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REPORT

SEVENTH MEETING

BRITISH ASSOCIATION

ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE;

HELD AT LIVERPOOL IN SEPTEMBER 1837.

VOL. VI.

LONDON:
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET.

1838.

riUNTED BY RICHARD AND JOHN E. TAYLOR,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

CONTENTS.

Page
Objects and Rules of the Association v

Officers and Council viii

Treasurer's Account xi

Reports, Researches, and Desiderata xii

Address of Professor Traill .~. xxv

Communications to the General Evening Meetings xliii

REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at
different Points of the Earth's Surface. By Major Edward
Sabine, R.A., F.R.S 1

Report on the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind.
By the Rev. William Taylor, F.R.S ' 87

Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which
have been obtained by means of the grant of money which was
placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the last
Meeting of the Association. By J. W. Lubbock, Esq., F.R.S. 103

On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron produced
by the Cold and the Hot Blast. By Thomas Thomson, M.D.,
F.R.S., L. & E., &c, Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow 117

Notice of the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the
Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British
Association. By the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D 127

Report of some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins,
and the Temperature of Mines. By Robert Were Fox .... 133

CONTENTS.

Page

Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section of the
British Association, appointed to investigate the Composition
of Secretions, and the Organs producing them 139

Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of the
Glands, &c, of the Human Body. By G. O. Rees, M.D., F.G.S. 149

Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British Asso-
ciation Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of the Heart 1 55

On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimorphous
Bodies. By Professor Johnston, F.R.S 163

Special Report on the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Duk-
hun, under the British Government. By Colonel Sykes, F.R.S. 217

On the relative Strength and other Mechanical Properties of Cast
Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast. By Eaton Hodgkinson 337

Report on the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from
the Hot and Cold Blast. By William Fairbairn 377

Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British As-
sociation at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir John Robi-
son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and
John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S. Edinb., (Reporter) 417

Note by Major Sabine, being an Appendix to his Report on the
Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at different Points
of the Earth's Surface 497

Report from Mr. James Yates, as one of the Committee for ma-
king Experiments on the Growth of Plants under Glass, and
without any free Communication with the outward Air, on the
Plan of Mr. N. I. Ward, of London 501

OBJECTS AND RULES

THE ASSOCIATION.

OBJECTS.

The Association contemplates no interference with the ground
occupied by other Institutions. Its objects are, — To give a
stronger impulse and a more systematic direction to scientific
inquiiy, — to promote the intercourse of those who cultivate Sci-
ence in different parts of the British Empire, with one another,
and with foreign philosophers, — to obtain a more general atten-
tion to the objects of Science, and a removal of any disadvan-
tages of a public kind, which impede its progress.

RULES.

MEMBERS.

All Persons who have attended the first Meeting shall be
entitled to become Members of the Association, upon subscri-
bing an obligation to conform to its Rules.

The Fellows and Members of Chartered Literary and Philo-
sophical Societies publishing Transactions, in the British Em-
pire, shall be entitled, in like manner, to become Members of
the Association.

The Officers and Members of the Councils, or managing
Committees, of Philosophical Institutions, shall be entitled, in
like manner, to become Members of the Association.

All Members of a Philosophical Institution recommended by
its Council or Managing Committee, shall be entitled, in like
manner, to become Members of the Association.

Persons not belonging to such Institutions shall be elected by
the General Committee or Council, to become Members of the
Association, subject to the approval of a General Meeting.

RULES OF TIIE ASSOCIATION.

SUBSCRIPTIONS.

The amount of the Aunual Subscription shall be One Pound,
to be paid in advance upon admission ; and the amount of the
composition in lieu thereof, Five Pounds.

Subscriptions shall be received by the Treasurer or Secre-
taries.

If the annual subscription of any Member shall have been in
arrear for two years, and shall not be paid on proper notice, he
shall cease to be a member ; but it shall be in the power of the
Committee or Council to reinstate him, on payment of arrears.

MEETINGS.

The Association shall meet annually, for one week, or longer.
The place of each Meeting shall be appointed by the General
Committee at the previous Meeting ; and the Arrangements
for it shall be entrusted to the Officers of the Association.

GENERAL COMMITTEE*.

The General Committee shall sit during the time of the
Meeting, or longer, to transact the business of the Association.
It shall consist of all Members present, who have communicated
any scientific Paper to a Philosophical Society, which Paper
has been printed in its Transactions, or with its concurrence.

Members of Philosophical Institutions, being Members of
this Association, who may be sent as Deputies to any Meeting
of the Association, shall be Members of the Committee for that
Meeting, the number being limited to two from each Institution.

SECTIONAL COMMITTEES.

The General Committee shall appoint, at each Meeting,
Committees, consisting severally of the Members most conver-
sant with the several branches of Science, to advise together for
the advancement thereof.

The Committees shall report what subjects of investigation
they would particularly recommend to be prosecuted during the
ensuing year, and brought under consideration at the next
Meeting.

* The constitution of the General Committee was discussed at Liverpool,
and at the close of the meeting notice was given, that attention would be
directed to the reconsideration of the laws of the constitution of the General
Committee at the next meeting of the Association in Newcastle.

RULES OF THE ASSOCIATION. Vll

The Committees shall recommend Reports on the state and
progress of particular Sciences, to be drawn up from time to
time by competent persons, for the information of the Annual
Meetings.

COMMITTEE OP RECOMMENDATIONS.

The General Committee shall appoint at each Meeting a Com-
mittee, which shall receive and consider the Recommendations
of the Sectional Committees, and report to the General Com-
mittee the measures which they would advise to be adopted for
the advancement of science.

LOCAL COMMITTEES.

Local Committees shall be formed by the Officers of the Asso-
ciation to assist in making arrangements for the Meetings.

Committees shall have the power of adding to their numbers
those Members of the Association whose assistance they may
desire.

OFFICERS.

A President, two or more Vice-Presidents, two or more Se-
cretaries, and a Treasurer, shall be annually appointed by the
General Committee.

COUNCIL.

In the intervals of the Meetings the affairs of the Association
shall be managed by a Council, appointed by the General Com-
mittee. The Council may also assemble for the dispatch of
business during the week of the Meeting.

PAPERS AND COMMUNICATIONS.

The Author of any paper or communication shall be at liberty
to reserve his right of property therein.

ACCOUNTS.

The Accounts of the Association shall be audited annually, by
Auditors appointed by the Meeting.

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

OFFICERS AND COUNCIL, 1837-38.

Trustees {permanent.)— Charles Babbage, Esq. R. I. Mur-
chison, Esq. John Taylor, Esq.

President. — The Earl of Burlington.

President elect.— His Grace the Duke of Northumberland.

Vice-Presidents. — The Bishop of Durham, F.R.S., F.S.A.
The Rev. W. Vernon Hareourt, F.R.S., &c. Prideaux John
Selby, Esq., F.R.S.E.

Vice-Presidents elect. — The Right Rev. The Bishop of Nor-
wich. Rev. William Whewell. John Dalton, LL.D. Sir
Philip Egerton, Bart., M.P.

General Secretaries. — R. I. Murchison, Esq. Rev. Professor
Peacock.

Assistant General -Secretary.— Professor Phillips, York.

Secretaries for Newcastle. — J. Adamson, Esq. William
Hutton, Esq. Professor Johnston.

Treasurer. — John Taylor, Esq., 2, Duke Street, Adelphi.

Treasurers to the Neiucastle Meeting. — Rev. W. Turner.
Charles Bigge, Esq.

Council— Francis Baily, Esq., Treas. R.S. Professor
Christie, Woolwich. Professor Graham, London. J. E. Gray,
British Museum. G. B. Greenough, Esq., Regent's Park.
Professor Henslow, Cambridge. Dr. Hodgkin. Rev. F. W.
Hope. Robert Hutton, Esq., M.P. W. S. MacLeay, Esq.
Professor Powell, Oxford. Dr. Roget. Colonel Sykes.

Secretary to the Council. — James Yates, Esq., 49, Upper
Bedford Place, London.

Local Treasurers. — Dr. Daubeny, Oxford. Professor Hens-
low, Cambridge. Dr. Orpen, Dublin. Charles Forbes, Esq.,
Edinburgh. William Gray, jun., Esq., York. George Ben-
gough, Esq., Bristol. Samuel Turner, Esq., Liverpool. Rev.
John James Tayler, Manchester. James Russell, Esq., Bir-
mingham. William Hutton, Esq., Newcastle-upon-Tyne.
Henry Woollcombe, Esq., Plymouth.

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES. IX

OFFICERS OF SECTIONAL COMMITTEES AT THE
LIVERPOOL MEETING.

SECTION A.— MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE.

President. — Sir D. Brewster.

Vice-Presidents.— J ". W. Lubbock, Esq. F. Baily, Esq.
Rev. Professor Peacock.

Secretaries.— Bar. Professor Powell. Professor Stevelly.
W. S. Harris, Esq.

SECTION B. CHEMISTRY AND MINERALOGY.

President. — Dr. Faraday.

Vice- Presidents.— Professor Daniell. Professor Graham.
Dr. Apjohn.

Secretaries.— Professor Johnston. Dr. Reynolds. Pro-
fessor Miller.

SECTION C. — GEOLOGY AND GEOGRAPHY.

President.— Rev. Professor Sedgwick. (For Geography)
G. B. Greenough, Esq.

Vice-Presidents.— Leonard Horner, Esq. Lord Lole. tl.
T. De la Beche, Esq.

Secretaries.— Captain Portlock. R. Hutton, Esq. (JJor
Geography) Captain H. M. Denham, R. N.

SECTION D. — ZOOLOGY AND BOTANY.

President.— W. S. MacLeay, Esq.

Vice-Presidents.— Dr. Richardson. Professor Graham.
Professor Lindley. .

Secretaries.— C. C. Babington, Esq. W. Swamson, Esq.
Rev. L. Jenyns.

SECTION E. MEDICAL SCIENCE.

President.— Professor W. Clark, M.D.
Vice-Presidents.— James Carson, M.D. Peter Mark Roget,
M.D. Robert Bickersteth, Esq. Professor R. T. Bvanson,

M fecretaries.-J a mes Carson, Jan., M.D. J. R. W. Vose,
M.D. James Long, Esq.

SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

SECTION F. STATISTICS.

President. — Lord Sandon.

Vice-Presidents. — Col. Sykes,Esq. G. R. Porter, Esq. James
Heywood, Esq.

Secretaries.— W. R. Greg, Esq. Dr. W. C. Taylor. W.
Langton, Esq.

SECTION G. MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

President. — Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.

Vice-Presidents. — Dr. Lardner. Professor Wheatstone.
Professor Willis.

Secretaries. — Thomas Webster, Esq. Charles Vignolles,
Esq.

CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.

Professor Agassiz, Neufchatel. M. Arago, Secretary of the
Institute, Paris. Professor Berzelius, Stockholm. Professor
De la Rive, Geneva. Professor Dumas, Paris. Baron Alexan-
der von Humboldt, Berlin. Professor Liebig, Giessen. Pro-
fessor CErsted, Copenhagen. Jean Plana, Astronomer Royal,
Turin. M. Quetelet, Brussels. Professor Schumacher, Altona.

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xii SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

The following Reports on the 2»'ogress and desiderata of dif-
ferent branches of science have been drawn up at the request
of the Association, and printed in its Transactions.

Vol. I.

On the progress of Astronomy during the present century,
by G. B. Airy, M.A., Astronomer Royal.

On the state of our knowledge respecting Tides, by J. W.
Lubbock, M.A., Vice-President of the Royal Society.

On the recent progress and present state of Meteorology,
by James D. Forbes, F.R.S., Professor of Natural Philosophy,
Edinburgh.

On the present state of our knowledge of the Science of Ra-
diant Heat, by the Rev. Baden Powell, M.A., F.R.S., Savilian
Professor of Geometry, Oxford.

On Thermo-electricity, by the Rev. James Cumming, M.A.,
F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry, Cambridge.

On the recent progress of Optics, by Sir David Brewster,
K.C.G., LL.D., F.R.S., &c.

On the recent progress and present state of Mineralogy, by
the Rev. William Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.

On the progress, actual state, and ulterior prospects of
Geology, by the Rev. William Conybeare, M.A., F.R.S.,
V.P.G.S., &c.

On the recent progress and present state of Chemical Science,
by J. F. W. Johnston, A.M., Professor of Chemistry, Durham.

On the application of Philological and Physical researches to
the History of the Human Species, by J. C. Prichard, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c.

Vol. II.

On the advances which have recently been made in certain
branches of Analysis, by theRev. G. Peacock, M.A.,F.R.S.,&c.

On the present state of the Analytical Theory of Hydrostatics
and Hydrodynamics, by the Rev. John Challis, M. A., F.R.S., &c.

On the state of our knowledge of Hydraulics, considered as a
branch of Engineering, by George Rennie, F.R.S. , &c. (Parts
I. and II.)

On the state of our knowledge respecting the Magnetism of
the Earth, by S. H. Christie, M.A., F.R.S., Professor of Mathe-
matics, Woolwich.

On the state of our knowledge of the Strength of Materials,
by Peter Barlow, F.R.S.

On the state of our knowledge respecting Mineral Veins, by
John Taylor, F.R.S., Treasurer G.S., &c.

DESIDERATA, ETC. Xlll

On the state of the Physiology of the Nervous System, hy
William Charles Henry, M.D.

On the recent progressof Physiological Botany, by John Lind-
ley, F.R.S., Professor of Botany in the University of London.

Vol. III.

On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S.

On the philosophy of Contagion, byWm. Henry,M.D.,F.R.S.

On the state of Physiological Knowledge, by the Rev. William
Clark, M.D., F.G.S. , Professor of Anatomy, Cambridge.

On the state and progress of Zoology, by the Rev. Leonard
Jenyns, M.A., F.L.S., &c.

On the theories of Capillary Attraction, and of the Propaga-
tion of Sound as affected by the development of Heat, by the
Rev. John Challis, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

On the state of the science of Physical Optics, by the Rev.
H. Lloyd, M.A., Professor of Natural Philosophy, Dublin.

Vol. IV.

On the state of our knowledge respecting the application of
Mathematical and Dynamical principles to Magnetism, Electri-
city, Heat, &c, by the Rev. Wm. Whewell, M.A., F.R.S.

On Hansteen's researches in Magnetism, by Captain Sabine,
F.R.S.

On the state of Mathematical and Physical Science in Bel-
gium, by M. Quetelet, Director of the Observatory, Brussels.

Vol. V.

On the present state of our knowledge with respect to Mine-
ral and Thermal Waters, by Charles Daubeny, M.D., F.R.S.,
M.R.I. A., &c, Professor of Chemistry and of Botany, Oxford.

On North American Zoology, by John Richardson, M.D.,
F.R.S., &c.

Supplementary report on the Mathematical Theory of Fluids,
by the Rev. J. Challis, Plumian Professor of Astronomy in the
University of Cambridge.

Vol. VI.

On the variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed at dif-
ferent points of the Earth's Surface, by Major Edward Sabine,
R.A., F.R.S.

On the various modes of Printing for the use of the Blind,
by the Rev. William Taylor, F.R.S.

On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor-
phous Bodies, by Professor Johnston.

On the Statistics of the Four Collectorates of Dukhun, under
the British Government.

SEVENTH REPORT— 1837,

The following Reports of Researches undertaken at the re-
quest of the Association have been published, viz.

Vol. IV.

On the comparative measurement of the Aberdeen Standard
Scale, by Francis Baily, Treasurer R.S., &c.

On Impact upon Beams, by Eaton Hodgkinson.

Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terrestrial
Magnetic Force in Ireland, by the Rev. H. Lloyd, Capt. Sabine,
and Capt. J. C. Ross.

On the Phaenomena usually referred to the Radiation of Heat,
by H. Hudson, M.D.

Experiments on Rain at different elevations, by Wm. Gray,
jun. and Professor Phillips.

Hourly observations of the Thermometer at Plymouth, by
W. S. Harris.

On the Infra-orbital Cavities in Deers and Antelopes, by A.
Jacob, M.D.

On the Effects of Acrid Poisons, by T. Hodgkin, M.D.

On the Motions and Sounds of the Heart, by the Dublin Sub-
Committee.

On the Registration of Deaths, by the Edinburgh Sub-Com-
mittee.

Vol. V.

Observations on the Direction and Intensity of the Terres-
trial Magnetic Force in Scotland, by Major Edward Sabine,
R.A. : F.R.S., &c.

Comparative view of the more remarkable Plants which cha-
racterize the Neighbourhood of Dublin, the Neighbourhood of
Edinburgh, and the South-west of Scotland, &c; drawn up for
the British Association, by J. T. Mackay, M.R.I.A., A.L.S.,
&c, assisted by Robert Graham, Esq., M.D., Professor of
Botany in the University of Edinburgh.

Report of the London Sub-Committee of the Medical Section
of the British Association on the Motions and Sounds of the
Heart.

Second Report of the Dublin Sub-Committee on the Motions
and Sounds of the Heart. (See vol. iv. p. 243.)

Report of the Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the
Brain and Nervous System.

Account of the recent Discussions of Observations of the
Tides which have been obtained by means of the grant of Money
which was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose
at the last Meeting of the Association, by J. W. Lubbock, Esq.

DESIDERATA, ETC. XV

Observations for determining the refractive Indices for the
Standard Rays of the Solar Spectrum in various media, by the
Rev. Baden Powell, M.A.,F.R.S., Savilian Professor of Geome-
try in the University of Oxford.

Provisional Report on the Communication between the Arte-
ries and Absorbents on the part of the London Committee, by
Dr. Hodgkin.

Report of Experiments on Subterranean Temperature, under
the direction of a Committee, consisting of Professor Forbes,
Mr. W. S. Harris, Professor Powell, Lieut. Colonel Sykes, and
Professor Phillips, (Reporter.)

Inquiry into the Validity of a Method recently proposed by
George B. Jerrard, Esq., for Transforming and Resolving
Equations of Elevated Degrees : undertaken at the request of
the Association by Professor Sir W. R. Hamilton.

Vol. VI.

Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides
which have been obtained by means of the grant of money which
was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at the
last Meeting of the Association, by J. W. Lubbock, Esq.,
F.R.S.

On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron
produced by the Cold and the Hot Blast, by Thomas Thomson,
M.D., F.R.S. , L. & E., &c, Professor of Chemistry, Glasgow.

On the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by the
Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the British
Association, by the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.

On some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic Veins,
and the Temperature of Mines, by Robert Were Fox.

Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section
of the British Association, appointed to investigate the Com-
position of Secretions, and the Organs producing them.

Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of
the Glands, &c, of the Human Body, by G. O. Rees, M.D.
F.G.S.

Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British
Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of
the Heart.

Report from the Committee for making experiments on the
Growth of Plants under Glass, and without any free communi-
cation with the outward air, on the plan of Mr. N. I. Ward,
of London.

Report of the Committee on Waves, appointed by the British
Association at Bristol in 1836, and consisting of Sir John Robi-

Xvi SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

son, K.H., Secretary of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and
John Scott Russell, Esq., M.A., F.R.S., Edin. (Reporter).

On the relative strength and other Mechanical Properties of
Cast Iron obtained by Hot and Cold Blast, by Eaton Hodgkinson.

On the Strength and other Properties of Iron obtained from
the Hot and Cold Blast, by W. Fairbairn.

The following Reports and Continuations of Reports have been
undertaken to be drawn up at the request of the Association.

On the progress of Electro-chemistry and Electro-magnet-
ism, so far as regards the experimental part of the subject, by
P. M. Roget, M.D., Sec. R.S.

On the Connexion of Electricity and Magnetism, by S. H.
Christie, Sec. R.S.

On the state of knowledge of the Phaenomena of Sound, by
Rev. Robert Willis, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

On the state of our knowledge respecting the relative level
of Land and Sea, and the waste and extension of the land on
the east coast of England, by R. Stevenson, Engineer to the
Northern Lighthouses, Edinburgh.

On the Botany of North America, by Jacob Greene, M.D.,
and Professor Sir W. J. Hooker, M.D.

On the Geographical Distribution of Insects, and particu-
larly of the order Coleoptera, by J. Wilson, F.R.S.E.

On circumstances in Vegetation influencing the Medicinal
Virtues of Plants, by R. Christison, M.D.

On Salts, by Professor Graham, F.R.S.

On the progress of Medical Science in Germany, by Dr.
Graves.

On the Differential and Integral Calculus, by Rev. Professor
Peacock, M.A., F.R.S., &c.

On the Geology of North America, by H. D. Rogers, F.G.S.,
Professor of Geology, Philadelphia.

On the Mineral Riches of Great Britain, by John Taylor,
F.R.S., G.S.

On Vision, by Professor C. Wheatstone, F.R.S.

On the application of a General Principle in Dynamics to
the Theory of the Moon, by Professor Sir W. Hamilton.

On Isomeric Bodies, by Professor Liebig.

On Organic Chemistry, by Professor Liebig.

On Inorganic Chemistry, by Professor Johnston, F.R.S.

On Fossil Reptiles, by Professor Owen, F.R.S.

On the Salmonidae of Scotland, by Sir J. W. Jardine.

On the Caprimulgidaj, by N. Gould, F.L.S.

On theGeneraof Fossil Insects, byRev. F.W.Hope, F.L.S.j&c.

DESIDERATA, ETC.

Reports requested, Researches recommended, and Desiderata
noticed by the Committees of Science at the Liverpool
Meeting *.

ASTRONOMY.

For the reduction of observations on Stars in the Histoire
Celeste and the volumes of the Academie des Sciences for
1789 and 1790 (see vol. iv. p. xv.) 500/. was placed at the dis-
posal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. Baily, Prof. Airy, and
Rev. Dr. Robinson.

For the extension of the Catalogue of the Astronomical So-
ciety, so as to include all the stars in Bessel's Fundamenta
Astronomiae, as well as some other stars both in the north-
ern and southern hemisphere, which have since been found to
come within the original scope and intention of that Catalogue,
or which from peculiar circumstances of position, magnitude,
discordance, or proper motion, might advantageously be in-
cluded therein (the whole of the stars to be reduced to the year
1850, and the constants of precession, aberration and nuta-
tion to be computed for that epoch, with their secular varia-
tions), the sum of 500/. was placed at the disposal of a Com-
mittee, consisting of Mr. Baily, Prof. Airy, and Rev. Dr. Ro-
binson.

A Committee was appointed, consisting of Rev. Dr. Robin-
son, Mr. Baily, and Dr. Traill, to apply to the proper authori-
ties for the establishment of an astronomical observatory at
Liverpool.

A Committee was appointed, consisting of the President,
the Earl of Burlington, Mr. Lubbock, the Astronomer Royal,
Mr. Baily, Prof. Rigaud, Prof. Challis, Prof. Sir W. Hamilton,
Prof. Peacock, and Rev. Dr. Robinson, for the purpose of re-
presenting to Government the importance of reducing the
Greenwich observations of the moon.

TIDES.

For completing the discussions of Tides of the port of Bris-
tol, under the direction of Rev. Wm. Whewell, the sum of
75/. was granted.

A committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Whewell, Mr.
Lubbock, and Dr. Traill, to apply to the proper authorities for
the establishment of tide observations at Liverpool.

* In addition to or extension of those contained in vol. iv. and vol. v.

vol. vi. 1837. b

xv ji SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

WAVES.

For continuing the experimental investigations on Waves,
100/. was placed at the disposal of Sir J. Robison and Mr.
Russell.

METEOROLOGY.

The Committee for Meteorology and Subterranean Tempe-
rature received a further grant of 100/.

For hourly observations of the Barometer and Wet-bulb
Thermometer a grant of 50/. was placed at the disposal of Mr.
W. S. Harris.

For the construction of an Anemometer, on Mr. Osier's plan,
the sum of 40/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris
and Mr. Osier.

For the repairs of an Anemometer, on Mr. Whe well's plan,
10/. was placed at the disposal of Mr. W. S. Harris.

Application was directed to be made to the Dock Committee
of Liverpool, requesting that body to direct Meteorological
Observations to be made and recorded at the lighthouses and
telegraphs under their direction, in conformity with any instruc-
tions they may receive from the Meteorological Committee.

OPTICS.

For the purpose of an inquiry into the action of Gases on
the Solar Spectrum 100/. was placed at the disposal of Sir D.
Brewster.

For the purpose of constructing a Telescopic Lens of Rock
Salt, the grant of 80/., at the disposal of Sir D. Brewster, was
renewed.

Prof. Wheatstone was requested to present a Report on
Vision to the next Meeting of the Association.

Prof. Sir W. Hamilton was requested to consider and re-
port on the question of the practicability of applying his gene-
ral method of Dynamics to improve the Theory of the Moon.

CHEMISTRY.

For experiments on substances present in minute quantities
in Atmospheric Air the sum of 10/. was placed at the disposal
of Mr. West.

For a continuation of his Table of Chemical Constants the
sum of 30/. was placed at the disposal of Prof. Johnston.

DESIDERATA, ETC. XIX

For the institution of a series of experiments on the great
scale on the chemical and mechanical effects and changes pro-
duced on Cast and Wrought Iron, by the continued action of
Sea Water at various temperatures, and of foul River Water,
whether fresh or salt, the sum of 201. was placed at the disposal
of Prof. Davy and Mr. R. Mallet.

For the prosecution of experiments on the Action of Heat of
212° on Organic and Inorganic Bodies the sum of 10/. was
placed at the disposal of Mr. R. Mallet.

Prof. Liebig was requested to prepare a Report on the pre-
sent state of our knowledge in regard to Isomeric Bodies. He
was also requested to prepare a Report on the state of Organic
Chemistry and Organic Analysis.

Prof. Johnston was requested to prepare a Report on the
state of Inorganic Chemistry and Inorganic Analysis.

GEOLOGY.

For the purpose of carrying on the inquiry into the per-
manence of the Relative Level of Land and Sea, the sum of
2121., the remainder of the vote of last year (500), was placed
at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Rev. W. Whewell,
Col. Colby, Mr. Greenough, and Mr. Griffith.

For the purpose of advancing our knowledge of Fossil Ich-
thyology, by assisting the publication of M. Agassiz, the fur-
ther sum of 105/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee,
consisting of. Dr. Buckland, Prof. Sedgwick and Mr. Mur-
chison.

For the purpose of making excavations in the Peat Mosses
of Ireland the grant of 50/., at the disposal of Col. Colby, was
renewed.

For the purpose of making experiments on the quantity of
Mud in Rivers the grant of 201. was renewed, and placed at
the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. James Yates,
Mr. De la Beche and Capt. Denham.

It was stated to be desirable that a Report should be drawn
up on the present state of our knowledge of the effects of Volta
and Thermo-Electricity in the production of Crystals and the
modification of Mineral Substances, and the Council of the As-
sociation was requested to take steps for obtaining such a re-
port.

Prof. Owen was requested to draw up a Report on the pre-
sent state of our knowledge of the Fossil Reptiles of Great
Britain.

XX SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

It was stated to be desirable that Engineers and Proprietors of Railways
should be requested (where it is necessary to cover up sections) to preserve
Notes and Drawings of such sections, and to collect the Organic Fossils, if any,
and to transmit the same to the Geological Society of London.

The attention of geological observers was directed to the different varieties
of superficial Gravel and Detritus ; their origin, whether fresh-water or marine ;
their composition, whether of erratic or of local materials ; their position with
respect to the present form of the surface and one another ; their organic re-
mains, and other peculiarities.

NATURAL HISTORY.

The following reports and monographs were requested in
addition to such as are mentioned in vol. v. p. xv.

On the species of Salmonidae found in Scotland by Sir W.

Jardine.

On the Caprimulgida?, by Mr. Gould.
On the Genera of Fossil Insects belonging to Great Bri-
tain and Ireland, by the Rev. W. F. Hope.

For the purpose of collecting materials towards a Fauna of
Ireland, a Committee was formed, consisting of Capt. Portlock,
Mr. R. Ball, Mr. W. Thompson, Dr. Coulter, Mr. W. A.
Eyton, and Mr. Vigors, who was requested to act as Secretary
to the Committee.

Mr. J. E. Gray and Mr. R. Ball were requested to investigate
the mode by which Mollusca, Annelida, and other marine In-
vertebrata excavate rocks.

Capt. Ducane, R.N., was requested to continue his researches
concerning the Crustacea of the waters of Southampton.

For the purpose of experiments on the Growth of Plants in
Glass Vessels, on Mr. Ward's plan, the further sum of 50/. was
placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Mr. James
Yates, Dr. Daubeny, Prof. Henslow, and Mr. R. Ball.

For the purpose of experimenting on the best modes of Pre-
serving Animal and Vegetable Substances the sum of 251. was
placed at the disposal of a Committee, consisting of Prof. Hen-
slow, Mr. Jenyns, Dr. Clark, and Prof, dimming.

MEDICAL SCIENCE.

The following Committees were re-appointed :

For investigating the Anatomical Relations of the Absorbent
and Venous Systems in different classes of Animals, with 501.
at their disposal ; for inquiring into the Effects of Poisons on the
Animal Economy, with 251. at their disposal ; for the Chemical

DESIDERATA, ETC. XXI

Analysis of the Animal Secretions, with 251. at their disposal *;
for investigating the Pathology of the Brain and Nervous Sy-
stem, with 251. at their disposal ; for investigating the Sounds
of the Heart, the Committees of London and Dublin, with 251.
at the disposal of each.

A Committee was appointed, to consist of Dr. Carson and
other Members of the Association resident in Liverpool and
Manchester, for the purpose of making experiments on the
Lower Animals labouring under Diseases of the Lungs, to de-
termine the influence of local or general remedial means in the
Cure of these Diseases, with 251. at the disposal of the Com-
mittee.

A Committee was appointed, to consist of Dr. Williams and
other Members of the Association, to investigate the Physiology
of the Lungs, and Bronchi.

STATISTICS.

In furtherance of inquiries into the actual State of Schools
in England, considered merely as to numerical analysis, the
further sum of 150/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee
consisting of Lord Sandon, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Mr. G. R.
Porter.

In furtherance of inquiries into the Condition of the Work-
ing Population, specified in the form of numerical tables, the
sum of 100/. was placed at the disposal of a Committee, con-
sisting of Lord Sandon, Lieut.-Col. Sykes, and Mr. G. R.
Porter.

For the purpose of drawing up instructions for the Advance-
ment of Statistical Science a Committee was appointed, consist-
ing of Lord Sandon, Col. Sykes, Mr. Porter, Mr. W. Langton,
Mr. W. R. Greg, and Mr. J. Heywood, with power to add to
their number.

MECHANICAL SCIENCE.

For the prosecution of experiments on the Strength of
Cast Iron, produced by the application of the Hot and the
Cold Blast, and the extension of the same to Wrought Iron, the
Committee, originally composed of Mr. E. Hodgkinson and
Mr. W. Fairbairn, was enlarged by the addition of Prof. Willis,
Mr. Donkin, and Mr. P. Clare, with 100/. at their disposal.

For procuring, printing, and circulating periodical statements

* Mr. Gokling Bird was added to this Committee.

XXli SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

of the Duties of Steam Engines in Cornwall and elsewhere, the
grant of 50/., at the disposal of Mr. J. Taylor, was renewed.

For ascertaining the Amount of Duty actually performed by
the consumption of one bushel of Coals in Steam-Engines em-
ployed in pumping Water, not in the Cornish districts, a Com-
mittee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Bryan Donkin, Mr. G.
H. Palmer, Mr. James Simpson, Mr. John Taylor, and Mr.
Thomas Webster, who was requested to act as Secretary, with
100/. at their disposal.

The Committee was requested to report all the circumstances
affecting the Amount of Duty in each case.

For instituting a series of experiments to determine the mean
Value of Railway Constants, a Committee was appointed, con-
sisting of Mr.Hardman Earle, Dr. Lardner, Mr. Joseph Locke,
Mr. G. Rennie, and Mr. John MacNeil, with 50/. at their dis-
posal.

For obtaining a series of observations on the average loco-
motive Duty of a ton of coals per horse-power in Steam Ves-
sels, a Committee was appointed, consisting of Mr. Fairbairn,
Dr. Lardner, Mr. J. S. Russell, and Mr. J.Taylor, with 100/.
at their disposal.

The Committee was requested to report all the circumstances,
nautical and mechanical, which may affect this Duty.

Should the Committee above named find it expedient to ex-
tend their researches to the other side of the Atlantic, the
further sum of 50/. was placed at their disposal for such pur-
pose.

ARTS.

A Committee was appointed to superintend the exhibition of
Mechanical Inventions, Manufactured Articles, and Processes
in the Arts at Newcastle ; viz. Sir D. Brewster, Mr. Babbage,
Prof. Wheatstone, Prof. Willis, Prof. Powell, and Prof. John-
ston, who was requested to act as Secretary.

GENERAL REMARKS.

In grants of money to the Committees for purposes of science,
the Member first named is empowered to draw on the Trea-
surer for such sums as may from time to time be required.
The General Committee does not contemplate in these grants
the payment of personal expenses to the Members.

SYNOPSIS.

SYNOPSIS OF SUMS APPROPRIATED TO
SCIENTIFIC OBJECTS.

BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE AT THE LIVERPOOL MEETING.
(Drawn up for comparison with vol. iv. p. xl. and vol. v. p. xx.)

Reduction of Observations on Stars (vol. iv. p. xv. ;

vol. vi. p. xvii.)

Continuation of Tide Discussions at Bristol (vol. v.

p. xx. ; vol. vi. p. xvii.)

Meteorological Instruments and Subterranean Tem-
perature (vol. iv. p. xix.) •

Comparative Level of Land and Sea (vol. iv. p. xxvi. ;
vol. v. p. xvii., part of the former grant renewed)

Lens of Rock Salt (vol. iv. p. xxii.)

Hourly Observations in Meteorology (vol. v. p. xvi.)

Investigations on the Form of Waves (vol. v. p. xvi.)

*Astronomical Society's Catalogue (vol. vi. p. xvii.) i _ .

*Action of Gases on Solar Spectrum (vol. vi. p. xviii.)

*Osler's Anemometer (vol. vi. p. xviii.) . . .

*Repairs of an Anemometer (vol. vi. p. xviii.) .

Composition of Atmospheric Air (vol. v. p. xvii.)

Chemical Constants (vol. iv. p. xxiv.) . . .

*EfFect of Water on Cast and Wrought Iron (vol

p. xix.)

*Effect of Heat of 212° on Organic and Inorganic

Bodies (vol. vi. p. xix.)

Mud in Rivers (vol. iv. p. xxvii.)

Fossil Ichthyology (vol. iv. p. xxvii.)
Peat Mosses in Ireland (vol. v. p. xviii.) . .
Growth of Plants under Glass (vol. v. p. xviii.)
*Preservation of Animal and Vegetable Substances

(vol. vi. p. xx.)

Absorbents and Veins (vol. iv. p. xxxi.) ....

Sounds of the Heart (vol. iv. p. xxxi.)

Effects of Poisons on the Animal Economy (vol. iv.

p. xxxi.)

Pathology of Brain and Nervous System (vol. iv. p.

xxxii.)

Chemical Analysis of Animal Secretions (vol. v. p.

xix.)

*Disorders of the Lungs (vol. vi. p. xxi.) ....

£500

100

272

100

500

100

105

Carried forward £2357

Xxiv SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

Brought over. . .
State of Schools in England (vol. v. p. xix.) . .

*Condition of Working Population (vol. vi. p. xxi.)
Strength of Iron (vol. iv. p. xxxii. ; vol. vi. p. xxi.)
Duty of Cornish Engines (vol. iv. p. xxxii.) . .

*Duty of Pumping-Engines not in Cornwall (vol. vi
p. xxii.)

♦Railway Constants (vol. vi. p. xxii.)

*Duty of Steam Engines in Vessels (vol. vi. p. xxii.)

Conditional Grant to ditto (vol. vi. p. xxii.) . .

£2357

. 150

. 100

100

. 50

. 100

. 50

. 100

. 50

Total of Grants £3057

The Grants to which the asterisk (*) is prefixed relate to
subjects for which no previous Grant has been made. The
others are renewals or continuations of former Grants.

ADDRESS

PROFESSOR TRAILL, M.D.

GENTLEMEN, — The duty of addressing the British Association, on
this occasion,was originally confided to one admirably qualified to do jus-
tice to the task; and few persons have more cause to lament the circum-
stances which deprive us of the services of that gentleman than the indi-
vidual who now addresses you. To those who know me only as connected
with my present domicile, my position at this Meeting may appear un-
warrantable or presumptuous. I can only plead, that though highly
honoured by the office, it certainly was neither expected nor solicited
by me ; and that, unless twenty-eight years' residence in this place,
and the existence of numerous and valued local attachments, may be
considered as conferring the privilege, I fear I can advance few claims
to be received as one of the Secretaries for Liverpool.

The objects and nature of the British Association for the Advance-
ment of Science have been so eloquently handled by my predecessors,
that to some members the subject may appear to be exhausted ; but,
as the Association is necessarily a fluctuating body — as many have
now joined it for the first time — and as there still seems to be con-
siderable misapprehension in the public mind regarding its objects
and utility, a few remarks on the purposes which it is intended to ac-
complish may not be altogether misplaced.

The British Association was undoubtedly suggested by the successful
efforts of the philosophers of Germany, within the last few years. The
obstacles to free intercourse between scientific men, in that part of
Europe, had always been felt as a great bar to the advance of science.
Under such a system, those who, in sequestered regions, had long
pursued laborious investigations, had often the mortification to discover
that they were following paths trodden by others, or in which they had
been completely anticipated by more fortunate inquirers. To obviate
such grave inconveniences, and to promote social intercourse among
men of science, scattered over wide regions, separated by physical and

XXvi SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

political obstacles, though connected by one common tongue, were the
objects of that great Continental Association; and that these have
been, to a considerable extent, realized by the annual assemblages of
the illustrious sons of Germany, is generally admitted.

In our more united and highly-favoured land, the facilities of inter-
course between its most distant points, the less isolated position of our
philosophers, unquestionably render the progress of science less de-
pendent on such general associations of its cultivators than in Ger-
many : yet it has never been doubted, that the personal intercourse of
men engaged in similar pursuits is favourable to the progress of philo-
sophical investigations, by the direct assistance derived from the ex-
perience and suggestions of others, and by fostering that generous
emulation in the search after truth which imparts a wholesome stimulus
to mental exertion, while it tends to smooth the asperities occasionally
engendered by controversy, even in the abstract sciences. Men ac-
customed to meet and act together for one great end, naturally and
insensibly imbibe the social spirit — scientific jealousy and personal
rivalry are softened by mutual approximations ; and individuals com-
posing the Association, like members of the same family, learn to
temper the pursuit of personal distinction by an honest exultation in
whatever redounds to the honour and celebrity of the body to which
they belong.

These advantages the British Association shares in common with
many other societies ; but it possesses characteristics peculiarly its
own. It can scarcely reckon a period of infancy; — it sprung at once
from the conception of its founders, like Pallas from the head of Jove,
in the perfection of youthful vigour — secure in the panoply of rectitude
of purpose against open or secret hostility. It quickly numbered in
its ranks the elite of the philosophy of the United Kingdom ; and,
strengthened by the accession of foreign associates of distinguished
reputation, it has extended its views beyond its original horizon, and
has attained a colossal magnitude that distinguishes it above every
other scientific association in the British empire.

This Institution ought not to be considered as the rival of any of
the previously existing philosophical establishments which give lustre
to these kingdoms. It, indeed, receives communications on every
branch of scientific inquiry, but it professes to publish none of the
numerous contributions which have given rise to the interesting and
animated discussions in its different Sections : a short abstract of these
papers is all that it attempts to promulgate ; but the distinguishing
features of its publications arc those invaluable Reports on the pro-

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXVU

gress of science which the Association has confided to some of its
members, especially selected for that important duty.

The advantages thus conferred on general science will be best ap-
preciated by persons whose studies are directed to any of the subjects
discussed in the Reports, and who have once felt the want of an ac-
curate analysis of what had been recently added to our previous stock
of knowledge; but it would be impossible to calculate in how many
instances those abstracts of precise and useful information have saved
the time, and abridged the labour, of the retired student, in tracks al-
ready explored by other philosophers. Another peculiarity in the
publications of the Association consists in the circulation of desiderata
in different branches of science. The attention of their cultivators,
thus drawn to the principal deficiencies in each, has already filled up
various chasms in the paths of intellectual exertion, and stimulated to
inquiries that cannot fail to lead to important results.

It soon became apparent that the British Association must exercise
a powerful influence on the general diffusion of science, and could
undertake, or materially promote, investigations to which individual
research and unaided exertion are utterly inadequate. Its annual
migrations, and the comparative ease of admission into its ranks, have
unquestionably increased the taste for scientific disquisition ; and,
although it would be absurd to suppose that all who seek for enrol-
ment in the Association are destined to extend the boundaries of
science, who can believe that familiarizing large masses of the com-
munity with such investivations, and exhibiting how the highest
branches of philosophy may be made available to the purposes of life,
will fail to promote the avowed purpose of our meetings? Who will
venture to deny, that the contemplation of the galaxy of illustrious
men, mustered on occasions similar to the present, has often proved
the first impulse to the secret aspirant after honourable distinction —
has afforded the Promethean spark, that kindled the sacred flame in
the breast of slumbering genius ?

The Association has not failed to use its influence in stimulating
our rulers to aid the progress of science. At its instigation, the
British government has taken up the task of the reduction of the
enormous mass of observations on the heavenly bodies, accumulated
since 1750 at the Greenwich Observatory — which, though col-
lected at a great expense to the nation, and by the exertion of con-
summate skill in the observers — which, though pronounced by the
highest authorities in Europe to be of the utmost moment to the
future progress of astronomy, — have been permitted to remain a rich,

XXviii SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

but unexplored, mine of facts. The voice of our petition has been
heard — the work has been auspiciously begun — and 5001. have been
assigned by the Treasury for the commencement of this great national
work.

The subject of the Tides, so strangely neglected in this great mari-
time country, from the period of the promulgation of the Newtonian
Theory to our own times, has engaged the attention of the Association
from its commencement. The advances which have recently been made
on this subject, and which have greatly altered the aspect of that branch
of science, had chiefly for their original basis the very valuable tide ob-
servations made in this port, many years ago, by Mr. Hutchinson, a
dock-master, embracing an interval of above thirty years. The ori-
ginals are preserved in the Lyceum Library of Liverpool ; and, by the
liberality of the proprietors, have been confided to the hands of Mr.
Lubbock, under whose direction the discussion of them, ordered by the
Association, has thrown a new light on the laws of Tidal phenomena.

Since that time, the earnest representations of a distinguished Asso-
ciate, whom this county claims as a native, have given rise to a most
important set of observations on the tides. Mr. Whewell, by personal
application to the chief of the coast-guard service, and solicitation to
the Admiralty, has procured the completion of a continuous series of
observations, at upwards of 500 stations, along the coasts of Great
Britain and Ireland. They were continued for a fortnight in June
1834, and again in June 1835, when they were extended from the
mouths of the Mississippi to the northern extremity of Europe. These
observations have been discussed at the expense of the Admiralty ; but,
as I shall presently mention, the Association has voted a large sum to
be applied by Mr. Lubbock to the same object.

These discussions have, within the last few years, led to very curious
results ; for instance, to the fact of the rise of the mean level of the tides,
in proportion to the fall of the barometer, and the existence of a diurnal
tide — i. e. the difference between the morning and evening tides of the
same day. This diurnal tide, it may be interesting for the inhabitants
of Liverpool to know, was first marked in the tide tables constructed
by a young ingenious townsman, Mr. Bywater, jun., who has, unfor-
tunately for science, died since the last Meeting of the Association.

The importance of the subject, and the success already obtained, have
encouraged the Association to direct the discussion of the Tidal obser-
vations recorded at the port of Bristol, and at the London Docks ; and
to supply the means of defraying the necessary expense.

The influence of researches on tidal waters to navigation and to com-

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXIX

merce are too obvious to require illustration : but perbaps it may not
be unsuitable, in this place, to refer to the deductions of our eminent
associate, Captain Denham, on the capability of the Mersey " to com-
mand a navigable avenue to the ocean, so long as its guardians preserve
the high-water boundaries from artificial contraction." It may also be
stated, that in our Transactions, this gentleman has recorded his most
important general inference (drawn from a connected series of observa-
tions on the tides, which the liberality of the Dock Trustees of Liverpool
enabled him to carry on) — that there is one invariable mean height, com-
mon to neap and spring tides — the Half Tide Mark — a point from
which engineers, geologists, and navigators will henceforward com-
mence their calculations, and adjust their standards of comparison.

The Association made application soon after the meeting at Edin-
burgh for the resumption of the Trigonometrical Survey of Scotland ;
a work imperiously demanded by the imperfect state of our best maps
and charts of that part of the island, either for the purposes of geology
or navigation. It is needless to give further proof, than that parts of se-
veral of the large islands at the mouth of the Clyde are laid down se-
veral miles out of their true position. The magnificent scale on which
the survey of Ireland is now carrying on, emboldened various scientific
societies of Scotland this year to memorialize the government on the
subject. I am happy to add, that the applications have been successful,
and the triangulation of Scotland will recommence early in 1838.

The British Association may also boast, that at its instigation, our
illustrious associate, Arago, moved the Bureau des Longitudes to soli-
cit from the French government the publication of the series of obser-
vations on the tides at Brest, and a reduction of the astronomical obser-
vations made at the Ecole Militaire. The Brest observations have been
printed, and a copy of the valuable documents put in the hands of one
well able to appreciate them.

At the Dublin meeting, a committee was appointed for representing
to our own government two objects important to science ; which can
only be accomplished in a satisfactory manner by the rulers of a power-
ful nation, or by an union of governments in the cause of philosophy.
The first related to the establishment of Magnetical and Meteorological
Observatories, in different parts of the earth, furnished with proper in-
struments, and in which the observations should be conducted on ac-
knowledged and uniform principles. The extent, and the variety of
climate of the British possessions, indicate them as favourable points
for such establishments, which have already been commenced in France
and its dependencies, and may hereafter, by the co-operation of the

XXX SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

several governments of Europe, and of our Trans- Atlantic brethren,
be extended over a large portion of the civilized world. The second
suggestion was the importance of an Antarctic Expedition, for prose-
cuting discoveries and observations in Geography, Hydrography, Na-
tural History, and, above all, Magnetism, with a view to determine the
positive southern magnetic pole or poles, and the direction and intensity
of the magnetic force in antarctic regions. The East India Company
was likewise to be requested to favour the same objects, especially at
their establishment at Madras.

The General Committee some time ago made application to the au-
thorities, both in France and this country, respecting some mode of in-
stituting a reciprocal protection to literary property. Might I venture
here to allude to a recommendation which I hope the Association will
not fail to leave in Liverpool, for the promotion of a scientific object of
immense consequence to this port — the establishment of an Observatory
in or near Liverpool ? The adoption of such suggestions, while con-
ferring an incalculable benefit on science, would rear a proud, impe-
rishable, and bloodless monument to national greatness.

These statements might be a sufficient answer to a question, some-
times put in tones of captious sarcasm, — What has the Association di-
rectly contributed to the progress of useful knowledge ? Without
again appealing to the very admirable reports on the progress of science
published in our Transactions ; without again claiming merit for the
suggestions and efforts already noticed, — I should fearlessly answer
such cavillers, by an appeal to the value and number of the communi-
cations, which have occupied the different Sections, at each annual
meeting, and which contain the application of pure science to important
questions in Physics, or of experimental investigation to numerous
branches of knowledge. I would point to the valuable researches
which have been undertaken and completed at the request of the
Association, among which it may be permitted to indicate the fol-
lowing memoirs : — The comparison of the standards of Linear Measure,
made by the late Mr. Troughton, for the town of Aberdeen, and the
Astronomical Society of London, which were confided to Mr. Baily —
a comparison of much consequence, as the standard yard, by the same
artist, was lost in the fire which consumed both Houses of Parliament ;
On the Investigation of the Impact upon Beams, when struck by bodies
of different weight, hardness, and elasticity, by Mr. Hodgkinson ; On
the Direction and Intensity of the Magnetic Force in England, Ireland,
and Scotland, by Professor Lloyd, Major Sabine, and Captain James
Ross ; On the influence of Height above the Sea on Magnetic Intensity,

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXi

by Professor Forbes — from which it appears that the horizontal inten-
sity diminishes -j- 000 °f tne wno ^ e > f° r every 3000 feet of vertical ascent ;
On the quantity of Rain falling at different heights above the surface of
the Ground, made at York, by Professor Phillips, and Mr. Gray ; On
the determination of the mass of the planet Jupiter, by the Astronomer
Royal ; On the Horary Variations of the Barometer, Thermometer,
Hygrometer, and Whewell's Anemometer, by Mr. Snow Harris — part of
which has already appeared, and of which the sequel will be laid before
this annual Meeting ; On the Duty performed by Cornish Steam En-
gines, by Mr. Enys ; On the Ratio of the Resistance of Fluids to the
Velocity of Waves, by Mr. Russell and Mr. Robison — of which we ex-
pect to receive an account on this occasion.

We may also be permitted here to allude to some highly-interesting
investigations, still in progress, under the auspices of the Association,
such as — Observations on the Temperature of Springs and Deep Mines,
by Instruments procured and verified by the Meteorological Council,
which are already placed in various districts of Great Britain and Ire-
land, and also in Peru, under the direction of our scientific associate,
Mr. Pentland, from which results most interesting to Geology are an-
ticipated ; On the Temperature of the strata at different depths near
Edinburgh, by Professor Forbes, for ascertaining the rate of the trans-
mission of Solar Heat downwards; A continuation of Mr. W.Vernon Har-
court's experiments on the effects of long-continued Heat on Rocks and
other bodies ; Experimental Investigations into the Fabrication of Glass,
by the same gentleman and Dr. Faraday ; A Systematic Catalogue of
all the Organized Fossils of the British Islands, by Professor Phillips ;
An Experimental Determination of the Strength and other Mechanical
Properties of Iron obtained by the Hot and Cold Blasts, undertaken by
Messrs. Hodgkinson and Fairbairn ; Analysis of Iron in the different
stages of its manufacture, and an Extension of the Tables of Chemical
Constants, by Professor Johnston ; Statistical Returns of the State of
Education in our great towns ; An Examination of the Statistical docu-
ments preserved in the India House, by Professor Jones ; besides the
discussion of numerous very interesting contested points in Natural
History and in Medicine.

These are satisfactory evidences of the activity of the Association ;
but it has not scrupled also to afford pecuniary assistance, when such
aid appeared requisite to ensure success. It is true, that the moderate
sum, payable on admission into the Society, seems more suited to the
finances of the majority of philosophers, than to the support of ex-

Xkxii SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

tensive enterprises ; yet the numbers annually desirous of admission
supply funds, adequate to important undertakings ; and the power
thus given to the General Committee is acknowledged to have been
exercised with a sound discretion.

Without descending to minute particulars, it may be well to state
some of the appropriations for various scientific inquiries.

The application to the French government already noticed, was ac-
companied by a vote of the General Committee of the Association to
appropriate 5001. for a duplicate reduction of the Astronomical Obser-
vations, with a view to secure the utmost accuracy in these important
computations. This offer proves the value attached by the Association
to whatever can improve Astronomy, and the zeal which carries its
scientific views even beyond the limits of the British Empire. This
sum is still devoted to the reduction of Astronomical Observations.
701. have been devoted to the determination of a constant numerical
expression for Lunar Notation, as deduced from the observations made
with the Greenwich mural circle: 250/. have been appropriated for
the Discussion of the Tides ; besides 150/. voted last year for the Dis-
cussion of the Observations made on Tides at Bristol : 100/. were set
apart for meteorological instruments, and experiments on subterranean
temperature, — the last a problem of the highest interest to Geology, as
involving the question whether or not there be a general source of ter-
restrial heat, independent of solar influence : 500/. have been voted
for ascertaining the permanence or fluctuation in the relative level of
the land and of the ocean, on the coasts of the British Isles. This sub-
ject affords matter for the highest speculations in Geology ; but it is
doubly interesting to a maritime people, as affecting the permanence of
our river navigation, and of our naval stations : 210/. were given to
enable M. Agassiz to include the fossil fishes of our islands among his
interesting Researches on Fossil Ichthyology, a publication which forms
a new era in this department of Geology : 100/. have been assigned for
Investigations on the Form of Waves, and the mode of their produc-
tion : 150/. for the experiments on Vitrification, and the improvement
of the manufacture of Glass : 80/. for experiments on Lenses of Rock
Salt ; a subject of much interest to Optics : 50/. for determining the
specific gravity of Gases: 60/. for an experimental inquiry into the
strength of Iron : 50/. for ascertaining the Duty of Steam Engines :
50/. for an inquiry into the Origin of Peat Mosses : 250/. for con-
ducting various Physiological Rearches : 1 50/. have likewise been voted
for investigating the Statistics of Education in our large towns. While

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXX111

on tins subject, I must not omit to state that the Statistical Societies of
London and Manchester trace their origin to this Association ; and that
the laborious investigations of Colonel Sykes, on the Statistics of India,
founded on materials chiefly collected by himself, and undertaken at the
request of the Association, are now happily brought to a close, and will
be presented to the Association.

These appropriations are exclusive of several minor sums devoted to
the encouragement of investigations into various branches of Physics,
Chemistry, and Natural History ; making an aggregate of upwards of
26591. set apart from the funds of the Association, in the past year, for
scientific objects— a larger sum than has been appropriated, in so short
a period, by any other Society, to purposes purely scientific.

While stating these facts, we ought not to conceal a circumstance, cre-
ditable to the disinterested zeal for the cause of science elicited by these
grants. Though the voteshave been liberal, this circumstance has never
induced inconsiderate expenditure. In many instances, far less than the
sums appropriated have been actually expended ; and in various in-
stances, the individuals intrusted with the funds have refused to draw
on the Association, when their own labour could save its finances.

It has been usually considered a part of the duty of the Local Secre-
tary, to give a short account of the Reports which are just published.

The first in the volume is the masterly report ' On Mineral and
Thermal Waters,' by Dr. Daubeny. After glancing at the nature of
atmospheric water, the author has pointed out the connexion of the
foreign ingredients, detected in the atmosphere, with the production of
meteoric stones, the formation of nitric acid under certain circumstances,
and the presence of the organic principle found in air, even when col-
lected on great elevations, to which the name of Pyrrhine has been
given. He considers the existence of the elements of meteoric stones
in the atmosphere as doubtful. The nitric acid may sometimes arise
from the effects of electric explosion on its oxygen and nitrogen ; at
other times this union is seemingly produced by causes not yet ascer-
tained. The researches of the celebrated Ehrenberg have shown, that
pyrrhine probably owes its origin to the ova of polygastric infusoria,
raised by evaporation and by atmospheric currents induced by changes
of temperature. In considering the ocean, the author directs particular
attention to its gaseous contents ; as confirming or invalidating the opi-
nion of Arago, that oxygen predominates in all waters, even to con-
siderable depths. This law is well known to hold good in the more
superficial portions of the ocean, and seems intended to support the
respiration of aquatic animals ; but the preponderance of oxygen at
vol. vi. 1837. c

XXXIV SEVENTH REPORT IHo/.

great depths cannot yet be considered as absolutely determined, on ac^
count of the imperfection of the modes of obtaining unmixed water from
such points. The water of springs is more especially the object of Dr.
Daubeny's Report.

In considering the saline contents of mineral springs, he gives some
ingenious speculations on the origin of these salts ; especially of the
carbonate of soda, of the sulphates, and of boracic acid. The common
salt he derives from the same source as the saltness of the sea ; and he
considers rock-salt as a deposition from the waters of the ocean ; a view
confirmed by the presence in saline deposits of iodine and bromine — ele-
ments first detected in marine productions. Dr. Daubeny regards the
absence of these two bodies in the lowest and purest bed of the Cheshire
rock-salt while they abound in the upper saliferous beds, as proofs that
rock-salt was deposited from a saturated solution. The salts of io-
dine and bromine, as well as the earthy muriates, from their greater
solubility, would remain longer in solution ; and thus be mingled with
the more hasty mechanical deposits from the waters. The brine
springs of Droitwich, which are found to contain neither iodine nor
bromine, he also considers as derived from a salt deposited from a sa-
turated solution.

The siliceous earth, so often detected in thermal springs, he con-
ceives to be dissolved by alkaline matter, aided by a high temperature.
Both alkali and silica may be afforded by felspathic rocks ; and Dr.
Daubeny conjectures, that silica may be more soluble in hot water at
the moment of its separation from its combinations in the rock, or ere
it has its aggregation increased, by assuming the crystalline texture.
He states, that it may be interesting to try, whether hot water lias a
stronger action on such bodies as opal, in which the molecules do not
seem to have a true crystalline arrangement, than on quartz. Since I
came this time to Liverpool, I subjected a fragment of wood-opal for
fourteen days to a temperature estimated about 280° Faht., in the boiler
of a fixed steam-engine ; but it had neither lost nor gained the smallest
weight in that time.

The author combats the opinion of Anglada on the origin of the or-
ganic matter termed Glairine, now found to be a very common ingre-
dient of thermal springs. This substance Anglada supposes, with little
probability, to be derived from the interior of the earth ; while the ob-
servations of our author on this substance, as collected from above fifty
springs, especially from the thermal sources of the Pyrenees, sliow, that
Glairine is probably derived from the decomposition of organic bodies,
such as confervce and infusory animalcules.

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXV

The author's speculations on the source of the heat of thermal
springs, partake of his views on the origin of volcanoes ; namely, that
it depends on the penetration of water, through fissures in the external
crust of the globe, to the regions where he conceives the elements of
earthy and alkaline bodies to exist : that the intense heat, generated
during the oxidation of these elements, converts a portion of the water
into steam ; which, under compression, obtains a high temperature, acts
on various earthy bodies, and communicates its heat to subterranean
waters which issue in thermal springs. This view he supports by nu-
merous instances observed by geologists; especially by Professor Forbes
in the Pyrenees, where thermal waters gush out in the vicinity of dis-
ruptions, or upheavings of strata by ignigenous rocks. The author be-
lieves that, unless in countries agitated by volcanic action, the tempe-
rature of thermal springs is subject to little variation ; and that, where
the contrary has been alleged, it may generally be ascribed to the im-
perfection of the thermometers employed.

The temperature of copious springs has generally been observed to
vary little, and is about the mean temperature of the country where
they occur. Thus the magnificent fountain at Vaucluse has the mean
temperature of that part of France, and scarcely ever varies one degree
of Reaumur. It is, however, worthy of remark, that I found the tem-
perature of St. Winifred's Well, the largest spring in Britain, by dif-
ferent observations during twenty years, to experience variations of
more than four degrees of Faht., always to have a temperature several
degrees above the mean of Flintshire, and at all seasons superior to that
of another very large spring, Fynnon asa, about five miles distant.
The variations may perhaps arise from surface water, directly finding
its way into the Holywell spring ; but its constant superior tempera-
ture may be accounted for, on Dr. Daubeny's principle, from the dis-
turbances in the strata produced by the numerous mineral veins in the
adjacent Halkin Mountains.

The second report is ' On the Direction and Intensity of Terrestrial
Magnetism in Scotland,' by Major Sabine.

The experiments were made at numerous stations, both by the sta-
tical method of Professor Lloyd, in which the dip and intensity are as-
certained by the same instrument, and by Hansteen's method, of mea-
suring intensity by the number of horizontal vibrations in a given time.
It is interesting to know, that the intensities estimated by both methods
nearly correspond ; and that we therefore may place confidence in either
mode of observing, when allowance is made for changes in the force of
magnetism in the needles employed. Major Sabine experienced, on

c 2

XXXvi SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

several occasions, what has been remarked by other observers, that
magnetical experiments are liable to be affected by the vicinity of Trap
rocks. This was particularly noticed by him at Oban and Loch Scavig,
so as to render his observations at the latter of no utility for his calcu-
lations. Two of the most familiar examples of this quality of ignigenous
rocks are afforded by the powerful effect of a column of the Giant's
Causeway, as mentioned by Professor Lloyd ; and by the strong polar-
ity of the basaltic cap of Arthur's Seat, near Edinburgh, which is ca-
pable, in more positions than one, of causing complete inversion of poles
of the pocket compass. These instances show how carefully the vi-
cinity of considerable masses of Trap rocks should hereafter be avoided,
in all delicate experiments on magnetic dip and intensity : for the errors
they occasion may be more considerable than the effect of a ship's local
attraction on azimuths, and are far less easily compensated.

Major Sabine has considered it best to give no other designation, on
his chart, to the isodynamic lines in Scotland, than what expresses their
relation to each other, until we have more fully investigated their rela-
tion to magnetic intensity in England. The differences between the
deductions, in regard to the Isodynamic lines in Scotland and in Ireland,
are very considerable, and apparently too great to be due to any dif-
ference in the lines themselves : but future observations will probably
disclose the cause.

In a former volume of our Transactions, appeared a valuable report
on North American Geology : in that just announced is an excellent
essay on the Zoology of that portion of the globe, by Dr. Richardson,
the intrepid friend and companion of Sir John Franklin, in their ha-
zardous exploratory expeditions to the shores of the Arctic Ocean.
After some general remarks on the climate of North America, he pre-
sents us with an extensive Table of Mean Temperatures, calculated for
periods of six and three months throughout the year, for the hottest and
the coldest months, and for the months with a mean temperature above
52° Faht., taken at forty-four different stations, and collected from his
own and Franklin's observations, combined with those of Humboldt,
Ross, Parry, and Scoresby. The results are very important, and show,
in a striking manner, the very erroneous deductions on the mean tem-
perature of any place, if investigated by Mayer's formula, especially in
very low or very high latitudes.

The geographical position of Mexico constitutes the point at which
the Faunae of the northern and southern regions meet ; and hence it is
the place in which the general laws regulating the distribution of animals
can be most satisfactorily studied. There the Wolf of a northern cli-

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. XXXV11

mate is seen with the Monkey of tropical regions ; the Bunting and
the Titmouse nestle near the Parrot and the Trogon ; the Phalarope
of the North seeks its food on the same beach as the Jacana and the
Boatbill of Brazil.

Dr. Richardson states, that though colonization has, in America,
restricted the range and modified the migrations of wild animals, we
have no evidence that a single species has been there lost within the
records of history. The Quadrumana, or Monkeys, of America are
peculiar to that continent. None of them have what may be called
a perfect hand, with the thumb opposed to the ringers. Their thumbs
are small, sometimes only rudimentary, or even wholly wanting. Not
a single Ape — not one true Baboon is to be found among them ; but
many are furnished with prehensile tails, admirably adapted for ani-
mals moving among thick forests, and almost as serviceable for grasp-
ing as the proboscis of the Elephant.

Almost all the Mammifera, considered as common to the New and
Old Worlds, belong to the order of Carnivora ; yet it is by no means
improbable, that a minute examination of species now considered as
the same, may detect specific differences among them. I would par-
ticularly recommend attention to the skulls of animals. My late in-
genious young friend, Robert Jameson, of Edinburgh, had acquired
great tact in discriminating the Carnivora, in particular, by the form
and position of the sutures uniting the bones of the face, which differ
much in each species. It is believed by many naturalists, that the
proportions of the skulls of Indian birds, in other respects similar to
our own, as compared to their bodies, differ from those of Em-ope.
Similar differences may occur in other parts of the skeletons of qua-
drupeds, which have escaped the superficial examiner, yet sufficient to
constitute specific characters. This would be particularly valuable in
determining the species of weasels and amphibious Carnivora, which,
at present, are very perplexing to the naturalist.

All the existing Marsupial animals are confined to America, Au-
stralia, and some other South Sea Islands : yet, at one period, animals
of this order must have been very generally distributed over the earth,
as their bones occur everywhere in a fossil state, and are formed in the
oldest deposits of mammiferous remains.

The number of Rodentia in North America is great, and all seem to
be peculiar to the New World : of the Edentata, one only is found in
North America. Two or three species occur in Africa and India; all
the rest are South American. It is singular, that of the existing Pa-
chydermata, two species only are considered as indigenous to Ame-

XXXviii SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

rica — the tapir and the peccary ; and of these, the last only is found
in North America. Yet no region can boast of more numerous, or
more gigantic species of fossil animals of this order — as elephants and
mastodons — and, what is remarkable, though the present race of horses
is acknowledged to be not indigenous, fossil bones of the horse were
found on the N.W. coast by Capt. Beechey mingled with those of ele-
phants. Of the Ruminantia, two only seem to be common to the Old
and New World — the reindeer and the elk — unless we admit that the
argali of Siberia is the same as the sheep of the Rocky Mountains.

The Celacea, as might be expected from their mode of life, may be
considered as common to both worlds. The Rytina Borealis and
Manatus Americanus are found in North America, but not in the seas
of Europe. Temminck estimates that we have 930 well ascertained,
and 140 doubtful species of Mammifera; of these 207 are in the New
World, and 169 in North America. The birds of North America are
most numerous, and have been illustrated by the successive labours of
Pennant, Wilson, the Prince of Musignano ; but, above all, in the Fauna
Boreali-Americana of Richardson and Swainson, and the superb work
of Audubon. The similarity between the birds of Europe and North
America is marked by one third of the species being common to both
Faunae. These are chiefly to be found among the Grallatores and
Natatores, two-thirds of which orders are common to both : of the
order Rapaces several are common to both continents. The Insessores
are very numerous, and a great number are peculiar to America. The
Rasores, in all countries, are little disposed to migrate ; and almost all
of this order found in America are peculiar to it, with the exception of
some pigeons and a few Arctic grouse.

The Reptilia of North America are exceedingly numerous. All,
with the exception of some sea-turtle, are distinct from those of the
Old World. Two genera equally fitted to live in water and in air, as
possessing both gills and lungs, and represented by the Siren laccrtina
and Menopoma gigantea, which abound in North America, have only
one analogous animal in the Old World, the Proteus anguinus of the
lakes and caves of Carniola.

Many species of the fishes of the American seas are found else-
where ; but the only fresh-water fish, common to both worlds, appears
to be the pike ; yet it is singular, that it does not occur in the waters
to the west of the Rocky Mountains, although there the two continents
are more approximated. Some of the family of the Salmonidae and
Clupiada?, which visit America, have much resemblance to those of
Europe.

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL,. XXXIX

Tliis Report is an excellent specimen of the method of comparing
the Faunae of distant regions, and presents a model of a philosophical
disquisition on the geographical distribution of animals.

The Association has, at different times, received three able Reports
from Professor Challis, of Cambridge, on the Mathematical Theory of
Fluids. In the first he showed how the application of mathematical
analysis to investigating the properties of an imaginary fluid, supposed
incompressible, or so compressible that the density should always be
proportional to the pressure it sustains, admits of comparison with
facts observed in the equilibrium and motion of water, or in the exist-
ing mechanical qualities of air. In the second, the author considered
the modifications which these theories had, in later times, sustained by
the introduction of certain molecular hypotheses on the constitution of
matter, and how a comparison of the consequences of these hypothe-
tical speculations with experimental results, served to establish the
basis of the mathematical reasoning, and to make known properties
and conditions of bodies not cognizable by our senses.

The present Report treats of several very important points in the
Mechanical Theory of the Atmosphere. Mr. Atkinson's* attempt to
ascertain the law of variation of temperature, at different heights in the
atmosphere, would seem to require, for its establishment, a more ex-
tensive series of observations over a greater portion of the earth's sur-
face than we now possess.

The difference between the velocity of sound, as determined by ex-
periment, and Newton's deduction from Boyle's and Mariotte's law of
elastic fluids, amounting to one-sixth of the whole, has given rise to
many attempts to solve the problem, especially by Euler, Lagrange,
and Laplace. The latter gave the true solution of the discrepancy —
namely, that it arises from the evolution of heat, and its absorption,
which accompany every sudden compression or expansion of air. The
application of analysis, to afford a formula of correction, was first at-
tempted by Biot and Laplace, and more lately by Ivory ; but when we
compare the theoretic deduction with the best experiments on the
propagation of sound by Moll and Van Beck, at Utrecht, by Golding-
ham at Madras, and Parry and Foster in the Arctic regions, the slight
discrepancies between experiment and calculation are more to be at-
tributed to some imperfection in our formulae than to error in experi-
ments, which in their results agree so nearly, though made under very
different circumstances.

* Trans. Royal Astron. Soc, vol. ii.

xl SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Under the liead of Theories of Elastic Fluids, the author has intro-
duced some valuable remarks upon the memoirs of Poisson, on the
equilibrium and motion of elastic bodies, on the equilibrium of fluids,
and the pressure of fluids in motion ; and also on Laplace's theory of
Capillary Attraction ; for which I must refer to the Report.

We have next two reports on the Comparative Botany of Scotland
and Ireland, by Mr. Mackay and Professor Graham, of Edinburgh.
The first indicates the more remarkable plants that characterize the
neighbourhood of Dublin and Edinburgh. In the second, Mr. Mackay
points out the effect of climate on the Flora of Ireland. Ireland, il is
true, has fewer species of plants than Great Britain, and possesses fewer
alpine plants than Scotland. Its position and moister climate, how-
ever, put it in possession of many plants not found in Great Britain,
but of species occurring in Spain and Portugal, among which may be
noticed Erica Mediterranea, Erica Mackiana, Pinguicola grand/flora,
Arbutus unedo, Menziesia poly folia.

The Reports from the London and Dublin sub-committees on the
Motions and Sounds of the Heart, in this and the last volume, will
interest the physiologist and the physician. Ever since the application
of the stethoscope, by Laennec, to the investigation of pectoral diseases,
the sounds of the heart have been anxiously explored — its normal
sounds studied, and its abnormal bruits eagerly inquired into, as im-
portant diagnostics of health and disease. The causes of those sounds
have been matter of dispute ; the investigation was recommended by
the Association ; and a sum appropriated for the expense of experi-
ments on the subject. The Reports are the results of the labours of
two sub-committees,who agree on the principal points,viz., that the first
sound is produced during the systole, or contraction of the ventricles:
and that the second sound is produced by the sudden check which the
action of the semilunar valves gives to the current of blood impelled
against them, by the elasticity of the arteries. In the second Dublin
Reports, the abnormal sounds are illustrated by some ingeniously-de-
vised experiments : but both sub-committees admit, that the motions
and sounds of the heart require further investigations.

The Dublin Committee on the Pathology of the Brain and Nerves
express their opinion, that to arrive at any accurate conclusions on so
extensive and difficult a subject, a very large number of cases must be
first submitted to examination, their symptoms during life accurately
noted, and minute examinations instituted after death. One hundred
and seventy-eight males and two hundred and ninety-four females,
labouring under nervous affections, are in the Dublin House of In-

ADDRESS BY PROFESSOR TRAILL. xli

dustry and Hospitals — of whom forty-one have already been accurately
examined, for the object just alluded to.

The results of the Discussion of the Observations on the Tides, ob-
tained by means of the grants of the Association, have been reported
by Mr. Lubbock.

Mr. Dessiou was employed to discuss the Tides observed at Liver-
pool, so as to ascertain the diurnal inequalities in their height, and also
to classify the errors of prediction for a year in Liverpool and at the
London Docks. The result is, that Daussy's deduction from the ob-
servations at Brest is confirmed, viz. that the height of high water is
diminished when the barometer is high, and increased when it is
low.

The various discussions of nineteen years of observations at the
London Docks, amounting to 13,370, for the purpose of deducing the
diurnal irregularities, and examining the effects of the moon's transit
immediately preceding high water, and those of the two previous days,
lead to the conclusion, that Bernouilli's theory of Equilibrium " satis-
fies the phenomena nearly, if not quite, within the limits of errors of
the observations," and that it leaves very little to be otherwise ac-
counted for.

A short statement is made by Professor Powell, of Oxford, on the
Determination of Refractive Indices for the definite rays in the Solar
Spectrum, from direct observation. The investigations recommended
in the third Report of the Association have been commenced by Pro-
fessor Powell, who continues his observations.

Dr. Hodgkin reported from the London Physiological Commit-
tee, that their investigations have not established the views of Lippi,
respecting the communications of the absorbents with the veins ; but
they do not warrant a rejection of his observations, nor amount to any
proof that the thoracic duct is the sole medium of communication be-
tween the lacteals and the veins. Direct communications between
absorbents and veins have been observed by the reporter : but he is
disposed to consider these as deviations from the normal structure.

A short Report on the best methods of ascertaining Subterranean
Temperatures, and the proper form for Registers of such observations,
is published by a Committee appointed for the purpose.

The last Report in the volume is the very profound Examination, by
Sir William Hamilton, of the Validity of Mr. Jerrard's proposed me-
thod of Transforming and Resolving the higher degrees of Equations,
as contained in his ' Mathematical Researches.' Mr. Jerrard's method
may be characterized as consisting in rendering the problem indeter-

xlii SEVENTH REPORT 1837«

minate, and in employing this very property to decompose certain of
the conditions into others, for the purpose of avoiding that elevation
of degree, that would otherwise be the consequence of the elimination.
The ingenuity of the principle, and the talent displayed in the re-
searches, are freely admitted by Sir William, who contends that the
process is valid, as a general and unexpected transformation of equa-
tions of elevated degrees, though it fails as a method of resolving
them ; and who thus sums up the result of his investigations on the
subject : — " This method of decomposition has, however, conducted, in
the hands of Mr. Jerrard, to transformations of equations, which must
be considered as discoveries in algebra ; and to the solution of an ex-
tensive class of problems in the analysis of indeterminaies, which had
not before been resolved : the notation, also, of symmetric functions,
which has been employed by that mathematician in his published re-
searches on these subjects, is one of great beauty and power."

On the very valuable matter contained in the proceedings of the
Sections time will not permit me to enter, and I must refer you to the
volume just published.

In conclusion, allow me, in the name of my respected colleagues and
of our Liverpool associates, to offer a sincere and hearty welcome to
the distinguished strangers whose presence confers additional interest
to this meeting ; and secondly, to congratulate the town of Liverpool
on the exertions it has made, worthily to receive an Association, which,
aiming at the diffusion of a general taste for scientific investigations,
and their application to the improvement of society, seems calculated
to perform an important part in the future destinies of our country —
which, as co-operating with all other scientific bodies, and the rival of
none, but including in its lists representatives from each — which, distin-
guished by the freedom of its discussions, the liberality of its assistance,
and the importance of its recommendations, has been happily charac-
terized, by an eloquent secretary of a former year, as a Fourth Estate
in the Realm, and may be aptly designated Her Majesty's Parlia-
ment of Science.

COMMUNICATIONS. xlhi

Communications to the General Evening Meetings.

On Monday evening Professor Traill read his Address.

On Wednesday evening Mr. W. Snow Harris delivered a
Lecture, illustrated by experiments on a large scale, on the
application of Lightning Conductors to Ships.

On Friday evening Reports were received from the Presi-
dents of Sections of the communications which had been read
during the week.

On Saturday evening, besides the official business, the Pre-
dent noticed the gift, by Dr. Manni, of Rome, of a Colossal
Bust of Maecenas, as a mark of respect for the objects of the
British Association. This magnificent Bust was forwarded
for presentation to Dr. Bryce, of Liverpool, who has given
the following account of the circumstances which render this
Bust interesting to the public : —

" It was long a cause of wonder and regret, that no gem, medal, or
statue of a man so illustrious had ever been discovered. At length,
the Duke of Orleans, Regent of France, early in the last century, by a
happy conjecture, fixed on one of the gems in his collection, an ame-
thyst of small size, marked with the name of the engraver, Dioscorides,
as being the representation of the head of Maecenas. Another gem,
bearing the name of Solon, the engraver, evidently representing the
same person, was afterwards found in the Farnesian Museum ; and a
third of the same, a sardonyx, also engraved by Solon, has since been
discovered in the collection of the Prince Ludovisi. The features
given in these gems agree so well with all that has been handed down
in the Roman Classics concerning the personal appearance and habits
of Maecenas, that the suggestion of the Duke of Orleans has been
adopted by all subsequent antiquaries. A few years after the recogni-
tion of the head of Maecenas on the gems of Dioscorides and Solon,
both artists coeval with Augustus, an antique fresco painting was dis-
covered in the ruins of the palace of the Caesars on the Palatine Hill
at Rome. This painting represents Augustus surrounded by his
courtiers, conferring a crown on the Persian King Phraates, an event
spoken of by Horace. In the front rank of the courtiers stands one,
evidently the Prime Minister, in the act of speaking, whose features
strongly resemble those on the gems of Maecenas above described.
Next to him is Agrippa, who is readily recognized from medals, coins,
and statues of him. Horace also is found in the group. A copy of
this painting was bought by Dr. Mead, and brought to England by
him ; and an engraving of it may be seen in Turnbull's Essay on
Ancient Painting.

" This was the extent of antiquarian research and acquisition con-

xliv SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

cerning Maecenas during the last half century, when, in the spring of
1 830, a Bust was found in an excavation made by Professor Manni, at
Carsoli, the ancient Carsuli, about seventy miles from Rome, on the
Flaminian Way. This place is situated in what is esteemed the most
beautiful and romantic district of the Roman territory, being near the
cascades of the Nera, at Terni, and midway between the towns of
Terni, Todi, and Spoleto.

" The Bust was of colossal size, the same as that presented to the
Association, of pure Parian marble, and perfect in every feature. On
being cleared of its incrustation, the modelling of the work was seen to
be of that masculine firmness which characterizes the style of the
epoch of Augustus, excelling in what is called a broad manner — the
execution that of a master — with the greatest severity and grandeur ;
the emaciation by age of the individual represented being faithfully
preserved. The striking resemblance of the Bust to the gems and
picture of Maecenas was at once recognized by the most eminent anti-
quaries and learned men at Rome.

" It may be interesting to state, in further confirmation of the high
value which has been set upon the Bust, in Italy, as also because the
circumstance enhances the gift of Professor Manni, that it has been
t\vice copied by Thorwaldsen. One copy was presented to the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, and by him placed in the Hall of the Academy of
Petrarch, at Arezzo, as being the presumed birth-place of Maecenas ;
the other to the King of Naples, who caused it to be deposited in the
Borbonico Museum at Naples."

The following is an extract from the letter of Chevalier
Manni, forwarded with the Bust to Dr. Bryce : —

" The town of Liverpool shall possess a third copy in marble. You
will exhibit it at the Meeting of the British Association, and express
my very great regret, that I shall not be able to be present, as I was
last year at Bristol. You will say, that the friendly civilities, received
on that and on other occasions in your country, moved me to offer
some tribute of my gratitude and of my respect ; and to manifest these
feelings, I am delighted to place in your hands this Bust of Maecenas."

In conformity with the wish of Dr. Manni and a rule of
the Association, which provides that gifts of this nature to
Meetings of the Association shall be transferred to some sci-
entific institution or public body at the place where the Meet-
ing is held, the Bust of Maecenas will be placed in the Town-
hall, in Liverpool.

REPORTS

THE STATE OF SCIENCE.

Report on the Variations of the Magnetic Intensity observed
at different Points of the Earth's Surface. By Major
Edward Sabine, R.A., F.R.S.

[With Plates.]

It has been justly remarked by M. de Humboldt, " that the
phainomena of the earth's magnetism, in its three forms of
variation, dip, and intensity, have of late years been examined
with great care, in the most different zones, by the united ef-
forts of many travellers ; and that there is scarcely any branch
of the physical knowledge of the earth in which, in so small
a number of years, so much has been gained towards an ac-
quaintance with its laws, though not perhaps with its causes."
{Ann. der Physik, vol. xv. p. 320.)

Be it here remarked, that it is to the example and the
writings of this illustrious philosopher that the accelerated pro-
gress in this, as in so many other branches of physical science,
is eminently due. His writings exhibit, in the most pleasing
manner, the delightful, the never-failing interest which such
pursuits afford, awaken thereby a taste for them in those who
were previously unconscious of its existence, and stimulate its
exercise in all. It is in this respect that M. de Humboldt has
been not only a great promoter of science, but a moral be-
nefactor to many ; for it is the privilege of such pursuits that
tedious hours are little known to the mind that engages in them,
and the enjoyment which they yield is unimpaired by advancing
years *.

M. de Humboldt's remark is particularly true in regard to the
magnetic intensity. At the commencement of the present cen-

* The surviving friends of the late Major Rennell have, in their recollection
of that true philosopher, when engaged in his latter years in his important work
on the currents of the Atlantic Ocean, a memorable example of this power of
physical research, to preserve its interest vivid and unbroken amidst the infirmi-
ties of declining years.

vol. vi. 1837. b

2 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

tury, the bare fact of there being any difference whatsoever in
the intensity of the magnetic force in different parts of the
earth was unattested by a single published observation. The
maps attached to this memoir exhibit the progress which inves-
tigation has made in the years that have since elapsed. They
contain 753 distinct determinations, at 670 stations widely dis-
tributed over the earth's surface ; leaving, it is true, much still
to be desired ; — but in what has been accomplished, leading
to conclusions so remarkable, in regard to the phaenomena of
magnetism, on the largest scale presented to us by nature, as
to stimulate greatly to more extensive research.

I have sought to embody in this report on the variations of
the magnetic intensity, all the materials which have been ob-
tained by the labours of observers of all nations, in all parts of
the world ; — to present them in the form best fitted to add to
our knowledge ; — and to call attention to the general conclu-
sions, to which we are conducted by an attentive consideration
of the facts of observation, when thus brought together in one
view. A large portion of these determinations are here pub-
lished for the first time. The observations of Capt. de Frey-
cinet, Capt. King, Mr. Douglas, Capt. Fitz Roy, Capt. Ross,
and Major Estcourt are wholly new, the original observations
having been recently communicated to me by the respective
observers, and calculated and arranged by me. Messrs.
Hansteen and Due's Siberian observations, and M. Erman's in
the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, have been furnished to me by
the liberality of those gentlemen, calculated as they appear
here. Of the results previously published, the greater number
are collected from different foreign works which have little cir-
culation in this country ; and some of these, as well as apart of
my own observations published in this country several years
ago, have required additional calculations, for the purpose of
bringing them into the general comparison.

I have divided the report into three sections ; the first, con-
taining a condensed historical notice of each of the several series
of observations, by which our knowledge of the magnetic in-
tensity has been progressively advanced ; the second, comprising
the whole of the results, classed according to the values of the
intensity, and arranged in a tabular form ; and the third, con-
taining a summary of the principal general conclusions in regard
to the system of terrestrial magnetism, which are deducible
from the facts thus collected.

I have endeavoured to confine the historical notices in the
first section within the narrowest limits compatible with the pri-
mary object, that of including in each notice all the circum-

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 6

stances required to be known in order to estimate rightly the
value of the results. In the case of observations which are
either wholly or partly new, these particulars are not to be
found elsewhere ; and in the case of those series, the published
accounts of which are contained in foreign works rarely met
with in this country, it has appeared desirable, — whilst giving
every direction which may facilitate a reference to the original
publication, — to make the account here given complete in all
particulars essential to a just estimation of the value of the
results, independently of such reference. The details neces-
sary for this purpose may render this portion of the report
occasionally tedious to the general reader, who will be princi-
pally interested by that section which contains the general con-
clusions.

Section I. — Historical Notices.

It is to France we owe the first rightly directed experimental
inquiry on this subject. The instructions, drawn up by the
members of the French Academy of Sciences for the expedition
of La Perouse, contain a recommendation that the time of vibra-
tion of a dipping needle should be observed at stations widely
remote, as a test of the equality or difference of the magnetic
intensity ; suggesting also with a sagacity anticipating the result,
that such observations should particularly be made at those
parts of the earth where the dip was greatest and where it
was least.

The experiments, whatever their results may have been, which
in compliance with this recommendation were made in the ex-
pedition of La Perouse, perished in its general catastrophe ;
but the instructions survived, and bore fruit in the earliest re-
corded observations of the variations of the magnetic intensity,
which are those published by M. de Rossel in the second volume
of the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux in search of La Perouse.

Rossel, 1791-1794. — These observations, though made in the
years above-mentioned, were not published until 1808. They
were made with a needle vibrated in a dip circle of Le Noir,
coming to rest disadvantageously soon for the purpose of experi-
ments on the intensity. The needle continued in vibration little
more than three minutes; consequently incidental errors would
bear a very large proportion to the total time of vibration ; a
disadvantage which appears to have been in a great degree coun-
teracted by the very great care bestowed on the observation.
The needle was vibrated at Brest in 1791, before the voyage
commenced ; and, successively, at Teneriffe ; Van Die men's Land,

4 SEVENTH REPORT — 18.37-

in May 179^; at Amboyna, in October of the same year; again at
Van Diemen's Land, in February 1793 ; and at Surabaya in
Java, in 1794. With this last observation the published results
terminate ; there is no record of the vibrations having been re-
peated on the return to France, for the purpose of testing the
constancy of the magnetism of the needle, a step which subse-
quent experience has shown to be most important. The con-
nexion of all the foreign stations with Europe is consequently
imperfect ; and the values of the intensity at those stations, re-
latively to any standard value in Europe, could only be com-
puted, subject to the uncertainty arising from the possibility
of a change in the magnetic condition of the needle. The
conclusion drawn by M. de Rossel, of the increase of the inten-
sity in receding from the equatorial to the higher latitudes, was,
however, fully borne out and substantiated, in regard to the
southern hemisphere, by the observations at Van Diemen's Land
in 1792 and 1793, compared with the intermediate vibrations at
Amboyna. These form a comparison complete in all respects,
and to the certainty of which nothing is wanting. It is inde-
pendent of any change the needle may have undergone before
or afterwards ; the correspondence of the time of vibration at
Van Diemen's Land in May 1792 and February 1793, proving
the needle to have been steady in that interval. The increase
in the intensity between Amboyna and Van Diemen's Land was
in the proportion of 1 to 1'67, a difference far too great to be
attributed to any supposable errors or accidents of observation.
Jt is this determination which unquestionably entitles Admiral
de Rossel to the distinction which he has always enjoyed, of
having been the first who ascertained that the magnetic inten-
sity is different at different positions on the earth's surface : al-
though his observations were not published until after those of
M. de Humboldt in 1798-1803, by which the same fact was
more largely established.

As M. de Rossel's observations have not, I believe, been pub-
lished in any English work, I have subjoined a table containing
an abstract of all their essential particulars.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Station.

Eate.

Lat.*

Long*

Dip.

Time of
Vibration.

20 Sept., 1791

21 Oct, 1791

48 24
28 28
4332S.

3 42S.
43 34 S.

714S.

355 34
343 42
146 57
128 08
14657
11242

71 30 N.
62 25 N.
70 50 S.
20 37S.

72 22 S.
25 20 S.

202

2-081

1-869

2-403

1-850

2-429

Van Diemen's Land

11 May, 1792
9 Oct., 1792
7 Feb., 1793
9 May, 1794

Van Diemen's Land

The times of vibration are in infinitely small arcs, being reduced by M.
de ltossel, by means of a table which accompanies the observations hi the
original publication.

M. de Rossel's observations at Van Diemen's Land were
made at a port on the S.E. part of the island. Capt. Fitz Roy
has recently determined the value of the intensity at Hobart
Town, about 40 miles north of M. de Rossel's station, to be
1*817, in terms of a comparative scale in general use adopted
in this Report, of which an explanation will be given in the
sequel. Suffice it at present to say, that in the same scale the
force at Paris = 1*348, and at London 1*372. Capt. Fitz Roy's
observations will be found in their place in the course of this
Report. If we take his value of the intensity at Hobart Town
for the force at M. de Rossel's station, we have 1*097 as the
force at Amboyna. By means of Capt. Fitz Roy's observation
at Van Diemen's Land, I have been thus enabled to connect
M. de Rossel's determination at Amboyna with Europe, and it
is accordingly entered in the general table.

Humboldt, 1798-1803. — These observations were made in
the course of M. de Humboldt's well-known journey to equi-
noctial America. Various partial notices of them have appeared
at different times and in different works, but a complete account,
communicated by M. de Humboldt himself, may be found in
the xvth volume of the Annalen der Physik, from which the
results employed in this memoir are derived. The observations
were made with a dipping needle of Le Noir, selected by
M. Borda. It vibrated considerably longer before coming to
rest than the needle employed by M. de Rossel, so as to allow
the number of vibrations performed in ten minutes to be taken
as the measure of the intensity at the different stations. The
time of vibration at Paris was observed in October 1798. be-

* All the longitudes in this Report are east of Greenwich, unless otherwise
expressed ; and all the latitudes arc north unless they arc designated otherwise.

