 451, 452. 

Drying, theory, by J. Frith and F. 
Buckingham, 309, 451. 

DuERDEN, Dr. H., Tracheidal varia- 
tion in ferns, 390, 457. 

DUERDEN, Prof.J.E., Conservation of 
wild life, and national parks, 449*. 

Dykes, frontier, of Wales, by Dr. C. 
Fox, 370. 

Dynamo-electric machines, magnetic 
noise, by Dr. F. W. Carter, 359, 
455. 


Earth pressures, report on, 287. 

Earthquake recording in London, 
by J. J. Shaw, 316*. 

Earthquake records, long-wave 
phase, by Dr. R. Stoneley, 315, 
452. 

Earthquakes, near, by Dr. H. 
Jeffreys, 316*, 452. 

Eartuy, Miss E. D., Tribes of 
Mogambique, 369, Appdx. 123. 

East African lakes, report on, 283. 


East Riding Agriculture, by J. 
Strachan, Appdx. 89, 458. 
—— discussion by Dr. S. E. J. 


Best, J. Strachan, 410, 458. 

EasTERBY, W., Science teaching in 
senior schools, 402*. 

Ecology, Yorkshire plant, by Dr. 
T. W. Woodhead, 383, Appdx. 22. 

EpGELL, Prof. B., Current con- 
structive theories in Psychology, 
169, 380*. 

EpRIDGE-GREEN, Dr. F. W., Colour- 
blind and tests for colour-blind- 
ness, 376. 

Education, adult, film in, by J. W. 
Brown, 399, 457. 

Education, place of science for 
boys and girls, symposium by 
Sir R. Gregory, Sir A. Wilson, 
D. Gray, Dr. W. W. Vaughan, 
Prof. W. W. Watts, 404*, 457. 


INDEX 


Education, relation of technical to 
secondary, discussion by Sir P. 
Watkins, J. P. Yorke, P. Abbott, 
J. H. Hallam, S. H. Moorfield, 
406, 458. 

Education in York, by G. H. Gray, 
Appdx. 61. 

Education in Yorkshire, discussion 
by Sir J. B. Baillie, Prof. C. H. 
Desch, Dr. J. Strong, R. R. 
Kimbell, Prof. T. H. Searls, 
G.H.Thompson, A.S. Rowntree, 
E. Walker, H. W. Locke, 402, 457, 
Appdx. 124. 

Educational and documentary films, 
report on, 296. 

Educational cinematography, by 
F. A. Hoare, 398, 457. 

Epwarps, J., Mutton production, 
408. 

Eggar moth, small, colouration of 
cocoons, by Prof. F. Balfour- 
Browne, 334, Appdx. 123. 

Egypt, prehistoric sites, report on, 290. 

Egypt, Royal Tail-Festival in 
ancient, by Dr. M. A. Murray, 
369, 456. 

Elasticity and hysteresis of rocks 
and artificial stone, by J. Gilchrist 
and Dr. R. H. Evans, 362, 455. 

Electric and magnetic units: Paris 
Conference, July 1932, by Sir 


R. T. Glazebrook and Dr. Ezer 
Griffiths, 305*, 457. 
Electric power, railway, by F. 


Lydall, 361, 455. 

Electric propulsion of ships, by 
Dr. C. C. Garrard, 357, 455. 

Electrical resistance, B.A. standards 
1865-1932, by Sir R. T. Glaze- 
brook and Dr. L. Hartshorn, 
300*, 41 

Electrical terms and definitions, report 
on, 289. 

Electrification, rural, and grid, by 
R. B. Matthews, 357, 455. 

Electromagnet protection, by F. A. 
Long, 305*. 

Electron impacts in gases at low 
pressures, by Dr. J. E. Roberts, 
305*. 

Electrons, photographic action, by 
Dr. J. E. Taylor, 305*. 

ELceE, F., Camp on Eston Hiils, 
365, 456. 


INDEX 


Eicee, F., Human geography of 
moorlands of N.E. Yorkshire, 
340, 454. 

Prehistoric archeology in York- 
shire, Appdx. 40, 454. 

Exuis, Dr. C. D., Conservation of 
energy and nuclear phenomena, 
306. 

Elm Bark Beetle, bionomic control, 
by Dr. W.B. R. Laidlaw, 396, 457. 

Empire, plant products in relation 
to human needs, by Sir A. W. 
Hill, 432. 

Empire soil resources, report on, 286. 

Engineering features of York district, 
by H. R. Lupton, Appdx. 77. 

Engineer’s Outlook, by Sir A. 
Ewing, 1 

Eriogaster lanestris L., colouration 
of cocoons, by Prof. F. Balfour- 
Browne, 334, Appdx. 123. 

Eston Hills, camp, by F. Elgee, 365, 
456. 

Evans, Dr. R. H., Elasticity and 
hysteresis of rocks and artificial 
stone, 362, 455. 

Evaporation from plane and spheri- 
cal surfaces, by Dr. A. Ferguson, 
309*, 45I. 

Evaporation of water in air-stream, 
by Dr. Ezer Griffiths, J. H. 
Awbery and R. W. Powell, 309%, 
451. 

Evolution, influence of feeding and 
digestion upon, by Dr. C. M. 
Yonge, 333, Appdx. 123. 

EwIine, Sir A., An Engineer’s Out- 
look, i. 

Ewtes, J., Cathodo-luminescence, 
305*. 

Eyebrows and eyelashes in man, by 
Prof. V. Suk, 370, 456. 


Fairies, actual race of men, by Rev. 
Canon J. A. MacCulloch, 373, 
456. 

Farmer, E., Vocational tests, 375*, 
456. 


Farming, mechanised, discussion 
by Dr; H. J: Denham, S$? J. 
Wright, A. J. Hosier, D. R. 


Bomford, 409, 458. 
Fashion cycles, discussion by E. A. 
Filene, R. F, Wilson, 356. 


107 


Fauna and flora in upper chalk 
stream, by Dr. W. Rushton and 
H. D. Slack, 385, 457. 

Faunistic divisions of floor of North 
Sea, by A. C. Stephen, 337, 454. 

Fay, C. R., Reconciliation of pro- 
ducer and consumer within co- 
operative movement, 350. 

FEARNSIDES, Prof. W. G., Millstone 
Grit and Carboniferous Lime- 
stone, 326*. 

FEATHER, Dr. 
451. 

Fercuson, Dr. A., Evaporation from 
plane and spherical surfaces, 309*, 
451. 

Ferns, tracheidal variation, by Dr. 
H. Duerden, 390, 457. 

Fibres, discussion of constitution 
by Prof. W. N. Haworth, Prof. 
Dr. L. Zechmeister, Prof. Dr. H. 
Staudinger, Dr. E. L. Hirst, 
Prof. Dr. H. Mark, W. T. Ast- 
bury, 319, 453. 

FIELD, Miss M., Film in education, 
400*, 457. 

Fitpres, Miss L. G., Educational 
backwardness and behaviour diffi- 
culties in children, 381. 

FILENE, E. A., Fashion cycles, 356*. 

Film in education, discussion by 
Sir B. Gott, A. C. Cameron, R. 
Gow, F. A. Hoare, J. W. Brown, 
Dr. F. Consitt, Miss M. Field, 
Prof. J. L. Myres, J. L. Holland, 
G. T. Hankin, 397, 457. 

Films, educational and documentary, 
report on, 296, 400*. 

Finance, public, by 
Benham, 349. 

Finpiay, D. H., Agriculture N.E. 
of York, Appdx. 92. 

Fish movements, mechanism, by 
Dr. J. Gray, 334. 

Fishing industry and plankton re- 
search, by Prof. A. C. Hardy, 336. 

Fitzroya patagonica J. D. Hook., by 
Prof. J. Doyle and W. T. Saxton, 
391, Appdx. 124. 

Flame-temperatures, 
by «-particles, by 
Shirodker, 305*. 

Fieminc, A. P. M., Engineer’s 
review of Soviet enterprise, 358, 


455. 


N., Neutron, 308, 


DrsvAm: GC. 


measurement 


Derivo.t E: 


108 


FLeuRE, Prof. H. J., Geographical 
study of Society and World 
Problems, 103, 338*. 

Flints, pygmy, from Cleveland hills, 
by Rev. H. G. Williams, 372. 

Flora and fauna in upper chalk 
stream, by Dr. W. Rushton and 
H. D. Slack, 385, 457. 

Foce, W., ‘Suq’ in Morocco, 343, 
454. 

Folklore and archeology in N.W. 
Spain and Portugal, by Rev. Dr. 
E. O. James, 373, 456. 

Foodstuffs, significance of humidity 
conditions on making and market- 
ing, by B. G. McLellan, 309%, 
451, 452. 

Forsss, A. C., Silvicultural value of 
exotics in Ireland, 394, 457. 

System of forestry for British 
Isles, 393*. 