6 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

fore M. tie Humboldt's departure ; but as the needle was left in
Mexico, those observations could not be made on the return to
Europe, by which its magnetic invariability might have been
assured. The circumstances are greatly to be regretted, what-
ever they may have been, which deprived a suite of observa-
tions so extensive, and on which so much care and labour had
been bestowed, of a final confirmation, which can hardly be
supplied in an equally satisfactory degree by any less direct
evidence. Fortunately, indirect means are not altogether want-
ing in this case, and we may infer from them that up to the
beginning of 1800 M. de Humboldt's needle had undergone no
change ; and that if subsequently to that date it lost magnet-
ism, the alteration was not considerable. The observations in
Paris were made in 1798. Between August 1799 and February
1800, M. de Humboldt made thirteen determinations of the
intensity on the Spanish main, between the latitudes of 10° and
11°, and the longitudes of 292| and 296|. The mean of these
is an intensity of 1*196. In 1822 the value of the intensity at
Trinidad, in lat. 10° 39' and long. 298|, was determined, by
observations made by myself (to be discussed hereafter), to be
1*204<. The result of this comparison is extremely satisfac-
tory; and being derived, on M. de Humboldt's side, from obser-
vations with one needle at several stations, and on mine from
several needles at one station, a fair conclusion may be drawn,
that in the beginning of 1800 his needle retained its magnet-
ism unimpaired. In January, 1801, M. de Humboldt's needle
gave for the intensity at Havannah 1*359 ; mine, in 1822, 1*499.
In this comparison the agreement is less perfect ; there is a
greater difference than is usual between the results of different
observers at the same station ; and it is such as would be occa-
sioned by a loss of magnetism in M. de Humboldt's needle, but
not to an amount that would impair in a material degree the
value of his important series. Against any precise inference,
however, to be drawn from these comparisons, there is, 1st,
the difference of the dates at which the respective intensities
were determined ; 2nd, a small difference in longitude of the
localities of the first comparison ; and 3rd, those circumstances
of a local and instrumental nature which must affect every
such comparison.

In the account which M. de Humboldt has given of his ob-
servations there is no mention made of corrections having been
applied for the arcs of vibration or for the temperature of the
needle ; but in such an extensive series, corrections on these
accounts are of minor importance.

The number of land -stations at which the intensity was ob-

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. /

served appears to have been 77, all of which are entered in
the general table in this memoir.

Besides the land-stations, there are 12 geographical posi-
tions, in which M. de Humboldt observed the vibrations of the
needle on board ship. There are two great and obvious dis-
advantages in such observations, compared with those on land,
viz. the motion, and the iron, of the vessel. On the other side
should be noticed, the space interposed between the instrument
and the solid materials of the earth's surface, many of which
are known to exercise a very considerable disturbing influence
on the needle. As opinions may, and I believe do, vary in re-
gard to the degree of relative value to be allowed to observa-
tions of intensity made at sea and on land, and as it is not a
point on which, from personal experience, I feel qualified to
decide, I have placed the sea-observations in a separate table,
and subjoin them here.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Date.

Intensity.

38 52

34°5 59

1799

1-315

37 26

345 49

1799

1-315

34 30

345 26

1799

1-230

31 46

345 17

1799

1-261

24 53

341 23

1799

1-283

3 02 S.

279 54

1803

1-067

21 29

336 39

1799

1-261* \. . ft
1-251* } 1256

19 54

333 36

1799

14 15

314 18

1799

1-283* !,.„-«
1-230*1 * Mt}

13 02

309 23

1799

10 46

301 27

1799

1*178* 1
1-Jil.} 1 - 220

11 01

297 30

1799

The results marked with an asterisk were observed on the
passage across the Atlantic, between TenerifFe and Trinidad, a
part of the ocean where no land exists, and where, consequently,
the results obtained at sea furnish the only attainable evidence.
On examination, they present differences among themselves
considerably greater than is usual in land results ; but by com-
bining them in pairs, as shown in the table, and using the mean
latitude, longitude, and intensity of each pair, these partial dif-
ferences greatly disappear. I have entered the mean latitude,
longitude, and intensity of these three pairs in the general
table.

Humboldt and GayLussac, 1805-1806. — These observations

8 • SEVENTH REPORT — 1 S3 7-

were made during a tour in France, Switzerland, Italy, and
Germany, with a needle suspended by fibres of silk, vibrating in
the plane of the horizon, and measuring the horizontal compo-
nent of the magnetic intensity. The dip was observed at the
same time with a dipping-needle of Lenoir (the same that had
been used in the Voyage de Dentrecasteaux), supplying the
means of computing the total intensity from its horizontal com-
ponent. An account of these observations was published by
M. Gay Lussac in the 1st volume of the Memoires de la Societe
d'Arcueil. The values of the intensity were given in reference
to the force at Paris, where the needle was vibrated at the close
of the series, but not at its commencement. M. Gay Lussac
infers that no change took place in the magnetism of the needle
throughout the series, from its having had the same time of vi-
bration at Milan on two occasions, viz. in going and in return-
ing, at six months' interval. As no dates are given, the stations
at which the strict comparability of the force was thereby en-
sured can only be conjectured. It is probable that no correc-
tions were applied either for the arcs or for differences of tem-
perature, as neither of these circumstances is noted in the
record. The number of stations of known geographical po-
sition is 19, 16 of which are inserted in the general table in
this memoir. The other stations were in the crater, on the side,
and at the foot of Vesuvius, where the results were considered
by the observers to be affected, as no doubt they were, by the
proximity of the lava.

Sabine, 1818, 1819, 1820. — These observations were made
in the first and second voyages of northern discovery to Baffin's
Bay and the Polar Sea. Aware of the magnetic importance of
the regions to be explored, and anxious duly to improve such
opportunities, I sought diligently to provide myself with instru-
ments adequate to the occasion. Those furnished by Govern-
ment were by no means so ; but it fortunately happened that my
brother-in-law Mr. Browne possessed and entrusted to me a
dip circle and needle of very superior character, made by Nairne
and Blunt, and similar in all respects to the one made under
Mr. Cavendish's directions, and described by him in the 66th
vol. of the Phil. Trans. The needle vibrated about eight mi-
nutes before coming to rest ; and probably, from its age, had
long acquired the state of steady magnetism which it was proved
to possess during these voyages, its time of vibration being
almost identical when observed in London in March, 1818, in
March, 1819, and in December, 1820*.

* The observations of March, 1819, and December, 1820, are recorded in

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 9

The observations of the voyage of 1818 were published in
the Phil. Trans, for 1819 ; those of the voyage of 1819-20,
partly in the appendix to the narrative of that voyage, and
partly in my work entitled Pendulum and other Experiments,
published in 1825. In these publications the results were
deduced without any corrections having been made for the
arc of vibration or the temperature of the needle. On this oc-
casion I have introduced both these corrections. That for the
arc has been computed by means of the table published in the
Voyage de Dentrecasteaux, which I find to reduce the vibrations
in the different arcs so nearly to an equality as fully to justify
its employment. The arcs themselves are stated in the printed
record of the observations. The temperatures on the different
days of observation ai'e taken from the record of the external
thermometer in the Meteorological Journal, and the corrections
are computed by the usual formula for that purpose, in which
the coefficient "OOOi has been determined by experiments with
the same needle in high and low temperatures.

In the voyage of 1819-1820 I furnished myself, besides the
dipping-needle, with three horizontal needles, and an apparatus
for their vibration. These would have been of great use had it
been our good fortune to have returned to Europe by the way of
the Pacific; but the method of deducing the total intensity by
means of horizontal needles almost ceases to be available in coun- %
tries where the dip so nearly approaches 90°, and where small
incidental errors in the determination of the dip will so greatly
affect the conclusion as to the force. Accordingly, I have at
no time brought the observations with the horizontal needles
in this voyage in comparison with the results given by the dip-
ping-needle. There is, however, an incidental purpose of some
value which they may serve, which did not occur to me when
the record of the observations was printed, and which is worth
noticing, as it may be useful on similar occasions, should there
be such. The horizontal vibrations, though inappropriate in
such circumstances to furnish the total intensities, give as cor-
rect measures of the relative values of the horizontal component

the Appendix of the second Polar Expedition. From the circumstance of the
narrative and appendix of that voyage having been published at an interval of
some months apart, the copy of the narrative which reached M. Hansteen was
unaccompanied by the appendix, which it seems he has never seen. The abs-
tract of the results, published in another work from whence he has taken them,
refers to the full record of the observations in the appendix, and omits their
dates, and Mr. Hansteen has consequently been at a loss to know whether the
vibrations were observed both before and after the voyage of 1819 — 1820. By
consulting the original account, he will see that this necessary care was not
omitted.

SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

of the force at any two stations, as the vibrations of the dipping-
needle do of the total force. If, then, T is the time of hori-
zontal vibration, and D the dip at a primary station, where the
total force is taken as unity, — and if T' and D' are the same
quantities at another station, where I' is the value of the total
intensity derived by the vibrations of the dipping-needle, —

cos D' = — p-rpTa — ; and we thus get a determination of the

dip distinct from the ordinary method, and independent of the
instrumental errors from which it is so difficult to clear the
dipping-needle, especially one in which the poles are not re-
versed in every observation.

Employing the observations at Melville Island, printed in
the appendix to the account of that voyage, in this manner,
we obtain the dip at Melville Island by the three horizontal
needles as follows, viz.

Needle 1 88° 44'

Needle 2 88 46

Needle 3 88 48

The direct observation by the dipping-needle was 88° 43'"5.

The following table exhibits the results of the observations
of intensity in the two north polar voyages above noticed, cor-
rected for temperature and arc, and expressed in terms of the
general scale.

Station.

Latitude.

Long.

Therm.

Time of Vibration.

Intensity.

Observed.

Correct.

London, 1818

o 1

Ul 31

60 09
68 22
70 26
75 05

75 51

76 45
76 08
70 35
64 00

73 31
72 45
75 10

74 27

o /
359 52

358 48
306 10
305 08
299 37
296 54
284 00

281 39
293 05
298 10

282 38
270 19
256 16
248 18

48
44

34
34
33
33
33
33
33
32
40
32
32
20

f480

] 482
[480
470
440
443
447-2
443-6
435-0
436-0
436-0
437-4
439-5
4390
442-5
444-3
446-2

472-0
473-5
472-9
461-7
432-1
434-9
439-4
435-6
429-1
4300
429-7
435-0
432-9
428-9
430-7
434-6
432-6

1 1-372

1-434
1-643
1-622
1-590
1-618
1-666
1-659
1-661
1-621
1-637
1-668
1-653
1-624
1-638

London, 1819 ...

London, 1820

Shetland, 1818

On Ice, 1819

Byam Martin's Island .
Melville Island

74 47 j

249 12

Hansteen, 1819-1825. — In 1819 M. Hansteen, having com-

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THK EARTH. 1 1

pleted and published his elaborate exposition of the theory of
the earth's magnetism, to which he had been conducted by the
study of the phasnomena of the variation and dip as far as they
were then known, entered into the field of experimental re-
search, in which he has since rendered such important practical
services to his favourite science. His exceedingly portable ap-
paratus for determining the intensity by horizontal needles is too
well known to need description here ; and his good fortune in
possessing a needle of remarkably steady magnetism, supplied
by Mr. Dollond, renders little more necessary to be said in re-
gard to his determinations, than to refer to the publications in
which they may be found, and to enter them in the general table.
From 1819 to 1824 his observations were confined to Norway
and the shores of the Baltic, and were published in the iiird.
vol. of the Ann. der Physilc, the intensity stations being 37. In
1825 he extended them round the shores of the Gulf of Bothnia;
and the determinations of that year, being 30 in number, were
published, first, in the ixth vol. of the Ann. der Physik, and,
secondly, with corrections, in the Astro. Nach., No. 146.

Erichsen, 1824 ; Keilhau and Boeck, 1825-1827 ; Erman,
1826. — I have classed these observations together, because
they were all made, I believe, at the instance and with the ap-
paratus of M. Hansteen, and were communicated to the public
through him in the Astro. Nach., No. 146. Captain Erichsen's
consist of 3 stations on the shores of the Baltic, and in Ger-
many ; Messrs. Keilhau and Boeck's of 9 stations in Germany ;
and M. Erman's of 2 stations in Germany. They were all
connected with Paris through Christiania, and are entered in
the general table.

Sabine, 1822-1823. — These observations were made during
two voyages, in which I was furnished by the British Govern-
ment with a vessel for my conveyance to stations' at remote
latitudes from each other, for the purpose of determining the
amount of the ellipticity of the earth by means of the pendu-
lum. The first voyage was to the equatorial shores of the Afri-
can and American continents, and the second to the north of
Europe, Greenland, and Spitzbergen. For these voyages I sup-
plied myself with as many as six horizontal needles, in anti-
cipation that some amongst them might prove unsteady in their
magnetism. The observations with all the needles, and at all
the stations visited, were published in 1825, with the account of
the pendulum experiments.

One of the needles, No. 2, lost so much of its magnetism in

12 SEVENTH REPORT — 183".

the first voyage that it was not used in the second. Another,
No. 1, appears to have been subject to fluctuations in its
magnetic condition, rather than to have undergone permanent
or uniform gain or loss. M. Hansteen, who has discussed
these observations at some length in the ixth volume of
the Annalen der Physik, has rejected the results with these
two needles whenever they differed considerably from those
of the other four ; but has retained and allowed weight
in the general mean to such of their results as appeai'ed
to agree with the other needles. Nos. 3, 4, 5, and 6 showed
on their return to England small and comparatively unim-
portant differences from their times of vibration previous to
their departure. M. Hansteen has applied corrections on this
account to the intervening observations, according to their
dates. One of my stations having been Drontheim in Norway,
which was visited by M. Hansteen himself for the same purpose
in 1825, two years after I had been there, it became a station
common to our respective series ; and he was thereby enabled
to compute the values of the intensity at all the stations visited
by me, relatively to the force at Drontheim, which he had
already compared with Paris by observations at Drontheim
and Christiania, and at Christiania and Paris. The values so
computed and published by M. Hansteen in the volume of the
Ann. der Physik referred to, are here subjoined, for the pur-
pose of exhibiting them in comparison with my own deduc-
tions. The latter are made from the observations with Nos. 3,
4, 5, and 6 alone, those of Nos. 1 and 2 being put wholly
aside. The times of vibration of each needle at the different
stations, as originally published in 1825, have received three
corrections : one, when necessary, for change of magnetism,
assigned on the principle of uniform gain or loss ; a second,
to diminish the observed times of vibration to the correspond-
ing times in infinitely small arcs ; and a third for reduction to
a standard temperature of the needle, the coefficients for
the formula having been determined experimentally for each
needle. The values of the intensity in my deductions are given
relatively to the force in Paris, by my own comparison of the
farce in London and in Paris, which will be noticed hereafter.
There are, therefore, several particulars in which M. Han-
steen's mode of deduction and mine differ ; but it is interesting
to perceive how nearly the results agree. The values calculated
by M. Hansteen are almost everywhere slightly in defect of those
computed by me. This arises from the force at Drontheim be-
ing somewhat less by M. Hansteen's observations than by mine ;
and as he has compared the intensity at all my stations with that

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

at Paris through the observations at Drontheim, the original
difference between us at Drontheim pervades the whole series.

Place.

Hansteen.

Sabine.

Place.

Hansteen.

Sabine.

Sierra Leone ...
Gambia River...

0-894
0-900
0-921
1-006
1043
1-129
1-184
1-183
1-300

0-898
0-920
0-931
1-016
1-053
1-141
1-193
1-204
1-313

1-382
1-414
1-430
1-430
1-493
1-493
1-512
1-531
1-794

1-373
1-436
1-442
1-454
1-499
1-506
1-530
1-562
1 803

Grand Cayman .

Hammerfest ...

In the deductions contained in this table (both in M. Hans-
teen's and mine) the dips employed are those which M. Hans-
teen has calculated from my published observations. They
differ occasionally a minute or two from my calculated results,
but in no instance does the difference amount to 3'.

Liitke, 1826-1829. — These observations were made by
Captain (since Admiral) Liitke, of the Russian Imperial Navy,
in a voyage of circumnavigation in H.I.M. ship Siniavin. At the
request of Capt. Liitke, M. Lenz, of the Imperial Academy of
Sciences at St. Petersburg, undertook to arrange them for
publication, and they have since been published in the German
language in the Memoirs of the Imp. Acad, of Sciences for 1835.
I was indebted to the friendship of Capt. Liitke for an early
knowledge of these observations, having received a copy of them
in a letter from Norfolk Sound in July 1827 ; but the present
notice, as well as the results entered in the table, are taken
from the published account.

M. Lenz's memoir is divided into two sections, — on the ob-
servations of Dip, — and on those of Intensity. Our present
purpose is with the latter section.

The observations of intensity were made with one dipping and
five horizontal needles. The dipping-needle was S\ inches in
length, with a steel axle, and was reserved exclusively for mea-
suring the intensity by its vibrations, as there were two other
dipping-needles for observations of the dip. The horizontal
needles were of various shapes, cylindrical, rhomboidal, and
elliptical, but all of the same length, i. e. two English inches.
They were obtained in England when the Siniavin was on her
outward passage. The apparatus in which they were to have

14 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837.

been used was unfortunately broken in pieces in the carriage
from London to Portsmouth by mail. It had been Capt. Lutke's
intention to have vibrated the needles at Portsmouth before his
departure, and again at the same spot on his return from the
Pacific ; so that all the observations of his voyage with each
needle might have been comparable with its rate at Portsmouth.
The accident which prevented the execution of this purpose,
and rendered the series of observations much less complete than
it would otherwise have been, is much complained of both by
Capt. Liitke and M. Lenz. In consequence of this accident, it
was not until the arrival of the Siniavin at Kamtschatka that
the needles could be vibrated at a station to which they were
subsequently brought back ; and out of 52 stations, there are
only 18 which were observed at during an interval in which
anything is known by observation of the steadiness of the mag-
netism of the needles. They were vibrated at three different
dates at the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul, viz. on Septem-
ber 30, 1827, June 6, 1828,and October 9, 1828. Their changes
of rate in the intervals were small, but not proportionate.
Corrections are computed and applied at all the intermediate
stations in the usual manner. M. Lenz has employed the rate
of change of each needle, deduced from the first and second
times of vibration at St. Peter and St. Paul, to furnish correc-
tions for the stations observed at antecedently to Capt. Lutke's
first arrival at Kamtschatka ; of these the land stations are
Rio de Janeiro, Concepcion, Valparaiso, Sitka and Unalaska.
For a single station (Manilla) observed at subsequently to the
final departure from Kamtschatka, M. Lenz has used the rate
of correction deduced from the second and third times of vibra-
tion there.

The times of vibration were derived on all occasions from the
mean of 250 consecutive vibrations, commencing with an arc
of 30° and ending usually about 10°. M. Lenz has not consi-
dered it necessary to apply a correction for the arcs. The value
of the correction to a mean temperature was determined for
each needle by observations made at St. Petersburg at the con-
clusion of the voyage. For four of the five needles the correc-
tion was as usual additive to the time for temperatures below
the standard, and subtractive for those above it ; but one
needle, rhomboidal in shape, exhibited the anomaly of a de-
crease of force in the colder temperatures, fully as great as the
increase shown by any of the others. The observations appear
to have been very carefully made, — were repeated four times, —
and include a difference of temperature of 20° Reaumur. A
similar anomaly has been noticed, if I remember rightly, by M.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Kupffer, as having occurred in his experience, and I have my-
self met with an instance of the same kind. M. Lenz has em-
ployed no correction for this needle ; and the vibrations of the
vertical needle appear also to have been uncorrected for tem-
perature.

The harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul is the fundamental
station of Capt. Liitke's determinations. The value of the in-
tensity there, 1*447 to 1*348 at Paris, is stated by M. Lenz to
be taken on the authority of M. Hansteen.

Capt. Liitke used both his dip and intensity needles at sea in
favourable weather, placing the instruments on a board sus-
pended in gimbals above the companion. His sea observations
appear to be viewed by M. Lenz as not entitled to equal weight
with those at the land stations, but as valuable additions. Of
51 intensity results, 16 are at land stations, and are entered in
the general table; and I subjoin, as in the case of M. de Hum-
boldt's, a separate table of the 35 results obtained at sea.

Lat.

Long.

Date.

Intensity.

Lat.

Long.

Date.

Intensity.

South.

1827.

North.

1827.

29 10

3°13 3'5

16 Jan.

(a) 0-924*

35'

/
232 56

8 May

(b) 1.013

40 55

307

25 Jan.

(a) 1-110

2 24

232 08

9 May

lb) 1-012*

49 18

302 48

31 Jan.

(a) 1-268

13 13

227

19 May

(b) 1-112*

53 16

301 37

3 Feb.

(b) 1-320*

23 26

218 02

25 May

(h) 1-212*

55 25

298 27

8 Feb.

(b) 1-413

25 21

213 56

30 May

lb) 1-376*

41 00

282 30

1 March

(b) 1-324

40 28

213 35

1 June

(b) 1-456

29 38

278 26

11 April

44 54

214 50

3 June

lb) 1-573*

21 51

268 05

18 April

48 44

216 37

6 June

lb) 1-653

13 09

251 20

27 April

52 29

219 08

9 June

(6) 1-662*

9 38

243 25

30 April

45 27

159 02

23 Oct.

(b) 1-303

6 01

240 08

2 May

(h) 1-005*

39 07

159 03

26 Oct.

lb) 1-186

4 20

238 13

3 May

lb) 0-998

32 59

161 49

1 Nov.

lb) 1-113*

2 29

236 26

4 May

(a) 1-000*

18 44

163 55

13 Nov.

lb) 0-989

2 02

236 04

4 May

(h) 0-996*

11 27

161 52

18 Nov.

lb) 0-970

I 15

225 30

5 May

4 17

162 54

23 Dec.

(a) 1-001

1 10

234 31

6 May

lb) 0-995*

3 47

162 59

23 Dec.

(a) 1-010

233 17

7 May

2 56

162 50

24 Dec.
1828.

(a) 1-018

6 55

158 02

7 Jan.

(a) 990

The i

esults with an asterisk are so marked ir

1 M. Lenz's memo

r to signify

observat

ions made under less favourable circums

tances than the ot

lers. The

sixteen i

jphich are not so marked are entered in

the general table.

(a) de

signates results obtained by means of th

e horizontal needle

s; (b) those

by mean

s of the dipping-needle ; and (c) results

which are a mean

of both me-

thods.

King, 1826-1830. — These observations were made during

16 SEVENTH KKPORT — 1837.

a survey of the coast of South America from Rio de Janeiro to
Valparaiso, carried on under the orders of the British Govern-
ment hy Capt. Philip Parker King of the Royal Navy. They
were undertaken at the request of M. Hansteen, and with an
apparatus for horizontal vibration with which Capt. King was
furnished by him. A copy of the observations was ti'ansmitted
from time to time, as they were made, to M. Hansteen, who em-
ployed the results, computed provisionally, in his map of the
intensity, published in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxviii.
The observations themselves have not yet been published,
having been given by Capt. King to his successor in the survey,
Capt. Fitz Roy, to be published when the latter should return
to England. On his return, which took place late in 1836,
Capt. Fitz Roy placed Capt. King's magnetic observations in my
hands (together with his own, of which a separate notice will be
given in the sequel,) to calculate and arrange for publication
in an account which he is now preparing for the press, of the
proceedings of Capt. King and himself during the survey.
Meantime I have Capt. Fitz Roy's permission to introduce Capt.
King's results into this memoir.

The needle with which M. Hansteen supplied Capt. King sus-
tained a very considerable loss of magnetism during the four
years it was employed by that officer. Its time of vibration in-
creased between March 22, 1826, and January 24, 1831, (on
which days it was tried in the garden of the Royal Observatory
at Greenwich,) from 734-'5 seconds in 1826, to 775'S seconds in
1831. A change of such magnitude in the magnetic intensity
of the instrument employed to measure the variations of the
terrestrial intensity, and which ought itself, therefore, to be in-
variable, would, in ordinary circumstances, have prevented any
satisfactory conclusion whatsoever being drawn from the obser-
vations. Fortunately, from the nature of the duties in which
Capt. King was engaged, he had occasion to return frequently
to the same anchorages ; and as he was extremely careful to
re-examine the needle on every such return, we have the means
of knowing by direct observation the amount of the loss it
sustained in certain portions of the time of its employment.
There are eleven stations at which the force was observed
on the east and west coasts of South America, and two in ports
of the Atlantic on the outward voyage. By the practice re-
ferred to, of repeating observations at the same station at di-
stant intervals, the South American stations are so linked toge-
ther and connected, that by adopting a method similar to that
used in determining chronometrical differences of longitude, we
may compute and assign the intensity at each, in reference to

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 17

one selected, and regarded in the same light as a first meri-
dian. In justice to these valuable observations, and in consi-
deration of the great change undergone by the needle, it may
be desirable briefly to describe the manner in which this has
been done.

At Rio de Janeiro, which was the first station observed at in
South America, the needle was vibrated in August 1826, Sep-
tember 1827, and December 1828 ; in the intervals between
these dates are comprised the principal part of the observations
on the east side of South America. There is no direct obser-
vation at Rio subsequently to December 1828, but we are able
to supply the time of vibration at a fourth date in the following
manner. The intensity at Rio and at Monte Video having been
correctly compared by a double comparison in 1827 and 1828,
the needle was vibrated at Monte Video on the 1st of June,
1830, immediately before Capt. King's departure for England,
and we thus obtain by an easy calculation the time of vibration
at Rio corresponding to the same date. The intervals between
these four dates include the whole of the South American sta-
tions ; and we have only to distribute in each interval the loss of
magnetism which the observations show to have taken place
from one date to the next, in the manner which may appear
most suitable. There is no very obvious indication that the
loss was other than gradual ; and by considering it uniform in
each separate interval, the results are found extremely ac-
cordant at several other stations at which observations were re-
peated at distant intervals. The subjoined tables will enable
the reader to judge of this for himself. In the first table are
shown the times of vibration at Rio, corresponding to the four
dates : 1st, the observed times of horizontal vibration reduced
to infinitely small arcs and to a temperature of 60° ; and 2nd,
the corresponding times as a dipping-needle. The value of
the correction for temperature has been determined for this
needle by observations which I have recently made with it for
that purpose, the particulars of which will be given in the
more detailed statement in Capt. Fitz Roy's publication. In
the three last columns are shown, — the number of days com-
prised in each interval, — the increase in the time of vibration
owing to loss of magnetism in the needle, — and the resulting
daily correction on the supposition of the loss in each interval
being uniform.

The second table contains the corrected times of horizontal
vibration at each of the South American stations at the dates
respectively inserted ; — the dips observed by Capt. King ; — the
time of vibration as a dipping-needle at Rio at the same dates,

vol. vi. 1837. c

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

-0-884

derived from the observations in the first table ; — and the result-
ing intensity at the station relatively to Rio. The contents of
the tables thus far are the results of Capt. King's observations,
unmixed with those of any other observer. We have now
to express his results in terms of the general scale of compari-
son, and this is done in the final column, by taking the value
of the intensity at Rio at 0-884, which is the mean of four inde-
pendent determinations by the following observers, viz. :

1817 and 1820 Freycinet . . . 0-890"

1827 Liitke 0-886

1830 Erman .... 0-879

1836 FitzRoy . . . 0-878_

I have included in table II. Madeira and Port Praya, at which
Capt. King observed in his outward passage. The dates of
these fall between the observations at Greenwich in March,
1826, (corrected time = 734*0 and dip 69° 52',) and those at
Rio in August, 1826. Having the intensity at Greenwich
= 1*372 and at Rio = 0-884, we have the time of vibration
as a dipping-needle at Rio at the respective dates as follows :

March, 1826 536-2

August, 1826 537-0

It appears, therefore, that only a very slight change took
place in the magnetism of the needle during the outward voy-
age, and we may take 536*6 as the time of vibration at Rio,
corresponding to the dates of the observations at Madeira and
Port Praya. I have assumed the dip and force at Greenwich
to be the same as at London. The dip at Madeira was not ob-
served by Capt. King, but has been supplied from my own ob-
servations in 1822, which were made in the same locality,
namely, the Consul's garden in Funchal, where Capt. King's
needle was vibrated. I have deducted 12' from my determina-
tion of the dip at Madeira for the probable change between
1822 and 1826.

Table I.

Time of Vibration.

Rio de Janeiro,
Dip 14° 00'.

Interval.

Loss.

Per diem.

Horizontal.

As a dipping,
needle.

Days.

August 29, 1826...

545-2

537-0

J 382
I 462
} 527

6-5

•017

September 15, 1827

551-8

543-5

9-2

•1)20

December 21, 1828

5611

552-7

2-7

•005

June 1,1830

563-8

555-4

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Table II.

Station.

Date.

s =

Observed dip.

u 4) O
O CO 03

Intensity,

Rio

= 1-000.

Rio.
=0-88-1.

1826, May 31

s.
627-79
557-08
553-58
549-44
562-78
553-87
560-95
564-89
576-37
584-29
585-08
589-36
596-54
595-81
598-97
565-23
551-83
555-59
557-18
548-59
551-6

62 0-0 N.
45 44-7 N.
22 12-4 S.
35 05-9 S.

s.
536-6
536-6
544-5
5381
552-8
545-4
551-3
555-4
5531
539-4
540-6
546-2
548-2
549-3
555-1
5542
554-8
554-6
555-3
553-9
554-6

1-556
1-330
1045
1-1721
1-179/
1-206 1
1-201 I
1-202 J
1-538
1-691 \
1-694 /
1-712T
1-683 1
1-694 f
1-712 J
1-402
1-425
1-413 1
1-412/
1-334 1
1-324 J

1-377
1177
0-920

1041

1-065

1-361
1-498

1-505

1-321
1-262

1-250
1176

1826, June 22 & 24 ,.,

1827, Nov. 3

1826, Oct. 29 & Nov. 6
1829, Jan. 10

1827, Dec. 18

36 28-4 S.

1828, Oct. 8

1830, June 1

Sea-bear Bay ...
St. Martin's Cove

1829, March 20

53 13-5 S.
59 43-8 S.

59 ' 52-6 S.

1827, Jan. 15 &22...
1827, March 27

1828, Jan. 28

1828, May 8

1828, June 18 & July 20
1830, April 26

Chiloe

1829, Sept. 1 & Dec. 15

1830, Feb. 19

49 52-6 S.

44 49-8 S.

45 10-0 S.

Juan Fernandez .

1829, Dec. 28

1830, May 12

1829, Aug. 4

40 10-7 S.

1830, Jan. 11 & Feb. 1.

Sabine, 1827. — These observations were made for the pur-
pose of determining the ratio of the intensity in Paris and
London, in order to connect and unite in one system, the re-
sults of the different observers who had made Paris and Lon-
don respectively the base stations of their series.

All values of the intensity hitherto determined are relative
values ; that is to say, each observer has taken some one sta-
tion as the fundamental one of his series, and has expressed
the values of the intensity at all his other stations, compara-
tively with the force at his fundamental station. Unless, there-
fore, two such series have one station common to both, or un-
less the force at their respective fundamental stations has been
otherwise compared, they do not form parts of one system,
and the results of the one series cannot be brought into con-
nexion with those of the other.

The continental observers in general have taken Paris, either
mediately or immediately, as their fundamental station ; and the
English observers have as generally taken London ; the present
observations were designed, therefore, as a link to connect their
respective series into one system.

c 2

20 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Six horizontal needles were employed for this purpose, and
a number of observations were made with them at different
dates at both places ; the details are published in the Phil.
Trans, for 1827. From these it appears that, if the horizontal
intensity in London be designated as unity, the several needles
gave its value in Paris as follows, viz.

Needle IV. = 1-0732
VIII. = 1-0675
X. = 1-0726

Needle XI. = 1-0723

A. = 1-0709

B. = 1-0717

Mean 1-0714.

The observations were corrected for a small excess of tem-
perature in the experiments at Paris over those in London,
being, I believe, the first time in which a correction for dif-
ference of temperature was introduced into any published re-
sults of the variations of intensity at different stations. The
places of observation were the magnetic cabinet of M. Arago at
Paris, and the garden of the Horticultural Society at Chiswick,
near London.

In order to deduce the relative values of the total intensity
from their observed horizontal components, we require the
dip at the two stations as accurately as it can be inferred from
nearly cotemporaneous observations. In August, 1828, the dip
in the garden at Chiswick was observed by Mr. Douglas and
myself, 69° 46-9. Phil. Trans., 1829. In a paper of M. Han-
steen's, in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. p. 414, we find
recorded the following observations at Paris, a part of which
fall on either side of the London observation of August, 1828,
viz.: Q /

1825 Arago 68 00

1826 Humboldt and Mathieu . . 67 56*5

1827 Humboldt and Mathieu . . 67 58-0
1830 Arago 67 41-3

The months in which the observations were made are not
named by M. Hansteen, but M. de Humboldt in a paper in the
xvth vol. of the Ann. der Physik mentions that those of 1825
and 1826 were made in August and September, and I have
taken those of 1827 and 1828 as corresponding to the same
months. Allowing then an annual decrease of dip of 2'*8 {Ann.
der Physik, vol. xxi. p. 419) we obtain the dip in Paris in Au-
gust, 1828, as follows: ,

1825 Arago 67 51-6~)

1826 Humboldt and Mathieu 67 50-9 \ R % -{.,-

1827 Humboldt and Mathieu 67 55-2 f°' D1
1830 Arago 67 46-9J

I have therefore taken 67° 51'-2 as the most satisfactory co-

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 21

temporaneous result that I can obtain for Paris, all the obser-
vations being made in M. Arago's magnetic cabinet. It appears
therefore, that about the period in question, the dip in London
exceeded that in Paris by 1 15'*7 ; preserving this difference in
the dips at the two stations when reduced to the period of the
horizontal observations in 1827, and combining them with the
observed horizontal intensities, we obtain 1*018 as the value of
the total force in London to unity in Paris.

Such being the case, if any other number than unity be
taken for the measure of the force in Paris, the correspond-
ing value in London will be the product of that number multi-
plied by 1-018. By the observations of M. de Humboldt al-
ready described, the intensity at Paris to that of a place in
Peru, where the needle had no dip, was found to be as 1*3482
to 1*000. As at that period it was supposed that an equal in-
tensity, being the minimum on the surface of the globe, pre-
vailed at all places where the needle had no dip, the station
at which M. de Humboldt had observed in Peru appeared the
proper unity of the system of intensities. Subsequent ex-
perience, however, has shown that the intensity lines follow a
very different course from the dip lines ; and in retaining the
expression of unity for the force observed by M. de Humboldt
in Peru, we are necessitated to employ terms less than unity
to expi*ess the force in many other of the inter-tropical parts
of the globe, and even in one quarter beyond the tropic. The
scale is therefore purely arbitrary : but it is in general use,
and will probably continue to be employed till experiments
(perhaps those of M. Gauss) shall have determined an abso-
lute value for the magnetic intensity at some one station ; when
all the relative intensities may be converted into the corre-
sponding absolute intensities. Such is the origin of the num-
ber 1*3482 employed by observers generally as expressing the
force at Paris. In assuming a constant expression for the force
at any station on the globe for any considerable number of
years, we are of course subject to error resulting from the
secular change in the intensity ; of the amount of which we have
as yet no definite knowledge.

The force in London relatively to the above value of the
force at Paris is 1*3482 x 1*018 = 1*372.

In the spring of 1828 two of the needles used in this com-
parison were interchanged between M. Hansteen and myself,
for the purpose of determining in a similar manner the ratio
of the horizontal intensity at London and Christiania. The
observations are detailed in the Journal of the Royal Institu-

22 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

tion for 1830, p. 29. They gave the following results for the

horizontal intensity at Christiania to unity in London :

■\r ;n tv /"Comparison in March . . 0*9124
JNeeciie *v.^ Comparison in May # < 0<9157

VTTT r Comparison in March . . 0*9157
» V111, \ComparisoninMay ... 0*9160

Mean ... 0*9147
We have seen that the observations in Paris and London
gave ! "0714 for the horizontal intensity at Paris, also to unity
in London ; consequently Christiania to Paris is as 0*9147 to
1*0714, or as 0*8537 to 1. In the spring of 1828 M. Hansteen
observed the dip at Christiania 72° 16'*2 ; at Paris at the same
time, or about four months before August 1828, we may con-
sider it to have been 67° 52*'5. The total intensity at Christi-
ania derived from this comparison is therefore 1*423. The
result of a direct comparison between Paris and Christiania
made by M. Hansteen in 1825 is 1*419.

All the values of the intensity inserted in this memoir were
originally observed in reference to one of these three stations,
Paris, Christiania, or London, mediately or immediately. They
have been united by means of the comparisons above noticed,
viz., those of Paris and London, and of Paris and Christiania ;
and they now form one connected series.

Keilhau, 1827. — These observations were made in a voyage
to Finmarken and Spitzbergen, in which M. Keilhau was fur-
nished with an horizontal apparatus of M. Hansteen's, and a
5-inch dip circle and two needles made by Dollond. The
observations were communicated to M. Hansteen, and the re-
sults were published by him in the xivth vol. of the Annalen
der Physik, from whence I have taken them.

There may be remarked in these results greater differences
of intensity between stations near to each other than are
usually met with. From the geological character of the coun-
tries, it is probable that a portion of these may be due to local
circumstances; but it is also probable that a considerable por-
tion of them may be attributed to the inadequacy of the dip-
ping-needle with which M= Keilhau'was furnished, to give re-
sults sufficiently exact for the computation of intensities, in a
part of the globe where a small error in the dip will occasion
a very considerable one in the deduced intensity. His two
dipping-needles frequently gave results at the same station
differing from twenty to thirty minutes from each other.

There are 20 stations determined by M. Keilhau in Norway,

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 23

Finmarken, and Spitzbergen, all which are inserted in the ge-
neral table.

Hansteen and Due, Erman, 1828-1830.— In 1819 M. Hans-
teen published his celebrated work on the magnetism of the
earth, in which he brought into one view a larger body of
observations of the dip and variation than had been brought
together by any previous philosopher ; and by subjecting them
to a close examination, drew this remarkable inference in re-
gard to the intensity ; namely, that a centre, or pole as it
might be termed, of magnetic intensity must exist in the north
of Siberia, less powerful, but otherwise similar to the one in
the north of America ; and that the lines of equal intensity
would be found to arrange themselves around the Siberian
centre in the same way as around the centre of greater force in
America. At the time M. Hansteen drew this inference not a
single observation of the intensity had been made nearer to
Siberia than Berlin on the one side and Mexico on the other.

M. Hansteen's work, much more read on the Continent than
in England, produced a very general desire that an inference
so remarkable, and so important if confirmed, should be sub-
mitted to the test of experiment. This, however, exceeded in-
dividual means to accomplish ; it was one of those underta-
kings in science for which national aid is required. To the
honour of Norway, the funds for this undertaking were fur-
nished by a unanimous vote of the Norwegian Storthing or
Parliament. In 1828 M. Hansteen, accompanied by Lieut.
Due, proceeded at his country's expense, and with every faci-
lity which could be afforded him by the Russian Government,
on a journey expressly for magnetic observations through the
Russian dominions in the north of Europe and Asia. They
were provided with a dip circle and two needles of Gambey's,
and with M. Hansteen's apparatus for horizontal vibrations.
At St. Petersburg they were joined by M. Erman of Berlin,
proceeding on a similar mission to the same countries, and
similarly furnished with magnetic instruments. The three
gentlemen travelled together to Siberia, MM. Hansteen and
Due on the one part, and M. Erman on the other, making the
same observations everywhere, but independently of each other.
They wintered at Irkutsk ; and the following year MM. Hans-
teen and Due returned to St. Petersburg by land route, and
M. Erman proceeded by Ochozk to Kamtschatka, where he
embarked for Europe. The maps attached to this memoir
mark by the observations entered on them their various jour-
neys, separately and together, in northern Asia. Suffice it

24 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

here to say, that, they traversed the whole of the north of
Europe and of Asia longitudinally, and descended the rivers
Oby and Jenesei to the polar circle, with a view of determining
the latitude and longitude of the Siberian pole or centre
of magnetic intensity ; and that its general phenomena were
found to correspond in a very remarkable degree with M.
Hansteen's anticipations, its locality being removed but a few
degrees (about 6°) to the eastward of the position he had pre-
viously assigned to it.

Soon after M. Hansteen's return, he published a general
map of the magnetic intensity, in the xxviiith vol. of the An-
nate n der Physik. I am not aware that he has as yet pub-
lished any detailed statement of the results of his journey. The
stations inserted in the table in this memoir are from a MS. copy
of his and Lieut. Due's observations, which, with the liberality
that has hitherto characterised the labours of those engaged in
this interesting inquiry, and which I trust may long continue to
do so, he sent me from Irkutsk in 1829, with permission to make
" every use of it that I might think proper, especially when it
can encourage to new undertakings, and accordingly forward
the science."

M. Hansteen's determinations of intensity have a very great
advantage in the perfect invariability of the needle he em-
ployed. For sixteen years in which it was in constant use no
sensible alteration took place in its magnetism. This is an ad-
vantage which only those can duly appreciate who have been
much engaged in making or in computing observations of this
nature. The correction for temperature also, which he deter-
mined experimentally in the usual manner, has received the
fullest practical confirmation, by the exact agreement, when
corrected by it, of observations at the same place in tempera-
tures differing nearly 90° of Fahrenheit.

M. Erman's intensity observations are not yet published ;
they are to form a part of the second volume of the scientific
portion of his journey, the first volume of which was published
at Beilin in 1835. He has, however, communicated their re-
sults, provisionally computed, with corrections applied for tem-
perature and arc, in the xviith vol. of the Annalen 4er Physik,
from whence I have extracted them.

The number of stations entered in the table are, 80 observed
by MM. Hansteen and Due, and 98 by M. Erman. These are
all in the north of Europe and Asia, and 46 are common to
M. Erman and MM. Hansteen and Due. There are besides
four land determinations of M. Erman's on his homeward voy-
age, viz., Sitka, St. Francisco in California, Otaheite, and Rio

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 25

de Janeiro. He made also a very extensive series of intensity
observations on board ship in his passage from Kamtschatka
to Europe. Of these he has not yet communicated the nume-
rical results. He observed the vibrations of a dipping-needle
placed on an apparatus contrived to guard against the ship's
motion, which is understood to have been very successful*.

Kupffer, 1829. — These observations were made in a scien-
tific journey to the Caucasus, undertaken by the order of the
Emperor of Russia. M. KupfFer was furnished with two
horizontal needles, one of which he received from M. Hans-
teen, and the other from myself through M. de Humboldt.
He employed them, between May and August, 1829, at St.
Petersburg, Moscow, Stavropol, two stations in the Caucasus,
Taganrog, and NicolaiefF; and on his return to St. Petersburg,
presented to the Imperial Academy of Sciences a report on
the general results of his journey, in which the times of
vibration of the needles are specified, together with the tem-
peratures and the observed dips ; but the conclusions, in
regard to the relative intensity at the different stations, were
deferred, until the corrections for temperature for the two
needle-s could be experimentally investigated. I am indebted
to M. Kupffer for a printed copy of this report, and I have

* Since this report passed from my hands into those of the Assistant-general
Secretary, I have been favoured by M. Erman with a complete copy of his ob-
servations, including those made at sea. On hearing from M. de Humboldt
that 1 was engaged in drawing up this report, M. Erman, with great liberality
and most obligingly, sent me a copy in manuscript of the whole of his results
provisionally computed. I have thus been enabled to add five or six stations
between Ocbozk and the harbour of St. Peter and St. Paul with which I was
previously unacquainted, and 167 observations made on his voyage from Kamt-
schatka to Europe. I consider these last observations particularly valuable, in
the evidence they afford, that determinations of the intensity can be made at
sea with an accuracy but little inferior to those on land. With the exception
of a few in the very early part of the voyage, which appear from some cause to
give somewhat lower intensities than accord with M. Erman's own observations
at Sitka and St. Francisco, the results, both in the Pacific and Atlantic, when-
ever they approach the land stations of other observers, present a most satisfac-
tory accordance.

The complete series of M. Erman's magnetic determinations is the most ex-
tensive contribution yet made to the experimental department of magnetical
science ; nor can we rate its value too highly, since it furnishes us with conse-
cutive determinations of dip, variation, and intensity, by the same highly qua-
lified observer, and with the same excellent instruments, extending through all
the meridians of the globe, and from the Arctic circle in Siberia to nearly 60° of
south latitude, the whole of this distance being traversed in the course of two
years, and the track completely marked by the frequency of the observations.

26 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

seen no later publication containing his own conclusions from
his observations. The results entered in the table are con-
sequently computed by myself from the report above no-
ticed, and are uncorrected for temperature, which is of the
less importance as the differences of temperature were not
considerable. It is not stated in the report that the needles
were re-examined at St. Petersburg at the close of the series ;
but as the two give results very neai'ly accordant, it is pro-
bable they underwent little or no loss. At one of the sta-
tions in the Caucasus no dip was observed ; consequently no
total intensity can be computed. Some error has obviously
taken place in regard to the observations at Moscow ; the
times of vibration of both needles as given in the report would
correspond with a very much higher intensity there than at St.
Petersburg, which we know from the concordant observations
of MM. Erman and Hansteen is contrary to fact. M. Han-
steen, who received the observations direct from M. Kupffer
at St. Petersburg, has omitted the Moscow results in his notice
of this series. I have therefore done the same, supposing that
there is some satisfactory reason for the omission with which
I am unacquainted. At Stavropol and Taganrog the dips
employed in the reduction were observed with an inferior in-
strument, the principal dipping-needle having met with an acci-
dent.

Quetelet, 1829-1830.— In 1829 M. Quetelet, Director of the
Royal Observatory at Brussels, made observations on the hori-
zontal intensity at several stations in Germany and the Nether-
lands, with an apparatus similar to M. Hansteen's and two
needles ; and in the following year in France, Switzerland, and
Italy with the same apparatus and four needles. The obser-
vations of 1829 are contained in a memoir printed in the 6th vol.
of the Memoires de V Academie Royale de Bruxelles ; those of
1830 in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. Unfortunately, the
greater part of the observations of horizontal intensity are un-
accompanied by observed dips, and the stations are compara-
tively few at which M. Quetelet either observed the dip himself
or has selected dips observed by others, so as to be available
for our present purpose. There are ten such stations entered
in the general table. Having vibrated his needles in Paris in
1830, the values of the intensity are deduced by direct com-
parison. He has corrected the observations for temperature,
employing for their reduction the coefficient determined by M.
Hansteen for his own needle.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 27

Douglas, 1829-1834, —These observations were made by
Mr. David Douglas during a journey to the N.W. coast of
America, undertaken for botanical and geographical objects.
The circumstances of his much-regretted death at Owhyhee in
the spring of 1 834, whilst waiting for a vessel to convey him
home to England, are too well known to need repetition here.
Having been supplied with instruments for a part of the scien-
tific purposes of his journey by the Secretary of State for the
Colonies, his papers on such subjects were sent by the British
Consul at the Sandwich Islands to the Colonial Office, and on
their arrival in England were placed in my hands to examine and
report upon. The books containing the magnetical observations
showed, by the completeness of the record, the attention and
care bestowed on every circumstance which could conduce to
accuracy. A full report on these, and on his other scientific
papers, has been presented to Lord Glenelg, the present Se-
cretary of State for the Colonies, but is yet unpublished. I
have therefore permitted myself to enter into a more circum-
stantial account of these observations in this place than I have
done in regard to other observers, whose works can be imme-
diately consulted.

Mr. Douglas was furnished with a dip circle of 11| inches
in diameter, made by Dollond, with a needle on Mayer's prin-
ciple ; and for the intensity, with four of the same horizontal
needles which I had used in 1822-1823, viz., Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6.
The time of vibration of these needles was observed by Mr.
Douglas in London, in 1828 and 1829, previously to his leaving
England. In May, 1830, they were vibrated at Oahu, one of
the Sandwich Islands ; and between September, 1 830, and
February, 1831, at four stations in North America, where
the dip was also observed, viz., Fort Vancouver, Cape Disap-
pointment, Monterey, and St. Francisco ; and at several other
stations, where the dip was not observed. In February, 1831,
he sent Nos. 3 and 4 to England, to have the permanency of
their magnetism examined ; retaining Nos. 5 and 6 with him
for further observations. Nos. 3 and 4, from accidental cir-
cumstances, did not reach me till 1836 in Ireland, and being
examined in Limerick and Dublin (both which stations had
been carefully compared with London), No. 3 was found to
have slightly gained, and No. 4 slightly lost magnetism, on a
comparison with their rates in 1828 and 1829. When not em-
ployed in actual observation, these needles were kept together
in the same case, with their opposite poles connected, as were
Nos. 5 and 6 in another and a separate case. I have had occa-
sion to remark elsewhere, that, when needles differing consider-

28 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

ably in their rates of vibration are so kept together, it does not
unfrequently happen that the weaker needle acquires magnetism,
and the stronger loses it ; and such appears to have been
the case in this instance. It was not until 1829 that Nos. 3
and 4 were put together, having been previously paired in a
similar manner with other needles, whose magnetic strength in
both cases very nearly coincided with their own. It is pro-
bable, therefore, that the one began to lose and the other to
gain from that time forth ; and that the whole gain or loss took
place in the earlier portion, rather than equably throughout
the interval from 1829 to 1836.

When needles are so kept together in pairs, the two should
be employed on every occasion, and their combined result
should be regarded as one determination. Mr. Douglas never
employed them singly. If in such cases the gain of the one
needle were exactly proportioned to the loss of the other, the
results of the two needles taken separately would differ, but
combined would furnish a mutual compensation. In the pre-
sent case the gain and loss, though not identical, were so
nearly equal, that by taking a mean between the London
rates of each needle in 1829 and 1836, and combining at Lon-
don and at the other stations the results of the two needles into
one determination, we obtain the values of the intensity as they
would have been given by a single needle whose magnetism
had undergone little or no change.

The intensities thus calculated by needles 3 and 4, for the
Sandwich Islands and the stations in North America, are al-
most identical with those computed from Nos. 5 and 6, taken
jointly in the same manner, using the London rates which they
had before they left England. These needles have been
sought for in vain amongst Mr. Douglas's effects sent to En-
gland ; their steadiness, therefore, can only be judged of from
a comparison of their results with those of Nos. 3 and 4.

The special objects of Mr. Douglas's mission leading him
in excursions on foot into the interior of the country, in Cali-
fornia, and on the rivers tributary to the Columbia, the use of
the horizontal needles was the only service he could there ren-
der to magnetism, as the dip circle was not sufficiently port-
able to be taken with him. There are 18 stations at which
he used the horizontal needles alone, between 34|° and 54|°
N. lat., and all nearly on the same meridian, viz., between 1 19°
and 124° W. from Greenwich. The only absolute deduction
in these cases is that of the horizontal intensity. In deducing
the total force from its horizontal component, the dip employed
must necessarily be computed from the dips observed at other

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

stations. Determinations of intensity in that part of the globe
are as yet so rare, that such observations are too valuable to be
omitted in this memoir ; I have accordingly entered them in the
general table, as well as in a separate table here, and have an-
nexed to the latter a brief notice of the manner in which they
have been computed.

The last observations recorded in Mr. Douglas's books are
those which he made on the dip at Byron's Bay, and on the
force, with needles 5 and 6, at Byron's Bay and in the crater of
the volcano Kiraueah, soon after his arrival at Owhyhee in 1834.
I have searched in vain, amongst the few loose papers which
were sent home, for the rough notes of observations of very
great interest, of which he speaks in his private letters, but
which are not entered in his books. I mean those of the dip,
variation, and intensity at the summit of Mowna Kaah, nearly
] 4,000 feet above the sea, and at other elevations on the island
exceeding 10,000 feet. He mentions, as a general inference
from these observations, that he found little or no difference
between the three phsenomena observed at those heights and
near the sea. Those in the crater of Kiraueah, about 4000 feet
above the sea (which are the only ones preserved), indicate a
decidedly less intensity (1-059 to 1*098) than on the sea side at
Byron's Bay, a few miles distant : but Kiraueah is a recent
volcano, and no conclusion, as to the simple effect of elevation
on the magnetic intensity, can of course be drawn.

In the first subjoined table are inserted the intensities de-
termined at the stations where both the dip and horizontal in-
tensity were observed. The second table contains those sta-
tions where the horizontal component only was observed, and
the dips are supplied in the third table according to the expla-
nation annexed to it.

Table I.

Long, west

from
Greenwich

Dip

observed.

Intensity. London = 1-372

Nos. 3 & 4. Nos. 5 & 6. Mean

Fort Vancouver..
Cape Disap- "I
pointment J
Point George ..

St. Francisco

Monterey

Owhyhee

Nov., 1830..

Sept. Dec,

1830

Feb., 1831 ..
Jan., 1831 ..
Feb., 1834..

45 37

46 16

46 11
37 48
36 35
19 43

122 36

123 56

123 40
122 25
122
156 10

69 39-7

69 30-3

69 16-8
62 580
62 07-5
37 58-0

1-684
1-668

1-597
1-584

1-691
1-679

1-597
1-596
1098

1-688
1-674

1-597
1-590
1098

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Table II.

Monterey = 1-000.

Fort Vancouver = 1-000.

Place.

Horiz. Int.

Place.

Horiz. Int.

Fort Alexandria ...
Thompson's River

0-5616
0-5719
0-6015
0-6415
0-7165
0-9721
0-9859
1-0056
1-0080
10101
10222
10413
10335
10282

Mouth of the Wul-1

Rapids of the Co- 1

South branch of"l
the Multnomah J

0-9790

1-0000

10163
1-0463

London =1-000.

Oahu

1-758
1-762

Table III.

Stuart's Lake

Frazer's Lake

Fort Alexandria

Thompson's River

Oakanagan

River Wullawullah

Rapids of the Columbia

River Multnomah .

River Sandiam

St. Francisco Solano ..

San Jose

La Soledad

San Antonio

San Miguel

San Obispo

Santa Barbara

Santa Ynez

La Purissima

Sandwich Islands.

Oahu

Crater of Kiraueah

Long, west

Lat.

from

Greenwich.

54 27

124 20

54 03

124 40

52 33

122 29

50 41

120 11

48 05

119 27

46 03

118 48

45 40

121 48

45 15

122 47

44 35

122 27

38 17

122 24

37 32

122 00

36 24

121 24

36 01

121 18

35 45

121 00

35 16

120 40

34 25

119 40

34 36

120 11

34 40

120 27

21 18

158

June,

May,

April,

July,

Sept.,

Aug.,

July,

April,

May,

1833
1833
1833
1833
1833
1830
1830
1830
1830
1831
1831
1831
1831
1831
1831
1831
1831
1831

May, 1830
March, 1824

Computed 1

dip. 1

7°6 09

75 48

74 50

73 43

71 45

70 14 1

69 27 i

68 57 !

68 28 !

63 24 '

62 52 1

62 04

61 46 i

61 40

61 17

60 48

60 53

41 39

38 00

Intensity
London
= 1-3/2.

1-745
1-734
1-714
1-701
1-701
1-699
1-671
1-660
1-672
1-614
1-607
1-596
1-584
1-580
1-581
1-587
1-579
1-571

1116
1059

The latitudes in this table, and the longitudes of the stations on the River Co-
lumbia and its tributaries are from Mr. Douglas's observations. The longitudes
are chronometrical, from Fort Vancouver as a first meridian. The longitude of
Fort Vancouver is computed from 1200 lunar distances observed by him. A few
of these were computed on the spot, but all were fully recorded, and have been
calculated since his papers arrived in England.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 31

Notice of the manner in which the results in the above table
have been computed. — There are five stations in North Ame-
rica at which Mr. Douglas observed the dip. The number of
separate observations is 21 distributed as follows :
Cape Disappointment ... 3

Point George 2

Fort Vancouver 6

St. Francisco 3

Monterey 7

To compute from these the dip at the eighteen stations where
it was not observed, we require the direction of the isoclinal
lines, and the rate at which the dip increases in the perpendi-
cular to them.

The relative position of the five stations, being nearly on the
same geographical meridian, is unfavourable for determining
the direction of the lines ; but, on the contrary, extremely fa-
vourable for a deduction of the rate at which the dip increases
in the perpendicular to them ; and as the horizontal stations
are all nearly under the same meridian also, the rate of increase
is the element of calculation, which it is most important to ob-
tain correctly.

To compute, therefore, the rate of increase from the observa-
tions themselves, we may take the direction of the lines from
a general map, as a small uncertainty in this respect has little in-
fluence on the result. In M. Hansteen's map of the lines of
dip in 1780 we find their direction in that part of the globe to
be from N. 74° W. to S. 74° E.* If we express by r the rate
of increase corresponding to a geographical mile, and make
8 = the dip at a central geographical position, say 45° N.
lat., and 124° W. long., and 8^ 8 2 , 8 3 , &c, the observed dip at
the five stations, we shall have

S, = 8 + («! cos 74° - b x sin 74°) r
8 2 = 8 + (> 2 cos 74° - h 2 sin 74°) /•, &c,
the coefficient a being the difference of longitude between the
central station and that at which the dip was observed, ex-

* When I wrote the above I had not seen M. Erman's more recent mag-
netic map from his own observations in 1828, 1829 and 1830, in which are de-
lineated the dip lines of 60°, 65°, and 70°, which pass through the district in
which Mr. Douglas's observations were made. Their direction in the meridian
of 124° W. measured on M. Erman's map is, as nearly as the measurement can
be made, from N. 744° W. to S. 74§° E. I add this note to explain the reason
why the direction in the text was not taken at once from the more modern and
cotemporaneous map, and to express the satisfaction I feel in this confirmation
of the element I had ventured to introduce for the calculation of Mr. Douglas's
results, — the only element in the calculation which was not furnished by his
own observations.

32 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

pressed in geographical miles, and b the difference of latitude
also in geographical miles.

If we combine the five equations so formed for the five dip
stations by the method of least squares, giving each equation a
weight proportioned to the number of observations which it re-
presents, we obtain by the usual process of summing and eli-
mination

8 = 68° 42' ; r = - 0-013608,
the latter being equivalent to 73*5 geographical miles to one
degree of dip. With these we may compute the dip for each of
the horizontal stations ; and having the values of the horizontal
component we may deduce the total intensity. The dips and
intensities for the North American stations in Table 3 are thus
computed.

Mr. Douglas mentions that the dip he observed in the crater
of Kiraueah was 2' greater than at Byron's Bay ; I have there-
fore entered it in Table 3 as 38° 00'. " The dip at Oahu is from
Capt. de Freycinet's observations at the adjacent island of Mowi,
and must he regarded as uncertain for Oahu to some minutes ;
but in so low a magnetic latitude an error of that amount would
have very little influence on the calculation of the intensity.
The horizontal intensity at Oahu was very well determined, the
four needles being employed, a few months only after their vi-
bration in London.

Fitz Roy, 1831-1836. — We come next to a series which must
rank amongst the most important contributions to magnetical
science, and which we owe to Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N., and the of-
ficers of H.M. ship Beagle, employed in the years above-men-
tioned in the survey of the coasts of South America, and in a
voyage of circumnavigation performed chiefly in the southern
hemisphere, having for its primary object the determination
of differences of longitude by a number of chronometers.

Capt. Fitz Roy had the precaution to furnish himself with a
dipping needle of Gambey, whose instruments of this kind,
though not always without fault, are universally acknowledged
to be the best that are made, and superior to those of our own
artists in modern times. For the intensity he received from Capt.
King the horizontal needle with which that officer had been
supplied by M. Hansteen. This needle, which in Capt. King's
voyage had lost from time to time considerable portions of its
magnetism, appears to have very nearly attained a permanent
magnetic state when Capt. Fitz Roy received it. By observa-
tions at Plymouth in 1831 and 1836, and at Port Praya in 1832
and 1836, its time of vibration is shown to have varied to a very

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY QF THE EARTH. 33

inconsiderable amount, admitting of safe and easy interpola-
tion.

Capt. Fitz Roy's observations are not yet published. On his
return to England he paid me the compliment of placing them
in my hands to calculate and arrange for publication in the
appendix of an account of his voyage, which he is preparing.
Meanwhile he has permitted me to insert the intensity results in
the general table of this memoir. They are corrected for tem-
perature and for arc. They include 27 stations, of which 24
in the southern hemisphere, distributed throughout its longi-
tudes, throw very considerable light on the system of the inten-
sity in those regions. This extensive series is, I trust, but the
precursor of what British naval officers will accomplish for mag-
netism in the southern hemisphere.

Rudberg, 1832. — These observations were made with a dip-
ping-needle and two horizontal needles of Gambey's, at five
stations on the continent of Europe, of which Paris was one.
A full account of them is published in the xxviith vol. of the
Annalen der Physik. They appear to have been made with
great care, and the results are corrected for temperature.

Lloyd and Sabine, 1835-1836. — These observations were
made in compliance with a wish expressed by the British Asso-
ciation that some of its members would undertake a survey of
the dip and intensity in the British Islands. Accordingly the
intensity was determined at 30 stations in Ireland by Mr. Lloyd
and myself, in 1835, and by myself at 25 stations in Scotland,
in 1836. The volumes of the Reports of the British Association
for those years contain a full account of these observations, as
well as of the mode in which the determinations at the several
stations are all made to concur in assigning the intensity at
one central position in each country as their general result.
It appears unnecessary, therefore, to reprint them in this
volume, and it is only the intensities at the central position,
thus calculated, which are entered in the general table.

Ross, 1836. — These observations were made in a voyage to
Davis's Straits, undertaken by Capt. James Ross, R.N., in
the winter of 1836, to relieve the crews of several whalers
which had been detained in the ice. Those of the intensity
were made with two horizontal needles in an apparatus similar
to M. Hansteen's. The magnetism of one remained quite
steady during the voyage ; the other sustained a slight loss,
which it is evident by inspection took place between Orkney

vol. vi. 1837. d

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

and Greenland, and has been allowed for accordingly ; Orkney
being compared with the first London rate, Greenland and
Labrador with the second. The needles then give every-
where very nearly identical results.

The dip circle which Capt. Ross employed was of 4 inches
diameter. The needle appears to have given very consistent
results always at the same station ; for example, of six obser-
vations at Westbourn-green near London in 183G, the ex-
tremes are 69° 28' and b'9° 35' m 6, the poles being changed in
every observation ; the mean of the six, however, as well as
each of the separate results, is a few minutes higher than the
dip at that spot is known to have been at that time. Taking
into account Capt. Ross's experience in observations of this
kind, and that the observations were made on four different
days, it is most probable that there was some instrumental
cause for this needle giving constantly at this station a higher
dip than the truth. Being ignorant, however, what that cause
may have been, I have not ventured to apply a correction to
the dips with this needle either there or elsewhere, but have em-
ployed them just as they were observed at each of the stations.

In countries where the dip is so great as in the vicinity of
Davis's Straits, the horizontal intensities may be very correctly
determined, and yet from slight errors in the clip, the resulting
total intensity may present anomalies unusual elsewhere. We
have an instance of this in Capt. Ross's observations in Green-
land. There are two stations in Greenland, at no great distance
apart, where the difference of the computed intensity is excess-
ive ; and the fact of there being some anomaly in the observed
dips which would sufficiently explain the difference, is made
quite obvious by the circumstance that the higher dip is at
the southernmost station ; whereas the dip should increase
in going northward on this coast, and with this the horizontal
vibrations are in accord. I have therefore omitted both the
results in Greenland in the general table.

As these observations have not been published elsewhere,
I subjoin a table containing the principal particulars.

Station.

Date.

Lat.

Long.

Time of horiz. vibra.

Dip
observed.

Intensity
London

= l-3;2.

No.l.

No. 2.

Stromness...
Greenland 1
Labrndor ...

Aug., 1835
Feb., 1836
June, 1836
June, 1836
Aug., 1836

o /

51 31

58 58
60 57
68 59
57 33

35°9 50
356 SO
306 26
306 47

298 9
359 50

s.
43907
480-22
648-57
067-29
616-1 1
442-19

s.
441-46
483-34
645-30
665-94

o /

1-372
1-419
1-798
1-590
1-682
1-372

73 36
82 51
82 23
73 36
69 321

Oct., 1836J51 31

441-64

The times of vibration are reduced to a standard temperature.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 35

Estcourt, 1836. — These observations were made during the
late survey of the navigation of the River Euphrates, conducted
by Colonel Chesney. The magnetic observations were entrusted
to Major Estcourt, who was furnished with a good dip circle
by Robinson, and an apparatus similar to M. Hansteen's, with
eight horizontal needles. Numerous observations were made
with these at Port William and Bussora, the manuscripts of
which have been sent to me, by the President of the Board of
Control, to arrange for publication in the official account of the
proceedings of the expedition, preparing under the direction of
Colonel Chesney. On the arrival in England of the needles,
which only took place very recently, they were also placed in my
hands, in order that the necessary comparative observations
might be made with them. It had unfortunately happened that
the manuscript containing the times of vibration of the needles
observed by the officers of the expedition before its departure
from England, were on board the Tigris steamer when she
was lost in the Euphrates, and no record was preserved. But
on receiving the needles, I recognised two of the number as
having belonged to Professor Lloyd, of Dublin, and as having
been employed by Mr. Lloyd and myself in Ireland. I had
consequently a memorandum of their rates before they were
given to the officers of the expedition ; and on vibrating them
in Sussex, where I was staying when I received them, I per-
ceived with great satisfaction that these two needles must have
preserved their magnetism wholly or very nearly unaltered.
They were immediately sent to Professor Lloyd, who kindly
vibrated them at the same spot in which they had been used in
1884, and found their magnetism almost identical with what it
had been at that period. On trying the six other needles, I
found that two gave similar values for the intensity at Port
William and Bussora with those of Mr. Lloyd; whence I in-
ferred that those also had undergone no change in their mag-
netism since the observations on the Euphrates. The deter-
minations at Port William and Bussora inserted in the general
table of this report are derived from these four needles. Their
times of vibration have been reduced to a standard temperature,
the coefficient in the formula having been ascertained for each
needle by experiments made since they have been placed in my
hands. The full details will be communicated in Colonel Ches-
ney's official publication. .

Freycinet, 1817-1821. — I am most happy in being able to
add to this collection the valuable observations of Capt. de
Freycinet in the voyage of circumnavigation, performed in the

36 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

Uranie in 1817-1821. Having heard that I was engaged in
drawing up this report for the British Association, Capt. de
Freycinet, unsolicited, did me the honour to propose to place
his observations, hitherto unpublished, in my hands, to be
communicated to the public through this channel. I should
certainly fail if I attempted to express my sense of this act
of gi-eat liberality ; happily it needs no comment ; and I will
only observe, that it adds another instance, but a very strong
one, to those already noticed, of the good feeling that has pre-
vailed amongst the persons by whom these inquiries have
been carried forward. The world hears more than enough
of the jealousies and enmities which too often disfigure the
history and embitter the pursuits of science ; it is right that
the instances to the contrary should not always be passed in
silence.

The manuscript of the observations was accompanied by the
following remarks from Capt. de Freycinet.

" J'ai mis une grande attention a ce qu'il ne se glissa pas de
faute dans la copie ; et telle quelle est je crois que vous pou-
vez compter sur son exactitude. L'experience a prouve' que
les aiguilles Nos. 7 et 8, dont je me suis servi, ont perdu un
peu de leur magnetisme pendant le voyage ; il sera facile d'en
tenir compte, comme aussi des legeres alterations qui auront eu
pour cause les variations de temperature ; mais je ne me suis
pas livre a ces considerations, pensant qu'il valait mieux que
vous vous en occupassiez selon vos vues particulieres."

The table in pages 38 and 39 contains the observations,
printed from this manuscript without alteration of any kind.

In compliance with the wish expressed by Capt. de Frey-
cinet, I proceeded to calculate the results of these observations
in the following manner. The consideration of Mo. 9 was put
aside in the first instance for the reason assigned in the mar-
ginal note to the observations at the Isle of France. The
times of vibration at Paris before and after the voyage, con-
firmed by the observations at Rio de Janeiro in 1817 and 1820,
show that Nos. 7 and 8 both slightly lost magnetism, and No. 8
rather more than No. 7. It further appears that the extra
loss of No. 8 over No. 7 was all sustained in the first fourteen
months ; as at the Isle of France in June, 1818, they had arrived
nearly at an equality in their time of vibration, which they pre-
served for the whole remainder of the voyage, and exhibited
on the return to Paris. In whatever way, therefore, we may
proportion the equal loss sustained by both needles, the extra
loss of No. 8 must be placed before the arrival at the Isle of
France. When there are no circumstances in the observations

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 37

themselves indicating otherwise, the usual course is to distri-
bute a loss equally through the interval in which it is known
to have occurred. I have therefore pursued this course in
regard to the loss sustained by No. 7 ; and in the case of No. 8
I have allowed a double proportion in each of the first fourteen
months. The observations furnish two tests of the propriety
of this distribution : the general agreement of the results of
the two needles with each other at the different stations is one ;
the other is the agreement of the force thus calculated at Rio
in 1817 and 1821. In both the accordance is satisfactory.

On computing the intensity at the Cape of Good Hope and
the Isle of France by No. 9, using for that purpose its time of
vibration at Paris in 1817, the results appeared to agree ex-
tremely well with those of Nos.7and 8. It is hence inferred, that
until the accident at the Isle of France, No. 9 had undergone
no change of magnetism, and I have therefore brought into the
account all the results obtained with it before that occurrence.
As the effect of changes of temperature on these particular
needles does not appear to have been ascertained experiment-
ally, no corrections are applied on account of temperature ;
but, as I have before remarked, such corrections are of minor
importance in so extensive a series as the present. The table
in page 40 exhibits the computed results, and appears to need
no other explanation, except that the column entitled "Time of
vibration as a dipping-needle at Paris" exhibits the times of
vibration corrected for loss of magnetism.

SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

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ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

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SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Paris.

Teneriffe

Rio de Janeiro.

Cap de Bonne Es- \
perance J

He de France

Baie des Chiens-
marins

Time of vibration.

1817

1818

He Timor

He ltawak

lies Mariannes

He Mowi

Sydney .

lies Malouines

Rio de Janeiro

Paris.

1819

1820

1821

1019-75
1009-93
525-05
450-75
775-9
767-27
402-20

937-0

477-9
9120
9130

467-8

800-4

802-5
728-5
729-8
721-6
722-7
749-15
749-9
792-8
793-0
846-4
847-4
832-2
832-2
790-5
790-9
1043-4
1045-3

As a dipping-needle.

At the

station.

617-7
611-7
318-0
3190
763-1
754-6
3956

745-1

380-0
689-7
690-5
353-8

607-1

608-6
667-7
668-9
7101
7111
739-8
740-6
685-3
685-5
572-4
5731
627-6
627-6
777-5
777-8
635-1
636-3

At
Paris.

617-7
611-7
318-0
3180
620-0
616-7
3180

620-9

3180
622-8
622-3
318-0

624-0

624-2
624-2
624-5
6251
625-5
626-9
627-5
627-9
628-5
629-5
630-3
630-8
631-5
632-2
633-6
635-1
636-3

Intensity.

Paris = 1-000.

Paris
= 1-3J8,

1-000")

1-000 1 1-000
1-000 J
0-9942
0-6602"!
0-6679 U-658
0-6465 J

0-69451 . 697

0-7005 J
0-8155"!
0-8139 U-813
0-8082 J

105 U 1-054

1-052-1
0-87411 ft ,
0-8718/"
0-7750

'•873

;}o-71

0-840

0-7736} ' 774
0-7181
0-7180
0-8395 "I
0-8401 J

1-210 1 1-210
1-210} 1J1U

10101

1-012;

0-6612 "I n .rn<
0-6625 } 0662
1-0001 ,. nftn
,1-000/ 100 °

1011

1-348
1-340

0-887

0-945
1-096

1-421

1177

1-044
0-968
1-133
1-631
1-363
0-892
1-348

It would have given me great satisfaction had I been enabled
to have included in this publication the observations made in In-
dia by Capt. Jules de Blosseville,in whose untimely death within
the Arctic circle, now, I fear, but too certain, science has sus-
tained the loss of an officer who gave full promise, had he lived,
of becoming one of the most accomplished navigators of the
age. In the last letter which I received from him, dated at
Toulon in 1830, he thus expresses himself in regard to his ob-
servations of the intensity : — " Toulon ayant ete, et pouvant de-
venir encore le point de depart de plusieurs expeditions scien-
ifiques, il serait utile, je pense, d'y connoltre d'une maniere
exacte la valeur de l'intensite magnetique, et je me chargerais

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 41

volontiers pendant le petit sejour que je vais y faire, d'y ob-
server les aiguilles. Ceci me conduit naturellement a vous

aurais entretenu des mon arrivee ; raais malheureusement les
aiguilles ont perdu pendant le voyage une partie notable deleur
magnetisme, et M. Arago a ete d'avis de ne point s'occuper de
leurs resultats. C'est ainsi que toutes mes peines ont ete per-
dues, quoique j'eusse eu l'attention de rapporter toutes les ob-
servations a Pondicberry, qui etait le centre de nos operations,
esperant par leur repetition dans le raeme lieu, connoitre le de-
croissement gradueldu magnetisme de nos aiguilles. Si je re-
commence quelque grand voyage, comme je l'espere, je me
livrerai avec plaisir a. l'etude de l'intensite, et je m'occuperai a
l'avance, de faire faire par Gambey l'appareil de plus com-
mode. Je voudrais connoitre vos idees sur ce sujet."

Experience has shown in many cases, and particularly in
the observations of Capt. King, that it may be possible to ob-
tain very valuable facts from a series of observations, in which
the needles have undergone a considerable loss of magnetism
in the course of a long voyage ; particularly in cases where at-
tention has been paid to repetition at the same station, for the
purpose of a frequent examination of the state of the needles ;
and this was practised by Capt. deBlosseville, as well as by Capt.
King. Aid may also be sometimes obtained from other ob-
servers who may have observed the intensity at some of the
stations : and the publication of a series of determinations de-
pending upon Pondicherry would render it an object with
persons who might hereafter be engaged in magnetic observa-
tions in India, to make Pondicherry one of their stations, and
thus supply a link to connect M. de Blosseville's observations
with Europe.

In 1833 Mr. Forbes made a very numerous series of excel-
lent determinations of horizontal intensity in different parts of
Europe. They were made chiefly with a view to the influence
of height on the magnetic intensity, and are discussed in a
highly interesting paper in the Edinburgh Transactions for
1836. The dip was observed with a three-inch circle, at a few
stations only, and Mr. Forbes has nowhere himself deduced
the total intensities. If I am rightly informed, he has since
made another tour in the same countries, in which magnetic
observations formed a part of his object. We may hope that
by a series of dips, corresponding in extent and exactness to
his horizontal determinations, he will add greatly to the fulness

42 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837.

and accuracy of our knowledge of the course of the magnetic
lines in those parts of Europe. The investigation evidently
cannot be in better hands. Meantime I have not thought pro-
per to make deductions which he has not made for himself;
and the more so, because the stations are very few at which
there are both observations of dip and of horizontal intensity,
and at some of these the total intensity has already been de-
termined by other observers.

The preceding notices include all the observations of the
magnetic intensity with which I am acquainted, in which the
instruments, by the steadiness of their magnetism, and their
capability of yielding sufficiently precise results, proved worthy
of the time and pains bestowed in their employment.

Section II. — General Table of Intensities.

The intensities are arranged in this table according to their
values, commencing with those of highest amount in the
northern hemisphere, descending progressively to those of
least amount, which have their places in the intertropical
regions, and again ascending to the highest values in the
southern hemisphere. Tbey are classed in zones, the first
zone (§1) comprehending all the observed intensities in the
northern hemisphere between 1*85 and 1*75; the second
zone (§ 2), all between 1*75 and I "65 ; the third (§ 3), all be-
tween 1*65 and I' 55; and so on. In each zone the record
in the table commences with the geographical meridian of
Greenwich, and passes round the globe in an easterly direc-
tion ; all the longitudes being counted east from Greenwich,
and all latitudes north, unless where it is otherwise distinctly
specified.

The geographical position of the several zones is shown in the
maps attached to this report by the insertion of the observed
intensities themselves in their places in the map. For the
more ready guidance and direction of the eye lines are drawn,
marking as nearly as can be judged, the middle of each zone.
These lines are consequently what are usually denominated
isodynamic lines, or lines of equal magnetic intensity at the
surface of the earth. They correspond successively to the
values of 1*8, 1*7, 1*6, &c, down to 0*8, which is the line of
lowest value yet observed. There is, of course, great ine-
quality in the evidence for their precise geographical position
in different parts of the globe ; sometimes, for the purpose of
connection, they have been partially continued where obser-

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

vations are wholly wanting ; but in all cases the insertion of
the authorities themselves in the map manifests the degree
of exactness to which it is yet possible to trace the several
portions of each line.

Where the geographical positions are too near each other for
convenient insertion in the map, two or more stations are
collected into a group in the table, and the mean latitude,
longitude, and intensity are placed at the foot of the page.
Such groups are in all cases composed of the determinations
of the same observer, and the mean determination inserted in
the map is characterised by an additional figure, placed be-
neath, expressive of the number of separate stations thus
represented.

In the case of stations visited by two or more observers, their
separate determinations have been inserted in the map
wherever space has permitted. As this could not always be
done in the north of Europe and Asia, the mean of the
determinations of the two observers has been given, cha-
racterised by the mark +, expressive of the double weight
to which such intensities are entitled.

The geographical positions may require correction in a few
instances, but pains have been taken to obtain them correctly
from the most recent authorities.

Division I. Northern Hemisphere.
§ 1. Intensities from 1*85 to VJb.

Station.

Viluisk . .
New York

Lat.

63
40 43

Long.

120

285 57

Observer.

Due..
Sabine

Date.

1829

1822

Intensity.

1-759
1-803

§ 2. Intensities from \ m fh to 1-65.

'Turuchansk
Sebrinikowo
Atschinsk . .
Jenesiek. . . .
Krasnoyarsk

i "
Kansk

Kamyochatsk
N. Udinsk . .

65 55

87 33

60 02

90 33

56 16

91 00

58 27

92 11

56 01

92 57

»j

55 43

96 53

55 12

98 50

55 00

99 20

Hansteen

Hansteen ,

Hansteen & Due

Hansteen ,

Erman

Hansteen & Due.

Erman

Hansteen & Due,
Hansteen & Due.
Hansteen & Due

1829

1828

1829

1828

1-667
1-660
1-654
1-668
1-652
1-663
1-670
1-678
1-671
1-672

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Station.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date.

Kurgan
Salarinsk . .
Sawaria
Olonska
Botowsk . . . .
Bojarsk . . . .
Tarakanowa
Potapowsk . .
Kirensk

Itscliora . .
Ivanofska
Parchinsk
Wittinsk . .
Kantinsk

Jarbinsk . .
Beresowsk
Olekma , .

Sanjacktatsk ....
Toen Arinsk ....

Yakutsk

Porotowsk

Lebegkine

Nokchinsk

Perewos

Tchernolies 1 » . .
Karnastak J

Allachjan

Judomsk

Arki

Bay of St. Lawrence

At Sea

Sitka

54 20
53 30
53 34
52 59

55 10

56 05
52 14

57 17

57 47

58 38

59 07
59 40

59 53

60 28

59 50

60 22

6o"47

61 37

62 01
62 01
62 11
61 57
61 45
61 31
61 30
61 03
60 54
60 07
65 38
48 44
57 03

Frazer's Lake 54 03

Stuart's Lake 54 27

Cape Disappointment 46 1 6

Fort Alexandria. ... 52 33

100 00
102 00

101 53
105 04
105 22

105 34

106 37

107 34

108 04

IO9' 36

110 34

111 31

112 00
114 10

116" 15
117 56
119 33

123" 46

128 31

129 45
131 50

133 42

134 57

135 40

136 23

137 00

138 45
140 35
142 20
189 14
216 37
224 44

235 20
335 40

236 04

237 31

Erraan

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Erraan

Erman

Due

Erman

Due

Erman

Due

Erman

Due

Erman

Liitke

Erman

Douglas

1829
1828 1
1829,
1829
1829
1829
18291
1829J
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1828
1827
1827
1829
1833i
1833!
1830,
1833^

* Mean, 2 stations 61 30 137 00

1-695

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH.

Station.

{Multnomah River
Fort Vancouver.
Sandiam River .
Columbia Rapids
Thompson's River. .

Oakanagan

Wullawullah River
Byam Martin's II. . .

Regent's Inlet

Baffin's Bay

Labrador

Lat.

45 15
45 37

44 35

45 40
50 41
48 05

46 03

75 10
72 45

76 08
76 45
70 35
57 33

Long.

237 13
237 24

237 33

238 12

239 49

240 33

241 12
256 16
270 19
281
284 00
293 05
298 09

Observer.

Douglas

Sabine

Ross . .

Date.

1830
1830
1830
1830
1833
1833
1830
1819
1819
1818
1818
1818
1836

Intensity.

1-669
1-688
1-683
1-679
1-710
1-707
1-707
1-653
1-668
1-659
1-666
1-661
1-682

§ 3. Intensities from 1-65 to 1-55.

Spitzbergen, Fair- 1
haven J

Spitzbergen, South 1
Cape /

Katchegatisk

Beresow

Kunduwaski

Wandiask

Kondinsk

Obdorsk

Jugakow

Chutarbitka

Kewaskirche
Tobolsk ....

Samarowo

Uwatsk

Kolotschikowo

Sawotinski

Tugalowsk

Tara

Pokrowsk . . . .

79 40

11 40

76 35

14 00

65 09

65 02

63 56

65 04

63 18

65 06

66 16

65 10

62 13

66 36

66 31

66 42

57 32

67 06

57 59

67 31

61 20

68 05

58 12

68 16

60 45

68 35

59 00

68 46

57 27

68 58

60 23

69 26

59 32

69 40

56 54

74 04

55 38

77 05

Sabine

Keilhau

Erman

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Erman ,

1823

1827

1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1829
1828
1828
1829
1829

1-562

1-558

1-568
1-580
1-584
1-608
1-596
1-580
1-546
1-558
1-544
1-566
1-585
1-560
1-554
1-584
1-564
1-564
1-573
1-574
1-575
1-617

* Mean, 4 stations 45 17 237 35 1-680

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Station.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date.

Intensity.

Kainsk

55 50

55 47
55 40
55 40

58 50
55 06

55 17

-58 '40
53 20

56 30

56 18
63 27

52 16

52"07

53 00

54 09
51 20

50 21

50 '58

51 17
51 49

59 21
58 46
58 15
58 13
58 01

55 04
65 28
53 54

37 48

38 17

36 35

37 32
36 24

76 00

77 00

78 00
78 10
81 00

81 14

82 45

83 00
83 56
85 09

87 10

87 16

104 20

104 51

105' 00

105 33

106 15
106 28

106" 29

106" 56

lof 47

143 11
145 52
152 01

157 06

158 15
158 55
181 28
193 30

235 45

235" 36

236 00
236 00
236 36

Hansteen & Due . .
Hansteen & Due . .
Hansteen & Due . .
Hansteen & Due
Due

1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1829
1829
1829
1828
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829
1829,
1828;
1829
1828!
1829;
1829 1
1829
1829
1829

1-586

1-577
1-585
1-601
1-638
1-578
1-611
1-599
1-644
1-605
1-618
1-620
1-627
1-648
1-642
1-632
1-649
1-634
1-645
1-648
1-642
1-642
1-628
1-624
1-638

Naryra

Kolvvan

Erman

Hansteen & Due . .
Erman

Due

Tomsk

Hansteen & Due . .
Erman

Pojelnik

Irkutsk

Hansteen

Hansteen & Due . .

Troisko Sawsk ....
Monachorowa ....

5> ....

Werchne Udinsk . .

V • •

Due

Hansteen & Due . .
Hansteen & Due . u

Hansteen & Due . .
Erman

Hansteen & Due . .

1829J 1-650
1829 1*636
1829 1*625
1829 1*626
1829 1-615

Hansteen and Due. .

Erman

Sea of Ochozk ....
Sea of Ochozk ....
Sea of Ochozk ....

Unalaska

St. Francisco

] San Jose

(^ La Soledad ....

Erman

1829
1889
1829

1-677 .

1-601

1-595

1829 1-577
1829i 1-551
1828! 1-646

Erman

Liitke

1827
1829
1831
1831
1831

1-604
1-585
1-597
1-610
1-599

Erman

Douglas

1831 1-605

Douglas

1831

1-590

* Mean,

4 stations 37 12 236 03 1G0C

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Station.

{San Antonio
San Miguel
St. Louis Obispo
f LaPurissima. . . .
t< Santa Ynez . . . .
i l_ Santa Barbara .
| Melville Island . . .
[ Winter Harbour
\ Possession Bay . . .

Baffin's Bay

Davis's Straits . . .

Baffin's Bay

Hare Island

J Davis's Straits . . .

Lat.

Long.

36 01

23o" 42

35 45

237 16

35 16

237 20

34 40

237 33

34 36

237 49

34 25

240 00

74 27

248 18

74 47

249 12

73 31

282 38

75 51

296 54

64 00

298 10

75 05

299 37

70 26

305 08

68 22

306 10

Observer.

Date.

Douglas

Sabine

1831
1831
1831
1831
1831
1831
1819
1820
1819
1818
1819
1818
1818
1818

Intensity.

1-584
1-583
1-583
1-571
1-579
1-604
1-624
1-638
1-637
1-618
1-621
1-590
1-622
1-643

§ 4. Intensities from 1*55 to \'Al

Slidre

Idsat

Bodoe

Bear Island . . .
Spitzbergen,
Whale's Head

fTronisoe . .
Jacob's Elv
Talvig ....
Havoe Sund
Ingoe

LMageroe
Hammerfest . .

Upper Tornea

Braliestad s . .

"Lebbesbye.

Mehavn . . .

Kaleboton .

Omgang. .

Berlevaag

.Wadsoe . .

61 05

8 09

62 57

11 18

67 15

13 55

74 55

14 50

77 25

17 00

69 38

18 55

69 54

20 45

70 02

22 48

70 57

23 19

71 06

24 03

71 01

26 01

70 40

23 46

m 16

23 47

64 41

24 20

70 37

26 45

71 06

27 53

70 12

28 10

71 00

28 30

70 54

29 11

70 10

29 50

Hansteen
Hansteen
Keilhau .
Keilhau .

Keilhau .

Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Sabine .
Keilhau .
Hansteen
Hansteen
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .
Keilhau .

1821
1825

1827
1827

1827

1823

1827

1825

1827

1-454
1-452
1-451
1-496

1-539

1-515
1-467
1-512
1-476
1-517
1-500
1-506
1-461
1-464
1-455
1-465
1-496
1-491
1-487
1-460
1-469

* Mean, 3 stations

I Mean, 3 stations

X Mean, 6 stations

§ Mean, 6 stations

35 41
31 34
70 26
70 40

237 00

238 27
22 38
28 23

1-583
1-585
1-498
1-478

SEVENTH REPORT 1837*

Station.

Wardhuus

Miteschka

Milet

Koschil

Suri

■>■>

Dubrowa

Ochansk

Perm

Krilassowa

Buikowa

Kirgischansk

55 ■ ■

Kuslnva

N. Tagilsk !!.'.' .' .'
Bogoslowsk ....

Ekaterinenburg. .

55 ■ •

Werchoturie ....

55 ....

Bjelieska

Sugazk

Tiumen

55 '• •

Nishnei Turinsk. .

Orlowa

Semipalatinsk. . . .

Natschika

St. Peter and St. Paul
Kosuirewsk . .
Chartschinsk . .

Ielowka

Kuruginski. . . .
At Sea

Lat.

Long.

70° 23
56 13

31 07

49 54

56 41

50 30

57 08

51 52

57 34

53 23

57 42

54 30

57"00
58 01

56 00
56 14

57"34

56 37

56 53

57 26

56"50

59 06

58 17

59 43

57 55
59 49

59 54
59 55

56 51

60 34

58"52

60 46

56"50

61 56

57"oO

63 44

57"l0

65 27

50 24
53 06
53 00

55 52

56 31
56 54
58 34
40 28

80 21
158 15

158 40

159 34

160 43
160 55
163 27
213 35

Observer.

Date.

Keilhau

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Hansteen & Due. . . .
Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Hansteen & Due. . . .
Hansteen & Due. . . .

Hansteen

Erman

Liitke

1827

1828

18!

1828

185

1828

185

1828

1829

1828

1827

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Station.

Cayman Island

Terceira

Greenland

Brussels

"Bekkervig .

Bergen . . .

, 1 Ullensvang

"S Leierdal. . .

Mariasteen.

.Norsteboe .

Francfort . . .

Tubingen . . .

"Ingolfsland

Bolkesjoe .

Korset . . .

Kongsberg.

, Helgeroe .

Kolding

Slesvdg

Gottingen . . .

■M

Aalborg

" Tomlevold .

Heggen . . .

Drammen .

Moe

Gran

(.Johnsrud .

Aarhuus

Odense

Drontheira . . ,

Christiania

Lat.

19 H
38 39

74 32

Long.

Observer.

Date.

278 55 Sabine 1822

332 47Fitz Roy 1836

341 10 Sabine 1823

Intensity.