Forestry, system for British Isles, 
by T. B. Ponsonby, 393, 457. 

discussion by A. C. Forbes, 
Dr. A. S. Watt, 393*. 

Formal training in acquisition of 
skill, by Dr. J. W. Cox, 375. 

Forrest, H. E., Conservation of 
wild life and national parks, 
449*. 

FoRRESTER, Prof. R. B., Britain’s 
access to overseas markets, 119, 
349*. 

Fossil plant from Autun, by Prof. 
H. S. Holden, 390. 

Foster, A. W., Thermo-electric 
measurements, 305*. 

Fow er, Sir H., Oil engine power, 
railway, 360, 455. 

Fox, Dr. C., Frontier dykes of 
Wales, 370. 

Fraser, Dr. A. H. H., Scottish 
sheep industry, 408, 458. 

Fraser, J. A., Incentives to learning 
industrial process, 378. 

Fresh-water, biological balance, dis- 
cussion by Dr. W. H. Pearsall, 
Dr. W. Rushton and H. D. Slack, 
Dr. R. N. Butcher, R. S. A. Beau- 
champ, and P. Ullyott, Dr. L. 
Lloyd, Prof. F. Balfour-Browne, 
Dr. G. S. Carter, J. T. Saunders, 
Prof. H. S. Holden, 385, 457. 

FriTH, J., Theory of drying, 309, 
451. 


INDEX 


GARDINER, Prof. J. 
African Lakes, 283. 

GarDNER, Miss E. W., Pleistocene 
hydrography of Kharga Oasis, 
Egypt, 325, 453. 

GARDNER, R. C. B., Timber preser- 
vation on estates, 393, 457. 

GarRaRD, Dr. C. C., Electric pro- 
pulsion of ships, 357, 455. 

Gaseous explosions, initiation by 
small flames, by Dr. J. M. Holm, 
305, 45I. 

GELLING, W. E., Agriculture in 
S. Vale of York, Appdx. 95. 

General Treasurer’s Account, xxvii. 

Geographical study of Society and 
World Problems, by Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, 103, 338*. 

Geography, historical, of S.E. Eng- 
land, by Dr. S. W. Wooldridge, 
345. 

Geography, historical, of York district, 
by Prof. H. Thompson, Appdx. 35. 

Geography, human, of moorlands 
of N.E. Yorkshire, by F. Elgee, 
340, 454. 

Geography, industrial, of N.E. coast, 
by G. H. J. Daysh and E. Allen, 
340, Appdx. 123. 

Geological history of Dipterocar- 
pacee, by Dr. H. Bancroft, 390, 
Appdx. 124. 

Geology, contacts : Ice-age and early 
man in Britain, by Prof. P. G. H. 
Boswell, 57, 328*. 

discussion, 328*, 368*. 

Geology of York district, by C. E.N. 
Bromehead, 325*, Appdx. 8. 

Geophysics, applied, by Prof. A. O. 
Rankine, 21, 303*. 

Georci, Dr. J., Wegener’s Green- 
land Expedition, 1930-31, geo- 
physical results, 344*. 

‘Gestalt’ compared with other 
trends, by Prof. R. H. Wheeler, 


S., on East 


377- 

Grsson, W. S., Agriculture in N. 
Vale of York, Appdx. 93. 

GILcHRIST, J., Elasticity and 
hysteresis of rocks and artificial 
stone, 362, 455. 

GILLIGAN, Prof. A., Conglomerates 
underlying Carboniferous Lime- 
stone of Sedbergh and Tebay 
districts, 330. 


INDEX 


Glacial Retreat, correlation of stages 
in north of England, by Dr. A. 
Raistrick, 330*. 

Glaux maritima L., winter bud, by 
Miss M. G. Ashton, 390. 

GLAZEBROOK, Sir R. T., B.A. 
Standards of Resistance, 1865- 
1932, 300%, 417. 

Electric and magnetic units : 
Paris Conference, 305*, 451. 

Godolphin, rhythmically banded 
sills, by S. Hall and Dr. A. K. 
Wells, 328. 

Gott, Sir B., Film in education, 397. 

Gow, R., Teaching film, 398, 457. 

GraBHaM, Dr. M., Subtropical 
ichthyology, 338*. 

Gravels, glacial, along margin of 
Yorkshire Wolds, by C. W. Pea- 
cock and Dr. H. C. Versey, 329. 

Gray, D., Place of science in 
education of boys and girls, 405*, 
457. 

Gray, G. H., Education in York, 
Appdx. 61. 

Gray, Dr. J., Mechanism of fish 
movements, 334. 

Greaves, W. M. H., New Transit 
Circle, 317*. 

Greece, mining in pre-classical times, 
by O. Davies, 374, 456. 

Greenland Expedition (Wegener’s), 
1930-31, geophysical results, by 
Dr. J. Georgi, 344*. 

Grecory, Sir R., on Educational 
and documentary films, 296. 

Place of science in education of 

boys and girls, 404*, 457. 

Psychological selection in York, 
378*. 

Grid and rural electrification, by 
R. B. Matthews, 357, 455. 

GRIFFITHS, Dr. Ezer, Electric and 
magnetic units : Paris Conference, 
305*, 451. 

Evaporation of water in air- 
stream, 309*, 451. 

GWYNNE-VAUGHAN, Prof. Dame 
H. C. I., Fruit in Ascomycetes, 


388, 457. 


Haas, Prof. W. J. 
conductivity, 303. 


DE, Supra- 


109 


Hematopota pluvialis L. (the Cleg, 
Tabanidz), experimental rearing, 
by Dr. A. E. Cameron, 335. 

Hatcrow, W. T., Water-level and 
river-flow in British Isles, 313, 
451, Appdx. 123. 

Hatt, S., Rhythmically banded sills 
at Godolphin, Cornwall, 328. 

Ha.iaM, J. H., Relation of technical 
to secondary education, 407*, 
458. 

Hamilton and aplanatism, by T. 
Smith, 308*, Appdx. 123. 

Hammonp, J., Mutton production, 


408. 
Hankin, G. T., Film in education, 
400*, 457. 


Hano, Kivas at, by Mrs. R. Aitken, 
368, Appdx. 123. 


Harpy, Prof. A. C., Plankton 
research and fishing industry, 
336. 

Harris, A. N., Port sites of western 
India, 348. 

Harris, P., Research in wood- 


working, 396, 457. 

HartsHorn, Dr. L., B.A. Standards 
of Resistance, 1865-1932, 300%, 
417. 

HawortH, Prof. W. N., Constitution 
of polysaccharides, 319. 

HELLER, W. M., Advancement of 
Science in schools : its magnitude, 
direction and sense, 209, 400*. 

Helminthology, applied, discussion 
by Prof. R. T. Leiper, Dr. T. 
W. M. Cameron, Dr. M. J. 
Trifftt, Dr. T. Southwell, F. J. 
Brown, Dr. J. N. Oldham, Dr. 
B. G. Peters, 337*, 454. 

HENDERSON, H. C. K., Distribution 
of occupations in West Riding, 
341. 

HENDERSON, Prof. Sir J. B., on 
Electrical terms and definitions, 
289. 

HENDERSON, T. G., Agricultural 
marketing organisation in Scot- 
land, 415, 458. 

Hick.inc, Prof. G., Carboniferous 
earth-movements in relation to 
millstone grit problem, 326. 

Hixt, Sir A. W., Plant products of 
Empire in relation to human needs, 
432. 

R2 


IIo 


Hirst, Dr. E. L., Amylose and 
amylopectin, 320, 453. 

Hoare, F. A., Educational cinemato- 
graphy, 398, 457. 

Hopecson, L. M., Pollen analysis 
of Snowdonian peats, 385. 

Hoven, Prof. H. S., Fossil plant 
from Autun, 390. 

HOoLuanp, J. L., Film in education, 
400*, 457, 458. 

Ho.m, Dr. J. M., Initiation of gas- 
eous explosions by small flames, 
305, 451. 

Ho.imes, Prof. A., Origin of ig- 
neous rocks, 331, 453, Appdx. 123. 

Hosiger, A. J., Extensive farming 
with mechanised equipment, 410, 
458. 

Houecu, F. A., Pulling into step of 
synchronous - induction motor, 
363, 455. 

Houstoun, Dr. R. A., Physical 
stimuli and sensory events, 302, 
452. 

Quantitative mental estimates 
of saturation with colour, 303,452. 

HowartH, Dr. O. J. R., First 
meeting of B.A. in York, 1831, 
Appdx. 97. 

Hupson, Dr. R. G. S., Millstone 
Grit and Carboniferous Lime- 
stone, 326*. 

Hull fishing industry, by E. Jacobs, 
346, 454. 

Human effort as basis of monetary 
reward, discussion by Dr. C. S. 
Myers, Dr. C. H. Northcott, 
Dr. G. H. Miles, 355. 