§5. Intensities from 1-45 to 1-35.

50 52

6o"oi
60 24

60 20

61 10
61 02
60 20

50 10
48 31
59 53
59 43

58 49

59 40
58 59
55 27
54 31

51 32

57 03
60 51
59 55

59 49

60 14
60 22
59 57
56 10
55 24
63 26

5955

4 20'Quetelet |1829

6 38

7 50

8 14
8 37

8 37

9 04
8 48

9 56

9 58

10 10

10 13

10 31

10 32

10 37

10 14

10 19

10 25

10 45

Rudberg

lOiHansteen

17! Hansteen

Hansteen

Quetelet

Humboldt & G.Lussac

Hansteen

Humboldt& G.Lussac

Quetelet

Rudberg

Hansteen

Sabine

Hansteen

1832

1821

1829

1806;

1821

1821 J

1822

1820

1822,

1824

1806

1829

1832

1824

1821

1825

1823

1821

1825

1824

1823

1825

1820

1-450
1-457
1-543

* Mean, 6 stations
f Mean, 5 stations
t Mean, G stations

60 33
59 13
GO 11

7 38

9 27

10 20

1-416
1-401
1-414

1-374
1-369
1-411
1-422
1-426
1-419
1-406
1-414
1-358
1-357
1-416
1-405
1-373
1-414
1-398
1-385
1-381
1-348
1-365
1*349
1-367
1-425
1-415
1-377
1-423
1-422
1-425
1-384
1-365
1-442
1-430
1-419

vol. vi. 183/.

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Station.

Lat.

{Elleoen
Soner
Skieberg . . . .
Fredericshall . .
Altorp

f Vang

Nebye

t j Biornestad

1 Roraas ,

L Grundsat . . . .
f Fi'edericshavn
X I Gottenburg . .
«j Quistrum
Odensala
LWennersborg. .

Suul

f Soroe

§ J Fredericsberg
] Helsingberg . ,
l_ Copenhagen . .
Leipsic

Magnor
Berlin

Dresden

Ystad

{Carlstad . . .
Mariestad .
Lincoping .
Carolath

!Oestersund.
Grimnas. . .
Alsta
Sundswall .
Hemosand.

59 19
59 32
59 14

59 01
58 53

61 06

62 18

61 03

62 34

60 56
57 27

57 42

58 27

57 26

58 22

63 42
55 27

55 56

56 03
55 41

51 20

59"57

52 31

51 02
55 26
59 23
58 40
58 26
51 46
63 10
62 50
62 29
62 22
62 38

Long.

10 40
10 4

11
11
12

10 34
10 58

11
11

10 33

10 58

11 45

12 03
12 17
12 12

11 54

12 18
12 43
12 55

12 22

12"22

13 22

13 43
13 56
13 26

13 50
15 38
15 57

14 32

15 10

17 16
17 53

Observer.

Date.

Hansteen

Hansteen and Due
Hansteen

Hansteen

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Hansteen

Keilhau & Boeck . .

Quetelet

Hansteen

Humboldt & G.Lussac

Erman

Quetelet

Eriehsen

Hansteen

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Hansteen & Due. . . .

Eriehsen

Hansteen

1822j|
1822.|
1822J
1828 I
1822 1

1821 :

1825

1825J

1824

1819

1822

1828

1825

1820

1826

1829

1825

1806

1828

18291

1829

1824|

1825

1828;

1828'

1824

1825

» Mean, 5 stations

t Mean, 5 stations

X Mean, 5 stations

5 Mean, 4 stations

|| Mean, 3 stations

If Mean, 5 stations

59 12
CI 35

57 53

55 47

58 50
G2 42

11 10
11 16

11 31

12 28
11 IS
10 10

1-383
1-431

1-384
1-383
1-372
1-424

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH

Station.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date.

Intensity.

Dantzic

59 15

59 20

5>
J>

54"21
63 49

54 43

62 17
65 19

63 04
61 29

60 27
63 38
65 50
65 00
59 56
59 13

58 31

57 55

57"35

56 '52
55

55 46

)>
55 41

55"59
55 35

55 54

56 09

56"l9
56"o6
55"44

17 50

18 04

»
18 38
20 12

20 30

21 22
21 29
21 42

21 46

22 18
22 51

24 15

25 30

30 18

31 23

3l" 19
33 10
34' 40
35 57

37 36

38 35
39" 59

41 12

42 26

43 34

43 57

45 48
48 09

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Erman

1827
1825
1828
1828
1832
1824
1825
1826
1825
1825
1825
1825
1825
1825
1825
1825
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828
1828

1-444
1-392
1-386
1-386
1-382
1-374
1-413
1-365
1-406
1-448
1-448
1-400
1-389
1-414
1-445
1-440
1-410
1-427
1-417
1-412
1-412
1-416
1-416
1-417
1-395
1-398
1-397
1-408
1-401
' 1-399
1-411
1-409
1-463
1-436
1-433
1-423
1-434
1-400
1-442
1-408
1-435
1-431
1-450
1-428

Rudberg

Erichsen

Umea

Hansteen

Kdnigsberg

Tjock

Hansteen

Pitea

Wasa

Hansteen

Biorneborg

Abo

Carlebv

Hansteen

rp J • ••

1 ornea

Hansteen.

Uleaborg .

Petersburg

G. Novgorod

Waldai

Hansteen

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Erman

Hansteen &- Due. . . .
Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .

W. Wolotschok

Tver

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Erman . .

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Moscow

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Hansteen & Due. . . .
Erman

Platowa

Demitrewski

Murom

Hansteen & Due. . . .

Erman

Hansteen & Due

Erman .

I Osablikowo . . .
Doskino

Hansteen & Due

Erman

Hansteen & Due. . . .
Erman

N. Novgorod . .
Tschougouniei ....

„

Hansteen & Due. . . .

SKVJEXTII REPORT — 1837*

Station.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date,

Kasan

Uralsk

Klinen

Orenburg

Oufa

Havana

5»

Jamaica

Madeira

Ireland. By 30 1

stations /

Scotland. By 25 1

stations J

Stromness

Brassa

London

55 48

»
51 11
49 05
51 45
54 45
23 09

49 07,

51 22,

52 00j

55 06

56 00
277 38j

17 56

283 06

32 38

343 04

53 25

352 05

56 27

355 35

58 58

356 30

60 09

358 48

51 31

359 50

Erman

Hansteen & Due

Hansteen

Humboldt ....

Sabine

Sabine ,

Sabine

King

Lloyd & Sabine ,

Sabine

Ross

Sabine

1828
1828
1829
1829
1829
1829
1801
1822
1822
1822
1826

1835

1836

1836
1818

1827

§6. Intensities from 1*35 to ] - 25.

f Valencia
j Cambrils
^ Barcelona
Gerona . .

LPerpignan

Paris

{Montpellier . . .
Nismes
Marseilles

f Lyons

S, { St. Michel

(_ M. Cenis

ff f Geneva

S \ Gd. St. Bernard.
Lanslebourg

39 29

359 36

40 55

46i

41 23

<*, 1 9.

41 52

2 48

42 43

2 57

48 52

2 21

43 36

3 53

43 50

4 20

43 18

5 23

45 46

4 52

45 23

45 14

6 55

46 12

6 07«

45 55

7 n|

45 18

Humboldt

Humboldt*

Humboldt &

Quetelet . .

Humboldt*

1798
1798
1798
1798
1798
1800
1798
1798
1798
G.Lussacl805
G.LussaC|1805
G.Lussacl805

1830

!l830

G.Lussacl805

* Mean, 5 stations
t Mean, 3 stations
X Mean, 3 stations
§ Mean, 2 stations

41 10

43 35

45 28

46 03

39
32

6 39

1-296
1-312
1-342

1-293

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Intensity.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date.

Intensity.

fTurin

jj St. Gothard

1 Milan

45 04

46 32

46 41
45 48
45 28

43"46

48 08
41 54

49 58
45 38

45 55

40 50

50 05

47 04
49 23

48 13

46 58

47 12

45 03
43 45

46 20
13 39
20 41
28 27

43 29

41 58

41 24
40 39

42 37
40 25

7 42

8 33

8 32

9 06
9 09

11 15

11 34

12 26

12 52

13 47

14 13
14 14

14 27

15 27

15 36

16 23
32 01
38 58
42 01
42 30
48 00

311 50
335 08
343 45

j>
351 46

354 33

355 16
355 52

355 59

356 19

Humboldt&G.Lussac
Humboldt& G. Lussac
Humboldt&G.Lussac
Humboldt & G . Lussac
Humboldt & G. Lussac
Quetelet

1805
1805
1805
1805
1805
1830
1805
1826
1805
1826
1826
1826
1805
1826
1826
1826
1826
1829
1829
1829
1829
1830
1799
1799
1798
1817
1822

1799
1799
1799
1799
1799
1799

1-336
1-314
1-325
1-310
1-312
1-294
1-278
1-339
1-264
1-334
1-317
1-314
1-274
1-332
1-327
1-319
1-325
1-275
1-308
1-327
1-302
1-334
1-256
1-256
1-272
1-340
1-313
1-262
1-294
1-294
1-294
1-294
1-294

Munich

Humboldt & G. Lussac

Rome

Humboldt & G. Lussac
Keilhau & Boeck . .
Keilhau & Boeck . .
Keilhau & Boeck . .
Humboldt&G.Lussac

Toplitz

f Gratz

Keilhau & Boeck ....
Keilhau & Boeck ....
Keilhau & Boeck ....
Kupffer

Taganrog

Bridge of Malka . .

Kupffer

Hansteen

At Sea

Freycinet

At Sea

Sabine

§<

Villa el Pando . .
Medina del Campo
Guadarama ....
Villa Franca ....
. Madrid

Humboldt

* Mean
f Mean
X Mean
§ Mean

, 4 statiot

2 station

3 station
, 6 statior

is 46 00 8 28 1-32
s 45 45 14 00 1-31
s 48 13 15 49 1-32
is 41 45 354 58 1-29

5
4

SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

§ 7« Intensities from T25 to 1*15.

Station.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date.

Port William

Bussora

At Sea

Carthagena

# f Mompox

\ Morales

"Nueva Valencia.
Hac. de Cura. . .

Victoria

Hac. de Tui . . .
Venta di Avila .

La Guayra

Caracas

.SilladeCuracas.

fCumana

| II Impossible

\<{ Cocollar

j Caripe

(_Cumana9oa . . .

Trinidad

At Sea

Port Praya

37 00
30 20
39 07
10 25
9 14
8 15
10 10
10 16
10 14
10 17
10 33
10 36
10 31
10 31
10 28
10 26
10 10
10 10
10 16
10 39
10 53
14 54

38 00

47 36

159 03

285 31

285 34

286

291 47

292 06
292 30
292 34
292 53
292 54
292 56
292 59
295 51

295 55

296 01
296 07
296 02

298 25

299 29
336 30

Estcourt

Lutke

Humboldt

Humboldt . .

Humboldt

Sabine

Humboldt

Sabine

King

Fitz Roy <

1836
1836!
1827
1801
1801
1801
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1822
1799
1822
1826
1832
1836

§ 8. Intensities from 1*15 to 1*05.

Bonin

Oahu ,

Mowi

Owhyhee . .
Galapagos I.

f Guajaquil
c) Cuenca . .
S | Alausi . .

LRiobamba

27 07

15S.

13S.

55 S.

13S.

42S.

142 24 Lutke .. .

202 Douglas . ,

203 19Frevcinet.
203 50 Douglas .
269 29 Fitz Roy .
280 03Humboldt

280 47|Humboldt

281 Humboldt
281 16, Humboldt

828,
830
819!
834i
835
803
802J
802j
802

* Mean, 3 stations

+ Mean, 8 stations

X Mean, 5 stations

§ Mean, 4 stations

9 18

10 24

10 18

2 16 S.

285 42
292 35
296 00
280 46

1-227
1-203
1-184
1-055

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Station.

Lat.

Long.

Observer.

Date.

Intensity.

["Quito

0°14S

1 13

1 54

2 38
4 45
4 27

4 36

5 12

6 10

4 03

7 53

5 38

6 34

8 56
2 48
1 54

10 07

8 08
13 08

8 29

281 lb Humboldt

1802
1802
1802
1801
1801
1801
1801
1801
1801
1801
1801
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1800
1822
1822

1-067
1-087
1-028
1-048
1-067
1-117
1-077
1-147
1-147
1-117
1-137
1-077
1-107
1-117
1-157
1-107
1-068
1-048
1-127
1-107
1-141
1.053

*< San Antonio . . . .
(_ Villa di Ibarra . .
f Pasto

281 IS

281 42

282 39

Humboldt . . .
Humboldt . . .

Humboldt . . .

f < Almaquer

[_ Popoyan

f Carthago

1 < Ibague

(_ S. Fe de Bogota

^ \ Bocca di Nares

| Apure

|| ^ Atures

| Carichana ....
LCalabozo

" \ St. Carlos ....

3$ f Nueva Barcelona

\ St. Thomas ....

River Gambia ....

Sierra Leone

283 06
283 21

283 54

284 41

285 47
285 07
285 20

291 50

292 01
292 02
292 06
292 10

291 59

292 22

295 16

296 06
343 27
346 45

Humboldt

Sabine

§£

>. Intensities from 1-05 to 0-95.

Manilla

14 36N.
13 26
13 28
6 55
11 27

2 56
4 17

3 47
18 44

35N.

116 18
144 44
144 58
158 02

161 52

162 50
162 54

162 59

163 55
232 56

1829
1829
1818
1827
1827
1827
1827
1827
1827
1827

1-044
0-980
0-968
0-990
0-970
1-018
1-001
1-010
0-989
1-013

Acrasna

Freycinet

At Sea

Liitke

At Sea

Liitke

At Sea

* Mean,
f Mean
t Mean,
§ Mean
|| Mean,
If Mean,
** Mean,

3 stations 6 2 281 26
3 stations 1 52 383 02
3 stations 4 36 284 47
2 stations 5 31 285 14
5 stations 6 36 292 02
2 stations 2 21 292 10
2 stations 9 07 295 41

1-061
1077
1-124
1-127
1-113
1-058
1-117

SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

Station.

f Ayavaca

I Gualtaquillo . . .

I Gonzanama . . .

*<^ Guancabamba .

Pucara

Amazon's River.
LTomependa . . .

{Montan
Micuipampa . . .
Santa
Caxamarca

Maranham

Lat.

38 S.

52S.

13S.

14S.

56S.

48 S.

31 S

33S.

44S.

59 S.

09 S.

32 S.

Long.

Observer.

280

280
280
280
280
281
281
281
281
281
281
315

26.Humboldt

26 Humboldt

27 Humboldt
37JHumboldt
37 j Humboldt
13 Humboldt
24Humboldt
lOHumboldt
2l!Huoxboldt
23 Humboldt
25 Humboldt
39 Sabine . . .

Date.

Intensity.

1802

1-019

1802

1-028

1802

1-009

1802

1-019

1802

1-009

1802

1-009

1802

1-019

1802

1-009

1802

1-000

1802

1-019

1802

1-019

1822

1-016

§ 10. Intensities below 0-95.

St. Thomas. . . .
St. Catherine . .

Rio de Janeiro

Bahia

Pernambuco
Ascension . .

55 • •

St. Helena . .

25
27 26 S,
22 55 S.

12 59S.

6 45 Sabine . . .

311 27 King .. .

316 51 j Freycinet.

„ ;Liitke . . .
,, JErman. . .
Fitz Roy .

321 30'Sabine

,, [Fitz Roy

8 04 S. 325 09 Fitz Roy

7 56 S.'345 36|Sabine . .

55 5> (Fitz Roy

15 55 S. 354 l7jFitz Roy

1822

1827
1817
1820
1827
1830
1832
1822
1836
1836
1822
1836

1836

Division II. Southern Hemisphere.
§ 11. Intensities from 095 to 1*05.

Cape of Good Hope 34 US. 18 26

Rawak

Ulean

Lugunor

Los Valientes .

34S.|131 00
22NJ143 57
29N.153 58
46N.157 05

Freycinet .
Fitz Roy .
Freycinet.
Liitke . . .
Liitke . . .
Liitke . . .

1818
1836
1818
1828
1828
1828

* Mean, 7 stations
f'Mean, 4 stations

5 10S.
7 21 S.

280 43

281 20

1-017
1-012

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. o]

Station.

Ualan 5

At Sea 4

Lat.

21N.
SOS.

13 09S.
9 38 S.

10 04S.

11 03S.
11 32S.

At Sea

("Casuia ....

| Guarmey . . ,
*{ Huaura ....

I El Ramadal

(.Lima 112 03S. 282 53jHumboldt

Goriti 34 57S. 305 03 King . . .

Long.

163 23

Observer.

Date.

238 13
251 20

281 25

Liitke

Liitke . . .
Lutke . . .
Humboldt

281 39JHumboldt

282 14'Humboldt
282 35; Humboldt

!l827
'1827
11827
I] 802
'l802
[1803
11802
|1802|
1829

Intensity.

1-002
0-998
1-014
1-000
1-000
1-009
1-009
1-077
1-041

§ 12. Intensities from 1*05 to 1-15.

Mauritius

Amboyna
Otaheite . .

Coquimbo . .
Blanco Bay
Monte Video

At Sea

20 09 S.

57 31

3 42 S. 128 08
17 29S.210 30

29 59 S
38 57 S
34 53 S.

40 55 S.

288 34
298 01
303 47

307 00

Freycinet .
Fitz Roy .
Rossel . . .
Erman . . .
Fitz Roy .
Fitz Roy .
Fitz Roy .
King . . .
Fitz Roy .
Liitke . . .

1818
1836
1792
1830
1835
1835
1832
1830
1833
1827

1-096
1-192
1-097
1-172
1-017
1-111
1-113
1-065
1-055
1-110

§ 13. Intensities from 1*15 to 1'25.

Timor

Valdivia . . .
Concepcion

Valparaiso

10 10 S. 123 40
39 53 S. 286 31
36 42SJ286 50

33 02 S.

288 19

Freycinet.
Fitz Roy .
Liitke . . .
King . . .
Fitz Roy .
Liitke . . .

King . . .

1818
1835
1827
1829
1835
1827
1829
1830

1-177
1-238
1-234
1-250
1-186
1-170

1-176

§ 14. Intensities from 1-25 to 1*35.

Juan Fernandez .

At Sea

Port Low

Chiloe

At Sea

33 38 S. 281 07

41 00 S. 282 30

43 48 S.

285 58

41 51 S.

286 04

49 18 S.

302 48

King . .
Liitke . .
Fitz Roy
King ...
Fitz Roy .
Liitke . . ,

1830

1827
1835
1829
1834
1827

1-262
1-324
1-326
1-321
1-304
1-268

* Mean, 5 stations 10 52 S. 282 10 1-019.

58 SEVENTH UEPORT — 1837.

§ 15. Intensities from 1'35 to 1*45.

Station.

Lat. Long.

Observer.

Date.

Intensity.

. . . . -25 4:? S. 1 1 3 20 Frevrinet

1818

1834

1S33
1829
1827
1820
1833
1834

1-421
1-425
1-355
1-361
1-413
1-363
1-349
1-385

R. Santa Cruz
Port Desire

At Sea

50 07 S.291 36 Fitz Roy

47 45 S.294 05 Fitz Roy

47 51 S.294 12 King

55 25 S. 298 27 Liitke

51 33 S. 301 55 Freyeinet

51 32 S. 301 53 Fitz Roy

„ Fitz Rov

Falkland Ids. . .

§ 16. Intensities from 1-45 to 1-55.

St. Martin's Cov

53 38 S. 289 02
2 . . 55 51 S.292 26

King

Fitz Roy

1827
1*34
1827

1-505

1-560
1-498

King

§ 17. Intensities from 1-55 to l'6o.

35 16 S. 174 00 Fitz Roy

1835

1-591

§ 18, Intensities from i'65 to ]~o.

35 02 S. 117 56 Fitz Roy

1813

1836
1836

1-631
1-685
1-709

King George's Sound

§ 19. Intensities from 1*75 to l - 85.

...42 53 S. 147 24 Fitz Roy 1

1836

1-817 1

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Additional Table, containing the Observations made by M.
Erman at sea, on his return from Kamtschatku to Europe
by Cape Horn.

These observations were received from M. Erman since this
Report was sent to press, which occasions their being given
in a separate table.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Dip.

linens.

51 03

203 32

67 09-5 N.

1-522

53 35

213 38

71 05-5

1-587

{

55 33

54 27

221 01
221 23

75 33-1
73 40*0

1-639
1-673

43 18

230 24

66 44*5

1-580

40 03

233 39

64 00-7

1-551

{

39 12
38

235 28
235 54

63 40-0
63 41*5

1-528
1-556

31 51

234 18

56 31-9

1-435

30 31

235 41

55 05-0

1-394

29 04

238 24

53 20-8

1-380

{

28 41
28 04

238 59

239 08

53 05-5
52 09-5

1-402
1-364

26 36

239 28

50 22-6

1-377

238 54

49 26-1

1-321

25 21

238 37

48 06-5

1-356

23 12

238 15

45 20-5

1-341

238 12

44 14-4

1-289

21 14

237 57

42 17-0

1-271

{

19 39
18 36

237 45
237 34

40 07-8
39 03-0

1-241
1-219

{

16 56
15 15

237 13
236 55

35 34-7
32 28-4

1-185
1-183

13 37

236 36

29 45-7

1-158

12 18

236 28

27 09-3

1-143

11 18

236 22

25 44-4

1-136

{

9 43
8 55

235 58
235 57

23 06-4

20 57-7

1-107

1-082

7 15

236 26

17 51-9

1-053

6 27

236 42

17 08-8

1-055

5 49

236 38

15 24-8

1-056

4 35

235 47

13 02-6

1-049

2 42

234 17

9 18-0

1-028

1 33

233 29

7 21-2

1-018

•

46
9

232 54
232 27

5 15-4
3 30-4

0-992
0-986

SEVENTH REPORT — 183/\

Latitude.

Longitude.

Dip.

1 Intensity.

12 S.

232 09

3 8-5

0-997

Pacific Ocean .

■••s

6S.

231 44

0-995

7N.

230 40

3 45-3

1-014

{

8N.

229 44

4 19-3

1-022

ON.

229 22

3 49-5

1-029

{

29 S.

228 41

2 38-3

0-977

40 S.

228 30

2 16-8

C-980

{

53 S.

228 16

2 10-9

1-000

1 7S.

228

1 32-8

1-028

{

1 47 S.

227 18

14-6 S.

1-015

1 52 S.

226 28

16-2 N.

0-996

{

1 53 S.

225 32

42-6 S.

0-942

1 52 S.

225 03

0-9 N.

1-008

1 30 S.

223 46

46-7 N.

1-015

1 37 S.

222 12

57-4 N.

1-004

1 48 S.

221 49

3-7 S.

1-009

2 US.

221 13

21-8 S.

1-022

1 57 S.

221

1-001

2 19 S.

220 16

39*4 S.

0-981

{

4 30 S.

218 42

5 3-9 S.

1-016

5 34 S.

218 3

7 29-8 S.

1-032

7 03 S.

217 4

10 07-3 S.

1-031

7 45 S.

216 53

1 1 27-1 S.

1-009

8 06 S.

216 41

12 46-8 S.

1-033

{
{
{

9 22 S.

215 58

15 18-5 S.

1-066

10 22 S.

215 21

17 16-7 S.

1-105

11 13 S.

214 59

18 18-0 S.

1-081

11 54 S.

214 52

19 10-8 S.

1-070

12 2S.

214 51

19 32-9 S.

1-114

J»

12 56 S.

214 38

21 19-1 S.

1-118

13 7S.

214 37

21 16-9 S.

1-124

13 44 S.

214 51

22 23-6 S.

1-095

14 01 S.

214 31

23 28-6 S.

1-075

{

14 55 S.

213 59

24 54-2 S.

1-121

14 43 S.

212 26

24 23-2 S.

1-091

19 06 S.

209 49

31 56-5 S.

1-253

22 17 S.

209 29

35 51-8 S.

1-209

24 51 S.

210

40 19-4 S.

1-250

26 56 S.

209 54

43 05-5 S.

1-349

27 43 S.

209 57

44 02-9 S.

1-324

28 48 S.

213 08

45 27-9 S.

1-257

{

29 04 S.

213 25

45 26-5 S.

1-339

30 33 S.

212 58

47 20-6 S.

1-371

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

Latitude.

Longitude

Dip.

Intensity.

Pacific Ocean . .

32 22 S.

214 35

49 07-1 S.

1-361

34 23 S.

216 27

51 12-7 S.

1-370

34 55 S.

218 29

52 29-3 S.

1-392

{

34 28 S.

220 19

50 32-9 S.

1-426

36 17 S.

219 50

52 17-6 S.

1-407

>■>

37 39 S.

218 4

53 52-4 S.

1-489

42 04 S.

218 44

58 48-4 S.

1-509

44 24 S.

221 59

61 4-2 S.

1-543

45 6S.

225 11

61 56-7 S.

1-545

45 05 S.

228 23

61 43-9 S.

1-611

47 13 S.

237 34

63 15-5 S.

1-583

{

48 11 S.

242 23

63 39-6 S.

1-609

48 50 S.

24-5 29

64 25-5 S.

1-666

51 03 S.

252 22

65 48-6 S.

1-614

55 03 S.

266 24

66 16-1 S.

1-630

56 28 S.

276 38

65 05-6 S.

1-576

56 05 S.

284 36

62 51-3 S.

1-537

5»

58 31 S.

289 35

61 05-6 S.

1-522

Atlantic Ocean .

57 26 S.

295 56

60 06-5 S.

1-491

{

56 02 S.

299 34

58 26-6 S.

1-391

55 36 S.

302 02

57 28-4 S.

1-412

52 44 S.

304 26

54 29-0 S.

1-301

50 12 S.

304 17

51 09-5 S.

1-280

47 US.

306 20

48 44-5 S.

1-233

{

39 48 S.

308 45

40 27-0 S.

1-023

37 09 S.

309 41

36 41-9 S.

1-016

35 44 S.

310 23

34 09-9 S.

0-938

33 04 S.

312 02

30 3-4 S.

0-984

»)

29 53 S.

312 28

25 32-5 S.

0-923

27 58 S.

314 20

22 01-2 S.

0-899

26 22 S.

315 30

19 44-7 S.

0-880

24 12 S.

316 19

16 02-0 S.

0-844

24 24 S.

316 12

15 47'9 S-

0-916

24 18 S.

318 35

16 35-0 S.

0-867

24 53 S.

324 26

18 29-9 S.

0-852

24 26 S.

325 12

15 17*1 S.

0-811

24 06 S.

325 14

15 56-6 S.

0-809

20 56 S.

325 15

9 45-1 S.

0-816

20 00 S.

325

7 53-3 S.

0-743

{

19 38 S.

324 56

7 34-0 S.

0-792

18 57 S.

324 57

7 19-8 S.

0-820

{

17 33 S.

325 54

4 44-0 S.

0-784

16 17 S.

326 30

2 28-0 S.

0-795

15 56 S.

326 33

1 33-5 S.

0-797

14 53 S.

326 49

24-8 N.

0-838

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

Latitude.

Longitude.

Dip.

Intensity.

Atlantic Ocean . .

••:{

14 25 S.
13 18 S.

327 05

327 22

1 28-8 N.
3 18-2

0-856
0-812

9 42 S.

328 15

9 28-0

0-892

»>

5 19 S.

329 12

17 43'0

0-922

{

3 51 S.

329 19

20 24-2

0-949

1 53 S.

329 33

23 28-9

1-031

26 N.

329 45

27 16-5

1-043

)»

2 30

329 32

30 48-4

1-074

4 26

329 56

34 29-5

1-094

5 45

331 21

35 16-5

1-094

{

9 36

333 34

39 14-4

1-125

10 24

333 35

40 48-3

1-114

11 3

332 38

41 54-8

1-187

»»

12 36

331 42

44 4-3

1-209

14 36

330 58

46 20-9

1-201

{

15 53

329 26

48 15-9

1-273

16 41

328 48

49 52-0

1-238

{

19 05

326 42

51 59-6

1-311

21 01

325 07

54 44-0

1-314

322 55

58 17-2

1-375

{

26 26

321 55

60 49-0

1-406

28 02

321 22

61 53-6

1-404

{

29 34

320 14

63 12-0

1-427

30 30

319 29

64 17*3

1-478

{

31 .11

320 12

64 45-7

1-469

32 55

319 3

65 21-3

1-468

{

33 45

318 36

66 4-4

1-499

34 29

318 18

67 26-5

1-500

{

318 33

67 36-6

1-505

36 15

319 56

68 17-5

1-507

{

37 26

321 22

68 19-4

1-501

38 24

322 57

69 07-4

1-491

40 09

325 20

69 32-9

1-504

41 27

327 25

70 03-6

1-466

»»

42 29

328 34

69 47-6

1-512

44 22

330 55

71 07-1

1-515

46 46

335 42

70 18-5

1-463

{

47 47

343 58

69 46-0

1-421

47 46

344 25

70 14-9

1-419

48 13

347 7

69 27-8

1-422

>»

49 16

351 58

69 105

1-416

British Channel . .

50 48

358 54

68 45-0

1-380

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 63

Section III. — General Conclusions.

In considering the comparative fitness of the three kinds of
magnetic lines, those of equal variation, equal dip, and equal
intensity, to promote a knowledge of the system of terrestrial
magnetism, the lines of equal intensity have in one leading re-
spect an advantage over the other two. Viewed under the most
favourable circumstances and in its simplest aspect, the magnet-
ism of the earth is still, it must be acknowledged, a highly com-
plicated subject ; and needs not the additional complication of
its phenomena being involved with considerations foreign to
itself. Now the lines of equal dip and equal variation do
not express simple magnetic relations. The lines of equal dip,
for example, connect those stations on the earth's surface where
the direction of the magnetic attraction forms a certain angle
with the horizontal plane at the station. But every station has
its own horizontal plane depending on the direction of gravity,
which has no known or necessary connexion with magnetism.
The zero planes thus differing, the equality of dip does not ex-
press, or necessarily imply, a simple magnetic relation, but has
reference to the attraction of gravitation as well as to (hat of
magnetism. The lines of equal variation express a complex re-
lation of a similar character. Here also the zero planes change
with the station ; and, the variation being the same at two sta-
tions, by no means implies parallelism in the direction of the
needle at them, or any other specific relation whatsoever inde-
pendent of the geographical pole, which pole has no known or
necessary connexion with magnetism. It is not the same with
the lines of equal intensity. Whatever may be the sources of
magnetic attraction, and wherever their situation in space, —
whether superficial as regards the earth, — or above or beneath
its surface — the line of equal intensity expresses the equality of
their resultant at all those points of the earth's surface through
which it is drawn, unmixed with any considerations foreign to
magnetism. They are pure magnetical isodynamic lines at the
surface of the globe ; and express a common relationship to the
sources of magnetical attraction. The instruction they convey
is therefore more simple, direct and unequivocal than in the
case of the other two. The eye of the mathematician may dis-
cern the pure magnetic indication through the complex signi-
fication of the lines of equal variation and dip ; but the lines
of intensity are better suited to convey the system of magnetism
as indicated by the phenomena to the general apprehension.

61 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

I proceed to notice a few of the most striking inferences which
are deducible from the observations of intensity recorded in
this report.

1. The lines of equal intensity are not parallel with the
lines of equal dip, and the difference is systematic.

In 1805 M. Bint published an investigation of the laws which
should govern the clip and the intensity, in the hypothesis of a
magnet situated at the centre of the earth, having its poles in-
finitely near to each other, and directed to opposite points on
the surface of the globe. It is a well-known consequence of this
hypothesis, that the lines of equal dip and equal intensity on the
earth's surface should everywhere be parallel to each other.

It has always appeared to me that the distinguished author of
this investigation has been taken much beyond his meaning,
when he has been supposed to have propounded this hypothesis
as a general representation of the facts of terrestrial magnetism
then known, or of those which should be shown by more ex-
tensive experience. He was doubtless fully aware that, many
years antecedently, the phenomena of the variation had been
shown by Dr. Halley to be wholly irreconcileable with the
geometrical deductions from a single central magnetic axis ;
and that Euler, who may in some degree be regarded as an op-
ponent of Halley upon the subject generally, fully acquiesced
in this conclusion. Accordingly, M. Biot made no comparison
of the hypothesis with the variation, considering no doubt that
its inapplicability in that respect had been already shown. A
few facts of the dip were the only observations with which he
compared the formula? of his hypothesis, and with some of
these it appeared to accord tolerably; but still there were
anomalies which drew from him the acknowledgement, that to
represent even those few facts of the dip, it would be neces-
sary to add to the influence of the primary axis the supposi-
tion of subordinate centres. That he had no expectation of its
proving applicable to the intensity, any more than to the varia-
tion, is, I think, beyond a question, when we read the following
sentence : "Quant a la declinaison et a l'intensite nous avouons
franchement que nous ne savons absolument rien sur leurs
lois ni sur leurs causes : et si quelque physicien est assez -
heureux pour les ramener a un principe unique, qui explique en
meme temps les variations de l'inclinaison, ce sera sans doute
une des plus belles decouvertes que Ton ait jamais faites."*

* Journal de Physique, vol. lix. p. 450. The state in which the question
was left hy Halley and Euler was, I believe, as follows : Halley decided in

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 65

The light in which I have thus considered M. Biot's essay is
the same, I think, in which it was regarded at the time, by his
distinguished coadjutors in this and so many other branches of
science. MM. Gay Lussac and Humboldt, in closing the ac-
count of their magnetic observations on the continent of Europe
in 1805 and 1806, remark as follows : " Les inclinaisons corre-
spondantes donne*es par la theorie d'apres M. Biot, sont toutes
beaucoup plus grandes, car les plus petites differences vont a
pres de 4°. En supposant la position de l'equateur magnetique,
rigoreusement determinee, il en resulteroit qu'en Europe, il y
a une inflexion considerable des paralleles magnetiques vers
l'equateur, occasionnee par l'influence de quelque centre parti-
culier. Mais pour tirer aucune conclusion a cet egard, il est
prudent d'attendre que des observations exactes et plus nom-
breuses fournissent des bases solides, sar lesquelles on puisse
elever une the'orie rigoreuse qui les embrasse toutes*." It is
here fully recognised that M. Biot's was not " cette the'orie
rigoreuse" which, resting on the solid basis of induction from
a competent assemblage of facts, should have a proportionate
claim to be regarded as a general representation of the phe-
nomena.

In showing the incompatibility with subsequent observations
of this " abstraction mathematique," as M. Biot himself de-
signated it, I do not therefore consider myself as opposing
either his opinions or his expectations.

It has sometimes appeared to me that the very simplicity of
the laws of this hypothesis has tended to counterbalance in
some degree the advantage it produced, in recalling attention
to a subject, the interest in which had been for some years
suspended. Apart from the question of accordance or non-
favour of four poles, as the best representation of the phaenomena : Euler hesi-
tated to accede to this until it should be shown more decisively that the phae-
nomena might not be represented by a single excentric axis, having its semi-
axes of unequal length ; claiming in such case the preference for the latter
supposition over that of four poles, as being more suitable for geometrical de-
ductions. To have accomplished what such men as Halley and Euler had left
incomplete would have been an undertaking not unworthy of M. Biot ; but it
would have required the preliminary labour of collecting together, as M.
Hansteen has since done, the great body of the facts of observation, which, at
the time his essay was written, were scattered in the journals of travellers and
navigators, and in the transactions of learned societies of many countries. This
labour might well in prospect have deterred him from the attempt ; but it was
indispensable for the purpose of furnishing the basis of a philosophical induc-
tion of such general laws as should comprehend the whole of the phaenomena.
On no less solid foundation was it probable that phaenomena should be repre-
sented, known to wear so complicated an aspect, and which had been the sub-
ject of the long-continued investigation of the eminent men above noticed.

* I have put in Italics the part of this extract to which I particularly refer.
VOL. VI. 1837- F

CG SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

accordance with facts, simplicity recommends itself to all;
and persons imperfectly acquainted with the phaenomena may
have heen led by it to undervalue observation, when detached
portions of its facts, inconsistent with the hypothesis, may have
come under their notice ; and, departing from the principles of
inductive philosophy, may have suffered themselves to look to
the hypothesis rather than to the phaenomena. The simplicity
of its resulting phaenomena is, however, that characteristic in
which it specially departs from the facts of nature. The real
phaenomena are complex, as all who have studied them will
most readily admit ; and it can scarcely be expected that the
laws which are to represent them should not also have in some
degree an appearance of complexity, until the laws of their
causation shall be discovered.

In a science which stands in need of national aid for its ex-
perimental extension, it is peculiarly desirable to remove such
erroneous impressions as militate against a belief in the value,
and consequently the importance, of experimental research.

I propose, therefore, in the first place, to show, that the irre-
concilability of a single central axis does not rest on insulated
facts only, or, as some may have supposed, on the conclusions
of a single observer, but that all those who have principally
concurred in extending the boundaries of our experimental
knowledge of late years, have arrived at the same conclusion
in that respect, and have uniformly borne testimony to the in-
applicability of the formulae of that hypothesis to represent their
respective observations ; and, secondly, to direct the reader's
attention to those facts in particular, which may produce the
readiest conviction of the systematic departure of the lines of
dip and intensity from that law of the hypothesis by which they
should have parallel courses.

We have already seen the conclusion at which MM. Gay
Lussac and Humboldt arrived in 1807, namely, that their ob-
servations in France, Italy, and Germany, taken in conjunction
with M. de Humboldt's in America, could only be reconciled
with M. Biot's hypothesis, by supposing the existence of a
secondary centre extending its influence over the continent
of Europe, and acting conjointly with the primary.

From 1807 the spirit of experimental inquiry slumbered for
a while ; the times were unpropitious to a research which re-
quired freedom of access to different countries, and safety and
facility in traversing extensive spac es of the earth's surface.
At length it revived nearly simultaneously, in Capt. de Freyci-
net's voyage of circumnavigation, and in the British expeditions
for the discovery of a north-west passage. Between 1818 and

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. &J

1823 I had the good fortune to enjoy opportunities of observing
the magnetic phaenomena over a portion of the globe amounting
to about one-eighth of its surface, or the quarter of an hemi-
sphere. In comparing, on my return to England, the observa-
tions of dip with M. Biot's formula, the differences between cal-
culation and experiment were seen to be not atsingle stations only,
but systematic, extending over large spaces of the globe ; the
discrepancies were also so great as (in the words which I em-
ployed in 1825) to make it " certain that no two positions could
" be assigned to the magnetic poles, which would enable a cal-
" culation of the dip as a function of the magnetic polar distance,
u in which differences from fact should not be found of 10° and
a upwards." Further, in comparing the observations of dip and
intensity with the parallel course, which, according to the hy-
pothesis, the lines of equal dip and equal intensity should
preserve, their irreconcilability with this law was shown to be so
great and so systematic as to be " decisive against the sup-
" posed relation of the force to the observed dip ; and equally
" so against any other relation whatsoever, in which the r'e-
" spective phaenomena might be supposed to vary in corre-
" spondence with each other." Another important difference
was also pointed out. In the hypothesis the maxima of dip
and intensity are coincident : with this the observations were
at variance ; those of the intensity placing its maximum several
degrees to the southward of the geographical position which
the observations of dip indicated as that of the dip of 90 de-
grees*.

In 1830 M. Erman returned from a journey in which he had
carried magnetic observations over a space on the globe still
more extensive than mine, and (which should be specially no-
ticed) so entirely distinct from mine, that we had not a single

* The observations of intensity arranged around their own centre presented
much less discordance with the laws of an uniaxal hypothesis than appeared
in those of the dip when referred to the position of the pole as indicated by the
dip of 90 degrees. By substituting in the formula of that hypothesis the "iti-
nerary distance from the maximum of intensity" for the "magnetic polar di-
stance," and employing this formula as an empirical representation, it was
found to correspond with the facts of the intensity within the district comprised
by my observations, with no very material discrepancies. In that portion of
the hemisphere in which the influence of the primary centre is predominant,
the variations of the intensity maybe easily imagined not to differ greatly from
the effect of a single axis ; and such is apparently the fact. It happened that
my observations, extensive as they were, fell within that limit; had they been
pursued a few degrees further to the eastward, the influence of the Siberian
centre would have become more sensible, and the uniaxal formula would have
ceased to afford even an approximate representation of the facts. But this
perhaps will be better understood when the sequel of the report has been read.

C8 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

station in common. I cannot state his conclusions better than
by giving his own words*.

" Lignes a egale Intensity, ou Lignes Isodynamiques. —
Esperant encore completer mes observations relativement a
ces lignes interessantes, pendant mon passage du Bresil en
Europe, je me borne ici a en relever quelques particularities frap-
pantes, et nommement celle, qu'en Siberie les lignes isodyna-
miques ne sont rien moins que paralleles aux lignes d'egale
inclinaison. Nous voyons au contraire sous le meridien d'Ob-
dorsk et de Tobolsk, les premieres avoir des branches descen-
dantes presque verticales ou legerement inflechies du N.O.
au S.E., tandis que les lignes a inclinaison egale y sont presque

horizontales.

*****

" Ces indications preliminaires suffiront pour prouver que
l'ancienne theorie, diveloppee par Euler et KrafFt, et plus
tard par MM. Humboldt et Biot, et qui ne suppose qiiun seul
axe magne'tique, est absolument en deTaut pour les loix de l'in-
tensite de la force magnetique. En effet, l'intensite n'etant
d'apres cette theorie qu'une fonction de l'inclinaison, les lignes
qui representent l'un et l'autre de ces phenomenes, devraient
conserver une marche toujours parallele. On peut en tirer la
consequence interessante, que la position des deux poles mag-
netiques n'est pas la seule qui regie les phenomenes de l'incli-
naison et de la declinaison dans les differentes parties du
globe ; mais qu'il existe encore une cause secondaire qui n'af-
fectant toutefois que tres faiblement la declinaison et l'incli-
naison, et la derniere d'autant moins qu'on l'observe plus pres
de l'equateur, exerce cependant sur les loix de l'intensite une
influence si puissante qu'elle en efface presque tous les carac-
teres deduits par la theorie."

M. Erman's conclusions, in respect to the non-parallelism of
the lines of dip and intensity, and the insufficiency of a single
magnetic axis to represent his observations, were almost iden-
tical with mine. Our difference, in regard to the particular
class of the phaenomena which were most at variance with that
hypothesis, arose from the different parts of the globe which
had been the field of our respective researches.

I have next to state the inferences of M. Hansteen as an
experimentalist, drawn from his observations in his own ex-
tensive journeys. This need occupy the less space, because I
have alreadyf endeavoured to show, as clearly as the necessity

* Memoires de V Acad. Imp. des Sciences de St. Petersburg, 1831, (Bulletin
Scie/itifiqite).

f Fifth Report of the British Association, p. 72 — 73.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 69

of great condensation would admit, the arrangement of the lines
of intensity, and their systematic departure from parallelism
with those of the dip, which, in his theory of four poles, founded
on the assemblage and study of the earlier observations of the
dip and variation, M. Hansteen had anticipated, previous to his
own experiments. It is sufficient to show, as may be done by
a single sentence written since his return from Siberia, that the
results of these have accorded with his previous views. " Thus
is confirmed in the clearest and most satisfactory manner what
I had earlier inferred from the two other magnetic phaenomena ;
namely, that in the northern hemisphere there are two magnetic
centres, or poles ; and that the westernmost, in North America,
has a sensibly greater intensity than the easternmost in Siberia*."

Having thus shown the concurrent opinions which those
who have most extensively engaged in the experimental in-
quiry have been led to form, it remains to place the facts them-
selves in a convenient manner before the general reader. The
complete view of the systematic difference in the course of the
two kinds of lines is best obtained, by comparing the map of
the intensity lines in this Report with M. Hansteen's map of
the dip lines for 1780, in the Fifth Report of the British
Association^. The lines of dip have undergone some changes
since that period, but none which much affect their general
configuration. All readers, however, may not have that
volume at hand, and I have therefore traced in Plate I.
the course of the line of equal intensity which passes through
our own islands, for 160 degrees of longitude, and have
exhibited it in comparison with the neighbouring lines of dip.
The line of intensity, shown by the continuous line, is taken
from the general map accompanying this memoir. The por-
tions of dip-lines, marked by the dotted lines, are taken from
M. Erman's map drawn from his own observations, in the
Annalen der Phys'ik, vol. xxi. The intensity line, which in
the meridians of 280° and 290° is in close juxtaposition with

* Ann. der Physilc, vol. xxviii. p. 579.

f I may take this opportunity of stating that the sea portions of M. Han-
steen's map of the dip in 1780 rest on the authority of between 900 and 1000
observations of the dip made at sea between the years 1767 and 1788, and that
these are tabulated in the Appendix of the Magn. der Erde. The observation
of the dip at sea in favourable weather was the habitual practice of many of the
scientific navigators of that period, such as Le Gentil, La Perouse, Ekeberg,
Lewenhorn, and our own countrymen Phipps, Hutchins, Abercrombie, and
Pickersgill. It is much to be wished that it were a more frequent practice now.
M. Erman, in his voyage from Kamtschatka to Europe, found a number of
days sufficiently favourable to enable him to observe the dip in not less than
167 geographical positions at sea.

70 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

that of 50° of dip, successively intersects in its eastern pro-
gress all the lines of dip between 52° and 73°, with which
latter it coincides in lat. 60° and long. 10°; it then again de-
scends, intersecting successively, a second time, the same lines
of dip, until it touches that of 57° in long. 70°. When it is
seen that the saine line of intensity successively coincides with
the lines of dip of twenty different degrees, it must be admit-
ted that their systems are not parallel, and that the conclusion
was justly drawn, that the facts could not be repi'esented by an
hypothesis in which the intensity should vary as any function
of the dip. A conclusion by no means at variance, however,
as has been erroneously imagined, with their having a causal
connexion.

Nor is the fact of non-parallelism confined to the northern
hemisphere ; on the contrary, the southern hemisphere ex-
emplifies it in a still more striking degree. Thus we have in
South America the line of unity under a dip of 0, as observed by
M. de Humboldt in Peru ; and at the Cape of Good Hope, the
same line of unity under a dip exceeding 50°, as shown by the
concurrent observations of Captains de Freycinet and Fitz Roy;
whilst at Port Desire and at the Falkland Islands, these officers
found an intensity of 1*36, with nearly the same dip as had
been found at the Cape of Good Hope accompanying an inten-
sity less than unity.

In M. Erman's dip-lines (Plate I.), which represent his
own recent observations, and are quite independent of pre-
existing evidence, we see the same double flexure, of which
the importance, in its bearing on physical causes as well as
on empirical laws, was pointed out in the Fifth Report of the
British Association, page 67. This double flexure takes place
also in the intensity lines, but in a more marked degree. In
both series of lines the radii vectores drawn from the geo-
graphical pole have two maxima and two minima ; a line joining
the parts of each curve which approach nearest to one another,
i.e. at the points of minima, will divide the area into two un-
equal portions, the larger comprehending the American, and
the smaller the Siberian centre of attraction. But there is a
distinction in this respect between the two series of curves of dip
and intensity, which has been pointed out by M. Erman, and
is illustrated by the annexed diagram (Plate II.), taken from his
paper in the Annalen der Physik, vol. xxi. The diagram re-
presents the northern hemisphere, on which the curves of in-
tensity of 1'45 and of 75° of dip are drawn. The longitudes
of the maxima of both these curves are nearly the same ; but
not so those of the minima. In the curve of dip, the minima

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. /I

are in the longitude of 35° and 140°; in the curve of intensity
in those of 20° and 175°. The Siberian portion of the inten-
sity curve bears consequently a larger proportion to the whole
area of that curve, than the Siberian portion of the dip-curve
does to its total area. From the general resemblance of the
several lines of dip to each other, and of the several lines of
intensity to each other, — the characteristics of each being
always marked, though gradually softening as they approach
the middle regions of the globe, — the features of distinction
which are thus strongly marked in the curves compared by M.
Erman, must exist also in a greater or less degree in many.
Here, then, is another striking and systematic difference in the
two species of magnetic lines*.

2. The lines of intensity in the northern hemisphere system-
atically indicate the existence of two centres of attraction of
unequal force.

The examination of the graphical representation of these
lines in the maps will convey a clearer apprehension of this
systematic indication than a lengthened verbal description.
The higher the values of the intensity of each isodynamic line,
— in other words, the nearer the lines approach the centres of
attraction, — the more unequivocal is their testimony. The
smaller areas included by the curves in the Siberian quarter
mark the less extensive influence and inferior power of the
Siberian centre. Looking next at the values of the intensities
represented by the lines, we find in the neighbourhood of New
York, a portion of a line of 1*8, to which there is no equiva-
lent in Asia. The highest intensity there is 1'76, observed by
Lieut Due at Viluisk, which M. Hansteen believes, and with
great probability, derived from the configuration of the lines, to
be the highest existing in that quarter. It is improbable,
moreover, that the greatest intensity in the American quarter
should be found so far south as New York ; the configuration
of the lines, as shown particularly in the north polar map, in-
dicates the maximum to be nearer Hudson's Bayf.

* M. Erman remarks that the difference is of that character which would
appear to indicate for the Asiatic centre a less depth beneath the surface than
the American.

+ Since the above was written, the first number has reached London of the
Observations Meteor -ologiques et Magnetiques faites dans I'etendue de I' Empire
de Russie, which have been confided to the editorship of M. Kupffer. In the
introduction we have a formal recognition of the existence of the Siberian pole.
" La Russie est aussi la terre classique du magnetisme terrestre. Ilyaun
pole maguetique dans le nord de la Siberie."

72 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

3. The two centres of magnetic attraction in the northern
hemisphere are not at opposite points ; in other words, the dif-
ference of geographical longitude between them is not 180°,

measured both ways.

This is also best evidenced by inspection. Their distances
apart are more nearly 200° measured across Greenland and
Norway, and 160° across Behring's Strait.

4. The magnetic intensity is unsymmetrically distributed in
the meridians of the northern hemisphere.

This is a consequence of the two centres being nearer to
each other in the one direction than in the other. If we
imagine the hemisphere to be divided into two equal sections,
by a plane coinciding with the meridians of 100° and 280° (Plate
V.), the American division, which we may call the western sec-
tion, will contain both centres of attraction, and a higher mea-
sure of intensity will be seen to be spread over its meridians
than in the corresponding latitudes in the eastern section.
Thus we find, that in 150 meridians, or in five-sixths of the
eastern section, no intensity of so high a value as 1*7 has been
found within the range of observation, and probably does not
exist ; whilst in the western section there is not a single me-
ridian in which a higher intensity than 1 *7 is not found. Europe
is situated nearly midway between the centres at their widest
separation, and we find that throughout Europe (with possibly
the exception of its S.W. extremity in Spain), the magnetic
intensity is weaker in every latitude than in the same parallels
elsewhere in any other part of the hemisphere.

5. The lines of intensity in the southern hemisphere have a
general analogy with those in the northern hemisphere.

The materials from whence conclusions may be drawn are
fewer in the southern than in the northern hemisphere ; but
aided by our acquaintance with the magnetic system and dis-
tribution in the latter, we are enabled to trace the general
analogy of the two hemispheres, though the particular con-
clusions in the case of the southern must necessarily be less
determinate and exact than those we have hitherto discussed.

We have already seen that the lines of dip and force depart
from parallelism with each other even more in this hemisphere
than in the northern. We may also perceive in the portions
of the curves, which observations have as yet enabled us to trace,
evidence of the same double flexure which in the other hemi-
sphere we have seen to be characteristic of two centres of
governing influence. The radii vectores carried from the south

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 73

geographical pole would have also two maxima and two minima.
The New Holland curves inclose larger areas than the South
American, indicating that the centre to which they more espe-
cially belong is more powerful than the other. We have another
indication of the same fact in the appearance in Van Diemen's
Land of an intensity exceeding 1*8, which in the other hemi-
sphere we have seen to characterise distinctively the centre of
primary influence. The coincidence in this respect in the two
hemispheres is very striking ; not only is the highest intensity
yet observed in the one, (1'80 at New York,) matched by the
nearly identical value of 1 '82 at Hobart Town, but the geogra-
phical latitudes of the two observations are also nearly identical,
New York being in 40° 43' N. and Hobart Town in 42° 53' S. ;
both being unexpectedly low latitudes in which to find such
high intensities.

With regard to the geographical positions of the centres in
the southern hemisphere, the observations are yet too few
and too distant from them to admit of their localities being
assigned with any fair degree of approximation ; but by com-
paring the observations in Southern Africa, and on the east
coast of South America, with those of the corresponding paral-
lels in the better known hemisphere, we are able to infer with
considerable probability, that the southern centres are not only
not in opposite points of the hemisphere, — that is to say, distant
180 degrees of longitude from each other, measured both
ways, — but that they are nearer to each other in the one direc-
tion, and more distant in the other, than is the case with the
centres of the northern hemisphere. We have seen that in
the meridians of Europe, where the northern centres are widest
apart, the lower intensities extend greatly northward, occupy-
ing latitudes which in all other parts of the hemisphere possess
a higher intensity. In the southern the same thing takes place,
but in greater degree. The line of unity, once thought to
be the minimum intensity on the globe, is found on either side
the Atlantic in south latitudes exceeding 30° ; whence we may
conclude that in the higher latitudes of the southern Atlantic,
a much lower intensity prevails generally than the lowest inten-
sities in the same latitudes in the northern hemisphere ; eviden-
cing that the space between the influential centres is wider in that
quarter of the southern, than in the corresponding quarter of
the northern hemisphere.

The converse of this should be found in the Pacific section.
As the southerly inflection of the lines of low intensity in the
South Atlantic is the greatest, so should their southerly in-
flexion in the opposite section of the hemisphere be the least,
of the inflections which these lines undergo in either hemi-

74 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

sphere. The observations by which this inference might be
confirmed are few, but none give a contrary indication. Every
observation in the South Pacific section shows that a higher
intensity prevails there than in equal latitudes in the North
Pacific section ; and, as far as the lines can yet be traced from
the observations, the inflection in the South Pacific does ap-
pear to be the least marked in character, and to extend over
the fewest meridians. It is of course the lines of higher in-
tensity which would afford the more decisive evidence, because
their characteristics are more marked ; but the authorities for
these are few in the part of the space between New Zealand
and South America, where they could most illustrate the point
in question.

In review, we conclude, therefore, that, as far as observa-
tions have yet been made in the southern hemisphere, they
accord with a system analogous to that in the northern, of two
centres, of unequal force, and at unequal distances apart. The
observations further render it pi'obable, that the distances be-
tween the centres are still more unequal in the southern than
in the northern hemisphere. Admitting the small difference
of distribution from this cause, there does not appear reason
to suppose that there is any general inequality in the magnetic
charge of the two hemispheres ; on the contrary, there is every
appearance that they have the same.

6. If the globe be divided into an eastern and a western
hemisphere by a plane, coinciding with the meridians of 100°
and 280°, the western hemisphere, or that comprising the
Americas and the Pacific Ocean, has a much higher mag-
netic intensity distributed generally over its surface, than the
eastern hemisphere, containing Europe and Africa and the
adjacent part of the Atlantic Ocean.

This is a corollary from (4) and (5) rather than a distinct
proposition. The four centres being in the western hemisphere
a higher intensity will prevail generally in its meridians ; and
this is accordant with the whole body of observations distri-
buted over the globe (Plate V).

The equality of the magnetic charge in the northern and
southern hemispheres and its inequality in the eastern and
western, are important features of the magnetic system mani-
fested by the observations of intensity.

7. The distribution of the intensity in the intertropical re-
gions is accordant with the conclusions already draivn, of two
governing centres in each hemisphere.

As the lines of higher intensity are those which have the

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 75

characteristics of the system most strongly marked, I have
chiefly employed them, where observations would permit, in
describing its general features. The characteristics soften
gradually as the distance increases from the governing cen-
tres ; but even in the intertropical regions the distribution of
the intensity and the arrangement of the lines contribute their
testimony to the same system. I have nowhere attempted to
assign the precise geographical positions of the centres ; and in
regard to those of the southern hemisphere especially, have
expressly stated, that the facts yet acquired would not enable
this to be done within fair limits of approximation. Thus
much, however, may be safely said in regard to them, that the
primary in the southern, and the secondary in the northern,
are at the present time not far from the same meridian ; and
that the primary in the northern, and the secondary in the
southern, are similarly situated, except that their difference of
longitude is somewhat greater. If we respectively connect
the centres, which thus approximate in longitude, by lines
on the globe crossing the equator, the lines will mark those
localities within the tropics where the influence of the cen-
tres should produce a higher intensity than elsewhere in
the same latitudes. Thus we should have two maxima in the
intertropical regions ; and these should not be in opposite me-
ridians, because the centres are unsymmetrical. Such is ac-
tually the distribution of the intensity in these regions. The
isodynamic lines which represent unity are the weakest which
run unbroken round the globe, and appear twice in every me-
ridian ; these approach each other in the meridians of 110°
and 260°, whilst, intermediately, they recede from each other,
and inclose spaces occupied by a still weaker intensity ; the
largest of these spaces, corresponding to the widest interval
between the centres, is of 210 degrees of longitude, and the
smallest of 150 degrees. In the middle of the largest, as the
point most distant from all the four centres, we should expect
to find the weakest intensity existing anywhere at the surface of
the globe ; and accordingly at St. Helena, which is nearly in
that situation, the intensity observed by Captain Fitz Roy, 0*84,
is the lowest determination recorded in this report, and is the
locality of the weakest intensity yet observed on the globe.
Between St. Helena and the lines of unity on either side, we
should have a line representing the value of 0*9, a part of
which has been extremely well determined by concurrent ob-
servations. This line, being comprehended by the lines of
unity, is necessarily a closed one. Observations are yet want-
ing to show whether the intensity descends as low as 0-8 in the

76 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

middle of the larger space, or as 0*9 in the smaller space,
which has its locality in the Pacific*.

We may also trace in the intertropical regions another con-
sequence of the inequality of force of the primary and secondary
centres. Where the lines of unity approach each other in the
Pacific, the primary is to the north, the secondary to the south ;
the latitude in which the lines approach is consequently to the
south of the equator. In the Indian Sea the primary is to the
south, and the secondary to the north ; and here the latitude
in which the lines of unity approach each other is to the north
of the equator.

Every geographical meridian has a point of minimum inten-
sity ; if these points in different meridians were connected hy a
line, that line would separate the intensities of the northern
from those of the southern magnetic hemisphere. It would be
in some respects analogous to the line of no dip, but it would not
be aline of equal intensity, as it would consist of intensities va-
rying from unity to the lowest on the globe. Such a line traced
on the map is found to differ very considerably in geographical
position from the line of no dip.

8. The geographical position of the maximum of intensity
in the North American quarter is not the same with that of the
maximum of dip, or with that of the point of convergence of
the variation lines.

It will be necessary here to enter into rather more precise
geographical positions than we have hitherto done. In regard
to the maximum of dip we cannot err widely in taking the lati-
tude and longitude where Capt. James Ross observed the dip
of 89° 59' in 1831, viz. 70° N. and 263° E. That this is also
very nearly the spot to which the variation lines converge may
be shown abundantly by the observations made in the different
polar voyages by sea and landf . It is marked by an asterisk

* Since the above was written Mr. Erman's sea observations have been re-
ceived; he crossed the space in the Atlantic included by the line of 0-9 some
degrees to the west of St. Helena, and, midway between the north and south
portions of that line, found the intensity diminished below 0-8. Captain Fitz
Roy's observation at St. Helena is consequently no longer the lowest observed
on "the globe ; and it is probable that even a lower intensity than was observed
by M. Erman would be found a few degrees to the south of St. Helena, and
nearly in the meridian of that island.

f M. Hansteen, who has brought together the observations of dip and va-
riation made in the different polar voyages, finds that the variations observed
to the north of the latitude in which the dip is 90° and in the vicinity of that dip,
converge to a point a little to the north of that latitude ; and conversely, that the
variations observed to the south converge to a point south of that latitude ; or,
more exactly, that the curves of highest dip are ellipses, having their greater axes

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH. 77

in the North Polar map annexed to this report. If the reader
will nowrefer to that map (Plate IV.), he will see that this position
will by no means accord with that which the observations point
out for the maximum of intensity. We are not, indeed, enabled
to assign the position of the latter as nearly as in the case of
the dip ; but it must clearly be in a much lower latitude. The
intensities observed in Baffin's Bay and the Polar Sea have
all a much lower value than at New York ; and the general
configuration of the lines of intensity would rather point to a
maximum in the vicinity of the shores of Hudson's Bay.

This remarkable feature of the system was first brought to
notice in the account of my magnetic observations published
in 1 825*. In a point of so much interest, it is natural to in-
quire whether there is any indication of a similar separation at
the principal pole of the opposite hemisphere. Observations
as yet do not enable us to assign with sufficient approxima-
tion the places of the maxima in that quarter ; but we are in
possession of a leading fact, which, by its complete analogy
with the phenomena at New York, gives strong ground for
believing that in the southern hemisphere also the places of
the maxima of the two phenomena are distinct. I have already
noticed the almost identity of the force at Hobart Town and
New York, under nearly equal geographical latitudes ; but there
is yet another feature which completes the analogy, and bears
directly on the point now treated of. At New York we have
the highest intensity of the northern hemisphere, 1 '80, with a
dip of 73° 07'; at Hobart Town the highest intensity of the
southern hemisphere, 1'82, with a dip of '70° 35'. In both hemi-
spheres the highest intensity united with a comparatively loiv
dip. Nor in that quarter is Hobart Town a solitary instance of

in a north-west and south-east direction, and that the variation lines converge
not to the point of 90° but to points in this axis. Small differences of position,
however, have no effect on the reasoning in the text.

* It has been viewed by M. Kupffer as having a direct and important bear-
ing on the very interesting question of the physical nature of the magnetism of
the earth. In the Ann. der Physik, vol. xv., after describing the course of the
isogeothermal lines (or lines of equal temperature of the earth at 25 metres be-
low its surface) between the meridians of 80° west and 60° east of Paris, he has
discussed the influence which the facts represented by those lines should
have on the magnetic dip and force, in the case of the earth's magnetism being
superficial and induced. The differences of surface temperature affecting the
intensity but not the dip would cause the isoclinal and isodynamic lines to se-
parate where otherwise they might have been accordant ; and would especially
separate the places of the maxima, causing the maximum of intensity to be in
the lower latitude. M. Kupffer considers the fact of their being thus separated
as giving probability to the aforesaid view of the physical nature of the earth's
magnetism.

78 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

high intensity with comparatively low dip ; at King George's
Sound and Sydney, in 34° and 35° south latitude, Captain Fitz
Roy found intensities of 1'7 1 and 1*68 with dips of 64° 41' and
62° 29'.

Should such a separation exist at the secondary centres, it
cannot he expected to he of so striking a character. I wish
not to anticipate the more ahle discussion which we may ex-
pect on this point from M. Hansteen, whose long and arduous
journeys were undertaken expressly to determine with exact-
ness all the pha3nomena of the Siberian pole. I will confine
myself, therefore, to noticing his remark already referred to,
that he believes the intensity observed at Viluisk to be the
highest intensity existing in Siberia. Should this be so, the
highest intensity in that quarter is certainly not in the same
locality as the highest dip*.

Our knowledge of the phenomena in the neighbourhood of
the secondary centre in the southern hemisphere is not suffi-
cient to throw any light on this question.

With regard to the direction which the lines of higher
intensity may be conceived to take around their maxima in
the northern hemisphere, we should infer from the observations
that the line representing 1*8 must be a closed curve around
the North American maximum only ; as must also be that of 1*9,
supposing such to exist.

The North American portion of the line of 1*7 appears also
to be nearly, if not quite, a closed curve. Encompassed on the
north, east, and south, by intensities of less value, the western
is the only direction open for its connection with the Siberian
portion of the same line. The situation of the two branches
of the line of 1*7 in the west of America is marked by the ob-
servations ; — the southernmost crossing the lower waters of the
Columbia River, — and the northernmost between Sitka and
Melville Island. Whether these branches join and form a
closed curve, or whether they communicate with the Asiatic
portion of the same line in some such courses as is represented
by the dotted line in the polar map, observations do not yet
enable us to decide. No intensity of so high a value as 1*7 has
yet been observed between Sitka in 224°, and the meridian

* It is much to be desired that the observations in Siberia should be still
further completed by a series of determinations along the shores of the polar
sea. If the view here taken be correct, these should exhibit higher dips and
lower intensities than were observed at Viluisk. From the liberal support which
the Russian government gives to the prosecution of magnetic inquiries we may
expect that such observations will not be long wanting.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 79

of 138° in Siberia ; and it is possible that a navigator sailing
from the Pacific through Behring's Strait, and passing the Bay
of St. Lawrence where Admiral Liitke observed 1"65, might
proceed to the northward having the spaces included by the
closed curves of 1 *7 on either side of him.

The space inclosed by the curve of 1*8 possesses a very high
degree of magnetic interest, and is well deserving of being
traversed by observations as frequent and as accurate as those
of MM. Hansteen and Erman in Siberia. The greater part of
it is in the British dominion, and over a considerable portion at
least convenient means of locomotion are to be found. The
British Association had but to express the wish that a magnetic
survey of the British Islands should be made, and it was at
once responded to by some of its own members. The present
volume contains the record of the completion of that under-
taking ; and it may be permitted to one of the contributors to
that work to express a hope, that the attention of the Associa-
tion may now be given to the British possessions abroad.
In the extensive territory under British dominion in India, not
a single determination has yet, I believe, been made of the
magnetic intensity, and but few of either of the other phaeno-
mena. From the well-known zeal of the officers of the Indian
service, a recommendation in the proper quarter would speedily
cover that large portion of the earth's surface with accurate
magnetic determinations. But the Canadian quarter is of pro-
minent interest ; a correct delineation of the lines of variation,
dip, and intensity in the space included by the curve of 1 "8, or
in even a portion of that space, would have a high value in
theoretical respects. The accomplishment of this service is
not altogether beyond the compass of individual means, and
needs not, like a southern voyage, await the success of an ap-
plication to Government. It requires only for its proper ex-
ecution, that it should be the principal object of the person
undertaking it, and that he should be provided with adequate
instruments. Were the wishes of the Association expressed in
regard to Canada, as they were in regard to the British Is-
lands, I have little doubt that they would soon be complied
with by members of their own body*.

* The ground which Capt. Back traversed in his journey in search of Capt.
Ross in 1833 and 1834 is of great interest as regards the magnetic intensity ;
and had that officer been furnished with suitable instruments, and had it ac-
corded with his other objects to have made observations in the manner of MM.
Hansteen and Erman at every halting-place, his results might have possessed
great value.

The vibrations of the dipping-needle, which he employed to measure the in-

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

9. The highest intensity already observed is more than twice
as great as the loivest.

The intensities observed at New York and Hobart Town,
compared with that at St. Helena, are as 1*81 to - 84, or as
2-16 to 1.

St. Helena is not the lowest intensity ; and the force at
New York and Hobart Town cannot be viewed as abso-

tensity, appear to have been subject to a considerable instrumental uncertainty ;
and the needle lost magnetism during the absence from England to a large
amount, but at what time the loss took place is not very obvious from the ob-
servations. Under these circumstances I have not felt that I could assign with
sufficient confidence the value of the intensity relatively to Europe at any of
Capt. Back's American stations. By grouping them, however, and comparing
the values of the intensity in different groups, relatively to each other only, and
not relatively to Europe, we may considerably lessen the effect of the irregu-
larities above mentioned, and obtain an indication, which, if we could view it as
sufficiently clear from instrumental uncertainty, would possess much interest.
For example, if we group neighbouring stations as in the subjoined table, and
make the intensity at New York the unity of the comparison, we have as fol-
lows : viz.

New York

Fort Alexander ...
Cumberland House

Isle a la Crosse

Fort Chipewyan ...
Fort Resolution ...

Fort Reliance

Musk Ox Rapid ..

Rock Rapid

Point Beaufort..
Montreal Island
Point Ogle

1833
Apr.
Jun.
July
July
July
Aug.
Oct.
1834
May
Oct.
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.

I.at.
North

40 42
50 37
53 58
55 25
58 42
6110
6246

64 41

65 54
6741
6747

6814

Long.
West

74 01
96 21
102 22
107 55
111 19
113 45
109 01

10808
9810
95 02
95 18

94 58

Time of
Vib.

1-2857
1-2432
1-2643
1-2969
1-3000
1-2387
1-2750

1-2844
1-2781
1-2873
1-2800
1-2975
1-2885
1-2656

Mean

Lat.

Long.

Time of
Vibr.

Ther.

sity. j

69-

40 42

74 01

1-2857

1000

70-51

59-5

> 53 20

10213

1-2681

1-027

73-5

(«)

95- |
65-6
44- ■

. 59 56

112 32

1-2693

1-031

49-

" 62 46

109 01

1-2792

0-997

28-

64- 1

87-

•

72-

y 66 51

9819

1-2838

1002!

74-
53- ,

(<0 1

Here we see that the groups («) and (b), which have their mean position about
53° N. and 102° W., (258 east), and GO N., and 112J W. (247 J east), have a
higher intensity than the more northern group (c), which has its mean position
about 67° N. and 98° W. (262 east). These groups (a) and (b) have also a
higher intensity than that of Fort Reliance to the north, or New York to the
south. New York, Fort Reliance, and the northern group (c), scarcely differ in
the values of their respective intensities. This arrangement is quite conformable
with the lines in the polar map.

I have taken Capt. Back's observations from Mr. Christie's paper in the Phil.
Trans, for 1836; the times of vibration at the stations in America being those
contained in the table page 393. That table shows that the needle was vibrated at

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH.

lutely the highest. If we suppose the minimum to reach
0*74, (one of M. Erman's sea observations is 0*743) and the

every station with its face to the face of the instrument, and that at some of the
stations it was also vibrated in the reverse position. Where this has been done
there often appears a considerable difference between the times of vibration
at the same place in the two positions, which must be ascribed to instrumental
defect. It does not appear to have been of the nature of a constant error in
either position of the needle, as sometimes one position gives the highest inten-
, sity and sometimes the other. I have taken the twelfth column just as it stands, —
that is, the times of vibration in the position which was everywhere observed,
as there can be no question of the comparability of those with each other ; and
I have reduced the times of vibration to an uniform temperature by the coeffi-
cient which Mr. Christie found for that needle ; but I have introduced no other
corrections, either for loss of magnetism or on any other account. I have grouped
the results by taking the mean latitude, longitude, and intensity of the neigh-
bouring stations, connected by brackets.

If the intensities are taken from a mean of all the observations at each of the
stations, including those in the reversed, as well as in the direct position of the
needle, the inferences drawn above are somewhat strengthened, as is shown in
the following table : —

Station.

Lat.

North.

Long.
East.

Time of
Vib.

Ther.

Intensity.

40 42
53 20
59 56
62 46
66 51

285 59
257 47
247 28
250 59
261 41

1-2857
1 -2644

1-000
1-033
1-045
1-002

0-999

1-2607 80
1-2758 40 j
1-2857 70 ;

Mr. Christie, in combining the observations at different stations and in differ-
ent positions of the needle, has followed a somewhat different course, and has
arrived at somewhat different conclusions. With more perfect instruments, —
with observations alike complete at all the stations, — and repeated at New
York as well as in London, to test the permanency of the needle's magnetism, —
there would not have been room for any difference of view. The only result
absolutely deducible from the observations, and in which all persons must
agree, is the comparability of the intensities at the different stations of the
northern group with each other, and with Fort Reliance ; as the observa-
tions of May and October, 1834, show by their agreement that during
that interval the needle underwent no change. The conclusion to be drawn
from this portion of the observations, which are as strictly comparable as
the imperfection of the instrument permits, is, that in the district which it
comprises no consistent alteration takes place in the intensity. If any small
alteration does take place, it would require a more delicate instrument than
Capt. Back was furnished with to determine it.

It is in these countries that the statical method of Professor Lloyd would be
of the greatest advantage. I have already had occasion to speak of the disad-
vantage to which the method by horizontal vibrations is exposed in countries
of very high dip, where every error in the dip is magnified to a high degree in
its effect on the intensity deduced ; and of the preference due in such cases to
the vibrations of a dipping-needle. But it is well known that this latter method,
though a trust-worthy, is far from being a delicate test of differences of mag-

vol. vi. 1837. o

82 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837-

maximum 1*85, the proportion would be 2*5 to 1. It seems
probable that this is rather under tban over the difference
existing in the present distribution of the intensity. If the
centres change their relative places, by having unequal mo-
tions, both the absolute and the relative values of the max-
imum and minimum must be variable.

This report has already occupied so large a portion of the
annual volume, that I feel the propriety of not permitting the
inferences of an individual judgment to trespass further on
its pages. I have endeavoured, to the best of my power, to
place the facts themselves before the reader in such a manner,
that, on the one hand, he may have no difficulty in tracing every
observation to its original source, — and on the other, that by the
assemblage of the results in one view, he may be enabled with
the greater facility to draw his own conclusions.

Having in a former report described M. Hansteen's theory
of the magnetism of the earth, and given the formulas for the
variation, dip, and intensity deduced from his hypothesis of two
excentric axes of unequal force, it may be expected that I should
conclude this report by comparing some of the observed inten-
sities with the results computed by the formula. I may there-
fore add a few words to show that the proper time for a detailed
comparison of this kind has not yet arrived, because observa-
tion is still in arrear of theory. Until observation has supplied
the materials which theory has required for the correct assign-
ment of the elements of calculation, such a comparison could
not be otherwise than imperfect.

The geographical positions of the magnetic poles in the
Magnetismus der Erde were derived from observations made
between 1787 and 1800, which were insufficient to furnish them
in more than a very general manner. Since that period also,
changes, of the nature anticipated by M. Hansteen, appear to
have taken place in the positions of the poles ; which conse-
quently require to be assigned afresh (as well as more cor-
rectly), in order that the results computed by the formula may
represent observations of a more recent date. The materials
proper for this purpose are observations in the vicinity of the

netic intensity, even with a good instrument, on account of the shortness of the
period during which the needle will continue to vibrate, and the consequent
necessity of commencing with a large arc of vibration. With an inferior instru-
ment the limits of error are of course much wider still. In high magnetic la-
titudes the statical method deserves a decided preference over the method of
horizontal vibrations, inasmuch as a moderate error of the dip will scarcely have
an appreciable effect on the intensity ; and over that by verticul vibrations, inas-
much as it admits of much greater exactness.

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OP THE EARTH. 83

magnetic poles themselves. In the northern hemisphere, these
are far more ample and exact than at any former period, owing
in great measui'e to the interest excited by the publication of
M. Hansteen's theory. But the corresponding observations in
the southern hemisphere are yet wanting ; and until these are
supplied, we cannot advance beyond an anticipation, more or
less confident, of the eventual accordance of the hypothesis,
when the correct elements of calculation shall have been ob-
tained ; and in this view, we may at least say thus much in re-
gard to the general accordance of the hypothesis with the ob-
servations of intensity, that if we omit the consideration of the
higher latitudes, where the contemporaneous and correct posi-
tions of the magnetic poles are most essential, the formula,
even with the elements derived from the earlier and less perfect
observations, both represents all the leading features of the
system, and shows a fair approximation in individual cases.

The method in which this science has progressively advanced
is strikingly illustrative of a passage in Mr. Playfair's writings,
in which the distinct offices of theory and experiment, and the
value of their co-operation in inductive investigation, are well
described. "In physical inquiries the work of theory and ob-
servation must go hand in hand, and ought to be carried on at
the same time, more especially if the matter is very complicated,
for then the clew of theory is necessary to direct the observer.
Though a man may begin to observe without any hypothesis,
he cannot continue long without seeing some general conclusion
ai'ise ; and to the nascent theory it is his business to attend,
because by seeking either to verify or to disprove it, he is led
to new experiments and new observations. He is led also to
the very experiments and observations that are of the greatest
importance ; namely, to those instancies cruris that naturally
present themselves for the test of every hypothesis. By the
correction of his first opinion a new approximation is made to
the truth, and by the repetition of the same process certainty
is finally obtained. Thus theory and observation mutually
assist one another ; and the spirit of system, against which
there are so many and so just complaints, appears nevertheless
as the animating principle of inductive investigation. The
business of sound philosophy is, not to extinguish this spirit,
but to restrain and direct its efforts. It is therefore hurtful to
the progress of physical science to represent theory and obser-
vation as standing opposed to one another."

The earlier observations of terrestrial magnetism were made
without reference to theory. As facts accumulated general
conclusions arose. Their elaborate examination conducted to

84 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

an hypothesis of four magnetic poles ; and this, to the sugges-
tion of new experiments to verify or disprove it. In the north-
ern hemisphere' the verification is complete, affording signal
proof of the value of experiment directed by theory. A simi-
lar verification in the southern hemisphere is yet wanting ; and
the observations necessary for that purpose will also supply
those elements of calculation whereby the hypothesis may be
fitted for a detailed comparison with facts. This will be the
next " stepin the advancement of knowledge ;" — the next " term
of a series that must end whenever the real laws of nature are
discovered"; — but which, in its progression, fitly prepares the
way for their discovery.

I have already adverted to what the influence of the Associ-
ation may effect, in causing the spaces yet vacant on the map,
in the British possessions in India and Canada, to be filled.
But beyond all comparison, the most important service of this
kind, which this or any other country could render to this branch
of science, would be by filling the void still existing in the
southern hemisphere, and particularly in the vicinity of those
parts of that hemisphere which are of principal magnetic in-
terest. This can only be accomplished by a naval voyage ; for
which it is natural that other countries should look to England.
That the nations that have made exertions in the same cause
do look to England for it, cannot be better shown than by the
following extract of a letter of M. Hansteen's, which I take
the liberty of introducing here, both for this purpose, and be-
cause it expresses in so pleasing a manner, the praise that is so
justly due to his own country, and which I am sure will be
cordially responded to by all who cultivate science in this coun-
try, and particularly by those who know the kindly feeling with
which Englishmen are ever welcomed in Norway.

" C'estle Storthing (la Chambre des Deputes) de la Nor-
vege, qui a donne les frais a l'expedition en Siberie. On a fait
cela dans un terns ou on a refuse les depenses pour un chateau
de residence pour sa Majeste a Christiania. Dans un terns, ou
une telle economie a ete necessaire, il est tres honorable,
qu'une Chambre, composee de toutes les classes du peuple,
mthne d'un grand nombre de paysans, a unanimemeni resolu de
donner les frais pour une expedition purement scientifique,
dont les resultats n'auront jamais aucune utilite economique
pour la patrie, et dont on ne comprenait pas la haute valeure
scientifique. Regarde les ressources tres-bornes de notre
pays, c'est une generosite presque sans exemple.

" Comme la petite Norvege a fourni toutes les observations
entre les meridiens de Greenwich et de Ochozk, et entre les

ON THE MAGNETIC INTENSITY OF THE EARTH, 85

paralleles de 40° et 75° de latitude boreale, il ne me semble pas
une demande trop grande ou immodeste a l'Angleterre, si
grande, si riche, si puissante, qui a necessairement un plus
grand interet dans toutes les sciences combinees avec la navi-
gation, de fournir toute la partie meridionale de la carte. Une
telle entreprise doit reflechirune splendeur a la nation, et payera
a. la fin les frais par des resultats aussi utiles pour les sciences
que pour la navigation. II ne faut plus dans notre terns laisser
l'avancement des sciences au hasard. Par des observations
fragmentaires et discontinues on a tache avec grande peine
d'etudier les phenomenes magnetiques de la terre pendant deux
ou trois siecles. Par deux ou trois expeditions literaires, ar-
rangees expres pour ce but, on pourrait en peu d'annees avoir
une collection plus complete, et d'une plus grande utilite pour
la theorie."

The subject has in every way a claim on this country. The
existence of four governing centres, and the system of the phe-
nomena in correspondence therewith, was originally a British
discovery. The sagacity of our countryman Halley was the
first to penetrate through the complexity of the phenomena,
and to discern what is now becoming generally recognised. En-
gland was also the first country which sent an expedition ex-
pressly for magnetic observation, namely, that of Halley in 1698
and 1699. Whilst approving and cordially co-operating in
magnetic inquiries of other kinds which have their origin in
other countries, it is right that we should feel a peculiar in-
terest in that in which we have ourselves led the way, espe-
cially when its object is subordinate to none.

As the research would require to be prosecuted in the high
latitudes, a familiarity with the navigation of such latitudes
would be important in the person who should undertake this
service ; and a strong individual interest in the subject itself
would be of course a most valuable qualification. I need
scarcely say that the country possesses a naval officer in whom
these qualifications unite in a remarkable degree with all others
that are requisite ; and if fitting instruments make fitting times,
none surely can be better than the present.

Viewed in itself and in its various relations, the magnetism
of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most im-
portant branches of the physical history of the planet we in-
habit ; and we may feel quite assured, that the completion of
our knowledge of its distribution on the surface of the earth,
would be regarded by our cotemporaries and by posterity as
a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achieve-
ment of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in
every arduous and honourable undertaking.

Report on the various modes of Printing for the use of the
Blind. By the Rev. William Taylor, F.R.S.

It must be a matter of great satisfaction and pleasure to every
one, who is anxious to alleviate the misfortunes of his fellow-
creatures, to find that the British Association has been pleased
to take into consideration the various modes of printing in tan-
gible characters for the use of the blind ; a subject which has
long occupied the attention of many individuals, and lately of
some public societies, but which has not made much progress
till within the last seven years . Now, however, under such
powerful influence, it is likely to receive that attention and as-
sistance which will probably bring it to the highest state of per-
fection which it is capable of*.

The object in view is twofold, 1st, to print such elementary
books as may assist in the intellectual education of the blind,
and afford them amusement and occupation during the many
solitary hours which they must of necessity, especially in after
life, be doomed to pass ; and 2ndly, to pvit into their hands the
word of God in such a tangible shape, that they may be able,
of themselves, to " read, mark, learn, and inwardly digest " that
holy book which is able to make them " wise unto salvation."

When the blind are unemployed, they brood over their mis-
fortunes and draw such comparisons between their condition
and that of their seeing brethren, as tend to disturb their peace
of mind, and often to make them discontented : what a blessing
then will printing in tangible characters prove to that unfortu-
nate class of society, by opening to them new fields of delight,
and placing within their reach treasures which otherwise they
never could by their own exertions possess !

I am sorry, however, it has not fallen to the lot of one better able
to report upon this most interesting and important subject ; not
that I want zeal in the cause, but on account of the difficulty of
acquiring a full and accurate knowledge of what progress it has
made and is noiu making in various parts of the world. I have
not spared to avail myself of such information as I could collect

* The Edinburgh Society of Arts, &c. were the first, as a public body, to take
up this subject in this country, and by their great and praiseworthy exertions
they have not only collected much valuable information relating to printing
for the use of the blind, but have ascertained the opinion of almost every per-
son known to have turned his attention much to the subject, as may be seen
by their excellent report published in June last.

88 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

from the few sources which are within my reach*; but after
all I shall stand in need of indulgence from those who may
peruse these pages, as much valuable matter will unavoidably
have escaped me, and some errors crept into the statement I
have given.

Origin of printing in characters in relief for the Blind.

To enter into a complete history of the first rude attempts to
form alphabets and to print raised characters for the use of the
blind, would be uselessly to swell this report ; I shall, therefore,
only briefly notice the earlier inventions, and hasten to the mo-
dern improvements, which certainly have the largest claim
upon our attention.

So far back as the 16th century letters were cut in wood for
the use of the blind ; but instead of projecting as they now do,
they were sunk or made hollow, on which account the fingers
were unable to trace the forms of the letters unless they were
of a very large size.

In 1575 Rampazzetto published examples of letters carved in
wood, in relief; but, as they were not separate, but like the stereo-
typing of the present day, they were laid aside as inconvenient.

In 1640 moveable characters were cast in lead at Paris by one
Peter Moreau, but the expense, or difficulty of the undertaking,
prevented his going on with it.

Various other persons, at different times, have made characters
and letters for the blind both in wood and metal, but not with
much success till the year 17&3 5 when punches were cut and
matrices struck, in which characters were cast by Founder, at
the expense of M. Rouille de 1' Etang, Treasurer of the Philan-
thropic Society in Paris. These characters however, (from an
erroneous notion that all objects or models for the use of the
blind should be made of great dimensions), were considerably
larger than was necessary or convenient ; consequently a new
set of punches was cut, and letters, nearly similar to those now
in use in France, were cast in the foundry at Vaflard. Since
that time many of the letters have been improved in their form,
and the metal of which they were cast rendered more durable
by altering the proportion of the ingredients it contained.

Types for the blind differ from those in ordinary use, in that
they are set up and read from left to right, whilst in those for
printing with ink the reverse order is observed. Besides this the
stem or body of the types used in France is made in the shape of
a T, the letter being on the top or cross-piece which prevents

» Chiefly am I indebted to the works of Dr. Guillie, Dr. Klein, Prof.
Zeuue, &c.

REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 89

the type falling through the bars of the frame in which it is
placed, while the shank or tail goes between them. But this
kind of type is very heavy and clumsy, and the lines of printing
cannot be brought very near to each other, which tends greatly
to increase the bulk as well as the expense of the books.

In 1784 the first European institution for the instruction of
the blind was established at Paris by Valentine Haiiy ; and
although many attempts to produce raised characters or letters
for their use had previously been made, yet printing for the
blind may be said to have been unknown till 1785, when
M. Haiiy submitted to the Royal Academy of Sciences a me-
morial, in which he explained the " means he proposed to em-
ploy for the instruction of the blind." A committee was ap-
pointed to examine this plan, who allowed that M. Haiiy was
the inventor of printing books in relief for the blind, and
strongly recommended his invention to the approbation of the
Academy. Since that time some change and improvement have
been made in a few of the letters ; for instance, the e is a little
less liable to be mistaken for the coro; the u not so narrow
and therefore not so like to the a ; the k also is opened to be
less like the h, &c. I would here state that the French use
both capitals and "lower case," and the form of the letter ap-
proaches that of the Latin or Italian.

" In the Paris Institution," says Dr. Guillie, " the blind pupils
set and distribute the types and print the books themselves, and
some who are expert will arrange about a dozen lines of an 8vo
page in a quarter of an hour." Whether or not they have now
adopted the common or screw press for printing, I am not able
to say, but formerly the types were set in a frame (as before
mentioned), the paper well wetted, laid upon them, and over all
three or four folds of thick flannel ; it was then passed through a
large wooden rolling press* and the impression taken out on the
other side. In this maimer a variety of books have been printed,
amongst which are spelling books, grammars, geography, por-
tions of the Scripture, short pieces of poetry, with miscellaneous
extracts, &c.f

* The rolling press was used because it was thought that a sufficient pressure
could not be given with the common screw press. In the former case only one
line at a time is pressed by the roller, and consequently the whole force is sus-
tained by that line, but in the latter the pressure is distributed over the whole
page at once, and therefore must be very great to work a 4to or folio. But I
believe the perpendicular pressure is now used in France, and was introduced
some years ago by M. Clousicr, printer to the King.

f In Zurich there is an excellent establishment for the education of
the blind, in which they print books in raised letters, &c, and have already
several books, such as a grammar, Scripture phrases, &c, which are given to
the pupils gratis on leaving the Institution.

90 SEVENTH REPORT— >1837«

The paper used in printing in relief should be very good and
strong, not liable to tear, tolerably thick and well-sized. If it
be too thick the letter will not be sharp nor well-defined ; neither
should the impression be too much elevated, or it will increase the
bulk of the book and be more liable to injury. About -fa or -^ 7
of an inch is generally found sufficiently high for small type im-
pressions. Alphabets and first books for beginners should be a
little higher. " This kind of printing," says Dr. Guillie, "cannot
be done on both sides the paper, as in taking off the second
page the first would be destroyed*". In this state printing for
the blind remained till Mr. Gall of Edinburgh, about the year
1831 or 1832, introduced what he calls a triangular, or rather
angular, alphabet. This is chiefly a modification of the com-
mon alphabet, though some of the letters are entirely arbi-
trary. For instance, the A is a triangle standing upon one
of its angles ; the B and D are triangles with two small ears
or projections at the upper angle ; and the P and Q are also tri-
angles, similar to the above, only they have the projections at the
lower angle. The O is a square standing upon one of its corners ;
and the G is the same, only a little smaller, with a perpendicular
tail to it about as long as one of the sides of the square. The
C is an obtuse angle concave to the right hand. The E the
same with an additional line bisecting the angle. The T is a
perpendicular line with a very short one crossing it in the
middle. The other letters partake in a great degree of the com-
mon form, except that the R, S, and W are angular instead of
curvedf . Mr. Gall conceives that curves arc not so easily di-
stinguishable by the touch as angles.

'bcsitst die Anstalt einen Apparat, mit welchcm eben so sclmell,

wie in gewohnlichen Druckereien, Biicher in erhabcner Schrift, fiir Blinde,
lesbar gedruct werden. So besitzen wir z. B. cin Sprachbuch fiir Blinde, 60
Seiten stark ; ferner eine systcmatische Sammlung von Bibelspriichen, unter
dem Titel, Biblisches Spracbbueh fiir Blinde ***** soldier Biicher werden
den austretenden Blinden jedesmal unengeltlich mitgcgobcn." — Orell on the
Zurich Institution for the Blind, &c, 1835, page 43.

* An attempt however has since been made (I have been told) at Philadelphia,
to print upon both sides by engraving or punching the letters upon pewter plates,
and passing two of these plates, through a rolling press, with a very thick paper,
almost reduced to a state of pulp, between them, but I believe the plan was
too expensive to be employed generally. Mr. Gall of Edinburgh has also
printed on both sides the paper by arranging the types so that the lines on one
side the leaf just occupy the spaces between the lines on the other. A little
room is gained by this method, but as it requires much nicety in laying the pa-
per upon the type to print the second page, lest the first should be injured,
some time must be lost in taking oft" the impressions ; which, to me, renders the
advantage of such a plan very doubtful.

t Mr. Gall has recently altered the form of some of his letters, and thereby
greatly improved them.

REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 91

About that time several schools or asylums for the blind were
established in America. In Philadelphia the Gospel of Saint
Mark was published in a raised type and printed on both sides
the leaf as before mentioned ; the letters are something between
the Italic and written characters. I am not aware that much
more has been done there; but at Boston printing in raised
characters for the blind has been carried to a great state of per-
fection under the direction and superintendence of that able and
zealous friend to the blind, Dr. S. G. Howe. The form of the
letter differs a little from the " lower case "used in this country,
but the impressions are exceedingly sharp and good. Many
books have been published there, and at a very cheap rate, as
will appear from the following extracts from Dr. Howe's ex-
cellent letter to the British and Foreign Bible Society.

From the " Monthly Extracts from the Correspondence of the
British and Foreign Bible Society."

From the Rev. Dr. Howe, Director of the New England Insti-
tution for the Education of the Blind.

" Boston, U.S., Nov. 20, 1836.

" I now forward you a box containing two complete copies of
the New Testament of our Lord and Saviour in raised charac-
ters, one bound in 4 vols, the other copy in 2 vols. For adults
and persons who would use them carefully the copy in 2 vols,
would be best ; for children the one in 4 vols.

"You ask, what would be the cost of a hundred or a thousand
copies of the New Testament ? I answer that they may be
printed and bound for 1/. 105. But you will observe that the
paper on which the copies I send you are printed is very tough
and peculiar in its fabric ; it was made for the purpose, and is
saturated with animal size, so that it will be very durable. If
you depress one of the letters you will observe the paper will
spring back again, which I fear will not be the case with the
kind of printing you sent to me. The cost of our Testament was
little over 2l. sterling, another edition might be had cheaper. I
rejoice to learn that an interest is beginning to be felt on the
subject of printing for the blind, for it has been the object near-
est my heart for the last four years."

After urging the desirableness of using the common letter,
Dr. H. proceeds :

" I have known of several cases where blind persons had
learned to read at home : we had one boy enter our institution
who knew how to read and spell in our first books, though he
was but seven years old and was born blind. His mother, a small
farmer's wife, had procured a book a year before and taught him.

92 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837«

Again, there are many persons who lose their sight after having
learned the common form of letters ; and they have little diffi-
culty in recognising them by the touch, but would be discouraged
by a new character*."

The Doctor, after stating some cases of bedridden persons, and
persons of weak sight though not blind, reading the raised type
with their fingers, goes on to say : " We have about fifty in this
institution who are of the age for instruction, and forty of them
can read ; twenty can read very fast, and will run through a
chapter of the Testament in just the time it takes a seeing per-
son to read twice the quantity^ observing all the stops. Some
of our children at the age of six can read.

" * * * * * The elevation of the letters, the hardness and du-
rability of the impression, the strength of the paper, the method
of binding, all these are to be considered, experimented upon,
and greatly improved. It is a wide and interesting field, and
right glad am I that labourers have entered into it in England ;
and I wish only that they may work with one common plan.
I believe much more printing has been done for the blind in this
Institution than in all England * * * having obtained the sanction
of the American and Massachusetts Bible Societies, the Ame-
rican Tract Society, &c. I have printed an abridgement of Mur-
ray's Grammar, a Spelling Book, a Hymn Book, The Dairy-
man's Daughter, Baxter's Call, The Pilgrim's Progress, Child's
First Book, second ditto, and last, not least, the entire New
Testament !

"I have now in the press a Geography, and shall continue as
long as I have health and the means to operate with.

**' With regard to any funds to be applied by your Society, I
would earnestly recommend, and in the name of the blind im-
plore, that they may be upon works which have not yet been
printed for them, or which they cannot obtain for a long time.
Their hooks must he few and the same work should not be print-
ed in different places, but different books, so that exchanges may
be made; for instance, if you could send us fifty copies of the
Psalms or* * *,we could send you fifty of the Acts or the Evan-
gelists * * *. We should like very much to print an edition of
the Psalms of David, say five hundred copies, for the use of the
blind of England and of this country : the expense would pro-
bably be from 225/. to 250/. if done up in the best and most du-
rable stylef . Perhaps it would be more extensively useful to print
them on our medium type, that is a size between the large type

* This is much against the use of arbitrary alphabets.

t The Committee have voted 150/. and are to receive fifty or a hundred
copies.

REPORT ON THE MODES OP PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 93

on the title page of the Testament and the small type of the
same.

" If the British and Foreign Bible Society would undertake
to appropriate funds for this purpose, and present to the blind
of England and this country an edition of the Psalms, it would
confer happiness and a blessing upon many.

"P.S. November 24. Our Geography is finished, and our
press is now throwing off an edition of ' The Sixpenny Glass of
Wine,' printed at the expense of the American Sunday School
Union.

" I hope your Society will allow us to send you the Psalms ;
it would make one snug volume and be finished in four weeks."

In April 1832 the committee of the Society for the Encourage-
ment of the useful Arts in Scotland, presented their report upon a
method of printing for the blind invented by Mr. Hay of Edin-
burgh, and in consequence of their recommendation the So-
ciety, in the following year, offered their gold medal, value 201.,
" for the best communication on a method of printing for the
use of the blind." The authors of the communications were re-
quired to " investigate what form and size of the letters or cha-
racters, and what number of those should be adopted, with a
view to constructing a general alphabet for the blind in Great
Britain and Ireland ; and secondly, the best and cheapest me-
thods of printing such letters or characters in relief, so as to
render them most easily and accurately distinguishable by the
touch."

In consequence of this notice, communications with printed
and written specimens of alphabets, types, &c. were received by
the Society.

For Competition. From Mr. Alexander Hay of Edinburgh ;
Mr. J. P. Walker, Glasgow ; Miss M. Banks, Edinburgh ; Mr.
Mungo Ponton, Edinburgh; Mr. John Henderson, Edinburgh;
Mr. John Richardson, Edinburgh ; Rev. Edw. Craig, Edin-
burgh ; Mr. James Gall, Edinburgh ; Dr. Edmund Fry, lion-
don ; Mr. Richard Eaton, Coventry ; Mr. D. Macpherson, Edin-
burgh ; Mr. John Lothian, Edinburgh ; Mr. Robert Milne,
Edinburgh ; Mr. John Johnstone, Glasgow ; Mr. J. Jones,
Bishop Wearmouth.

Not for Competition. From Lady C. Erskine, Edinburgh,
two letters on the subject, but no alphabet; Mr. D. Vallance,
Lanarkshire, method of teaching the blind to read ; Dr. R. K.
Greville, Edinburgh, alphabet; J. Simpson, Esq., advocate,
Edinburgh, alphabet.

A Committee was appointed by the Society to consider and
report upon these several communications. — Now as " twelve of

94 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

these proposed alphabets were composed entirely of arbitrary-
symbols, while three were merely modifications of the ordinary
Roman and Italic characters, the first question that presented
itself for their consideration" was whether some modification of
the ordinary Roman or Italic alphabets in common use, or an
entirely new arbitrary character, would be best adapted for the
use of the blind generally throughout the kingdom ? This
was a question of considerable difficulty, especially at that time,
when so few experiments had been made upon the subject. The
Committee however, in their Report of 1832, gave their opinion
in favour of an arbitrary character. Since that time Mr. Gall
published a little work, which seemed to show that his alphabet*
was more legible by the touch and possessed greater advantages
than any of the others. This increased the difficulty the Society
had to contend with, and induced them to take the opinion of
various persons experienced in the education of the blind. Con-
sequently the whole of the communications were sent to various
persons, and (among others) to me, in the spring of 1835. Most
of these communications were exceedingly clever and interest-
ing!-. I read them with very close attention, and examined
minutely the various specimens; and in July following returned
them to Edinburgh, with a report stating what seemed to me
the advantages and disadvantages of each. This report the
Society soon after published, together with extracts from other
reports, as well as from the communications and fac-similes
of the various alphabets, and sent copies to the different insti-
tutions, &c.

Some years ago Mr. Lucas of Bristol contrived an alphabet
chiefly from short-hand characters, and in his books uses nume-
rous contractions or abbreviations, and thereby reduces the bulk
of the book very much, but increases the difficulty of making out
the words, &c.J Cm the 12th of February 1836 a public meet-

* Mr Gall's alphabet was composed of characters in some degree similar to
the Roman, or that generally used in printing ; but he excluded all curves and
circles, and formed his letters entirely of angles and straight lines.

j Many of these communications show great ingenuity and deep research in
their authors, and contain so much valuable matter relating to the general edu-
cation of the blind, that a publication of the whole or greatest part of them
would be productive of much good to those for whose benefit they were written.
But as this would be rather expensive (many of the communications being very
long) and as the Edinburgh Society of Arts has already done so much on this
subject, it is scarcely reasonable to expect that body to encounter so costly an
undertaking, unless they could, from some other source, be assisted in the fur-
therance of their praiseworthy exertions.

% Mr. Lucas uses a new system of spelling, employing only as many letters
as are sufficient to give the sound of the word ; thus, " adu for adieu," " ni for
nigh," " bote for bought," &c. He also uses one letter for several words, as " n

REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 95

ing was held in Bristol, when a Society was formed, and denomi-
nated " the Bristol Society for embossing and circulating the
authorized Version of the Bible for the use of the Blind."
Patron, the Lord Bishop of that Diocese; President, Lieu-
tenant-Gen. Orde.

Amongst other things it was then and there resolved, .1st.
" That the system of embossed characters invented by Mr. Lu-
cas for teaching the blind to read, is recommended by its sim-
plicity, and has been proved to be efficacious by several public
examinations of his pupils." 2nd. i( That a portion of the Holy
Scriptures be printed on this system of embossed characters as
soon as sufficient funds shall be collected to meet the expenses
of publication." 3rd. " That as it is the object of this meeting to
enable the blind to read the Holy Scriptures, the support of the
Bible Society, the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge,
and other Religious Societies be solicited in behalf of this So-
ciety."

When I attended the meeting of the British Association last
year at Bristol, I had the pleasure of seeing Mr. Lucas, and
witnessing two of his pupils, in the presence of several other
gentlemen, read portions of the Scriptures printed in his cha-
racters. But the mere reading from a book well known to the
pupil, in whatsoever character it might be printed, proves very
little, for blind children will generally learn with great ease al-
most any alphabet set before them ; therefore it is necessary to
compare the progress made with different alphabets, and to
consider the sum of the advantages possessed by each before it
can be determined which is the best*.

At that meeting I had the honour of being introduced to Dr.
Carpenter of that city, a gentleman who has evidently thought
much and long on this subject, and whose opinion and obser-
vations therefore cannot fail to be highly valuable. Dr. C. in
his able letter to W. Fraser, Esq., Secretary to the Edinburgh
Society of Arts, says, " I should, as Mr. Lucas does, employ

for into, under, &c." " x for example, exercise, &c." (see Explanation of his
system of printing for the blind.)

The numerous inconveniences arising from such a plan (unless adopted by
everybody, the seeing as well as the blind) are too obvious to need pointing
out, and of too much consequence not to he strictly guarded against. Mr.
Lucas has published the Gospel of St. John, and, notwithstanding all his nu-
merous contractions and abbreviations, it is very little less than the same
printed by Mr. Alston in Dr. Fry's type.

* Caution is necessary in making experiments on different alphabets. The
pupil may be interrupted in reading by holding his finger upon the word under
it at that instant ; and if upon asking him to name it, it was found that he had
pronounced words, in a part of the sentence at which his finger had not yet ar-
rived, this would show that he was reading from memory !

96 SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

the leading letters beginning words of frequent occurrence, for
the words themselves, as wh. for tvhich ; gl. for glory ; pi. for
pleasure, &c." This certainly would tend to lessen the bulk of
the book, but I think would not facilitate the reading ; for if
words, printed in full, can be made out by the first two letters,
the remaining ones need not be felt, but the finger passed on to
the next word. Besides, as so many of our words begin with
the same two or three letters, the length of the word, when
printed in full, would, at once, without feeling every single
letter, show, if a long word beginning with pi, that it was not
plan, plea, play, or any other short word, &c. and if short, that
it was not plausible, plurality, plenipotentiary, &c. It will
therefore be highly dangerous to make much use, if any, of ab-
breviations.

Feeling convinced that the letters recommended by Dr. Fry
were the only ones likely to be generally adopted, I ventured, in
the beginning of 1S36, to procure a quantity of type, cast from
his punches, by Messrs. Thoroughgood and Co., London, and
commenced printing for the use of the children in the Yorkshire
school for the blind, and the experiment was most satisfactory.
About the same time I found that Mr. Alston (treasurer to the
Asylum for the Blind at Glasgow), a gentleman whose zeal and
exertions in behalf of the blind must rank him among the best
friends of that portion of society, had begun to use types of the
same kind, only of a size between the two which I used. Soon
after many specimens were printed by Mr. Alston, and amongst
others the Book of Ruth, the Epistle of St. James, and the four
Gospels, &c.

A tew months ago the Society of Arts in Scotland awarded their
prize of a gold medal in favour of Dr. Fry's alphabet, but re-
commended the type to be fretted or roughened on the top to give
the letters a dotted appearance, and, as they think, to render
them more easily legible by the touch ; but of this I shall speak
hereafter. They also recommend printing upon both sides of
the paper.

A few years ago Mr. Gall published the Gospel of St. John
in his angular alphabet at 21s., and now the whole New Testa-
ment in Dr. Fry'salphabet is offered for about 32*. by Mr. Alston,
and I believe for less by Mr. Gall in his angular type. Such
is the state at present of printing in raised characters for the
use of the blind, at least as far as regards " letter-jjress."

Mathematics.

In mathematics very little has been done for the blind in the
way of books, but various methods have been contrived for teach-

REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 97

ing common arithmetic and algebra, some of which are very
simple and effective*. However, I shall not enter into a de-
scription of them here, as they can scarcely be said to form a
part of the subject of this report.

Some embossed mathematical diagrams have been printed both
in Germany and America, and I believe in France; and in the year
1828 1 published the diagrams of the first book of Euclid in an
embossed form ; but the expense of the copper plates, engraving,
&c. deterred me from going on with the work. At Boston, U.S.,
figures explanatory of mechanics, astronomy, &c, and some very
beautiful maps of large size, have been printed ; also some chro-
nological tables, &c. Globes and maps have long been made at
Paris, and I believe in Germany, by gluing threads upon the
lines, or pasting a second map over them ; but this cannot pro-
perly be called printing^.

Music.
Music has been much cultivated by the blind in general, and
several palpable modes have been invented to facilitate their
acquiring a knowledge of it. The French contrived a very in-
genious plan, which has been followed in other places. It is a
board, with raised lines and pierced full of holes, in which are
placed pegs of various shapes to represent the different notes.
The same kind of board is now used in the Yorkshire school, but
upon a very much smaller scale, having crooked pins for the notes
instead of clumsy wooden pegs, and saw-cuts across the board
in which to set bits of tin to represent the bars. For this im-
provement we are chiefly indebted to a blind gentleman of
YorkJ. I am informed that music has been printed from move-
able types in Germany, France and America, but I have seen
only a small specimen from the last-mentioned country. In the

* By help of one of the best of these my own private pupils (blind) have
soon acquired a sufficient knowledge of the elements of algebra to enable them
to solve quadratic equations with ease and readiness ; and one has gone still
further.

The pleasure they generally derive from working problems of this kind is
very great.

Geometry also, when taught them in a way suited to their peculiar circum-
stances, seldom fails to afford them great delight, but it must always be made
interesting to them or they soon despair of learning it.

f Since writing this I have received from Dr. Howe a copy of a book of
plates, or " Diagrams illustrating a compendium of Natural Philosophy for the
use of the Blind. Printed at the New England Institution for the Education of
the Blind, 1836."

The diagrams seem to be taken from blocks of wood engraved after the
manner of copper. The work is admirably got up, and is a very valuable ad-
dition to the books for the blind.

% W. D. Littledale, Esq.
vol. vi. 1837. H

98 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

beginning of this year I published a selection of Psalm tunes, in
an embossed form, printed from engraved pewter plates, using
the common form of notes, cliffs, time, &c, which are thus ren-
dered familiar to the blind, and enable them more easily to be-
come teachers of music to those who see. Thus I have given an
abstract of what I have been able to collect on this subject ;
but as I have not had an opportunity of visiting many of the
institutions abroad, it is probable that much has been done, in
the various branches here noticed, which has never yet come
under my observation, and of which I am totally ignorant.
A comparison between the advantages and disadvantages of the
common Roman and arbitrary Alphabets.

The great question " whether it is better to employ the com-
mon Roman letters or an arbitrary alphabet in printing for the
blind," has long engaged the attention of many who feel an in-
terest in this subject, and numerous and ingenious arguments
have been advanced on both sides.

It has been contended that an arbitrary alphabet maybe com-
posed of such characters as to possess greater characteristic
difference, be more legible by the touvh, and occupy less room,
and therefore be altogether better for the blind than that in
common use. This may be possible, but such an alphabet I have
never seen. There are two things to be considered in forming
a new alphabet before the shape of the letter or character be de-
termined upon, viz. whether it is better to have the usual num-
ber of characters, or to use a few and to give to each a variety
of positions to make up the difference.

It has also been contended by those who advocate arbitrary
characters, that giving a variety of positions to one character
reduces the number of forms, and must therefore be less bur-
densome to the memory. But as every neiv position does in
effect become a new form, or something new to be remembered,
the difference cannot be very great. Some persons hold that
angular characters are more legible by the touch than such as
are formed partly or altogether of curves ; and the contrary has
been held by others.

The Edinburgh Society of Arts have recommended (as before
stated) the fretted types, as being more easy to make out by the
touch ; but I tried four of the children in the York school with
specimens of Mr. Gall's characters both fretted and plain, and
they all said they liked the plain best as they could read it with
greater facility. The same w r as the result of Mr. Alston's experi-
ments at Glasgow, as communicated tome in a letter from him*.

* Mr. Alston has lately greatly improved the paper on which he prints, and
has also had some improvements made in a few of his letters.

REPORT ON THE MODES OP PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 99

Abbreviations and contractions have been strongly recom-
mended ; but if there is too much left to the imagination of
the reader, wrong impressions will be often formed, and false
ideas acquired ; and if a blind person has first to encounter a
difficulty, and afterwards to be left in doubt whether he is right
or not, he will very soon be discouraged, and lose all interest in
that which otherwise would afford him not only occupation and
amusement, but also delight and permanent advantage. Those
who advocate the use of the common alphabet contend that it
has not been proved to be less legible by the touch, or to require
more space than others of the same sized letters or type, but
evidently possesses many advantages over an arbitrary one ;
amongst others, " it associates" (as Mr. Craig, one of the compe-
titors for the Edinburgh medal, says) " the blind in their literary
pursuits more closely with other men, and secures to them from
all quarters an aid which they might not otherwise readily attain."
With spelling and other elementary books printed in the com-
mon character, they can attend with great benefit any school
with other children, and with them learn their lessons, and
from them obtain the aid for which one scholar is usually in-
debted to another. Moreover they may be taught at home by
their parents, long before they are old enough to be trusted
amongst a number of frolicksome seeing companions. These
and many other advantages are incompatible with an arbitrary
alphabet. In favour of the alphabet in common use it may be
stated, that it has been employed by the French, the Americans,
Germans, &c, though varying a little in some particulars from
ours. The books printed at Boston are without capitals, but
the French use both capitals and small letters, so also do the
Germans, but they employ the Italian characters. Klein (Direct-
or of the Institution for the Blind at Vienna, in his most excel-
lent book Lehrbuch zum Unterrichte der JB linden-, page 65) says,
" Die Form der lateinischen Buchstaben ist am leichtesten durchs
Gefiihl zu lesen, daher wahle man diese Schrift zum Lesen und
Schreiben fur Blinde. Einige Buchstaben miissen auch in dieser
Schrift noch mehr vereinfacht werden, so wie auch alle unwesent-
liche, bloss zurVerzierung dienende Zuga und Striche wegbleiben
miissen.*" Thus it seems from so many nations adopting an
alphabet well known among them, that the general opinion is
decidedly against an arbitrary character.

Klein in his preface to the above book allows it to be possible

* Translation. The form of the Latin or Italian letters is the easiest to read
by the touch, on which account they are to be chosen in which to print and
write for the blind. But some of these letters, even, must be simplified and
deprived of all useless ornaments, fyc.

100 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

that characters may be contrived more simple, and in some re-
spects easier to read by the touch, yet he considers the common
alphabet the best; and in teaching the blind employs the usual
mode of instructing seeing children as far as possible ; for as
long as the blind must live and mix with those who see, it is
most desirable to connect the two together both in their educa-
tion and pursuits ; for by so doing that unfortunate class will be
spared many a painful reflection on their condition, and escape
the bitterness of an unfavourable comparison with their more
fortunate brethren*. Besides blind persons may with a pencil or
tracing paper write letters to their friends, and their friends may
write to them by means of a stile or other blunt point, placing
the paper upon something soft so that the letters may be raised
on the other side ; but this advantage, gratifying in the highest
degree to the blind when they are able to practise it, would be
greatly diminished, if not altogether destroyed, by the use of an
arbitrary alphabet ; for then no one could correspond with them
who had not learnt their system.

Furthermore, the blind often become scientific men or poets,
and probably from the improved methods of conveying instruc-
tions to them, this may in future more frequently happen. How
delightful then to correspond with others or to record their own
thoughts by means of an alphabet generally understood ! Mr.
Alston, in one of his communications to me, states the great de-
light his pupils enjoyed (who had learnt the common alphabet)
in going into the churchyards and reading the grave-stones, &c.

Arbitrary alphabets are more liable to errors of the press than
the common, and less likely to be detected on account of their
not being so familiar to the printer, &c, so that the blind are
thereby exposed to the danger of being misled, and of acquiring
erroneous notions, which in many cases might be of serious
consequence.

Assuming the reasons in favour of using the common alpha-
bet to be satisfactory, it would appear that the Roman Capitals,

* " Daher habe ich getrachtet, so weit es nur moglich war, die gewbhnlichen
Unterrichts- und Hulfs-mittel wie man sie fiir sehende Kinder gebrauchet, auch
fur die Blinden beyzubehalten, um diesen desto leichter Lehrer zu verschaffen,
die sicb durch neue Lebrmittel, in welcbe sie sich selbst erst einstudieren
miissen, vielleicht hatten abscbrecken lassen. Dieses bestimmte meine Wahl
fiir die gewohnlichen Buchstaben, obgleich nicht zulaugnen ist, dass die von
Hrn Wolke und von andern vorgeschlagenen eiufacben, der Telegrafen-Schrift
ahnliche zeichen zur fiihlbaren Schri ft leichter sind. So lang der Blinde mit und
unter Sebenden lebt, muss man suchen, ihn in seinem eigenen Benehmen und in
der Behandlung, so viel es nur moglich ist, den Sehenden ndher zu bringen,
um ihm manchem Anstoss und mauche schmerzhafte Erinnerung an seinem
Zustand zu ersparen."

REPORT ON THE MODES OF PRINTING FOR THE BLIND. 101

as recommended by the late Dr. Fry, and now employed by
Mr. Alston, offer the greatest advantages*. Being all of one
height they form a regular line in the page, so that there is
no danger of the finger of the blind reader straying into the
line either above or below ; an evil, which in many of the
arbitrary alphabets would frequently occur, and which raises
a very formidable objection to them f. For if blind persons get
puzzled or be led into error by reading, they will have no con-
fidence in what they do, and will therefore never feel any pleasure
or interest in reading, but take it up as a school boy does his
task. This among other things renders it necessary to be very
cautious, lest in attempting to reduce too much the bulk of the
books for the blind it be carried so far as to frustrate the object, by
making a book difficult to be read, and therefore useless to ninety-
nine out of a hundred of those for whose benefit it was intended.
It may not be amiss to observe that when an alphabet or
specimen of printing is submitted to the blind in any institu-
tion for experiment, a few of the cleverest children, whose
touch is delicate and acute, are selected to make the trial, and
because these can easily make out what is submitted to them
the experiment is thought to have been fairly made. Whereas
the greatest proportion of blind persons will always be found
amongst those who have to earn their living by manual labour,
which blunts their touch and renders them incapable of reading
a small-sized letter.

Besides, as the literature for the blind can never be very ex-
tensive, the grand aim should be to print chiefly such books as
are most necessary ; for example, the New Testament, parts of
the Old, Catechisms, Hymns, Moral Tales, Spelling Books, Easy
Lessons, Fables, &c, and in a type sufficiently large to be easily
read by the average, at least, of the blind. A " large book "
surely cannot be a " greater evil " than one too small to be read,
and therefore useless. The Gospels printed upon the plan of
White's Diatessaron would probably be a valuable addition to
the books for the blind, as the substance of the four Evangelists
would then be comprised in the smallest room possible.

At present there is great excitement on this subject and much

* As the small letter or "lower case " is in use among the seeing, it perhaps
would be well to have a few books printed with that type for the blind ; but if
the letters are some to go above and some below the lines, as in the b, d, g, y,
&c, the bulk of the book must necessarily be a little increased, as the lines
must not come so near each other that the tops in one line may interfere with
the tails of those in the line above.

f Besides, if capitals to begin proper names, &c. be used (which in my opinion
would be of essential service,) the same form of letter will serve if made a little
larger.

'02 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

praiseworthy zeal in operation to further it; and, as opinions vary,
many books are printed, in different alphabets or characters, for
the use of the blind, each author contending that his plan must be
the best. But this contention will soon cease, as some one system
will be shown, by the preference of the blind themselves, to be
decidedly superior, and all the others will be laid aside ; for the
blind will, when left to their own choice, use only that which
they can read with the greatest facility and satisfaction.

From what is here stated it seems that the alphabet best adapted
for the use of the blind is not that which possesses superiority in
some one particular, but that which is superior as a whole —
that which offers the greatest sum of advantages. Now, pro-
bably, this may not be the one which occupies the least space,
for the bulk of the book is of much less importance than the ease
with which its contents can be perused. Furthermore, as the
object is general communication, the alphabet in common use
must afford advantages which are incompatible with an arbitrary
one ; for should a blind person become deaf, the only means of
communicating with him would be by printing in raised letters,
or by writing with the finger upon his head, back, &c. ; and in
such a case how limited would be his intercourse with others,
if he had only learnt an arbitrary alphabet, compared with what
it would have been had he been taught the one in common use !
In the former case only very few could understand him, or be
understood by him ; while in the latter almost every one could
communicate to him some intelligence of what was going on'
around him, and thereby contribute in no small degree to alle-
viate the weight of his misfortune, and enliven the dreary gloom
which must perpetually hang over his existence.

Account of the discussions of Observations of the Tides which
have been obtained by means of the grant of money ivhich
was placed at the disposal of the Author for that purpose at
the last Meeting of the Association. By J. W. Lubbock,
Esq.,F.R.S.

At the last meeting of the Association held at Bristol I had the
honour to communicate the results which I had then obtained ;
I now wish to explain the manner in which the last grant of
money which was placed at my disposal by the Association has
been employed.

1. I have engaged Mr. Jones to discuss 13,391 observations
of the tides made in this place during nineteen years by Mr.
Hutchinson, with reference to a previous transit, or that which
precedes the time of high water by about 48 hours. These ob-
servations are in the possession of the Lyceum at Liverpool, and
they were granted with great kindness by the Committee of
that Institution for the purpose of this inquiry.

2. I have engaged Mr. Russell to extend the former discus-
sion of the London Dock observations, by employing all the
observations made from the 1st of September, 1801, to the 31st
August, 1836, or 24,592 observations. Tables have been
formed in precisely the same manner as those already sub-
mitted to the Section at the meeting at Bristol. In some in-
stances* irregularities have, in consequence of the additional
number of observations, been eliminated, but altogether the
agreement with the averages of nineteen years only (13,370
observations) is much closer than I had anticipated.

3. I have also engaged Mr. Russell to examine carefully the
establishment and average height of high water, in order to
ascertain the fluctuations to which these quantities are subject.

Mr. Russell and Mr. Jones have spared no pains in order to
render the final results as accurate as the nature of the subject
would permit, and I consider myself particularly fortunate in
having been able to procure their assistance in these most la-
borious calculations f.

Even minute discrepancies between the results afforded by
the Liverpool and London observations become interesting and

* See the calendar month inequality in the interval for January, the moon's
parallax inequality in the height for parallax 56', &c.

t The author placed hefore the Section the MS. books containing the de-
tails of the work.

104

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

deserve elucidation, particularly that in the parallax inequality
for the interval to which I shall now briefly advert.

Whatever may be the law of the moon's parallax inequality,
we may certainly conclude that it is proportional to the difference
of the parallax from 57' (or to 8P) ; hence all the averages em-
ployed to afford the inequality for H.P. 56', 57', 58', &c, may
be combined according to a method which I explained, Phil.
Trans., 1836, p. 225. Mr. Russell has in this manner combined
all the results afforded by the 13,391 Liverpool observations,
and also those afforded by the 24,592 London observations, so
as to produce for each place the inequality in the interval and
height for H. P. 54'. Hence the Liverpool quantities which are
given in the following table may be considered as the average of
more than 1000 observations, and the London quantities as the
average of more than 2000 observations.

Table showing the moon's parallax inequality in the interval
and in the height for H.P. 54', as deduced from theory and
observation at London and Liverpool *.

Moon's

Transit

Interval.

Height.

Theory.

Observation.

Theory.

Observation.

Liverpool

London.

Liverpool

London.

h m

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

- 1-0
-3-0
-5-3
-7-4

- 8-3
-4-0
+ 4-0
+ 8-3
+ 7-4
+ 5-3
+ 30
+ 1-0

- 0-4
-2-6
-61
-7-0

-7-7
-46
+ 3-4
+ 7-5
+ 7-0
+ 5-6
+ 2-4
+ 1-1

- 3-9

ft.
-116
-114
-111
-1-09
-110
-115
-1-15
-1-10
-109
-111
-114
-116

ft.

-1-23
-117
-1-11
-1-18
-1-21
-1-44
-1-35
-1-21
-113
-107
-117
-1-22

ft.

-0-95

- 4-6

-1-09
-1-07

- 7-8

-12-9

-1-32

-15-6

-1-35

-15-0

-1-67

- 8-1

-1-60

- 11

-1-38

+ 1'3

-114

+ 1-6

-104

+ 0-3

-102

- 1-3

-0-93

* I have given a table similar to this in the Companion to the British Al-
manac for 1838 ; but the argument of that table is the moon's transit B.

REPORT ON THE TIDES. 105

In the above columns headed " Observation" the irregulari-
ties have been destroyed in the manner explained by me in the
Bakerian Lecture, Phil. Trans., 1836, p. 225. The quantities
headed " London" have been reduced to transit A by means
of certain tables also given in that paper, to which I shall again
have occasion to allude. The London height inequality has
been multiplied by 1*758. The quantities headed " Theory" were
calculated by the Liverpool constants,

log {A) = 9-56965, log (E) = 0-87130.

The height is represented by the expression

D + (E) {{A) COS (2 1/r — 2 <J>) + COS 2 l/r},

in which <p denotes the moon's R. A. — sun's R. A. ty de-
notes the sidereal time — the moon's R. A.

I conceive that the best if not the only method of investi-
gating alterations in the height of the land above the water
in any given locality where the water is influenced by the tides,
will be to examine carefully whether any alteration has taken
place in the values of the constants D and {E) for that place,
the height of high water being of course always reckoned from
some fixed mark in the land.

The nature of the discrepancies between the London and Li
verpool results is better exhibited in the following diagrams,
where the quantities in the preceding tables have been laid down.
The London interval curve, although agreeing in form with the
Liverpool interval curve, differs from it throughout by several
minutes. This difference seems to be very remarkable. The
height curves agree closely, showing that the height inequality
varies as the quantity E, as I have supposed. Laplace says
" Elles [les marees] augmentent et diminuent avec le diametre
et le parallaxe lunaire, mais dans un plus grand rapport •" but
the diagram in the preceding page appears to confirm the truth
of this passage only at neap tides.

10(5

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-
Scale of 1 foot.

/ /*
/ f

S / 1 '•■

Scale of 10 minutes.

REPORT ON THE TIDES.

107

The inequalities due to the declination of both luminaries are
so mixed up together that it is impossible to treat them in the
same manner.

The succeeding transits of the moon being denoted by the
letters A, B, C, D, E, F ; and F being the time of the moon's
transit which immediately precedes the time of high water at
London, the discussion of the 24,592 London observations has
been made with reference to transit B, I intended the transit
B also to be used by Mr. Jones in the discussion of the Liverpool
observations, but when the work was much advanced I found that
Mr. Jones had employed the transit A. However, the tables
which I gave in a former paper (Bakerian Lecture, 1836) offer
the means of easily transferring the argument from one transit
to another. It appears from these tables that the interval be-
tween successive transits may be considered constant with re-
ference to the age of the moon or time of transit, and depending
only upon the parallax and declination. Hence the following
table is sufficient.

Table showing the interval between the moon's transit and the
next succeeding, with a given moon's parallax and declina-
tion.

Moon's Parallax.

54'

55'

56'

57'

58'

59'

60'

61'

22-6

m
23-2

241

251

m
261

271

28-0

29-0

Moon's Declination.

0°

3°

6°

9°

12*

15°

18°

21°

24°

27°

23-2

23-3

23-5

23-8

m
24-3

24-9

25-6

26-3

27-1

279

By means of this table Mr. Russell transferred the quantities
furnished by the London calendar month inequality from transit
B to transit A, so as to become immediately comparable with
Mr. Jones's Liverpool quantities.

]08

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Table showing a comparison between the calendar month in-
equality in the interval as deduced from theory, and from ob-
servations at London and Liverpool.

i-a

2 §

— 3
c

January.

February.

March.

His

c- o

C
O

c
o
•a
c
o
►J

o
H

1
>

•a
c
o

h ra

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

111

-2-3

m
27

m
-0-8

h m
0.

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

-0-2

-2-4

+0-9

[-0,
-0-6

+0-3
+M

-17

1-8

-1-6

+0-5

-0-2

+0-2

+0-5

+0-3

-17

+1-9

+0-9

+0-4

+2-9

-1-9

+1-1

+2-9

-0-4

-4-2

+3-3

+1-8

0-0

+ 1-0

-4-5

-09

+3-5

-0-2

-4-8

+3-4

+3-1

-17

+2-3

-7-2

-21

i-3-0

-2-3

-5-6

+1-3

+09

-1-9

+ 1-2

-3-9

-20

-1-6

+ 1-5

+ 1-9

-0-5

-21

+2-8

+4-2

+27

0-0

+4-6

+8-2

+0-7

+1-1

+6-3

+3-6

+7-9

+4-0

+10

+5-2

+6-0
+6-3

+21

+ 1-8

+6-4

+3-0

+6-1

+2-6

+ 1-8

+ 1-5

+2-4

+2-0

+4-2

+1-5

+2-5

-0-5

+0-1

-11

-2-8

+ 1-3

-0-2

+17

-0-9

+0-9

-0-7

-3-0

-30

-10

+0-5

+0-1

+0-3

-0-6

+0-1

-0-3

April.

May.

June.

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

+ 0-8

....

+0-2

-07

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10
10 30

+0-3

+0-1

+0-3

-17

+0-6

+ 1-2
-10

+0-8

-0-8

+0-2

-0-2

-0-9

+ 1-0

-6-8

-1-3

+ 1-5

-2-8

-1-5

-0-7

-0-5

+2-5

-01

-3-6

-2-4

+20

-4-6

-3-3

-0-4

-2-5

+5-5

+ 1-4

-5-2

-0-2

+ 6-4

-5-8

-2-7

+07

-1-6

+77

+3-9

-1-3

+2-1

-2-4

-0-9

+ 1-6

+0-4

+41

+2-0

+ 1-5

+1-2

-0-4

+ 1-7

-11

-21

-1-5

-4-1

-2-6

+2-0

-4-2

-5-9
-67'

+ 1-5

-5-7

-40

-8-5

-4-2

0-0

-4-9

-0-5

- 10

-5-8

-4-4

-67

-2-4

-1-8

-2-5

-2-9

-1-2

-1-3

-4-0

-21

-3-6

-0-3

-0-9

-07

-2-1

-0-8

-1-9

-1-5

+0-2

-21

+0-6

-6-4

-0-2

-03

+0-4

0-3

+0'4 !

11 30

REPORT ON THE TIDES.

Table — continued.

109

1 !«

July.

August.

September.

'£ c

a
o

►5

■a
s
o

•a

c
o

1-1

h m

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

m
-01

m
+2-2

+0-1

m
+ 11

+2-2

h in

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

+0-4

+1-0

+0-3

+1-7

+ 1-2

+ 1-3

+1-8

+1-9

+1-2

+ 1-4

+2-1

+0-1

+ 1-4

+3-2

+4-0

+ 1-4

+4-5

+1-3

+2-3

+2-2

-0-6

+1-0

+6-3

+37
+4'-5"

+1-2

+7-3

+5-0

+2-9

+3-2

-3-0

-0-6

+8-1

-41

+ 7-7

+5-5

+2-1

+17

-5-0

-2-1

+8-3

+ 3-6

-5-2

+3-4

+3-1

-0-2

+0-6

-3-0

-2-5

+3-6

+3-5

+4-1

-2-7

-0-5

+ 1-3

+ 1-9

+3-3

+1-6

-1-4

+4-5

+8-5

-4-1

-0-6

+4-1

+31

+ 6-3

+3-1

+0-1

+6-2
+4-6

+7-0
'+4-2"

-1-9

+0-7

+3-6

+3-8

+4-6

+2-3

+ 15

-0-8

+2-9

+2-2

+2-3

+ 1-8

+0-8

+ 1-8

+2-3

+4-4

-0-3

-0-7

+0-5

-0-1

+0-3

-11

-0-3

+4-3

+2-8

-01

+ 1-2

0-0

-0-2

-0-1

0-2

October.

November.

December.

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

+2-4

+0-4

-1-6

1 30

2 30

3 30

4 30

5 30

6 30

7 30

8 30

9
9 30

10 30

11
11 30

-0-2

+0-1

-0-3

-0-4

-1-0

-0-4

-1-4

-2-6

-1-3

-0-9

-1-4

-1-1

-0-5

-21

-0-9

-2-6

-2-9
+ 0-8

-3-6

-3-3

-2-7

-2-5

+0-1

-1-6

-3-6
'-8-5

-2-6

-6-3

-3-0

-3-2

-3-1

+ 1-5

+ 1-0

-3-8

+2-1

-7-6

-3-7

-2-4

-3-5

+3-4

+ 1-4

-8-4

-2-6

0-0

-3-3

-3-4

-01

-10

+1-9

+1-0

-3-2

-3-4

-4-1

+2-6

-0-2

-0-6

-20

-2-3

+2-7

-61

-8-2

+3-8

+1-7

-2-6

-4-0

-4-3

-37

+1-9

-5-0

-8-0

+1-5

-0-2

-30

-31

-27

+0-3

-4-9

-27

+0-2

-0-7

-2-2

-4-6

-1-2

-0-6

+ 11

-17

-1-6

-01

-1-8

-0-7

-1-5

+0-1

-0-0

+2-0

-0,

-0-4

0-0

-0-5

-0-3

-01

+0-3

-0-5

1 10 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

In the Philosophical Transactions, 1837, Part I., we have
transferred the London quantities to transit A by merely shifting
them to the left half an hour, which suffices approximately.
Upon comparing in this manner the diurnal inequality at Liver-
pool and London, I find that it is extremely different ; for if we
examine the high water caused by the same tide at Liverpool
and London, we find that if a and h denote two successive
heights of high water at Liverpool, and a', V successive heights
at London, if a > b, then generally a' < b'. I do not think
that this circumstance was known previously, although Mr.
Whewell, in his examination of the Coast-guard observations,
noticed an anomaly of which the origin is similar.

It is remarkable that while at Liverpool the diurnal inequality
in the interval is almost inappreciable, at London it is well de-
fined.

The results seem to prove that semidiurnal inequalities in the
height are proportional to the quantity E, as might be expected
from theory. See Phil. Trans., 1836, p. 223.

If X, Y, Z denote the forces acting in the direction of the co-
ordinate axes upon the fluid particle of which the rectangular
coordinates are x, y, z, and if

dx d ii d z

M= d7' "7? ™ = d7'

d u d u d u d u

' dt dx dy dz

dv dv dv dv

dt dx dy dz

dw die dw dw

■ dt dx dy dz

then the differential equation to the surface of the fluid is

(X - u') dx + {Y -v') dy + {Z- iv') dz = 0.

See Trait e de Mecanique, by M. Poisson, vol. ii. p. 669.

If Q is a certain function of x, y, z, the coordinates of the
fluid molecule, and of x 1 , y', z', the coordinates of the centre of
the distant luminary,

.„ dQ, dQ, , , dQ, ,dQ, (l dQ. ,dQ ,
dQ = 5 — d# + -j—.d^'-f -j— dy +t— dy+ -r- d z + -r-, dz'
dx dx' dy * dy J dz dz'

,r, , ri rw ■, dQ, , dQ, , dQ, ■

= Xd.r + Ydy+ Z dz + - T —,dx' + ^-,di/'+ - A -j dz'.
* d x' o if cl sf

REPORT ON THE TIDES. 1 1 1

The equation to the fluid surface is therefore

d Q — ^ — ,dx' — u' dx — -: — rdy' — v'dy— -j— ,dz'— w'ds = 0.
dx' dy' * * dz'

Bernoulli's theory of the tides, or as it has heen aptly termed
by Mr. Whewell the equilibrium theory, rests upon the assump-
tion that the equation to the fluid surface is

d Q, = 0, or Q, = constant,

that is, it requires that the quantity

3 — ,dx' + u'dx + -i — idy' +v' dy + -r-rdz' + w' dz . . (A.)
dx' dy' * * dz' v '

may be neglected. It seems desirable that some attempt should
be made to investigate the nature of this quantity, in order to
show a priori that the quantity

u' dx + v ' d y + w' d z

may be disregarded. Having given the general equation to the
surface of the fluid, to find when the distance from the centre of
the earth is a maximum (or the time of high water) is not a diffi-
cult geometrical problem. In Bernoulli's theory, when the ex-
pression for the height is differentiated, in order to solve this
question in the usual way various quantities are treated as con-
stants which are not so strictly ; and in order to obtain a rigorous
solution, it would be necessary to substitute in the expression for
the height before differentiation, expressions for the longitude,
latitude, and distance of the luminary in terms of the time or
mean longitude.

The general equations of the motion of fluids referred to rec-
tangular coordinates are given by M. Poisson, Traite de Me-
canique, vol. ii. p. 669, and in other works.

1 dp „ d it du du du

§ d x~~ dt dx dy d z ' ' ' ■ v v

1 dp _ r dv dv dv dv ,_ '

-r- = Y-TT-«(j fi w j— (B.)

§ dy dt dx dy dz v

I dp „ dw dw div div ,_ .

g dz dt dx dy dz v/

|i + i^ + «Lii + ^ = o ( d.)

d t d x d y dz v '

112 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

Let x = r cos $ cos ju. y = r cos Q sin /x z = r sin <f>.

In the problem of the tides <p may represent geographical la-
titude, and fj. the sidereal time at the place. If

dr . d<p , dju.

J — _ a' —

F =

d* Y dr r dr

v d/2 v d/2 d/2

da; d y d z •

The general equations of motion referred to polar coordinates
are

d » d/2 dr' rd<p* 2j .dj«. 3

gdr d r d r d r dr

do d/2 r 2 d <J>' ^ d r d <f> . . A A d I* 9
g d <?> d 4> d # d £ d £ x d r-

d« d/2 2 o A <V drdjx

-f- = -j r 2 cos 9 <f> -j4 — 2 r cos- <{> -r- -?-.

idit d m. d £ x d r d £

q CljU. Q ft

a . ditdu

— 2 ?- 2 3in <J> cos $ -j— -3— .

di d/

If 1* = n t + 9,

and if we neglect the quantities of the second order
d<J>dfl d_^

d7dT' d* 8 '*

d» d/2 dr' 2 . _ 2 d

— ±- = -; -. w r cos 2 <p — 2n r 3 cos 2 <f> 3—

qdr dr dt dr

—£- = - r*-5 w 9 ?' 2 sin <fc cos <fc — 2 w r 2 sin <t> cos $ 3-;

pd<p d<p dt dt

— -i— = -j r z cos' 1 <J> -j- — 2nr cos -1 <£ -r-

gdft dju. d£ T d£

o • d <f>

— 2 n r 2 sin $ cos <f> -r— ,

and the equation to the surface will be

J" d/2 dr' _ 2a o 2 2 A d 0"\ ,

^ — 5— — n- r cos- <p — 2n r l cos^ $ -j-r r a r

Ldr d^ at J

REPORT ON THE TIDES. 113

+ f^ - r *^' -n*r* sin <p cos <p -2 nr*sm<p cos Q-^A-dQ

Cdn , 9 d0' . z^dr

+ 1 -. r 2 cos 9 $j7-2nr cos 2 <p -r-,

\d\i. Qf di

di>~\
— 2 w r 2 sin <f> cos <J> -7^ > d /* = 0,

which is in accordance with Laplace's equation, M4c. C&., vol. i.
p. 98. The remaining equations are to be deduced from the
invariability of the mass of the element d m.
The elementary parallelopiped

r 2 cos 4> d r d <p d p.
is bounded by the sides

MA = dr, MB=rd$, M C = r cos <p d/*,
the coordinates of the point M being r, <p, p,

A — r + d r, <p, jx

B — r, $ + d $, \l

C — r, $, ju. + d/*.

By reasoning similar to that employed in the Traitt de M4-
canique, vol. ii. p. 671, the following equation may be obtained,
which is equivalent to a transformation of equation (D) :

dg d.gr* d.g$' d.gp/ 2§r' sin?

dt^~ dr ~*~ d<p ^ dp r p cos<f> T '

* +S \dr + d<J> + dp + r cos$ 9 J

For incompressible fluids, when the effect of changes of
temperature is neglected, g' = separately, and

dr' dip' djt' 2r| _ sin <j> , _
dr d<J> djK. r cos $ ~ '

which equation agrees with that given by Laplace, M4c. C4l. t
vol. i. p. 101.

If t denote the temperature, Fourier has shown that

dj d.ur d.vr d .wt _ K f d e t d 2 t d 9 t ~\ ,„ >
dl + ~dF + ~d]T + ~dF~ ~ C id^ 2 + dP + dT 9 J l '

and if e denote the temperature which corresponds to a given
temperature b,

VOL. vi. 1837. 1

1]4 SEVENTH REPORT — 183J\

§=e{\ + h(r-b)} (F.)

K, C, and h being constants. Me'moires de I'Institut, vol. xiii,
p. 519. When the temperature varies, the two last equations
supply the place of the equation p' = 0.

The left hand side of the equation (E.) is of the same form as
equation (D.), p. 25 ; hence by the help of a known transform-
ation it is easy to transform equation (E.) to polar coordinates,
and we obtain

K ftf.rr

C r < d r 2 r 2 cos 9 <p

/ d 2 .rr \
V d^ 2 )

/ d.cos»^y \

| (E.)

r' z cos 2 <J>

The general equations of the motion of fluids have not yet
been successfully applied to problems even of less difficulty than
♦hat of the tides, which is complicated by the irregular shape of
the channel in which the tide-wave travels, and by the resist-
ance which it meets with in its passage. An improvement, how-
ever, of theory as regards single observations, or for the purpose
of prediction, is scarcely wanted, except as regards the fluc-
tuations of the establishment, on account partly of the inevitable
difficulty attendant upon observations of the time and height of
high water, and partly on account of the derangement produced
by causes which are at present far beyond the reach of analysis,
such as winds and the varying atmospheric pressure. But when
the averages of numerous observations are employed, it is evi-
dent that in the instance which I have adduced p. 20, and per-
haps also in some others, the equilibrium theory appears at
least to be insufficient. Its general agreement with the pheno-
mena, to which I have adverted on former occasions, is extremely
remarkable, and the merit of Bernoulli's investigation does not
seem to have been sufficiently appreciated. But whether or not
Bernoulli's theory may soon receive improvement, at all events
the approximation is generally so close that I have thought it
desirable constantly to compare the results afforded by the ob-
servations with those deduced from his expressions. More-
over, the results given in the tables have been laid down in dia-
grams, by which means their relation to each other and to theory
is better perceived. The advantages of this method, of which

REPORT ON THE TIDES. 115

remarkable instances might be adduced *, have long been felt,
but there can be little doubt that its more general application
to questions depending for their illustration upon extensive series
of irregular numbers, particularly those of meteorology and sta-
tistics (such as variations in prices, in the population, &c), would
greatly assist in developing relations at present obscure.

It appears from our examination that the establishment and
mean height of high water are liable to slight fluctuations, which
baffle at present our attempts to obtain extreme accuracy in tide
predictions. This subject seems to deserve attention.

I have now endeavoured briefly to advert to those parts of
the subject which appear to require further elucidation, in the
hope that they may attract the attention of those whose command
of analysis may enable them to remove the difficulties which still
remain to be surmounted, and I have mentioned some of the
facts which appear to me to result from these laborious calcula-
tions, which never could have been undertaken but for the interest
which has been felt in the subject by some of the most distin-
guished members of the Association, particularly byMr.Whewell,
and but for the pecuniary grants which have at different times
been devoted to this object. I hope that when the results are
carefully examined which have been published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions, they will not be found disproportionate in
value to the great labour and expense which has been required
for their attainment.

I have lately received, through the kindness of M. Arago, the
printed Brest Tide Observations from January, 1807, up to the
end of December, 1835. It now therefore remains to be consi-
dered whether by pursuing further this inquiry in the same
manner other important facts can be elicited from the Brest ob-
servations. I was formerly extremely anxious to obtain access
to these observations : first, because I understood that they weref
in print ; secondly, because the tide there is single ; thirdly, on
account of the classical interest which attaches to these obser-
vations, from being the foundation of the remarks connected
with this subject by Laplace in the Mecanique Celeste ; and
fourthly, because the Brest observations extend throughout the
same period as those made at the London Docks, which we have
employed in our former discussion, Bakerian Lecture, 1836.
But I am not inclined to think that a discussion of the Brest
observations would now lead to results presenting any important

* E.g. Sir J. Herschel's determination of the orbits of double stars.

f We have felt great inconvenience in employing MS. observations ; more-
over, if the observations which we used were inprint, greater facilities would
exist for verifying our results.

I 2

116

SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

feature differing essentially from those which are afforded by the
discussions which I have already completed of the London and
Liverpool observations. But it would certainly be desirable to
determine the semi-menstrual inequality in the height at Brest,
that is, the constants D and E ; this may be done from a year's
observations. I determined some time since the semi-menstrual
inequality in the interval for that place. See Phil. Trans. As
the Brest observations extend throughout the same time as those
of the London Docks which we have employed, the same tides
might be discussed, and thus the influence of local circumstances
and the resistances which the tide meets with in its progress from
Brest to London might be clearly ascertained. I confess, how-
ever, I am not sanguine that any advantage would now be gained
sufficient to compensate for the great labour and expense which
the discussion would require.

The explanation of the Starts used in
this Chart, is contained in pages 42 &r4S.

i ■

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^r^

' r ^\_

^ 7:

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r^T.^\

\;;C2^

x --..

■>__£2 -

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°J

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i ^--5

q. c~ /

V \ /

^•^r^v~^

\. \

\. //*

m %L

iS^ 1.6 rC

ISO* ll«N

\ \$

'^^ff

/rv Ml

^ / l*^\

*X«B

^s' / ^

atey's \

%i v**\

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k*?*\. \

—

/^x^^

'7 /"' \

\"y^y

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-hr^

- \£^~^

<T7 \ °^

North POL in c ii in r e.vhibi

lir exhibiting the Observations of MAGNETIC I.\ti:a

r/iil>ihiu/ the, unequal distribution

MA '' "' W0RM ■<"'■'-' """ "'"'"'■'■"'■" >-"'''■ *" ** "'"' "'■■ -> ' °> > * »0'B oi ,,■,,,,„, ,,.,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,, „„„,,/,..„,,,„ „,,„.

MAGNETIC /.I TENSITYin the tm> //,„„,,,/,,,

<? &

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■ $

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\ '

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II \

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T1 r

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. . T-

COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 117

On the difference between the Composition of Cast Iron pro-
duced by the Cold and the Hot Blast. By Thomas Thomson,
M.D., F.R.S., L. & E., fyc, Professor of Chemistry, Glas-
gow.

At the meeting of the Association last year in Bristol, consider-
able difference of opinion was entertained respecting the ad-
vantages said to be obtained by heating the air before it is in-
troduced into the furnaces in which iron is smelted, and it was
finally admitted by all parties that the only unexceptionable
mode of determining the question would be to institute a set of
experiments to determine the relative qualities of hot and cold
blast iron, and to make a comparative set of analyses of each
sort in order to determine whether any, and what, differences
exist in their chemical composition. Messrs. Hodgkinson
and Fairbairn, of Manchester, undertook to make a compara-
tive set of experiments on each sort, and Mr. Fairbairn stated
the result of their experiments in the mechanical section of the
Association. A committee was appointed by the chemical sec-
tion to investigate the chemical composition of hot and cold
blast iron. I had the honour of being named one of the mem-
bers of that committee. I have accordingly made a certain
number of analyses, and my object in this paper is to state the
results which I have obtained. I do not know what has been
done by the other members of the committee ; I was at too
great a distance from all of them to enable us to operate to-
gether ; I therefore take it for granted that the object in view,
when individuals living at such distances from each other were
named together, was that each individual should make experi-
ments on the iron made in his neighbourhood; and that the
section, by comparing together all the results, might have it in
their power to come to a proper conclusion respecting this most
important subject.

A great deal of cast iron, and a considerable quantity of bar
iron is now made in the neighbourhood of Glasgow. Probably
the amount last year was not far short of 200,000 tons. It is
well known that Glasgow is surrounded by one of the richest
coal-fields in Britain. The coal is not only abundant, but of
excellent quality, and the iron ore fortunately exists in great
abundance, stratified or in nodules in the coal measures. The
ore is always a carbonate of iron, never absolutely pure, and
varying considerably in this respect even when we examine dif-

118 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

ferent specimens from the same bed. I have analyzed above
thirty specimens at different times, generally selected with some
care, as the object in view was to determine the average good-
ness of various beds of this ore, that the smelter might have it
in his power to choose the best for his purpose.

In general some notion may be formed of the goodness of the
ore by taking its specific gravity ; the heaviest samples being
the best. But this rule is not without exceptions ; the specific
gravity of some of the best specimens being diminished by an
admixture of coal. The specific gravity of pure crystallized
carbonate of iron is 3*829. Now the heaviest iron stone which
I have met with in the neighbourhood of Glasgow has a specific
gravity of 3*3801. It contains 83*85 per cent, of carbonate of
iron. The remaining 16*15 parts consist of carbonate of lime,
carbonate of magnesia, silica, alumina, and coal. A bed of iron
stone near Airdrie is known by the name of Mushet's black
band, because it was discovered by that gentleman, or at least
its value was first pointed out by him. It contains 85*44 per
cent, of carbonate of iron, which exceeds that from Crossbasket
above stated, yet its specific gravity is only 3*0553. It may be
worth while to state the composition of this black band, because
it will show the foreign bodies always present, in greater or
smaller quantity, in the clay iron stone of this district.

Carbonate of iron 85*44

Carbonate of lime 5*94

Carbonate of magnesia 3*71

Silica 1*40

Alumina 0*63

Peroxide of iron 0*23

Coaly matter 3*03—100*38

The quantity of silica and alumina in this particular band is
unusually small, amounting only to about 2 per cent. In some
specimens of clay iron stone which I have analyzed the alumina
and silica amounted to 45 per cent. Mushet's black band con-
tains no sensible traces of manganese. But in general that
metal may be discovered, though never in great quantity, in the
clay iron stone belonging to the Glasgow coal-field. There is
a bed of iron stone near Johnston, which contains 84 per cent,
of carbonate of iron ; but its lime and magnesia being very
small in amount, the silica and alumina together constitute
12'4 per cent, and the coaly matter 1^ per cent.

The lightest specimen of clay iron stone which I have met
with in the neighbourhood of Glasgow had a specific gravity of
2*285 owing to the great quantity of coal, no less than 21*71
per cent., with which it was mixed, Its constituents were

COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 119

Carbonate of iron 29*03

Carbonate of lime I" 52

Carbonate of magnesia 3*59

Coal 21*71

Silica 24-76

Alumina 2O-1O-100-71

If we abstract the coal, the carbonate of iron will amount to
37 per cent, of the ore. In another specimen of the same band
containing 5£ per cent, of coal, I found 62 per cent, of carbonate

of iron. i- ..: ,

It is remarkable that the proportion between the silica and
alumina in the two specimens was quite different. In the first
there were 12£ atoms silica to 9 atoms of alumina, and in the
second 12* atoms silica to 2 of alumina. This seems to show
that the clay in the clay iron stone does not owe its existence
to the decomposition of any mineral consisting of a definite
compound of silica and alumina.

The existence of these foreign bodies in the clay iron stone,
from which the cast iron subjected to analysis was derived, will
enable us to understand the source of certain substances from
which no cast iron hitherto examined is free. The ore, before
it is put into the furnace, is always roasted, which drives off the
carbonic acid from the carbonate of iron, and thus reduces the
weight of the ore, at an average, about 31 per cent.

It is also mixed with carbonate of lime, which has the well-
known property of fusing with clay into a liquid glass when
sufficiently heated. This removes the clay from the ore, and
enables the oxide of iron to come in contact with the ignited
coals, which reduce it to the metallic state. I subjected the
limestones used at most of the smelting houses round Glasgow
to a chemical analysis. I need not observe that none of them
was a pure carbonate of lime ; for even the most transparent
and colourless calcareous spar always contains a sensible quan-
tity of foreign matter. The purest limestone I met with con-
tained 94-6 per cent, of carbonate of lime. The foreign matter
in all was silica, alumina, and peroxide of iron. In one only I
found carbonate of magnesia, to the amount of 2 per cent., and
in none could I detect the presence of manganese.

The coal used for fuel leaves, when incinerated, from 1 to 10 per
cent of ashes. They are composed chiefly of silica, alumina,
and oxide of iron. Coal is seldom quite free from iron pyrites.
This enables us to account for the presence of minute quantities
of sulphur in some of the specimens of cast iron analyzed.

When the Clyde iron works were established, about 50 years
ago, to obtain 1 ton of cast iron ten tons of coals were required.
This coal was previously converted into coke, by which process

120 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

it lost rather more than half its weight. The matter driven off
by coking constituted in fact a most important part of the fuel,
being the substances now well known under the names of coal-
gas and naphtha. By diminishing the force with which the air
was driven into the furnace, and by taking care that this air should
be dry instead of moist, (in consequence of the water pressure
originally employed,) and by some other minor improvements,
the consumption of coals was reduced from 10 to 8 tons, or
rather to 7 tons 13 cwt. for the production of one ton of cast iron.
The quantity of limestone employed for smelting a ton of
cast iron was 10^ cwt.

In the year 1833, when the mode of heating the air was
brought to a state of tolerable perfection, and when the tempe-
rature of the air introduced was considerably above 607°, as it
melted lead at the distance of an inch from the orifice, and the
melting point of lead is known to be 607°, at that time coal
was employed without being previously coked, and the quantity
requisite for smelting a ton of cast iron was 2 tons 19 cwt.,
namely, Tons. Cwt.

For the furnace 2

For heating the air 8

For the steam engine 11 2 19

The quantity of limestone used was reduced from 10i to 7
cwt. ; and the product in iron was greater, and the daily quan-
tity produced from a furnace was increased from 6 tons to 9 tons.
The expense of a ton of cast iron was in

1829 . £4

1833 2 12

Produce in a month from 3 furnaces in

1829 500 tons cast iron.

1833 1010

When the Clyde iron works were originally established two
furnaces produced only 14 tons of cast iron weekly. The pro-
duce was gradually increased to 30, 40, or even 70 tons a week ;
but after the introduction of the heated air the produce was as
much as 130 tons a week. Indeed it was raised to almost 200
tons a week, but that was by the addition of another furnace.
Various explanations have been given of the way in which
the heated air acts to produce these advantages. If we attend
to the facts which I have just stated the true explanation will
I think easily suggest itself.

When iron is smelted by the cold blast the coal requires to
be coked, but when the hot blast is employed coking is unne-
cessary. In the latter case one half the quantity of coals is suf-
ficient that is required in the former. Is it not evident from
this that the whole oxygen of the air of the hot blast combines

COMPOSITION OK CAST IRON. 121

with the fuel as soon as it enters into the furnace, and that the
oxygen of the air of the cold blast is not all consumed immedi-
ately, but makes its way upwards, and is gradually consumed in
its ascent, producing a scattered heat which is of no use in
smelting the iron, but merely serves to consume the fuel. When
the hot blast is used the combustion is concentrated towards the
bottom of the furnace ; with the cold blast it is much more dif-
fused. Hence the reason of the saving of the coals in the former
case, which constitutes the great advantage attending the new
method.

This greater concentration of the combustion must subject
the iron to a greater heat than when the combustion is more
scattered. This accounts for the smaller quantity of limestone
necessary for separating the clay ; for the higher the tempera-
ture the smaller is the quantity of limestone necessary for the
fusion of the clay. Hence also the greater rapidity of the pro-
cess, and consequently the additional quantity of cast iron ob-
tained from a furnace in a given time.

I think then we may conclude, that when the hot blast is
used the heat is more concentrated, and consequently higher than
when the cold blast is employed.

I shall now state the result of various analyses of cast iron,
No. 1, smelted by means of cold, and also by means of hot air
in the different iron works round Glasgow. These analyses
were made in my laboratory, partly by myself and partly by Mr.
John Tennent, upon whose accuracy and skill I could completely
rely. All the iron works round Glasgow employ at present
nothing but heated air, except the Carron Company, who are
in the habit of making cast iron, No. 1, both by the hot and cold
blast. I applied to the manager of the Carron works, and he
very kindly supplied me with specimens of cast iron, No. 1,
made by both processes. These specimens I carefully analyzed,
and considered the comparison of the two specimens as very
satisfactory, because the nature of the ore and the process was
exactly the same in both cases, and because the Carron Com-
pany have the reputation of making cast iron of the very best
quality. I had specimens of cast iron, No. 1, from the Clyde
Iron Works which I had obtained before the new process was
known, and consequently when nothing but the cold blast was
employed; and I had also specimens of cold blast iron from
Muirkirk, and some which had been given me as Swedish cast
iron.

I shall now point out the differences which were observed
between cast iron, No. 1, made by the cold and the hot blast.

1 . The specific gravity of cast iron smelted by the cold blast
is less than that of cast iron by the hot blast.

122

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

The following are the specific gravities of eight specimens of
cold blast iron : —

1st. Muirkirk 6*410

2nd. Ditto 6*435

3rd. Ditto 6*493

4th. Ditto 6*579

5th. Ditto 6*775

6th. From pyrites 6*9444

7th. From Carron 6*9888

8th. Clyde Iron Works .... 7*0028
The specific gravity of the Muirkirk iron is considerably less
than of that smelted at Carron and the Clyde Iron Works ; the
mean of the 8 specimens is 6*7034.

It has been hitherto supposed that the difference between cast
iron and malleable iron consists in the presence of carbon in the
former, and its absence from the latter ; in other words, that cast
iron is a carburet of iron. But in all the specimens of cast iron
which we analyzed we constantly found several other ingredients
besides iron and carbon. Manganese is pretty generally pre-
sent in minute quantity, though in one specimen it amounted
to no less a quantity than 7 per cent. ; its average amount is 2
per cent. Silicon is never wanting, though its amount is exceed-
ingly variable, the average quantity is about 1J- per cent. ; some
specimens contained 3i per cent, of it, while others contain less
than a half per cent. Aluminum is very rarely altogether absent,
though its amount is more variable than that of silicon. Its ave-
rage amount is 2 per cent. ; sometimes it exceeds 4|per cent., and
sometimes it is not quite ynoo^h P art °^ tne we ight of the iron.
Calcium and magnesium are sometimes present, but very
rarely, and the quantity does not much exceed J-th per cent.
In a specimen of cast iron which I got from Mr. Neilson,
and which he had smelted from pyrites, there was a trace of
copper, showing that the pyrites employed was not quite free
from copper ; and in a specimen from the Clyde Iron Works
there was a trace of sulphur. The following table exhibits the
composition of six different specimens of cast iron, No. 1, ana-
lyzed in my laboratory, either by myself or by Mr. John Tennent.

Muirkirk.

Muirkirk,

Pyrites.

Carron.

Clyde.

Mean.

90-98

7-40
046
0-48

90-29

7-14

1-706
0-830
0-016
0018

91-38

2-00

4-88
110

0-20

89-442
0-288

3-600
3-220
3-776

94-010

0-626

3-086
1-006
1-032

90-824

2-458
0045
2-458
0-450
4-602

0-340

91-154

2-037

3-855
1177
1-651

Copper

Manganese...
Sulphur

Aluminum ...
Magnesium

COMPOSITION OF CAST IRON. 123

The constant constituents of cold blast cast iron, No. 1, are
iron, manganese, carbon, silicon, and aluminum. The occa-
sional constituents are copper, sulphur, calcium, and magne-
sium. These occur so rarely, and in such minute quantity, that
we may overlook them altogether.

The constant constituents occur in the following mean atomic
proportions : —

22 atoms iron = 77*00

\ atom manganese = 1*75

4*36 atoms carbon = 3*27

1 atom silicon = 1*00

\\ aluminum = 1*40—84*42

If we unite the iron and manganese, and consider them as
acting the part of basis, to which the carbon, silicon, and alumi-
num unite in definite proportions, we have 22^ atoms iron and
manganese ; 6£ atoms carbon, silicon, and aluminum, or Z\
atoms iron and manganese ; 1 atom carbon, silicon, and alumi-
num. When we compare the different specimens analyzed, we
observe a considerable difference in the constitution of each.
In one specimen the iron and manganese were to the carbon,
silicon, and aluminum, in the proportion of 2*41 atoms of the
former to 1 of the latter; in another specimen as 8*87 to 1.
Now both of these specimens were from Muirkirk. These dif-
ferences doubtless depended partly on the ore, partly on the
fuel, and partly on the heat employed. They account perfectly
for the different properties of cast iron.

But the mean of the whole gives cold blastcastiron,No. 1, com-
posed of 3| atoms iron, 1 atom carbon, silicon, and aluminum ;
and the proportions of these three constituents are very nearly
4 atoms carbon, 1 atom silicon, and 1 atom aluminum ; so that
the cold blast cast iron of this country consists of 21 atoms
iron, with a little manganese, 4 atoms carbon, 1 atom silicon, 1
atom aluminum.

2. I examined only one specimen of cast iron, No. 2. It was
an old specimen, said to have come from Sweden, but I have
no evidence of the correctness of this statement. Its specific
gravity was 7' 1633 higher than any specimens of cold blast iron,
-No. 1. Its constituents were,

Iron 93*594

Manganese 0*708

Carbon 3*080

Silicon 1*262

Aluminum 0*732

Sulphur 0*038—99*414

The presence of sulphur in this specimen leads to the sus-

124

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

picion that it is not a Swedish specimen ; for as the Swedish
ore is magnetic iron, and the fuel charcoal, the presence of
sulphur in the iron is very unlikely*.

In this specimen the atoms of iron and manganese are to
those of carbon, silicon, and aluminum in the proportion of 4|
to 1, instead of 3^ to 1, as in cast iron, No. 1.

The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum approach the
proportions of 7> 2, and 1, so that in cast iron, No. 2, judging
from one specimen, there is a greater proportion of carbon com-
pared with the silicon and aluminum,- than in cast iron, No. 1.

Mr. Tennent analyzed a specimen of hot blast iron, No. 2,
from Gartsherry. Its specific gravity was 6*9156, and its con-
stituents,

Iron . .

Manganese

Carbon

Silicon

Aluminum

Sulphur .

90-542
2764
3-094
0-680
2-894
0-023

99-997

So that it resembles cast iron, No. 1, in the proportion of its
constituents. The carbon is almost the same as in cold blast
iron, No. 2, but the proportion of aluminum is four times as
great, while the silicon is little more than half as much. The
atomic ratios are, carbon 4* ; silicon, 0-67 ; aluminum, 2*28.

3. Five specimens of hot blast cast iron, No. 1, were analyzed.
Two of these were from Carron, and three from the Clyde Iron
Works, where the hot blast originally began, and where, of
course, it has been longest in use. The specific gravity of these
specimens was found to be as follows : —

1st. From Clyde Works .... 7*0028

2nd. From Carron 7-0721

3rd. From Carron 7-0721

4th. From Clyde Works . . . . 7*1022

Mean . . 7-0623
It appears from this that the hot blast increases the specific
gravity of cast iron by about gV 110 - P ar t- It approaches nearer
the specific gravity of cast iron, No. 2, smelted by cold air, than
to that of No. 1.

The following table exhibits the constituents of these 4 speci-
mens.

* I have been told by Mr. Mushet that the Swedes add sulphur to their iron,
No. 2.

COMPOSITION OP CAST IRON.

125

Clyde.

Canon.

Carron.

Clyde.

Iron

97-096
0-332
2-460
0-280
0-385

95-422
0-336
2-400
1-820
0-488

96-09
0-41
2-48
1-49
0-26

94-966
0-160
1-560
1-322
1-374
0-792

94-345
3-120
1-416
0-520
0-599

100-55

100-466

100-73

100-174

100-

The mean of these analyses gives us,

Atoms
Iron .... 95-584 or 27*31
Manganese
Carbon . .

Silicon . .
Aluminum

0-871 or 0-249J

2-099 or 2'79 ]

1-086 or 1-086 \-l-

0-422 or 0-337J

101-285
Or, in the proportion of 6| atoms of iron and manganese to 1
atom of carbon, silicon, and aluminum. In the cold blast cast
iron, we have, Iron. Carbon, &c.

In No. 1 3i atoms 1 atom.

In No. 2 4£ I —

In hot blast . . . . 6£ 1 —

Thus it appears that when iron is smelted by the hot blast its
specific gravity is increased, and it contains a greater proportion
of iron, and a smaller proportion of carbon, silicon, and alumi-
num than when smelted by the cold blast.

The atoms of carbon, silicon, and aluminum are to each other
nearly in the proportions of 12, 5, and 2 ; so that the proportion
of silicon compared with the carbon is nearly twice as great in
the hot blast iron as in the cold blast.

These are consequences that might have been anticipated from
the theory of the process, as I have, explained it in a preceding
part of this paper.

As to the qualities of the two kinds of iron I do not consider
my experiments as calculated to enable us to draw any conse-
quence of much importance. Hot blast iron is obviously purer
than cold blast iron. It is said by several of the Glasgow steam
engine makers whom I have consulted on the subject, that the
iron by the hot blast is not so tough as that made by the cold
blast ; and one very extensive house in Glasgow, in order to ob-
viate this objection, is in the habit of adding a little Welsh iron
to the hot blast iron before casting, and this I have been assured
by the manager of the works obviates the defects.

126 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

4. An analysis of a specimen of cast steel, manufactu in
the neighbourhood of Glasgow, from the best Dannemoi . »ion,
was made by Mr. Tennent, and perhaps it may be worth while
to state the results obtained. \

Its specific gravity was 7'8125, and its constituents,

Atoms.

Iron 99-2881 „.*

Manganese .... 0-190 J '
Carbon 0-388 1"

99-866
Or it contains 56 atoms of iron united to 1 atom of carbon.
He could not detect the least trace of either silicon or aluminum
in this steel. Is it not probable that the reason why Danne-
mora iron answers so well for making steel is that it contains
no sensible portion of silicon and aluminum ; and that the pre-
sence of a notable quantity of these substances in British iron
is the reason why it is so ill fitted for being converted into good
steel ?

Appendix.

A quantity of hot and cold blast iron was made in the same
furnace at the Level Furnaces, Brierly Hill, Staffordshire, with
the same proportions of ironstone and limestone, with the addi-
tion of one-half more coal, necessary to compensate for the defi-
ciency of power in the furnace when blown with cold air. These
products were tried with the following results :

1. Two bars of cast iron §ths inch square were melted in a
crucible from pig iron, No. 1, the first cold blast and the second
hot blast ; both broke when exposed to a pressure of 2040 lbs.

2. |ths inch cable bolts were made from the hot blast iron
No. 1. These cable bolts were exposed to the Liverpool proof,
namely, a weight of 12 tons 5 cwt., without sustaining any al-
teration ; even a weight of 17 tons 18 cwt. produced no bad
effect.

Another chain without studs fths inch in diameter, made from
the same hot blast iron, was proved to 22 tons, 7 cwt. 1 qr. 2 lbs.,
or to 12 tons, 11 cwt. 1 qr. 2 lbs. above the Liverpool proof,
without sustaining any injury. These trials show that hot
blast iron is at least as strong as cold blast iron.

DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION. 127

1)911

Notice of the Determination of the Constant of Nutation by
the Greenwich Observations, made as commanded by the
British Association. By the Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D.

It is now a century since Bradley, by his brilliant discoveries
of the aberration of light, and the nutation of the earth's axis,
became the founder of accurate astronomy. By them he not
merely explained the seemingly anomalous movements which,
though noticed by others before him, were first established by
his observations on authoritative evidence, but he also demon-
strated that a degree of precision, which the other astronomers of
that time could scarcely conceive, was perfectly attainable. From
the commencement of his career to the present day the impulse
thus given has never failed, and each successive year has brought
improvements to the construction of astronomical instruments,
to the methods of observing, or, what is equally important, to the
reductions by which these observations are made available to
science.

Yet it must be acknowledged that in respect of both aberra-
tion and nutation nothing was added to the researches of Brad-
ley till within a few years, when Struve, Brinkley, and Richard-
son resumed the inquiry as to the first, and contracted within
very narrow measures the limits of its uncertainty. The second,
of these astronomers also investigated the constant of nutation,
and his result is generally adopted by British astronomers. In
Germany, however, the authority of M. Besselhas given currency
to a different value of this important element, deduced by
Von Lindenau, and though the two differ only \ of a second,

( 7Q0 Q of the telescope used in observing,) such is the accu-
racy now required that even this evanescent discordance is felt
as a disgrace to astronomy. This stigma I trust is now removed
by the work which the powerful aid of the Association has en-
abled me to perforin, and of which it is my present object to give
a brief notice to this section, the fuller details requiring a dif-
ferent mode of publication.

When an observer directs the telescope of his circle to a star,
the distance from the pole or the zenith which he obtains is but
crude ore, and much labour is required to obtain its precious
contents. The refraction of the atmosphere prevents us from
seeing it in its true place ; its effect must be computed and cor-
rected ; the light by which we see it takes time to travel through

128 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

the telescope, which itself moves with the earth, and thus aber-
rates from the true direction ; this too has been brought under
our dominion. The stars themselves, though we call them fixed,
are most of them in motion, each with its own proper movement,
and with a period to which even geological cycles are probably
but as moments. And the points of our own globe, to which
we refer their positions, are anything but invariable ; they are
agitated with perpetual changes, some of great duration and
extent, others minute in quantity and rapid in recurrence, all of
which must be appreciated and known before we can record
any history of the heavens at a given epoch.

Of these disturbances of the earth's axis the greater terms
have long been known under the name of the precession of the
Equinoxes, and our present knowledge of their laws and amount
is satisfactory ; of the remaining three, appropriately called
nutations, one completing, its course in a fortnight and never
reaching J^th of a second, is sufficiently determined by theory ;
another, semi-annual in period, and ^ a second at its maximum,
is also given by theory, and, independently, by Brinkley's ad-
mirable observations.

The third is of much greater magnitude, being about 9", and
running through its changes in the time of a complete revolu-
tion of the moon's nodes, something more than 18 years; and
its exact determination is the object of this communication. It
is obvious, that if a star's distance from the pole be determined
when the effect of this nutation increases it most, but without
making any allowance for its effect, and if 9^ years after, when
of course the distance is most diminished, it be again observed,
the difference of the results will be twice the total effect of nu-
tation on that star, and from this the entire or the constant of
nutation is of course known. But if after a second Japse of
9£ years, when all has returned to its primary condition, we
have a third set of observations, the conclusion is made much
more certain ; for thus all doubt is removed that might come
from any proper motion of the star if it returns to its original
place ; or if not, the difference detects that proper motion, and
gives its amount. Therefore, to succeed in this inquiry, it is
necessary to have observations extending through at least the
whole period of the nodes, made with the same instrument, and,
if it were possible, by the same observer, or at least according
to the same system. In quantities so minute as those we are
considering, in operations so delicate in themselves, and so easily
vitiated by errors that can scarcely be suspected, all precautions
are necessary ; and with the exception of the observations made
at Greenwich, while the late Mr. Pond presided over that ob-

DETERMINATION OP CONSTANT OP NUTATION. 129

servatory, there are none existing which even approach the ful-
filment of these conditions. ' Even in them there is much ob-
jectionable, but many years must elapse before they can be
surpassed.

The Greenwich circle was for the first 12 years employed to
measure distances from the pole ; afterwards from the zenith ;
the zero of the former being given by comparing the observed
and calculated places of known stars, the latter hy combining
direct and reflected observations. This in the present inquiry
needed no change, but the other was inadmissible, and I re-
stricted myself to the pole star alone. Of it 4000 observations
were computed, by the aid of Bessel's admirable tables, retaining
his values of declination, nutation, and proper motion, but with
mine of aberration and refraction. Of the results more than
2000 could be combined above and below the pole to give the
zero of polar distance. The others served to keep watch in the
interval between these conjugate observations, and show if any
change took place in the instrument. After 1826, observations
of Polaris were less numerous, but the index corrections given by
it were then combined with reflected observations.

The other stars were selected on this principle, that their
altitudes should be such as to free them from the uncertainty of
refraction j and that those observations only should be employed
in which at least § of the effect of nutation is exerted in polar di-
stance. Of such there are but 15 to be found in the Greenwich
collection with sufficient frequency, and even of these three
have not yet completed their cycles. Four of them are not
found in Bessel's tables, but are similarly reduced ; and in all
correction has been made for that slight nutation of which I
spoke as of a fortnight's period. They afford about 8000 i*e-
sults, i>ut only 6000 have been available, 1000 from an accident
which occurred to the instrument in 1820, and vitiated the work
of almost two years, and the rest from occasional want of
corresponding observations of Polaris.

Each of these observations should be exactly represented by
the calculated place of the star, were there no errors of observa-
tion or of reduction, and the difference gives their effects. In
the present case we consider only three things as doubtful ; the
place of the star at some given epoch, as given by the catalogue
employed, the star's motion, and Lindenau's nutation. The re-
sidue thereforois properly equated to these three quantities, and
the equations are divided into three groups, corresponding to the
maxima and intervening minimum (or vice versa) of nutation.
The three resulting equations determine these three errors, two
of which are peculiar to each star, but the correction of nutation

VOL. vi. 1837. k

130 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

is common to all, and each set should give it the same value. This
is not rigorously the case, and the difference proceeds partly from
accidental errors in bisecting the star or reading the divisions,
hut still more from causes which are as yet unknown, and whose
influence is but beginning to be noticed. Lastly, the corrections
thus obtained must be combined into a general mean according
to the most probable method, attending to their different weights.
In some stars nutation appears with a larger coefficient, some
have been more frequently observed, and both these circum-
stances must be duly estimated in taking the mean.

These are my results. To increase Lindenau's nutation :
710 observations of y Draconis give + 0-"28

77G a Lyrse — + ()• 54

705 « Cygni — +0-03

452 Arcturus — +0-33

3G9 /3 Ursseminoris — +0*35

224 (3 Tauri — + 0' 35

284 Aldebaran — + 0- 31

239 « Arietis — + 0* 31

279 a. Corome — + 0* Gl

287 Pollux — +0- 54

2G7 Castor — + 0. 52

190 a. Persei — + 0* 77

To diminish it :

397 observations of vj Ursae give — 0-"29

403 Capella — —0-31

393 Polaris — —0-01

The mean of all being,

+ 0."257
8- 977

Lindenau 9* 234
differing only - "01G from the number selected by Mr. Baily
for the admirable catalogue which has already been so useful to
astronomy, and which I trust by the aid of the Association may
soon be increased far beyond its present extent*.

It remains to consider what errors may be supposed to affect
this conclusion. Some may object that I have used with Mr.
Baily the constant of aberration 20*3G, instead of employing
20*50, which Mr. Richardson has so ably deduced from the

* Since reading this notice to the Association I have received the Green-
wich observations for 1836, which enables me to complete the cycle for a,
Cygni, and to determine the proper motions of Castor and Pollux more cor-
rectly. These, and some other changes of'less importance, have slightly changed
my result, which is now considered by me to be 9*239.

DETERMINATION OF CONSTANT OF NUTATION. 131

Greenwich observations themselves. I fully admit its weight,
but must remark, 1st, that for the star common to our compu-
tations, the maximum of aberration obtained differs too widely,
in one case more than a second ; secondly, that the mean of

20-503

Richardson and De Lambre gives, 225 , almost identical with

20-364
20-370

Brinkley and Struve 20-350; and, thirdly, that the use of Mr. R.'s

20-360
constant would scarcely have changed my result. In the case of
y Draconis, tbe most important in my list, I performed the
computation with this value, and the change it produced was
only x^jo of a second.

As to the casual errors depending on the circumstances of
observation, I find for this star, that the probable error of one
observation = + 0*"96, and therefore, by the theory of proba-
bilities, it comes out an even bet, that as far as such errors are
concerned the result given by it is not uncertain to O"04, and
Lyrae has nearly the same probable error. Therefore, the slight
discordances in my results proceed from other, and, as yet, un-
known causes. Similar and greater discrepancies occur in Mr.
Richardson's investigations, but it is curious that in Brinkley's
researches on nutation, Capella, and a Cygni give results less
than the mean ; a. Lyrae, /3 Tauri, and Castor above it.

It might seem that a more accurate conclusion is attainable
by assuming the proper motion of the stars as known from
comparison of Bradley's observations with those of recent date.
This supposition would give the constant 9*181, 0*05 less than
that given above ; but I think it inadmissible, for these motions
may not be uniform, and there may be changes in the instru-
ment, the refraction, the observer, nay, even in the direction of
gravity, as affected by local circumstances, which are functions
of the time. Something of this sort does actually appear here.
It is well known that Pond latterly believed in the existence of
a general southern motion of the stars j and though Brinkley has
shown most fully that this is imaginary, yet it is remarkable
that the corrections of Bessel's proper motions, which my work
has given, are, except in one instance, all negative. I infer from
this that the Greenwich circle is undergoing some progressive
change of figure, which makes it show polar distances too great
for about 30 degrees south of the zenith ; but if this be the case
it is not likely long to elude the sagacity of Mr. Airy.

The declinations which I obtain from these Greenwich obser-
vations differ considerably from those deduced by Pond himself,

k 2

132

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

and given in the N. A. for 1834, but they agree closely with
those of Bessel ; they give the following corrections :

Cor. N. A.

Cor. Bessel.

y Draconis . .

- 0-97 .

-0-08

a Lyrae . . .

- 1-25 .

- 0-29

« Cygni . . .

- 0-66 .

+ 0*43

Arcturus. .

- 1-82 .

+ 0-02

/3 Ursae Minoris

- 0-61 .

+ o-io

/3 Tauri . . .

-1-57 .

+ 0-98

Aldebaran . .

- 1-80 .

- 0-08

a Arietis

- 1-48 . .

+ 0-02

a Coronae .

- i-7o .

— 0-OG

Pollux . . .

- 1-51 .

+ 0*56

Castor . . .

- 2-05 .

- 0*13

a Persei . . .

. - 1*80 .

. - 0-99

jj Ursfe . . .

. — 0-69 .

. + 0'20

Capella =, . .

. - 2'13 .

. — 1-02

Polaris . . .

- O'Ol .

-0-04

Mean — 1*34 — O02

This seems to show that the difference between these cele-
brated catalogues arises solely from the different methods of re-
duction employed, and may excite a wish that the whole of
Pond's Greenwich catalogue should undergo a similar revision.

EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES.

133

Report of some Experiments on the Electricity of Metallic
Veins, and the Temperature of Mines. By Robert Were
Fox.

In fulfilment of the commission with which I was last year in-
trusted, it was my intention to have made some experiments on
the electricity of metalliferous veins on a larger scale than 1 have
yet done, and to have endeavoured to produce changes in the
composition of bodies, by the long-continued action of electric
forces, derived from this source. Other engagements have,
however, interfered with the execution of these plans, and the
only experiments of this nature which I have recently made
have been confined to Coldherry and Skeers lead mines, situated
near Middleton Teasdale, in the county of Durham. In the
former, I obtained no decided results; and in the latter, the gal-
vanometer indicated very feeble electrical action. There are
seven E. and W. lead veins in this mine, contained in limestone,
which are shifted from three to five fathoms to the right hand
by a cross vein, having nearly a northern and southern direction.
The cross vein contained more or less galena near some of the
places of intersection ; and a connection was made, by means of
copper wires, between portions of ore in the cross vein, and others
in one of the most productive of the east and west veins, when
there appeared to be a feeble action from N. to W. (see ground
plan, fig. 1). The parts connected, a and h, were about twenty
fathoms distant from each other, and fifty fathoms under the
surface.

A small stream of water gushing
out of the vein was at 50° Fahr.

The ore in this mine was far from
abundant, at least it did not occur
in such large masses as are best
calculated for experiments of this
description ; and the wire was not
sufficiently long to admit of obser-
vations being made on the relative
electric states of parallel veins.

These experiments, together with
others which I made some years
ago in other lead mines near Moldw-
in Flintshire, tend to induce the
belief that the electric action is much
more feeble in lead veins when con-
tained in limestone and sandstone

Fig. 1.

Lead Vein.

134 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

than in copper veins included in the lower rocks, such as granite
and " killas" or clay slate. And here it may be remarked that
the sulphurets of copper are more electro-negative than galena,
which circumstance may have had some influence on the results.

I wished to have made experiments on the electricity of some
of the coal-beds which have been traversed and charred by the
great basaltic dyke in the county of Durham, but my time and
engagements did not well admit of my doing so. It is well
known, that when coal is reduced to the state of a cinder it be-
comes a good conductor of voltaic electricity, although coal, in
its natural state, does not possess this property, or even anthra-
cite. A friend of mine having kindly sent me some specimens
of the altered coal taken from Cockfield Fell Colliery, I found
that most of them were incapable of conducting voltaic electri-
city, which unexpected circumstance may, perhaps, be attri-
buted to their having undergone a degree of vitrification, — pene-
trated, possibly, by some siliceous matter, which their appearance
indicated ; and T am rather confirmed in this opinion from
having since found that one of the pieces of native cinder from
the same place is as good a conductor of electricity as coke, and
it has a less vitrified appearance than the others. Here then
Ave have the evidence of electricity in favour of the powerful ac-
tion of the heated basalt on the contiguous coal deposits.