Humidity, control in industrial pro- 
cesses, discussion by Dr. Ezer 
Griffiths, J. H. Awbery, R. W. 
Powell, J. Frith, F. Buckingham, 
Dr. 5S. G. Barker, M. C. Marsh, 
Prof. S. Lees, Dr. S. F. Barclay, 
Dr. F. J. W. Whipple, B. G. 
McLellan, R. S. Whipple, Dr. 
A. Ferguson, F. Short, R. G. 
Bateson, Dr. F. T. Peirce, 309, 
451. 

Humidity - measuring instruments, 
by F. Short, 309*, 452, 452. 

Hybrid vigour in maize, by Dr. E. 
Ashby, 392, 457. 

Hydroxylamines,stereochemistry, by 
Prof. Dr. J. Meisenheimer, 317. 


INDEX 


Hypnotism, suggestion and will, by 
Dr. W. Brown, 377, Appdx. 124. 
Hysteresis and elasticity of rocks 
and artificial stone, by J. Gilchrist 

and Dr. R. H. Evans, 362, 455. 


Ichthyology, subtropical, by Dr. M. 
Grabham, 338*. 

Igneous rocks, origin, discussion by 
Prof. A. Holmes, Prof. H. H. 
Read, Dr. A. Brammall, Dr. G. W. 
Tyrrell, Dr. A. K. Wells, 331, 
453, Appdx. 123. 

Incentives to learning industrial 
process, by J. A. Fraser, 378. 

Industries, location, discussion by 
Dr. B. Thomas, J. Jewkes, 349, 


454. 

Industries of York, by A. N. Shim- 
min, Appdx. 76. 

Inflation, by Prof. J. R. Bellerby, 
352, 454. 

Insects, recording immigrant, by 
Capt. T. Dannreuther, 450. 

Instruction in botany, report on, 293. 

Instrument-maker and control and 
measurement of humidity, by 
R. S. Whipple, 309%, 45Z, 452. 

Intelligence and quickness, by Dr. 
J. D. Sutherland, 375. 

Invertebrate animals, susceptibility 
to poisons, by R. Bassindale, 
323, 451, 453. 

Iodine compounds and level of 
activity of animal tissues, by Dr. 
G.S. Carter, 332, Appdx. 123. 

Ionisation in lower atmosphere, 
diurnal variation, by Prof. J. J. 
Nolan, 314*. 

Ireland, silvicultural value of exotics 
in, by A. C. Forbes, 394, 457. 

Irwin, J. O., Single factor theory, 
379, 456. 


Jacks, G. V., Changes in wheat 
areas of world, 345. 

Jacoss, E., Hull fishing industry, 
346, 454. 

James, Rev. Dr. E. O., Folklore and 
archeology in north-west Spain 
and Portugal, 373, 456. 

James, H. E. O., Estimation of 
directions of sounds, 375*. 


INDEX 


Japan, economic position, by Prof. 
G. C. Allen, 350, 454. 

Jerrreys, Dr. H., Near earthquakes, 
316*, 452. 

JEwKEs, J., Location of industries, 


349. Lo 
Jones, C. B., Origin and develop- | 


ment of British cattle, 333. 
Jones, H. T., Soils of Vale of York, 
Appdx. go. 


Jones, Dr. Lui. W., Prediction of | 


common reactions as psychological 
method, 382. 


Kaye, Dr. G. W. C., Suppression 
of noise, 356, 455. 

Kerry, Sir A., on Kent’s Cavern, 
289. 

Kemp, Dr. S., Oceanography in 
Antarctic, 336*. 

KENDALL, Prof. J., Compound for- 
mation in liquid mixtures, 324. 
KENDALL, Prof. P. F., Physical 

setting of York, 338. 

Kent’s Cavern, report on, 289. 

Keys, Prof. D. A., Magnetic and 
electrical surveys over mineral, 
diabase and artificial dikes, 315. 

Kharga Oasis, Pleistocene hydro- 
graphy, by Miss E. W. Gardner, 
325, 453. 

Kharga Oasis, recent discoveries, by 
Miss G. Caton-Thompson, 371, 
455. 

KIMBELL, R. R., Training of teachers 
in Yorkshire, 403*, 457, Appdx. 
I24. 

Kimmins, Dr. C. W., Psychological 
selection in York, 378*. 

Kivas at Hano, by Mrs. R. Aitken, 
368, Appdx. 123. 

Knicut, Dr. M., Life cycles of 
Mesogloiacez, 391. 

KnicuT, R., How animals behave, 
378, 456, Appdx. 124. 

Ké6ppen’s classification, with refer- 
ence to temperature anomalies 
of Chilean coastlands, by Dr. 
Matthews, 345. 


Labour, movement into S.E. 
England since 1920, by Dr. B. 
Thomas, 349, 454. 


Itt 


LaipLaw, Dr. W. B. R., Elm Bark 
Beetle, bionomic control, 396, 


457. 

Lakes, East African, report on, 283. 

Lamarckian experiments, third 
report, by Prof. W. McDougall, 
380. 

Legs, Prof. S., Drying of air, silica- 
gel process, 309*, 451, 452. 

LerPer, Prof. R. T., Applications of 
helminthology to medicine, 337*. 

Levi, Dr. R., French and British 
cleavage tests of timber, 359, 455. 

Lighting at coal face, by Prof. W. 
Cramp, 361, 455. 

Lincolnshire, pre-Tardenois and 
Tardenois cultures of north, by 
A. L. Armstrong, 371. 

Linton, D. L., Physiography of 
southern Scotland, 347. 

Liquid mixtures, discussion by Prof. 
I. Masson, Prof. J. Kendall, Dr. 
N. V._Sidgwick}' Dr. Joe APY. 
Butler, 324, 453. 

Lioyp, E. M. H., Planning and 
world markets, 414. 

Luioyp, L., Polytoma as indicator of 
oxygen deficiency, 386, 457. 

Local societies and conservation of 
wild life, by Lt.-Col. Sir D. Prain, 
437. 

Locke, H. W., Education in York- 
shire, 404*, 457, Appdx. 124. 

London, subsidence, by Capt. T. E. 
Longfield, 346, 454. 

Lone, F. A., Electromagnet pro- 
tection, 305*. 

LONGFIELD, Capt. T. E., Subsidence 
of London, 346, 454. 

LoNGWELL, J., Decomposition of 
sewage in river water, 322, 452. 
Lundy Island granites, by A. T. 

Dollar, 328, 453. 

Lupton, H. R., Engineering features 
of York district, Appdx. 77. 

LypaLL, F., Electric power, rail- 
ways, 361, 455. 

Lygus simonyi Reut., causing abor- 
tion of coffee flower buds, by 
Dr. R. H. le Pelley, 335*, 454. 


McCiean, Capt. W. N., Water- 
level and river-flow in British 
Isles, 310, 451, 452, Appdx. 123. 


II2 


MacCuttocu, Rev. Canon J. A., 
Were fairies actual race of men, 
373, 456. 

McDouca tt, Prof. W., Intelligent 
and instinctive behaviour, 383. 
Lamarckian experiment, third 
report, 380. : 
McLELian, B. G., Significance o 
humidity conditions in making 
and marketing of foodstuffs, 309*, 

451, 452. 

McLennan, Prof. J. C., Supra- 
conductivity, 303*, Appdx. 123. 
McPue_rson, A. W., Water-level and 
river-flow in British Isles, 310*, 

451, Appdx. 123. 

MacraE, Dr. A.,, 
guidance, 382*, 456. 

Magnetic and electrical surveys over 
mineral, diabase and artificial 
dikes, by Prof. D. A. Keys, 315. 

MaItTLanp, Dr. T. G., Disorienta- 
tion and vertigo, 380*. 

Maize, physiology of hybrid vigour 
in, by Dr. E. Ashby, 392, 457. 

Matiowan, M. E. L., Prehistoric 
civilisations of Nineveh, 374. 

Malton, Roman, by P. Corder, 366, 
455, Appdx. 56. 

Malvales, tile cells in rays of, by 
Miss M. M. Chattaway, 395. 

Mann, Dr. F. G., Configuration of 
4-co-valent compounds of metals 
of platinum group, 318, 453. 

Marconi Co., television, 317, 451. 

Mark, Prof. Dr. H., Space model of 
cellulose, 321, 453. 

Market research, psychological 
problems, by Dr. G. H. Miles, 
gone 

Marsu, M. C., Controlled humidity 

in woollen and worsted mills, 

309*, 451, 452. 

Marsh, salt, algal associations, by 

T.K. Rees, 383, 457. 

MarsHALL, Dr. C. E., Clay particle, 

413. 

Masson, Prof. I., Phenomena in 

liquid mixtures, 324*, 453. 

Masters, Miss H., Domestic science 
and domestic subjects, 405, 457, 
458. 

Mathematical tables, report on, 263. 

MatTTHEews, Dr., Temperature 
anomalies of Chilean coastlands 


Vocational 


INDEX 


with reference to Képpen’s classi- 
fication, 345. 

MatTTHews, R. B., Rural electrifi- 
cation and grid, 357, 455. 

Mechanical power for crop pro- 
duction, discussion by Dr. H. J. 
Denham, S. J. Wright, A. J. 
Hosier, D. R. Bomford, 409, 458. 

MEISENHEIMER, Prof. Dr. J., Stereo- 

chemistry of oximes, hydroxyl- 

amines and amine-oxides, 317. 

MEIssNER, Dr. W., Supra-conduc- 

tivity, 303*, 452. 

Mendelian Recessive, impurity, by 

Miss R. C. Bamber, 338*. 

MENKEN, J., Case method, 354. 

Mentaltraining and domesticscience, 
by Miss M. C. Pepper, 405, 457, 
458. 

Menzies, W. J. M., Water-level and 
river-flow in British Isles, 310, 
451, Appdx. 123. 

Merritt, Capt. F. W., Science for 
older scholars in rural schools, 
401. 

Mesogloiacez, life cycles, by Miss W. 
Parke and Dr. M. Knight, 391. 
Mesolithic Age in Britain, by J.G.D. 

Clark, 371*, 455. 

Michigan, secondary crystallisation 
of tourmaline in Lower Devonian 
sediments, by Mrs. S. W. Alty, 
330. 

Migration, international ,in twentieth 
century, by Prof. J. Coatman, 
348. 

Mites, Dr. G. H., Human effort as 
basis of monetary reward, 355*. 
Psychological problems in mar- 

ket research, 382*. 

Milk marketing dilemma, by F. J. 
Prewett, 415, 458. 

MI ter, A. A., Physiographic evolu- 
tion of lower Wye valley, 347. 

MILLER, W. C., Genetics of sheep 
and economic significance, 407. 

Sheep-goat hybrid, 338*. 

MILuer, Dr. E., Temperamental 
differences in behaviour disorders 
of children, 381, 456. 

Mitts, Dr. W. H., on Some aspects 
of Stereochemistry, 37, 317*. 

Millstone Grit, relations to Carboni- 
ferous Limestone, symposium, by 
Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, Prof. G. 


INDEX 


Hickling, Miss E. Dix and Prof. 
A.E. Trueman, Dr. W.B. Wright, 
L. H. Tonks, Dr. R. G. S. 
Hudson, 326, 453. 

Mogambique, tribes of, by Miss 
E. D. Earthy, 369, Appdx. 123. 
Molecular di-pole moments and 
intervalency angles, by Dr. N. V. 

Sidgwick, 318. 

MoorrlELtp, S. H., Relation, of 
technical to secondary education, 
407*, 458. 

Moorrets, Dr. V., Psychology as 
applied at Cocoa Works, York, 
378*. 

Morocco, ‘ Suq,’ by W. Fogg, 343, 
454. 

Mott, Dr., Conservation of energy 
and nuclear phenomena, 306*. 
Multiperforate end-walls of vessel 
segments, by Dr. L. Chalk, 389. 
Murray, Dr. M. A., Royal Tail- 
Festival in ancient Egypt, 369, 

456. 

Mutton production, by J. Hammond 
and J. Edwards, 408. 

Mycorrhiza in relation to forestry, 
report on, 293. 

Myers, Dr. C. S., Human effort as 
basis of monetary reward, 355*. 
Vocational guidance, 381, 456. 
Myres, Prof. J. L., Film in educa- 

tion, 400*, 457, 458. 

on Prehistoric sites in Egypt, 

290. 

Who were Romans, 364*, 456. 


Narrative of meeting, xvi. 

‘National Mark,’ Scottish, by J. M. 
Caie, 416. 

National parks and conservation of 
wild life, discussion by Dr. V. 
Cornish, Prof. F. G. Baily, H. 
Burgess, Prof. J. E. Duerden, 
H. E. Forrest, H. E. Salmon, 449. 


Natural waters, early English 
literature, by Prof. E. G. R. 
Taylor, 339- 

Neutron, discussion by Dr. J. 


Chadwick, M. le Duc de Broglie, 
Prof. O. W. Richardson, Dr. N. 
Feather, P. I. Dee, 307, 457. 

Nevitte, Prof. E. H., on Mathe- 
matical tables, 263. 


113 


Nickel complexes, planar configura- 
tion of diamagnetic, by Dr. S. 
Sugden, 319. 

Nineveh, prehistoric civilisations, by 
M.E. L. Mallowan, 374. 

Nose, Prof. P. S., Who were 
Romans, 364*. 

Noise, magnetic, in dynamo-electric 
machines, by Dr. F. W. Carter, 
359, 455- 

Noise, suppression, by Dr. G. W.C. 
Kaye, 356, 455. 

No tan, Prof. J. J., Diurnal variation 
of ionisation in lower atmosphere, 
314*. 

North Sea, faunistic divisions of 
floor, by A. C. Stephen, 337, 454. 

Norrucott, Dr. C. uman 
effort as basis of monetary reward, 


a 

Psychological selection at 
Cocoa Works, York, 378, 456. 

Nutrition, influence on forest tree 
seedlings, by Dr. R. N. Aldrich- 
Blake, 389, 457. 


Occupations, classification of com- 
munities by, by Dr. E. H. 
Selwood, 344, 454. 

Occupations, distribution in West 
Riding, by H. C. K. Henderson, 


341. 

O’Dwyer, Dr. M. H., Chemistry of 
hemi-celluloses of wood, 396, 
457. 

Officers and Council, v. 

Oil engine power, railway, by Sir H. 
Fowler, 360, 455. 

OxpHaM, Dr. J. N., Helminths as 
biological controls of pests, 338*. 

Organic effluents, effect on biological 


balance in running water, by Dr. 
R. W. Butcher, 386. 


Orwin, C. S., Distribution of 
agricultural products, 414*. 
Output, statistical methods in 


quality-control, by Dr. E. S. 
Pearson, 354, Appdx. 123. 

Output, theoretical curve, by Dr. 
S.J. F. Philpott, 380. 

Oximes, configuration from measure- 
ment of di-pole moments, by 
T. W.J. Taylor and L. E. Sutton, 
318, 453. 


114 


Oximes, stereochemistry, by Prof. 
Dr. J. Meisenheimer, 317. 

Oxygen deficiency, Polytoma as indi- 
cator, by Dr. L. Lloyd, 387, 457. 


PaINnE, Prof. S. G., Bacteria and 
decay of stone, 387, 457. 

PaisH, F. W., Business statistics and 
trade cycle, 354*. 

Paleozoic rocks of England and 
Wales, report on, 299. 

Palestine, copper and bronze in, by 
Sir F. Petrie, 366, 456. 

PatmeER, Prof. L. S., Short-wave 
reception with frame aerials, 314, 
452. 

PANTIN, C. F. A., Origin of body 
fluids, 336, 454. 

Parachors, report on, 264. 

ParKE, Miss W., Life cycles of 
Mesogloiacez, 391. 

PaTERSON, C. C., Uses of photo- 
electric cells, 435. 

PATTEN, Prof. C. J., Mystery of bird- 
migration, 338. 

Peacock, C. W., Glacial gravels 
along margin of Yorkshire Wolds, 
329. 

PEARSALL, Dr. W. H., Water-algal 
balance, 385*. 

Pearson, Dr. E. S., Statistical 
methods in quality-control - of 
output, 354, Appdx. 123. 

Peat investigations in N. England, 
by Dr. A. Raistrick and Dr. K. B. 
Blackburn, 384. 

PeEaTE, I. C., Welsh folk culture, 
373, 456. 

Peats, Snowdonian, pollen analysis, 
by N. Woodhead and L. 
Hodgson, 385. 

Peirce, Dr. F. T., Influence of 
moisture on cotton technology, 
309*, 451, 452. 

PELLEY, Dr. R. H. tLe, Lygus 
simonyi Reut., causing abortion 
of coffee flower buds, 335*, 454. 

Pennine Chain, Mesolithic artifacts 
from, by F. Buckley, 372. 

Pennine, southern, physiographic 
evolution in Upper Carboniferous 
period, by Dr. D. A. Wray, 329. 

Pennines, wool-textile industry, by 
W.B. Crump, 341. 


INDEX 


PensTon, Dr. N. L., Potassium 
distribution in plants, 392*, 457. 
PENTELOW, F. T. K., Effects of 
pollution on biology of non-tidal 
reaches of Tees, 322, 452, 453. 

PeprperR, Miss M. C., Domestic 
science and mental training, 405, 
457, 458. 

Peters, Dr. B. G., Bureau of Agric. 
Parasitology, 338*. 

PETRIE, Sir F., Copper and bronze 
in Palestine, 366, 456. 

Petrographic classification, report on, 
284. 

PuiLpoTT, Dr. S. J. F., Theoretical 
curve of output, 380. 