I have, on various occasions, endeavoured to show that the
high temperature observed in the lowest parts of deep mines is
in a great degree independent of accidental or extraneous causes
not existing in the earth itself, and, indeed, that it is more often
diminished by them than the reverse. It occurred to me that
this point might be decided by burying the bidbs of different
thermometers at various depths below the deepest excavations
of mines, and I am indebted to the agents of Levant Tin and
Copper mine, and of the Consolidated Copper mines, for having
carried this plan into effect for me in their respective mines.
The former mine is situated on the coast, in the parish of St.
Just, and is worked in granite and " killas." Its depth is about
230 fathoms from the surface, and 200 fathoms below the level
of the sea. A thermometer four feet long, and inclosed in a
brass tube, had its bulb sunk in a hole three feet beneath the
" sump," or bottom of the deepest shaft, whilst another shorter
thermometer was placed very near it, with its bulb inserted in
a hole only about an inch deep. The former, which may be
distinguished as No. 1, indicated a temperature of 80°, and the
latter (No. 2) of 78'°5, both of them having been previously com-
pared with a standard thermometer, and the needful correction
applied. This part of the mine is in granite. The thermome-
ter was afterwards placed in like manner in "killas," at the

EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES.

135

western extremity of the deepest level or gallery, about 190
fathoms under the sea level, and four feet from the lode, when
No. 1 showed a temperature of 78°, and No. 2, 72*°5 ; a stream
of water which flowed into another part of this level to the east-
ward of the shaft, and in granite, was at 78"°5, and the air in
the level only 67°.

The Consolidated Mines are situated in the parish of Gwen-
nap, and nearly thirty miles to the
eastward of Levant. The depth is
290 fathoms from the surface, and
237 below the level of the sea at
half- tide; the rock is "killas."
There is a " cross-cut," or gallery
proceeding from the bottom of the
deepest shaft (Pearce's), marked
P.S. in the section Fig. 2, at right
angles to the lode, which it inter-
sects at N., the lode underlying to-
wards the north L.N. The thermo-
meters No. 1 and 2 were placed at a,
24 fathoms from N., the bulb of the
former in a hole three feet deep,
and that of the latter in another an
inch deep, the holes having been
filled round the thermometers with
clay, &c. Under these circum-
stances No. 1 indicated a tempera-
ture of 85*°3, and No. 2 of 84°.
The thermometers were then simi-
larly arranged at h, ten fathoms
from N., and No. 1 gave 86-°3, and
the other 85°. These experiments
were made before the cross-cut was

completed as far as N. When, however, the lode was inter-
sected atthatplace,both thermometers were placed in the manner
already described in the lode itself at c, when No. 1 indicated
a temperature of 92°, and No. 2 of 88°. Here the thermo-
meters were kept only two hours, but in all the other experi-
ments in both mines they remained in their places more than
twenty-four hours ; and when No. 1 was taken out of the deep
holes, and allowed to stand awhile in the "cross-cut," the mer-
cury always fell at least a degree. Only two men were at work
at a time in or near this part of the mine. The increase of
temperature in the lode, may, I conceive, be attributed to the
greater facility afforded by it for the ascent of currents of warn!

136 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

water from more considerable depths, and the difference between
a and h to their relative proximity to the lode. The tempera-
ture of 85'°3 is at least 35° above the mean of the climate, and,
therefore, it gives a ratio of increase equal to one degree in
49 '6 feet, if calculated from the surface; and Levant Mine,
which was 80° at the bottom, one degree in 46 feet, or they give
one degree in 48 and 44 feet respectively, if estimated from ten
fathoms under the surface.

The thermometers were likewise placed in holes, as before,
in a superior level in the Consolidated Mines, 130 fathoms be-
low the surface, when No. 1 indicated a temperature of 61°,
and No. 2 of 61'°6. This difference in favour of the short ther-
mometer was probably due to the influence of ascending currents
of warm air and vapour on the surface of the rock; and such an
explanation is not inconsistent with the opinion that the general
temperature of the upper parts of the mine had undergone a dimi-
nution of its original amount, in consequence of the excavations
below having interfered with the ascent of warm water, and pro-
moted the drainage from above of that which was comparatively
cold. For these reasons, and from the results obtained at the
deepest parts of mines of various depths, I consider that the
temperature of 61° is much below what it would have been had
there been no inferior excavations ; and I have evidence that in
1822, when the mine was only 150 fathoms deep, the water at
the bottom of one shaft was at 76° and of another at 80°.

It is clear, I think, from all the experiments which have been
made on the temperature of mines, that causes which are more
or less local, and exist in the earth itself, have a powerful influence
in modifying its degree, and in producing those anomalous results
which have always characterised observations on subterranean
heat. When it is considered how much the crust of the earth
abounds with fissures or faults, and that warm water has a con-
stant tendency to ascend through cooler portions of that fluid,
and thus to produce upward and downward currents in the fis-
sures and veins, it would indeed be surprising if such discrepan-
cies did not exist even in the same vicinity, to say nothing of the
greater or less influence of water percolating from the surface.
Upon the whole, T am strongly of the opinion that the effect of
the simple conducting power of rocks on the temperature, at
depths hitherto attained, is very much superseded by that of the
transporting property of water to which I have alluded. Indeed,
I have long taken this view of the subject, and it has appeared
to me to account very satisfactorily for the fact of the more
compact rocks, such as granite, having been often found at
rather a lower temperature than "killas" at given depths, and

EXPERIMENTS ON VEINS AND MINES. 137

both of them inferior in this respect to large porous lodes or
veins*. Thermal springs may likewise, I conceive, be referred
to the same cause, and it is well known that they are generally
connected with fissures or faults; moreover, I may here remark
that this property of fluids must more or less influence the
temperature of water in Artesian wells, so that thermometrical
experiments made in them are often rather calculated to prove
the existence of subterranean heat than to ascertain its ratio of
increase in descending from the surface.

Since the foregoing report was read at the geological section,

1 have obtained some results relative to the temperature of
Tresavean Copper Mine from Captain Oats, who kindly made
the experiments for me. The mine is worked almost wholly
in granite, and is situated in the parish of Stythians, about three
miles to the S.W. of the Consolidated Mines. The bulb of the
thermometer No. I was buried 2 feet 10 inches, and that of No.

2 one inch under the surface of the rock at the different stations,
their stems having in all cases been surrounded by clay pressed
into the holes. The following were the results :

Depth in fathoms. Experiments made.

from from In air. In the rock.

surface, sea level. No. 1. No. 2.

o o o

26 ^ ... In granite 15 fathoms N. of lode, and 40 fathoms 1 ,„ „ ,„ ,„ „

lrom "killas J

200 170 In the lode, rock do., " killas," and three fathoms "I ^ -9 *„ *,_

from granite J

200 170 In do. 10 fathoms from do 77-7 76- 755

250 196 In lode contained in granite, and 60 fathoms from"! „„ „ co r 00

,, , ... ,, fOO'i Oi'J Oil'

"killas J

262 203 Inlode, do., in 7 fathoms from do., beincr the bottom ~| or r on r on
- V ° > 00 5 oi'O bl'

ot the mine J

The last result gives a ratio of increase of 1° in 48 feet, cal-
culated from the surface. It will be seen that the elevation of
the latter, in reference to the sea-level, varies considerably in
different parts of the mine.

* See Philosophical Magazine and Annals, 1831, vol. ix., p. 94.

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 139

Provisional Report of the Committee of the Medical Section
of the British Association, appointed to investigate the
Composition of Secretions, and the Organs producing them.

Part I.

The Committee appointed by the Medical Section of the British
Association to investigate the chemical composition of glands
and then" respective secretions, have been prevented by different
circumstances (amongst which have been the lamented death of
one of their number, and the disturbed health of another) from
rendering a complete report on the subject referred to them.
They are desirous however of making such a statement of then-
progress as may invite the co-operation of animal chemists in
the extensive and somewhat difficult field in which they find
themselves engaged.

The manifest object of the investigation proposed to your
committee has been to obtain, through the medium of animal
chemistry in its present improved state, some further insight
into the mysterious and vital process of secretion.

The terms in which this inquiry is proposed seem to give to
it a particular direction, the reason for which may not be very
obvious; and as they were suggested by one of your committee, it
may not be amiss to assign here the reasons which occasioned this
course to be pointed out : before proceeding to do so we will
offer one remark in opposition to a generally received opinion
respecting the process of secretion. It seems to be considered
that in as much as this process is one in which vitality is con-
cerned, it is removed from the province of chemistry ; from this
opinion we totally dissent, seeing that whatever changes are
produced in the proportion and mode of combination of the
elements of which bodies are composed, must, when not merely
mechanical, be essentially chemical, and that the introduction
of an agent, though it be no less important than the influence of
life, does not in any degree detract from its chemical character.
We have merely to consider that the elements both act and arc
acted upon under peculiar circumstances, which offer some ana-
logy to what is seen when chemical elements are exposed to the
influence of caloric or electricity ; their inherent properties are
not destroyed, but they are modified when they are placed under
these influences ; and as the investigation of chemical changes,
in which the two influences just mentioned are concerned, has
tended greatly to improve our knowledge in respect to them, so

140 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

we may reasonably hope that a similar result may be obtained
from the investigation of the processes of nutrition and secretion
going forward in living bodies, by regarding them as strictly
chemical, even in those very modifications which vitality pro-
duces. When it is considered that during the activity of life
the process of nutrition is constantly maintaining, even in the
solid parts of animal bodies, molecular changes by which old
materials are removed and new ones deposited, we must be led
to presume a priori, that as the rejected particles are taken away
in a state of perfect solution, they must find their way into those
fluids which proceed from the particular part. In ordinary
textures (by which we wish to be understood those which are
not called glandular) Ave feel no hesitation in admitting that the
rejected particles are carried away in the lymph and venous
blood ; but in glandular structures, and in parts which like them
yield a peculiar secretion as well as return lymph and venous
blood to the system, we have a third course into which some
of the rejected particles may be expected to find their way.
Now though it may be difficult or almost impossible to detect
either in the venous blood or the lymph, any peculiarities which
the addition of the rejected particles may give to the venous
blood and lymph proceeding from particular parts, the case
may be different when we investigate a particular secretion in
which it seems probable that these pai-ticles may exist in a
larger proportion, having a less admixture of the whole or some
of the constituents of the general circulating fluid. The mani-
fest properties of some secretions seem to lead to a similar con-
clusion a posteriori. The varieties which we find in pus pro-
duced in different parts of the body are among the most pal-
pable examples of this kind. Pus from the brain has a peculiar
consistence and colour resembling greenish cream, even where
there has been no breaking down of the substance of the brain,
by which that material might be grossly blended with it. When
pus is formed in the immediate neighbourhood of the alimentary
canal, and especially of the lower part of it, it possesses so strongly
the faecal odour, that it had been confidently believed that fasces
had been mixed with it, until the absolute impossibility of such
an occurrence had been demonstrated. Pus formed in the im-
mediate neighbourhood of the toes possesses the peculiar odour
of those parts, and a similar remark sometimes applies to matter
formed in the axillse.

The peculiar odour exhaled by different species of animals,
and even by different individuals of the same species, dependent
on differences of age and sex, appears to be another illustration
of the principle which has been here suggested : for although

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 141

such peculiar odour may in some instances be referred to a spe-
cial local secretion, as in the instances of the civet cat and musk
deer, it cannot have escaped the observation of those who have
been in the habit of dissecting the bodies of recently killed ani-
mals of different species, that these exhale not from one part
only, but from every part internal as well as external, modified
indeed by circumstances, a peculiar smell which is characteristic,
and belongs both to the solids and fluids.

Another illustration of the influence of the character of parts
upon the secretion which they produce may be seen about the
mouth, where a slight excoriation or sore is apt to produce a
considerable quantity of thin fluid secretion, which one can
scarcely fail to regard in conjunction with that secretion which
is poured into the mouth from the internal surface of those
parts. The copious secretion from a blistered surface, when the
subcutaneous cellular membrane is cedematous, is perhaps a
phenomenon of the same character.

The chemical composition of secerning organs may influence
that of their products independently of the particles which they
may absolutely impart from their own structure. It may do
so by a process similar to that which Thenard has pointed out
as taking place when deutoxide of hydrogen comes in contact
with fibrin ; a process which that great chemist several years
since pointed out as likely to throw light on the function of
secretion. This idea has since been developed by Berzelius,
who calls their action of contact the catalytic action, and argues
that probably the contact of the blood with certain surfaces of
the organs may produce some alteration in the arrangement of
elements, and that the secretions may be thus catalytically
formed from the blood.

It is probably to the operation of this principle that we may
ascribe some phaenomena, which, in addition to the circumstances
which have already been mentioned, render it desirable to ascer-
tain with accuracy the composition of solid parts in conjunction
with that of their secretions. In some healthy, and in not a few
morbid actions, we see that a new product, whether fluid or solid,
is verymuch influenced by the character of the surrounding parts.
Thus in the condensed cellular membrane in the neighbour-
hood of bone it sometimes happens that masses of bony matter
are deposited, but are perfectly detached. The numerous in-
stances which we see of ossification at the origins or insertions
of muscles are probably referable to the same principle, although
it must be admitted that these examples are not unexceptionable,
since in them we have a continuity of structure. As a further
illustration it may be noticed, that after the fracture of a bone,

142 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837«

the process by which the new bony matter necessary for union
is produced, is often morbidly carried on in the matters which
inflammation has deposited in the surrounding structures. The
most striking illustrations are undoubtedly those which arc pre-
sented by the heterologue structures, probably because of their
being much more readily produced accidentally than the ana-
logue. Thus we see that the natural structures in the neigh-
bourhood of malignant tumours are apt to degenerate into a
substance in some respects resembling that of the original tu-
mour. In the neighbourhood of those tumours which are of
slow growth, and of cartilaginous hardness, we often find the
surrounding structures, but more especially the cellular mem-
brane, partaking of the same character of hardness, though ne-
cessarily wanting the structural arrangement which characterizes
the tumour itself. In the same way we find that those tumours
which are composed of a soft and brain-like substance are sur-
rounded by natural structures, which degeneration has converted
into a nearly similar substance, or which have a similar matter
deposited intcrsticially. Again, in those tumours which are
remarkable for their black colour, and to which the name of
melanosis has from this circumstance been applied, the sur-
rounding structures become more or less deeply tinged with a
black or dark-coloured material. This disease also presents us
with a good illustration of the principle in a mode precisely the
converse of the preceding example. There is, perhaps, no organ
so liable to be affected with melanosis as the eye ; and it may
not unreasonably be suspected that it is the natural and healthy
production of black pigment, performed by the choroid coat of
this organ, which is the chief cause of this predisposition.

The anatomical structure of a secreting organ is one of the
conditions in which it is essential to consider in an inquiry into
the phenomena of secretion, although it cannot be imagined that
it affects it by any merely mechanical separation. If it were
possible, it would be desirable to ascertain, and to indicate by
definite terms, the comparative degrees of vascularity, the pro-
portion in which the ramifications of the three vascular systems
are combined, and the rapidity of circulation. The comparative
innervation of the part, although probably no less important, is
perhaps still less exactly ascertained. To improve our knowledge
on this point, it would be particularly desirable to ascertain not
merely the number of nerves sent in proportion to the size of the
organ, but also their origin, and the proportion in which they are
derived from the ganglionic and cerebro-spinal systems ; the de-
gree of sensibility which they impart to the organ, the degree
of uniformity or variation of function which may be observed in

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 143

the organ, and the conditions by which it may be influenced in
this respect; also whether the nutrition resulting from the com-
bined action of the vascular and nervous systems is steady or sub-
jected to periodical or other variations.

Although we are at present very much in the dark upon most
of these subjects, we may be convinced from various examples
that the characters of a secretion are influenced by the texture of
the organ which produces it. In those adventitious cysts which
are liable to be formed in different parts of the body, but whicli
are most frequent as well as most distinctly formed in the ova-
ries and in their vicinity, we find, that whilst they are of a thin and
delicate texture the secretion is thin and aqueous or serous, but
that when they have become a little thickened their secretion is
thick, viscid, and mucous or albuminous. A similar transition,
but in a less marked degree, may be seen in the serous mem-
branes natural to the body, and also in the mucous membranes.
Where these are thin and delicate, as in the case of the con-
junctiva, and in the extreme branches of the bronchial tubes,
their secretion approaches very closely to that of the serous
membranes, whilst the thicker membranes which line the vari-
ous portions of the alimentary canal produce large quantities of
mucus. When chronic inflammation has thickened these mem-
branes the quantity and viscidity of the mucus produced is noto-
riously increased.

In investigating the causes which operate in the production
of animal secretions there are doubtless several points to be
considered beside the chemical composition and anatomical
structure of the parts producing them, and the composition of
the fluid from which they are derived. Even after the secretion
has been poured forth from the living solid, it is certain that it
undergoes important changes by which its character is in many
respects altered. Although these changes are in part to be
ascribed to the material remaining under the influence of the
living structure by which it is surrounded, and which may act
both by abstraction and addition, nevertheless there are some
modifications more immediately depending on the inorganized
secretion itself. Such changes seem to be more particularly
within the undisputed limits of animal chemistry in its present
state, and we may reasonably expect to find their parallels or
analogues in the changes which take place in dead matter apart
from the living body. While some of these changes are un-
doubtedly brought about by the influence of air and moisture,
by which the addition or subtraction of elements may be effected,
in other instances the change seems to be more particularly

144 SKVENTH REPORT — 183/.

brought about by the alteration in the arrangement of the pre-
viously existing elements.

Amongst the changes taking place under one or other of these
conditions in inorganic or dead matter, and wholly removed
from the influence of life, and to which some parallels may pro-
bably be found in changes effected within the living body; the
following examples may be pointed out by way of illustration.
None are more notorious and familiar than those which take
place in wine and other fermented liquors when kept in well-
closed bottles. In some of these instances it may be said that
the change is only mechanical, and the result of very slow de-
position ; yet there are unquestionably cases in which no depo-
sition takes place ; and the change, be it what it may, is un-
doubtedly effected in the chemical combination of the ultimate
elements. Between these extremes there are mixed cases, as
when crystals are deposited and gases liberated to occupy the
upper part of the containing vessel. Amongst the long-neg-
lected bottles which may sometimes be seen in a chemist's labo-
ratory, we may occasionally observe the results of very slowly-
effected changes in the combination of the enclosed elements
exhibited in remarkable precipitates and in alteration in colour.

In the mineral kingdom, and more especially in rocks of
volcanic origin, and possessing a cellular character, we may ob-
serve the most remarkable transfer and chemical combination
of elements in the products, often beautifully crystallized, by
which the cavities become more or less filled, notwithstanding
the firm and apparently impenetrable character which the rock
may possess. Amber may be adduced as another example fur-
nished by the mineral kingdom, for it is doubtless whilst apper-
taining to this class that it has received the characteristics which
distinguish it from the recent resins to which it is not only
closely allied, but from which it is in all probability really de-
rived. In this instance we have a material as impervious to
water as the volcanic rocks before-mentioned. But the obvious
change produced is in some respects different. Instead of a
new substance, sepai*ated in distinct portions, the result of a
transfer to sensible distances, we find an uniform change of
substance throughout. There is perhaps no change in dead
matter which is more interesting, from its relation to the sub-
ject before us, than the conversion of all the soft parts of animals
into the peculiar fatty substance called adipocere, which takes
place under exposure to certain circumstances, of which immer-
sion in moisture appears to be the most important. It is wor-
thy of note that this change seems to take place nearly alike in

REPORT OP MEDICAL SECTION. 145

different textures, such as skin, muscle, cellular membrane, and
adipose substance ; yet as it can hardly be supposed that they
are all equally prone to it, it seems probable that its having
commenced in one tissue tends to determine its taking place in
others in contact with it.

As a connecting link between changes resembling those just
adduced, and those which occur in living organized bodies, may
be mentioned the well-known fact, that many fruits gathered
long before their living connection with the root would have
naturally ceased, notwithstanding undergo those changes which
render them ripe, or in other words, bring them to a state of
maturity. In the leaves of plants, a short time before they lose
their connection with the branch, and also when they have been
detached from it, a chemical change takes place, which produces
the Xanthophylle or yellow colouring principle on which the hues
of autumn in great measure depend. Before we can apply the
principle of these changes to the assistance of our investigation
of the changes effected in living bodies, it is important that the
laws which regulate them should be further elucidated. The
labours of some of our continental chemical brethren have already
considerably advanced the subject. Without swelling this pre-
liminary report with an analysis of what they have done, it will
be sufficient for our present purpose to adduce, without attempt-
ing any chemical explanation, some of the apparently parallel
phenomena to which we invite the attention of those who may
be disposed to co-operate in this kind of research. As farina
or starch may be converted into gum, and both farina and gum
into sugar, and these into various acids, or into alcohol or aether,
so it would appear that other principles may be changed ac-
cording to a particular course of succession, though some of the
possible links may not be always essential. The very possibi-
lity of such successive changes renders it necessary to take into
consideration another element, viz., time; and in our inquiry
into the production of different secretions, we must, besides in-
vestigating the anatomical and chemical composition of the
secreting organ, and the qualities of the matter when first pro-
duced, as compared with its ultimate state, not fail to take time
into the consideration. The first rapidly produced secretion
from a mucous surface is nearly serous. Newly and rapidly
formed mucus is thin and aqueous when compared with that
which has been long detained upon the surface of the secreting
membrane. When milk is too frequently drawn from the lac-
tiferous glands it is thin and watery compared with that which
is allowed to be longer retained. The production of pus is
another example, and one in which the changes may be followed
vol. vi. 1837. &

146 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

by the eye through their whole course. When pus has been
well removed from a suppurating surface its place is soon sup-
plied by a thin and watery secretion. This afterwards becomes
viscid, but without being visibly particled ; it afterwards be-
comes manifestly particled and turbid, and ultimately thick,
opaque, and cream-like. There are perhaps no secretions which
are more interesting than those in which a fatty or resinous
matter is produced. They may be contrasted with the produc-
tion of oily matter in living vegetables, and with the conversion
into adipocere in dead animal matter. The most recently pro-
duced secretion of a sebaceous follicle is nearly or quite aqueous,
but it soon appears to be albuminous or caseous, and does not
appear to possess any oleaginous property. This it soon after
acquires when it becomes the natural unguent to the skin.
When the secretion fails to escape it accumulates, and a col-
lection of grumous fatty matter is formed. In the early embryo
the situation of the adipose substance is occupied by small grains
of an opake whitish substance, which appears to be rather al-
buminous or caseous than truly adipose. The production of
cream in the lactiferous glands, when the milk is allowed to be
well formed, appears to be another physiological instance. The
next is of a pathological character. It is well known that in or
near the ovaries it occasionally happens that encysted masses are
found, containing fat, bone, teeth, and hair. Although the
whole of these materials are not necessarily found in the same
specimen, fatty matter appears to be invariably present. These
extraordinary productions are generally referred to conception,
and are indisputably closely allied to, if not identical with, it.
Now in the natural ovum but a comparatively small portion of
fatty matter exists, and certainly none in the situation in which
the peculiar fatty matter which forms so large a portion of these
encysted formations is met with. It would therefore appear
that when growth as well as development has been suspended
in these irregular efforts of the nisusformativus, there commences
a conversion of the collected elements into a fatty substance by
the introduction of a new chemical arrangement of the elements.
Even this change is progressive, and it would appear that the
fatty matter when formed is susceptible of further change ; for
in some of these collections the fatty matter appears clean,
nearly white and uniform ; in others it approaches the character
of cholesterine ; and in one instance we have met with it, having
a bright yellow colour, and a strong, penetrating, empyreumatic
or bituminous odour, bearing considerable resemblance to an
unctuous yellow substance, found as a mineral production in
Scotland some few years since, and placed in the possession of

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 147

Professor Jameson. Next to these changes taking place in the
living body, yet probably, except in the case of total fat, beyond
the limits of organization, it may perhaps be allowable to place
the pathological degeneration of some tissues into fat. The
muscles of the limbs and the contractile fibrous coat of an en-
larged and thickened bladder have been found converted into
this substance. The most frequent, as well as the most re-
markable of these fatty degenerations is the production of fat
livers, which has attracted the special notice of some foreign
pathologists. It is comparatively rare in this country, and but
few very well marked instances have been met with amongst
many hundred inspections performed during several years at
Guy's Hospital ; yet what have appeared to be approaches to it
have not been very rare. This degeneration essentially belongs
to the acini, which are generally, if not invariably, enlarged in
size, paler, and less supplied with blood than in the healthy
state, and have nearly or wholly lost their power of secreting
bile. In the advanced cases, the specific gravity of the liver be-
comes less than that of water, and fatty matter forms by far the
largest part of its composition, whilst in other cases in which
this degeneration has taken place fat has only formed a small
per centage. Now it is not very uncommon to find in cachetic
patients, who have long been uuable to take exercise, a consi-
derably enlarged liver, dependent on the great hypertrophy of
the acini, which, though wanting the essential characteristics of
the fatty degeneration, are paler and more homogeneous than
in the healthy liver, and have more or less lost the power of
producing bile. It is perhaps not too wild a speculation to
imagine, that in this impaired condition of the organ it may not
be able to resist the tendency to those changes which inorganized
animal matter undergoes when placed in circumstances favour-
able to their production. This leads us to another remark, ap-
plicable to other cases, and which seems to reconcile the specu-
lations which we have allowed ourselves to offer with facts
which will doubtless be readily admitted.

The different tissues, while they retain their healthy condition
unimpaired, resist these common tendencies more or less forci-
bly, and apparently in each in a peculiar manner, and they are
consequently enabled to maintain their own peculiar composition,
notwithstanding the incessant molecular changes effected by
nutrition ; and where they happen to be secreting organs, the
same uniformity is preserved in their products. But when they
are impaired by disease or accident this isolating faculty is in-
jured or lost. Thus in the experiments of Majendie, Foedera,
Segellas, Meyer, Tiedemann and Gmelin, and others, with refer-

148 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

ence to absorption, transudation, and imbibition, we meet with
some results, obtained in the injuredbodies of animals employed
in these inquiries, which are not perfectly similar to those phe-
nomena which may be observed when the corresponding organs
of perfectly healthy and vigorous animals are concerned ; fluids
possessing various properties being seen to enter into the circu-
lation, and to penetrate membranous and other textures in the
experiments alluded to, whilst in the latter case they meet with
impassable barriers. The diffusion of a diseased process, as in
the instances of the degeneration of structures in the vicinity of
malignant tumours, alluded to at page 10, does not appear to
take place until these structures have been impaired by inflam-
mation, when the new product to which this disturbance of
function gives rise presents the character possessed by the ad-
ventitious structure. This view of the case, if correct, tends to
strengthen our opinion, that inflammation is not to be regarded,
as some have supposed, as a condition of exalted vitality, but
quite the reverse. It also directs us, in our inquiry after the
chemical attributes of vitality, to fix upon the precise attractions
which it is engaged in counteracting.

Thos. Hodgkin, M.D., &c, &c.

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 149

Report from the Committee for inquiring into the Analysis of
the Glands, 8fc., of the Human Body. By G. O. Rees, M.D.,
F.G.S.

Part II.

There are but few analyses recorded of the glands of animals,
or of those solid products of disease which it seems 'desirable to
submit to the searching powers of chemistry. If we refer to
the observations of Berzelius, and the various analyses of Fromm-
herz and Gugert, performed on some of the glands from the
human subject, we cannot but be struck with the great difficul-
ties which must attend any attempt at quantitative examination
by the method of analysis adopted by these chemists. It is my
intention to propose a form for the analysis of the various solid
parts of the human frame, and so to establish a settled method
in proceeding, which shall enable us to make such comparative
experiments as may assist in the detection of any aberration
from the healthy condition of any single organ.

A diseased condition of an animal part must consist either in
the increased or decreased proportion or absence of some one
of its constituent parts, or in the addition of some adventitious
principle to its component elements. As both these conditions
are frequently present (since the latter implies the existence of
the first), it becomes of the greatest importance to be able to de-
tect not only the existence of any new principle in the diseased
part, but likewise the quantity of each constituent which is pre-
sent in health, as by that means we are enabled to ascertain
what normal constituents or portions of a constituent of the gland
have been displaced to make room for the morbid matter which
has been deposited. For this purpose we must have recourse
to quantitative analysis, and I hope to be able to show that most
of those difficulties are surmountable which appear to have de-
terred many from prosecuting this line of investigation. I have
been much encouraged to hope for a useful result from this in-
quiry, by considering how many valuable indications of disease
have been afforded us by the most simple uses of chemistry
when applied to the urine : here we observe that ascertaining
the proportion of water alone has given rise to much philoso-
phical reasoning and valuable information, as regards the eco-
nomy of the organismus ; and a steady and indefatigable inquiry
into the existence of albumen in the urine led Dr. Bright to a
discovery, the importance of which is every day becoming more

150 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

obvious, and which has deservedly stamped him as one of the
most ingenious observers in the medical profession.

I think it is hardly too much to hope that, could we procure
a sufficient number of experiments on the proportion of water
only in various glands, or in a single gland in any one disease
as compared with the healthy condition, we might be able to
arrive at some valuable information in the history of such affec-
tion.

The great difficulty in the prosecution of this inquiry lies in
the obstacles that are so frequently occurring to the performance
of post-mortem examinations, and the time which is allowed to
elapse before the inspection is made ; these difficulties, however,
are lessening every day, and at most public hospitals we have
ample opportunities for research.

The analysis of the blood and the secretion of glands has been
a subject of interest and attention to the chemical world, and I
have long wondered how it has happened that the methods of
analysis applied to such matters have never been used to inves-
tigate the chemical nature of the solid parts of animals. It is
this which I would propose, viz. the adaptation of those rules
of analysis used for the examination of the blood to the investi-
gation of the chemical nature of the glands of the human body.
When we look to the analyses of animal fluids, as performed by
the best chemists, we perceive that the constituents of such
matters (at least those which are purely animal) are considered
as determined by their solubility or insolubility in certain men-
strua ; the principal of these being water, alcohol, and aether.
Thus we have a principle, considered as a distinct component of
the blood, which is sometimes called osmazome ; this is noted
by quantity in healthy blood, and the result used for comparison;
but let us consider its right to the character of a distinct prin-
ciple, and we shall at once be constrained to allow that such
character is entirely the result of a single property, viz. its so-
lubility or insolubility in certain menstrua, these being used to
separate any one of the components of the fluid from the rest.
That any of these component parts may be compounded in
themselves is very easily credible and as easily proved ; thus the
extractive matter of urine, frequently estimated as though it were
a proximate element, is divisible, when subjected to further che-
mical reactions, into three separate forms of extractive. I merely
quote this instance to show how impossible it is (in most cases)
to look upon animal analysis in any other light than as a means
of performing comparative experiments. There is one very
important step needed, however, before we can proceed to ex-
amine the glands of the body on the same system that is used

REPORT OP MEDICAL SECTION. 151

for the blood and secretions ; this consists in fixing some de-
terminate character to the extractives we may separate by means
of the various menstrua employed in the analysis, for we require
experiments to show that alcohol will extract the same matters
from any gland that it is capable of separating from the dried
blood ; indeed it is not impossible that every gland may have a
set of extractives peculiar to itself. For this inquiry I would
especially beg attention and co-operation, as it is a subject so
extensive as to require a multitude of experiments before we
can expect any results applicable to pathology.

It is to a chemical knowledge of the nature of the various ex-
tractives that we must become indebted for ascertaining any of
those divarications from health which it will be the ultimate ob-
ject of the inquiry to detect : such a knowledge must be the
result of careful examinations and comparisons of several healthy
specimens of each organ; so that we may be able to decide upon
the true nature of any of these animal extractives. A standard
of comparison for the quantitative analysis of diseased organs
will require several quantitative experiments on each organ in
health before the normal average can be determined. I will
now proceed to show the practicability of a method of analysis,
which, if adopted, I do not doubt will develope some valuable
results to the profession. I have before stated, that in the ana-
lysis of the blood we use three principal fluids as separators of
its constituents, viz. aether, alcohol, and water. It is on the
dividing action of these fluids that I wish to proceed, and should
propose that the analysis thus divide the substance submitted
into four parts, viz. 1st. That which is soluble in aether. 2nd.
That which is soluble in water only. 3rd. That which is solu-
ble in water and alcohol. 4th. That which is insoluble in all
the three menstrua. This method, which is used for the blood,
will be found very applicable to solid matters, which, as regards
analysis, may be considered as partially dried serum. I do not
wish it to be understood from this that we must expect to sepa-
rate the same principles from each gland as we do from blood,
by means of the same menstrua, but merely that the same pro-
cess may be used ; for, as I have before stated, each gland may
have extractives peculiar to itself; but having partially divided
the constituents of the gland by means of the same menstrua
that are used for the analysis of the serum, we are better able
to examine their properties, and, moreover, have the valuable
advantage of forming comparisons with the constituents of
serum, some of which will undoubtedly be present in every or-
ganized substance of the human frame. I will now notice in
order the different divisions of our analysis, as formed by the

152 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

solubility or insolubility of animal constituents in sether, water,
and alcohol.

1st. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in
aether.

Under this head we have the various fatty matters of the
glands for consideration; and, if this plan of analysis be extended
to the products of disease in the various parts of the body, we
shall find much matter of interest in the examination of this
extract. The various modifications of fat, as occurring in dis-
eased parts, and their secretions, have scarcely procured the
attention they deserve from chemists. The peculiar nature of
the fatty matters of the blood affords every facility for an easy
passage into several varieties of that substance, and we find a
series of very interesting changes in the secretions, excretions,
morbid secretions, and growths of the human body. Thus cho-
lesterine, which was once supposed to be the result of the
secreting action of the liver, has been found in the fluid of hy-
drocele, in ovarian tumours, &c. When the nature of the fatty
matter of blood is known, it ceases to be a subject of surprise
that cholesterine is so generally distributed, for the chemical
reactions of the crystalline fat of the blood are almost identical
with those procured from cholesterine, and probably but very
slight means are needed for the reduction of one to the other.
I may mention that cholesterine differs from the crystalline fatty
matter of the blood in affording an ash having an alkaline reac-
tion on test paper, whereas the crystalline fat yields an acid
ash owing to the presence of phosphorus. In every other reac-
tion, however, these substances are so much alike that it is
almost impossible to distinguish them. I find that the alkaline
ashes of cholesterine are in about the proportion of 2*5 per cent.,
containing an alkaline, carbonate, and muriate, traces of sulphate
and phosphate, and also phosphate and carbonate of lime.

The other forms of fatty matter met with in animal analysis
are adipocere and common animal fat. I now come to the
second division of our analysis, viz. :

2nd. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble
in water only.

In the analysis of the blood, the extractive procured as soluble
in water only consists apparently of albumen in combination
with soda. The extractive procured by similar treatment of
any of the glands of the body will require examination, and
constitute an important part of our inquiry, as it probably may
be of different nature in each gland. This extractive, as pro-
cured from blood, is precipitable by acetic acid, the precipitate
consisting of albumen in a gelatinous form.

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 153

3rd. Those constituents of animal matter which are soluble in
water and alcohol.

The extractive procured from blood, as soluble in water and
alcohol, is that to which the name of osmazome has been given
by chemists ; it is called extrait de viande by the French, as
procured from the blood it is precipitable of a brown colour by
infusion of galls ; the precipitate thrown down by subacetate
(or di-acetate) of lead is soluble in an excess of that reagent.
These reactions are sufficient to guide us in making our compa-
rative experiments.

4th. Lastly, we shall notice those constituents of animal
matter which are insoluble in all the three menstrua employed in
our analysis.

This residuum, as procured from the serum of blood, consists
of albumen, but is of different constitution in the various glands
and solid parts of the body; thus the more firm portions of each
gland are made up of the insoluble structure of blood vessels
and absorbents, with more or less of the albuminous net work
of the cellular tissue, making up the parenchyma. It will be
necessary for us to set down these various parts under a single
head, as we do not possess any means of separation ; still, although
we are thus prevented from ascertaining any deficiency or excess
in any single one of these insoluble constituents of the gland,
yet we shall very probably be able, by comparison of the three
together with the similar combination in healthy specimens, to
arrive at data which may be useful to us.

Having now glanced at the probable contents of each extract-
ive, I shall proceed to describe particularly each step in the
prosecution of the analysis.

Directions for the analysis of solid animal matters.

A certain weight of the animal substance, sliced as minutely
as convenient for manipulation, is to be carefully dried over a
water-bath till it ceases to lose weight, the dry residuum being
weighed ; the loss experienced is to be noticed in the analysis
as " water." Water.

The dried animal matter is now to be digested, with three
times its bulk of rectified aether, for four or five hours in a closed
test tube, the mixture being shaken frequently. This aether being
poured off, a second portion is to be added, and allowed to digest
on the animal matter in a like manner. We thus procure an
eethereal solution A, and a residuum B.

A. The aethereal solution being allowed to evaporate to dryness,
the fatty matters deposited are to be dried over a water bath, Fats.
and their weight ascertained.

B. Water, at a temperature of 212°, and equalling six times the

154 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

bulk of the solid matter, is to be digested on the residuum for
half an hour ; this liquor being poured off, a second portion is to
be added and similarly digested; this mixture is now to be thrown
on a filter, and washed with boiling distilled water, until the per-
colating fluid ceases to afford a precipitation by a solution of
nitrate of silver*. The first and second digested liquors, and
the washings being added together, are now to be evaporated
over a water bath till dry, and till no more weight can be lost
by further use of the bath heat.

We thus procure an aqueous extract C, and leave on the filter
an insoluble residue D. The weight of extract C must be taken.

Insoluble Jj) # The residue on the filter is now to be dried, its weight ascer-

matter'and ta i ne d> an d set down in the analysis as insoluble albuminous

vascularis- matter and vascular tissue.

sue - C. The aqueous extract is next to be acted upon by digestion

for a quarter of an hour, with four times its bulk of alcohol, at
a boiling heat. The solution so formed being poured off, a
second portion of alcohol is to be similarly digested, the mixture
then thrown on a filter, and the liquor allowed to percolate. The
two portions of fluid being added together are next to be eva-
porated to dryness over the water bath. We thus procure an
alcoholic extract E, and leave on the filter an extractive F, which
is not soluble in alcohol. The former is to be dried and weighed,
and estimated as " extractive soluble in alcohol and water,"
and the latter, similarly prepared, is to be estimated as " extract-
ive soluble in water only." The added weights of these two
extractives should equal that of the extract Cf.

In conclusion, I must express my regret at having been pre-
vented by a variety of circumstances from bringing forward ana-
lyses of glands, either healthy or affected by some well-recog-
nized degeneration. I have, I hope, made some amends by
proposing a set form of examination, by the adoption of which,
analyses, though executed by a variety of persons, may be made
serviceable as comparative experiments in any single inquiry.
The adoption of some such form is quite necessary before the
objects of the Association can be answered ; for they have pro-
posed a subject far too extensive to be developed, otherwise
than by a multitude of experimenters, all working by the same
rule of analysis.

* No washings are to be commenced until all the liquor of digestion has first
passed through the filter.

N. B. The silver test can be used on a single drop of the filtering fluid.

t These extractives, as also the insoluble albuminous tissue, must be incine-
rated, the ashes examined, and noticed in the analysis.

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 155

Second Report of the London Sub-Committee of the British
Association Medical Section, on the Motions and Sounds of
the Heart.

The Committee appointed in London by the British Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, to investigate the Motions
and Sounds of the Heart, have the honor to lay before this meet-
ing a short account of some investigations of the abnormal
sounds of the heart and arteries in which they have been recent-
ly occupied.

Before describing these, the Committee would remark, that
although their last inquiries have not been specially directed
to that subject, yet they have had many opportunities of verify-
ing the conclusions on the natural sounds as presented in their
report of last year ; and these conclusions not having been since
shaken by any experiment or rational objection, it may be con-
sidered as fairly established, that the first or systolic sound of
the heart is essentially caused by the sudden and forcible tight-
ening of the muscular fibres of the ventricles when they contract ;
and that the second sound, which accompanies the diastole of
the ventricles, depends solely on the reaction of the arterial
columns of blood on the semilunar valves at the arterial orifices.
It further appears that the first sound may be increased by an
additional sound of impulsion against the walls of the chest,
under certain circumstances of posture, of increased action of
the heart, and of certain stages of the respiratory movements.
It is also obvious that the character of the first sound may in
some measure depend on the closure of the auriculo- ventricular
valves, and on the quantity of blood ; inasmuch as these deter-
mine the nature and time of the resistance against which the
muscular fibres of the ventricles tighten. So, likewise, the vigour
of the ventricular systole, the quantity of blood propelled by it,
the sudden and complete character of the diastole, the fulness of
the arterial trunks, as well as the perfect, mobile, and mem-
branous condition of the semilunar valves, — will determine the
character and loudness of the second sound. An experimental
illustration of the effect of one of these conditions was observed
by the Committee in the great diminution of the second sound
by the free division of the carotid artery, which would greatly
diminish the arterial tension.

As additional illustrations of the production of a sound, like
that of the heart, by muscular contraction, the Committee have
noticed that which accompanies the action of the panniculus
carnosus of the ass during life, and the quivering contraction

156 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837«

of various muscles immediately after death. The sound produced
in the latter case, in nature and frequency, closely resembled the
first sound of the heart of the foetus, or of small animals.

In investigating the morbid sounds of the heart, the atten-
tion of the Committee has been chiefly directed to the causes of
those remarkable and various phenomena called murmurs, which
are either added to, or supersede the natural sounds of the heart,
and which were happily compared by Laennec to the familiar
noises of blowing, filing, rasping, sawing, purring, cooing, &c.
This inquiry consists of two parts : 1. What is the essential
physical cause of the phenomena in question ? and 2. How does
the apparatus of the circulation develope this cause in the various
instances in which these phenomena are known to occur ? To
the first of these questions the experiments of the Committee
supply what they trust will be deemed a satisfactory answer.
The second is to be fully answered by extensive clinical and
pathological observation, rather than by direct experiment ; and
although a few physiological illustrations will be cited to this
point, yet the Committee do not profess to do more than to open
this inquiry to all those who have the means of pursuing it.

Experiments on the production of sound by the motion of water
through tubes.

A Caoutchouc tube, eighteen inches long, and three-eighths of
an inch in diameter, was attached to the stop-cock of a reservoir
in which there was water to the depth of eight or ten inches.

When the water flowed unimpeded through this tube (all
the air being first expelled,* and the lower end of the tube kept
under water in a vessel below) no sound was heard ; but on press-
ing any part of the tube so as to diminish its caliber, a blowing
sound was heard, at and below thepoint of pressure, and this sound
became louder and more whizzing as the pressure was increased.
The loudest sounds were obtained at the lowest end of the tube,
where they were sometimes quite musical ; and by increasing the
pressure or the current at regular intervals, a periodic increase
and raising of the sound were produced, closely resembling the
murmur sometimes heard in the neck, to which the French have
given the name of " bruit de diable."

A pin being stuck transversely through the tube, a slight blow-
ing was heard ; which was made louder on substituting for the pin
a bit of split goose- quill. A stronger blowing was produced by
a double thread across the diameter of the tube, especially when

* As long as any air remains in the tube, a loud crepitation accompanies the
current.

REPORT OP MEDICAL SECTION. 157

the thread was rather loose ; and a still louder and shriller sound
ensued when a knot of string was fastened to the thread.

The same tube being adapted to the stop-cock of a water-sup-
ply pipe, through which the current could be left to pass with
great force, it was found possible to imitate every variety of
blowing, whizzing, and musical murmurs, by varying the pressure
on, or impediment in, the tube, and by altering the force of the
current. When the current was strong, the least impediment
caused a murmur ; but with weaker currents, greater obstructions
became necessary for the same effect. A partial obstruction,
which with a weak current gave a blowing sound, produced, with
a stronger current, one of a more whizzing character. Grating
or rasping sounds were best obtained by the effect of a strong
current on a knotted thread across the diameter of the tube. The
musical or uniform sounds resulted from a moderately strong cur-
rent through a considerable impediment : increasing the force of
the current, or the degree of obstruction, rendered the sound
whizzing and imperfect ; diminishing the current or the obstruc-
tion, converted it into a simple blowing. When a sound was of
an appreciable pitch, its note was high in proportion to the force
of the current and the amount of the obstruction j a fine forcible
stream producing the highest note. Sometimes, however, with
a strong current, a loud trumpet note would be set up, which
was not altered in pitch, but only in force, by changing the strength
of the current. This kind of note produced vibrations of the
tube below the impediment, perceptible to sight and touch, and
the length of this portion of the tube seemed to affect the cha-
racter of the note. This phenomenon precisely represented the
purring sound and tremor sometimes perceptible in the heart
and arteries. Musical sounds of a more variable character, like
the cooing of a dove, the humming of an insect, or the whistling
of wind, were produced with a weak current passing through a
tube much obstructed. The pressure of a column of water only
two or three inches high, was sufficient to give acute whistling
notes, which were sustained, although varying, even when the
water that passed only fell in drops.

Bending the tube to an angleproduced a murmur, butno sound
resulted from any curve that did not infringe on the caliber of
the tube. A circular constriction by a thread drawn round the
tube caused a murmur, which was blowing or whizzing accord-
ing to the force of the current.

When the tube with a weak current was pressed on at two
points, the murmur was heard at the point where the pressure
was greatest j and by increasing the pressure at one point the
pressure was stopped at the other. When the current was strong,

158 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

it was easy by a pretty equal pressure to cause a murmur at
both points.

With a stout Caoutchouc tube, two feet long and one inch in
internal diameter, the same results were obtained, but in a more
remarkable degree, in consequence of the increased size of the
tube. When the current was strong and the pressure on the
tube considerable, sounds were produced loud enough to be heard
without applying the stethoscope or the ear ; and the vibrations
of the tube below the obstruction were so strong that they threw
the water in little jets from the outside of the tube.

In making this experiment, the pressure of the water sudden-
ly distended a portion of the tube into a globe about three inches
in diameter, constituting a good imitation of a circumscribed
true aneurism. As long as the force of the current was suffi-
cient to keep the walls of the dilated portion tense, no sound
was heard in them ; but when these walls became flaccid, the
passing current caused a kind of fremitus in them. Pressure
on the dilatation, or bending the tube so as to form an angle at
this point, also sometimes occasioned a murmur.

A globular India-rubber bottle, three inches in diameter, being
adapted to an aperture in the side of a tube half an inch in dia-
meter, so as to form an elastic sac communicating with it, a
current was directed through it and all the air expelled. The
same was done with a tube three-eighths of an inch in diameter,
and a bottle of an inch and a half. In some positions of the
tube, the current in passing the lateral sac caused a fremitus ;
but in others, as when the tube was straight, there was no sound.
A sudden increase of current, or the removal of external pressure
from the sac, occasioned a whizzing by the entry of water into
the sac. Independently of the current, sudden forcible pressure
caused a whizzing with the expulsion of the fluid, and a similar
whizzing attended the rapid reflux into the sac, on the removal
of the pressure.

Some of these experiments were repeated with water, rendered
somewhat viscid with size. The results differed only in requi-
ring a stronger force of current to produce the same effect.

Remarks and conclusions.

From all these results, it is sufficiently plain that a certain re-
sistance or impediment to a liquid current is the essential phy-
sical cause of all murmurs produced by the motion of fluids in
tubes. That any condition of the walls of the tube beyond the
impeding point is not, as it has been supposed, essential to the
production of these sounds, is proved by the fact that they may
be produced by a partial obstruction at the terminal orifice of

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 159

the tube, or at the mouth of a gum elastic bottle, where there
is no tube or wall beyond to cause them : usually, this is the
situation where they can be most readily produced, because
here the current has acquired its greatest momentum, and finds
a free exit beyond the obstructing point. The more flaccid state
of the portion of a tube beyond a partially obstructed point is a
necessary effect of the scantier supply of water beyond the im-
pediment. It is therefore a necessary concomitant of the ob-
struction and its sound, but is not the cause of the sound. When,
however, the sound occasioned by the obstruction is strong, its
vibrations may be communicated to the whole contents and walls
of the lube beyond, which will then vibrate in system with it,
and be capable of modifying its note, just as the tube of a reed
instrument affects the note which is exclusively generated in the
reed. On the other hand, when the sound generated in the ob-
struction is weak and varying, the condition of the tube or walls
beyond it will not affect it.

In short, the laws of the production of sound by liquids so
nearly resemble those which regulate the same phenomenon
in air, that illustrations for the one may be taken for the other.

It may be proper to advert to an objection to this view, that
a murmur is sometimes caused where there is no impediment
to the course of a liquid, as when it passes suddenly from a small
into a large tube, or into a sac. Now it is not true that in
such a case there is no impediment, for the liquid in the large
tube or sac, having less velocity, must in itself be an impediment.
Besides this, the course of the smaller swift current becomes
changed by spreading into the larger channel ; and instead of
running smoothly parallel to the tube, now strikes its walls at
an angle, causing a series of impulses and resistances, which, if
forcible and rapid enough, constitute the vibrations of sound.
It may be remarked, however, that this modification of a moving
current is not so constantly attended with the production of
sound as the direct obstacle presented by a narrowing of or pro-
jection into the caliber of the tube. A current issuing from a
tube or orifice into a larger vessel or sac, is also capable of pro-
ducing a sound by impinging against an opposite surface.

Experiments on the production of murmurs in the living body.

About two inches of the length of the common carotid artery
of a young ass was laid bare. Different degrees of pressure,
either by the stethoscope or by a probe passed under it, occa-
sioned a variety of murmurs, blowing, sawing, filing, and musical
cooing at each pulse. When the stethoscope was merely placed

160 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

in contact, without pressure, no murmur was heard ; but when
the heart acted strongly, a simple impulse and sound.

The artery was scratched for a few seconds with the point
of a scalpel ; it gradually became sensibly smaller for the length
of half an inch about that point. A strong solution of salt being
applied, the contraction increased, but it was still of a gradual
and tapering kind, and the stethoscope could detect no murmur
in it ; but very slight pressure on it caused a whizzing. The
pulse at this contracted portion was felt to be much harder and
sharper than above or below it.

A small incision being made into the artery, a jet of blood
issued, and a whizzing, sometimes in pulses, sometimes conti-
nuous like the bruit de (liable, was heard beyond the orifice,
but not at the portion of the artery nearest to the heart, the sound
being, as usual, carried in the direction of the current. The in-
cision being made larger, the blood spouted to the distance of
more than six feet, and the animal died in ten minutes after this
last incision ; the beats of the heart were frequent, short, and
pretty loud, but without a second sound, and to the last with-
out a murmur. They continued for nearly two minutes after
the respiration and consciousness had ceased, becoming gradu-
ally slower.

The Committee repeated the observation that has often been
made before, that a murmur can easily be produced by press-
ure on the subclavian, carotid, or femoral artery of the hu-
man subject. This murmur is generally of a grating or filing
character, and is prolonged in proportion to the degree of pressure.

Whilst making the observations on the carotids, they found
that a continuous murmur of very remarkable and variable cha-
racters could be produced by pressure on the jugular veins, espe-
cially in the angle formed by the sterno-mastoid muscle with
the clavicle. The most common sound thus produced was like
the humming of a gnat or fly ; but occasionally it resembled the
whistling of the wind, the singing of a kettle, the cooing of a
dove, and sometimes it was perfectly what the French have called
the "bruit de diable." Dr. Ogier Ward of Birmingham had pre-
viously come to the conclusion that this sound is produced in
the jugular veins, and the observations of the Committee con-
firm this inference : but they do not agree with this physician
in the opinion, which he adopts from MM. Andral and Bouil-
laud, that the presence of this sound denotes a chlorotic state
of the system, for which steel is indicated, or that it is essentially
a morbid symptom at all. It may be produced in the healthiest
subjects by moderate pressure applied to the lower part of the
jugular veins, and is then found to be modified by various cir-

REPORT OF MEDICAL SECTION. 161

cumstances which can only affect the venous current. Thus it
may be arrested or diminished by pressure on the vein above,
by the horizontal posture or hanging down the head, and by
forced efforts to expire with the glottis closed. It may be restored
in increased degree by suddenly desisting from any of these acts
or circumstances. The occasional pulsatory or remittent cha-
racter of this sound seems to depend on the momentary increase
of pressure caused by each pulse of the neighbouring artery ;
and when, as sometimes happens, these pulses are attended with
a whizzing, this is in a measure incorporated with the venous
sound, and increases the periodic swell. The size and down-
ward current of the jugular veins peculiarly adapt them for
the production of sound, but probably sounds may be pro-
duced in most other large veins when circumstances accele-
rate the current through them. The Committee have detected
an obscure murmur in some of the large superficial veins of
the arm and thigh. This murmur is not in pulses, and is to
be distinguished from muscular sounds by its being confined to
the situation of the veins, and its being immediately arrested by
pressure on the vein. Occasionally a pretty loud murmur or
fremitus is to be heard on either side of the upper portion of
the sternum, which, from its resemblance in character to the ve-
nous sounds, may be supposed to have its seat in the large ve-
nous trunks that lie underneath.

Although it appears from these facts that the venous sounds
are not necessarily signs of disease, yet the circumstance proved
by the Committee, that water is thrown into sonorous vibrations
more readily than a fluid of a more glutinous character, renders it
probable that these and other sounds depending on the motion of
liquids in the apparatus of the circulation may be more easily
produced where the blood is thin and deficient in quantity ; and
under these circumstances they may occur in the neck from the
mere pressure of the muscles on the jugular veins.

The Committee had planned several experiments for the
further elucidation of the second part of the inquiry, By what
changes, functional and structural, does the apparatus of the
circulation develope the physical causes of the abnormal mur-
murs and sounds in the various instances m which they are
known to occur ? This part of the inquiry, so important for the
elucidation of several obscure points in pathology, diagnosis and
practice, the Committee propose to resume, if the Association
should think proper to recommend them to continue their labours.
Signed Charles J. B. Williams, M.D., F.R.S.

R. B. Todd, M.D., Professor of Physiology
and Pathology, King's College, London.

vol. vi. 1837. m

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 163

On the present state of our knowledge in regard to Dimor-
phous Bodies. By Prof. Johnston.

The subject of the following Report is one in regard to which
our knowledge is yet in its infancy. It has arrived, however,
at that state in which a detailed exposition and critical exami-
nation of all the facts hitherto observed, is likely to lead to new
inquiries, to call new observers into the field, and thus more
rapidly to dissipate the obscurity with which it is invested. It
will not be uninteresting also in after years to look back upon
the facts actually established, the views entertained, and the
speculations hazarded at the present time, — to mark how far
the phenomena were rightly interpreted, — what glimmerings of
truth were mingled with the early speculations, — at what rate
this department of knowledge had subsequently advanced, and
how far this advance had been promoted or retarded by the
hypothetical views of its first cultivators *.

1. When the forms and dimensions of crystallized bodies
began to be accurately observed and recorded, it was soon re-
cognized that these might be classed among the most distinct
and specific characters which solid bodies possessed. Observa-
tion seemed at first to show that each substance, simple and

• How much the progress of science depends on the mode in which pheno-
mena are interpreted by the first observers is strikingly illustrated in the case
of certain experiments of Robert Boyle. He observed that when copper, lead,
iron, and tin were heated to redness in the air, a portion of calx was formed,
and there was a constant and decided increase of weight. — (Experiments to
make Fire and Flame ponderable. London, 1673.) This experiment he re-
peated with lead and tin in glass vessels hermetically sealed, and found still an
increase of weight, but observed further, that when " the sealed neck of the re-
tort was broken tiff, the external air rushed in with a noise." — (Additional ex-
periments, No..V., and a discovery of the perviousness of glass to ponderable
parts of flame, Exp. III.) From this he-reasoned correctly, that in calcination
tbe metal lost nothing by drying up, as was generally supposed, or that if it did,
" by this operation it gained more weight than it lost." — (Coroll. II.) But
this increase of weight he attributed to the fixation of heat, stating it as "plain
that igneous particles were trajected through the glass," and that " enough of
them to be manifestly ponderable did permanently adhere." Had he weighed
his sealed retort before he broke it open, he must have concluded that the metal
had increased in weight at the expense of the inclosed air. He stood in fact
on the very brink of the pneumatic chemistry of Priestley ; he had in his
hand the key to the great discovery of Lavoisier. How nearly were those
philosophers anticipated by a whole century, and the long interregnum of
Phlogiston prevented ! On what small oversights do great events in the his-
tory of science as of nations depend !

M 2

164 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

compound, assumed, on crystallizing, a form peculiar to itself,
and that this form constituted an unfailing specific character, —
(Haiiy.) Crystals belonging to the regular system presented
the only apparent exceptions.

2. After a time, however, the generality of this conclusion
was further narrowed by the doctrine of isomorphism, which
showed that form alone, even when not tessular, was insufficient
in many cases to determine the chemical constitution of a body*.
Still, in these new exceptions, the form indicated the nature and
constitution of a substance within certain limits, that it was a
member of this or that isomorphous group, elevating crystalline
dimensions in such instances from the rank of a specific to that
of a generic character. Even this place, however, they did not
long retain undisturbed.

3. Founded on the principle that the molecules of crystalline
bodies have themselves a regular crystalline form, the doctrine
of isomorphism hitherto recognised, that for each substance,
simple and compound, this form was one and invariable ; though
not necessarily a specific that it was a constant character.

4. The earliest measurements of artificial crystals had been
made on such as were formed in ordinary circumstances of tem-
perature and by the most usual methods of manipulation.
Occasionally, however, crystals formed at higher temperatures
or under peculiar circumstances attracted attention ; and in
certain cases these new crystals were found to differ in form or
dimensions from the ordinary form of the same substance, to
such an extent that they could not be derived from each other
by the ordinary laws of crystallization. Thus sulphur crystal-
lized from fusion differs in form from the natural crystals and
from those deposited from solutions of sulphurf. And as the
resources or results of analytical chemistry were multiplied so
as to place beyond doubt the chemical identity of different spe-
cimens, the examples of such differences gradually increased in
number. Natural substances also were met with, crystallized
under circumstances not well understood and generally beyond
our imitation, which, though shown to agree in chemical con-
stitution, yet differed wholly in form. Graphite and the dia-
mond, both forms of pure carbon j — arragonite, and calc spar,
both pure carbonate of lime, are groups of this kind.

5. To mark the singular character possessed by these bodies,
they have been distinguished by the term dimorphous, and the
abstract property by that of dimorphism.

* Mitscherlich, An. de Chim. et de Phys., XIV. p. 172.

t In bisulphuret of carbon, or in quadri (?) sulphuret of hydrogen.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 165

6. It appears, therefore, that the crystalline form of a body
is not only not a specific character, but that it is not even a
constant character. It might also appear at first sight that
this new result of observation would materially weaken the evi-
dence in favour of isomorphism ; that though two bodies (A
and B) do assume the same form, or replace each other in cer-
tain circumstances, yet since one of them (A) is capable of
assuming two incompatible forms, they may not in all cir-
cumstances either assume the same form or be capable of mutual
replacement.

7. A further observation, however, though it does not obviate
entirely,aswe shall afterwards have occasion to remark, the neces-
sity of attending to this argument, yet establishes a beautiful con-
nection between dimorphous and isomorphous bodies, and points
to some more general law, probably of molecular arrangement,
by which both classes of phenomena are regulated and linked
together. Certain groups of isomorphous bodies have been met
with, each individual of which groups is dimorphous or capable of
assuming two incompatible forms (A and B), yet in their second
form (B), as in their first (A), they are still isomorphous. Thus
carbonate of lime and nitrate of potash are both dimorphous,
and one of the forms of nitre is isomorphous with calc spar, the
other with arragonite, which are the two forms of carbonate of
lime. Such groups have been distinguished by the term isodi-
morphous. AH the known groups of this kind will be inserted
in a subsequent part of this report (16).

8. The principle of dimorphism thus recognised, is one of
great interest in the present state of chemical physics. Con-
nected on the one hand with the crystalline doctrine of isomor-
phism, and on the other, as we shall hereafter see, with the
chemical doctrine of isomerism, it maybe regarded as standingbe-
tween the two, and as likely to throw light on the cause of both.

9. The case of dimorphism, which was earliest known to che-
mists and mineralogists, is presented by carbonate of lime in
the two incompatible forms of arragonite and calc spar. Stro-
meyer attempted to account for the difference between these
two minerals by showing that arragonite always contained car-
bonate of strontian to the amount of from ^ to 4 per cent., and
from J- to \ per cent, of water* ; and the presence of these sub-

* Untersuchung iiber die Mischung der Mineralkorper und anderer damit
vervjandten Substanzen. Gbttingen, 1821. In this work are ten analyses of
arragonites, undertaken in confirmation of his previously published opinion,
which had been controverted. Great credit was due to Stromeyer for his
beautiful analyses, but there is now no reason to believe that either strontia or
water are necessary constituents of arragonite.

166 SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

stances was considered by many chemists to afford a plausible
explanation of what was then regarded as a very singular ano-
maly. A few years after the publication of this opinion, how-
ever, Mitscherlich observed a similar difference between the
form of sulphur crystallized from fusion, and that in which it
occurs in the mineral kingdom* ; and as in this case it was easy
to prove the absence of any foreign body, it became necessary to
attribute the difference to some other cause than that advanced
by Stromeyer, to explain the production of arragonite. The pro-
secution of the inquiry soon put into the hands of Mitscherlich
other examples, and since that period scarcely a year has passed
without adding some new facts to our growing knowledge.

10. The following table contains a list of all the substances
hitherto described as dimorphous, and it embodies nearly every
thing we at present know in regard to the chemical and physical
differences which the several forms of these substances present.
See opposite table.

1 1 . To this list might have been added anatase and futile, were
it not that some doubt still exists as to whether both of these
minerals consist of titanic acid only. They crystallize in square
prisms of different dimensions and having different cleavages.
The bichromate of potash appears also to be dimorphous, cry-
stallizing from fusion, in a form which it does not retain on
cooling f. I have also obtained from a London manufacturer
crystals of iodide of potassium in square prisms three-eighths
of an inch (f in.) in length, which are frequently deposited
along with the ordinary cubical crystals from the concentrated
solution. On resolution and evaporation they give only cubes.
They exhibit traces of double refraction, which, however, the
opacity of the crystals renders very indistinct. Mr. Brooke, to
whom I have submitted them, is unable to pronounce decidedly
as to their form, from the want of well-defined secondary faces.
Like the capillary red oxide of copper from Cornwall, they may
be only an aggregation of cubes. DufrenoyJ states that cast
iron has been observed in cubes and in rhomboids, but the
statement is of too uncertain a kind to be deserving of much
confidence § . Among the ordinary crystals of sulphate of pot-
ash with two axes, Sir David Brewster states that he observed
some six-sided prisms with only one axis of double refraction.

* Poggend. AnnalenYll. p. 528, (1826.)

t See Table IV. p. 26.

% An. de Chim. et de Phys.. LVI. p. 198.

§ It was formerly considered that the sulphates of zinc and magnesia belonged
to the group of dimorphous sulphates, but later observations of Mitscherlich
have shown that the supposed second form contains only 6 atoms of water.

e kno^

Hardne
1-5 to i

1- to 5
3-5 to <

2'5 to :

2- to :

3 - 5 to •

6- to I
Do.

2-5 to

3-5 to

35 to

3-5 to

30 to

2-5 to

II. Bi*in»rntary Compound!

■ ' ■ ■;■■ !■

■

Solpburtt of Silu-r

Sulphur.-! of Manganic, .

Biniodide of Mcrcurj

Bichloride of Mercury

Aran'

,.\ Qf 3 EUmcnli

Carbonate of Magnesia, ..

■■*

On™ of Lead

■

rv -^^/j.^.-^V,

Sdemate of Zinc,

«i

Bundphatc of Potash,

..A

Idocra*

Sulphato Tricarbooate of Lead,.

CnS di c».s
AgS or Ag,S

CtO+CO,

tfgO+CO,
PcO+CO

PbO+cOj

KO+NOj

PbO+CrO,

s,M_. S0|+7H0

ZnO+SfjO^ WO

KO+S0,+HO+SO,

i ;■ ( o*+srf) j '

PbS+3Ph(

I Hi. Rh. IV. M ..„ M 10] -'.9 Ha
T Reg. Ociulicdriiii

| Oi whed i

iir.v ..,,„!,
|ui. id,, iv

{"""""•
i Bt in,

:::,■;■

■■ ill,,,, '-

| 111. Ill:

m, iv

I R( Rfa Pi U ... M '

\ Si)uar, pri

/Rl. Rh. Pr

Table I.— Exhibiting a list of a ll the kn own dimo r phous b odies, and the observed differences in the physical properties of the two forms of each substance. 1837.

\! I.iutlv

Cunininnl) ...

Abund. in lied Copper

Rarely in Kiipfcr liliitht

Generally ...

Abuti.lanllv

AlninihmtU
Rarely

fiivurtri! in a-ii» Itiug I'niii.i, e \\,,|,l,i

Nttive in white antimony

Evaporating a. solution of MgC in C.

iiv i-ispn r.ii-., Mi.i

I M . ..,.,, K tot:

5 Kr. 2-0B91 H.

■NaliPt. brown, 1
. yd. green ...)

-|.l. ndi-iil. L-las
Adamantine ..

Vitreuoi. pearly ..
Vjircons. pearly...

Heforc blow-pipe melts quietly

The form D generally midr

t 60° 1-25 212 s 1 1-50 Cm

AtG0°F. 14-3 212T. 100.
More soluble than A

At 212" 200 pts..
Largely lolnhlt* .,

Seventh Report of British Association, to face p. 166.

ion. TtuHlnihorbmei

■"■ I 'iv iliciciilti. account for n

I , I'm i -Ii -uflii-i *'■! He purtirl.'i in iii.xi.ii

I \lii. i'li< Tlii-li Munlo lln i are |iml ml.lv ill- i

| ■

lolutionofopikeinuiInHClenu'l ■ lug

*"!'" I" filn^s ■■. t-n.'i u,.l I. I, |i , .-., .i.,;i,.|,i U ; Hi, ,u ,i,,l, ar -tmV.lr

anil in miss upako. Tli.- glut; a.'nl i- tli.-r.-fi.n- . ill., i lln- r»rm II >ir in .1 lh.nl Male

I in.h.itcl grin. pi of magnesia allm.

C tlircnnnlmviifmiiii.il, I i,. Int. mi- ii nil.- ipnr, from hoi amigniii

i-.illigui.^;iiii.|.-rr..|iil-ili -■ - I In I hli.i.Ki iiln.li^|.:ic

dryness the urrag tic cry-tuli arc ..luiunnl iiiim

kcritc are urifnrtimatily left in doubt
'in r.ilh riiiimled. It OCC

icd, i- n hod

In the air th<< rhombic Hni,n-«ci mnte rci-lih thud il.c w|unre pri Ms ■

Hose, Pog. ,(n.,\lii-i

John! BrewiWi

Miticlicrlieb, Levy, I

Fnmkcnhcim, Pog. .■

Mag., Mayl
UiUchcrllch.

'/, II,,..;, Qui, '.,-■ .. ■

. Km Kupfci . A". . Kani

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 167

If these were crystals of sulphate they would indicate a dimor-
phism in this salt also. — Edin. Phil. Jour., vol. i.

Other substances likely to prove dimorphous are inserted in
Table III., and it is not impossible that some of those forms
now considered pseudo-morphic, may hereafter appear to be true
cases of dimorphism.

Several observations suggest themselves on a glance at this
table.

12. The number of substances contained in it, and of which
the dimorphism has been discovered in so short a time, renders
it very doubtful whether the crystalline form assumed by any
given substance is one only and invariable.

13. The several forms of the same substance possess different
physical properties, — different colour, hardness, density, or
relations to heat and light. This is true of every pair of di-
morphous bodies in the table, yet in all of them the chemical
relations remain unchanged. The only trace of an exception,
yet observed, is in the different solubilities of the two forms of
arsenious acid and in the different behaviour of garnet and vesu-
vian before the blow-pipe. These chemical differences, how-
ever, are too obscure to demand much attention in this place ;
were they distinct and well-defined, the compounds which ex-
hibit them, should be removed from the class of simply dimor-
phous to that of isomeric bodies*.

It appears, therefore, that dimorphous bodies exhibit in their
several forms physical differences only, the chemical relations
remaining unchanged. To this remarkable characteristic of
such bodies we shall have occasion to advert when we come to
inquire into the cause of dimorphism and its connection with
isomerism.

14. In the relation between the first and second forms of several In dimor-
of the groups in the Table, a striking analogy presents itself, phous com
In the carbonates of lime, of magnesia, of lead, and of iron, and in JjXch Wie-
the nitrate of potash, the first form being a rhomboid of nearly mentis di-
equal dimensions in all, the second form is a right rhombic prism morphous.
similarly related in dimensions. In arsenious acid and oxide of
antimony, the first form is the regular octohedron, the second a

right rhombic prism. In each form these substances are iso-
morphous, or they are isoditnorphous.

* Though alike in chemical constitution, the two forms of arsenious acid
and garnet may be the result of isomerism. In minerals represented by so
complicated a formula as garnet and vesuvian, it is impossible to say that the
elements are not very differently arranged, that they are not, in fact, different
substances.

168 SEVENTH REPORT — L837-

II.

15. Of Isodimorphous Groups. — In my report on the ac-
tual state of chemical science, published in 1832, p. 433*, I
drew attention to the remarkable fact that two substances
known to be dimorphous, the carbonates of lime and lead, cry-
stallized each in two forms, the analogous pairs of which were
also isomorphous. To distinguish this new character I sug-
gested the term isodimorphous, and I stated as probable that
we should " soon be able to embrace the whole of the isomor-
phous groups to which calc spar, and arragonite severally
belong in one large isodimorphous group." This expectation
has already been partly verifiedf, while other groups have been
discovered connecting other systems of crystallization also, and
holding out the promise of large accessions to this branch of
knowledge as observations become more extended.

16. The following table comprises all the groups of these
substances, and all the members belonging to these groups with
which we are at present acquainted.

* Report of the British Association, vol. i.

•)- See especially the interesting paper of G. Rose, (Pog. An. xlii. p. 366),
whose experiments are still in progress and promise new accessions to this list,
as well as to our knowledge of the circumstances under which the several forms
are produced.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

169

U o

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*".

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'£

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1 C

5 i
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- +
> o

C
2

" C

1 V

1 t

? a
t

. a

r h

i c

3 a

1 H

) c
2

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170 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837-

Relation 1^. Remarks on the Table of Isodimorphous Groups. — One

among sy- f ^g mos t striking facts exhibited by this table is the existence
cmtalliza- °f an intimate relation between certain forms not mutually de-
tion. rivable ; — between the several systems of crystallization. That

these systems are natural is proved both by geometrical consi-
derations, and by the fact that the same substance crystallized
in forms belonging to different systems possesses different phy-
sical properties (13), yet the isodimorphous groups show that
there is a relation, not accidental but constant between crystals
of a given dimension in one system and crystals of a given di-
mension in another system. Thus in the first group the

Rhomboid of 105° to 107° is related to the Rt. Rh. Prism of 116° to 118°

Regular Octohedron Rt. Rh. Prism of 139° in the second.

Do. Rhomboid of 71-30 in the third.

Square Pi ism Rt. Rh. Prism of 9P10 in the fourth.

18. The form of the crystal is dependent on the form and ar-
rangement of the crystalline molecules ; instead however of
necessarily agreeing in form with either of those observed in the
crystal, the phenomena of dimorphism show that they probably
differ from both, and by their union in the direction of one or
other of two axes of attraction of nearly equal force build up
one or other of the observed crystalline forms. If the connec-
tion between the system of crystallization indicated by the table
be really of this kind ; if forms constantly related in dimension,
but belonging to different systems, may be formed by the collo-
cation of molecules of one constant form, it is not impossible
that this relation may hereafter be expressed analytically ; that
more general formulae may be obtained involving the properties
of two or more systems, and by means of which the form and
dimensions of the molecules may be deduced from those of the
dimorphous crystals which are made up of them, and which we
can measure.

19. While tracing the connection of the forms of dimorphous
bodies we are naturally led to inquire if any relation be obser-
vable between the form assumed and the physical properties
which accompany it. Our data are still too few and imperfect
to enable us to give any satisfactory answer to this inquiry.

In regard to density, the observations recorded in Table I.
would indicate that the same substance —

Sulphur in the form of a Rh. Octohed. is more dense than in that of an Ob. Rh. Prism.

Carbon Reg. Octohed. Rhomboid.

Bisulphuret of Iron"!

and V- Reg. Octohed. — Rt. Rh. Prism.

Arsenious Acid |

Carbonate of Lime "]

and l Rt Rh. Pr. Rhomboid.

Baryto Calcite J

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 171

or that in these forms the molecules are nearest to each other
in the following order :—

Reg. Octohedron and Cube.

Rhombic Octohedron ? .

Rt. Rhombic Prism.

Oblique Rhombic Prism ?.

Rhomboid.
The hardness of the several forms seems to follow a similar
order, the denser of two forms being also the harder. This is
certainly the case with the diamond and the arragonitic forms of
carbonate of lime and baryto calcite, but the observations we
possess on this point are still too few in number, and made, in
general, with too little attention to minute accuracy*, to justify
us in founding any general conclusion upon them.

20. It will be observed that the several members of each
group in the above table are represented by analogous formulae
with a substitution in each of one element only, — a metal. The
first group, with one exception, is represented by the general

formula RC or RO + C0 2 , and the fourth group by RS + 7H isomor-
or RO + RO3 + 7HO in which not only the entire sum of the P h ™ s s
negative and positive equivalents is equal, but the sum of those uao i y di-
in each member of the formulae is also equal. Thus in the first of morphous.
these formula? RO + CO a the negative are to the positive equiva-
lents as 3 : 2, and in the two parts RO and C0 2 they are as 1 : 1
and 2:1. This is the case with all the neutral carbonates of
Protoxides, whether isomorphous or not. In the second for-

* M. Frankenheim has observed in regard to the hardness of crystallized
bodies, native and artificial, that three orders of differences are to be observed :

1° On the same line in opposite directions.

2° On the same face in different lines.

3° On different faces of the same crystal.

He finds that two directions or faces of the same crystallographic value have
always the same hardness, and that isomorphous bodies very different in abso-
lute have similar relative hardnesses. This is the case, for example, in regard
to nitrate of soda and calo spar, the absolute hardnesses of which are so unlike.

These orders of differences he found to be intimately connected with the
natural joints of the crystals, so that the hardness is least.

1° In relation to different faces ; on the faces of the joints themselves.

2° On each face in the line perpendicular to the intersection which the prin-
cipal joint would give of that face.

3° On the same perpendicular, in a direction from the obtuse to the acute
dihedral angle of the intersection. — Frankenheim Traite sur la cohesion des
corps. Extract Biblioth. Univ., June 1836.

By considerations drawn from the relations of the polar forces, supposed to
reside in the crystallographic axes of crystallized bodies, M. Voltz has endea-
voured to show that the hardness must vary on different faces and in different
directions, and according to certain laws (I Institut., 9th August, 1834).

172

SEVENTH REPORT 1837»

mula RO + R0 3 -f 7HO the same ratio prevails among the several
members in both the substances as yet known to belong to the
isodimorphous group it represents.

Now as we know that there are several carbonates isomorphous
with the first form of the first group in our table, and several
with the second, all of which are represented by the same for-
mulae, there is reason to believe that they also are dimorphous,
and that our knowledge of them might be represented as fol-
lows :

Like forms
generally
follow like
formulae.

Carbonate of Manganese

Zinc

Baryta

Strontia ..

Found native. ... Not known.

Do. ... Do.
Not known i Found native.

Do. ... Do.

Rt. Rh. Prism.

and so with the rest of the isomorphous carbonates.

In like manner we are justified in looking forward to the en-
largement of the fourth group by the addition of the other iso-
morphous neutral sulphates and seleniates of protoxides with
seven atoms of water. It was supposed that the sulphates of
zinc and magnesia had been met with in two forms, but later
observations of Mitscherlich have shown that the second form
contains only six atoms of water.

21. It is generally true, so far as observations have gone, that
isomorphous substances are analogous in constitution ; the ratio
of the positive and negative equivalents in the whole formulas,
and in their several members, being the same. The converse
of this, however probable it may be, is by no means so generally
established. A knowledge of the principle of dimorphism how-
ever, and especially of that of isodimorphism, enables us to un-
derstand how bodies may be isomorphous and yet not present
themselves to us in ordinary circumstances under the same
forms. Thus the chromate and molybdate of lead are represented
by formulae, which are analogous in every respect, and contain
the common base oxide of lead, and yet they occur in nature in
different forms. If we suppose them to be dimorphous, then
the ordinary form of each may be considered as representing
the second or rarer form of the other, and including tungstate
of lead, which is isomorphous, with the molybdate, we have the
following isodimorphous groups : —

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

173

Formula.

Square Prism.

Oblique Rh. Prism.

Tungstate of Lead...

PbCr
PbMo
PbCr

Common form ...
Do.

Not known.

Do.
Common form.

As an illustration of this point we might have taken the sulphate
and chromate of lead, of which not only are the formulae every
way analogous, but in which both the acid and the base are
known to be isomorphous and capable of replacing each other,
or we might have made one group of the sulphate, chromate, and
molybdate, which all present themselves in different forms. I
have however taken the case of the chromate and molybdate,
because I think the probability of the two forms of these com-
pounds being a real isodimorphism is very much strengthened
by a specimen in the possession of my friend Mr. Brooke, of
London, which he showed me as a molybdate of lead (a square
prism the form of the molybdate) having the colour of the
chromate. I am not without hopes of obtaining a fragment for
the purpose of determining if it does not really contain chromic
acid*. The case of substances represented by the general for-
mulas presenting themselves in more than two incompatible
forms will be considered in a subsequent section of this reportf.

22. But all the members of isodimorphous groups, much less T ., ,
r ... . , r & -i ^ , Like forms

01 groups simply isomorphous, are not necessarily represented ^th unlike

by formulae every way analogous. Of this the fourth member formulae.

of the first group in our table, the nitrate of potash, presents a

striking example. In the formula for this salt (KO + N0 5 )

neither the ratio between the positive and negative elements in

the entire compounds, nor in the acid it contains is the same

with that which exists in the carbonates (RO + C0 2 ) which form

the other members of the group.

Among isomorphous bodies, known to assume only one form

(monomorphous), it was early observed by MitscherlichJ that

potash (KO) might be replaced both in neutral and acid

salts by ammonia with an atom of water (H 3 N + HO), without

change of form, though neither the number of equivalents nor

• Since this report went to press I have examined a fragment of this speci-
men, and found it to be chromate, which has enabled me to insert this compound
in Table I. among the other known cases of dimorphism. See Lond. and Edin.
Phil. Mag. for May 1838.

-f See p. 197.

J Berz. Arsberattelse, 1833, p. 136.

174 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837«

the number of elements, nor the ratio between the positive and
negative constituents was alike in the mutually replacing com-
pounds. As, however, ammonia with an atom of water maybe
represented by (H 4 N + O) the oxide of ammonium ; this case was
fairly considered as by no means decisive that isomorphous bodies
are not necessarily analogous in constitution and represented by
analogous formulae. It may be, as many chemists have thought
probable from other grounds, that potassium is itself a com-
pound metal, and that potash, were its true constitution under-
stood, may be analogous with ammonia.

Other compounds, however, were discovered, agreeing in form,
yet represented by formula? not reconcilable according to re-
ceived views. Of these the earliest known were, that nitrate of
soda and nitrate of potash, not then observed to be dimorphous,
were severally isomorphous with calc spar and arragonite, and
other examples have since been added chiefly by the researches
of Mitscherlich. All the known groups of this kind are repre-
sented in the following Table. T call them monomorphous, to
indicate that as groups with unlike formulae they are not all
known to assume more than one form.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

175

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176

SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

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ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 1/7

The seventh group has been inserted on the authority of
Kohler, whose paper may be consulted with advantage, and some
doubt may be supposed still to hang over the isomorphism of
silica and chabasie, though on this similarity of form I have
elsewhere* founded an explanation of certain optical phenomena
observed by sir David Brewster in some varieties of chabasie, as
well as of certain differences in chemical constitution, which
specimens from different localities have been found to present.

23. Attempts have notbeen wanting to reconcile some of thedis- Are these
cordant formulae exhibited by the above isomorphous .groups, formulaere-
but hitherto without much success. Thus Dr. Clarke has en-
deavouredf to reconcile the formulae for anhydrous sulphate of
soda (NaO + S0 3 ) and permanganate of baryta (BaO + Mn 2 7 ),
forming the sixth group in the above table by supposing

1° That the equivalent of sodium is double of that generally

received or Na, soda being Na, and an equivalent of the anhy-
drous sulphate of soda Na 2 2 + S 2 O e .

2° That the acids combine directly with the metals and not
with their oxides, and consequently that the rational formulae
for the two salts in question are respectively (representing Na 2

by Na) Na+S 2 8 and Ba+Mn 2 8 or Na-j-S^and Ba + Mn
in which state the formulae correspond, and the isomorphism of
the two "salts becomes intelligible.

The first of these hypotheses must be rejected, I believe for
reasons which will find their natural place in a succeeding
paragraph (26), the second is so completely opposed to all ex-
perimental evidence that chemists could hardly be expected to
regard it with a favourable eye even though the first hypothesis
to which it serves as a sequel were not deemed inadmissible.
Great violence to received opinions must not be offered for the
explanation of a single apparent anomaly. Each group in the table
would probably require one or more specific hypotheses to recon-
cile the formulae of the several substances which compose it, and
these hypotheses, as appears in the following section, might often
be conflicting, showing that we are still far from a glimpse of the
truth.

Why should it be thought necessary to reconcile the formulae
of isomorphous bodies, except that, carried away by the beauty
of the doctrine of Mitscherlich, we have generalized too hastily ?
If the same substance may crystallize in two or more different

* Lond. and Edinb. Phil. Mag., vol. ix. p. 166.
\ Records of Science.
VOL. VI. 1837. N

178 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

forms, why may not the converse hold ? why may not different
substances crystallize in one and the same form ? We must
allow instances to accumulate before we make any serious at-
tempts at explanation.

24. It may be proper here to notice a paper by Persoz, in the
Annates de Chimie et de Physique, No. lx. p. 145, in which, to
reconcile the discordant formulae of certain substances he sup-
poses to be isomorphous, he advances the hypothesis that bodies
unite by equivalent volumes, and not by equivalent atoms ; and
that compounds may be isomorphous which contain equal
volumes, either simple or compound. Thus, though the re-
ceived formulae for the sulphates and carbonates RS&RC be
different, they may be considered alike if we suppose the acids
to be composed respectively of 2 vols, sulphurous acid + 1 vol.
oxygen, and 2 vols, carbonic oxide + 1 vol. oxygen, and the
neutral sulphates and carbonates may be isomorphous. So also

may the nitrates and hyponitrites (RN&RN) be isomorphous
since the acids are composed of,

The nitric ... of 4 vols, nitrous acid + 1 vol. oxygen
hyponitric of 4 vols, nitric oxide + 1 vol. oxygen.

This hypothesis exhibits an unfortunate waste of ingenuity,
since it has been proposed to explain two supposed cases of
isomorphism, which have in reality no existence. On the au-
thority of Kobell, verified by Voltz, he states that the forms of
sulphate of barytes (BaO + SO a ) and arragonite (CaO + C0 2 )
are identical*, though the inclination of the lateral faces of the
RtRh Prism in the former is 101° 42', in the latter, 116° 10'.
They are, indeed, what Kobell calls homoiomorphousf ; but so
are numerous other substances, the formula? of which it would
be idle to attempt to reconcile. Because also the nitrate of
lead (an octohedron) crystallizes without change of form in a
solution of hyponitrate (PbO + N 2 3 ), he concludes that these
two salts are isomorphous ; and to explain this imaginary
identity of form between a sulphate and a carbonate, a nitrate
and a hyponitrate, the hypothesis above stated is had recourse
to. In the same way he states, that it is impossible to mistake

the analogy of form between common Borax (NaB + lOH)

* An. de Chim. et de Phys., LX. p. 1 19.

\ See Schweigger's Jahrbuch, vol. iv. p. 410, also Reports of the British
Association, vol. i. p. 429.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 179

and common soda (NaC + 10H)*, and the octohedral forms of the
same salts with five atoms of water. Had he been aware of any
of the real cases of monomorphous groups having discordant
formulae inserted in the list above given, or had he referred
to them onty, his reasoning, however hypothetical, would not
have been so undeserving of a place in the excellent and elabo-
rate memoir of which it forms a pai't.

25. The chemical constitution of the two metallic sulphurets Equivalent
which compose the third of our isodimorphous groups, suggests of Silver '
considerations nearly related to those which have just been de-
tailed. If they are really unlike in constitution, and are repre-
sented severally by RS and R 2 S, then they ought to be included
in our list of bodies which are like in form but unlike in for-
mula. It is proper to state, therefore, why they are represented
as isodimorphous.

In a former reportf I have illustrated the application which
has been made of the doctrine of isomorphism in determining
which of several possible multiples of a given number should
be considered as representing the true equivalent of substances
in regard to which we have at present no other means of arri-
ving at a satisfactory conclusion. That alumina, peroxide of
iron, and oxide of chromium crystallize in the same form, and
are capable of replacing each other, as in the alums, is con-
sidered satisfactory evidence that their elementary constitution
is analogous — that the ratio of the oxygen to the metal is the
same in all, and that the general formula R 2 3 represents the
composition of each. The whole doctrine of replacement, so
beautifully applied to the elucidation of mineral compounds, de-
pends on the same principle. No substances have ever yet
been observed to replace each other in atomic proportions, and
without change of form, which are 7iot also represented by the
same general formulce. The nearest approach to an exception
yet known is the fact established by Mosander, that peroxide of
iron in the titanic irons may replace titaniate of the protoxide of
iron (Fe 2 3 may replace FeO + Ti0 2 ) ; but the exception is only
in appearance, for Fe 2 3 may be represented by FeO + Fe0 2 , in
which case the formulas are still analogous. Ammonia with an
atom of water and potash are the only substances in our list of
monomorphous substances with unlike formulas which have
been observed to replace each other, and we have already stated

* The form of borax is an obliq. Rh. Pr. PM 101° 30' MM 86° 40' "I Rrnnlfp
That of common soda ditto PM 108° 45' MM 76° i2'/ cr00Ke -

f Report of the British Association, vol. i. p. 422.

N 2

180 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

the theoretical considerations by which the force of this objec-
tion is for the present, at least, suspended.

If, then, replacement in atomic proportions without change
of form imply an absolute analogy of constitution, the sulphu-
rets of copper and silver possess this analogy. In grey copper

(fahlerz), represented by the general formula, R 4 R + 2Cu 4 R, the
Cu in the second member of the formula is often replaced by
Ag (in the silver fahlerz) without change of form. If we sup-
pose Ag and Cu to be capable of replacing each other, all the
varieties of the grey copper may be represented by the same

formula R 4 R -f- R' 4 R. But if they replace each other, the forms
of these sulphurets as they occur in nature uncombined should
be identical. This has not hitherto been observed to be the

case. The sulphuret of silver (Ag) is an octohedron, that of
copper (Cu) is a rhomboid. By fusion, however, that of cop-
per is obtained in octohedrons, while that of silver is rhomboidal
in the double sulphuret (Ag + Cu) from Rudelstadt*. There is

every reason, therefore, for believing that these two compounds
can replace each other, and that they are not only isomorphousf,
but that they form an isodimorphous group, as represented in
the table.

It appears, then, in the present state of our knowledge, to
follow that the two sulphurets in question are analogous in con-
stitution, and must both be represented by the same formula,

R or R. It is an interesting coincidence with this result, that
the atomic weight of silver deduced by Dulong and Petit from
their researches into the specific heats of the metals, is only one
half of that which is generally received. From this agreement,
and because it involves fewer changes, it is probable that the
compounds in question are both rfi'sulphurets and represented by

the formula R.

* Rose, Pog. An. xxviii. p. 427. Sander, ib. xl. p. 313.

f If isomorphous, the formula for Polybasite Cu»J — +4Ag»J —might be

[As [As

expressed by R9R. For the analysis of Polybasite, formerly confounded with
brittle sulphuret of silver (sprodglaserz), see Pog. An. xxviii. p. 156.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 181

26. But this conclusion involves several important modifica-
tions in the received views regarding the atomic weights of other
substances, elementary and compound.

It was observed by Mitscherlich that the sulphate of silver

(AgS) and anhydrous sulphate of soda (NaS) agree in form,
from which it is inferred that oxide of silver and soda are iso- Equivalent
morphous. But if so, they are analogous in constitution ; and ^ c> ° um '
if the equivalent of silver be halved, that of sodium must be
halved also, their formulae being respectively Ag a O and Na 2 0.
Since, also, potash is isomorphous with soda, and may replace
it, as in the alums, the rhomboidal nitrates, &c, this oxide also
must be expressed by K a O. And, on the other hand, gold heing
isomorphous with silver, the oxide of gold will be Au 2 3 , which
agrees also with the results of Dulong and Petit, and with the
electronegative properties sometimes exhibited by this compound.
It is unnecessary in this place to dwell on these changes.
They are indicated by the isodimorphism of the sulphurets of
copper and silver inserted in the table, but they have not yet
been incorporated with received knowledge by any of the lead-
ing chemists of Europe. The establishment of a very few facts
more will render any further hesitation unnecessary*.

27. The halving of the atom of potash supplies us with a mode Analogy be-
of establishing an analogy between the formulas for the earthy tween the
carbonates and that of the nitrate of potash. If potash be K 2 the carbon-
and nitric acid, as it is represented by foreign chemists, N 2 5 , ates and

Nitrates.

then nitre is K 2 + N 2 5 or R'R, or, putting together the posi-
tive elements R 4 6 , or 2R20 3 . In the carbonates RR we have
also by putting together the positive elements R 2 3 , or the for-
mula for the nitrate of potash is analogous with that for the
carbonates as a whole, though the expressions for neither of the
immediate constituents of the two classes of compounds have
any analogy.

How far it may hereafter prove true that compounds, as
such, may be isomorphous and analogous in constitution, while
their several components disagree both in form and in constitu-
tion, is at present almost wholly conjectural. I have advanced
this mode of establishing an analogy between the nitrates and
carbonates, partly with the view of drawing attention to the
possible recognition of such a principle as our knowledge ad-
vances, and partly of illustrating what I have already stated
(22) as to the special hypothesis necessary in almost every case

* See London and Edin. Phil. Mag., April 1838.

182

SEVENTH REPORT 1837

for reconciling the formulae of substances such as those inserted
in Table III. That an extension of the general conditions ne-
cessary to isomorphism must by-and-by take place, the num-
ber of bodies we are already able to insert in this table is suffi-
cient proof*.

28. It would be improper to dismiss the consideration of the
tables of dimorphous and isodimorphous groups without advert-
ing to the differences in the angular dimensions of the several
substances comprised by these groups. It is true generally of
isomorphous bodies, that the angular dimensions of their crystal-
line forms do not exactly correspond, but only approach to each
other often very closely, as in the chromate and sulphate of
potashf, but sometimes differing nearly two degrees, as in some
of the earthy carbonates. These differences have been much
dwelt upon, especially by English crystallographers, to some of
whom they have appeared sufficiently great and constant to
warrant the rejection of the term iso and the substitution of
plesio morphism in its steady. The fact of bodies replacing
each other is inconsistent with a mere approach in their forms,
while the circumstance that no constant difference has been
observed among the forms of the several members of the same
isomorphous group with different acids or bases, shows, I think,
satisfactorily, that these differences do not necessarily imply
unlike forms in the crystalline molecules. If the silicates or
sulphates of two oxides be almost identical in form, while their
carbonates differ by more than a whole degree, the difference
between the forms of the oxides not being constant in the ana-
logous classes of compounds, may at least have their origin in
a cause extrinsic to the forms of the substances altogether.

29. It is well known that Mitscherlich attributed these differ-
ences to some peculiarity in the chemical affinities, specific to each
substance or to the several substances entering into a com-
pound. On this very probable opinion it is unnecessary to
dwell. He has lately, however, thrown out a suggestion in re-
gard to the nature of this specific modification of the affinities,
or rather how it operates, an examination of which will be
neither uninteresting nor out of place§.

Supposing the molecules of bodies — their mutually replacing
equivalents — to be equal in size, and to be placed at like dis-
tances, the densities of these bodies should be as the weights of
their equivalents. That the densities are not so related in na-

* See London and Edin. Phil. Mag., May 1838.

t Brooke, Annals of Philosophy, August, 1823, and January, 1821.

t See Report on Chemistry, Reports of British Association, vol. i. p. 428.

§ Poggendorf's Annalen, vol. xli. p. 216.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 183

ture will appear on comparing those of almost any pair or
group of isomorphous bodies. The molecules, therefore, of the
analogous compounds, even of bodies which may replace each
other, are often separated by unlike spaces.

Now in two isomorphous substances exhibiting this differ-
ence, the increased distance of the molecules in the less dense
may either be equal in every direction, in which case, though
the densities are not related as the equivalents, the crystalline
form and dimensions of each would remain alike, or the in-
crease of distance may be different in the direction of the
several axes of the crystal, in which case the angular dimen-
sions of the two substances in a state of crystallization would
more or less vary.

Heat is known to expand regularly crystallized bodies un-
equally in different directions, enlarging the acute angles and
imparting a tendency towards the cube or other forms belonging
to the regular system. The suggestion of Mitscherlich is, that
chemical affinity acts in the same way as heat, drawing in or
binding together the molecules more closely in one direction
than another, so that if, at the temperature at which two isomor-
phous compounds crystallize, the affinity between the elements
in the one be only a small degree greater than in the other, a
difference more or less great must result between the dimensions
in the so-called plesiomorphous bodies, that is, the crystals must
be plesiomorphous only. And this suggestion is the more probable
inasmuch as it accounts for the fact that the plesiomorphous dif-
ferences do not prevail equally among all the analogous com-
pounds of the same acids or bases ; the difference between the
affinities of two bases, A and B, for an acid C, being probably
unlike, not only in amount, but in sign*, to their difference for a
second or third acid D or E.

The close relation which exists between chemical affinity and
heat would predispose us to receive with favour the hypothesis
in question ; but we can so far test it by observation, since it
implies that in any isomorphous group those substances whose
crystalline dimensions most closely approximate should have
their densities also most nearly in the ratio of their atomic
weights ; and conversely, those which have the acute angles of
their crystals the greatest, should also have their densities fur-
thest below what this ratio would indicate.

* In the difference (of the affinities?) of baryta and strontiafor the sulphu-
ric and carbonic acids, we have this disagreement both in quantity and in sign.
In the Rt. Rh. Prisms of these substances we have the obtuse angle in
Sulphate of baryta = 10P-42' Carbonate of baryta = 118°-30'
strontia = 104°*00' strontia = 117°-32'.

184

SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

30. In throwing out the suggestion Mitscherlich compares
only the carbonates of lime and magnesia. I shall take a greater
number of these carbonates in order to test it more closely*.

r>„.,:„„i„„. Observed Calculated r, ; «. Angle of the n-,*
Equivalent. 6pecificgrav l cificgrav _ Diff. rh e omboid .

Calc spar

Carb. of Magnesia..,

Iron ,

Zinc

— — — Manganese

632-456
534-790
715-65
779-663 1
722-337

2-721

2-884
3-829
3-379
3-592

2-30
3-097
3-354
3-107

0-584
0-75
0025
0-485

105-4 Mit.

106-15 Mohs

107-0

106-30 Phil.
107-40 Woll.
106-51 Mohs.

Ill

1-56
1-26
2-36
1-47

A general agreement with the hypothesis is observable in
these substances. The densities are all greater than they should
be, compared with that of calc spar, and the acute angles of their
crystals less, but no ratio is observable between the differences
of density and of angle indicated by the 5th and 7th columns.
The observed densities are those given by Mohs, as taken from
crystallized specimens, but there is no evidence that the speci-
mens measured were in any case those of which the density was
also taken, so that in the absence of more correct data our test
cannot be rigidly applied. Different crystals of the same sub-
stance have not only different densities but also different an-
gular dimensions. Breithaupt states that the crystals of horn-
blende vary as much sometimes as 5°, those of pyroxene as 2°,
and no doubt the density would vary in proportion. The same
observer found the density of a calc spar of lC^ ^' to be
2-741, and of another (tautokline) of 106°-10' to be 2-968f,
both of which cases are accordant with the notion that even in
the same substance plesiomorphous differences may arise from
condensation or expansion analogous to that produced by a di-
minution or increase of temperature. All these examples show
that our determinations of the angles and densities of crystal-
lized bodies must be ranked among uncertain knowledge till
accurate observations of both are made from one and the same
specimen. Such results would enable us to try, it might be

* Taking that of calc spar, in which the acute angle is greatest, as a stand-
ard, the specific gravities of the other substances are compared with it and cal-
culated from it.

Sp. gray, of calc spar x at ^ q{ a _ rf A

At. wt. of calc spar
f Karsten found in two specimens of pure calc spar that the one with the
less angle had a density of 26978, that with the greater of 27064.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

185

would compel us to reject, the suggestion we are now consider-
ing.

31. Before quitting this part of my subject I cannot refrain
from layingbefore the reader a tabular comparison of the physical
and chemical properties of some of the metallic oxides repre-
sented by the general formula R 2 3 , though none of them is yet
known to be dimorphous, as they present a beautiful example
of the analogies which exist among isomorphous bodies, and as
their densities exhibit a relation to their plesiomorphous differ-
ences entirely the converse of that which Mitscherlich supposes
to exist among the earthy carbonates.

Equivalent.

Angle of the
Rhomboid.

Colour of Crystal.

r. calculated
from

Corun. Ox. of
dum. chrom.

Corundum Al

Peroxide "I
of Iron ... J

Oxide of I
Chromium /

321-167
489-213
501-319

86-6 Mohs.

' 85-58 Mohs.
86-10 Phil.

85-55 Rose ..

5-5 to 6-5

Vitreous

Metallic

Do.

/Blue, yel., 1
I »ed J"

Steel grey

Black

3-33

5-9
6-09

The same difficulty presents itself here as in the former ex-
ample from the uncertainty of the determinations, but in these
substances it is clear either that heat does not expand them so
as to make them approach the cube, or that the difference of
the chemical affinities considered as the cause of plesiomor-
phism does not act in the same way as heat does. Peroxide
of iron and oxide of chromium are much less dense than they
ought to be, compared with corundum, and yet the acute
angle of their rhombs is less ; or, comparing the first two
substances in the table with oxide of chromium their specific
gravity is greater than calculation gives it, while their acute
angles are less. Can it be that heat in expanding these acute
rhomboids makes them diverge from, while obtuse rhomboids
it brings nearer to, the cubical form ?

III.

32. Of Analogous Chemical Groups, the members of which
taken singly are Monomorphous, but ivhich as Groups are
Dimorphous. — In the remarks already made on the table of
isodimorphous groups (21) I have adverted to the observation
that like crystalline forms generally follow like chemical for-
mulae, and I have illustrated by one example in what way this
observation leads us to infer and to look for dimorphism in sub-
stances not hitherto observed in more than one form. Almost

186 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

every group of isomorphous bodies presents us with additional
illustrations. Not only may we expect that entire groups shall
prove to be dimorphous, of which we as yet know only one or
two really to be so, as the carbonates of which those of lime
and lead, and the sulphates of which that of nickel is the type ;
but groups also not even recognised as yet to be isomorphous,
though their chemical formulae are analogous. Thus the tung-
state of lime and that of lead occur in square prisms, that of iron
and manganese (wolfram) in oblique rhombic prisms, but since

all these compounds are represented by the same formula R Tu,
the form which one assumes should not be impossible to the
other. We know that lime and protoxide of lead are dimor-
phous in their carbonates ; we may expect them to be so also
in their tungstates, and since lime and the first oxides of iron
and manganese are capable of mutually replacing each other,
wolfram may be looked for in square prisms. It has indeed
been frequently observed by mineralogists of this form. At
Huel Maudlin, in Cornwall, at Schbnfeld, and elsewhere in
Saxony* it has occurred in square prisms, but these are univer-
sally stated to be pseudomorphous, to be casts of previous cry-
stals of tungstate of lime. I have never had an opportunity of
examining any of these crystals, but as bearing on the very in-
teresting question how far second forms at least may be inferred
from chemical formulas, the supposed pseudomorphism of the
square prisms of wolfram is deserving of a close examination. f
But if dimorphous substances may be so numerous, why are
they not so in ordinary circumstances, or why have they not
been more frequently observed ? Ten years more can scarcely
pass without adding greatly to the number of known cases of
dimorphism, and suggesting some probable reply to this and
other similar questions. If the chemical affinities which two
bodies are capable of displaying towards each other may lie
dormant, even when the bodies are in juxta- position, till the
proper hygrometric or thermometric conditions be attained, so
may it be with the molecular attractions by which particles are

* Allan's Manual of Mineralogy, p. 219.

f Since the above was written I have seen Cornish specimens of this mineral
in the collection of Mr. Brooke. They are in octohedrons, some of them beauti-
fully perfect; the greater part of them, however, more or less hollow, and cer-
tainly presenting the appearance of after crystals. Still we are not to despair of
finding crystals of wolfram belonging to the pyramidal system, and our search
may perhaps be stimulated by the character of its twin crystals, which seem
to indicate that though this mineral presents itself in the form of oblique prisms,
it may in reality have rectangular axes. — See Kryslallographie von Gustav Rose,
p. 119, and Whewell's Report on Mineralogy, p. 332.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 187

drawn together and built up into regular forms. And as ele-
mentary or compound bodies belonging to the same natural
family, though possessing in common many properties, the same
in kind, yet have them in different degrees, and exhibit them
under different circumstances, so may we expect crystallizable
substances, analogous in chemical constitution, and possessing
like physical properties, to exhibit those properties, in degrees and
under circumstances specific to each. Under the same circum-
stances there may be slight differences between the crystalline
dimensions as there are between the chemical affinities of two
bodies ; they may both be dimorphous, but under circumstances
so widely different as hitherto to have escaped our observation,
just as certain oxides of chlorine, iodine, and fluorine, which
we believe to be possible, have hitherto baffled the attempts of
the most refined manipulation.

IV.

33. Of bodies assuming two or more series of unlike physical
properties, but of which the crystalline form belonging to each
series has not yet been determined. — In addition to those sub-
stances, the dimorphism of which is established by direct mea-
surement, there is a considerable number, the dimorphism of
which is rendered exceedingly probable by the fact of their oc-
curring, in two or more states, physically different. If dimor-
phism imply a difference in physical properties, as well as in form,
we may at least be prepared to look for a difference of form
when marked physical differences present themselves*.

The following table contains all the substances generally
known to exhibit such physical differences.

* Dumas proposes to include all in one group under the name Poly-
morphous. " Mais pour embrasser tous les phenomenes du meme genre il faut
dire Polymorphisme sans restreindre a deux le nombre de modifications qu'un
corps peut presenter, et comprendre dans la meme categorie toutes les sortes de
cliangemens qui peuvent affecter les proprietes physiques." Lecons sur la
Philosophie Chimique, p. 303. I think it better, however, to distinguish be-
tween what we know and what we only suspect ; to call those substances in
which two crystalline forms have been observed certainly dimorphous, those in
which they have not been observed as probably so. The term polymorphous will
become necessary as soon as it is established that the same substance does
crystallize in three or more incompatible forms.

188

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Table

Exhibiting the characters of those substances which are known

stalline forms in both states

How obtained.

Density.

1°. Sulphur A &
B

2°. Phosphorus
A

3°. Sulphuretof
Antimony A

Do. (Ker-
mes) B....

Sb ; S.

4°. Bisulphuret
of Mercury
(Cinnabar)
A

Do.(Ethiops
Mineral) B

5°. Bichromate
of Potash A

HgS 2

6°. Sulphate of
Potash and
Copper A

KO+2Cr0 3

Do.

KS+CuS

Do.

A by subliming, B by
fusing Sulphur

By pouring Sulphur

at 200C. into Cold

Water
Distilling Acid Phos

phate of Lime with

Charcoal

Fusing A at J f^

and suddenly cool-
ing
Found native, also by
heating B

By suddenly cooling
A when fused, or
by precipit. from
Antimonial Solu-
tions

By subliming B

1-99 to 2-05

177

1-5 to 2-5

Soft and tena-
cious

Conchoidal "
or granu-
lar

Sectile

4-5 to 4-7

415

Harder than A

Conchoidal.

•098

2- to 2-5 ,

Do.

Throwing down Hg
from its solutions
by HS, or cooling
A suddenly

By fusing Chrome
Iron with Nitre .

Fusing A and allow-
ing it to cool

Fusing the two Salts
together

Formed when the
fused mass cools to
about 60°F.,15-5C.

Granular.

2-6027 ? Kr

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

189

IV.

to exist in two states physically different, but of which the cry-
have not been determined.

Colour in mass,

Yellow

Brown ..
Pale Yellow...

Black

Lead grey ...

Do.

Cochineal red

Black

Red.

Yellow
while hot

Dark green...

Pale green ...

Colour in powder,

Yellow

Greyish black

Reddish
brown

Scarlet red
Carmine
whenheated

Black

Yellow

Do.

Green ,

Do.

Transparency.

Transparent

Opaque

Transparent

Opaque

Thin laminae
transpar. ;
deep hya-
cinth red

Semitranspa-
rent

Opaque :

Transparent

Do.

Characteristic or Remarks.

See Table I.

After about 24 hours the sul-
phur generally becomes
hard and brittle

It is only when very pure,
and repeatedly distilled,
that it becomes black by
sudden cooling. On refu
sion it becomes yellow

The second state B. Fuchs has
distinguished by the term
Amorphous, a term, as it
appears to me, by no means
applicable

Gmelin attributes the black
colour to the presence of
sulphur

The fused Bichromate on
cooling shoots out into
crystals, which again fall
to pieces after the tempe-
rature has sunk to 60° F.

On cooling, the fused mass
crystallizes, contracts, and
finally expands, swells up,
and falls to powder

ThenaxiLAn.de Chimie.
lxxi. p. 109.

Dumas Traitei. p. 247

Fuchs Annal. de PJtar-
mac, xi. p. 282.

Fuchs, Ibid.

Gmelin's Handbuch, i.
p. 1290.

Liebig and Poggendorff,
Worterbuch, i. p. 151.

Herschel, Berz. Arsbe-
rattelse, 1832, p. 142,

190 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

To this list glass has some claim to he added. Its physical
properties when annealed, and when suddenly cooled, are known
to be very different, and in the second of these states it is said by
Guerard* to be possessed of double refraction. As it is doubt-
ful, however, how far any specimens of glass used in the arts may
bd considered as definite chemical compounds, we cannot as yet
draw any certain conclusions from their properties in different
circumstances. Common charcoal and graphite are also sup-
posed by some chemists to be modifications of carbon sufficiently
distinct to awaken the suspicion that this substance may assume
even a third crystalline form.

34. The appearances presented by the bichromate of potash
when cooling from fusion, and by the double sulphate of potash
and copper, are very interesting. In both cases the change com-
mences, as in the yellow crystals of biniodide of mercury, at
one edge of the mass, and gradually spreads over the whole. As
in the biniodide, the changed is in all probability zhetoromorphous
state, and the same will, I think, prove true of all the substances
contained in the present table. They are necessarily placed apart
in the present state of our knowledge till their forms in the
changed condition shall have been determined.

The chance, so to speak, of their proving dimorphous is much
strengthened by the analogy in constitution between the bisul-
phate of potash, which is known to assume two unlike forms, and

the double sulphate in the table. The formula of the one K S + H S

is the exact counterpart of that of the other KS + CuS, the
copper in the latter replacing the hydrogen in the former. Led
by this analogy, I have sought for the same phenomena in other
compounds of the same class. Sulphate of potash fuses rea-
dily at a bright red heat with the anhydrous sulphates of zinc and
of nickel, but on cooling the same change does not present it-
self, at least under the same circumstances. Under conditions
slightly varied we may expect all the compounds represented by

the general formula RR + R'Rto occur in two states • physic-
ally different, f

* Pog. Anna!., xxxviii. p. 233.

f The probability of the change in question being connected with dimorphism
is strengthened by a recent observation of Mr. Talbot, (Lond. and Edin. Phil.
Mag., Feb. 1838, p. 149) that a thin film of nitre, on solidifying from fusion,
undergoes, when the temperature falls to a certain point, a change quite analo-
gous to that exhibited by the bichromate and double sulphate in the table, and,
as in those substances, diffusing itself from a point over the whole mass. In
nitre the appearance is no doubt connected with the two forms it is known to
assume.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 191

35. Differences of a less permanent and definite kind are ex-
hibited by various substances, as by some of the metallic oxides
at different temperatures, which obscurely point to a second state
analogous to that we are now considering as belonging to them
also. Thus the protoxide of lead PbO when cold is of a pale
yellow, when hot of a bright red ; the scales of litharge often
retain this hue at common temperatures.

It would be premature at once to explain this and similar ap-
pearances by a supposed dimorphism ; they are deserving how-
ever of a close attention, and though obscure at present, the
study of them may lead us to new results.

36. Many compound, especially saline, substances, when ex-
posed to the air or slightly heated, undergo a change analogous
to that we are now considering, due, however, not to a mere
change in the arrangement of the molecules, but to an alteration
also in the chemical constitution. When a crystal of sulphate
of zinc with seven atoms of water is heated under alcohol it as-
sumes a new form, but it loses at the same time an atom of
water ; the same is said also to be the case with sulphate of
magnesia. The blue acetate of copper with six atoms of water if
heated to 90° or 100° F. changes without apparent change of
form into the green acetate with one atom of water. On ex-
amination, however, the apparently unchanged crystal is found
to consist of a congeries of minute crystal of an entirely differ-
ent form*. The mellate of ammonia, according to Wohler, un-
dergoes an equally striking change by simple exposure to the air.
One of the most curious facts of this description is that observed
by Herman in regard to the chloride of lithium. When this
salt is allowed to deliquesce in the open air large four-sided
prisms are formed. If one of these prisms be taken up in the
fingers, and then laid on blotting paper, it becomes opaque at the
point of contact, and the opacity gradually spreads over the
whole crystal. If now moved it falls into a powder, which
again deliquesces in the air and crystallizes-f-. Changes of this
kind connected with loss of water are no doubt very numerous.

37. An appearance observed by Biot, in reference to grape-
sugar, appears worthy of a place in the present section. He
statesj, that the juice of the grape, before it has been crystal-
lized, causes the plane of polarization of a polarized ray passed
through it to deviate towards the left, while after crystallization
its solution causes the same ray to deviate towards the right.
By crystallization the chemical constitution is unaltered (?),

* Wbhler, Poggendorff, Annal., xxxvii. p. 166.

t Pog. Annul., xv. p. 480. % Taylor's Scientific Memoirs, i. p. 596.

192 SEVENTH REPORT 1837 =

and yet if the optical property is to be depended upon, the ar-
rangement of the molecules in the natural juice must have dif-
fered very materially from their arrangement in the artificial
solution. Unfortunately we cannot depend on the purity of
the natural juice, and therefore it would be premature to draw
from this phenomenon any of those curious consequences in
regard to the value of optical characters and the possibility of
the dimorphous molecular arrangement of a solid body follow-
ing it into its state of solution — which the absolute chemical
purity of the sugar in the natural and artificial liquids would
render justifiable.

38. Of crystallized bodies not known to asswne more than
one form, which yet exhibit unlike physical properties in dif-
ferent portions of their mass. — There are certain mineral sub-
stances, the crystalline form and chemical constitution of which
are known and constant, which nevertheless in their action on
light exhibit phenomena apparently inconsistent with the idea
that the several parts have the form and composition of the
whole. As these phenomena are closely related to those of
dimorphism, and may possibly be identical with them, I shall
here introduce a notice of the more remarkable cases in which
they occur. The greater number of these observations have been
made and published by Sir David Brewster.

Apophyllite. — In a paper published in the Edinburgh Phil.
Trans., vol. ix. p. 317, Sir David has shown that the crystals
of certain varieties of apophyllite consist of different portions
acting differently on light : " An individual crystal, with one
axis, being symmetrically united with several individual crystals
with two axes, so as to constitute a regular crystal." In a
single fragment of a crystal of this substance Sir John Herschel
also found three portions, each possessing distinct and pecu-
liar properties. — Whewell's Report on Mineralogy, p. 353. In
the amethyst he has described an analogous structure.

Analcime. — This mineral occurs usually in icositetrahedrons,
made up of twenty-four individual pentahedrons. These penta-
hedrons exhibit " a species of double refraction, previously
found in no other mineral." They possess " planes of no
double refraction, having a definite and invariable position, and
a portion may be extracted from each separate pentahedron
which has no axis at all."*

Chabasie. — Some specimens of this well-known mineral,
when examined by polarized light, appear to consist of success- j

* Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions, 1824.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 193

ive layers deposited around a rhomboidal nucleus, possessed of
positive double refraction. This refraction, however, is seen
" to diminish in succeeding layers from a positive state till it
disappears altogether ; beyond this neutral line it becomes ne-
gative, and again gradually increases towards the boundaries of
the crystal."*

Diamond, topaz. — A similar observation has also been made
by Sir David in regard to the diamond, which he found to con-
sist occasionally of a succession of layers possessing different
refractive powers and different densities ; and in the 2nd vol.
of the Cambridge Transactions he has described the Brazilian
topaz as consisting of " a central lozenge, surrounded with a
border of a different kind, sometimes with additional varia-
tions, "f

Traces of double refraction have also been observed by the
same distinguished philosopher in many substances, the cry-
stals of which, hitherto observed, belong only to the regular
system. Among these are potash- alum, rock-salt, fluor-spar,
and diamond. In connexion with the doctrine of dimorphism,
these observations are all of value, not so much from the posi-
tive information they give, as from their showing us what to
look for.

39. The conclusion we ai'e at first sight inclined to draw from
pheenomena such as those above described, is, that such mine-
rals, though to the eye homogeneous, are in reality made up of
parts unlike in chemical constitution as they are in optical pro-
perties ; and to this conclusion Sir David Brewster appears in-
clined to give his assent. Mr. Whewell, in his report on
Mineralogy!, thus expresses himself : " There would be some-
thing utterly perplexing in this complexity in the structure of
objects apparently so simple, if we were to conceive such a kind
of composition as formed of independent portions adhering to-
gether ; but we ought probably rather to conceive these rela-
tions of parts as the result of a peculiar state of the equilibrium
of the elastic aether which exists within the body, and on which
its optical properties depend."

This explanation appears to apply very happily to optical
differences exhibited by the several parts of a crystal as a whole,
which disappear when it is broken into fragments, as is the
case in the dodecahedral crystals of the sulphate of potash § ;

* London and Edinburgh Phil. Mag., Sept. 183G, p. 166.
t Report of Meeting of the British Association at Liverpool.
t Reports of British Association, vol. i. p. 340.
§ Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. i. p. 6.
vol. vi. 1837. °

194 SEVENTH REPORT 1837»

but it does not seem to account for the fact that portions of the
pentahedrons of analcime may be extracted which possess no
double refraction, or for the properties of the several parts of
the crystals of chabasie and diamond above referred to. The
state of the elastic aether in these separate portions must de-
pend on a difference either in the nature or mutual disposition
of the ponderable molecules around which it exists ; otherwise
the optical properties could be of little value as indices either
of chemical constitution or of crystalline form. In other words,
if the optical properties observed in these minerals reside in the
crystalline molecules, and not in the mass, the properties of
the different parts must depend on a difference either in the
chemical properties or in the mechanical arrangement of the
ultimate molecules of which they are made up.

I think it very likely that in some instances the former cause
operates, in other cases, the latter. The introduction of an
isomorphous substance of unlike chemical and optical relations
may produce such differences as are observed in chabasie* j a
different arrangement of the molecules, without change of com-
position ; a dimorphism — in fact — may produce the singular dif-
ferences of the several portions of analcime. The double re-
fraction observed occasionally in alum and other regular cry-
stals, points, as it appears to me, to an advanced period of our
knowledge, when these and many other substances crystallizing
similarly will be proved to be dimorphous.

VI.

40. Of epigene and pseudomorphous crystals. — In a former
section I have adverted to the subject of pseudomorphous cry-
stals, and to the possibility that some of the forms considered to
be such may hereafter prove to be cases of dimorphismf. In
connexion with the present subject, therefore, as well as in
itself not void of interest, I shall here insert a list of the best
known and most common cases of epigene, or changed crystals,
and pseudomorphous crystals, or casts, which either occur in
nature or can be formed artificially.

* This principle I have illustrated in a short paper in the Lond. and Edinb.
Phil. Mag. for Sept., 1836.

t This opinion, in so far as regards the last substance (Serpentine) in the
above list, has been recently supported by Dr. Tamnau, of Berlin, (Poy. Ann.,
xlii. p. 4.62,) who assigns several weighty reasons for considering the supposed
false forms of this substance from Snarum, in Norway, to be the true form of
the mineral itself.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

195

List of Pseudomorphous Mineral Substances.

Name.

Form.

Replacing.

Localities and Authorities.

Cubes and octohedrons
Rhombs, and prisms ...

Cornwall, Devonshire,
Rochette, Erzgebirge.

Fontainbleau, Haytor.

Haytor, Devonshire.

Rochette, (Dumont).
Do. . do.

Mont Martre.

Cornwall.

Saxony, {Kolell).

Do. do.

Do. do.
Styria, Carinthia.

Saxony.

Cornwall, Brittany.
Do.

Cornwall.

Chessy.

Do.

Do.
Pesey.
?

Hexham, Alston.

Cornwall, Saxony.
Dumbarton {Allan).
Schneeberg, Saxony.
Goepfersgriin Bayreuth.

Gypsum (lenticular) ...
Sulphuret (Sb 2 S 3 )..,.
Magnetic Iron (Fe+Fe)

Iron Pyrites (Fe S 2 ) ...

Oxide of Tin

Oxide of Antimony

Peroxide of Iron
(Martite)

Hydrateddo.(Fe+H)
Do

Pvrolusite Mn

Manganite (Mn-f H)...

Do.

Carbonate of Lead...
Galena (Blue Lead)
Mixture of Carbonate

and Phosphate
Copper Pyrites

Malachite, green Car-
bonate (Cu'C+H)
Malachite

Lenticular Carbonate

and Specular Iron
Blue Carbonate

(2CuC+H)
Red Oxide of Copper...

Do.

Reg. octohed. and rh.
dodecahedrons
Do.

Blue Carbonate

Sulphate of Strontia . . .
Carbonate and Baryto
Calcite

Sulphate of Baryta...

Rt. and ob. rh. prisms

Prehnite

Icositetrahedrons

Hornstone

Steatite

Do.

Do., Quartz, Pearl Spar

Serpentine

Rt. rh. pr. ..

41.Pseudon
gularly crysta
ness and lustr
hibiting no ii
that of the su
frequently by
replace. In 1
the parasitic
one or more c
no such mark

lorphic crystals are
lized bodies by the
e by which trite ci
iternal structure (
bstance of which t
containing cavities
nost of the exam
formation of the
)f these tests ; but
3 of their origin, b
o2

generally distingu
absence of the ext
ystals are charact*
>r cleavage, unles
ley have the exter
> or portions of the
3les contained in t
crystals is easily i

there are some
ut, on the contrar

ishedfromre-
jrnal smooth-
prized, by ex-
3 very rarely
rial form, and
mineral they
tie above list,
•ecognized by
which betray
y, possess all

196 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

the external characters of true crystals. Among the latter may-
be mentioned the cubes of quartz found at Rochette, in the pro-
vince of Liege, which are so perfect as to have been mistaken
by Haiiy for the primary rhomboids*, and which are inferred
to be parasitic chiefly from the occurrence in the same locality
of hollow prisms, obviously casts of previous crystals of calc
spar. Similar observations apply to many of the quartz cry-
stals found at Haytor, while the want of internal structure is the
chief reason why the hornstones and steatites of Germany, the
cubical chalcedonies of Transylvania, and the rhomboidal from
Iceland, are classed among pseudomorphous crystals.

The octohedral peroxide of iron (Martite) is one of those
minerals which retains the cleavage as well as the form of the
mineral (magnetic iron) from which it is derived. The perfec-
tion of these crystals has induced Kobellf to consider them as
an example of dimorphism, though, perhaps, rather hastily. It
is not unlikely that some of the supposed parasitic may be true
crystals j but the possession of a distinct cleavage is not alone
sufficient to prove that any given crystals are so. Calc spar,
after being calcined and deprived of its carbonic acid, still re-
tains its form and cleavages.

42. We can imitate nature in the production even of apparently
perfect changed (epigene) crystals. Native crystals of peroxide
of iron, heated in a current of sulphuretted hydrogen, give at
212° F. sesquisulphuret Fe 2 S 3 , and at a higher temperature.
Bisulphuret of iron FeS 2 , and the new compounds retain the
lustre and cleavage of the original crystals. J A similar result,
without change of form, is obtained from the carbonate of iron.
Crystals of bicyanide of mercury at ordinary temperatures may
by the same means be converted into black shining crystals of
bisulphuret. By simple exposure of the salt to the air, me-
tallic gold may be obtained in the form of the double chloride
of gold and ammonia. Nitrate of silver occasionally undergoes
a similar decomposition. Many of the salts of lead, silver, and
other metals may likewise, by the agency of sulphuretted hy-
drogen, be converted into sulphurets without losing their form,
and very many of the hydrated salts of the earths and metallic
oxides part with their water without suffering disintegration.

Still, in connexion with these numerous changes, natural
and artificial, one question suggests itself. Are there any limits
to the number of forms which the same substance, a metallic

* Geologie de Liege. Par Dumont. P. 147.

t Neues Jahrbuch der Chim. und Phys. (1831) vol. ii. p. 195.

+ Berzelius, Arshercittelse, 1826.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 197

sulphuret for example, may be made to assume by bringing
more powerful chemical affinities into operation ? Bicyanide
of mercury is completely decomposed by dry sulphuretted hy-
drogen ; bichloride only on the surface. If the latter be pre-
viously moistened, it is entirely decomposed ; but during the
action of the gas, it gradually falls to powder. The phenomena
in the latter case are owing to the existence and previous form-
ation of a compound of the two salts, a sulpho-chloride, and
not, necessarily, to any inability of the bisulphuret to assume
and retain the form of the bichloride ; yet it is not impossible
that there may exist some unknown relation between the true
form of a body and those false forms which it is capable of as-
suming and retaining in any degree of perfection.

VII.

43. Of Trimorphous bodies. — Though we are as yet unac-
quainted with any cases in which bodies actually assume more
than two incompatible forms, yet, as I have already remarked,
there is no reason to consider such an occurrence as at all unlikely.
On the contrary, there are strong reasons for believing that future
observations will make us acquainted with three or more forms
of the same substance, geometrically distinct. The analogous
compounds, for example, of isomorphous bodies ought to as-
sume the same form, and yet we are familiar with many groups
of such compounds which, though their individual members
are not known to assume more than one or two irreconcileable
forms, yet, as groups, are tri, or even tetrakimorphous. In
a former section I have illustrated, by reference to one or two
cases, in what way the probable dimorphism of individual com-
pounds may be inferred from that of the chemical group to
which they belong ; the same mode of deduction renders tri-
morphism almost equally probable. Thus the sulphate, chro-
mate and molybdate of lead, present us with three forms :

• •» M.M. P.M.

Sulphate . . . PbS a Rt. Rh. Pr. 103° 42'

Chromate . . . PbC Ob. Rh. Pr. 93° 30' 99° 10'

Molybdate . . PbMol

* # J. bquare prisms

Tungstate . . . PbTuJ
exhibited by substances represented by the same general for-
mula RR, and which, for anything we know to the contrary,
may all be assumed by each other.

198 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Again, carbonate of lime presents itself in three forms :

1°.

Rhomboid in calc

spar

3°.
Ob. Rh. Prism in
Obliq. Rh. baryto
calcite ;

2°.
Rt. Rh. Prism in
arragonite and Rt.
Rh. baryto calcite

and though the third form in this case may result from the
combination of the rhomboid of calc spar with the Rt. Rh.
prism of heavy spar, yet it is not impossible that it may arise
from a true trimorphism.

44. Even simple substances are not exempt from the suspicion
of assuming more than two forms. Thus, in many of its combi-
nations with their metals, sulphur belongs to the regular system
to which the metals themselves also belong. It is not easy to
see how regular forms should result from the union of a cube
with either of the known forms of sulphur ; it may be con-
sidered probable, therefore, that in certain circumstances sul-
phur may be isomorphous with the metals which belong to
the regular system.

Further, it is not unworthy of notice that, among substances
assuming regular forms, iron pyrites (FeS 9 ) and glance cobalt,

-p >S 2 + p° >As 2 alone exhibit the so called pyritohedral

faces. And though we cannot draw any certain conclusions in
relation to our present subject from the phenomena exhibited
by bodies belonging to the regular system ; yet the circum-
stance now mentioned seems to indicate a connexion between
the two minerals not common even among such regular forms.
This connexion is most likely to be such as that which exists

among the octohedral minerals RR, of which magnetic iron is the

type, and among the garnets, namely, that the analogous mem-
bers of the formulae by which their chemical constitution is re-
presented are respectively isomorphous, that is to say, that in

{As
<n 2 arsenic and sulphur are

isomorphous, and may replace each other. In addition, there-
fore, to the two known forms of sulphur, there are two others
in which we may still expect to find it, or sulphur may be tetra-
Amiorphous.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES.

199

Rt. Rh. Prism.

Ob. Rh. Prism.

Rhomboid.

Cube.

Native Sulphur,
Isomorph. with
Iodine.

After fusion, Iso-
morph. with
Selenium.*

When it replaces
Arsenic or An-
timony.

When isomor-
hpous with the
other metals.

It is not to be disguised, however, that the reasoning in all
these cases is at best only probable. The supposition even, — of a
fourth form in the case of sulphur depends on a previous one,
that in a regular crystal of cobalt glance, arsenic can exist in the
rhomboidal form, the only one in which it has hitherto been ob-
served (by Breithaupt) . If arsenic and antimony, like the oxides
of the latter and the arsenious acid, be dimorphous, one of their
forms belonging to the regular system, then the mutual replace-
ment of these two metals and of sulphur in tessular forms, only
strengthens the argument for the third or cubical form of sul-
phur, which is itself also hypothetical.

Still the facts above detailed, and we are acquainted with very
many of an analogous kind, are deserving of much consideration.
They open up views of great interest, and seem to indicate the
line along which the advance of certain knowledge is destined
to proceed. Received with caution and due distrust they will
materially aid the observer, by teaching him what to look for
and how to find it, — received at once as true they will at best
form the foundation of an imperfectly verified system of opinions,
and may probably lead to error.

VIII.

45. Relation of dimorphism and molecular arrangement in
general, to temperature, electricity, and mechanical pressure.
— Having in the preceding sections exhibited nearly all the facts
connected with dimorphism with which we are at present ac-
quainted, it may be proper before inquiring into the cause of
dimorphism to take a short review of the several circumstances
by which the assumption of the one or the other form is known
to be affected.

Of these circumstances the influence of temperature is the Influence of
most apparent. The various substances which have come un- * em P er a-
der our consideration as capable of existing in two forms or
states, are almost uniformly characterized by a preference to one
form or state in ordinary circumstances or at ordinary tempe-

* Sublimed and crystallized from its solution in sulphuric acid (Frankenheim)
Pog. Annalen, vol.xl. p. 459.

200 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

ratures, their second form in many being produced, in some being
stable, only at higher temperatures. Thus the crystals of sul-
phur from fusion gradually become opaque, and appear to change
internally to minute individuals of the common form. The yel-
low biniodide of mercury even more rapidly changes into the
red. The change of form ? undergone by the bichromate of pot-
ash and the double sulphate of potash and copper, and of colour
by the protoxide of lead, the oxide of zinc, the binoxide of mer-
cury, titanic acid, and other oxides, generally takes place before
they arrive at the ordinary temperature of the atmosphere. What-
ever be the way in which heat acts, thei'efore, it is obviously an
important agent in the exhibition of the one or the other form
by dimorphous bodies.

By an elevation of the temperature, more or less great, the
first form is changed into the second, in sulphur, disulphuret of
copper, the biniodide and bichloride of mercury, arsenious acid,
oxide of antimony, carbonate of lime, carbonate of magnesia,
sulphate of nickel, bisulphate of potash, seleniate of zinc, and
probably the garnet. Of these substances, however, the new
form assumed is permanent in all, with the exception of sulphur
and the biniodide of mercury.

Common charcoal readily assumes the form of graphite at a
temperature below that at which cast iron melts ; of the tem-
perature at which diamond is formed we as yet know nothing.

46. The phenomena attendant on the production of the several
forms renders it extremely probable that they are specific in
each substance to specific ranges of temperature, — that the form
assumed depends upon whether the substance is allowed to
crystallize within the one range or the other, — that at tempera-
tures near the limit of each range a very slight cause will set the
particles in motion, for the production of either form as in the
biniodide of mercury, — and that at greater distances from this
limit, either above or below the temperatures to which it belongs,
the form is permanent only because the particles have not the
power of moving, being coerced as in suddenly cooled glass
(Rupert's drops), and requiring time as in sulphur, or the aid of
heat as in arragonite, or in the process of annealing glass and
metals, to enable them to overcome the restraint and to assume
the other form.

Connected as these phenomena appear to be with certain
ranges of temperature, they cannot be ascribed to the agency of
heat as a cause, otherwise the presence of this agent in greater
or less intensity should produce similar effects on all crystalli-
zable bodies ; they must rather be attributed to some peculiarity
in the molecular constitution of the substances by which they

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 201

are displayed, being merely developed under certain thermal
conditions.

47. The changes that take place in solid bodies at different tem-
peratures, whether in form or in colour, are in general easily ob-
served. In liquids, on the contrary, changes in the molecular
arrangement are not so obvious, though there is little reason to
doubt that they frequently take place. Of this fact melted sul-
phur presents the most striking illustration with which we are
acquainted. At 230° F. it is very fluid; at 430° F. viscid and
tenacious ; and again at 480° F., and upwards, of great fluidity.
Changes of a different kind are exhibited by hyponitrous acid
(N0 3 ), which at 60° F. is of a green colour, while at — 4° F.
it is wholly colourless *. On the other hand, a solution of iodide
of starch, which at 200° F. is colourless, becomes blue as it cools.
These differences can only arise from some change in the mole-
cular arrangement induced by, or consequent upon, the change
of temperature, precisely as in the case of some of the solid sub-
stances above describedf. Analogous phaenomena have not yet
been observed in other fluid bodies, either because the change of
position in the molecules takes place at temperatures to which
fluids are not often exposed, or because it is not often accompa-
nied by changes in the physical properties, such as can be readily
observed : — it may be also because they have not hitherto been
looked for. It is not unlikely that liquids, whether permanent
or obtained by fusion, would at different temperatures differently
affect the course of a prolonged ray if tested by the beautiful
method of Biot.

48. Even in gaseous bodies the relative position of the molecules
does not appear to be the same at every temperature. The va-
pour of nitrous acid (N0 4 ), at the temperature of 100° F., is
of a deep red, while at 212° it is black and opaque j (Brewster).
It may indeed be said that in this case decomposition takes

* Mitscherlich, Lehrbuch der Chemie, vol. i. p. 342.

f In the Lecons sur la Philosophie Chimique par M. Dumas, which has
come into my hands since the text went to press, is a paragraph (p. 305) almost
verbatim with the above. He adds, " C'est sans doute aux memes influences qu'il
faut rapporter la propriety que l'eau possede d'avoir un maximum de density
a 4°C, au lieu de continuer a se contracter a. mesure qu'elle se refroidit." — p.
336. He seems to have been unaware of the property observed by Sir D.
Brewster in the vapour of nitrous acid, as in resuming the facts he had stated,
he says, " Vous voyez qu'on arrive a conclure que dans les gaz l'influence de
la forme des molecules parait nulle oupresque nulle ; qu'elle semble au contraire
tres-considerable dans les solides, et qu'elle se fait egalement sentir dans les
liquides."

% According to Sir David Brewster, a tube, filled with the red vapour at 100°
and sealed, becomes black when heated to 212° F.

202 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837«

place (2 N=N + N) at the elevated temperature, and that as the
whole cools combination again takes place ; the opacity being
in some way caused by the mixed vapours. But this decompo-
sition is by no means probable, and if it were, the change in co-
lour, &c. is still unintelligible, so that, in the present state of our
knowledge, the fact remains as an interesting indication of the
probable effect of high temperatures on the internal molecular
constitution even of gaseous bodies, an effect of which future ob-
servation may be expected to furnish us with other examples.

49. Of Electricity . — It is not improbable, that like heat, elec-
tricity also, to which it is in so many ways related, may have an
influence in modifying the arrangement of the crystalline mole-
cules, so as to cause the development of one or other of the two
forms.

Mr. Crosse* states, that by passing a weak current of electri-
city through solutions of carbonate of lime he obtained rhom-
boidal crystals of calc spar at the negative electrode, and that on
one occasion, along with these, he obtained also very fine pris-
matic crystals, which he took for arragonite, near to the positive
pole. It would be very interesting to find this statement con-
firmed by other observers.
Influence of 50. In an early part of this reportwe have seen reason to conclude
pressure, fa&t the cause of dimorphism acts in such a way as to alter the
density of the substance, or the distance at which its crystalline
particles are placed. It is therefore interesting to inquire how
far such an alteration, induced by purely mechanical means, as
by pressure, would affect the form so as to impart to any given
substance the characters of a dimorphous body. In so far as the
optical properties are concerned, the experiments of Sir David
Brewster, recorded in the Philosophical Transactions for 1830,
p. 87, seem to indicate that such characters may be imparted by
mechanical agency. He found that a mixture of white wax
and rosin, which in mass and in ordinary circumstances exhibits
no doubly refracting structure, yet has that structure developed
in it by simple pressure between two plates of glass. The same
philosopher has also observed that in mineral substances the
optical phenomena are changed in intensity by subjecting them
to mechanical pressure, in the same way as they are known to
change when exposed to a diminishing temperature.

These facts tend to confirm the opinion above expressed, that
heat has no specific action in producing physical changes in
crystalline and other bodies — that it acts merely as any other

* Reports of the British Association, vol. v., Appendix, p. 47.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 203

mechanical cause, the difference of the effects produced in each
case being due to the specific properties of the substance itself.

IX.

51. Cause of Dimorphism. — From what has been stated in
the previous part of this report in regard to the infancy of our
knowledge in this department, it will be evident that we are
not yet in a condition to do much more than merely hazard
conjectures as to the cause of dimorphism. Our observations,
however, are already so multiplied that some of the earliest con-
jectures may now be safely laid aside. I shall briefly notice the
several explanations which have hitherto been given.

52. Presence of a foreign body. — When the phenomenon
of dimorphism was first recognised in carbonate of lime, it ap-
peared most easy to account for the difference between calc spar
and arragonite by supposing that the latter actually contained
some other ingredient besides carbonic acid and lime. And
though the experiments of Thenard and Biot failed in showing
the presence of any other constituents, yet the detection of
strontia by Stromeyer seemed to set the matter at rest, and the
failure of the French chemists was attributed to their deficiency
in analytical skill. Now, however, that we can change arra-
gonite into calc spar, and by a proper regulation of the tempera-
ture can cause one and the same portions of several other sub-
stances to assume either of two known forms, the influence of
foreign bodies in these cases can no longer be admitted. It is pos-
sible that the presence of such bodies might produce a change
of form, but they cannot be considered necessary to the pro-
duction of a dimorphism, or to afford any insight into the pro-
bable cause of the phsenomenon.

53. Influence of circumstances. — In the preceding section
we have seen that the assumption of one or other form by di-
morphous bodies is very much influenced by circumstances.
Hence dimorphism has been said to be due to the different cir-
cumstances under which a substance crystallizes. But this is
only to look on the surface of the change, and would imply that
you have only to vary the circumstances in order to produce
another and another form, and that thus the number of forms
in which a substance may exhibit itself is limited only by the
number of changes that can be effected in the circumstances.
It implies also that similar circumstances, or a similar change of
circumstances, should produce a similar effect on all substances •
but neither of these things is the case, so far as observation has
gone ; there must, therefore, be something in the internal struc-
ture of the mass, in the form, the mechanical arrangement or

204 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

physical relations of its molecules, which incline it to assume
one or other of a certain number of forms, and to assume each
only under certain fixed conditions. Were these conditions
fully understood, some light would be thrown on the internal
cause ; or were the form and relations of the molecules known,
we might be able to specify what crystalline forms theyare fitted
to build up, and under what conditions. It is stopping short
however to attribute the phenomena to the circumstances under
which they are displayed ; for though we may not be able at
present to see far beyond them, yet we should be ready to
perceive and to avail ourselves of the first glimpse of light.

54. Change hi the intensity of the axial forces. — The optical
phenomena exhibited by certain crystallized bodies, as the topaz,
when raised to a high temperature, and of others when submitted
to mechanical pressure, have suggested to Sir D. Brewster the
idea that under the new conditions, a change takes place in the
relative intensity of the axial forces resident in the molecule,
and that of this change the new phfenomena are a consequence.
And as his beautiful researches have shown that the optical
phenomena are almost universally true indices of the crystal-
line form, he attributes the phenomena of dimorphism to a more
or less permanent change in this relative intensity of the forces,
caused by the circumstances in which the bodies happen to be
placed during crystallization. If the attractive forces in the di-
rection of two axes, A and B, be respectively + and — , and if by
an alteration of temperature the intensity of the one be elevated
and the other depressed, so that they change signs and become
respectively — and + , it is easy to understand how, if at liberty
to move, the molecules in which this change takes place should
make a partial revolution, and build up a crystalline mass of a
new form. But this only removes the difficulty a step further
back ; it merely explains how heat and other circumstances may
produce the phsenomena, it does not affect to explain why. The
true question still remains behind, What specific relations, me-
chanical or physical, exist among the molecules of each sub-
stance, that the same circumstances do not affect all alike ?

55. Union of the Molecules in the direction of different axes.
— This difficulty is in some measure got over by the supposition
of Voltz*. He supposes the crystalline molecules of all bodies
to be possessed of three unequal axes, in which reside polar

* Transactions of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of Strasburg, 1833. The only know-
ledge I have of M. Voltz's views is derived from L' Institict, 29th March and
8th Aug., 1834, and from a paper by Mr. Dana, in Sittimaris Journal, xxx.
p. 294; it is not impossible therefore that in endeavouring to give a clear state-
ment of his views I may have unintentionally misrepresented them.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 205

forces, the intensity of which is inversely as the lengths of these
axes. Further, that these molecules may unite in the direction
either of the like or of any of the unlike axes, and that upon the
junction or approximation of the axes in which they reside the
opposite polar forces unite and neutralize (?) each other as in
a chemical compound.

On these suppositions the influence of circumstances is of a
less vital character than on that of Sir D. Brewster. They do
not alter the relative intensity of the forces, they only affect
the mechanical condition — the relative position it may be — of
the molecules, so as to allow them to approach and unite in the
direction of one axis rather than another.

If the molecules be united in groups three and three, so that
the unlike axes unite

a . b . c

c . a . b

b . c . a

a + b + c.a + b + c.a + b + c
the resultant axes and the forces resident in them are all equal,
or the crystal belongs to the regular system. According to
Voltz all regular forms are built up in this way.
Again, let them unite in pairs thus,

a . b . c
a . c . b

2a . b+c . b+c
and we have a square octohedron, or some other form belonging
to the pyramidal (2 and 1 axial) system.

If they unite in equal numbers in the direction of each axis

a . b . c
a . b . c

2a . 2b . 2c
we have a crystal belonging, like the molecules* themselves, to
the prismatic (1 and 1 axial) system.

It is easy to see that certain dimensions being given for one
of these forms, the dimensions of another may be calculated
from them on the above suppositions. M. Voltz has so far veri-
fied his principle as to deduce the dimensions of the rhomboid
of calc spar from those of the right rhombic prism of arragonite,
and the form of rutile from that of anatase.

* It is not necessary that the molecules, to meet the views of M. Voltz, should
he considered as regular prismatic forms. An oblate ellipsoid has three unequal
axes, which would answer all the conditions.

206 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

In regard to the difference of physical properties exhibited by
the unlike forms of the same substance, M. Voltz considers that
the axes as well as the forces resident in each being independent
in magnitude, the physical properties in the direction of the
three axes must always differ in a greater or less degree. The
density, hardness, refraction, reflection, dilatability by heat
and compressibility along the unlike axes being unequal in the
molecule, must vary also in the crystalline mass with the way in
which the molecules are grouped together to form it, and hence
the physical properties of the mass will depend in some mea-
sure on the system of crystallization to which its form belongs.

These views of M. Voltz may not be correct, yet they are
deserving of much consideration. They may embody only a
part of the truth, or they may hereafter prove to be wholly in
error ; yet they have more the air of a vera causa than any of the
other hypotheses we have considered, and they may be instru-
mental in pointing the way to something still more satisfactory.

56. Extent of Dimorphism. — Is dimorphism or heteromor-
phism universal ; may all substances assume two or more in-
compatible forms ? To this question we cannot at present give
a direct reply ; there are considerations, however, partly theo-
retical and partly drawn from observation, which seem to render
it probable, that if not all, at least a very great number of cry-
stallizable substances are heteromorphous.

57. According to any of the suppositions (53, 54, 55) by
which dimorphism has been accounted for, as above stated, the
power of assuming more than one form ought not to be restricted
to any number or to any class of bodies whether simple or
compound. If it be caused by change of circumstances, all
substances may be placed in new conditions ; if to a change
in the relative intensity of the axial forces, all ought to be more or
less liable to such a change ; while the theory of Voltz implies,
that all being made up of molecules with three unlike axes, may
assume one or other of a much more numerous suite of forms
than observation has hitherto given us reason to suspect in any one
known substance. Still these explanations are all hypothetical ;
and though we ought not altogether to lose sight of the conclu-
sion to which they would direct us, we are not justified in allowing
such theoretical views to do more than awaken in our minds a
suspicion that all substances may ultimately prove to be dimor-
phous.

58. Again, if we turn to the department of observation, and
consider how little the forms of bodies have been studied, how

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 207

much less even the relations of these forms to temperature and
other circumstances of an unusual character have been attended
to, we shall see cause to believe that the number of bodies capable
of assuming two or more forms must be vastly greater than we
can as yet be aware of.

59. In the great majority of cases we have yet to learn where
and how to look for the second forms of bodies. This is stri-
kingly illustrated by the beautiful observation of Frankenheim in
regard to the crystallization of nitrate of potash from its solu-
tion in water. As the evaporation proceeds crystals of two
kinds are distinguished, prisms of the ordinary form and six-
sided plates of the second form ; but as the prisms are prolonged
they come in contact with the plates, give rise to an immediate
movement among their particles, and incorporate them with
their own mass, so that the ultimate result of the crystallization
is an unmixed crop of crystals of the common form.

In most cases of crystallization it is only the final result we
can observe or have hitherto regarded — may there not be very
many cases in which changes analogous to those observed in
nitre may take place, a knowledge of which would enable us
greatly to enlarge our list of dimorphous bodies ?

60. An analogous observation of Ehrenberg* suggests the
same question, and makes an affirmative reply still more pro-
bable. In examining the crystallization of common salt under
the microscope, he states that the first crystals formed were
generally six-sided tables, in the centre of which a cubical point
would suddenly appear and gradually increase in size, while the
tabular crystal dissolved around it and at length disappeared.
The hexagonal crystals had much resemblance to the hydra^ed
tables observed by Mitscherlich at very low temperatures, so
that the present does not appear to be a case of dimorphism.
Still it points in the same direction as the observation of Frank-
enheim, tells us to keep an eye on the same class of phenomena,
instructs us not to rest satisfied with a knowledge of the final
form of a crystallized body, but if possible to follow the march
of the molecules, to note the successive stages at which they
seem to rest for a time, and to mark the transformations they
may undergo before they reach that form.

61. The circumstances also, the range of temperature for
example, within which a certain form can exist, is sometimes
very limited. Thus a solution of carbonate of lime in carbonic
acid, if allowed to evaporate and crystallize in the cold gives
only calc spar, if evaporated on the sand bath it is almost en-

* Pog. An. Z. R. vi., p. 240.

208 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

tirely arragonite. Chloride of calcium precipitated by carbonate
of ammonia in the cold gives calc spar, if both solutions be
boiling the result is arragonite ; and yet at a low red heat arra-
gonite is again changed into calc spar. Thus it would appear
that the conditions as to temperature in which the molecules
may unite to form calc spar are various and recurrent, and that
so far as we yet know arragonite is not formed at a temperature
below perhaps 80° or 100° F., and cannot exist above 700° °r
800° F. It may be necessary therefore to observe the forms
assumed by bodies at many different temperatures, not perhaps
very remote from each other, before we shall be able to pro-
nounce as to their ability to assume more than one form.

The application of the microscope to the examination of the
phenomena of crystallization promises to add much to our know-
ledge. In the hands of Ehrenberg, Frankenheim, Gustav Rose,
and Talbot it has already given us much interesting information,
but a rich harvest awaits the further use of this new instrument
on a field hitherto almost untouched by it.

62. But the clearest and most extended inference in regard
to the number of individual substances which are likely to prove
dimorphous (trimorphous perhaps or polymorphous), is to be
drawn from the existence of a dimorphism in certain chemical
groups, the individual members of which are only monomor-
phous, or conversely from the known existence of dimorphous
individuals in large strictly chemical and isomorphous groups.
In a former section (section iv.) we have discussed the probabi-
lity of a heteromorphism being observed in all the members of
the groups of the first class, and of all the members of those of
the second class proving isodi or isetfmnorphous, and we have
seen strong reason to believe that this expectation will not ulti-
mately be disappointed. How great a number of individuals
these observations when made will add to the substances in our
first table need not be pointed out ; it is sufficient that in the
circumstance here alluded to we see another reason for believing
that in nature the assumption of two or more incompatible forms
is very far from being a rare phsenomenon.

63. Theory and observation therefore unite in suggesting
that dimorphism, instead of being an exception, as it still in
some measure appears, to the ordinary laws of crystallization,
may prove to be a general, perhaps a universal consequence of
those laws. The utility of the present report consists mainly
in its bringing together the scattered fragments of our certain
knowledge — in pointing out the inquiries they indicate, and the
conclusions to which they lead, and in its setting up a landmark
to which it may be interesting, perhaps curious to refer in a fu-

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 209

ture and more advanced state of the science, when observation
shall have verified some, perhaps falsified the whole of our most
likely predictions.

XI.

64. Relation of the Crystalline doctrine of Dimorphism to
the Chemical doctrine of Isomorphism. — The differences hither-
to observed between the properties of the two forms A and B of
any dimorphous body are physical only ; if we impart to them
unlike chemical relations also, they become isomeric.

65. The fact that two or more substances may consist of the
same elements united in the same proportion, and have the same
atomic weight, and yet possess unlike properties, chemical as well
as physical, is at least as new to chemistry as the doctrine of
dimorphism is to crystallography. Both classes of phenomena
are due to a mechanical change in the relative position, distances,
&c. of the particles of bodies ; — for what we call chemical differ-
ences are only physical differences of a higher order. Those of
isomerism, however, are more general, implying or carrying
along with them those of dimorphism. Isomeric bodies in their
several states not only exhibit different chemical properties, but
assume also unlike crystalline forms, though the relations among
these forms have not as yet been examined with that care which
the subject deserves, and would probably well repay.

66. Without affecting to understand how these two orders
of differences are actually produced in nature, we can yet con-
ceive how they might be produced under certain given conditions.
For let the crystalline particles of which sensible crystals are
immediately built up be prismatic — have three unlike axes —
then according to the views of Voltz dimorphism may be ac-
counted for. But let these crystalline particles be themselves
groups (and we are certain that such a particle of a compound
body must contain more than one, some many molecules), the
several members of which may be collocated at different distances
or in different relative positions, and we have, independent of and
beyond the supposed cause of dimorphism, another means of
producing changes of a profounder character, which may affect
the chemical relations of the crystalline particles while it alters
also the relative lengths of their several axes. It is immaterial
whether the ultimate molecules have the form of prisms, of ob-
late ellipsoids, or of spheres ; it is necessary only that by their
collocation they may produce prismatic crystalline forms, and all
the known phenomena can be conceived. According to this
view, there is a sh'ong analogy between the two classes of phe-
nomena as regards the mode by which they are produced — the

vol. vi. 1837. p

210 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

one change commencing as it were where the other ends, and
basing itself upon it.

67. Thereare other analogies also between these two doctrines.
Isomerism like dimorphism is dependent on circumstances, is
developed in certain cases by change of temperature. Thus ac-
cording to Lowig* the racemic (paratartaric) acid is changed
into the tartaric by simple fusion. The crystals of anhydrous
cyanuric acid (3Cy + 60 + 3H) distilled at a heat below redness
into a vessel cooled to the freezing temperature, gives a liquid
hydrated cyanic acid 3 (CyO + HO), which on attaining the tem-
perature of the air changes into a colourless solid — the inso-
luble cyanic acid. During these changes there is no escape or
loss of any of the elements. The polymeric carbo-hydrogens
seem to change into one another, in a certain order, by an ele-
vation of temperature j the sugars, gums, and starches also
pass into each other by a slight alteration of circumstances,
and future observation will doubtless make us acquainted with
the conditions necessary for the production of the several mem-
bers of the known and of many other as yet unknown isomeric
groups.

68. Connected as these two classes of phsenomena seem to be
in their probable origin, and by the kind of circumstances under
which they are developed, they may be expected to throw some
light on each other. Thus if substances may appear in more
than two or three isomeric states, be isotri or isopo/ymerlc, why
may they not also be tri or polymorphic ? In whatever degree
we consider these two classes of appearances to be analogous,
in the same degree will be strengthened the probability we have
already seen to exist, that the forms which the same body may
assume are not limited to two or even three.

G9. Again, if simple substances, like sulphur and carbon,
may assume two incompatible forms, may they not present
themselves in two isomeric states ? If they are susceptible of
that internal molecular change to which dimorphism is due, why
not also of that deeper change, as we suppose it, to which iso-
merism is owing — by which difference in chemical relations is
produced ?

An affirmative answer to this question will probably be the
next great step in chemical science, advancing the knowledge
of our time at least as far as the discovery of the alkaline me-
tals carried forward the chemistry of the time of Davy.

70. Meanwhile the probability of such a discovery does not
rest merely on a supposed analogy between the phsenomena of

» Fog. An., xlii. p. 588.

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 211

dimorphism and isomerism ; there exist also other observed ana-
logies which point to that reduction in the number of received
elementary substances which must necessarily follow the esta-
blishment of the supposition that elementary bodies are suscep-
tible of isomerism.

Thus certain compounds, like cyanogen, known by the name
of radicals, exhibit all the chemical relations to the elementary
bodies by which simple substances belonging to the same class
(chlorine, bromine, &c.) are distinguished ; the latter therefore
may likewise be compound.

Again, the chemical and physical relations of the several states
of isomeric bodies are sometimes (cyanogen and paracyanogen)
at least as distinct from each other as those exhibited by the
several elementary substances comprised in almost any of the
natural groups*. This consideration adds weight to the hypo-
thesis that the latter are not simple.

71. The speculations of chemists in regard to the probable
diminution of the number of received elementary bodies have
hitherto run only in the channel of decomposition. Nor is
this surprising, since up to the present time the greatest ac-
cessions to our knowledge have flowed to us through this chan-
nel. It has been often supposed that any given elementary
substance A, as happened with the alkalies and earths, may
prove to be made up of two others known or unknown ; and
that in any two of them, if the constituents prove the same,
they may be united together in different proportions. The
idea of a possible transformation has hitherto hardly been
thought of ; and yet the doctrine of isomerism, rich already in
its numerous discoveries, has shown that any number of the re-
ceived elementary bodies may be made up of the same elements
united in the same proportion. That they are so made up is in
no degree the less probable, that under no circumstances have
we ever observed any two (as iodine and bromine) to be trans-
formed into each other, since even of the isomeric groups few
are yet known, the members of which are mutually convertible
by methods as yet understood or at our command.

Regarding the question under this new point of view, it will
appear that the study of the several kinds of physical and che-
mical properties which the same portion of matter may assume,
and of the circumstances which influence the development of
one or other of these kinds, if it do not ultimately solve, is not
unlikely to throw considerable light upon this, the most inter-

* Cyanogen is not more like to paracyanogen than oxygen is to sulphur ;
less so than chlorine is to iodine. See Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh for 1 836, vol. xiv.

p 2

212 SEVENTH REPORT 1837*

esting problem now present to the minds of chemical philoso-
phers.

72. Are the elementary substances isomeric ? is another form
of the question, Are the received elements really compound ?
inasmuch as it indicates a desire to diminish the number of the
simple substances ; but it is a very different question as regards
the way in which the number is supposed to be capable of di-
minution.

For this diminution by the process of decomposition the hopes
of chemists rest almost entirely on the application of galvanism
or some similarly powerful agent, directed by the skill of a Davy
or a Faraday ; it may be however that the patient study and
pursuit of the kindred classes of phsenomena we have been con-
sidering, shall in some brighter moment show that substances
considered elementary are yet mutually convertible without de-
composition ; while the question may still remain unsettled, per-
haps untouched, whether any of them be compound or not. Are
the received elements isomeric ? is thus preliminary to the ques-
tion, Are they compound ? and in the case of some of them may
receive the earlier answer.

73. It may indeed be that all our supposed elementary bodies
are in reality such, and therefore wholly beyond the resolving
energy of electricity or any other agent, and yet the study of
their changes and reactions in the laboratory, in conformity
perhaps with new views or modes of investigation, may at some
future period so enlarge our dominion over the molecules as
shall cause them at our bidding to assume this or that arrange-
ment — to appear with the properties of chlorine or iodine — of
cobalt or nickel — of rhodium, iridium, or osmium.

Such speculations are not only of high interest — they are of
use also in suggesting new investigations — in urging the expe-
rimenter to try new methods in the hope of being guided to new
results. I have ventured to introduce these speculations at the
close of the present report, with the view of showing the con-
nection of isomeric and dimorphous differences with the highest
questions and objects of research in the existing state of inor-
ganic chemistry. The path along which they lead us is as yet
dark and obscure, but it is certain to guide us to rich and open '
fields, perhaps to some hill top from which new domains may
be descried, and from which the descent is easy to new con-
quests.

74. In the advance of the sciences of observation it is seldom |
that the same instrument has been the means of producing two'
great revolutions in the same department. The balance in the
hands of Lavoisier overturned the phlogistic theory ; but though

ON DIMORPHOUS BODIES. 213

the surest weapon of the modern chemist, it is doubtful if it can
ever again produce such an overthrow of received opinions. By
its aid Dalton and others established the atomic theory ; but this
was rather a splendid addition to our knowledge than the refu-
tation of a prevailing creed. By the aid of the galvanic battery
Davy effected the brilliant revolution with which his name is
associated. The line of Faraday's researches, though directed
towards a similar end, and strewed along its whole course with
beautiful results, has yet led him to no higher dominion over
refractory matter ; and though we have much to hope for from
the wonderful weapon he has learned to wield so skilfully, we
have reason also to fear lest if we trust to this weapon alone we
should ultimately be disappointed. With the goniometer Mit-
scherlich has gained for science those remarkable branches of
knowledge, to the actual state of one of which it has been my
object to draw the attention of British philosophers in the pre-
ceding report; and it is not a little remarkable that the progress
of these branches of knowledge seems likely to be arrested by the
same question which electricians since the days of Davy have
often asked themselves, Are the elementary bodies really simple ?
Which of these branches of inquiry is destined to solve the dif-
ficulty — will the honour be shared by each — or must a third
branch arise, bearing a new weapon to carry away the glory from
both?

I cannot close this report without noticing more fully than I
have yet had an opportunity of doing how very much this de-
partment of knowledge has been indebted to Professor Mit-
scherlich of Berlin. To this distinguished philosopher we owe
the first recognition of the principle of dimorphism, as well as
the subsequent discovery of many of the most interesting exam-
ples of its manifestation with which we are yet acquainted. In
reading his various memoirs on this and kindred subjects, it is
difficult to determine whether we should admire most the inge-
nuity and extreme beauty of his researches, the brevity and
clearness with which his most important results are announced,
the grave and philosophic air which pervades his deductions,
or the unity of purpose observable even in the most seemingly
insignificant of his published investigations. The order of his
memoirs exhibits not only the progress of his own inquiries, but
at the same time of the branches of knowledge he has created.
In his own walk he has trodden almost alone, and there is perhaps
in our time no other example among the sciences of observation
of an entire department depending for so many years on the
single labours of one individual. It is to be presumed that many

214 SEVENTH KEPORT — 1837»

understand the researches of Mitscherlich, that some at least
are qualified to go forward in the same path with himself, yet
no one has ventured to shoot out into the main current of his
inquiries or to dispute with him the honour of leading the ad-
vance. It is certain indeed that in all the necessary qualifica-
tions, — in knowledge of the subject, andin devotion to its advance-
ment, as well as in intellectual gifts and acquirements, no living
philosopher could replace the present leader. Could any other be
expected to prosecute it so zealously as he whose mind has given
it birth ?

We may be permitted therefore to wish and hope that the
labours of this distinguished observer may be long continued to
us, that he may win new laurels to himself and add new domains
to the sciences he has already so greatly enriched. If the pre-
sent report make his discoveries more familiar to the rising phi-
losophers of our own country, or lead into the field of dimorphism
one mind yet undecided what path of science to choose, its main
objects will not be wholly unattained.

Desiderata. — 1. To determine the physical differences which
exist between the incompatible crystals of the same dimorphous
substance. (See blanks in Tables I. and IV.)

2. Within what limits of temperature is each form stable ?
within what other (?) limits may each form exist. (61.) ?

3. In general we are acquainted only with the final result of
crystallization : do bodies not pass through (so to speak) one
or more forms as they crystallize till they ultimately assume
one more stable than the rest ? The microscope will aid this
inquiry. (60.)

4. In isomorphous groups of which one member is dimor-
phous, to observe if, under certain circumstances hitherto neg-
lected, the other members may not also be dimorphous. If
mineral substances, specimens from different localities should
be studied and measured. (20.)

5. In groups represented by like chemical formula, — but
the several members of which do not all assume the same form
(32.), — to determine if the several known forms belonging to
the group do not also belong or may not be assumed by each
member of the group. (32.)

6. When two series of unlike physical properties (33.) are
assumed by the same chemical substance, to observe if each
series includes a different crystalline form.

7. In the present state of the doctrine of isomorphism it is
of importance to collect and tabulate examples of like form in

ON DIMOBPHOUS BODIES. 215

substances represented by unlike formulas. (See Table III.)
They seem to point to a modification of received opinions.

8. In cases of reputed pseudomorphism to examine minutely
the circumstances under which the changed crystals occur, and
the nature of the crystals themselves ; some of them may prove
to be cases of dimorphism. (40.)

9. To observe by the aid of the microscope or otherwise the
change which fusible substances undergo in the different stages
of cooling after solidification. Some (5. 6. Table IV.) sub-
stances appear in cooling to pass through, as it were, interme-
diate forms which they cannot retain, before they reach that
state of crystalline arrangement which is proper to the stationary
temperature. If one substance be known to exhibit such trans-
formations, to inquire if all substances represented by the same
formulas may exhibit them.

10. What difference of molecular arrangement, as indicated
by the optical properties, exists in the viscid state of melted
sulphur compared with the limpid states it assumes at a higher
and at a lower temperature (47) ? Are analogous phenomena,
differences of colour, density, fluidity, &c, observable in other
fluids at different temperatures ? Can any other gases exhibit-
ing like changes be added to the solitary example of nitrous
acid? (48.)

In connexion with this subject every accurate measurement
of a crystal, every nice determination of the hardness or density
of a well crystallized specimen, and above all every careful
analysis of specimens previously measured and weighed is of
great value. For though not immediately available in clearing
up any obscure or disputed point, they will form a sound basis
for future reasonings, will indicate new analogies among cry-
stalline compounds, and will gradually lead us forward to wider
generalizations.

Durham, 1838.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 217

Special Report on the Statistics of the Four Colectomies of
DuJchun, under the British Government.

[In spelling Oriental words, the a is the re in all, the u as in hid ; the rest
have the usual English sound.]

The General Committee of the British Association which met
at Cambridge in 1833, did me the honour to pass a resolution
that I should prepare for publication my manuscripts respect-
ing the Statistics of Dukhun (Deccan). I have been anxious
to respond to so flattering a desire at an earlier period, but
having placed my manuscripts in the hands of a distinguished
person, as auxiliary to his scientific labours, I have been de-
terred from reclaiming them until the objects for which they
had been placed at his disposal were realised.

In responding at last to the call of the British Association,
I feel very considerable embarrassment in adapting my ma-
terials to the space which can be afforded to me in its annual
volume. The materials, in fact, are very voluminous; and
the nature of my subject embracing multitudinous details,
figured statements, and lengthened tables, makes it a work
of no ordinary difficulty to digest, abridge, and condense them
without involving my subject in obscurity, and exposing my-
self to the imputation of inefficient inquiry from the hiatus
which must appear. I beg, therefore, distinctly to state, that
the absence of information observable in the following Report,
is attributable, not to paucity of matter, but to the want of a
sufficient field in which to display it.

Extent and Physical Circumstances.

I propose to give but a meagre sketch of the statistics of
Dukhun; a mere enumeration of its population, products,
manufactures, revenues, civil divisions, &c, with little more
comment than may be necessary to ensure perspicuity.

In the execution of my public duties as Statistical Reporter
to the government of Bombay, my researches made me ac-
quainted with the statistics of the four collectorates of Duk-
hun, denominated the Poona, Ahmednuggur, Candeish or
Khandesh, and Dharwar Collectorates ; facts were also col-
lected respecting the territories of the Rajah of Sattarah, and
some few details came to hand illustrative of the state of the
possessions of the southern Mahratta Jagheerdars, which are

218 SKVENTH REPORT — 1837-

under British protection. In adverting to the whole of these
territories, although I shall name them separately in describing
their extent, physical circumstances, and civil divisions, it will
only be to notice where they differ from each other.

The whole of the above territories, containing 3,285,985
inhabitants, spread over 48,987 square miles, and averaging
67 inhabitants to the square mile, lie upon that elevated
plateau, which has an abrupt termination on the western side
of India, in what are usually denominated the Ghats, but
which plateau gradually declines, occasionally by a succession
of low steps, as is seen by the courses of rivers to the Coro-
mandel coast, excepting in Khandesh (Khind meaning a gap or
trench, and Desh a country.) where the river Tapty disem-
bogues to the westward, from the peculiar configuration of the
narrow valley in which this collectoratc lies. Some of the
platforms on the summit of the Ghats have an elevation of
5000 feet above the sea, but the general level of the main
plateau of Dukhun is about 2000 feet high near the Ghats,
and scarcely exceeds 1000 feet in the eastern limits of the col-
lectorates. The whole territory is mountainous near to the
Ghats, and has numerous valleys, some of them narrow and
tortuous, others broad, open, and flat. At from thirty to fifty
miles eastward from the Ghats, most of the mountain spurs
which produce the valleys terminate, and the country becomes
open and tolerably level for considerable distances, with an
occasional step down to the eastward ; the country, in fact,
being made up of beds of trap, the beds extending the
further to the eastward the lower they are in the series.
There is much forest and underwood and jungle along the
line of the Ghats ; but to the eastward the country is open,
and there is a want of wood ; parts of Khandesh and Dhar-
war are exceptions to this description. The western tracts
along the Ghats are called the Mawuls, in contradistinction
to the open country, which is called the Desh or Des.

It may be as well to state here that all lands in Dukhun
are classed within some village boundary or other, and this
boundary is maintained with such jealousy and tenacity by
the inhabitants, as to lead to frequent feuds and bloodshed on
the slightest invasion of village rights. The village consti-
tution and the occupancy of lands will be mentioned under
land-tenures.

Rivers. — The rivers of Dukhun, which in the monsoon flow
with a magnificent volume of water, in the hot season present a
broad gravelly bed, with only a thread-like stream in many of
them, but from natural barriers of rock in the bed of the

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 219

Beema, Godavery, Kistnah, and other large rivers of Dukhun,
extensive sheets of water, called Dho or Dhao, are formed,
which abound with fish.

Roads and Bridges. — The roads in Dukhun, with the ex-
ception of two great military roads, are untouched by art ; and
few of the rivers can boast of a bridge.

Geology.

Previously to entering into descriptive details, I will state in
a few words, that the whole country comprised within my
boundaries is composed of distinctly stratified trap rocks,
without the intervention of the rocks of any other formation.
Whether at the level of the sea, or at the elevation of 4500
feet, in all and every part beds of basalt and amygdaloid are
found alternating, whose superior and inferior planes preserve
a striking parallelism to each other, and, as far as the eye can
judge, to the horizon. Barometrical measurements and the
course of rivers indicate a declination of the country to the
east-south-east, and south-east ; from the town of Goreh,
latitude 19 o, 0o and longitude 74> o# 05, on the Goreh river,
following a mean course for the river until it falls into the
Beema, and subsequently, continuing a mean course for the
Beema, until its junction with the Seena river, the distance
is about 200 miles, and the declination 671 feet: there may
therefore be a trifling dip of the strata ; but as a succession
of low terraces occur in that distance, the apparent horizontal
position of the strata may be unaffected by the above dif-
ference oflevel.

Dr. M'Culloch, describing the overlying or trap rocks,
says, " these masses are generally irregular, but sometimes
bear indistinct marks of stratification*." As Dr. M'Culloch's
language implies the rare occurrence of stratification, instead
of its being a distinctive feature, at least, of the Indian branch
of the trap family, I deem it necessary to quote the few
authors who have written on Indian geology, in confirmation
of the fact I have stated f .

* Classification of Rocks, p. 466.

t " These mountains (the Vindhya range), like every other in Malwa,
appear to be distinctly stratified, consisting of alternate horizontal beds of
basalt or trap, and amygdaloid. Fourteen of these beds may, in general, be
reckoned, the thinnest at the top, and rapidly increasing in thickness as they
lower in position, the basalt stratum at the bottom being about 200 feet thick."
Again, at page 327, he says, " In the upper plains of Malwa, every point of
view presents the same uniform and distinctly streaked appearance noticed in
the Vindhya range." — Captain Dangerfield, in Geological Notices of Malwa,
in Appendix, No. 2, to Sir John Malcolm's Central India, pp. 322, 327.

220 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Ghats. — The Dukhun rises, by a succession of terraces or
steps, very abruptly from the Konkun : its valleys and table-
lands have a mean elevation above the sea of about 1800 feet.
The Konkun is a long strip of land, from thirty to fifty miles
in breadth, lying between the Ghats and the sea : the mean
elevation of this strip is less than 100 feet ; but it is bristled
with isolated hills or short ranges, some of which attain an
elevation equaling that of the Ghats. Numerous shoulders or
salient angles are thrown out from the Ghats, from the western
or Konkun side, and by means of these the ascent to Dukhun
is affected ; with what difficulty, will be understood when I
state that the military road of communication between Bombay
and Poona, up the Bore Ghat, rises nearly 600 feet in a mile.
The western portion of my tract along the crest of the Ghats
is exceedingly strong : spurs of different lengths extend from
the main range to the eastward and south-east, leaving many
narrow tortuous valleys between them, some of which have
the character of gigantic cracks or fissures ; other valleys,
although occurring less frequently, when looked at from the
neighbouring ranges appear as flat and smooth as a billiard-
table, even to the Ghats ; but when traversed, are found to
be cut up by numerous narrow and deep ravines. Stupendous
scarps, fearful chasms, numerous waterfalls, dense forests, and
perennial verdure, complete the majesty and romantic interest
of the vicinity of the Ghats. As the spurs extend to the
east and south-east they diminish in height, until they dis-
appear on approaching the open plains in my eastern limits,
between the Beema and Seena rivers. The area of the table-
land on their summit often exceeds that of the valley between
them ; such is the case with the spur bordering the left bank
of the Beema river for forty miles from its source, occupying,
in fact, the whole country between the sources of the Beema
and Goreh rivers.

The spurs are rarely tabular for their whole length, but
narrow occasionally into ridges capped with compact basalt,
and subsequently expand into extensive table lands. The
spur originating in the hill-fort of Hurreechundurghur af-
fords a good example. The fort is about eighteen miles in
circumference. On the east, it presents a salient angle to the

Dr. Voysey, in a paper on the Geological and Mineralogical Structure of
the vicinity of Nagpoor, says, " From the summit of the hill of Sitabuldee the
difference in the outline of the rocks eastward is very perceptible. The flat-
tened summits and long flat outline, with the numerous gaps of the trap hills,
are exchanged for the ridgy, peaked, sharp outline of the primary rocks."
— Physical Class of the Asiatic Researches, p. 127.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 221

neighbouring mountain; absolute contact, however, only com-
mences at about 400 feet from the top of the scarp, leaving a
gap and an extremely narrow ridge, over which lies a difficult
footpath of communication between the valley of the Malsej
Ghat and that of the Mool river. The spur then widens ;
some lateral ramifications shoot out, on one of which is
situated the fort of Koonjurgbur. At the Brahmun Wareh
pass it narrows considerably, but not into a ridge ; it subse-
quently expands into the extensive and well-peopled table
land of Kanoor and Parneir, twenty-four miles long by twenty
broad, having diminished in height by a succession of steps
from 3894 feet in Hurreechundurghur, to 2866 at Brahmun
Wareh, 2474 at Parneir, and 2133 on the terrace of Ahmed-
nuggur. From Ahmednuggur the spur bends southwards
until it is finally lost in the neighbourhood of Sholapoor. It
is, in fact, the margin of a great plateau, which has a mean
elevation of about 300 feet above the valley of the Godavery
river, and over which the rivers Goreh, Beema, Seena, &c.
take their course. The basaltic caps of the ridges appear
more or less columnar from numerous vertical fissures ; the
weathering of these exposed rocks produces pillars, spires,
towers, houses, and other forms of works of art. Another
feature of these spurs is the occasional occurrence on their
table lands of small hummocks or conical hills with a trun-
cated apex. Dr. Voysey mentions " groups of flattened
summits and isolated conoidal frusta" in the Gawelghur Trap
Mountains. One of the longest of the spurs originates in
the Ghats north-west of Sattarah, and runs nearly east-south-
east about 100 miles towards Punderpoor.

The spur immediately south of Poona, on the ramifications
of which are situated the formidable fortresses of Singhur
(4162 feet) and Poorundhur, (at nearly the same elevation)
has an extent of ninety-five miles.

Valleys. — Much having been said respecting valleys of
excavation, I think it may be acceptable to offer a few obser-
vations on the valleys between the spurs. I shall describe
only those that present the greatest contrasts to each other.

Valley of the Mota River. — The valley of the Mota river,
south of Poona, originating in a mass of hills on the edge
of the Ghats, is so exceedingly narrow that for some miles
the bases of the opposite hills frequently touch each other,
leaving at intervals little horizontal plots of a pistol-shot in
width ; these plots occur in terraces, on lower levels, as they
extend eastward.

Vale of the Under, — The valley of the Under river, north-

222 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

west of Poona, presents a perfect contrast to the last. It is
level for twenty miles, running east and west to the very edge
of the Ghats ; and a person can stand at the head of the
valley, upon the brink of a scarp, rising almost from the
Konkun. Here, at the source of the river, it is nearly six
miles wide. The river Under runs down the valley 150 feet
below the level of the cultivated lands.

If these valleys be valleys of excavation, the present rivers
could scarcely produce such, were we to suppose their powers
of attrition in operation from the origin of things even to the
end of time !

Those of a fissure-like character might have resulted from
the upheaving of the beds of trap from below the sea, and the
consequent probable fracture of the surface; but the same
explanation will not apply to those valleys associated
with the preceding, broad, flat, and margined by scarped
mountains, which valleys are as wide at their origin at the
crest of the Ghats, and at the sources of the rivers which run
through them, as in any part of their length.

Terraces. — As the rise from the Konkun to the Dukhun is
by terraces, so the declination of the country eastward from the
Ghats is by terraces ; but these occur at much longer intervals,
are much lower, particularly in the eastern parts, and escape the
eye of the casual observer. In the neighbourhood of Munchur,
on the Goreh river, there are five terraces rising above each
other from the east to the west, so distinctly marked that the
parallelism of their planes to each other and to the horizon
gives them the appearance of being artificial. An artificial
character also pervades the form of many insulated hills ;
some of which, viewed laterally, appear to have an extensive
table-land on the summit ; but seen endways, look like trun-
cated cones. Conoidal frusta, in the Gawelgurh range, have
been already noticed. Other insulated hills are triangular in
their superficial planes, as the forts of Teekoneh (three-cor-
nered) and Loghur.

Escarpments. — Stupendous escarpments are occasionally met
with in the Ghats. In these instances the numerous strata, in-
stead of being arranged in steps, form a continuous wall. At
the Ahopeh pass, at the source of the Goreh river, the wall
or scarp is fully 1500 feet high; indeed, on the north-west
face of the hill fort of Hurreechundurghur, the escarpment can
scarcely be less than double that height. On the other hand,
the steps are sometimes effaced, and a hill has a rapid slope.
This originates in a succession of beds of the softer amyg-
daloids, without any basaltic interstratification ; their superior

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 223

angles disintegrate and a slope results. But most usually
three or four beds of amygdaloid are found between two strata
of compact basalt ; the former disintegrates, leaving a slope,
which is not unfrequently covered with forest trees, forming a
picturesque belt. The basaltic scarp remains entire, or it
may be partially buried by the debris from the amygdaloids
above ; but its great thickness usually preserves it from obli-
teration, and it rises from the wood below with majestic
effect, its black front being finely contrasted with the rich and
lively green of its sylvan associate. It is these strata, arranged
in slopes and scarps, repeated three or four times, and
so commonly met with in insulated and other mountains in
Dukhun, that constitute the amazing strength of the hill
forts of the country, leaving a succession of natural walls
encircling a mountain. This feature did not escape the ob-
servation of Captain Dangerfield in Malwa, who says, " From
the great difference in the resistance made to decomposition
by these trap and amygdaloid beds, their exposed ends acquire
a very distinct degree of inclination and character ; the amyg-
daloid forming a great slope and affording a loose mould
covered with vegetation, the trap retaining its original per-
pendicularity and dark bareness."

In the alternation of the strata there does not appear to be
any uniformity ; but the general level, thickness, and extent of a
stratum are preserved, as in sedimentary rocks, on both sides of
a valley ; the basalt and hardest amygdaloids being traceable
for miles in the parallel spurs or ranges ; but the imbedded
minerals, and even the texture, vary in very short distances.

Columnar Basalt. — A great geological feature of Dukhun is
the occurrence of columnar basalt. The basalts and hardest
amygdaloids run so much into each other that the line of sepa-
ration is not always readily distinguishable, excepting, of course,
the lines of horizontal stratification. I observed the prismatic
disposition more marked and perfect in the basalt strata than
in the amygdaloids, and the more or less perfect development
of determinate forms was dependent on the compactness and
limited constituents of the rocks. Basalts and amygdaloids,
however compact, with many imbedded matters, rarely formed
columns. Perfect columns were generally small, of four, five,
or six sides ; but the prismatic structure sometimes manifested
itself in basaltic and amygdaloidal columns many feet in
diameter. A bare mention of the places where they occur
would testify to their extended localities, but these are too nu-
merous for insertion in this report.

Schistose Structure. — Following the preceding formation, I

224 SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

may mention, that in some few places a schistose structure
was met with, but its extent was limited to a few yards ; the
lamellae were vertical, from an inch to three inches in thickness,
being perfect tables, with parallel bounding planes. The rock
in which this structure occurs is a simple, indurated, gray
clay, which flies into fragments under slight blows from the
hammer. At Dytneh, near Serroor, some very perfect speci-
mens have led the inhabitants to connect mystic influences with
so artificial a development of inorganic matter. The spot is
daubed with oil and red lead, and venerated.

Basalt en Boules. — Another characteristic feature, is the
general diffusion of those rounded or oval masses of compact
basalt, with concentric layers like the coats of an onion, which
the French geologists denominate Basalt en Boules, and our-
selves, nodular basalt*.

Dykes. — I now pass to the basaltic dykes, several of which
came under my notice in different parts of the country. They
are all vertical, and I did not observe that they occasioned any
disturbance or dislocation in the strata of basalt and amyg-
daloid, through which they passed.

The gentlemen whose geological memoirs I have quoted,
rarely advert to the subject of trap dykes, and their notices
are very brief. Captain Dangerfield says, " The trap of the
southern boundary of Malwa is much intersected by vertical
veins of quartz, or narrow seams of a more compact heavy
basalt, which appears to radiate from centres." Beyond the
continuous trap region of the peninsula, Dr. Voysey notices
a basaltic vein in syenite, near the Cavary river at Se-
rin^apatam, which must have been propelled upwards, as it
broke through an oblique seam of hornblende in the syenite,
and carried the pieces up above the level of the hornblende
vein. " On the eastern coast," Mr. Calder says, " from Con-
dapilli northward, the granite is often penetrated, and, ap-
parently, heaved up by injected veins or masses of trap and
dykes of green stone."

Ferruginous Clay. — The next distinctive feature is the

* Dr. Voysey says, "The nodular wachen or basalt is one of the most
common forms of trap in the extensive districts composed of the rocks of the
family south of the Nermada (Nerbuddah) river. It occurs perpetually in the
extensive and lofty range of mountains (the Gawalghur) situated between the
Purna and Tapti rivers, and appeal's to form their principal mass. It is found
equally abundant throughout the whole of Berar, part of the provinces of
Hyderabad, Beder, and Sholapoor, and appears to form the basis of the great
western range of trap hills which separate the Konkun from the interior of the
Dukhun." — Physical Class, Asiatic Researches, pp. 12G, 189.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DI7KHUN. 225

occurrence of strata of red ochreous rock ; in fact, M'Culloch's
ferruginous clay underlying thick strata of basalt or amyg-
daloid, precisely as is seen to be the case in the Giant's
Causeway in Ireland. It passes through every variety of tex-
ture, from pulverulent, friable, and indurated, to compact
earthy jasper. The stratum is from an inch in thickness to
many feet. The rock makes a red streak on paper, with the
exception of the very indurated kinds, and does not affect the
needle : it is pulverulent near the basaltic columns at Serroor,
friable under subcolumnar red amygdaloid, near the source
of the Seena river, indurated under basalt at Kothool. Al-
though hard, it is here so cellular as to have the appearance
of sponge, and, reduced to powder, looks like brickdust.