Photoelectric cells, uses, by C. C. 
Paterson, 435. 
Phycomycete in diseased: antirrhi- 
num, by C. G. C. Chesters, 388. 
Physical stimuli and sensory events, 
discussion by T. Smith, Prof. J. 
Drewer, Dr. Shaxby, Dr. W. 
Brown, Dr. Houstoun, R. J. 
Bartlett, Dr. S. G. Barker and 
C. G. Winson, Dr. L. F. Richard- 
son, 300, 375*, 451, 452. 

PickForD, Dr. R. W., Reading 
compound passages, 383*, 456. 

Prerce, W. O’D., Colour discrimina- 
tion, 376. 

Pig production, by W. A. Stewart, 
412, 458, Appdx. 124. 

Pig recording and production, by 
H. R. Davidson, 412. 

Placement, co-operation between 
universities and industry, by Hon. 
J. F. A. Browne, 355, 454. 

Planarias, distribution, by R. S. A. 
Beauchamp and P. Ullyott, 386. 

Plankton research and fishing indus- 
try, by Prof. A. C. Hardy, 336. 

Planning and world markets, by 
E. M. H. Lloyd, 414. 

Plant, bipolar, distribution, by Dr. 
G.E. du Rietz, 383, Appdx. 124. 

Plant, fossil, from Autun, by Prof. 
H. S. Holden, 390. 

Plant diseases, tropical, by Dr. E. J. 
Butler, 388*. 

Plant ecology, Yorkshire, by Dr. 
T. W. Woodhead, 383, Appdx. 22. 

Plant products of Empire in relation 
to human needs, by Sir A. W. 
Hill, 432. 


INDEX 


Plants, potassium distribution, by 
Dr. N. L. Penston, 392*, 457. 

Platinum group, configuration of 
4-co-valent compounds of metals, 
by Dr. F. G. Mann, 318, 453. 

Pollen analysis of Snowdonian peats, 
by N. Woodhead and L. M. 
Hodgson, 385. 

Pollution and biology of non-tidal 
reaches of Tees, by Dr. R. W. 
Butcher and F. T. K. Pentelow, 
322, 452, 453. 

Pollution and biology of Tees 
estuary, by W. B. Alexander, 
323, 452, 453. 

Polysaccharides, discussion of con- 
stitution by Prof. W. N. Haworth, 
Prof. Dr. L. Zechmeister, Prof. 
Dr. H. Staudinger, Dr. E. L. 
Hirst, Prof. Dr. H. Mark, W. T. 
Astbury, 319, 453. 

Polytoma as indicator of oxygen 
deficiency, by Dr. L. Lloyd, 387, 
457. 

Ponsonby, T. B., System of forestry 
for British Isles, 393, 457. 

Population maps, by Capt. J. G. 
Withycombe, 344. 

Port sites, western India, by A. N. 
Harris, 348. 

Portugal, folklore and archeology 
in N.W., by Rev. Dr. E. O. 
James, 373, 456. 

Positive ions, mobility in gases, by 
Prof. A. M. Tyndall, 300, 452. 
Potassium distribution in plants, by 
Dr. N. L. Penston, 392*, 457. 
Potatoes, respiration of healthy and 
leaf-roll, by Dr. T. Whitehead, 

392. 

PowE.L.L, R. W., Evaporation of 

water in air-stream, 309*, 451,452. 


Prain, Lt.-Col. Sir D., Local 
societies and conservation of wild 
life, 437. 


Prehistoric sites in Egypt, report on, 
290. 

PrewettT, F. J., Milk marketing 
dilemma, 415, 458. 

PrikEsTLeY, Prof. J. H., The growing 
Tree, 185, 389*. 

Primates and early man, discussion 
by Dr. C. Tate Regan, Dr. A. B. 
Appleton, Dr. S. Zuckerman, 


337°, 370%, 454. 


115 


Production, equilibrium with con- 
sumption, by J. M. Rees, 352. 
Protein fibres and formation of 
polysaccharide chains, by W. T. 

Astbury, 321, 453. 

Psychological selection in York, 
discussion by Dr. V. Moorrees, 
Dr. C. H. Northcott, Dr. C. W. 
Kimmins, Sir R. Gregory, 378, 
402*, 456. 


Psychology, current constructive 
theories, by Prof. B. Edgell, 169, 
380*. 


Public finance, by Dr. F. C. Benham, 
349. 


Quantitative relation of physical 
stimuli and sensory events, dis- 
cussion by T. Smith, Prof. J. 
Drever, Dr. Shaxby, Dr. Wm. 
Brown, Dr. Houstoun, R. J. 
Bartlett, Dr. S. G. Barker and 
C. G. Winson, Dr. L. F. Richard- 
son, 300, 375*, 451, 452. 

Quantum theory, by Prof. G. 
Temple, 315*, Appdx. 123. 

Quickness and intelligence, by Dr. 
J. D. Sutherland, 375. 


Railway traction, discussion by Sir 
S. B. Tritton, Sir H. Fowler, 
F. Lydall, 360, 455. 


Raine, Rev. A., Beginnings of 
York, 364. 

Roman excavations at York, 
Appdx. 52. 


Rainfall, general, evaluation over 
drainage areas, by E. C. Bilham, 
310, 451. 

Raistrick, Dr. A., Correlation of 
Glacial Retreat stages in north of 
England, 330*. 

Peat investigations in N. 
England, 384. 

—— Roman West Yorkshire, 367. 

RanpaLt-Maclver, Dr. D., Place 
of Archeology as a science, and 
some practical problems in its 
development, 147, 366*. 

Who were Romans, 364*. 

RANKINE, Prof. A. O., Some aspects 
of Applied Geophysics, 21, 303*. 


116 


ReaD, Prof. H. H., Origin of igneous 
rocks, 331*, 453, Appdx. 123. 

Reading compound passages, 
Dr. R. W. Pickford, 383*, 456. 

Rees, J. M., Equilibrium between 
production and consumption, 350. 

Rees, T. K., Algal associations of 
salt marsh, 384, 457. 

Recan, Dr. C. T., Dana expeditions, 
336%. 

Primates and early man, 337*. 

RENDLE, Dr. A. B., Conference of 
delegates, 437*. 

RENDLE, B. J., Wood anatomy, 389, 
457. 

Research Committees, personnel, etc., 
XXXVill. 

Resistance, B.A. Standards, 1865- 
1932, by Sir R. T. Glazebrook 
and Dr. L. Hartshorn, 300%, 417. 

Resolutions and recommendations, 
xlii. 

Respiration of healthy and _ leaf- 
roll potatoes, by Dr. 'T. White- 
head, 392. 

Reward, monetary, human effort as 
basis, discussion by Dr. C. S. 
Myers, Dr. C. H. Northcott, 
Dr. G. H. Miles, 355. 

Rhodesia, N.E., Babemba tribe of, 
by Miss A. I. Richards, 368*. 

RicHarps, Miss A. I., Babemba tribe 
of N.E. Rhodesia, 368*. 

RICHARDSON, Dr. L. F., Quantitative 
mental estimates of saturation 
with colour, 303, 452. 

RicHARDSON, Prof. O. W., Con- 
servation of energy and nuclear 
phenomena, 306. 

—— Neutron, 307. 

—— Supra-conductivity, 304. 

RIcHMOND, I. A., Birdoswald, 
Hadrian’s Wall, 365. 

RieTz, Dr. G. E. pu, Bipolar plant 
distribution, 383, Appdx. 124. 

River flow, organisation required in 
British Isles, discussion by Capt. 
W. N. McClean, Capt. J. C. A. 
Roseveare, W. J. S. Binnie, E. G. 
Bilham, J. K. Swales, C. C. 
Smith, W. J. M. Menzies, Capt. 
J. G. Withycombe, D. H. Thom- 
son, Vice-Adml. H. P. Douglas, 
W.T.Halcrow,A.W. McPherson, 
J.S. Thoms, 310, 451, Appdx. 123. 


by 


INDEX 


Rossins, ’ Prof. L., Consumption 
and trade fluctuation, 349, 454. 
Roserts, Dr. J. E., Electron im- 
pacts in gases at low pressures, 

305*. 

Rosinson, Prof. G. W., Clay frac- 
tion of soils, 413. 

RoeEsuck, A., Rooks in midland 
counties, 332, Appdx. 123. 

Rott, Dr. E., Effects of world 
depression on banking systems of 
Central Europe, 351. 

Roman Empire, domestic archi- 
tecture under, by Dr. A. Boethius, 
368*. 

Roman excavations at York, by 
Rev. A. Raine, Appdx. 52. 

Roman Malton, by P. Corder, 366, 
Appdx. 56, 455. 

Roman West Yorkshire, by Dr. A. 
Raistrick, 367. 

Romans, who were the, discussion by 
Prof. H. J. Rose, Prof. P. S. 
Noble, Prof. J. L. Myres, Dr. D. 
Randall-Maclver, 364, 456. 

Rooks in midland counties, by A. 
Roebuck, 332, Appdx. 123. 

Rose, Prof. H. J., Early Rome, 
evidence from religion, 364, 456. 
ROSEVEARE, Capt. J. C. A., Water- 
level and river-flow in British 

Isles, 310, 451, Appdx. 123. 

ROTHSCHILD, Rt. Hon. Lord, Pioneer 
work of Systematist, 89, 332*. 

ROWNTREE, A. S., Education in 
Yorkshire, 404*, 457, Appdx. 124. 

RusHTon, Dr. W., Flora and fauna 
in upper chalk stream, 385, 457. 

RussELL, Sir E. J., on Empire soil 
resources, 286. 


Satmon, H. E., Conservation of 
wild life and national parks, 
449*. 

Samaria, excavations, 
Crowfoot, 366, 456. 

SaxTon, W. T., Fitzroya patagonica 
J. D. Hook., 391, Appdx. 124. 

Sayce, R. U., Place of Archeology 
as science, 366*. 

SCHOFIELD, Dr. R. K., Water films 
in clay, 414. 

Schools, advancement of science in, by 
W. M. Heller, 209, 400%. . 


by J. W. 


INDEX 


Schools, science teaching in senior, 
‘discussion by F. J. Thorpe, 
Miss A. A. Scorrer, Capt. F. W. 
Merritt, F. Boothroyd, W. 
Easterby, 400. 

Schools, secondary, and domestic 
science, by Miss M. Weddell, 405, 
457, 458. 

Science, advancement in schools, by 
W.M. Heller, 209, 400*. 

Science, domestic, as educating 
instrument, discussion by Miss 
H. Masters, Miss M. C. Pepper, 
Miss M. Weddell, A. H. Whipple, 
405, 457. 

Science, place in education of boys 
and girls, symposium by Sir R. 
Gregory, Sir A. Wilson, D. 
Gray, Dr. W. W. Vaughan, 
Prof. W. W. Watts, 404*, 457. 

Science teaching in senior schools, 
discussion by F. J. Thorpe, 
Miss A. A. Scorrer, Capt. F. W. 
Merritt, F. Boothroyd, W. 
Easterby, 400. 

Scorrer, Miss A. A., Science for 
senior girls, 401. 


Scotland, agricultural marketing 
organisation, by T. G. Henderson, 
415, 458. 


Scotland, conifers in, by F. R. S. 
Balfour, 394, 457. 

Scotland, physiography of southern, 
by D. L. Linton, 347. 

Scottish ‘ National Mark,’ by J. M. 
Caie, 416. 

Scottish sheep industry, by Dr. 
A. H.H. Fraser, 408, 458. 

Searts, Prof. T. H., Extra-mural 
facilities for adult education in 
Yorkshire, 403, 457, Appdx. 124. 

Sectional Officers, ix. 

Sedbergh and Tebay districts, 
Conglomerates underlying Car- 
boniferous fee] by J. A. 


Butterfield and Prof. A. Gilligan, 
330. 

Seismological investigations, report 
on, 257. 


SELWoop, Dr. E. H.., Classification 
of communities by occupations, 


344, 454. 
Serological tests, human races on 


basis of, by Prof. V. Suk, 369, 
7 i 


117 


Sewage, decomposition in river 
water, by J. Longwell, 322, 452. 
Sewage and industrial pollution in 

Tees estuary, by Dr. B. A. 
Southgate, 323, 452, 453. 
Suaw, J. J., Earthquake recording 
in heart of London, 316*. 
SuHaxpy, Dr. J. H., Physical stimuli 
and sensory events, 301. 
Sheep, economic significance of 
genetics, by W. C. Miller, 407. 
Sheep Farming : distinctive feature 
of British agriculture, by Prof. 
R. G. White, 229, 407*. 

Sheep-goat hybrid, by W. C. Miller, 
338*. 

Sheep industry, Scottish, by Dr. 
A. H. H. Fraser, 408, 458. 

SHEPPARD, T’., Conference of dele- 
gates, 450*. 

SHERRINGTON, Prof. Sir 
Colour vision, 291. 

SHIMMIN, A. N., Industries of York, 
Appdx. 76. 

Ships, electric propulsion, by Dr. 
C. C. Garrard, 357, 455. 

SHIRODKER, Dr. J. E., Measure- 
ment of flame temperatures by 
a-particles, 305*. 

SHort, F., Humidity-measuring 
instruments, 309*, 451, 452. 

Short-wave reception with frame 
aerials, by Prof. L. S. Palmer, 314, 
452. 

Sipcwick, Dr. N. V., Di-pole 
association in liquid mixtures, 325. 

Molecular di-pole moments, 

and intervalency angles, 318. 

on Parachors, 264. 

Silica-gel process, drying of air, by 
Prof. S: Lees, 309*, 451, 452. 

Single factor theory, by Dr. J. O. 
Irwin, 379, 456. 

Skill, formal training in acquisition 
of, by Dr. J. W. Cox, 375. 

Stack, H. D., Flora and fauna in 
upper chalk stream, 385, 457. 

SmituH, Dr. A. H., Yorkshire place- 
names, 374*. 

SmiTH, C. C., Stream-flow measure- 
ment, 311, 451, 452, Appdx. 123. 

SmiTH, T., Hamilton and aplanatism, 
308*, Appdx. 123. 

SmitH, W. CAMPBELL, on Petro- 
graphic classification, 284. 


C:, on 


118 


Society and world problems, geo- 
graphical study, by Prof. H. J. 
Fleure, 338*. 

Soil resources, Empire, report on, 286. 

Soils, clay fraction, discussion by 
Prof. G. W. Robinson, Dr. C. E. 
Marshall, Dr. R. K. Schofield, 


413. 

Soils of Vale of York, by H. T. 
Jones, Appdx. go. 

Solid state, re-arrangements in, by 
Prof. C. H. Desch, 324, 453. 

Sounds, estimation of direction, by 
H. E. O. James, 375*. 

SoutucaTE, Dr. B. A., Effects of 
sewage and industrial pollution 
in Tees estuary, 323, 452, 453. 

SouTHWELL, Dr. T., Applications of 
helminthology to fisheries, 337*, 
454. 

Soviet enterprise, engineer’s review, 
by A. P. M. Fleming, 358, 455. 
Spain, folklore and archeology in 
N.W., by Rev. Dr. E. O. James, 

373, 456. 

Spectral transmission of atmosphere, 
effect on visibility by artificial 
light, by M. G. Bennett, 317, 
452. 

Spiers, F. W., Crystalline nature of 
tin amalgams, 305*. 

Statistics, preparation for business 
executive, discussion by Dr. W.H. 
Coates, A. G. H. Dent, Dr. E. S. 
Pearson, F. W. Paish, 353, 454, 
Appdx. 123. 

STAUDINGER, Prof. Dr. H., Colloid 
particles of cellulose, 320, 453. 
Steam power, railways, by Sir S. B. 

Tritton, 360, 455. 

STEPHEN, A. C., Faunistic divisions 
of floor of North Sea, 337, 454. 
Stereochemistry, some aspects, by 

Dr. W. H. Mills, 37, 317*. 

discussion by Prof. Dr. J. 
Meisenheimer, T. W. J. Taylor, 
and L. E. Sutton, Dr. N. V. 
Sidgwick, Dr. F.G. Mann, Dr. S. 
Sugden, J. D. Bernal, 317, 453. 

Stewart, W. A., Pig production, 
412, 458, Appdx. 124. 

Stock production, discussion by 
Prof. J. A. S. Watson, Dr. N. C. 
Wright, H. R. Davidson, W. A. 
Stewart, 411, 458. 


INDEX 


Stone, decay in relation to bacteria, 
by Prof. S. G. Paine, 387, 457. 
STONELEY, Dr. R., Long-wave phase 
of earthquake records, 315, 452. 
STRACHAN, J., Agriculture in York 

district, Appdx. 89, 458. 

East Riding agriculture, 411*, 
458. 

Stream-flow | measurement, 
C. C. Smith, 311, 451, 452. 

Stronc, Dr. J., Training of teachers 
in Yorkshire, 403,457,458, Appdx. 
I24, 

SuGDEN, Dr.S., Planar configuration 
of diamagnetic nickel complexes, 
319. 

Suggestion, hypnotism, and will, by 
Dr. W. Brown, 377, Appdx. 124. 

SuK, Prof. V., Eyebrows and eye- 
lashes in man, 370, 456. 

Human races on basis of 
serological tests, 369, 456. 

Supra-conductivity, discussion by 
Prof. J. C. McLennan, Prof. 
W. J. de Haas, Dr. W. Meissner, 
Prof. O. W. Richardson, 303, 
Appdx. 123. 

‘ Suq,’ in Morocco, by W. Fogg, 343, 
454. 

SUTHERLAND, Dr. J. D., Quickness 
and intelligence, 375. 