Pulverulent Limestone. — Limestone is met with in the
Dukhun only in three states — pulverulent, nodular, and
crystalline. The first occurs in thin seams on the banks of
rivers and water-courses, and at the base of hills in debris :
the seams are from an inch to three feet in thickness, covered
by a few feet of black earth ; sometimes in whiteness it re-
sembles pounded chalk, and is then used by children to smear
their writing boards.

Nodular Limestone. — The nodular limestone, which is the
well-known kunkur of India, (kunkur being a native word for
nodule,) occurs like the preceding, disseminated or diffused
in the soil, and also on the surface. I have never seen the
nodules of a regular crystalline form ; they vary in size from
a marble to a twelve-pound shot, and many of them are ex-
ceedingly irregular in shape, particularly those dug from the
banks of rivers ; they are sometimes obscurely lenticular ; they
are so abundant in certain localities that they appear as if
showered upon the earth, and disguise its colour. Dr. Bu-
chanan mentions the same fact in Rajmahl. When upon black
soil they are usually minute, and tolerably uniform in size ;
on other soils their form is variable. In the Ghats, neither
pulverulent nor nodular lime is met with. It is unnecessary
to particularize the localities of the nodular kind, as it is of
common occurrence eastward, from the hilly tracts of the
Ghats, and is the only source of lime for mortar ; a class of
persons making a livelihood by collecting the larger nodules.
When carefully burnt they make an excellent cement.

Captain Dangerfield describes the occurrence (in Malwa)
in some parts, particularly near the bottom of the small hills
and banks of the rivulets, of a thin bed of loose marl or
coarse earthy limestone. Captain Coulthard says, " In Sagar
a white patch of this limestone mouldering by the weather is

vol. vi. 1837. Q

226 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

the source from whence come the particles of kunkur mixed
with the black basaltic earth of the neighbouring valley, in such
proportion as to add increased fertility to it ; and, if a rivulet
meanders through that valley, (and such is generally the fact),
patches, made up of aggregated particles of the same, will
here and there be found ; and this it is which the native
families pick out and work into lime." Captain Coulthard
refers the origin of the nodules to limestone rock underlying
basaltic strata, but I cannot trace them to such a source, not
having seen strata of compact limestone, properly so called, in
the Dukhun. The only specimen of compact limestone met
with by me, was in the bed of the Beema river, near Pundur-
poor ; it was an insulated, amorphous, gray mass, four or five
feet in diameter. I looked upon it as an aggregation of the
pulverulent particles of lime disseminated in the neighbouring
banks.

Crystalline Limestone. — Lime in a crystalline state occurs
only as an imbedded mineral in the amygdaloidal strata in
quartz geodes, and in the nucleus, or compact part of masses
of mesotype or stilbite. Tt is rare compared with the preceding
varieties.

Loose Stoties. — Another feature of Dukhun is the occurrence
of immense quantities of loose basalt stones, as if showered upon
the land ; also masses of rock heaped and piled into mounds,
as if by the labour of man. Their partial distribution is not
less remarkable than their abundance. For the most part the
stones have a disposition to a geometrical form, and it is by
no means rare to meet with prisms of three or four sides and
cubes almost perfect ; stones with one or two perfect planes
are very common. Their texture is close-grained, and the
colour verging to black.

Rocky Heaps. — The singular heaps of rocks and stones above
noticed occur at Kanoor, Patus, Kheir, between Kurjut and
Meerujgaon, and at other places in the Mawals, or hilly tracts
of the Ghats. The heaps are from twenty to seventy feet in
diameter, and the same in height. When composed of rocky
masses, without small stones, blocks of three or four feet
in diameter, and with a disposition to determinate forms, are
piled upon each other, constituting rude pillars. In certain
parts of the country from fifty to sixty of these heaps are seen
within the area of a couple of square miles^ and it excites sur-
prise that the intermediate ground is destitute of stones.

SheetsofRoch. — Mentionmust not be omitted of the constant
recurrence of sheets of rock of considerable extent at the sur-
face, and totally destitute of soil ; this is particularly the case

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHTJN. 227

in the Mawals, or hilly tracts along the Ghats. They abound
with narrow vertical veins of quartz and chalcedony. When of
sufficient thickness the vein splits in the centre, parallel to
the surface of its walls, the interior being drusy with quartz
crystals. The walls consist of layers of chalcedony, cachalong,
horn-stone, and semi-opal. These veins supply the majority
of the siliceous minerals so abundantly strewed over Dukhun.
Structure and Mineral Composition of the Trap Rocks.
— The structure and mineral composition of trap rocks in
Dukhun vary exceedingly in short distances, even in the
same stratum; nevertheless, the predominant character does not
disappear, although the basalt, in a continuous bed, may pass
several times from close-grained, compact, and almost black, to
grey, amygdaloidal, and externally decomposing. The same
observation applies to the amygdaloids. A variety of compact
basalt, of an intense green colour, is susceptible of a brilliant
polish, and rivals the celebrated Egyptian kind. It is of great
weight and remarkable hardness; the natives use it to work into
idols for their temples, pedestals to the wooden columns to their
mansions, and slabs for inscriptions. The bulls, of the size
of life, always placed before the temples of Mahadeo, are
cut out of this variety at Raseen, Wurwund and the renowned
Boleshwur. Some of the pedestals in the gateway of the
Mankeswur palace at Teimboornee, look like mirrors. In
the temple of Pooluj, south of Punderpoor, there is a slab six
or seven feet long, and two and a half broad, covered with an
inscription in the Kanree language ; and in Punderpoor the
streets are paved apparently with the same basalt. At
Jehoor, and near Ahmednuggur, is found a compact kind,
like the last, but not so heavy ; it has a crystalline character,
and sharp fracture, and has angular siliceous pebbles im-
bedded : an occasional pebble is found loose in its cell. In
the Happy Valley, near Ahmednuggur, the basalt is compact
and smooth, with reddish flat transparent crystals imbedded.
It opposes a feeble resistance to the hammer, and flies into
fragments, some of which have right angles. The basalt,
even of the true columns, is not of a uniform texture in
different localities ; at times it is blackish or grey, and very
small, granular, or compact ; at others, earthy and ferru-
ginous, particularly externally. The base of the amygdal-
oids is clay, with more or less hornblende disseminated;
they embrace the cellular, porphyritic, hard, friable, and
decomposing. I endeavoured to class them agreeably to the
prevalence of quartz, chalcedony, lime, mesotype, or stilbite,
as imbedded minerals, but found the method of very limited

228 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

application ; sometimes one mineral only is imbedded, occa-
sionally two, and often the whole.

In Hurreechundurghur quartz amygdaloid prevails ; at Akla-
poor, on the Mool river, it is characterized by mesotype, that
mineral being imbedded in large masses, and the radii (six or
seven inches) are the longest I have seen ; at Nandoor it
is porphyritic, with several crystalline specks of lime ; near to
Ahmednuggur is seen a cellular, indeed spongiform kind,
which is hard, and the cells are empty. A small cellular and
pisiform variety is found in the wonderful cave temples
of Ellora ; and some of the sculptured figures appear as
if marked by the small-pox. This observation is partially
applicable to the Boodh and Hindoo cave temples of Ele-
phanta, Salsette, Karleh, Joonur, the Naneh Ghat, and the
Adjuntah Ghat, all of which are excavated in basaltic or
amygdaloidal strata. The stilbite, or heulandite amygdaloid, is
of very common occurrence ; but the most prevalent kind
is that in which all the minerals noticed above are asso-
ciated. The stone usually selected for building is of various
shades of grey or bluish grey ; has hornblende disseminated
in very small crystals ; works much easier than some of the
compacter basalts, but takes a good polish. The entire
temples of Korrul and Boleshwur, with their innumerable
alto-relievo figures and laboured ornaments, are built of this
variety of trap, which is, in fact, a greenstone, although
less crystalline than the European rock. There is a variety,
selected carelessly, also used in building, which has the struc-
ture, and nearly the external characters of the last, but which
in weathering exfoliates, and the buildings fall to ruin : such
is the case with the great temple in Hurreechundurghur.

I must not omit mention of two remarkable rocks which, as
far as my reading extends, have not been noticed by authors
on European geology. The first is an amygdaloid, in which
compact stilbite is imbedded in a vermicular form ; one of its
localities is the insulated hill on which stands the temple
of Purwattee, in the city of Poona ; and it is met with in
many other places. Captain Dangerfield* observed the same
peculiar stratum near Sagar. He says, " There occurs an
amygdaloidal or porphyritic rock, consisting of a compact
basis of Avacke, in which are imbedded in great abundance
small globular or uniform masses, but more usually long,
curved, cylindrical, or vermiform crystals of zeolite."

The other rock occurs as a thick stratum of amygdaloid,

* Malcolm's Central India, p. 328,

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 229

at the elevation of 4000 feet, in the hill forts of Hurreechundur-
ghur and Poorundhur, and in the bed of the Goreh River at
1800 feet, near Serroor. The matrix resembles that of the
other amygdaloids, but the mineral imbedded is a glossy-
felspar in tables resembling Cleavelandite, crossing each other
at various angles, and so abundant as to occupy a moiety
of the mass. I have only remarked it in the above localities,
and it does not appear to have come under the notice of the
gentlemen I have quoted elsewhere.

Minerals. — Minerals are not uniformly dispersed in Dukhun.
In one part quartz predominates, in another chalcedony ; and
these are more or less associated with jaspars, agates, horn-
stones, heliotrope, and semi-opal or cachalong. In other places,
particular members of the zeolite family prevail, nearly to the
exclusion of the siliceous class ; and elsewhere there is a
diminution of minerals amounting almost to privation. Ame-
thyst quartz is rare in Dukhun ; when met with it constitutes
the crystal lining the interior of geodes of agate. I have not
seen it in veins.

Pseudomorphous quartz is common ; the most frequent
impression is that of rhomb spar. Lime occurs only in three
crystalline forms ; rhomb, dog-tooth, and the dodecahedron.
The first is found on the surface, and imbedded in masses of
quartz and compact mesotype ; the two latter forms are asso-
ciated with ichthyophthalmite in cavities in the amygdaloid
strata. That comparatively rare mineral ichthyophthalmite is
very common at Poona.

Natural Salts. — Only two kinds of natural salts came under
my notice, namely muriate and carbonate of soda ; both are
not uncommon ; the first near to Ahmednuggur, Koond,
Mawleh, and other places ; the latter at Kalbar Lonee. Salt-
petre is artificial in Dukhun.

Ores. — No other ore than that of iron is found in Dukhun.
It occurs as a nodular hematite, associated at the source of the
Kistna with laterite. This ore produces the celebrated
Wootz steel.

Organic Remains. — I did not meet with organic remains of
any kind whatever ; and Captain Coulthard in Sagar, Major
Franklin in Bundelkund, and Captain Dangerfield in Malwa,
were equally unsuccessful; and Mr. Calder, in his General
Observations on the Geology of India, says, " But hitherto the
most striking phaenomenon in Indian geology is the almost total
absence of organic remains in the stratified rocks and in the
diluvial soil." Very recently shells are understood to have been

230 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

found by Dr. Malcolmson on the edge of the great trap
region in the province of Nagpoor. The organic remains
from the base of the Himalaya mountains are well known.

Thermal Springs. — I am not aware of thermal springs in the
collectorates of Poona, Ahmednuggur, and Dharwar ; but in
Khandesh, in the pergumahs of Arrawud and Amba, in the
Sautpoora mountains, are the hot springs called Soonup Deo and
Oonup Deo ; the first is so hot that the hand cannot be borne
in it, agreeably to the testimony of Colonel Briggs. Hot
springs are numerous in the Konkun, bursting through trap ;
and they are met with in Canara, and in many other parts of
India and Ceylon.

Extent of the Trap Region. — The trap has been traced con-
tinuously to Neemutch, lat. 24 0, 27, N. at 1476 feet above the
level of the sea, from a fluctuating southern line, which extends
down as low as the 15th degree of latitude, but one end of which
terminates on the western coast, between the 16th and 17th
degrees of latitude; and the eastern end of the line runs up to
Nagpoor, at 1000 feet above the sea. The longitudinal extent
of the trap, between the above latitudes, would appear to be
from the western sea coast (excluding Goojrat) to the 82nd
degree of E. longitude ; there is thus evidence of a continuous
trap formation covering an area of from 200,000 to 250,000
square miles ! ! However extraordinary this extent may appear,
it is an undoubted fact that offsets from this great region ex-
tend even to the Ganges ! I am not aware of any facts to
guide the judgement in the estimation of the age of the trap
formation.

Laterite. — Laterite is met with at the source of the Kistna
river at 4500 feet above the sea, and its extensive occurrence
all round the peninsula of India in the narrow tract of land at
the foot of the Western and Eastern Ghats is well known.

Nodular Limestone. — Kunkur, or nodular limestone, occurs
everywhere in Dukhun, indeed all over India.

Granite. — Although granite does not occur in the four col-
lectorates of Dukhun, unless in the extreme southern limits of
Dharwar, it is the chief rock eastward of Nagpoor, and it
bursts through the surface in so many places in the peninsula
of India as to have induced Dr. Voysey to express a belief that
the basis of the whole peninsula is granite; an opinion involving
the necessary deduction, when the extent of the trap region
is also considered, that the whole peninsula of India, and the
island of Ceylon, roughly calculated at 700,000 square miles,
is of igneous origin.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 231

Sedimentary Rocks. — There are not any sedimentary rocks
in Dukhun, nor am I aware of any south of Broach, excepting
such as have probably originated in the consolidation of com-
paratively recent alluvium.

Climate,

A detailed account of the atmospheric tides, and meteor-
ology of Dukhun having been published in the Philosophical
Transactions, I shall limit myself to a description of such broad
features as characterize the climate. The Ghats and the
Desh have distinct features. The tract along the line of the
former has a lower mean temperature, much more moisture,
greater prevalence of westerly winds, a more limited range of
the thermometer ; but a greater prevalence of fogs before,
during, and after the rains, but not in the winter months ;
and, finally, is characterized by the absence of hot winds.
The Desh, on the contrary, has the air excessively dry in the
hot months ; a great diurnal and annual range of the ther-
mometer, a comparatively small fall of rain in the monsoon,
the frequent occurrence of hot winds, and the rareness of
fogs.

Barometer. — The mean monthly pressure of the atmosphere
is greatest in the winter months of December and January ; it
gradually diminishes until July or August, the most damp
months, when it is at its minimum ; it gradually increases again
until the cold months. The greatest diurnal oscillation re-
corded by me in several years' observations was '1950, or less
than two-tenths of an inch ; the smallest oscillation '01 50. The
mean rise of the barometer from sunrise to 9 — 10 a.m. for three
years was '0445, thermometer + 7°*15 / . The mean fall from
9 — 10 a.m. to 4—5 p.m., for four years, was '1066, thermometer
+ 5 0, 21'; and the mean rise from 4 — 5 a. m. to 10 — 1 1 p.m., for
one year, is '0884, thermometer — 7 0- 2\ The maximum range
of the barometer at Poona, in the year 1830, at 1823 feet
above the sea, was only '672, or not seven-tenths of an inch.
The mean height of the barometer for that year was 27°*9254,
and the mean height in the monsoon was 27 0, 8447 ; so that the
constant moisture of the monsoon only occasioned a mean
diminution of pressure of '0807, or less than one-tenth of an
inch. At Madras, for twenty-one years, the mean height of
the barometer was 29 0, 958' inches ; at Calcutta, the means of
three years make it 29*764. M. Arago, at Paris, by nine
years' observations, reduced to the level of the sea, makes the
mean height 29*9546 inches, being almost identical with the
mean height at Madras.

232 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837.

Atmospheric tides. — There are four tides of the atmosphere
in Dukhun, as indicated by the movement of the barometer ;
two diurnal, and two nocturnal : the diurnal rising tide is from
4 — 5 a.m. to 9 — 10 a.m., and varies from "0200 inches to '0500
inches ; the falling tide is from 9 — 10 a.m. to 4 — 5 p.m, and
varies from '1950 inches to '0150 inches. The nocturnal
rising tide is from 4 — 5 p.m. to 10 — 11 p.m., and varies from
•0450 inches to '1140 inches; the nocturnal falling tide is
from 10 — 1 1 p.m. to 4 — 5 a.m., and is about "0442 inches. This
order was never deranged or inverted in one single instance
in many thousand observations.

Temperature. — The climate of Dukhun is subject to very
considerable variations of temperature ; more, however, in the
diurnal than in the monthly or annual ranges ; indeed, less so
in the last particular than in Europe. In 1827, the extreme
range of the thermometer at Edmonton was 75° Fahrenheit ;
at Cheltenham, 64° - 6. In St. Petersburgh, the thermometer
has been as low as 35°*7' below zero, and as high as 91°'4 ;
the range, therefore, 127 0, 1. At Berne, the annual range has
been more than 75°. In 1826, I observed a range of 53°'4,
viz., from 93°-9 on the 12th March, to 40°'50 on the 15th
January at sunrise. In 1827, the maximum range observed by
me was 48°-8, viz., from 96 0, 8 on the 28th March, to 48° on
the 12th December at sunrise. In 1828, the maximum oc-
curred on the 7th May, being 101°, and the minimum was 56°,
the range, therefore, 45° ; but, for a very short time, the ther-
mometer rose on the 7th May, between two and three o'clock,
to 105°; and this was the more remarkable as I was then en-
camped on the edge of the Ghats at the source of the Beema
river, at an elevation of 3090 feet above the level of the sea.
This instance of unusual height of the thermometer, however,
is not confined to Dukhun, for we learn from M. Arago, that it
has been higher than 101° Fahrenheit in the shade in Paris.

Monthly means. — The monthly means do not differ more
than from 13° to 17° from each other. In 1826, the dif-
ference between the hottest month (May, 83 0, 28), and the
coldest (January, 65°-90), was only 17°-38. And in 1829,
March was the hottest month, and November the coldest,
their difference of means being 13°*66.

Diurnal range. — The greatest diurnal range in 1826 was
on the 5th March, being 37° -30, from 50°'5 to 87°-8. In 1827,
it was 39°-5, on the 12th December, from 49°'5 to 89°. In

1828, it was 34°-8, on the 16th July, from 56° to 90° -8. In

1829, the maximum diurnal range was 37°*5 in December.
The minimum diurnal range occurs in the monsoon months of

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 233

June, July, August, and September ; indeed, occasionally, on
some days in those months, the mercury does not move at all.

Mean Temperature. — In 1828, Dr. Walker, at Ahmednug-
gui', at an elevation of 1900 feet above the sea, made the
mean temperature 78° ; and though I was living in tents, and
moving about the country, I made it only 77 0, 93. Of course,
on higher or lower levels this mean temperature will be di-
minished or increased. It is necessary, however, to note one
remarkable fact, namely, that the mean temperature of places
on the table -land of the continent of India is much higher than
the calculated mean temperature of the same places agreeably
to Mayer's formula. The calculated mean temperature of
Ahmednuggur is 72°'27, observed 78°; of Poona 72°-78, ob-
served 77°-7 ; of Mhow, in Malwa, 69°-86, observed 74° :
temperature of a spring in the hill fort of Hurreechundurghur
69°"5, calculated temperature 65° '45.

The results of several years' observations indicate that the
annual mean temperature of 9 o, 30 a.m., is nearly identical
with the mean temperature deduced from the maxima and the
minima.

With respect to the gi'eatest diurnal, and the greatest
monthly range of the thermometer, the winter months have
a range nearly in a quadruple ratio to the monsoon months.
The latter have mostly the temperature very equable, the
difference of the monthly means rarely exceeding 3°, and the
greatest diurnal range in five years only once amounted to
lo° # 6. The latter end of March, and April, and May are the
hottest periods of the year, from the position of a nearly
vertical sun, the intensity of whose influence is but slightly
modified by the occasionally cloudy weather : the temperature
falls in June, and continues nearly stationary until the end of
September : it then rises in October, but falls at the end of
the month, until its annual minimum in December or January.
It is low the early part of March, but rises suddenly after the
middle of the month, occasioning a difference of 6° or 8°
between the means of February and March, which is more
than double that of other consecutive months in the year.
The rise in October is also sudden, but does not occasion so
great a difference of means as between February and March.
It will thus be remarked that the temperature does not fol-
low the sun's declination, owing to the interference of the
monsoon.

Moisture. — A remarkable feature in the climate of Dukhun
is the small quantity of aqueous vapour generally suspended in
the air, compared with the proximate climate of Bombay and

234 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

the coast, or even the hilly tracts of the Ghats. My obser-
vations were made with Daniell's hygrometer, and extended
over several years. There is a gradual increase of moisture in
a cubic foot of air, from the most dry month, February, until
June and July. Hence the moisture remains nearly stationary
until the beginning of October, when it diminishes somewhat
rapidly and regularly until February. The annual mean dew-
ing point is greater at 9-| a.m. than at sunrise or at 4 p.m., but
this does not uniformly hold good in each month of the year.
In 1826, the highest dewing point was at four o'clock on the
21st October, being 76°*, temperature of the air 84°*5, a
cubic foot of air holding 9*945 grains of water. The lowest
dewing point was on the 4th December, at sunrise, being 44°,
temperature of the air 56°, a cubic foot of air containing 3*673
grains of aqueous vapour ; but the lowest dewing point did
not indicate the driest state of the atmosphere, as a dewing
point of 45° in November, with a temperature of 87° at 4 p.m.,
gave only 3 "587 grains.

The most moist month was July ; the mean weight of water
in a cubic foot of air was 8*775 grains, and the point of satu-
ration was only 4°'85 from the dewing point. The greatest
monthly range of the dewing point was, in October, 30°, and
the smallest range, 7°, was in July and August. The monthly
range was not coincident with the movements of the barometer
and thermometer ; but there were curious approximations.
The extreme dewing points differed 32°. The dewing point
has been as high as 76°, temperature of the air 79°, a cubic
foot of air containing 10*049 grains of aqueous vapour; but
this is a rare occurrence. An instance occurred of the dewing
point being obtained at 3° below the point of the congelation
of water, the temperature of the air being 62°, and a cubic foot
of air holding 2*146 grains of water. There is also an instance
of a dewing point, in February, 1828, being 61° below the
temperature of the air, viz., from 90° to 29°, but I never after-
wards succeeded in determining anything like so great a
depression.

In January, 1827, there was a range of the dewing point of
38°, and the extreme range of the year was 47°, viz., from 29°,
temperature 62°, in January, to 76°, temperature 79°, in June.
In 1829, the mean dewing point for the monsoon was 69°*62,
temperature 75°*83 ; the cubic foot of air containing 8*191 grains
of water. In 1830, the observations are only complete for
9-10 a.m. ; the mean dewing point was 61°*9, temperature
78 0, 4, and a cubic foot of air contained 6*351 grains of water ;
the extreme range of the hygrometer was 47°, the lowest

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 235

dewing point 31°, temperature 50°, in December. It might
be supposed that the hottest months in the year, March,
April, and May, would also be the driest ; but such is not the
fact. The powerful action of the sun on the ocean, in the
middle of March, raises a large quantity of aqueous vapour,
which continues to increase in the ratio of the sun's progress
north : the westerly winds waft this vapour into Dukhun ;
much of it is arrested by the Ghats and hilly tracts eastward
of these mountains ; accounting for the sensible moistness of
the air, the frequent night fogs, and deposition of dew in this
line, in the end of March, and in all April and May. The
supply of moisture diminishes in proportion to the distance
eastward from the sea, to the limits of the Coromandel coast
monsoon. We in consequence find the Ghats, Poona, Ahmed-
nuggur, and the Bala Ghat, all with very different dewing
points in the hot months.

The hygrometric state of the air in Bombay and Dukhun is
remarkably contrasted : in fact, there is more aqueous vapour
suspended in the air in Bombay in the hot months, than there
is at Poona at any time during the monsoon. In April and
May, 1826, in Bombay, the monthly mean dewing points were
respectively 72°*84 and 75° -59, temperature 83°*48 and 84° '52,
a cubic foot of air holding 8*988 grains, and 9*748 grains of
water suspended ; whilst July, the most rainy month during
the monsoon, at Poona, had only a mean of 8*775 grains of
water suspended. In 1827, the means of ten days' observations
in Bombay, in April, gave 10*243 grains of aqueous vapour in
a cubic foot of air ; and the greatest mean quantity at Poona
was in June, and it amounted only to 8*931 grains. In 1828,
in the month of March, the following were the dewing points
in consecutive days, travelling from Bombay to Poona ; Bom-
bay, 10th March, 4 p.m., 11*205 grains of water in a cubic
foot of air ; at Poona, at the same hour, on the 14th March,
2*273 grains. At Bombay, on the 10th, at sunrise, and at 9^
a.m., the dewing points were respectively 72° and 71°, tem-
perature 75° and 81°*5, a cubic foot of air containing 8*873
grains at the former hour, and 8*487 grains at the latter hour.
The following morning at Kundallah, on the top of the Ghats,
1744 feet above the sea, at the same hours, the dewing points
were 36° and 40°, temperature 72° and 78°, equivalent only to
2*690 grains, and 3*004 grains of water in a cubic foot of air.
In the afternoon of the same day, at Karleh, 2015 feet above
the sea, seven miles east of Kundallah, a cubic foot of air held
2*954 grains, and on the 12th, at 4 p.m., 2*611 grains of
aqueous vapour. On the summit of the hill fort of Loghur,

236 SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

3381 feet above the sea, and 1366 above Karleh, the dewing
point at sunrise on the 13th, was 5° Fahr. below the freezing
point, temperature of the air 67°, and a cubic foot of air held
only 1 *995 grains of water in a state of vapour. These facts
fully establish the remarkable discrepancies between the hy-
grometric state of the air in Bombay and Dukhun, and that
too within a difference of a few miles of latitude and longitude.
A comparison of the absolute falls of rain in Bombay and in
Poojia, for the years 1826-7-8, shows an agreement (to a
certain extent) in their ratio to the hygrometric state of the
air at Poona and Bombay, above noticed. The mean fall of
rain at Bombay in those years was 93*62 inches, and at Poona
26"926 inches, or 28f per cent, only of the fall in Bombay.

Main. — In Dukhun the rains are light, uncertain, and, in all
years, barely sufficient for the wants of the husbandman, and
a slight failure occasions much distress. They usually com-
mence at the end of May, with some heavy thunder showers
from E. to S.E., the lightning being terrific and frequently
fatal, and the wind furious ; but they do not set in regu-
larly until the first ten days in June, and continue until the
end of September from the W. to the S. W., and break up
with thunder-storms from the E. to the S. E. before the
middle of October. During the remaining months of the
year an accidental shower or two may fall from the Coro-
mandel monsoon ; and the further the distance eastward from
Poona, the greater the chance of showers in the cold months.
The monsoon temperature is equable and agreeable, and the
rain occurs almost always in showers, rarely continuing un-
interruptedly for a day or more, as is common on the coast
and in the Konkun. The greatest quantity of rain falls in the
months of June and July. The greatest fall of rain in any
one day was 2*58 inches, on the 6th July, 1826; at Bombay,
on the 24th June, 1828, there fell 8-67 inches ; and at Hurnee,
on the 15th June, 1829, there fell 8-133 inches in 24 hours.

The mean annual fall of rain for all England, from many
years' observations, appears to be 32'2 inches, but the means
of different counties vary from 67 inches in Cumberland to
19 inches in Essex.

The clouds supplying the monsoon rains in Dukhun would
appear to have a low elevation, as I have frequently seen
through breaks as they were passing swiftly from west to east,
a superior stratum, apparently stationary, or moving slowly in
a contrary direction, and gilded by the sun's rays.

Winds. — The great features in the observations respecting
the winds, are the prevalence of winds from the west and westerly

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 237

quarters, east and easterly quarters, and the extreme rareness
of winds from the north and south, and the points approxi-
mating to them ; and these features appear to be constant in
successive years. In 5229 observations the wind blew from
the west, or points adjoining, 2409 times ; and in this number
the S.W. (305), and N.W. (122), amount only to 427. From
easterly points 949 times, including 246 from the N.E. and
S.E., thus leaving 703 from the east. From the north 115
times, and from the south 36 times only. Another feature is
the frequent absence of wind, particularly at sunrise, and
more so in the months of January, February, March, October,
and November than in other months of the year. The cessa-
tion of wind from May to September inclusive is comparatively
rare ; . and, generally, throughout the year the absence of wind
at 4 p.m., may be looked upon as unusual. In my records
there are 1720 observations of " No wind," and 847 of these
belong to sunrise, 452 to 9 — 10 a.m., and 304 only to 4 p.m.

The observations were continued through five years, three
times daily ; sunrise, 9 — 10 a.m., and 4 p.m. There is consi-
derable uniformity in the direction of the wind in the same
months in consecutive years. The westerly winds begin to pre-
vail in March, alternating with easterly winds, which blow the
latter part of the night; but the easterly winds disappear as the
monsoon approaches, and do not re-appear again till October.
In October the winds are variable, and the records of " No
wind," increase suddenly and rapidly. A few easterly winds,
however, about the end of the month, indicate the change which
is to take place ; they gradually increase, and with those from
the N.E. and S.E., almost entirely supersede the winds from
the westerly points during the cold months.

In March, from the sun's approach, the interior land during
the day gets heated ; an influx of air from the sea coast com-
mences daily after 10 a.m. ; but as the earth, at this period,
cools more rapidly than the sea at night, the interior is cooler
than the coasts, and there is a reflux of air towards the
ocean ; the easterly and westerly winds thus alternate day and
night. This alternation, however, diminishes in the ratio of
the sun's increasing power; and when the earth gets so
thoroughly heated that it cannot reduce its temperature by
radiation below that of the sea, the consequence is the preva-
lence of winds from the westerly points to the almost entire
exclusion of those from easterly points. In June the westerly
winds set in regularly. There are occasional instances of the
wind blowing with much steady violence from the west for

238 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

many hours in the hot months with a sunny sky. In the early
part of March some unaccountably cold winds, affecting vege-
tation even, have been known to blow.

Hot Winds. — The well-known hot winds of tropical conti-
nents do not prevail near the Ghats; but the same wind, which
is pleasant in their neighbourhood, may become a hot wind as it
travels to Ahmednuggur and Arungabad. The east wind is
characterized by its extreme dryness, and it is dangerous
to sleep exposed to it.

Whirlwinds. — Those curious whirlwinds noticed by travellers
in Africa, and which in the deserts are dangerous, are of com-
mon occurrence in Dukhun in the hot months. A score or more
columns of dust, in the form of a speaking trumpet or water-
spout, may be seen rapidly coursing over the treeless plains,
marking a vortex of heated air. They are sufficiently powerful
to unroof a thatched house, strike tents, and whisk away all
light matters.

Hail Stones. — Hail stones of considerable magnitude some-
times fall in the thunder-storms of the hot months.

Deivs. — Dews appear plentifully after the monsoon, and
during the nights of the cold months; but their frequent local
occurrence has often excited surprise.

Fogs. — Fogs are of so rare occurrence in the Desh, or
country eastward of the Ghats, that I have only nineteen
records of them during five years. Along the Ghats they
are much more common ; and during April and May, for
three or four nights in the week, fogs drift rapidly to the
eastward from the Konkun, or low country at the foot of the
Ghats. On some nights no drift takes place, and the fog
remains resting on the Konkun ; and, seen from the crest of
the Ghats at sunrise, has the appearance of a sea of milk.
As the sun rises the fog creeps up the chasms of the Ghats,
and finally disappears by 10 a.m.

Salubrity of the Climate. — With respect to the salubrity of
the open parts of the country, it will only be necessary to state
that, in my little camp, consisting of more than a hundred souls
(natives), I had not a single death of an adult during six years ;
nor a case of illness (excepting one) that I did not cure without
regular medical aid. Dr. Walker, long civil surgeon in the
city of Ahmednuggur, found the casualties in 1828 in that city
(exclusive of losses from spasmodic cholera) to be only 1*82
per cent., or 1 in 55*1 persons ; and, including cholera, 2 - 48
per cent., or 1 in 40*2 persons. Dr. Lawrence, in charge of a
regiment of natives. 1000 strong, lost only 0*85 parts of an

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 239

integer per cent, per annum, or about five men in 600 during
the years the regiment was in Dukhun.

Parts of Khandesh have not credit for the same salubrity.

Botany.

Under this head I shall confine myself to a simple enume-
ration of the agricultural and garden products, and wild fruits.
To enter into the botany of Dukhun generally would be
misplaced in this digest. And first with regard to cultivated
native fruits; they are forty-five in number, viz.

Cultivated Fruits. — Amba, Mangifera indica*; Oombur.
Ficus glomerata; Phunnus, Artocarpus integrifolia h ; Cheents,
Tamarindus indica c ; Ambarra, Spondias Mangifera d ; Hur-
parewree, Cicca disticha; Ramphul, Annona reticulata 6 ; See-
taphul, Annona squamosa ; Raeebor, Zizyphus jujuba ; Jam-
blee, Calyptranthes caryophyllifolia; Awlee, Phyllanthus
emblica; Bail, JEgle Marmelos i ; Wowulee, Mimusops elengi;
Narlee, Cocos nucifera e ; Jamb, Eugenia Jambos h ; Mohha,
Bassia latifolia ; Toot, Mortis alba » ; Shatoot, Mortis indica k ;

Choonchoo, .Mbn/s^ l ; Kurumbul, ^e/rAoa Carambola m ;

Kuweet, Feronia elepkatitum 11 ; Bhokur, Cordia latifolia;
Anjeer, Ficus Carica ° ; Daleemb, Punica granatum, (two
kinds) P ; Weer, Citrus limon^; Chukotur, Citrus decumanus r ;
Maloong, Citrus medica*; Nareeng, Citrus aurantium t , of these
there are several kinds ; Ambut neemboo, Citrus acida u ;
Sakur neemboo, Citrus Union var. x ; Peroo, Psidium Pyri-
ferumv ; Peroo tambra, Red Guava ; Kajoo, Anacardium
occidentale z ; Gondnea, Cordia myxa ; Tarh, Borassus flabel-
liformis ; Phopy, Pupeea Carica ; Badam, Terminalia ca-
tappa ; Sooparee, Areca faufel aa ; Kujoor, Phoenix dactili-
fera^ ; Ke] or Kail, Musa paradisiaca cc , there are several
species or varieties. Sonkel, Musa sapientum ; Draxhs, Vitis
Jinifera dA . There are seven species of grapes in Dukhun, the
Mahratta names of which are Kalee, or black ; Ahbee, or
watery; Phukree, or Muscadina; Saheebee, Bedana, or seed-
less ; Sooltanee ; and Suckree, or sugary. Khurbooz, Cucumis
Melo ee ; Phoot, Cucumis momordica ; and Kulungrah, Cucur-

» Mango. b Jack fruit. c Tamarind. d Hog-plum.

e Sweet-sop. f Bengal quince. B Cocoa nut. h Rose apple.

' White mulberry. k Red mulberry. ' Small mulberry.

m Country gooseberry. n Wood apple. ° The garden fig.

P Pomegranate. q Lemon. 'Shaddock. "Citron.

1 Orange. u Lime. * Sweet lime. y Guava.

* Cashew nut. aa Betel nut. bb D a t e . cc Plantain.

dd Grapes. ee Musk melon.

240 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

bita Citrullus 3 -. There are several species or varieties of the
melons.

Wild Fruits. — The wild fruits are twenty-two in number,
viz. Beebah, Semicarpus anacardium h ; Cher, Chirongia sa-

pida; Ratamhee, Garcinia c ; Torun, Zizyphus albens ;

Kurwund, Carissa Carandas and diffusa, both of them excel-
lent fruits ; Seendee, Phoenix Sylvestris, or Elate Sylvestris^ ;
Jungle Jaeephul, Myristica dactyloides e ; Peempree, Ficus
comosa ; Rahbor, Zizyphus Xylopyrus ; Bunkeil, Musa tro-
glodytarum f , two varieties; Gfooloom, Loranthus bicolor ;
Lotowl, a genus and species not determined ; Ambgoolee,

Elceagnus , a very nice fruit, tasting like a gooseberry.

Ulloo, Vanqueria spinosa ; Temboornee, Gardenia, ;

Thurtee, Capparis erythrocarpus; Neptee, Capparis aphylla ;
Wagatee, Capparis Zeylanica ; Makur Neembonee, Citrus

s • Wuhr, Ficus Indica ; Loheer, Ficus , a

noble tree, 80 to 100 feet high.

The above comprise the wild fruits of Dukhun; many of
them are not only passable, but very palatable, particularly
the Ambgoolee, the Kurwund, and the Char. The Ratambee,
or wild mangostein, is in extensive use as an acid seasoner,
and is met with for sale in most markets in a dried state. The
wild nutmeg is frequently imposed upon the ignorant for the
real nutmeg. The oil of the Beebah is used for marking
linen, like indelible ink ; but the kernel roasted is agreeable.
The wild lime ( Citrus) is only met with in the Ghats ; it forms a
handsome dense tree, but the cultivated fruit is so abundant that
the wild is not made any use of. Many of the above fruit
trees produce good timber. With respect to the mango,
which is met with both cultivated and wild, it is considered by
the people less as a luxury, than as an auxiliary to the neces-
saries of life, or as a substitute for them in seasons of scarcity;
for the mango is in fruit, and seldom fails an abundant crop,
at a time when the earth is parched up by the heats of May
and beginning of June.

Agricultural Products. — A brief notice only of the agricul-
tural products can be given. The harvests are of two distinct
kinds : one is the Khurreef, or rainy season harvest; the other
is the Rubee, or dry, or cold, or spring season, harvest.

Wet Season Harvest. — This harvest produces twenty-
two kinds of grain and pulse ; but the products of the Desh,

a Water melon. b The marking nut. c The wild mangostein.

d Wild date. e Wild nutmeg. f Wild plantain.

6 The original apparently of some of the species of Citrus in Dukhun.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 241

or open country, are different from those of the Mawuls,
or hilly tracts along the Ghats. The following are the pro-
ducts of the monsoon crop in the Desh : Jondla, Andropogon
Sorghum, and of these there are many varieties ; Sujgoora,
Panicum spicatum; Rahleh, Panicum Italicum; Bhadlee,
Paspalum pilosum ; Kodroo, Paspalum frumentaceum; Mukka,
Zea Mays a ; Moog, Phaseolus Mungo ; Ooreed, Phaseolus
radiatus ; Tooree, Cytisus cajan; Muht, Phaseolus aconiti-
folius ; Teel, Sesamum orientate, two kinds ; Ambaree, Hi-
biscus Cannabinus ; Oolgeea, Dolichos bifloris ; Waal, Doli-
chos spicatus ; Rajgeerah, Amaranthus oleraceus Candidas ;
Chuwluya, Dolichos catiang ; and Gowarya, Dolichos fabcc-
formis: there are thus seventeen products of the monsoon
harvest of the Desh. The first six are bread grains, and are
reduced to flour; Teel and Rajgeerah are eaten unground;
Ambaree is a cordage plant, the rest are pulse, and are cooked
in a variety of ways. Tooree is the universal substitute for
the split pea of Europe ; it is much more agreeable than the
pea, and is more commonly used.

The produce of the rainy season harvest in the hilly tracts
is Dhan, Oryza sativa h , seventeen or eighteen kinds ; Natch-
nee, Eleusine coracana, or Cynosurus coracanus ; Sawa, Pa~
nicum miliaceum ; Wuree, Panicum miliar e ; and, finally,
Karleh, Verbesina sativa. All these require a superabun-
dance of water. The rice, which is the chief support of the
people of the hilly tracts, is sown in the valleys, because it can
be constantly flooded. Karleh is an oil plant only ; the others
are sown on the sides of the mountains, in places inaccessible
to the plough. They are either used whole, or are reduced to
flour for bread. Rice is never reduced to flour.

It is not to he understood, that the above products, as
separated into those of the hilly tracts and Desh, are rigidly
confined to those tracts ; where the physical circumstances
permit of it, they are indiscriminately cultivated in both tracts.
The returns of some of the above plants are prodigiously great.
I have seen a plant of Paspalum frumentaceum with twenty
stalks radiating from a common root, and with thirty-three
spikes of grain, giving the astonishing return of 61,380 for 1;
a single head of Andropogon Sorghum gave 2895 for 1 ; eight
stalks of Panicum spicatum from a single root 16,960 for 1 ;
and a single head of Panicum Italicum produced 1850 for 1 ! !

Dry or Spring Season Harvest. — The next harvest is that
of the Rubee, or dry or spring season of the Desh. In this

a Indian corn. b Rice.

VOL. VI. 1837- R

242 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

harvest, of twenty-three products, there are four species of fine
wheat, viz. Guhoo Bukshee, Triticum spelta ; Kupleh Guhoo,

Triticum ; Kateh Guhoo, Triticum ; and Poh-

teeyai, Triticum , called bellied wheat, from the seed

being very much swelled out in the middle. Urburee,
Cicer Arietinum; Shaloo, Andropogon saccharatum ; Juw,
Hordeum hexastichon* ; Watanah, Pisum sativum 13 ; Kurdee,
Carthamus Persic u s ; Juwus, Linum usitatissimum ; Mohuree,
Sinapis racemosa, and two other kinds ; Taag, Crotolarea
juncea; Yerund Tambra, Ricinus communis* ; Yerund Eerwa,
Ricinus viridis ; Oos Tambra, Saccharum qfficinarum d ;

Oos Poonda, Saccharum e ; Oos Pandra, Sacckarum

f ; Oos Bet, Saccharum, S; Shet Wallook,

Cucumis , the literal meaning is field cucumber ; Paw-

teh, Dolichos ; Tumbakoo, Nicotiana tabacum; Shet

Kapoos, Gossypium herbaceum^ ; Bhoeemoong, Arachis hy-
pogced}.

The above are chiefly produced in the Desh, in the dry
season. Urburee, Cicer arietinum, is the universal substitute
for oats for horses ; and, excepting in the rains when green
grass is obtainable, the juicy, sweet, and nutritious stalks of
the Shaloo, Andropogon sorghum, and varieties, is their
only forage. Oil is expressed from the seeds of Kurdee,
Juwus, Mohuree, and Yerand. Juwus is not used for its
flax. Although there are four kinds of sugar-cane, and much
raw sugar is produced, the processes of refining are not
carried on. The bark of Taag is used for ropes and coarse
canvas. The returns from the wheat are very considerable ;
I have a specimen of Kupleh Guhoo, with twenty-five stalks
from one root, giving a return of 1450 for 1 ; ten stalks are
very common ; a specimen of the Kateh Guhoo, also in my
possession, with fifteen stalks from a single root, giving a
return of 480 for 1. The average on tolerable land is eight
stalks or ears to a plant. The tobacco from some parts of
the country is reckoned very fine.

The dry season harvest of the hilly tracts is almost entirely
confined to Mussoor, Ervum hirsutum ; and Pawta, a variety
of Dolichos Lablab.

Garden produce. — The produce of the gardens is of great
importance to the natives of India, from their poverty limiting
them very much to a vegetable diet, corrected by aromatic
seeds and condiments. Most of the plants cultivated in the

a Barley. b Peas. c Castor oil. d Red sugar cane.

e Variegated sugar cane. f White sugar cane. s Reed-like sugar cane.

h Field cotton. ' The earth nut.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 243

gardens of the Desh are also produced in the gardens, where
they exist, (which is rarely) of the hilly tracts. The products
are forty-six in number, viz., Dhunya, Coriandrum sativum* ;
Mehtee, Trigonella foznugrecum ; Shepoo, Anethum sowa ;
Bureeshep, Anethum fceniculum b ; Wowa, Ligusticum agi-
vaen ; Hulwee, Lepidum sativum ; Meerchya, Capsicum an-
nuum c ; of this there are many species. Patee, Allium cepa d ,
red, white, and yellow ; some of which are so mild as to be
used as vegetables. Chakweet, Chenopodium album ; Chooka,
Rumex Vesicarius t ; Wahlea, Basella rubra and alba; Aaloo,
Arum campanulatum ; Tandoolja, Amaranthus polygamus ;
Maat Tambree, Amaranthus oleraceus, Var. ; Paluk, Beta
Bengalensis ; Mohtee gohl, Oxalis monadelphus ; Gohl, Por-

tulaca oleracea ; Pokulla, Amaranthus, ; Poodna, Mentha

riridis ; Chundun Butwa, Chenopodium, ; Bhang, Can-
nabis sativa f ; and Nagwail, Piper Betel. The most valuable
of the above plants produce aromatic or pungent seeds ; most
of the rest are pot-herbs held in considerable estimation.

Edible roots. — The next division of garden produce is de-
nominated Mool Bojee, which literally means "root-greens,"
properly edible roots. Mooleh, Raphanus sativusS ; Rutalee,
Convolvulus batatas^ ; Kohn, Dioscorea purpurea or alata*;
Gajur, Daucus carotai ; Lussoon, Allium sativum^ ; Soorun,

Arum, ; Rungeh, Dioscorea fasciculata ; Alluh, Amo-

mum Zingiber^.

Fruit vegetables. — A further division is made of Phul bajee
or fruit greens, which means fruits eaten as vegetables, viz.,
Bhendee, Hibiscus esculentus ; Wangee, Solanum melongena m ,

several species or varieties ; Gewree, Dolichos, ; the seeds

are eaten as pulse, and there are several varieties ; Dorkee,
Cucumis acutangulus ; Gosaled, Ltijfa pentandria ; Karlee,
Momordica Charantia ; Tondlee, Momordica monadelphia ;
Purwal, Trichosanthes anguina ; Purwar, Trichosanthes cucu-
merina ; Turkakree, Cucumis usitatissimus ; n Kateh Wallook,
Cucumis sativus, warty, prickly cucumber ; Doodh Boplah,
Cucurbita longa ; Boplah-tambra, Cucurbita Pepo, red pump-
kin ; specimens of this fruit are sometimes more than eighteen
inches in diameter ; Kohwall, Cucurbita alba ; Dhendsee,

Cucurbita, ; Kasee Boplah, Cucurbita lagenaria.

Such are the cultivated garden products of the natives : it
will be seen that they are rich in the cucurbitaceous family,

1 Coriander. b Sweet fennel. c Chilly. d Onions.

e Blister sorrel. f Hemp. £ Radishes. h Sweet potatoe.

1 Yam. J Carrots. k Garlic. l Ginger. ■ Eggplant.

n Common cucumber.

244 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

and not less so in the aromatic and pungent plants ; and the
edible roots are various. Edible leaves, used as greens, are
very numerous, particularly those produced spontaneously.
My limits do not permit me to give even the names of wild
plants producing greens, fruits used as vegetables, or edible
roots ; the flowers of some plants are used as greens ; such as
the Angustee, /Eschynomene grandiflora ; the Shewga, Hy-
peranthera morunga, or horse-radish tree ; and those of the
Kanchun, Baukinia purpurea ; the foot-stalks of the flowers
of the splendid Convolvulus candicans are used in a similar
way. The tender twigs of the common bamboo are good as
greens, and they are also made into a pickle. The flower,
stalks, and roots of the Lotus (Nympha esculenta) are reck-
oned fine ; but I must stop.

Grasses. — The grasses are innumerable, and are not less
distinguished for their beauty than their variety. One of the
most common is that highly nourishing grass the Agrostis
linearis, which, it appears, is a native of Cornwall, under the
name of Panicon dactylon. In biting the knots or joints of
the Ghateea (Andropogon Martini?) there is a strong, pungent,
aromatic, and oleaginous exudation. The well-known aromatic
Khus Khus (Andropogon muricatus) is abundant in Dukhun,
as well as the sacred grass Durb, Poa cynosuroides. In
speaking of the grasses it may be as well to say that it is not
the practice of the natives to make hay from meadows ; they
allow the grass on waste lands to become perfectly dry, and
then cut it down with the sickle, as a substitute for hay.

Wild cordage p>lants. — The spontaneous cordage plants are
the Gayal, Agave vivipara ; the Kaswuree, Sida patens ; and
some others.

Wild oil plants. — The wild oil plants are the Kurunj, Gale-
dupa arborea ; and the Kurd Kangonee, a small tree of the
class and order Pentandria monogynia.

Wild tanning plants, — The plants used in preparing leather
are the Chambar Heerda, Terminalia Chebula; Rahn Turwur,
Cassia auriculata ; the Sadrah or Aaeen, Terminalia alata
glabra ; and the Baubul, Mimosa arabica, the bark of which
is in great repute.

Medicinal plants. — The medicinal plants are numerous.
Amongst the most useful are the Khyr, Mimosa catechu ; the
Seegeekaee, Mimosa abstergens ; many species of Datura ;
Kuntuh Kareeka, Solanum jacquini ; Sagurgotta, Ceesalpinia
bonduccella ; Korpur, Aloe succotrina; Dadmaree, Euphorbia
tiruculU; Gooleea Eendrawun, Cucumis colocynthis ; Reeta,
Sapindus detergens ; Sahl Phul, Boswellia thurifera; Baw-

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 245

cheea, Psoralea corylifolia ; some of the Ocimums, and many
of the Asclepias family. Of the powerfully scented plants,
the Michelia Champaca, (Champa), Pandanas odoratissimus,
several species of Jasmine, Polyanthus, Rose, &c, abound.

European fruits. — Very few of the European fruits are cul-
tivated in Dukhun ; indeed, those produced are almost con-
fined to peaches and strawberries, both of which are as fine
as in Europe. All the European vegetables thrive, such as
cauliflowers, cabbages, asparagus, spinach, and broccoli.
Potatoes, when properly attended to, are also good. Carrots,
turnips, and radishes are indigenous.

Flowering plants. — It is not within my present view to attempt
an enumeration of the wild flowering plants of Dukhun, many
of which are splendid and curious. Nothing can exceed the
magnificence and beauty of the vegetation in the Ghats
during the monsoon. The brilliancy of the ErytJirince, the
Cassia; (particularly the Cassia Jistularia,) , the lofty Bombax,
the varieties of the Liliaceae, Cannae, Convolvulaceae, and Mal-
vaceae, would surprise and delight a European florist.

In the Desh, the dwarf Cassia auriculata, with its numerous
yellow flowers, enlivens the whole country ; and the numerous
species of Mimosa (particularly the Mimosa odoratissima),
perfume the air.

The Dukhun produces few ferns and no heaths, and none
of the coniferous family, excepting Cupressus ; the Musci
(true mosses) are rare ; there are many of the Euphorbiaceae ;
no oaks, elms, or hazels, or indeed any of the Amentacece, ex-
cepting Salix tetrasperma ; multiplied genera and species of
the Jasminece, Labiates, Compositce, Umbelliferae, Legumi-
nosae, and Cucurbitaceae ; the Cruciferae are not abundant ;
but the Capparides are very much so. The rosaceous plants
are rare ; but the Solanaceae {Luridce) are very abundant ;
although the potatoe is not indigenous.

Such is the meagre sketch of the botany of Dukhun ; for
the elaboration of which there are abundant materials at the
India House, in a Hortus Siccus collected by myself.

I must not omit to notice that the Sandal-wood tree, San-
talum album, is met with, both in the cultivated and wild state.

Timber trees. — The Warsa, Bignonia quadrilocularis ; the
Tamarind, Tamarindus Indica ; the Jack, Artocarpus integri-
folia ; and the Bauhinece, produce excellent wood for fur-
niture ; and all the species of Mimosa furnish hard durable
wood for tools and machinery.

Zoology.
Like the account of the botany, the zoology must be con-

246 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

fined to little more than a mere catalogue of the beasts and
birds of the country.

The inhabitants of Dukhun have the Georgian form of
skull : their stature is low, but not very slender ; the colour
of the skin is brown, with shades running into yellow and
white in the higher classes, and black in the lower ; the females
are not distinguished for beauty or fertility, the average number
of births to a marriage being less than in Europe ; more males
are born than females, and, unlike Europe, they preponderate
through all periods of life.

Quadrumana. — Of the monkey tribe I met with only two
kinds, Semnopithecus Entellus and Macacus radiatus. A
new species described by me, Cercopithecus albogtdaris, was
not from Dukhun.

Cheiroptera. — Three species of bats, Wurbagool, Pteropus
medius ; Nyctinomus plicatus ; and Rhinolpltus Dukhunensis.

Plantigrada. — Chuchoondur, Sorex Indicus, or musk-rat ;
Aswail, Ursus labiatus, or labiated bear ; Juhl Manjur, Lutra
Nair, otter.

Digitigrada.— Of these animals, the first is the Kolsun or wild
dog, Canis Dukhunensis, which was first described and brought
to Europe by myself; Landguh, Canis pallipes, wolf, a new
species; Kholah, Canis aureus, jackal; Kokree, Canis Kokree,
a new species of fox ; of the Viveridoe, the Juwadee Manjur,
Viverra Indica or civet cat of Dukhun ; Moongus, Herpestes
griseus, Mungoose ; Ood, Paradoxurus Typus. The Hyaena,
Turrus of the Mahrattas, Hycetia vulgaris, is common in Duk-
hun, and is capable of domestication like a dog. The Felinidce
are numerous, not only in individuals, but in species, excepting
the lion, which is not met with. Puttite Wagh, Felis tigris,
royal tiger ; Cheeta, Felis leopardus or genuine leopard, is
rare ; but the Beebeea Wagh, or panther, Felis Panther, is
most abundant. Cheeta, Felis jubata, or hunting leopard,
is common. Mota Rahn Manjur, Felis chaus; Lhan Rahn
Manjur, Felis torquatus, or lesser wild cat ; the preceding
being considered the larger wild cat. The species of the
genus Felis here terminate. Of the rat family there is the
Ghoos, Mus giganteus, or Bandikoot rat ; Chooa, Mus de-
cumanus, or Norway rat ; Mus musculus, the mouse ; and a
very pretty field mouse of a bright chestnut colour, which is a
new Mus oleraceus, also a second new mouse, Mus plat ythrix.
Of the squirrel family there are only two species ; the first, a
splendid animal as large as the Sciurus maximus, of a chest-
nut colour, with a whitish tail; I have called it Sciurus Elphin-
stonii, the Mahratta name is Shekroo : the other species
is the Khurree, or Sciurus palmarum. The porcupine, Sayal,

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 247

is a new species, which I have called Hystrix leucurus. The
hare, Sussuh, which ahounds in Dukhun, is the Lepus nigri-
collis of F. Cuvier. That very curious animal, the Pangolin,
Manis crassicaudata, is common ; the Mahrattas call it Kuwlee
Manjur, or tiled cat, the scales being imbricated as tiles on
the roof of a house. The Dookur, or wild hog, Sus
scrqfa, abounds : every village also has a number of tame
hogs, which are the public scavengers, but all property in
them is abjured by the inhabitants. The Dukhun is cele-
brated for a breed of fine horses with a dash of the Arabian
blood in them : the pony also is bred to a great extent to
carry baggage. The Ass, Gudha, Equus asinus, is not much
larger than a good-sized Newfoundland dog ; it is not met
with in the wild state.

Ruminantia. — The Dromedary, Oont, Camelus dromeda-
rius, is rarely bred in Dukhun, but is in general use ; the two-
humped camel is unknown. Of the other Ruminants, the first
is a beautiful little creature called Peesoreh, Moschus memina;
the next is the Sambur, Cervus equinus, of the size of a small
cow; the third is the Baikur, Cervus muntjak: all the above are
inhabitants of dense woods. Of the antelopes there are four
species ; Bahmunee Hum, Antilope cervicapra ; Kalesepee,
or black tail, a new species, Antilope Bennetti ; Antilope
quadricomis ; and finally, the Rooee, Antilope picta, or
Nylgau : the two former are only found on the open plains ;
the two latter prefer the woods, but are sometimes seen on
the plains. Goats, Bukree, Capra hircus, abound ; and
sheep are so extensively bred in Dukhun, that flocks of many
thousands are constantly met with grazing on the uncultivated
lands ; the wool is coarse and crisp ; the price of a sheep is
from two to four shillings ; they afford excellent, although
small mutton. The Pohl is the Brahmany bull, with its re-
markable hump, Bos taunts var. Indicus, and is a noble
animal ; when put into the yoke, or when employed in car-
rying loads, he is called Byhl, and he loses his hump and his
fine appearance. The cow does not yield much milk. Cattle
are extensively bred, as it is chiefly by their means the transit
of merchandize is effected. The female buffalo, Muhees,
Bos bubalus, is highly valued for the quantity of milk she
gives. The male, called Tondgah, is used in the hilly tracts
in ploughing the muddy fields for rice. The above is the
catalogue of the Mammalia of Dukhun, and a few comments
will suffice respecting it. The musk-rat is a pest, from its in-
fecting with its nauseous odour everything with which it
comes into contact, even a bottle of wine, although corked.
The bear is harmless. The wild-dog hunts in troops in the

248 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

woods, and runs down the fleetest of the ruminants. The
wolves sometimes attack women and children, but never men.
The jackals are in large troops, and do much damage in the
vineyards. The fox is mostly solitary or in pairs. The
moongus is useful in destroying snakes. The hyaena is
cowardly, entirely nocturnal in his movements, and never at-
tacks live animals. The royal tiger and the leopard are for-
midable to man and beast ; but the people consider themselves
safe against the attacks of the panther and smaller cats, when
armed with a good stout stick. The Mus giganteus under-
mines buildings. Of the rest of the wild animals it is not
necessary to say more, than that they, like those just enu-
merated, are most of them objects of the chase with the
Mahrattas, who are capital horsemen, and many of them
keen sportsmen.

Birds. — The birds are very numerous ; many of them not
less useful to man, than agreeable from their plumage. Song-
birds are, however, rare. My catalogue contains i£32 species
of the several orders, families, and genera.

Raptor es. — There are 13 genera of the first order Rap-
tores, — Vultur Indians, Vultur Ponticerianus, Vultur Benga-
lensis, Neophron Percnopterus, Haliaetus Ponticerianus, Cir-
caetzis brachydactylus, Aquila chrysaeta, Aquila bifasciata,
Hccmatornus Bacha, Accipiter Dukhunensis, Accipiter Dus-
sumieri, Astur Hyder, Falco Tinnuncidus, Falco Chicquera,
Circus pallidas, Circus variegatus, Milvus Govinda, Otus
Bengalensis, Strix Javanica, Strix Indranee, Ketupa Les-
chenaidti, and Noctua Indica. Of the above order there are
two new Accipiters, one new species of Circus, one Milvus,
and a Strix. The Neophron is the Ractamah of Bruce, the
sacred vulture of the Egyptians, and it is a most useful sca-
venger, removing all offal matters. The golden eagle is the
same as that of Europe, and so is the Falco Tinnuncidus;
and the harriers are scarcely distinguishable from the Euro-
pean birds. The falcons, hawks, and goshawks, are used
by the natives in hawking.

Insessores. — There are 53 genera, and 116 species of the
order Insessores. Few or none of these can be said to be
useful to man, and only two of the species are songsters : —
Merops viridis, Hirundo filifera, Hirundo Jewan, Hirundo
concolor, Hirundo erythropygia, Cypselus affinis, Capri-
mulgus monticulus, Caprimulgus Asiaticus, Caprimulgus
Mahrattensis, Halcyon Smyrnensis, Alcedo rudis, Alcedo
Bengalensis, Ceyx tridactyla, Muscipeta Paradisi, Muscipeta
Indica, Muscipeta fiammea, Muscipeta per egrina, Muscicapa
melanops, Muscicapa Banyamus, Muscicapa Poonensis, Mus~

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 249

cicapa cceruleocephala, Muscicapa picata, Rhipidura albo-
frontata, Rhipidura fuscoventris, Dicrurus Balicassius, Di-
crurus cosrulescens, Hypsipetus Ganeesa, Collurio Lahtora,
Collurio erythronotus, Collurio Hardwickii, Lanius Musci-
capoides, Graucalus Papuensis, Ceblepyris fimbriatus, Ceble-
pyris canus, Oriolus galbula, Oriolus melanocephalus, Oriolus
Kundoo, Turdus macrourus, Turdus Saularis, Turdus cya-
notus, Petrocincla Pandoo, Petrocincla Maal, Petrocincla
cinclorhyncha, Timalia Malcolmi, Timalia Somervillei, Ti-
malia Chatarcsa, Ixosjocosus, Ixos cqfer, Ixosfulicatus, Po-
matorhinus Horsfieldii, Iora Tiphia, Sylvia montana, Sylvia
sylviella, Sylvia Rama, Prinia socialis, Prinia inornata, Or-
thotomus Bennettii, Orthotomus Lingoo, Rudytes citreola,
Budytes melanocephala, Budytes Beema, Motacilla variegata,
Motacilla Dulthunensis, Megalurus rtificeps, Anthus agilis,
Saxicola rubicola, Saxicola bicolor, Saxicola rubeculoides,
Saxicola erythropygia, Phaznicura atrata, Phoenicura Sueciea,
Parus atriceps, Parus xanthogenys, Alauda Gulgula, Alauda
Deva, Alauda Dulchunensis, Mirqfra phosnicura, Emberiza
melanocephala, Emberiza hortulana, Emberiza cristata, Em-
beriza subcristata, Linaria Amandava, Ploceus Philippensis ,
Ploceus flavicollis, Fringilla crucigera, Lonchura nisoria,
Lonchura cheet, Lonchura leuconota, Passer domesticus, Pas-
tor tristis, Pastor Mahrattensis, Pastor roseus, Pastor Pago-
darum, Corvus culminatus, Corvus splendens, Coracias Indica,
Buceros, several species, Paloeornis torquatus, Palceornis me-
lanorhynchus, Bucco Philippensis, Bucco caniceps, Picus
Mahrattensis, Upupa minor, Leptosomus Afer, Eudynamys
orientalis, Cuculus canorus, Cuculus fugax, Centropus Phi-
lippensis, Chloropsis aurifrons, Cinnyris lepida, Cinnyris
currucaria, Cinnyris Vigorsii, Cinnyris minima, Cinnyris
Mahrattensis, and finally, Cinnyris concolor. The above
catalogue requires very few observations. The weaver-bird,
Ploceus Philippensis, is remarkable for its pendent nest, woven
in the most curious and ingenious manner from fibres of grass.
Not less curious are the nests produced by the tailor-birds,
the Prinia socialis and the Orthotomus Bennettii, which sew
leaves together to inclose their nests, with the skill of a veri-
table knight of the thimble. The lark, Alauda Gidgula, has
the habits and delightful song of the skylark of Europe ;
and two or three species of the genera Budytes and Mota-
cilla have sweet notes : the Collurio Lahtora has also a sweet
note. The Muscipeta Paradisa and Indica are distinguished
for their beautifully elongated tail-feathers. The Coracias
Indica is characterized by its splendid colouring; and not
less so is the Cinnyris Vigorsii. The cuckoo is the identical

250 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

bird of Europe, and so is the sparrow. In the above list I
have named many new species of Insessores, and have intro-
duced one new genus.

Rasores. — That order so highly useful to man, the Rasores,
does not contain one single species in Dukhun that is not
valuable as an article of food. There are 12 genera and 40
species. Ptilinopus Elphinstonii, Columba mcena, Columba
tigrina, Columba humilis, Columba rasoria, Columba Cambay-
ensis, Columba JEnas, Meleagris Gallopavo, Pavo cristatus,
G alius gigantei/s, Gallus Sonnsratii, Gallus domesticus, Gal-
lus morio, Gallus crispus, Numida Meleagris, Coturnix dac-
tylisonans, Coturnix textilis, Coturnix Argoondah, Coturnix
Pentah, Coturnix erythrorhyncha, Perdix picta, Francolinus
Pondicerianus, Francolinus spadiceus, Pterocles exustus,Ptero-
cles quadricinctus, Hemipodius pugnax, Hemipodius Taigoor,
Hemipodius Dussumier, Otis nigriceps, and Otis fulva. Of
the above, Turkeys and Guinea fowls are not indigenous, and
it may be doubted whether the gigantic cock be a native.
The original of the domestic fowl is most abundant in the
woods of the Ghats. The real partridge, Perdix picta, is
found in the valleys of the Ghats. What is usually denomi-
nated a partridge in Dukhun, is the Francolinus Pondi-
cerianus ; it is numerous, and affects cultivated lands and
garden grounds. The common quail of Europe is a native of
Dukhun ; and three new species, which I have described, as
well as the Coturnix textilis, literally swarm. That noble
bird the Otis nigriceps is met with in large flocks, and the
floriken is by no means scarce.

Grallatores, — Of the fourth order, Grallatores or Waders,
there are 25 genera and 46 species, and very many of the
species are common to Europe. Grus Antigone, Ardca
Egretta, Ardea Garzetta, Ardea Asha, Ardea cinerea,
Ardea nigrirostris, Ardea Malaccensis, Ardea Caboga, Ardea
Grayii, Ardea Javanica, Ardea cinnamomea, Botaurus stel-
laris, Nyctieorax Europceus, Phoznicopterus ruber, Platalea
leucorodia, Platalea junior, Ciconia leucocephala, Ciconia
Argala, Anastomus Typus, Tantalus leucocephalus, Ibis re-
ligiosa, Ibis ignea, Ibis papillosa, Ibis falcinella, Tetanus
ochropus, Totanus Glareola, Totanus hypoleucos, Limosa
Glottoides, Limosa Horsfieldii, Gallinago media, Gallinago
minima, Rhynchea picta, Pelidna Temminckii, Parra Si-
nensis, Gallinula Javanica, Rallus Akool, Porphyrio Sma-
ragnotus, Fidica atra, Cursorius Asiaticus, Vanellus Goensis,
Vanellus bilobus, Charadrius pluvialis, Charadrius Philip-
pensis, Himantopus melanopterus, and CEdicnemus crepitans.
Of the above, the Ibis religiosa is undoubtedly the sacred or

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 251

mummy Ibis of the ancient Egyptians, according to Cuvier's
description. The species of the family of the Ardeidce are
varied and beautiful. The snipes are those of Europe, as
well as most of the species of the Scolopacidce, and some of
the Rallidce.

Natatores. — The last order, Natatores or swimmers, con-
tains 13 genera and 20 species, and, as in the preceding
order, several of the species are common to Europe. Plec-
tropterus melanotics, Anser Giria, Tadorna rutila, Anas stre-
pera, Rhynchaspis virescens, Mareca poecilorhyncha, Mareca
Jtstularis, Mareca Awsuree, Querquedula Circia, Querquedula

Crecca, Fuligula rufina, Fuligula , Fuligula cristata,

Podiceps Philippensis, Phalacrocorax Javanicus, Plotus me-
lanogaster, Sterna acuticauda, Sterna similis, Sterna Seena,
and Viralva Anglica. The geese, ducks, and teals abound
most in the cold season, and are at that period excellent
eating. The domestic goose and duck of Europe is not in-
cluded in the above list, but both are extensively bred in
Dukhun. That rare English bird the Viralva Anglica is
very common in Dukhun. I did not meet with the Pelican,
although it is a native of India.

Ichthyology. — The rivers of Dukhun abound with fish, and
some of them are not only palatable, but very fine flavoured,
particularly the Tambra, a new species of Cyprinus, and the
Waam, Macrognathus armatus ; the Singhala or Pimelodus is
also in very general use by the people, but is not esteemed by
Europeans. The fish observed by me consisted of forty-six
species ; two belonged to the sub-order Apodes, three to
Thoracici, and forty-one to Abdominales. The whole were
comprised in twelve genera. There was one Murena, one
Macrognathus, one Chanda, one Ophiocephalus, one Gobius,
two species of Silurus, nine of Pimelodus and sub-genera, one
Ageneiosus, one Mystus, twenty-four of Cyprinus and sub-
genera, one Essox, and three species of Cobitus. It is re-
markable that the fresh water Essox of Dukhun so closely
resembles the salt water species of England, as to be scarcely
distinguished from it, not only in external characters, but in
the colour of its bones.

Reptilia. — Reptiles are numerous in Dukhun. The Trionyx
Indica abounds in the rivers, and there are two smaller
species. Many genera of the Saurian family are met with
from the four to five feet Monitor, to the minutest Lacerta.
Serpents of all kinds, from the gigantic Boa Constrictor to the
small and beautiful carpet snake. The first, however, I have
only seen carried about the country by people who exhibit

252 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837«

the feats of the reptile in swallowing small animals. Inde-
pendently of the deadly Cobra da Capello, {Coluber Naag)
there are some other poisonous species, but in general the
snakes are harmless.

Crustacea. — Of the Crustacea, I shall have only to notice
the Kenkra, Thelphusa cunicularis, a new species which per-
vades the valleys and table-lands of the Ghats, and whose
numbers are so great that their burrows riddle the earth ;
they remain quiet in their holes during the cold and dry
seasons, but, in the monsoon, they are abroad in such num-
bers, that travellers drive over them, ride over them, and
trample upon them in the high roads : they are not an article
of food with the natives, but are, I believe, wholesome.

Testacea. — There are some few genera and species of land
and fluviatile shells, the largest of which is a Unio ; but they
do not call for notice.

Entomology. — Like all tropical climates, the Dukhun teems
with insects. The domestic fly is a pest at certain seasons ;
the most rigid precautions and the greatest cleanliness cannot
secure the most fastidious person from the inroads of the
bed-bug; and there is no getting beyond the "maximum leap
of a flea" ; the fact is, these plagues are not only the constant
companions of the people, but the flea inflicts serious injury
on poultry, dogs, and cattle. Domestic, and indeed wild
animals are subject also to the attacks of a small blue tick,
(Acarus,) which multiplies upon them in such an incredible
manner as to affect the vital functions and produce paralysis
and death. There are three species of honey-bee in Dukhun,
the honey from the whole of which is remarkably fine. It
boasts also its lac insect, Coccus laccus ; and several silk-pro-
ducing moths, particularly the Kolesurra, Bombyx Papliia.

The most destructive of the insect tribe is the white ant,
Termes, which, working under cover with the most inde-
fatigable perseverance, finds its way everywhere, and every-
where occasions loss and injury ; books, papers, clothes,
leather, wood, &c, are indiscriminately devoured. Several
species of genuine ants are also a great nuisance. A species
of sphex makes its earthen nest within the locks of the dooi's,
and blocks up the key-holes. The musquito, Culex, is not
quite so troublesome in Dukhun as on the coast. The scor-
pion, of which there are two or three species, so abounds in
the stony lands of Dukhun, that on encamping my regiment,
on the march from Punderpoor to Ahmednuggur in 1818, I
had from two to three hundred brought to me in the course
of a day by my men : their sting produces intolerable pain for

ON TUB STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 253

a few hours, but is not dangerous unless to the diseased and
weakly. The centipede does not attain the growth of its type
in South America, nor is it very numerous.

As in other countries, the Coleopterous order is the most
numerous. Some of the genera are remarkable for their
habits, (Copridce,) and some are remarkable for their beauty
(Buprestidce). Amongst the Lepidoptera many are very hand-
some, both in the diurnal and nocturnal families (Papilio Hector
and Bombyx Atlas). In the Hemipterous order, the Ci-
micidce abound, and are cursed with all imaginable abominable
smells. In the order Orthoptera, the Gryllidce are numerous ;
but the locust is unknown as a scourge. In this order also,
the multiplied and strange forms of the Mantis and Phasma
are very striking. The Blatta is troublesome and injurious.
The Hymenoptera includes some valuable and interesting
genera. Of the Apterous insects I have already spoken.
The Neuroptera are both numerous and beautiful, some of
the Libellula and Myrmeleons particularly so. Of the Di-
ptera, the genera Musca, Culex, Bombilius, Hippobosca, and
Tipula, exhibit the greatest number of species and individuals.
In Arachnida the genera are endless. The prevalence of
scorpions I have spoken of.

Civil Divisions.

The British territories in Dukhun are divided into four
collectorates, Poona, Ahmednuggur, Dharwar, and Khandesh
or Candeish. Over each of these there is a European civil ser-
vant of the Company, with several European assistants, for the
purpose of collecting the revenue. These gentlemen are armed
with magisterial powers, and can call upon the military au-
thorities for assistance. These collectorates are divided into
Talooks (great divisions), provinces, Pergunnahs (counties),
and Turrufs (hundreds) ;* and 'native officers called Mam-
lutdars, aided by inspectors of cultivation, accountants, trea-
surers, and a police force, are placed over one or more
Pergunnahs. All these terms are of Moosulman introduc-
tion; the ancient Hindoo civil officers being differently named,
and their territorial divisions were Prant, Deshmookee, and
Naikwaree. The aggregations of habitations are called Sher
(city), Kusbeh (market-town), Mouzeh or Ga6n (village), and
Waree (hamlet). The cities and towns may comprise several
villages, and they have their suburbs called Peit. The vil-
lage constitution is noticed under land tenures.

• Provinces, counties, and hundreds are not the exact equivalents of the
native territorial divisions, but they afford sufficiently approximate types.

254 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

Poona Collectorate. — The Poona Collectorate is the nearest
of the four collectorates of Dukhun to Bombay : its bound-
aries towards the coast approach within about fifty miles of that
presidency, but they do not descend the Ghats into the strip
of land at the foot of the Ghats, called the Konkun (Concan).
This collectorate has an area of 8281 square miles, including
the lands held in military tenure (Jagheer). It contains
550,313 inhabitants, 1897 towns* and villages, and 114,887
houses ; averaging 66*45 inhabitants to a square mile, 4*79 to
a house, 247*36 to a village, exclusive of the population of
Poona. The chief town is Poona, recently the capital of the
Mahratta empire, containing a population of 81,315 souls.
The other principal towns are Tullegaon (2050 males, 2007
females), Joonur (4218 males, 3759 females), Kheir (1999
males, 1794 females), Goreh (1154 males, 1145 females), Ootoor
(2521 males, 1928 females), Narraingaon (1286 males, 1180
females), Alley (1396 males, 1 064 females), Sassor (1880 males,
1696 females), Jeejooree (885 males, 860 females), Tullegaon,
Tnrrtif Paubul (1710 males, 1427 females), and some others;
but the most populous of the number, as is seen above, contains
only 7977 souls. There are, excluding Sholapoor, 8 pergun-
nahs and 32 turruffs in the Poonah collectorate. In Sholapoor
sub-collectorate there are 4 talooks, 19 pergunnahs, and 12
turruffs ; but as divisions which in the other collectorates are
called turruffs, are here called pergunnahs, there are few tur-
ruffs. My limits will not permit of detailed descriptions of
these pergunnahs, although there are many physical facts of
interest connected with some of them.

The following number of towns and villages constitute the
different pergunnahs and talooks: Sewnere 190, Indapoor,
86, Kheir 236, Pabul 65, Poorundhur 130, Beemthuree 92,
Hawailee 165, the Mawuls 233, Sholapoor 122, Mohol 145,
Indee 236, and Moodebehal 226. This makes a total of 1926,
which is 29 villages more than was previously stated, but this
is owing to depopulated villages being included; of this 1926,
47 towns and 1429^ villages belong to the British ; 4 towns
and 264^ villages are held in free gift (Eenam), and 3 towns
and 178 villages are held on tenure of military service (Su-
rinjam).

Hill forts. — In the Poona Collectorate are situated many
remarkable hill forts, impregnable in fact if properly defended,
from their geological structure, which consists of beds of
basalt, with vertical edges, alternating with beds of amyg-

* Trifling transfers have taken place between the different collectorates, so
that this may not be the exact amount at the present moment.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 255

daloids, whose edges form a talus. Many of these in then-
superficial plane manifest a strong disposition to a trigonal
character. Such is the case with Teekonee (the word being
almost Greek,) or three-angled, Koaree, and some others.
Koaree is situated at the edge of the Ghats in the civil
division called the Powar Khoreh ; its summit is 2910 feet
above the sea ; and some parts of the rock within its area are
so powerfully magnetic, as to draw the needle quite round the
compass. The hill forts of Singhur, Poorundhur, and Wu-
zeerghur are seen from Poona : the summit of the first is ele-
vated 4192 feet above the sea, and the second 4471 feet.
The hill-fort of Sewnair, in which the celebrated Sewajee was
born, is situated close to the city of Joonur (Jooneer). Jewdun,
is on the edge of the Ghats, a few miles westward of Joonur,
and Hurreechundurghur, which is said to be eighteen miles in
circumference at its base, is situated a few miles N.W. of
Joonur. But I have not space to enumerate all these points
of defence provided by nature, — Loghur, Eesapoor, &c. &c.

Boodh cave-temples. — Some works of art must not be over-
looked. The first is that magnificent cave-temple situated in
the civil division called Naneh Mawul ; it is usually denomi-
nated the cave of Karleh (Carlee), from being within two
miles of a village of that name ; the temple is associated with
many cave-chambers. The other Boodh excavations are
pierced in the hills around the city of Joonur, under the hill-
fort of Joonur, and at the crest of the pass into the Konkun
from Joonui-, called the Naneh Ghat. Numerous inscriptions,
in so antique a form of the Sanscrit alphabet as not to be
readable by modern Sanscrit scholars, abound in these caves.*
These astonishing works of art, resulting from the labour of
ages, and which are met with, not only in the Poona Col-
lectorate, but in many other parts of India, would seem to
indicate that the country was once inhabited by a Boodhist
population, although it has so entirely disappeared, that not a
solitary worshiper of Boodh remains in the peninsula of India.
In the Under Mawul, at the village of Mhow, there is
an extraordinary large Wuhr-tree (Ficus Lidica) ; it has
sixty-eight stems, most of them thicker than a man's body,
and, with the exception of the original stem, the whole of
them originate in roots let down from the branches ; it was
capable of affording shade, with a vertical sun, to 20,000 men,
being 201 feet long by 150 feet broad. At the town of Mun-

* Within the last year, those indefatigahle and learned orientalists, Principal
, Mill, Mr. James Prinsep, and Mi - . Stevenson have succeeded in reading most
of the inscriptions which are found to relate exclusively to Boodhism and
Boodhists.

256 SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

chur, in the pergunnah of Pabool and Turruf Wurgaon,
there is a Baubel-tree {Mimosa Arabica,) of surprising mag-
nitude ; at eighteen inches from the ground the trunk mea-
sures nine feet and half an inch in circumference ; its head is
ramous and dense, and it gives a vertical shade covering 5964
square feet : this species produces gum arabic. In the turruf
of Chakun, pergunnah Kheir, near to Mahloongah, on the
slopes of some hills, the shrub or small tree, producing the gum
olibanum, (Boswellia thurifera), is met with ; and it is seen
also in other parts of the country. At Mahloongah there is a
garden of flourishing cocoa-nut trees ; and considering that
they are at 2000 feet above the sea, and 100 miles inland,
the fact is sufficiently remarkable : clumps of them are also
met with at Pabool and other places.

Rivers. — The rivers flowing through the Poona Collectorate
are the Mota, the Mola, the Inderanee, Under, Beema, Goreh,
and Kokree, and some smaller streams. All these have their
sources in the Ghats, within the limits of the collectorate ;
they converge to the Beema, which falls into the Kistnah, and
thus finally reach the Bay of Bengal. The rivers are only
navigable during the monsoon, and then only partially. Boats
with sails are not seen upon them.

Ahmednuggur Collectorate. — The Ahmednuggur Collect-
orate adjoins the Poona Collectorate on the east and north.
Part of its frontier is along the Ghats; the rest. is bounded
by the Chandore range of hills on the north, and by the
Nizam's territories on the east and S.E.

Ahmednuggur has an area of 9910 square miles ; it con-
tains 666,376 inhabitants, dispersed in 2465 towns and villages,
averaging 263*47 inhabitants to a village, (exclusively of the
population of Ahmednuggur) ; 67*24 inhabitants to a square
mile ; 136,273 houses and 4*89 inhabitants to a house*.

Ahmednuggur is divided into 14 talooks, 36 pergunnahs,
and 51 turruffs. Talook Ahmednuggur contains 157 towns
and villages, Kurdeh 172, Sungumnair 226, Akoleh 194,
Newassa 359, Nasseek 280, Sinnur 107, Chandwur 153, Pato-
deh 255, Wun Dindooree 175, Barsee 124, Kurmulleh 82,
Jamkheir 90, and Kortee 115. The total of these is 2488,
instead of 2465 ; the difference originates in 23 depopulated
villages being included. Of the above, 43 towns and 1858^
villages belong to the British ; in 27 towns and 554£ villages
the British government has a quit rent, these villages being
called Doomaleh,f alienated. Only one village in free gift

* This return is for 16 pergunnahs only.

t The proper meaning of Doomaleh is " two properties," the chief part of
the revenue being alienated, but the government having a quit rent.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 257

was returned to me, and one town and three villages in military
or feudal tenure ; but the villages in free gift (Eenam) are
included in the Doomaleh villages.

The chief town is Ahmednuggur, with a population of
17>838 souls in 1822 : men 5953, boys 3350, total males 9303 ;
women 5976, girls 2559, total 8535. The other chief towns
are Kurdeh, Nasseek, Chandore, Sungumnair, Parnair, &c. ;
but their population I cannot state, as the total amount of the
population of pergunnahs only was sent to me by the col-
lector*. The most populous pergunnah would appear to be
Nasseek, containing 71,581 inhabitants. The least populous
pergunnah was Soagaon, containing only 9400 inhabitants.

Rivers. — The rivers running, through the collectorate are
formed by numerous streams originating in the Ghats and
Chandore range, — such as the Peera, the Mool, the Doornail,
and the Gooee, which converge to that noble stream the
Godavery, which also has its rise in this collectorate, near
Trimbuck, and flows to the eastward to the Bay of Bengal.
The Seena is the only river of consequence which does not
originate in the Ghats. It has its course at the edge of the
plateau on which the city of Ahmednuggur stands, about ten
miles north of the city, and flows in a S.S.E. direction into
the Beema.

There are several remarkable hill forts in the western part
of the collectorate, such as Trimbuck, &c. Ahmednuggur
was once the capital of the Ahmed Shahee dynasty of kings.

Khandesh or Candeish Collectorate. — The area of the pro-
vince or collectorate of Candeish, deduced from a map in the
Deputy Surveyor General's Office, including tracts belonging
to foreign states and to Jagheerdars, is 12,527 square miles.
It is bounded on the north by the Sautpoora mountains ; on
the east by the province of Berar, belonging to the Nizam ;
on the south by the Indyadree range of mountains, which
separate it from Ahmednuggur ; and, on the west, by Dang
and Raj Peeplee, which bring it into contact with Goojrat.
It is literally a Khind or Khund, a great gap between ranges
of mountains, whence its name of Khandesh or Candeish.
Some of the northern and western parts are little better than a
jungle, and the whole province is miserably depopulated. The
populated part of the collectorate belonging to the British,
derived from the returns of the lands of 1982 populated villages,

* The population returns forwarded by me not having been filled up, in
consequence of a census of the population having been made by the collector
himself within three years preceding.

vol. vi. 1837. s

258 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

give an area of 6760 square miles, with a population of nearly
55 inhabitants to the square mile ; but supposing 1681
alienated and deserted villages to have a proportionate quan-
tity of lands, the area will be 12,504 square miles, with 38^
inhabitants only to the square mile, and this I believe to be
very near to the truth. It is curious that the area derived
from the village lands should approximate so closely to the
area determined trigonometrically.

The collectorate is divided into sixty-six pergunnahs, some
of which do not contain more than one village each, whilst the
largest, Nanchporbar, has 259 towns and villages, Nowapoor
236, Sooltanpoor 232, Rawere 160, Jamnair 144, Amulnair
140, and Bhamere 150, including deserted villages* The total
number of towns and villages is 3666 ; but of this number 330
are pyegusta, which means that the villages are deserted, but
that part of the lands are cultivated ; 999 are entirely deserted ;
but great confusion and uncertainty prevails in the details, for
of this number there are 51 whose limits are unknown, 12
whose sites are unknown but names known, and 135 whose
names and sites are unknown but a record remains of their
number. There are 237 populated Jagheer, or alienated vil-
lages-, and many amongst the Pyegusta, and deserted also, be-
long to Jagheerdars, so that it does not appear that more
than 2032 populated villages belong to the British * ; of this
number 1968 sent in population returns. The most populous
town in Khandesh was Nandoorbar, and it had only 6429 inha-
bitants ; and only one other town (Chopra) had a population of
6000. The towns and villages average only 178 inhabitants,
and each house averages 3*96 inmates. The total of the
inhabitants is 478,457.

From the village lands in Khandesh being kept universally
in Beegahs, the amount of land under cultivation is readily
determined. It would appear that 15,958 acres were watered
by perennial streamlets. Lands so watered are called PaJit-
stul, and are the most valuable of all, as the supply of water
is mostly permanent, and the chief labour required is to open
the channels and let it flow over the lands ; 46,064 acres were
watered from wells, and lands so watered are called Moht-
stul ;f 600,556 acres were under field cultivation, and are not

* In the Collector's revenue return for 1827-8 the number of villages is
stated to be 2697+, so that 335^ of the deserted villages had become inhabited,
independently of 330 uninhabited villages whose lands were included in the
return.

f Paht means a water-channel, and Moht means a well-bucket; implying
in the first instance that lands are watered from streamlets, and in the second
instance from wells.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 259

watered, — these lands are called Zerhaeet. The per centage
of cultivated and waste lands in this collectorate is as
follows : —

Watered by perennial streams^)

Watered from wells > 15*32 per cent.

Field cultivation J

Waste land 84*68 do.

100 ...

Rivers. — The River Tapty runs through the whole length
of the collectorate, and, unlike the rivers of the other collect-
orates, disembogues into the Gulf of Cambay, below Surat ;
the water-shed of the counti'y being in fact from the east to
the west, instead of from the west to the east ; there are some
exceptions in rivers which rise in the Western Ghats, or the
Chandore range, and run to the east for some distance, then
sweep round in a segment of a circle and join the Tapty ; such
are the Guirna, Roharee, the Moosum, &c. Timber is floated
down the Tapty in the monsoon.

Boodh Cave Temples. — Near to the Adjunta Pass, through
the Chandore range, from Ahmednuggur into Khandesh, are
a multitude of those astonishing remains of Boodhist art,
consisting of excavations in the mural faces of the trap rocks,
the interior walls of which excavations are covered with bas-
reliefs ; indeed, with fresco paintings also, illustrative of the
arts and social relations of life, like the paintings on the tombs
of the Egyptian kings.

Dharwar Collectorate. — Agreeably to information obtained
from the Revenue Survey Department, that part of the
southern Mahratta country, bounded on the north by the
Kolapoor territory and the Kristna river, on the east by the
Nizam's dominions, on the south by Mysore and the Toom-
boodra river, and on the west by Soonda and the Syhadree
Ghats, comprises an area of 11,747 square miles, namely,

Square Miles.

British possessions 8378*439

Do. Manowlee Talook, from the Kolapoor territory 390*474

Sawanoor Jagheer 74*750

Sawuntwaree territory 188*934

Nizam's territory 47*930

Gudjundurghur jagheer 69*344

Putwurdun and other jagheers 2597*167

Total 11747*038

260 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

The Talooks of Cheekooree, 354 square miles, and Munowlee,
390 square miles, have been added to Dharwar, so that the
area of the collectorate now amounts to 9122*913 square miles ;
but 39 per cent, of this consists of wood and jungle, and uncul-
tivated lands, and 61 per cent, appears upon the returns as
cultivated.

Dharwar is divided into 22 Talooks and 137 Turritffs,
Mahls, Summuts, or A7«Vy«fo, independently of the subdivisions
of the Talooks of Cheekooree and Munowlee. The Talook of
Dharwar has 136 towns and villages, Meesreekoht 133,
Purusghur 59, Nowlgoond 43, Hoongoond 170, Dumbul 96,
Bunkapoor 115, Nuwee Hooblee 97, Ranee Beednoor 139,
KettoorSl, Sumpgaon 70, Beereeh 135, Rhone 77, Bagul-
koht 141, Hangull 173, Goottull 123, Badamee 148, Padsha-
poor 202, Kohr 182, Talooks of Cheekooree, and Munowlee
225. To the above are to be added 189 villages, 47 of which
sent in population returns, although their names were not in
the government lists ; 108 were not included because they
were Jagheer or Eenam villages ; and 34 were depopulated
and overlooked. The total number of villages in the collect-
orate amounted to 2734 ; of this number 2491 were populated,
and 243 were deserted. Of the above, 1899 British villages
sent in returns, 225 did not send returns; 155 were deserted,
but their lands were under cultivation by neighbouring vil-
lagers ; 230 alienated villages sent in returns, 137 alienated
villages did not send in returns ; and 88 deserted villages had
not their lands under cultivation. With the aid of some
trifling estimates the total amount of population appeared to
be 838,757, averaging 91*94 inhabitants to the square mile,
336-71 to a village, and 4*48 to a house. Of the 119 British
towns, there are only three whose population exceeds 1 0,000
souls, viz. Dharwar 11,802; Belgaon 11,037; and Mujeed-
poor 15,387. One town has above 8000 inhabitants, (Bagul-
koht) ; two with 6000 ; one 5000 ; thirty-six with from 2000
to 4000; and seventy-seven with from 1000 to 2000 souls.
All the village lands being kept in definite measurements, it
appeared that the cultivated land of the whole collectorate
was 61*11 per cent., and waste only 38*89 per cent.