Sutton, L. E., Configuration of 
oximes from measurement of 
di-pole moments, 318, 453. 

Swa.es, J. K., Water-level and 
river-flow in British Isles, 310%, 
451, Appdx. 123. 

Synchronous - induction motor, 
pulling into step, by Dr. H. 
Cotton and F.A. Hough, 363,455. 

Systematist, pioneer work, by Rt. 
Hon. Lord Rothschild, 89, 332*. 


by 


Tail-Festival, Royal, in ancient 
Egypt, by Dr. M. A. Murray, 
369, 456. 

Tardenois and pre-Tardenois cul- 
tures of N. Lincolnshire, by A. L. 
Armstrong, 371. 

TayLor, Prof. E. G. R., Natural 
waters, early English literature, 
339- 

TayLor, Dr. J. E., Photographic 
action of electrons, 305*. 


INDEX 


Taytor, T. W. J., Configuration of 
oximes from measurement of 
di-pole moments, 318, 453. 

Technical education, relation to 
secondary, discussion by Sir P. 
Watkins, J. P. Yorke, P. Abbott, 
J. H. Hallam, S. H. Moorfield, 
406, 458. 

Tees survey (water pollution) dis- 
cussion by Dr. H. T. Calvert, 
J. Longwell, Dr. R. W. Butcher, 
and F. T. K. Pentelow, Dr. B. A. 
Southgate, W. B. Alexander, R. 
Bassindale, 322, 452. 

Television, demonstration, 317, 45I. 

TEMPLE, Prof. G., Certain aspects 
of Quantum Theory, 315*, Appdx. 
123. 

Thermo-electric measurements, by 
A. W. Foster, 305*. 

Tuomas, Dr. B., Movement of 
labour into S.E. England since 
1920, 349, 454- 

Tuompson, G. H., Adult education 
in Yorkshire, 403,457, Appdx.1I24. 

Tuompson, Prof. A. H., Historical 
geography of York district, Appdx. 


35. 
—— Growth of York in history, 
* 

Tuoms, J. S., Water-level and river- 
flow in British Isles, 310*, 4517, 
Appdx. 123. 

Tuomson, D. H., Water-level and 
river-flow in British Isles, 312, 457, 
Appdx. 123. 

TuorPE, F. J., Science in senior 
schools, 400. 

Three-phase induction motors, speed 
and power factor, by Dr. T. F. 
Wall, 363, 455. 

Timber, black lines caused by 
Xylaria polymorpha, by A. H. 
Campbell, 388, 457. 

Timber, French and British cleavage 
tests, by Prof. E. G. Coker and 
Dr. R. Levi, 359, 455. 

Timber preservation on estates, by 
R. C. B. Gardner, 393, 457. 

Tin amalgams, crystalline nature, 
by F. W. Spiers, 305*. 

Tonks, L. H., Millstone Grit and 
Carboniferous Limestone, 326*. 
Tourmaline, secondary crystallisa- 

tion in Lower Devonian sediments, 


119 


Michigan, by Mrs. S. W. Alty, 
330. 

Town and country planning, by 
Dr. V. Cornish, 342, 454. 

Tracheidal variation in ferns, by 
Dr. H. Duerden, 390, 457. 

Trade cycle and business statistics, 
by F. W. Paish, 354*. 

Transit circle, for Royal Observa- 
tory, Greenwich, by W. M. H. 
Greaves, 317*. 

Tree, the growing, by Prof. J. H. 
Priestley, 185, 389*. 

Tree seedlings, forest, influence of 
nutrition, by Dr. R. N. Aldrich- 
Blake, 389, 457. 

TriFFitt, Dr. M. J., Applications 
of helminthology to agriculture 
and horticulture, 337*. 

TRITTON, Sir S. B., Steam power, 
railways, 360, 455. 

Tropical plant diseases, by Dr. E. J. 
Butler, 388*. 

TrueMAN, Prof. A. E., Millstone 
Grit and Carboniferous Lime- 
stone, 326, 453. 

TYNDALL, Prof. A. M., Mobility of 
positive ions in gases, 300, 452. 
TYRRELL, Dr. G. W., Geographical 
distribution of volcanoes, 344*. 
Origin of igneous rocks, 331*, 


453, Appdx. 123. 


UttyotTt, P., Distribution of Plan- 
arias, 386. 


Vapour-pressure, continuous re- 
cords, by Dr. F. J. W. Whipple, 
309*, 451, 452. 

VaucHan, Dr. W. W., Place of 
science in education of boys and 
girls, 405*, 457. 

Versey, Dr. H. C., Glacial gravels 
along margin of Yorkshire Wolds, 
329. 

Vertigo and disorientation, by Dr. 
T. G. Maitland, 380*. 

Vessel segments, multi-perforate 
end-walls, by Dr. L. Chalk, 389. 
Vibration, maintenance by appli- 
cation of cold, by Miss M. D. 

Waller, 314, 452. 

Vocational guidance, by Dr. C. S. 

Myers, 381, 456. 


120 
Vocational guidance, by Dr. A. 
Macrae, 382*, 456. 
Vocational tests, report on, 292, 
375*. 
discussion by E. Farmer, 375*, 
456. 


Volcanoes, geographical distribution, 
by Dr. G. W. Tyrrell, 344*. 


Wales, frontier dykes, by Dr. C. 
Fox, 370. 

Wa tker, E., Continued education 
of adolescents in Yorkshire, 404, 
457, Appdx. 124. 

Wa tker, Prof. M., Call to Engineer 
and Scientist, 131, 358*, 455. 

Watt, Dr. T. F., Speed and power 
factors of three-phase induction 
motors, 363, 455. 

Wa ter, Miss M. D., Maintenance 
of vibration by application of 
cold, 314, 452. 

Water, biological balance in fresh, 
discussion by Dr. W. H. Pearsall, 
Dr. W. Rushton and H. D. Slack, 
Dr. R. W. Butcher, R. S. A. 
Beauchamp and P. Ullyott, Dr. L. 
Lloyd, Prof. F. Balfour-Browne, 
Dr. G. S. Carter, J. T. Saunders, 
Prof. H. S. Holden, 385, 457. 

Water-algal balance, by Dr. W. H. 
Pearsall, 385*. 

Water films in clay, by Dr. R. K. 
Schofield, 414. 

Water-level and river-flow in British 
Isles, organisation required, dis- 
cussion by Capt. W. N. McClean, 
Capt. J. C. A. Roseveare, W.J.S. 
Binnie, E. G. Bilham, J. K. 
Swales, C. C. Smith, W. J. M. 
Menzies, Capt. J.G. Withycombe, 
D.H. Thomson, Vice-Adml.H.P. 
Douglas, W. T. Halcrow, A. W. 
McPherson, J. S. Thoms, 310, 
451, Appdx. 123. 

Water pollution (River Tees), dis- 
cussion by Dr. H. T. Calvert, 
J. Longwell, Dr. R. W. Butcher 
and F. T. K. Pentelow, Dr. B. A. 
Southgate, W. B. Alexander, R. 
Bassindale, 322, 452. 

WartTKINs, Sir P., Contribution of 
secondary school to technical 
education, 406, 458. 


INDEX 


Watson, Prof. J. A. S., Reducing 
production costs of beef, 411, 458. 

Watt, Dr. A. S., System of forestry 
for British Isles, 393*. 

Watts, Prof. W. W., on Paleozoic 
rocks of England and Wales, 299. 
—— Science in education of boys 

and girls, 405*, 457. 


WEDDELL, Miss M., Secondary 
school course in domestic science, 
405, 457, 458. 


Wegener’s Greenland Expedition, 
1930-31, geophysical results, by 
Dr. J. Georgi, 344*. 

WELLS, Dr. A. K., Origin of igneous 
rocks, 331*, 453, Appdx. 123. 

Rhythmically banded sills at 
Godolphin, Cornwall, 328. 

Welsh folk culture, by I. C. Peate, 
373, 456. 

WENTWORTH-SHEILDS, 
Earth pressures, 287. 

West Riding, distribution of occu- 
pations, by H. C. K. Henderson, 
341. 

Wheat, changes in world areas, by 
G. V. Jacks, 345. 

WHEELER, Prof. R. H., ‘ Gestalt’ 
compared with other trends, 377. 

Wuippte, A. H., Domestic science 
as educating instrument, 406%, 
457. 

Wuipete, Dr. F. J. W., Continuous 
records of vapour-pressure, 309%, 
451, 452. 

on Seismological investigations, 
257. 

WHuipPLe, R. S., Instrument-maker 
and control and measurement of 
humidity, 309*, 451, 452. 

Waite, Prof. R. G., Sheep Farming : 
distinctive feature of British agri- 
culture, 229, 407*. 

WHITEHEAD, Dr. T., Respiration of 
healthy and leaf-roll potatoes, 
392. 

Wild life, conservation, and national 
parks, discussion by Dr. V. 
Cornish, Prof. F. G. Baily, H. 
Burgess, Prof. J. E. Duerden, 
H. E. Forrest, H. E. Salmon, 


F. E., on 


449. 

Wild life, local societies and conser- 
vation, by Lt.-Col. Sir D. Prain, 
437. 


INDEX 


Will, suggestion and hypnotism, by 
Dr. W. Brown, 377, Appdx. 124. 

WIix.iAMs, Rev. H. G., Pygmy flints 
from Cleveland hills, 372. 


WILLIAMS-FREEMAN, J. P., Chiches- / 


ter earthworks, 371, 456. 

Wixiiiamson, A. V., York in its 
regional setting, Appdx. 3. 

Wi.uiamson, Mrs. H. S., Fruit in 
Ascomycetes, 388, 457. 

Willow problem, by Dr. 
Davy, 394, 457. 

WILSON, Sir A., Science in education 
of boys and girls, 405*, 457. 

Witson, R. F., Colour and colour 
cycles, 356. 

Winson, C. G., Psychological basis 
of wool-sorting, 302, 452. 

WITHYCOMBE, Capt. J. G., Water- 
level and river-flow in British 
Isles, 312, 451, Appdx. 123. 

Population maps, 344. 

Wood, chemistry of hemi-celluloses 
of, by Dr. M. H. O’Dwyer, 396, 
457. 

Wood anatomy, by B. J. Rendle, 
389, 457. 

Woopcock, A. J. A., Zoology of 
York district, Appdx. 28. 

Natural history of York dis- 
trict, e@32*: 

Woopueap, N., Pollen analysis of 
Snowdonian peats, 385. 

WoopuHeaD, Dr. T. W., Yorkshire 
plant ecology, 383, Appdx. 22. 

Woodworking research, by P. Harris, 
396, 457. 

WootpripcE, Dr. S. W., Historical 
geography of S.E. England, 345. 
Wool-sorting, psychological basis, 
by Dr. S. G. Barker and C. G. 

Winson, 302, 451, 452. 

Wool-textile industry of Pennines, 
by W. B. Crump, 341. 

Wray, Dr. D. A., Physiographic 
evolution of southern Pennine 
area in Upper Carboniferous 
period, 329. 

Wricut, Dr. N. C., Wastage in 
dairy cows, 458. 

Wricut, S. J., Tractor and farming 
costs, 409, 458. 

Wricut, Dr. W. B., Millstone Grit 
and Carboniferous Limestone, 


oie 


had. | 


I2I 


Wricut, Dr. W..B., Pre-glacial 
shore-line in Achill Island, 331. 
Wye, physiographic evolution of 
lower valley, by A. A. Miller, 

347. 


Xylaria polymorpha, causing black 
lines in timber, by A. H. Camp- 
bell, 388, 457. 


YonGE, Dr. C. M., Influence of 
feeding and digestion on evolu- 
tion, 333, Appdx. 123. 

York, agriculture in N. Vale, by 
W.S. Gibson, Appdx. 93. 

York, agriculture in S. Vale, by 
W.E. Gelling, Appdx. 95. 

York, agriculture N.E. of, by D. H. 
Findlay, Appdx. 92. 

York, beginnings, by Rev. A. Raine, 


364. 
York, Buckingham Works, Appdx. 
8 


York, climate and variations, 1871- 


1930, by E. G. Bilham, 316, 
Appdx. 13. 

York, education, by G. H. Gray, 
Appdx. 61. 


York, first meeting of B.A., 1831, by 
Dr. O. J. R. Howarth, Appdx. 


97. 

York, growth in history, by Prof. 
A. H. Thompson, 339*. 

York, industries, by A. N. Shimmin, 
Appdx. 76. 

York, physical setting, by Prof. P. F. 
Kendall, 338. 

York, psychological selection, dis- 
cussion by Dr. V. Moorrees, Dr. 
C..H. Northcott), Dr: iC. Wi: 
Kimmins, Sir R. Gregory, 378, 
402*, 456. 

York, regional setting, by A. V. 
Williamson, Appdx. 3. 

York, Roman excavations, by Rev. 
A. Raine, Appdx. 52. 

York, soils of Vale, by H. T. Jones, 
Appdx. 9o. 

York and district, scientific survey, 
Appdx. 3. 

York district, engineering features, 
by H. R. Lupton, Appdx. 77. 


122 


York district, geology, by C. E. N. 
Bromehead, 325*, Appdx. 8. 

York district, historical geography, by 
Prof. H. Thompson, Appdx. 35. 

York district, natural history, by 
A. J. A. Woodcock, 332*. 

York district, Zoology, by A. J. A. 
Woodcock, Appdx. 28. 

YorKE, J. P., Relation of technical 
to secondary education, 406, 458. 

Yorkshire, education in, ‘discussion 
by Sir j. B. Baillie, Prof, Coats 
Desch, Dr. J. Strong, R. R. 
Kimbell, Prof. T. H. Searls, G. H. 
Thompson, A. S. Rowntree, E. 
Walker, H. W. Locke, 402, 457, 
Appdx. 124. 

Yorkshire, human geography of 
moorlands of N.E., by F. Elgee, 
340, 454. 

Yorkshire, invasions of, by Miss K. 
Clark, 367. 


INDEX 


Yorkshire, prehistoric archeology, by 
F. Elgee, Appdx. 40, 454. 

Yorkshire, Roman West, by Dr. A. 
Raistrick; 367. 

Yorkshire place- -names, by Dr. A. H. 
Smith, 374*. 

Yorkshire plant ecology, by Dr. T. W. 
Woodhead, 383, Appdx. 22. 

Yorkshire Wolds, glacial gravels 
along margin, by C. W. Peacock 
and Dr. H. C. Versey, 329. 


Zechmeister, Prof. Dr. L., Enzy- 
matic cleavage of cellulose and 
breakdown products, 320, 453. 

Zoology of York district, by A. J. A 
Woodcock, Appdx. 28. 

Zuckerman, Dr. S., Primates and 
early man, 337*, 454. 


ADDENDA TO 
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF 
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 


AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS. 


(See pp. 451-458. The following references were received 
after those pages had gone to press.) 


SECTION A. 
River-flow discussion.— Water & Water Eng., Nov. 20 (1932). 
McLennan, Prof. J. C—Proc. Roy. Soc., Oct. (1932). 
Smith, T.—In extended form in Journ. Sci. Instruments. 
Temple, Prof. G.—To appear in Proc. Roy. Soc., A. 


SECTION C. 
Igneous rocks, discussion.— Nature, 180, 3289, p. 745, Nov. 12 (1932). 


SECTION D. 

Balfour-Browne, Prof. F.—To be published by Zool. Soc. Lond.; cf- 
B.A. Report (1928). 

Carter, Dr. G. S.—Expected to appear in Journ. Exp. Biol.; cf. tibid., 
fy Os 9. 

Roebuck, A.— Yorks. Herald, Sept. 2 (1932) ; expected to appear in Fourn. 
Ministry Agric.; cf. Agric. Progress, 3 (1930). 

Yonge, Dr. C. M.—Cf. Biol. Revs., 8, pp. 21-76 (1928) ; Journ. Cong. 
Internat. Explor. de la Mer, 6, pp. 175-212 (1931). 


SECTION E. 


Allen, E.—To appear in Scot. Geog. Mag. 
Daysh, G. H. J—To appear in Scot. Geog. Mag. 


DEPARTMENT F*. 


Dent, A. G. H.—To appear in Business. 
Pearson, Dr. E. S—May appear in Engineering. 


SecTIon H. 
Aitken, Mrs. R—Expected to appear in Amer. Anthropologist. 
Earthy, Miss E. D.—Cf. Ann. Pretoria Museum ; Sth. African Journ. Sct. ; 
Bantu Studies ; Africa. 


124 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 


SECTION J. 


Brown, Dr. W.—On ‘ Suggestion, hypnotism and will,’ Lancet, Nov. 12 


(1932). 
Knight, R.—Cf. Nature, 180, 3287, p. 649, Oct. 29 (1932). 


SECTION K. 
Bancroft, Dr. H.—Expected to appear in Geologiska Féreningens Férhand- 
lingar ; cf. Ann. Bot., 46 (1932) ; New Physiologist, 31 (1932). 
Doyle, Prof. J—To appear in Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., B. 
Saxton, W. T.—To appear in Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., B. 


DEPARTMENT K*., 


Rietz, Dr. G. E. du.—Expected to appear in Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift ; 
cf. ibid., 25 (1932). 
SECTION L. 


Education in Yorkshire, discussion.— Yorks. Herald, Sept. 6 (1932). 
Baillie, Sir J. B—WNature, 180, 3289, p. 726, Nov. 12 (1932). 


SEcTION M. 
Stewart, W. A.— Ministry of Agric., Bull. 32; fourn. Min. Agric., Oct. 
(1932). 


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