Rivers. — All the chief rivers of Dharwar flow to the eastward ;
they have their source in the Ghats, and join the Kistnah.
The principal are the Gutpurba, the Malpurba, and the
Wurdah : the falls of the Gutpurba, near to Gokauk, are said
to be strikingly fine.

Hill Forts. — Dharwar, like the other collectorates, has to
boast of its hill forts.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 261

Viewing Dharwar, whether with respect to its numerous
towns and well-peopled villages, the comparative density of its
population, the size of its farms, the quantity of land in culti-
vation, the amountof its revenues, the lightness with which they
press supposing they were raised as a poll tax, the indications
of manufacturing industry (so languishing elsewhere) in the
number of its weavers, and its superior means of school
instruction, it is unquestionably the finest of the British pos-
sessions in Dukhun.

Population.

The great feature in the population of Dukhun is the
excess of males over females in a greater proportion than
exists in Europe. By the last census in England there
were 100 males to 93 females. In the British possessions
in Dukhun, in a population from which returns have
been received of 2,802,902 souls, there are 100 males to
87*36 females, and this difference obtains, with very little
variation, throughout the different casts. It is subject to
modification, however, by a very singular fact, exhibited in
the excess of grown up women over men wherever the
returns distinguish the adults from children ; but the excess
of male children over female leaves the ultimate prepon-
derance in favour of the males. From Sir Stamford Raffles'.
History of Java, the same relative proportion of the sexes
would appear to exist in that island. He states that the pro-
portion of males and females born in Bantam, and over the
whole of Java, is nearly the same as in Europe, and as is found
generally to exist wherever accurate statements can be ob-
tained. From the information he collected in a very careful
survey of one province, the preponderance seemed to be
on the side of male children to an extraordinary degree ;
the male children being about 42,000, and the female 35,500,
i. e. 100 males to 84*52 females. He says also there were
formerly great drains on the male population, and which, in
advanced stages of life, might turn the balance on the other
side ; indeed, in some of his returns this is shown to be the
case.

In Dukhun, wherever the means have been afforded to me
of ascertaining, I have found the preponderance of male over
female children to be marked, not only in births, but as long
as they continue to be classed as children ; although a great
mortality, at a subsequent period, makes the grown up
females outnumber the grown up males.

Males and females. — In the Poona Collectorate in 1826 the
births of males in 32 turruffs were 100 to 94 - 27 females,

262 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

or very nearly 20 males to 19 females. The result of
eighteen years' very careful observations for all France, from
1817 to 1834 inclusive, gives 17 males for 16 females ; and as
this is derived from more than seventeen and a half millions of
births, it is worthy of every confidence. Taking each year of
the above period, the extreme variation was from 15 males to
14 females, as far as 19 males to 18 females. My deduction
varies so little, that we may fairly say the same law equally ob-
tains, whether in a tropical or an extra-tropical climate.
Amongst illegitimate births in France it would appear that the
number of females approximates more neai-ly to males than in
the legitimate births ; the numbers, according to the French
tables, being 24 males to 23 females : reducing all these to a
common denomination, we have in the
Poona Collectorate . . 94*27 per cent, of female births.
In France, the average^!

of 18 years, legiti- >-94*Il do. do.

mate J

In France, legitimate^ 9 g.gg do> do

lor 1 year, .... J
In France, legitimately 94<7 g do> do

lor I year J

In France illegitimate, \ 95 . g3 do d

average ot 18 years, J

It would thus appear that amongst illegitimate children
there are nearly two more females born to every hundred
males than amongst legitimate births.

In the abstract of the census of the population of the
Ahmednuggur Collectorate, taken in 1822, the boys were to
the girls as 100 to62'16; a singular disproportion, there being
in the whole collectorate 96,447 boys, and only .59,956 girls;
but the men were to the women only as 100 to 102*18,
the number of men being 146,750, and the women 149,945.
In the city of Poona, in 1822, the boys were to the girls as
100 to 73*26, a greater disproportion than Sir Stamford Raffles
found in Java ; at the same time the adult men were to the
women as 100 to 103*40. In the classes only of the Brahman
priests, mendicants, and traders, were the men found to ex-
ceed the women. In the city of Ahmednuggur, in 1826, there
were 100 boys to 67*62 girls, but 100 men only to 106*06
women ; but the ultimate relation of males to females was as
100 males to 92*46 females.

-extremes.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN.

263

The following table shows the proportion of males to
females in the different collectorates, and their principal cities
and towns :

Collectorates.

Males to
Females.

Cities and Towns.

Males to
Females.

Poona Collectorate ...

100 to 88

100 to 94

Ahmednuggur do. ...

1 00 to 86

100 to 92

100 to 85

100 to 89

100 to 98

100 to 91

100 to 101-25

100 to 101-14

Births, Deaths, and Marriages. — Returns of births, deaths,
and marriages, in an available form, were received only from
32 turruffs of the Poona Collectorate, comprising 1109 towns
and villages, but not including the city of Poona, containing
81,315 inhabitants ; my information, therefore, on these sub-
jects must necessarily be circumscribed, but the little there is
is valuable from its novelty. Some returns came to hand from
the Collectorate of Dharwar, but they were merely additions
of the totals of irregular numbers of villages, (from 2 to 12,)
and I hesitated to trust to results which I could not test
by the original returns. Respecting births, deaths, and mar-
riages in the Ahmednuggur and Khandesh Collectorates, I am
totally without information, excepting a solitary return of
deaths in the city of Ahmednuggur in 1828, which is worthy
of every confidence, as it was compiled by my friend Dr.
Walker, late Civil Surgeon at Ahmednuggur.

Births. — In the Poona Collectorate the average births, in a
population of 250,300, amounted only to one in 50 52 persons,
or not quite two per cent. ; the Brahmans having the smallest
proportion, (1 in 57*29), and the Moosulmans the greatest pro-
portion, (1 in 40*80) ; the range of births in the different tur-
ruffs was from 1 in 15*70 to 1 in 153*60 persons ; and, on the
whole, the hilly tracts had a greater number than the plains.

Deaths. — The deaths were 1 in 37*34 persons in the 32 tur-
ruffs, or 2*67 per cent., indicating a*somewhat alarming dimi-
nution in the population ;* the range varied from 1 in 17*21
to 1 in 70 persons, the fewest deaths being in the hilly tracts.
It must be considered, however, that the spasmodic cholera

* The deaths in the kingdom of Naples for 1836 — 37 was 1 in 37 and a
fraction.

264

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

was raging in the country in that year, and that the deaths
from that unaccountable and dreadful malady in two turruffs
amounted to nearly 5 per cent., and in one turruff to 6 per
cent, of the whole population. It is to be presumed, there-
fore, in the absence of cholera, the births would exceed the
deaths, as was in fact the case in some of the Mawuls, or
hilly tracts, where it was known the cholera did not penetrate.
In deaths the Moosulmans were the greatest average sufferers,
(1 in 20'15) and the low casts were the least sufferers, (I in
42-94).

As Dr. Walker found that the cholera in the city of Ahmed-
nuggur increased the usual deaths 0*66 per cent., the loss
being 2*48, while the cholera raged, and only 1*82 per cent,
when the scourge ceased, it is but fair to infer that such would
have been the case in the country at large ; and this element,
applied to the mortality in the Poonah Collectorate, would
reduce the annual loss to 2*01 per cent., or one death in
50 persons, which would indicate a greater degree of healthi-
ness than all France, all Belgium, or the town of Glasgow,
the loss in all these places being 1 in 39 and a fraction.

Marriages. — The average number of marriages in the
Poona Collectorate is proportionably more than in England
and France, being 1 in 125*87 souls ; the proportion in En-
gland being 1 in 128, and in France 1 in 130*4 inhabitants.
The range in the different turruffs is from 1 in 40*11 to 1 in
493*77 ; but in 14 turruffs the average is considerably under
that for England. The Shoodruhs (Mahrattas proper) and
Moosulmans are almost identical, in their proportional number
of marriages, namely, 1 in 116*21 and 1 in 116*86, and they
have the greatest number of marriages ; the low casts have
the fewest marriages. The births in 1826 being only 4954
and the marriages 1998, the average of children to a marriage
was 2*48 or not quite 2j. In France the average is 3*72
children to a marriage ; in England and Wales 3'55. In
Java the births were 1 in 39, deaths 1 in 40 persons.

The constituents of the population in the different collect-
orates were

Constituents of the Population.

Brahmans.

Rajpoots.

Shoodruhs, &c.[Atee Shood-
Mahratta Cul- ruhs, or low
tivators, &c. casts.

Moosulmans.

Per Cent.
11-58

Pir Cent.
0-41

Per Cent.
73-85

Per Cent.
9-78

Per Cent.
4-38

Ahmednuggiir

Unknown.

5*40

- 3-47

69-58

14-72

6-38

4-48

0-60

74-53

11-895

8-495

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 265

In the above^analysis the chief features are the permanent
and nearly equal proportions of the Shoodruhs or Mahratta
cultivators and other genuine Mahrattas, which obtain in the
different collectorates ; the fact being, that three-fourths of
the population are of that most useful class the Shoodruhs ;
and it will be seen by the notice on agriculture, how large
a proportion of them are engaged in tillage. In the Poona
Collectorate, as might be expected from its having been the
chief seat of a Brahman government, there is a considerable
number of Brahmans ; every ninth person, in fact, being a
Brahman. In the other collectorates scarcely one in twenty
persons is a Brahman. Genuine Rajpoots are little known in
Dukhun, and I should doubt whether or not the 3% per cent,
of Rajpoots, in the returns from Khandesh, should be added
to the Mahratta population ; who, by the bye, have some pre-
tensions to being descended from the Rajpoots. The propor-
tion of low casts,* men who are only engaged in vile or discredit-
able offices by the natives, although otherwise employed by
the British, does not differ very much in the different collect-
orates ; the increase in the Khandesh collectorate is attri-
butable to large tracts of the country being inhabited by
Bheels, who are a low cast ; in fact, less than every seventh
person is a low cast; in Poona about every tenth, and in
Dharwar about every eighth. The Moosulmans are few in
number in the Poona and Ahmednuggur Collectorates, not
being one-twentieth of the population in the first, nor one-
fifteenth in the second ; but, in the Dharwar Collectorate they
displace the Brahmans, and amount to nearly one-eleventh.
Although the Moosulman power has been paramount nearly
throughout all India for centuries, it is believed they have
never constituted one-fifteenth of the whole population. In the
abstract of the population returns from the Ahmednuggur Col-
lectorate, the casts are not distinguished ; but, in a return of
1828, from the city of Ahmednuggur, the Hindoo inhabitants
are distinguished from the Moosulman ; and it is found that
there is the very unusual proportion of one Moosulman to 3*45
Hindoos, or 29 per cent, of the whole population. This is to

* The low casts comprise all that part of the Hindoo population which
cannot claim to be Shoodruhs, such as Mahrs, Dhers, Maangs, shoemakers,
skinners; Ramoosees, Beruds, and Bheels. The Mahrs and Dhers are the
scavengers, the Maangs, executioners; shoemakers and skinners speak for
themselves ; the Ramoosees and Beruds are bom thieves, or are thieves by-
cast, and they are usually employed for the protection of villages, on the
principle of setting a thief to catch a thief. The Bheels are supposed to be
the aborigines of the countries where they are found.

266 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837*

be referred to the fact of Ahmednuggur having once been the
capital of the Ahmed Shahee dynasty of Moosulman kings ;
with these exceptions, although I have not detailed returns to
guide me, I believe that the constituents of the population of
the Ahmednuggur Collectorate do not differ in their propor-
tions from those of the Poona Collectorate. In the census of
1822, the families in the fifteen pergunnahs in the Ahmednuggur
Collectorate, with a population of 409,279 souls, were enu-
merated, and it appeared that there were 4*53 persons to a
family. With respect to the styles of building in the Ahmed-
nuggur Collectorate, it will be fully illustrated by the facts,
that the tiled houses amount only to 10*84 per cent, of the
whole ; the thatched houses to 32*27 per cent. ; and the mud
flat-terraced houses to 56*89 per cent.

Bearing in mind the clouds of horse that covered the Duk-
hun in the war of 1817, it is sufficiently remarkable that in
1822, in the whole Collectorate of Ahmednuggur there were
only 405 full-grown horses, 1298 full-grown mares; the total,
including colts and fillies, being only 2500 ; the ponies amounted
to 12,632, of all kinds.

Proportions engaged in agriculture. — In 1828, in this col-
lectorate, 1878 British villages contained 41,94S cultivators or
farmers, and a population of 512,818 souls, and allowing five
persons to a cultivator's family, 40*89 per cent, of the people
were engaged in agriculture. In Poona there were 52,668
farmers, being a per centage of 55*50, with five persons to a
family. In Dharwar 60,701 cultivators, being a percentage of
41*76*, and in Khandesh 44*608 cultivators, being a per
centage of 53*16 occupied in agriculture. It is to be under-
stood these proportions have reference to the population of
British villages only, and not to the whole population of each
collectorate. Moreover, as these proportions are derived from
the registered farmers only, and as they are in the habit of sub-
letting their lands, I have no hesitation in expressing my
opinion that exact returns would prove that three-fourths of
the population are directly engaged in agriculture. In the
Poona Collectorate, families were not enumerated, excepting
in the retux*n from the city of Poona, and here families average
4*82 persons ; each house in Poona averaged Q>\ persons ; but,
for the whole collectorate 4*79 persons to a house ; so that it
is probable the returns of the number of houses would give
the number of families. In Khandesh the proportion of in-

* Including some returns of alienated villages, an estimate makes it 48
per cent.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 26/

habitants to a house falls short of the other collectorates,
being only 8*96 persons. In Dharwar the number is 4*48 to
a house, for the whole collectorate ; but the towns exhibit
other figures ; namely, Belgaon 5*24, Chabee 5*78, and Gun-
ness Pait 5*77 inhabitants to a house ; England and Wales
has 5*60. The average inhabitants to the square mile, in the
different collectorates, has been noticed under the head of
civil divisions ; and the fewness will disappoint European ex-
pectations ; but there is plainly a great mistake in the common
estimation of the denseness of the Indian population. Bengal
proper is said to have 203 inhabitants to a square mile, and
Orissa, in the cultivated parts, agreeably to Mr. Stirling, the
commissioner, has 135; but, for the whole area of Orissa, the
average is only 14£ inhabitants to the square mile ; England
has 192.

Southern Jagheerdars. — The Southern Jagheerdars have
917 villages, with an estimated population of 263,236 souls.

Rajah of SattaraKs territories. — The Rajah of Sattarah, in
his territories, has 1703 towns and villages, with an estimated
population of 488,846 inhabitants.

With the data in my possession I am enabled to give an es-
timate of the population of the late Peshwa's territories in
Dukhun ; it affords a closer approximation to the truth than
has hitherto been obtained.

Collectorate.

Towns and
Villages.

Explanations.

Number of
inhabitants.

Total inha-
bitants in
eachCollect-
orate.

Ahmednuggur

1655|

223

586£
23

The census of 1822, in the
Ahmednuggur Collectorate, in
1655 J towns and villages, exclu-
sive of the city of Ahmednuggur,
each village averaging 263*47 in-

453,098

58,753
154,525

666,376

223 British villages of Talooks,
Kurmulleh, and Korteh, from
which population returns were
not received, averaging 263*47

586J alienated towns and vil-
lages, from which returns were
not received, averaging 267*47

Depopulated villages

Total villages in the Ahmed-
"nuggur Collectorate.

2488

268

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

Poona Collec-
torate.

Towns and
Villages.

Explanations.

Number of
inhabitants.

895i

212i

56
4

574

Total inha-
bitants in
cachCollect-
orate.

Khandesh
Collectorate,

155

1926

In the collector's revenue state-
ment for 1828 there appeared
1469J British villages ; viz. 895§
towns and villages inclusive of
the city of Poona, which sent in
population returns in 1826, the
villages averaging 226*10 inhabit-
ants, exclusive of the population
of the city, give 283,567

212^ alienated villages sent in
population returns 48,048

56 alienated towns and vil-
lages, and 4 British villages, did
not send in returns, averaging a
population of 22610 souls each 13,566

574 British villages of the
Sholapoor sub-collectorates did
not send in returns, averaging by
estimate 226-10 souls each 164,294

Had the average number of
inhabitants to a village in the
Ahmednuggur collectorate been
used as an element, the result
would have been 151,145

155 alienated towns and vil-
lages of the Sholapoor sub-col
lectorate at 226-l^souls each ... 40,838
Depopulated villages.

Total towns and villages in the
Poona Collectorate.

1968

330

335*

550,313

In the collector's revenue state
ment for 1828, there were 2697J
villages; of this number, 1968
British towns and villages sent
in population returns in 1826,
averaging 187-39 inhabitants to

a village, equal to

64 villages, refused returns, at

127 souls each

330 villages are cultivated, but
not inhabited, making a total of
2362 villages. To make up the
number in the collector's revenue
statement therefore, 335| villages
must be added as having become
populated since the population re-
turns were sent in, at 127 souls each
14 Jagheer villages sent in

returns

30Qi Jagheer, or alienated villages,
2 did not send in returns, at an
average of 187-39 souls each
654 Depopulated villages, lands not

cultivated.

3666 Total towns and villages in the

Khandesh Collectorate.

368,781
8128

42,608
2623

56,317

478,457

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN.

269

Dharwar Col-

lectorate.

Towns and
Villages.

Southern 3i

heerdars'

lands.

Rajah of Sat-
tarah's terri-
tories.

1899

225

155
230
137

2734
917

1703

Explanations.

In the collector's revenue state-
ment for 1828, there appeared
2279 towns and villages ; of this
number, 1899 British towns and
villages sent in population re-
turns, averaging 348 inhabitants
to each village

225 British villages in the ta
looks of Cheekoree and Munow-
Iee did not send in returns ; es-
timating their population from
the revenue they yield, falling as
a poll-tax as in other parts of
Dharwar, there are

British depopulated villages,
lands under cultivation.

Alienated villages sent in po
pulation returns

Alienated villages did not send
in population returns, at the
lowest average of population,
236-30 each

Deserted villages, lands not
under cultivation.

Number of
inhabitants.

660,852

65,805

79,727

32,373

Total inha-
bitants in
eachCollect-
orate.

12,155
1,279

13,434

The area of the Southern Jag-
heerdars' territories is 2978-125
square miles at 88-39 inhabitants
to the square mile, the lowest
average of the Dharwar Collect-
orate gives by estimate 263,236

1703 towns and villages under
the Sattarah government, with
an estimated population of 287-05
inhabitants to a village, which is
the mean between Dharwar and
Ahmednuggur, will give 488,846

Populated villages.
Depopulated villages

Total.

838,757

263,236

488,846

3,285,985

270

SEVENTH
ABSTRACT

REPORT-
OF THE

-1837-
ABOVE.

Collectorate or
Territory.

Area,
squaremiles.

Number of
Towns and
Villages.

Population.

Average
to the
square
mile.

Average to a

village for the

whole Collect.

orate.

Average to
a house.

8281

1926

550,313

66-45

« 247-36

4-79

Ahmednuggur

9910

2488

666,376

67-24

t 263-47

4-89

Kliandesh ...

12,527

3666

478,457

38-19

178-39

3-96

9122

2734

838,757

91-94

336-7

4-48

Southern Jag-

2978

917

263,236

88-39

287-05

Not known.

Raj all of Sat-
tarah's terri-

0169

1703

488,846

79-25

287-05

Not known.

Total

48,987

X 13,434

3,285,985

67-07

270-34

Average number of inhabitants to a village for all the col-
lectorates, 270*34.

The above population does not include the army, camp
followers, Bheels, or the wandering tribes.

It would appear there are 1279 uninhabited villages in the
four collectorates of Dukhun, principally in Khandesh ; making
a total of 10,814 towns and villages in the British possessions,
and of 13,434 in the late Peshwah's territories in Dukhun;
exclusive of those belonging to the Kolapoor state.

Total alienated villages in the four collectorates, 1695|.
Total British populated villages, 7839a ; total deserted, 1279.
Total villages in the four collectorates, 10,814.

Education.

Education, as a regular system, is certainly unknown amongst
the people in Dukhun. The few schools existing are wholly
disproportioned in number to the population ; and even were
they more numerous, the present general poverty of the Koon-
bees,§ and the imperious calls upon them for the services of
their children in agriculture, and in attending their cattle,

* Exclusive of the population of the city of Poona.

f Exclusive of the population of the city of Ahmednuggur.

X Of this number, 1279 are depopulated, and the depopulated villages of
the Southern Jagheerdars and Rajah of Sattarah's territories are not known
to me.

§ Mahratta cultivators.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 271

would disable them from letting their children profit by in-
struction, even though gratuitous. In a stage of civilization
which is by no means contemptible, the general illiterateness
of the cultivators is remarkable. It might have been supposed
that the pressure of the inconveniencies and the risk of loss
attending the solving their constantly recurring arithmetical
computations, whether in settling their assessments with go-
vernment, in ascertaining the amount of their produce, or in
computing its saleable rate to ensure a profit, or in their
money transactions with each other, would have stimulated
some families of the past or present generations to have pur-
sued steadily a course of instruction for their children, which,
by its example and the visible beneficial results attending it,
would have originated a thirst of knowledge, and advanced
the march of intellectual improvement. The Shoodra, however,
is led to believe by the wily Brahmans that letters and science
are not within his province, and the farmer is content to go on
mastering his arithmetical difficulties with the assistance of his
fingers, and relying upon the village clerk for the keeping his
accounts with the government, and on his ability, judgement,
and secrecy in the management of his private correspondence,
which, it may be supposed, will not be very important or volu-
minous. Were it ascertained, I believe not one cultivator in
a hundred would be found able to write, or count up to 100
but by fives ; and my daily unreserved intercourse for hours
with numbers of this class of persons has given me facilities for
forming this opinion. And yet the Koonbees are far from
wanting intelligence ; they are not slow in observing ; they are
quick in communicating, and the rationale of an agricultural
process is frequently explained with a simplicity and effect
which we might not always meet with in the educated En-
glish farmer. There would not be any difficulty in teaching
the Koonbees, provided the instruction were gratuitous, and
that the farmer could spare his children ; and several im-
portant effects might attend this instruction: the mind of the
cultivator would be invigorated with new ideas ; enlarged views
of action would break in upon him ; a spirit of improvement,
enterprise, and innovation might spring up, in place of the
apathetic routine that at present prevails in rural ceconomy,
and in the social relations of life ; and an amelioration, both
physical and moral, would take place in his condition. But
* at present the little education that exists is confined to the
Brahmans and to the shopkeepers, Shaitees*, and Mahajuns.f

* Heads of trades. f Bankers,

272 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

The Koolkumees *, or accountants and village-clerks, are
always Brahmans ; many of them are shrewd and very quick,
and possessed of infinite ingenuity in avoiding the detection of
a fraud or mistake in their papers ; many of this class, how-
ever, I found too stupid to keep an individual's account, much
less the complicated details of a village assessment. The
shopkeepers being generally people from Goojrat, keep their
accounts in the Goojratee language. The character in universal
use for business is the Mohr in the districts. The following will
show the number of schools, as far as the returns received
from the collectors will permit, — not any account of schools
was received from the collector of Ahmednuggur. In the Col-
lectorate of Dharwar there is one school to 2452 inhabitants ;
in Khandesh thei'e is only one school to 4369 souls ; and, in
the Poona Collectorate, deducting the population of the city
of Poona, there is one school to 3337 souls. It is fair to infer
therefore, that as Dharwar supports proportionably so many
more schools than the other collectorates, that information is
more generally spread amongst the people, and that they are
better able to manage their affairs than others less instructed ;
and the breadth of cultivation, and general manufacturing and
commercial industry of the people, would seem to justify the
inference.

Irrigation.

Preliminary to speaking of agriculture, it is necessary to
state that lands are watered artificially in two ways. First, by
conducting streamlets from running rivers or brooks. Lands
so watered are called Paatsthul, from Paat, a channel, and
Sthul, a field. f These streamlets do not always last through
the hot season ; and though this species of irrigation, while
available, is infinitely less onerous and less expensive to the
cultivator, affording also a more plentiful supply of water than
the well watering and great returns; yet it is not so certain, and,
on the whole, is less permanently efficient than well watering.
The second method is by well watering. Lands so watered are
called Moht Sthul, from Moht, the water-bucket, and Sthul, a
field. There is a good deal of trouble attending this method,
and it requires the continual expense of the support of two or
four bullocks, the wear and tear of materials, and the keep of
one man, who, however, can readily manage two buckets, and
two pairs of bullocks : at the same time it requires also a boy
in the garden or field to open and shut the different channels.

* Village clerks and accountants,
t Literally " firm land."

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 2/3

This is the most common method of irrigation in the districts
reported on. Usually only two bullocks are attached to each
bucket ; in some instances, however, where the wells are deep,
four bullocks are attached to each bucket. The cattle pull
down an inclined plane and discharge the water, and readily
walk backwards up the plane to the highest part of it; on the
bucket being refilled, they go down the plane again ; the
driver sings to them and rides down on the rope. The pro-
cess is suspended for an hour or two during the middle of the
day. The accompanying drawing illustrates this process, and
does not require any explanation. A very considerable quan-
tity of water is brought up by this method. The buckets in
use vary little in size, and the wells, probably, range from 25
to 45 feet deep ; some experiments of mine, therefore, to
ascertain the quantity of water brought up from a well 35 feet
deep in a certain time, may be considered as an average of the
efficiency of this method of irrigation. I found a moht (of six
paahls) average a delivery of 198 wine bottles of water each
time. The bottle contained 28 ounces of water, apothecaries'
measure, consequently the bucket contained 5544 ounces wine
measure, 231 quarts, or 57 gallons 3 quarts. There is a
singular uniformity of time between the delivery of two
buckets, seldom exceeding seventy seconds ; a man and a
pair of bullocks, therefore, in an hour deliver 2931 gallons of
water; and, labouring seven hours a day, give 20,517 gallons
wine measure ; and the same man with two pairs of bullocks
delivers 41,034 gallons of water ; a quantity infinitely exceeding
what Europeans usually believe to be drawn up by the simple
means employed. At eight pounds troy to the gallon, the
weight of water drawn up by one pair of bullocks in one day
will bel64,1361bs. troy; and bytwo pairs of bullocks, 328,2721bs.
troy. This account appears very considerable, but my ex-
periments have been repeated with care ; and, on the whole,
the delivery of water may be rather underrated than over-
rated.

Near the village of Piroorgoot, 1 observed a simple method
of watering a field. The bed of a nullah, or rivulet, with very
low banks, had been dammed up; three pieces of wood, like
a gin, were put over the water ; a scoop was suspended by a
rope to the apex of the gin, and a man scooped out the water
into his field. The labour was great, and the supply of water
small. This apparatus is called Dohl.

It would appear to be of considerable importance to encou-
rage the making of wells, as the only means of increasing the
very limited exports of the Dukhun.

vol. vi. 1837. t

274 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Agriculture.

Some general observations will be necessary, as the crops
and agricultural process in the Mawuls * differ materially from
the crops and agricultural process in the Desh.f The princi-
pal crop of the Mawuls is that of the rains, and the most
valuable of its produce is rice %. The severe labour attend-
ing the preparation of the rice ground in the hot weather
is great, and in the rains the cultivator has to trample up to
his knees in water and mud ploughing the rice field, pro-
bably in a deluge of rain, but with his head and back most se-
curely protected by the Eerluh \, however much exposed the
rest of his body may be. The transplantation is performed
under similar exposure. The other monsoon grains of the
Mawuls are the Sawa, Wuree, and Natchnee, and Karlee,
or KaleeTeel|| which is an oil plant of the only other monsoon
product.

The labour attending the cultivation of these grains, in a
very unfavourable climate, at the time they are grown, falls
very severely on the people, but they are compensated for
their labour and suffering by good returns of that valuable
produce rice ; and the returns of the other grains are great,
and the crops seldom fail.

The Koonbees, or farmers of the Mawuls, also have an
advantage which those of the Desh are not always assured of,
i. e. the certainty of finding a market for one of their products,
rice.

Dry Season Crop {Mawuls.) — The dry crop of the Mawuls
does not call for any mention in this place.

Dry Season Crop (Desh.) — With respect to the Desh, the
most valuable is the Rubbee, or Spring crop^[. The agricul-
tural processes in both crops is certainly defective, less owing to
the ignorance of the cultivators, who are well aware of the
advantage of a ploughing adapted to the character of the soil,
of good manuring, complete weeding, rotations of crops and fal-
lows ; than to their necessities, which compel them to rack their
land ; they cannot generally afford to purchase a sufficiency of

* Hilly districts along the crest of the Ghats.

■f- Flat country, eastward of the Mawuls.

I Vide No. 118, wet crop, Mawuls.

§ Eerluh, or basket-work hood, covered with leaves and quite impervious to
rain.

|| Wet season crop (Mawuls.)

•[f Consisting of wheats, gram, barley ; Shaloo, (Andropogon Succharaittm) ;
Dhal, (Cytisus cajan), oil-plants, &c.

ON THJ5 STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 275

manure, they have not any stable-yards, and the dearth of
fuel compels them to burn much of their cow-dung ; and, with
a singular fatuity and injurious caution, they sow half a dozen
grains and pulses together in the same field, which necessarily
impede the growth of each other, exhaust the soil, and give
limited returns. The professed object is to assure, in the oc-
casional uncertainty of the monsoons, some kind of return at
least for their labours, which might have been wholly unpro-
ductive had one grain only been sown. In short they want to
have half a dozen strings to their bow instead of one.

Wet Crop (Desk.) — The grains so sown ripen in succes-
sion, and two of them remain on the ground between nine and
ten months ; that is to say, from the beginning of June to the
end of February. In their management of the plough, the
Koonbees do not want dexterity. Their cattle have all
names, know their names, and are obedient to them ; with
four bullocks to a plough, the leaders are guided entirely by
the voice, and I have frequently seen quite a youth managing
alone very cleverly his plough and four bullocks.

In the Desh, in manuring land, the cart called Jang or
Janjeea, is used ; it consists simply of the common cart with a
quite flat basket tied on the top of it, made by the Koonbees
from the twigs of the Neergoondee, ( Vitex trifolia,) or of the
twigs of the Tooree, (Cytisus cajan.) The manure generally
consists of the sweepings of their houses, which, from being
usually cow-dunged every day and daily swept, are not trifling,
and from the ashes also from their hearths.

Crops are carted to the Kulle/i, or farm-yard, from the fields
by the Garra. This consists of an upper horizontal rude frame-
work supported on a thick axle-tree, and is removeable at
pleasure. The wheels are of solid wood, small, placed under
the frame-work, are not sufficiently far apart, and consequently
subject the cart to upset, which is but too frequent an occur-
rence. Wooden pegs and thongs keep the whole vehicle to-
gether, and there is no more iron about the cart than the tire
round the wheels and the hollow cylinders within the naves.
This vehicle, considering the circumstances of the Koonbees,
is expensive, costing from eighty to one hundred rupees,
and it is only the most substantial among them who have
carts. Having carted their grain, the Koonbees remove it to
the Kulleh, or farm-yard.

Farm-yard. — The grain is stacked round a spot in the open
air in a corner of one of their fields. This spot is circular, and
has been prepared by beating and cow-dunging ; a pole, called
Tewrah, is fixed in the centre of it. In the reedy grains the

276 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

heads are broken off by women, and strewed round the pole*
to the depth of 5 or 6 inches. In the ligneous pulses, the
extreme twigs, bearing the legumes, are broken off and
strewed round the pole ; and in the herbaceous leguminous
pulses and straw-culm grains, the whole plant is put on the
floor : six, or eight, or more bullocks (I saw sixteen atMunchur)
are tied side by side, half on one side of the pole and half on
the other ; they are muzzled and driven round the pole, tread-
ing out the grain. This process usually occupies two men,
and it is called the Mullnee. It is neither inefficient, nor
dilatory. It would appear to be of great antiquity, and
widely practised; in Deuteronomy, xxv. 4. we read, " Thou
shalt not muzzle the ox when he treadeth out the corn."

Winnowing.?— We are now brought to the winnowing the
grain. This is dor.e in the Kulleh; and when there are suffi-
cient members in the family of the farmer after the first tread-
ing, the process is carried on simultaneously with the
Mullnee. The process is very simple, but certainly not very
efficient, as it is dependent on the wind blowing. In case the
wind blows very hard, the grain is blown away ; and in case the
wind is not strong enough, the husks fall with the grain. A man
stands upon a tall three-legged form, called the Wawhree, and
pours the grain taken up from the treading ground, out of
the winnowing basket (popunwutee) . The full grain falls per-
pendicularly and is pretty free from husks, but the lighter
grain falls obliquely, and is partially mixed with the husks.
A man sits at the base of the stool or form with a broom
(aatuee) in his hand to assist in removing the chaff from the
edges of the mass of fallen grain. After all is done, however,
it is requisite to pass a good proportion of the grain through
the sieve, (Chalun). After the grain is winnowed it is carried
home and laid in store.

Preserving Grain. — There are various ways of preser-
ving the grain. Where the soil is sufficiently dry, cham-
bers are dug in the earth for it ; but the most usual plan in
the districts is to preserve it in large baskets, called Kuneeng,
made of twigs of the Neergoondee, ( Vitex trifolia,) or of those
of the Tooree, (Cytisus cajan). These baskets are plastered
with cow-dung inside and out, and are perfectly impervious to
rain or damp. Where the habitations are sufficiently large,
or the baskets few in number, they are lodged in the house,
but not unfrequently are placed outside of the house within
reach of any pilfering hand. A few stones are put under each

• Tewrah.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 277

basket ; the lid, in case it has a lid, is sealed down with cow-
dung, and in case it has not a lid, a plaster of cow-dung a
couple of inches thick is put over the grain ; a little cap, or
roof of grass, is put over the basket, and it is left exposed till
required, being deemed equally protected from the elements
and man. In the Mawuls, in the hot months, the whole of the
grain baskets of the village, full of grain, may be seen assembled
in front of the village temple, and left to the custody of the
village god. The roofs of all the houses are of grass in the
Mawuls, and the dread of fires (the people having no chimneys
to their houses) induces them to put their monsoon and winter
stores in a place of safety, the extreme dryness of the period
rendering accidents by fire frequent. It is not an unfrequent
practice with the Koonbees of the Mawuls to unroof their
houses for the months of April and May.

In addition to the baskets for the preservation of grain,
earthen jars, called Kothee, made by the people themselves,
are met with to hold grain, but they are not common.

Preparing Grain for Food. — The preparation of grain
for food is the last process. Husk grains, such as rice,
Wuree, (Panicum miliar e); and Sawa, {Panicum frumen-
taceum) ; and the Johr, or husked wheat, require to be
pounded to remove the husks. This process is entirely
within the province of the women : the implements used may
be called the pestle and mortar ; the mortar is called the
ookul, and the pestle, moosul. The mortar in the Mawuls is
frequently very rude in form, being a rough stone with a hole
scooped in the middle of it to receive the grain. In the Desh,
however, the mortar is of wood, of a good form, and some-
times carved. The moosul, or pestle, is always of wood, four
or five feet long, tipped with iron, and in thickness and weight
suitable to the strength of the person to use it. The final
process is the grinding the corn; this also is the duty of the
women, and two of them are usually employed at the mill.
Christ says, " There shall be two women grinding at the mill ;*
one shall be taken and the other left."

Hand Mill. — The mill is portable, and is called Jatuh : it
consists of two flat circular stones, fourteen or eighteen inches in
diameter, placed one on the other; the lower one has an upright
peg in it, the upper one has a hole in the centre through which
the peg of the lower stone passes, and the upper stone is made
to perform an horizontal rotatory motion round the peg by
means of another upright peg near its margin. The grain is
put in at the hole in the centre. This form of mill must be

* Matth. xxiv. 41.

278 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

very ancient, for I saw remains of such mills in the ruins
of Pompeii, and one nearly perfect in the ruins of the Roman
villa of Sir William Hickes's estate near Cheltenham, Glouces-
tershire.

Raw Sugar Mill. — Under the head of agriculture it will be
necessary to speak of the Gool, or raw sugar-mill. Sugar
cane is not so much cultivated as it might be, and it is seldom
found but at populous villages. I have seldom seen more
than two mills at a village ; and as the screws and accom-
paniments are somewhat expensive for the circumstances of a
cultivator, the mills are seldom found belonging to him, but
he is a renter of them for the term requisite. The mills are
in the open air, and consist of two vertical screws which are
sunk in a square chamber excavated in the earth ; one of them
is moved by a double lever so much elevated above the level
of the field as to admit of bullocks being attached to the ends
of the lever. The cattle go round incessantly in a circle and
work the mill. The bits of sugar cane are passed twice be-
tween the screws, and the juice runs out into a wooden or
copper vessel placed to receive it. The fire-place (Choo-
langun) and great iron pan (Kurhuee), to boil the juice in, are
close at hand ; a ladle to stir and skim the juice as it boils,
and some circular holes in the ground to receive the juice
when sufficiently thick, complete the material and close the
process. The work is continued night and day till the cane-
field is exhausted. Sugar is not refined in the Dukhun.

Oil Mills. — Although the oil mills belong to a class of per-
sons who are not agriculturists, the Koonbee is quite depend-
ent on them to turn his numerous oil seeds to account ; some
mention therefore of them is necessary under " agriculture."
The body of the mill is generally of stone, and the machinery,
even when of the rudest construction, shows a good deal of
ingenuity and an acquaintance with some of the mechanic
powers. It is entirely the work of the village carpenter.

At Neelsee, a Kohlee village in the wilds on the brink of
the Ghats, the body of the mill is of wood, the lever works in
the hollow of an upright cylinder, and by the great weight at-
tached to its upper end constantly presses against the sides of
the hollow and forces the oil from the seed which is put into
the mill. The whole expense of the machinery of this particular
mill was only five rupees *. In the Desh the body of the mill
is of stone, the machinery is the same as in this mill. It is
worked by a bullock.

Average She of Farms. — There are not any farms of large

* About ten shillings.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 279

size under the management of a single farmer ; the largest
I recollect meeting with was about 200 acres, but in ge-
neral they average very considerably less in size. In the
Poona Collectorate the average size was 29 beegahs *, in
Ahmednuggur 35 beegahs, in Dharwar 43 T § n beegahs, and
in Khundesh 23 T %% beegahs. The average rent of a farm
in Poona was less than 48 shillings per annum ; in Ahmed-
nuggur about 86 shillings ; in Dharwar 64 shillings ; and in
Khandesh, where a good deal of the land cultivated is garden
land, 74 shillings per annum. In Poona the average rent per
beegah is within a fraction of two shillings ; in Ahmednuggur
about two shillings and six pence per beegah ; in Dharwar
not quite eighteen pence ; and in Khandesh, where there is
proportionably a good deal of garden land, it is somewhat
more than three shillings a beegah. The average for the
whole of the lands of Dukhun is two shillings and ninepence,
one-eighth per English acre, or one rupee and fourteen reas
per Dukhun beegah.

Proportion of Yoke Cattle to each Farmer. — Generally in
the population returns there were great omissions of the draft
or yoke cattle of the cultivators ; no very satisfactory state-
ment can therefore be given of their agricultural means in
this kind of stock. In one Talook, or county, of the Dharwar
Collectorate, the yoke cattle were filled in, with the exception
of two or three village returns, and the proportion is only
1*38 bullocks to each cultivator ; but as the ploughs are 3733
in number in the Talook, at two bullocks to a plough, the pro-
portion should be 2*89 bullocks (nearly 3) to a cultivator: the
returns must be defective, for I am satisfied, although a farmer
may not have two bullocks to each of his ploughs, and he has
generally a heavy plough and a light one, yet he has always
two bullocks at least for one of his ploughs.

In the Ahmednuggur Collectorate the yoke cattle are not
distinguished from the pack or carriage cattle, but the whole
amount is very considerable, being 212,008. In the Poona
Collectorate the returns give 2j yoke bullocks to each farmer,
but the farmers near to the city of Poona are much better off,
averaging 3| bullocks each. Only a portion of the returns
from Khandesh had the column of draft or yoke cattle filled
up ; it is impossible, therefore, to give the proportion to each
farmer for the whole collectorate ; but as far as the returns
went, it appeared that each farmer averaged only l - 62 bul-
locks, not quite If.

* The Dukhun beegah is three-fourths of an English acre. The rupee is
valued at two shillings.

280 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837»

Milch cattle. — The proportion of milch cattle, on which so
much of the comfort of the people depends, whether rural or
urban, in the Dharwar Collectorate, is greater than in the
other collectorates, being one cow or milch buffalo to 2*45 souls.
In Poona it is 1 to 5*24 persons ; in Ahmednuggur 1 to 3"04
persons ; and in Khandesh 1 cow or buffalo to 2'26 souls.

Ploughs, — As 1 have before stated, ploughs are of two
kinds, the Nangur or heavy plough, and the Hulka Nangur or
light plough ; the same obtains with respect to drill ploughs, no
grain being sown broadcast, the heavy drill plough being called
Mogurh, and the light Pabhar. The proportion of ploughs
in the Dharwar Collectorate is 1*41 to each cultivator, or
nearly three ploughs to two farmers; the number of ploughs in
the returns being 99,883, and the number of cultivators 70,488.

Carts. — Were a judgement to be formed of the state of the
roads, and of the facility of communication and transit by
wheel carriages, from the proportion of carts to the farmers,
the estimate would be low indeed.* In the Dharwar Collect-
orate there is only one cart to thirteen farmers. The carts
are universally of two wheels.

Pack cattle. — The unusual number of pack bullocks, which
carry loads on their backs, in the Dharwar Collectorate, would
seem to indicate that they are the chief means by which agri-
cultural and other produce is transported from place to place.
In Khandesh there is the least number of pack cattle, and the
greatest proportional number of carts. In Poona a great
number of pack cattle, and only one cart to eleven farmers.
The proportion in Ahmednuggur I do not know.

Land and other Tenures.

Lands are held under a great variety of tenures in Dukhun,
some by virtue of offices which are hereditary, some as here-
ditary freehold property, some in free gift from the state,
some in Jagheer or military or feudal tenure, some on a quit
rent, and in many other ways ; but a rapid notice of the dif-
ferent tenures, and of the office-bearers holding lands, will
best assist to give a clear idea of their quality and number.

In the first place, the proprietary right of the soil was
(and is) in the people, and not in the sovereign. The sove-
reign could assess the land as he pleased, and assign away a
part or the whole of the revenue arising from the land-tax
or assessment, either in free gift (Eenam), military tenure
(Jagheer), or quit rent, or in any other way ; but he could not

* It is nevertheless true, that had the farmers carts, they could rarely use
them from the want of roads, unless in the dry season.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 281

justly take away a man's land either for his own purposes or
to give it to others; although, as a despotic prince, like all
other princes of India, he had the undoubted ability to do so
at his pleasure : yet few instances are known of this oppressive
exercise of their power, and there are many instances on
record of their purchasing land from their subjects. I have
laid before the public translations of official documents, in
which the sovereigns have been parties, containing the most
irresistible proofs of the people having the uncontrolled right
to dispose of their lands as they pleased, by gift, or sale, or
devise, or in other ways. These translations are too lengthened
to be introduced in this report, but they will be met with in
the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and
Ireland.

All lands in Dukhun were classed within some village
boundary or other ; and to this day these boundaries are
guarded with such jealousy by the inhabitants as to be pro-
ductive of broils and bloodshed on their slightest invasion.
The village lands were divided into family estates, called
Thuls, which bore the name of the family, and the estates
bear the name to this day, although the family be extinct or
Gutkool, as it is called ; and half the estates in Dukhun are
now Gutkool, but preserve their family names. These estates
were hereditary and freehold, burthened only with the sove-
reign's land-tax, and assessments for village expenses, as a
gentleman's estate in England is burthened with land-tax and
assessments for highway and poor-rates, &c. ; there were not
any tithes, but in each village there were lands assigned for
religious objects, either to temples or to sacerdotal persons.
Every village had a constitution for its internal government ;
it consisted of the Pateel or chief, assisted by a Chowgulla ;
the Koolkurnee, or village accountant, kept the village records
and details of assessment and revenue ; and there were twelve
hereditary village officers, the well-known Bara Bullooteh,
whose numbers were complete or otherwise as the population
of the villages was capable of supporting them. All these
officers and the chief land-owners formed a village council,
called Pandreh, which managed the external and internal re-
lations of the village, whether with respect to raising the
government assessments, managing its police, or in settling
civil disputes, excepting in cases where Panchaeits or juries
of five persons were specifically appointed to arbitrate by
mutual consent of the litigating parties. And it is somewhat
remarkable that this isolated and internal government has
withstood the shocks of all the changes of dynasties, invasions,

282 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

rebellions, and the destructive anarchy which have so fre-
quently disgraced the annals of India.

A certain number of villages constituted a Naikwuree, over
which was an officer with the denomination of Naik. Eighty-
four villages constituted a Deshmookee, over which was an
officer called a Deshmook, or governor,* possibly equivalent
to our lord-lieutenant of counties ; this officer was assisted by
a Desh Chowgulla ; and for the branch of accounts there was
a Deshpandeh or district accountant and register. The links
connecting the Deshmooks with the prince were Sur-Desh-
mooks, or heads of the Deshmooks ; they were few in number.
It is said there were also Sur-Deshpandehs. The Sur-Desh-
mooks, Deshmooks, and their assistants, Naiks, Pateels, and
Chowgullahs, indeed all persons in authority, were Mahrattas ;
the writers and accountants were mostly Brahmans. Such
was the state of things under the ancient Hindoo govern-
ments. The Moosulmans on their conquest, in the civil di-
visions of the country, introduced the terms of Soobeh (a
province), Pergunnah (county), Tallook (manor, lordship),
and Turruff (a division of a county). The Hindoo hereditary
officers were deprived of their authority, (excepting those in
the village constitution,) but, very liberally, they were not de-
prived of their tenures ; and their places were supplied by
Zemindars, f Maamlutdars, Sheristehdars, Havaildars, &c.

I have stated that the family estates were called Thuls,
from the Sanscrit Sthul, " firm land ; " and in case the family
became extinct or Gutkool, from the Sanscrit Gut, " gone,
passed away," and Kool, "a race or family," the property did
did not pass to the sovereign, but it was at the disposal of the
Pateel solely, or the village corporation conjointly, to do as
they pleased with it ; and I have multiplied proofs in my pos-
session of freeholds having been created in such estates of
extinct families, by letters of inheritance, called Meeras Putra,
which were granted by the Pateel or village authorities for a
sum of money ; and such letters became title-deeds, similar to
those of an estate in England. The law of succession by pri-
mogeniture not obtaining amongst the Hindoos, these estates

• Called also Desaee or Deshaee in some parts.

f Mistakes, very serious in their consequences, have been made with
respect to the supposed rights of Zemindars. They were introduced by the
Moosulmans, superseding the ancient Hindoo Deshmooks and Desaees, and
were government officers for the collection of the revenue, and for the civil
government of districts. In Bengal, the British considered them proprietors
of the soil, and constituted them as great freeholders ; sweeping away the vil-
lage freeholds.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 283

became necessarily much divided, and the individual holders
were called by the Hindoos Thulwaee or Thulkuree ; and the
light in which the Moosulmans looked upon such proprietors,
when they took possession of the country, is sufficiently mani-
fest by the term they applied to them, namely, Meerasdars, or
patrimony-holders, from the Arabic word Meeras, " patri-
mony," "heritage," and Dar, "a holder;" and this is the
term by which such proprietors are distinguished at the
present day. The Meerasdars were of two kinds ; the de-
scendants of the original proprietor, whose surnames and the
name of the estate or thul were identical, and those who had
obtained a share of the estate by purchase or otherwise, whose
surnames were not the same as that of the estate. In no in-
stance, that I am aware of, have the former class documentary
proofs of their right ; with the latter class documentary proofs
are not uncommon.

There is further proof of the Moosulmans having ac-
knowledged hereditary rights in the term they applied to the
Deshmooks, Desaees, Deshpandehs, and others, namely,
Hukdar. Huh, in Arabic, meaning " right," and Dar " a
holder;" these persons in virtue of their offices having lands
in tenure and fees in money and kind in the districts in which
these duties lay. The Meerasdars considered that they might
be temporarily dispossessed of their freeholds in case of non-
payment of the government assessments and dues, but they
claimed to resume them whenever they had liquidated their
debts ; and they did not consider the question of these freeholds
compromised by the government doing justice to itself, any more
than the existence of freehold property would be questioned
in England because the owner might be compelled to yield
up his property in payment of arrears of land-tax, poor-
rates, &c.

Meerasdars. — Meerasdars set a very high value upon their
lands, and they clung to them with that feeling of personal and
family pride which are characteristics of freeholders in Eu-
rope ; even under the most grinding oppressions of their own
government and its local officers, it was only when driven to
despair that they abandoned them. The Meerasdar had to
pay the government land-tax, all fees in kind to the district and
village officers in common with the tenant at will or leaseholder;
moreover, he had to pay a tax applicable to himself only, called
Meerasputtee, a kind of smart-money for the distinction his
freehold gave him ; this was levied every third year. Such was
the Meeras tenure of land. His advantages were, first, the di-
stinction; next, his being a constituent of the Pandreh, or village

284 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

corporation, which the mere renter was not ; and thirdly, in
some parts of the country where such taxation existed, he
was exempt from marriage fees, widows' marriage fees, buffalo
tax, hearth tax, and he may have paid a diminished per
centage, in the rights of district officers levied in kind. Of late
years, from the low prices of agricultural produce and the
comparatively heavy money assessments, Meeras-land has
scarcely had a saleable value. The terms Meerasdar and
"Wuttundar have usually been considered identical, but in
some village papers I observed them classed separately ; and,
on asking for an explanation, was told that the Wuttundars
were hereditary office-bearers, or the relations of hereditary
office-bearers with the possible right of succession, whilst the
Meerasdars were merely hereditary landholders ; a Wuttundar
would necessarily be a Meerasdar, but a Meerasdar was not
necessarily a Wuttundar.

Oopuree. — From the extinction of numerous Mahratta fa-
milies who were in possession of estates, a considerable por-
tion of the land in Dukhun is without proprietors, and much
of it is rented to Oopurees or annual tenants by the Pateel or
village corporation, under native governments ; but, under the
British government, by the collector or his officers. The
term Oopuree means " a stranger," or a renter of land in a
village in which he has not corporate rights : of course, Mee-
rasdars can let their lands to each other, but they do not become
Oopurees. The Oopuree holds his lands on the Ooktee, or
word-of-mouth tenure, which is a verbal agreement for one
year.

Kowl Istaiva. — The third tenure is that of Kowl Istawa ;
Koirl means a contract, and Istaiva is applied to lands let
under their value. In practice, to induce cultivators to break
up land that has long lain waste, a lease is given of three, five,
seven, or nine years; the first year a trifling rent is fixed, and
it is annually increased, until in the last year of the lease the
full rent is paid; this tenure is highly desired, and great
abuses exist under it : the permanently assessed cultivator is
prompted to quit his village, and abandon even his hereditary
lands, and get Kowl Istawa lands in another village ; and the
moment the favourable lease is up he changes his location,
and endeavours to obtain similar terms elsewhere : the prac-
tice, therefore, is detrimental to the permanent revenue, detri-
mental to the sound advancement of agriculture, and detrimental
to the cultivator himself in encouraging vagrant habits. The
local authorities also are found to be great occupiers of Kowl
Istawa lands.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 285

Owand tenure. — Any inhabitants of a village, cultivating
lands in a neighbouring village, but not residing in that vil-
lage, do so on the Owand tenure. The rate and terms are
the Ooktee, and with respect to the village such cultivator is,
in fact, an Oopuree, but his distinctive appellation is Owand-
Kuree.

The above are the tenures on which the government land
revenue is raised, which in the four collectorates of Dukhun
amounts to 82*372 per cent, of the whole revenue ; this per
centage, however, includes some trifling rents from government
lands, gardens, orchards, grass lands, and sheep grazing, quit
rents, fees, Hukdars, and extra cesses.

Tenures involving alienations of lands. — I have now to
speak of tenures which involve alienations of lands, from a
few beegahs in a village, to whole districts : these are Jagheer
and Eenam in Khandesh ; Surinjam, Eenam, and Doomalla
in the Ahmednugguv Collectorate ; Eenam, Surinjam, and
Eesaphut in Poona ; and in Dharwar, Jooree Eenam, Surwa
Eenam, and Jagheer : at least, such terms appeared in the
population returns sent to me, and in the public papers which •
I have.

Jagheer. — Jagheer, which is a Persian word in its origin, is
applied to lands given by government (or the government
share of the rents) for personal support, or as a fief for the
maintenance of troops for the service of the state : some ser-
vice is implied in the personal as well as in the military
Jagheer. In the Collectorates in Dukhun upwards of 400
populated villages appear to be alienated in Jagheer.

Eenam. — Eenam is a word of Arabic origin, meaning a
"'gift," "present;" and lands so held should be entirely free
from tax to government ; but a subsequent explanation of
various tenures will show that Eenam has a much wider sig-
nification than is generally supposed. This tenure is very
extensive in Dukhun ; for independently of the grants of whole
towns and villages to individuals, of which there are 231
alienated in the Poona Collectorate alone, and the other Col-
lectorates have a proportional share ; independently also of
grants for temples and religious institutions, almost every
village has Eenam land held by the Pateel, Koolkurnee, and
Mahrs, and very commonly the Deshmooks and Deshpandehs
have also land rent free appertaining to their offices in the vil-
lages of their districts. The Bara Bullooteh, or twelve village
artizans and officers, have often Eenam lands, but their Eenam
is qualified by the imposition of some professional service, and
it pays also a quit rent. Many of the Eenams are very
curious in their objects; for instance, at th village of Wan-

286 SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

gee, Pergunnah Wangee, Poona Collectorate, 15 beegahs of
land to a mendicant for reading stories before tbe goddess
Dawai at ber festival; 15 beegahs to the tabor players at the
temple ; 30 beegahs to the tumbling and dancing women at
the temple ; the clarinet and double-drum players had respect-
ively similar Eenams ; the gardener, for the supply of flowers,
had 30 beegahs or 2%l acres. These Eenams existed un-
touched under the bigoted Moosulman government, and still
remain.

Surinjam. — Lands held in Surinjam involve the condition
of military service : the term is of Persian origin, meaning
" furniture," "apparatus," implying that the lands are to defray
the expense of equipment : in fact, Surinjam is synonymous
with military Jagheer. In the Poona Collectorate 181 vil-
lages appear to be alienated in Surinjam.

Doomalla. — Doomalla, in the etymology of the word, means
" two rights" or " properties," from Do two, and Maal pro-
perty : the term is only found in the list of villages of the
Ahmednuggur Collectorate, applied to villages and lands
granted to individuals, on which government has a reserved
right. In this sense the tenure appears to be that of quit
rent, and the term is synonymous with the Jooree Eenam of
the Dharwar Collectorate. In the Ahmednuggur Collectorate
581^ villages appear as Doomalla, but this, no doubt, includes
Jagheer and Eenam villages.

Eesaplmt. — In the Poona Collectorate the term Eesaphut
is applied to 37| villages : it is probably a corruption from the
Arabic Zeaphut, meaning " feast," " entertainment." Lands
so held are rent free, and may have been given to assist in
celebrating festivals.

In the Dharwar Collectorate the terms Jooree Eenam,
Surwa Eenam, and Jagheer occur : the first corresponds to
the Doomalla of Ahmednuggur, and is, in fact, a quit rent
tenure; the second means " all gift," from Surwa "all," and
Eenam "gift," there not being any tax or fee upon these
lands : Jagheer has been explained before.

Tenure of Deshmoolc and Desaee. — It is a general belief that
these officers were coeval with the establishment of the land
institutions of the Mahratta people.* Deshmooks were the
civil governors of districts, collectors of the revenue, and
executive officers of the government. The name is probably
a corruption of the Sanscrit Deshuk, a governor or ruler. In
early times they were exclusively Mahrattas, and not Brah-
mans or Moosulmans. The importance of the office is at-

* I mean, of couree, long antecedent to the Moosulman invasion.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 287

tested by the fact that, in the earliest mention of the chiefs of
the present great Mahratta families, they are styled Desh-
mooks of such and such districts. Their rights were here-
ditary, and saleable, wholly or in part, like those of every
other hereditary office or right : the right of alienation is
proved by different casts being now associated in the office.
At Ahmednuggur a third of the Deshmookee belongs to a
Brahman, and hvo-thirds to the ruling Mahratta family at
Nagpoor. Similar instances are very numerous. In some
cases a Deshmook is also Pateel of one of the villages in his
district. The rights and emoluments of the Deshmook are
very extensive, but not uniform throughout the country ; they
had a per centage on the revenue varying from one to five
per cent. In the Poona Collectorate the mean charge for
Deshmooks and Deshpandehs amounted to 3 06 per cent, of
the gross revenue, but on the nett revenue it amounted as
nearly as possible to six per cent ; although these persons are
now non-efficient, their authority being superseded. As a
single illustrative instance, it may be as well to state, that at the
village of Ankoolsur, Talook Ahmednuggur, out of a village
revenue of 4533 rupees, the Deshmook received 265 rupees,
and the Deshpandeh 150 rupees ; the former sharing 5*84 per
cent., and the latter 3*31 per cent. Their next advantage
is in some of them enjoying villages in free gift ; the third,
in possessing Eenam land in most of the villages in their dis-
tricts, sometimes to a large amount. At Mohol Talook
Mohol, the two sharers in the office of Deshmook have each
450 acres of free (or Eenam) land. The fourth right of the
Deshmook is a portion of grain from each village, called
Googree, from all the land under cultivation. In addition to
the above, from some villages they were entitled to a sheep
and some butter annually ; from some villages a dress, from
others a turband, and where sugar-cane was cultivated, they
had a portion of the raw sugar. They possessed the above
advantages on the tenure of executing the duties previously
stated. They were to a district what a Pateel is to a vil-
lage.

Deshpandehs. — The Deshpandehs are contemporary in their
institution with the Deshmooks ; they were the writers, ac-
countants, and registers of districts ; they were always
Brahmans. The terms appear to be derived from the Sanscrit
Desh, country, and Punnah, to do business. They were to
districts what Koolkurnees were to a village : they had, and
have nearly the same rights and emoluments as the Desh-
mooks, but in a diminished ratio of from 25 to 50 per cent.

288 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837»

The offices of Deshpandeh and Koolkurnee ai'e sometimes
found united. Their duties are in abeyance, but, like the
Deshmooks, they enjoy their rights.

Pateel. — The next and the most important tenure of all is
that of Pateel or headman of towns and villages. Pateel is a
Mahratta term, and may be derived from the Sanscrit Pattruh,
"deed," "lease," the Pateel anciently having had the disposal
of all vacant lands in his village by deed or lease. Originally
the Pateels were Mahrattas, but sale, gift, or other causes
have now associated in the office various casts, and there are
sometimes six or seven or more sharers in the office, — Brah-
mans, Mahrattas, Moosulmans, Shepherds, Lingaeets, &c,
and these not holding in equal proportions. I have elsewhere*
given a translation of a very remarkable and curious Mahratta
document, proving in the most distinct manner the right of
the Pateel, not only to sell his family or hereditary property,
and the lands he held in virtue of his office, but also the
lands of extinct families, and his other emoluments and ad-
vantages ; but, in doing so, he also alienated part of his dig-
nity, rights, and authority as Pateel : the honours went with
the lands. The rights and emoluments of the Pateel are very
numerous ; free land, fees of grain on the cultivation, called
googree, presents on investitures, on granting letters of in-
heritance, on marriages ; annual presents from the shoemaker
of shoes, from the potmaker of pots, from the shopkeepers of
cocoa-nuts, &c, market fees, all the sheeps-heads offered in
the temple of Dawai ! daily service, and supply of wood and
water by the Mahr and the potmaker ; precedence in all re-
ligious or other festivals, in communicating with government,
and with others. The details of the translation before noticed
show with what jealousy the Pateel maintained all the minutest
rights and dignities. Of such importance and so profitable
was the office, or in such estimation was the dignity of Pateel
anciently, that princes of the Mahratta empire established
themselves wholly or in part in the office in various towns and
villages ; Holknr, for instance, at Munchur ; Seendeh (Sin-
diah) f at Jamgaon ; the Nagpoor Bhosleh at Ahmed-
nuggur, and Powar of Dhar at Multun and Kuweeteh. There
are traditional accounts of a share of the Pateel's office
having been sold for 7000 rupees.

The right of the Pateel to dispose of the village lands not
occupied by hereditary proprietors, together with his respon-

* Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.

f This prince lias six out of seven shares in the office; nevertheless the
poor Mahratta who has the seventh share has precedence of the prince.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 289

sibility for the government revenue, involves the proof that
the government assessment was anciently Mozehwar, or by
the whole village, and not by direct agreement between the
government agents and individual farmers. The village, in
fact, was assessed at a certain fixed sum, which was called the
Tunkha, which means an assignment ; and this Tunkha appears
in village accounts to this day, although no longer a standard
of assessment, as the British government settles directly with
the farmer, and has also abrogated the right of the Pateel and
the village corporation to dispose of waste lands ; in alienated
villages, however, these rights remain. Although the trans-
lation before noticed gives a minute detail of the rights and
emoluments of the Pateels of Kuweeteh, it is to be under-
stood they are not uniform either in number or value through-
out the country. An idea of the value of the Googree, or
right to a share in the grain-produce of cultivated lands, may
be formed from the fact, that at Kurjut, Ahmednuggur col-
lectorate, in 1827, there were 8491 beegahs of land under
cultivation, and the Pateel was entitled to 128 seers for every
120 beegahs ; he received therefore, 9057 seers of grain, a
sufficiency for the annual support of 25 persons.

The duties of the Pateel were, to be responsible for the
revenue of the village, to superintend its police, and regulate
its internal economy. He had power to seize, imprison, and
fine offenders.

With regard to joint proprietary in the office, independently
of shares being held by different casts and families, the Hin-
doo law of inheritance, which gives equal shares of all property
to all children, necessarily made many joint owners in a family;
but as the executive duties are only performed by the head
of the family, this person is called Mokuddum, "chief" or
" leader ; " and the term of course is applicable to the head of
each proprietary family, who is designated in the village papers
as half Mokuddum, quarter Mokuddum, or seventh Mokuddum,
according to the share of the Pateelship held by the family.

Koolkurnee. — The next village tenure is that of Koolkurnee,
from the Sanscrit Kool "to count," and Kroot "to do," "make;"
literally an accountant. The office is of very great import-
ance, for the Koolkurnee is not only the accountant of the go-
vernment revenue, but he keeps the private accounts for each
individual in the village, and is the general amanuensis ; few
of the cultivators, the Pateels frequently inclusive, being able
to write or cypher for themselves. In no instance have I
found the office held by any other cast than the Brahmanical.
The office is sometimes united with that of Deshpandeh, and

vol. vi. 1837. v

290 SKVKNTH REPORT — 1837-

not unfrequcntly to that of Johesee or village astrologer. The
Koolkurnec, like the Pateel, has Eenamland, sometimes salary,
fees of grain, and miscellaneous rights of butter, raw sugar,
&c, rarely having equal rights, either in number or value,
with the Pateel, but commonly averaging from !25 to 75 per
cent, below. Where the villages are very small, there is only
one Koolkurnee for several villages, as in the case of. Turruff
Muhr Khor, Poona collectorate, where the duties of this in-
dividual extend to one small town and eleven villages. He is
here paid by a money rate for every 30 beegahs of land under
cultivation ; it varies from 1 rupee the 30 beegahs to 3 rupees.

Unlike the Deshmooks and Pateels, no instance came to my
knowledge of shares of the office being alienated from the
family ; the numerous sharers being all connected by ties of
blood, who each in turn take their annual duties ; and these
sharers are sometimes so numerous, that at one town the exe-
cution of the duties only came to the same individual after a
lapse of 20 years. The executive duties should be confined
to the same person.

Mahrs Tenure. — A very important tenure in villages is that
of the low-cast people, called Mahr by the Mahrattas, and
Dher by the Moosulmans. They have Eenam lands in all vil-
lages, divided into Hurkee and Arowlah ; the former is rent
free, and generally bears a small proportion to the latter,
which pays a low quit rent. The Mahrs conceive that they
have the right to mortgage or otherwise dispose of lands held
for the performance of specific duties to the village and the
government, and numerous instances of mortgage came to my
knowledge ; but whether they can wholly alienate their lands
or not, they cannot absolve themselves and their descendants
from their duties : these are to cut wood and grass for go-
vernment officers and travellers, to act as guides, as porters to
carry baggage from village to village, and to go as messengers ;
they have to attend strangers and see to their wants being
supplied, and if the strangers be of consequence, they or the
Ramooses have to look to the safety of their baggage at night.
They are the guardians of all village land-marks ; they are the
Pateel's messengers, (something like parish beadles,) and it is
their duty to carry the collections to the treasurer of the dis-
trict ; they have to pass on all news or information received,
whether written or verbal, whether by sign or by token, to all
the surrounding villages, and it is perfectly astonishing the
rapidity with which intelligence is diffused by their means.
It is no uncommon thing for a distant public event to be whis-
pered about in towns before any account of it has been received

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 291

by the government post. Occasionally the answer to my in-
quiries respecting the duties of the Mahrs was, that they were .
to do every thing they were ordered, whether by the Pateel,
the village corporation, or by the government. There are
many families of them in every village : in some villages they
have to pay a tax to government called Rabta Mahr, and this
is in lieu of personal service in cutting wood and grass for the
officers of government, but it does not absolve them from their
other duties. So strictly is it their province to cut wood and
grass, that their signature to all village or public documents is
a sickle or hatchet to cut grass and wood, and a rope to tie
them up. In addition to their Eenam lands, the Mahrs, in virtue
of their office as one of the Bara Bullooteh or twelve village
officers, craftsmen, and professions, receive fees in kind from
all the cultivators ; the fee in kind is a per centage upon the
produce, but it is not uniform in amount throughout the Duk-
hun. These twelve village officers are divided into three
classes, according to the supposed importance of their services
to the village ; the first class in some villages received 50, the
second 20, and the third 10 or 15 bundles or sheaves of Joaree,
(Andropogon sorghum,) stalk and grain included upon every
1000 cut down ; and the same proportion of other grains.
Many farmers in various parts of the country assured me that
they put by 25 per cent, of their produce for the village crafts-
men and professions ; and as the Mahrs from their usefulness
share in all those classes, their returns must be considerable ;
the individual benefit depending of course upon the magnitude
of the body constituting this class of persons in the village.
As low casts do not cultivate their Eenam lands, they derive
less advantage from them than other Eenamdars, but make
the best terms they can with the Koonbees to cultivate their
lands for them. The Mahr does not pay any tax to govern-
ment upon his Bullooteh. In the whole of the duties of the
Mahrs, whether for government, the village, or individuals,
they are not bound to go beyond the village next to their
own ; here they hand over their charge and return.*

Bara Bullooteh Tenure. — The twelve craftsmen or pro-
fessions which were originally in every village were, the Sootar
(Carpenter), Chambar (Shoemaker), Lohar (Ironsmith), and
Mahr ; these constituted the Torlee Khas or first class. In
the Mudlee Khas, or second class, were the Pureet (Washer-
man), Koombar (Pot-maker), Nahwee (Barber), and Maang

* In speaking of the duties of the Mahrs I ought to have used the past
tense instead of the present in some cases, government having partly absolved
them from duties, the performance of which is their tenure for holding their
lands and fees.

292 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

(Skinner and Rope-maker). And in the third or Dhaktee
Khas, the Kohlee (Waterman), Johesee (Astrologer), Goormo
(cleaner of, and attendant at the temple), and the Sonar
(Silversmith) ; and, since the Moosulman rule, the Moolana or
Moosulman priest and schoolmaster has heen added. These
persons, in their several lines, and according to their several
abilities, were to do for the cultivators individually and the
village collectively whatever might be required from them ;
and they were paid by an annual per-centage in kind upon the
produce of the farmer ; and this was called their Bullooteh,
whence the term Bara Bullooteh : the fee being called Bul-
looteh, and the receiver of it Bullootehdar. Very rarely could
I get either farmer or Bullootehdar to state specifically what
the one gave, and the other was entitled to receive ; it de-
pended very much upon the crops, and also upon the extent
of services performed for each individual cultivator. These
craftsmen have frequently small portions of Eenam lands, and
part of their Bullooteh goes to government as a tax.

Shet Sundee Tenure. — Lands were given to a kind of militia
in the districts in place of pay, for the performance of certain
duties, principally in the protection of their villages : this te-
nure is called Shet Sundee from Shet " a field," and Sunnud
"a grant;" constituting the holders, in fact, a landed militia.
Although this tenure may have been general at one period,
I only observed lands set apart as Shet Sundee in five Per-
gunnahs of the Poona collectorate, and I remarked it also at
Kurmulla, Ahmednuggur collectorate.

Tenure of Chow gullet. — There are several other tenures, of
which a brief notice only may be given. The Chowgulla is
the Pateel's assistant; he is found in most villages ; sometimes
he has a trifling grant of land, but most commonly gi'ain-fees
from the landholders. This personage is called Buglah where
the Kanree language is spoken.

In some Turruffs a Havildar is met with ; the term is of
Arabic origin, from Hawala " charge," " custody," and Dar
" agent," "holder." This officer was introduced by the Moosul-
mans as a supervisor in the collection of the revenue of a cer-
tain number of villages. He replaced the Hindoo Naik, who
is still met with in some of the hill districts. The Havildar
was paid by half a seer of grain from each beegah under culti-
vation ; and for the Hindoo officer the same is levied, under the
name of Naikwaree. At Kanoor, Ahmednuggur collectorate,
the Naikwaree is 12 seers of grain on every 30 beegahs under
cultivation.

Tulwar. — In the southern villages bordering on the Kanree
tracts, I met with the village or TurrufF officer called Tulwar ;

ON THE STATISTICS OF DTJKHUN. 293

but the term is unknown to the genuine Mahrattas. His du-
ties assimilate him to the Havildar and Naik of more northern
tracts.

Tenure of Ramooses. — Between the parallels of latitude 17°
and 19° north, and longitude 73° 40' and 75° E., there are few
villages in Dukhun without their Ramooses. These vagabonds
are thieves by birth and cast, which is abject ; most of the
villages have them in employ to guard the village from robbery.
In some villages they have Eenam lands, but they are generally
paid in fees of grain upon the cultivation. There is a perfect
community of interest amongst the fraternity, however di-
spersed ; and as they are dissipated, idle, and reckless, they not
unfrequently assemble in bands, take to the hills, and commit
depredations in the country, and it is necessary to chase them
back to their villages by means of the regular troops. They
are expert sportsmen and good shots.

Bheels. — Where the Ramooses are wanting, their places are
mostly supplied by the Bheels, or by the Kohlees ; the former
are low casts, the latter are Shoodrahs. Their duty is to
afford protection to the villages, and they have either Eenam
lands or fees in grain. In many parts of the country, parti-
cularly in Khandesh, the inhabitants of entire villages, and
even districts, are Bheels, or Kohlees (Coolies).

Sheteh. — Sheteh is the person by common consent admitted
to be the head and spokesman of the mercantile and trading
classes, in places in the districts where they are in sufficient
numbers to require one ; and as combination is universal, he
is of some importance in the districts as their organ in regu-
lating prices. The Sheteh is assisted by the MaJiajun, which
properly means a banker ; but, as the colleague of the Sheteh,
he is an inferior personage in the districts : both these people,
in some towns and villages, have trifling Eenam lands and
claims for money and grain ; but on what tenure of service to
the community is not very apparent.

Sur Pateel, and Sur Deshmook, and Sur Desaee. — I should
scarcely have introduced any mention of the Sur Pateel, and Sur
Deshmook, and Sur Desaee, as it has not come to my notice
that they hold lands in tenure, but their names frequently
occur in village accounts as Hukdars,* or entitled to certain
rights in money, grain-fees, &c. One of the Sur Pateelships
is vested in the great family of Eshwunt Rao Dabareh, of
Tullegaon ; and one of the Sur Desaeeships in the ancient fa-
mily called Chaskur. Captain Grant Duff, in his History of
the Mahrattas, makes mention of several Sur Deshmooks, and

* Huh " a right," and dar " a holder."

294 SEVENTH REPORT 1837*

says, that Arungzebe allowed the old Sur Deshmooks 2 per
cent, on the revenue. But the Sur Deshmookee of modern
times which appears in all village accounts, was 10 per cent,
of the Moghul revenue, exacted by Sewajee from the Moosul-
mans ; it was levied over and above the land tax. The suf-
ferers, therefore, by Mahratta violence were the Mahratta
cultivators ; and on the whole of the possessions of the Moo-
sulmans coming into the hands of a Mahratta government, the
Sur Deshmookee should have been abandoned, but it remains
to this day ; for instance, at Jehoor, near Ahmednuggur, the
Tunkha, or government revenue or assignment, from the town
was 10,817 rupees, 2 qr., 3 reas ; the Sur Deshmookee 1350 ru-
pees, 3 qr., 3 reas ; but the Kumal, or total sum raised from the
cultivators, including village expenses and Hukdars, was
19,363 rupees, 3 qr., 1 reas : so that the Moosulmans origin-
ally took little more than half of the revenue now raised from
the town, that is to say, the Moosulmans took 10,817 rupees ;
then came Sewajee, the Mahratta, and wrenched from
them 10 per cent, of their revenue, which should have been
1081 rupees. The Moosulmans, instead of paying it out of
10,817 rupees, clapped the demand of Sewajee upon the town
as an additional burthen ; and instead of honestly fixing it at
1081 rupees (10 per cent, of 10,817), they adroitly took oc-
casion to exact a little more from their Mahratta subjects.

Many individuals have shares in the village revenues under
the names of Mokassa, Sahotra, Babtee, and Nargowra. The
most intelligible way to describe these, is to say that persons
have money assignments, amounting to a definite per centage
on the revenue, under these names. In their origin, Mokassa
is 66 per cent., Sahotra 6 per cent., Babtee 25 per cent., and
Nargowra 3 per cent, of the Chont, or fourth of the whole Mo-
ghul revenue, which was extorted from the Moosulmans by
the Mahrattas. Sewajee and his chiefs shared it amongst
themselves ; the chiefs had the Mokassa for military services ;
the Sahotra was given to the Punt Suchew, one of Sewa-
jee's ministers ; the prince's own share was the Babtee ; and
the Nargowra, which is synonymous with Sur Pateel, or chief
of all the Pateels, was at the disposal of the prince. As these
grants were hereditary, the equal division of property and
rights amongst children has occasioned the reduction of some
of the shares to the most trifling amount where families have
multiplied.

Such are the tenures that came under my notice ; and it is
necessary to state that, with the single exception of Surwa
Eenam or " entire gift," there was an obligation of specific
service on the individual or parties enjoying advantages under

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN.

295

the several tenures ; the non-performance of these duties in-
volved the forfeiture of their rights ; but independently of such
forfeiture, all grants whatever (unless specified to the contrary)
were resurnable by the sovereign or other grantee. Grants
for religious purposes were rarely recalled j but for other ob-
jects they were frequently abrogated, particularly Jagheer,
Surinjam, and Hukdar grants. To such an extent did this
exist under the Peshwa's government, that the Hon. M. El-
phinstone, in his report as commissioner, enumerates as an
item of revenue, Wiittun Zubtee, or sequestered lands of Zu-
mundars, which yielded annually 50,000 rupees.

Revenue.

A few figures perspicuously arranged, are more efficacious in
affording just impressions of the resources of a country, their
ramifications, pressure, and availability, than the most laboured
verhal details. In 1827 — 28 the assessments in the four col-
lectorates of Dukhun amounted to 8,435,244 rupees, 3 qr. 79 reas,
being a diminution of 539,399 rupees, 2 qr. 80 reas in the re-
venue of Fuslee 1231, a.d. 1822, as stated in Mr. Chaplin's
report ; from this sum also were to be deducted the remissions
of 415,000 rupees, 1 qr. 25 reas in the Ahmednuggur, and
416,320 rupees, 3 qr. in the Poona collectorate in 1827 — 8,
amounting to a total diminution of 1,360,725 rupees, 3 qr.
05 reas, or 15'16 decl. per cent, of the revenue of 1822.

The revenue of 1827 — 28 in its constituents is shown in the
following table : —

Denomination
of Revenue.

Fuslee 1237—

■ Revenue, A.D. 1827—28.

Poona
Collectorate.

Nuggur
Collectorate.

Dharwar
Collectorate.

Khandesh
Collectorate.

Land revenue

rupees. qr.
1,516,323 ...

reas.
37

rupees. qr.

1,815,837 ...

reas.

rupees. qr. reas.
1,945,323 2 08

rupees. qr. reas.
1,664,904 3 32

231,262 1 ...

59,007 3

334,668 ... 85

131,710 3 ...

241,114 1

159,150

141,524 2 46

155,560 3 ...

Miscellaneous

3,301

35,556 2 68

Total

1,992,000 2

691

2,033,994 3

2,421,516 1 39

1,987;733

Grand Total 8,435,244 rupees, 3 qr. 79 reas.

* Sahyer is the revenue raised from shops, markets, liquors, &c. Sahyer is
a " market " in Sanscrit.

296

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

From the preceding table it will be seen that in the several
collectorates, although of very disproportionate superficial
extent and population, in Ahmednuggur, Poona, and Khan-
desh there is a close approximation in the total amount of their
revenues, although with some difference in the value of their
great branches.

The following table exhibits the proportion per cent, of the
great branches of the above revenue.

Denomination
of Revenue.

Proportion per cent, of the great branches of revenue.

Poona

Collectorate.

Nuggur
Collectorate.

Dharwar

Collectorate.

Khandesh
Collectorate.

Land revenue

per cent.
76-12

per cent.
89-275

per cent.
80-335

per cent.
83-76

11-62

2-900

13-820

6-63

12-10

7-825

5-845

7-82

Miscellaneous

0-16

1-79

100.

There is considerable uniformity in the respective propor-
tions of the land revenue in the different collectorates. Poona
has the smallest, but it is compensated for in the magnitude of
the Sahyer and customs. In Ahmednuggur the proportion
of the land revenue exceeds that of Poona by 13 per cent, but
this is counterbalanced by the singular smallness of the Sa-
hyer branch. In the land revenue of Dharwar and Khandesh
there is a sufficient approximation to a mean per centage for
the four collectorates, which averages 82*30 decls. per cent.
The whole revenue of England being £52,000,000, has only a
land revenue of £2,000,000, or 3'846 decls. per cent. The
whole revenue of France being £40,000,000, the land revenue
is 12,000,000 or 30 per cent.

The following table shows (in 1827 — 28) the amount of the
land revenue in each collectorate, the number of cultivators,
the average rent of farms, the number of British populated
villages, and the average revenue of a village : the last column
is intended to show the pressure (including land Sahyer and
customs) of the assessments and taxes, viewed as a capitation
tax.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN.

297

Names of
CoUectorates.

Number of
British po-
pulated vil-
lages.

Average re-
venue per
village.

Land Revenue.

Number
of Culti-
vators.

Average
rent of
farms.

Land revenue, Sahyer,
Customs, &c., viewed
as a capitation tax.

1469§

rup. qr. rs.
1253 1 98

rup. qr. rs.
1,516,323 ... 37

52,668

rup. qr. rs.
28 3 16

rup. qr. rs.
4 1 78

£. s. d.

8 10|

Nuggur ...

1878J

1082 2 99

1,815,837

41,948

43 1 15

3 3 77

7 10J

Kbandesh

2367J

839 3 7

1,664,905

44,608

37 1 33

4 1 92

8 11|

Dhanvar . . .

2104

924 2 33

1,945,323 2 80

60,701

32 ... 19

3 1 60

6 9J

Total

7819J

887 3 32

6,942,388 1 77

199,925

34 2 90

4 ... 02

The population, inclusive of Sholapoor and Cheekoree and
Munowlee, of the Company's possessions in Dukhun, but ex-
clusive of alienated villages, is 2,105,886 souls, and the gross
revenue 84,435,245 rupees ; equal, therefore, to 4 rupees, qr.
02 reas per head.

In forming the above table, the collectors were good enough
to supply the number of villages and cultivators in 1827 — 28,
and the amount of the land revenue was obtained from the
Accountant-General's office. In striking the average revenue
per village, I have omitted, in the division of the Dharwar col-
lectorate, 175 villages, (subsequently reduced to 155,) which
I found by the population returns lately completed were un-
inhabited, but parts of whose lands were under cultivation by
neighbouring villagers, and therefore included by the collector
in his list. In Khandesh 330 villages have been struck out
under similar circumstances. In Poona and Ahmednuggur,
villages of this class are very limited in number, and I have,
in consequence, not made any deduction on their account.

To give a fair average of the village revenues in the Poona
collectorate, 151,241 rupees, including a share of the customs,
have been deducted from the whole revenue for the city of
Poona previously to striking the average. The manner in
which the Poona capitation tax is struck is as follows : —
1 108 towns and villages sent in population returns, containing
331,615 inhabitants, averaging 226 souls and a fraction to
a village. The population of the city of Poona (81,315 inhabit-
ants) being deducted before striking the average ; of these vil-
lages 21 2| are alienated, leaving 895i British . villages with a
population of 283,567, including Poona. These in 1827 — 28,
yielded a gross revenue of 1,261,711, averaging 4 rupees, 1 qr.
78 reas to each person.

The capitation rate in the Ahmednuggur collectorate is ob-
tained as follows : In 1827 — 28, 1877£ towns and villages

298 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837«

were on the collector's list \ they contained 494,669 souls, esti-
mated from the average number of inhabitants to a village,
namely, 263*47, struck from the census of 1822, to which the
present population of the city of Nuggur is to be added,
namely, 21,208. The revenue from the collectorate was
2,033,994 rupees, 3 qr. 78 reas ; equal, therefore, to 3 rupees,
3 qr. 77 reas per head.

In Dharwar the averages have the following elements : — in
1827 — 28, 2279 British towns and villages produced a revenue
of 2,421,516 rupees, 1 qr. 39 reas. This included the villages,
revenue, and population of the Talooks of Cheekoree and Mu-
nowlee, received from the Kolapoor state; population returns
were not received from these Talooks ; their revenue from 225
villages, namely, 197,406 rupees, 3 qr. 29 reas, is therefore
deducted from the total revenue of the collectorate, leaving
2,224,199 rupees, 2 qr. 10 reas, and 2054 villages. From the
latter are to be deducted 175 depopulated villages, but having
a small part of their land cultivated by neighbouring villagers,
leaving 1879* British villages, with a population, agreeably to
the census, of 653,892 souls, giving 3 rupees, 1 qr. 60 reas
per head.

There is some difficulty in ascertaining how the revenue of
Khandesh would fall as a capitation tax, in consequence of the
increased number of villages (335 £) rendered productive since
1825 — 26, (the date of the population returns,) their population
not being known. In 1825 — 26 the inhabited villages amounted
to 2032, and 330 were Pyegusta, i. e. deserted, but having
part of their land cultivated by neighbouring villagers. Sup-
posing the new villages to be peopled in the same ratio as the
old ones, the number of inhabitants in the government villages
in 1827-28 would have been 443,548, which is 24,031 souls more
than I have put into the population returns ; and as the revenue
was 1,987,733 rupees, the people averaged an individual pay-
ment of 4 rupees, 1 qr. 92 reas : nevertheless, I have reason to
doubt the actual increase in population to the extent I have
given Khandesh credit for ; and should it have remained sta-
tionary, the revenue as a poll-tax would amount to 5 rupees,
1 qr. 40 reas per head.

With respect to the branch of revenue called Sahyer, it will
be seen that the different collectorates raise it in very unequal
proportions. The unusual lowness of it in the Ahmednuggur
collectorate is of difficult explanation. The following table
shows the number of persons of each class paying this tax, the
amount paid, and the average per head.

* Subsequently increased to 1899, with a population of 600,852.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN.

299

Collectorates.

Number of taxable
persons.

Amount of taxes.

Average per
bead.

Sahyer.

Bullooteh.

14,551

8481

nip. gr. rs.
231,262 1 00

rup. gr. rs.
10 ... 16

Ahmednuggur

9,287

4980

59,007 3 78

4 ... 54

29,046

2811

334,668 ... 45

10 2 02

9,147

2348

131,711 I 11 1 83

It is consequently found, that Ahmednuggur, with a greater
number of taxable persons in the Sahyer branch than in Khan-
desh, averages a payment per head of little more than one-
third of what the shopkeepers, trades, and Bullooteh pay in
Khandesh ; and the tolerable uniformity in the individual
averages of the collectorates of Poona, Dharwar, and Khan-
desh, proves that their Sahyer taxes are raised equitably. I
have to notice, that in village papers there is a want of uni-
formity in the classification of the extra cesses, sometimes
articles being placed under the heads of Sahyer which bear upon
the land, and others again being classed with the land which are
money commutations for labour.

From the definite character of the elements in the preceding
table, great confidence may be placed in the correctness of de-
ductions from it. The numbers of taxable persons in 1827 — 28
were supplied to me by the collectors, and the amount paid is
extracted from their Jummabundy settlements for that year.

Customs. — The customs vary considerably in the different
collectorates; those of Poona, being above 12 per cent, of its
whole revenue, may be looked upon as high, but their mag-
nitude manifests a favourable commercial industry. Contrary
to expectation, Dharwar, which has indications of internal
comparative prosperity, has the lowest revenue from customs,
with a greater population, a greater revenue, and falling lighter
upon the people than in any of the other collectorates, and with
more than ten times the number of manufacturers * to be found
in Poona and Khandesh, nevertheless shows a commercial
return 52 per cent, less than that of Poona, and even 25^ per
cent, below the exhausted province of Khandesh. It seems
anomalous that the proportional per-centage of the customs on
the whole revenue in Ahmednuggur and Khandesh should be

* Thirteen thousand and forty-five weavers.

300

SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

identical, the population of the former being 23*75 per cent,
greater than that of the latter, while a parity seems to exist in
the wants and export resources of the people of both.

Expenses. — I have put into juxtaposition some of the items
of expense in the collectorates, and their rate per cent, on the
gross revenue ; but the want of a systematic classification of
charges under common heads throughout the collectorates,
renders a rigid comparison, item for item, unattainable. The
information is extracted from the Jummabundy returns of the
collectors for 1827 — 28. A government form for this paper
for common adoption would render the multitudinous details
involved in it more available for comparison by inspection than
in the present forms. The total expenses of two of the collect-
orates only is given in the following tables.

Few comments are necessary, as the charges and the rate
per cent, they bear upon the gross revenue of each collectorate
are seen at a glance.

TABULAR VIEW OF THE EXPENSES.

Denomination of
expenses.

Expenses 182/ — 28.

Poona
Collectorate.

Nuggur
Collectorate.

Dharwar
Collectorate.

Khandesh
Collectorate.

Village and land ex-

rup. qr.

136,659 ...

rs.
12

rup. qr. rs.
149,761 2 26

rup. qr. rs.

388,016

Native establishment

246,174 3 80

157,202 2 ...

55,997 3

45,358

61,005 3

115,876 1 25

Contingent charges,
including presents

101,055 3 22

190,768 3 39

339,410 3 ...

Shet Sundee or native

34,435 2

Pensions, Eenams ...

466,493 3 89

33,522 2 94

45,619 2 24

Collector's salary . . .

59,653 1 33

113,745 ... 42

93,277 1 75

European Judicial . . .

53,546 2 58

16,909 1 41

229,366 2 73

90,306

Total

288,098 ...

875,754 1 26

584,211 2 55

1,176,099 2 40

416,320 3 ...

415,005 1 25

None.

To H. H. Seendeh

90,796 3 33

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN.

301

TABULAR VIEW OF THE PROPORTION PER CENT. OF
EXPENSES.

Denominations of expenses.

Proportion per cent, of the expenses on the whole
revenue in the several Collectorates.

Poona
Collectorate.

Nuggur
Collectorate.

Dharwar

Collectorate.

Khandesh
Collectorate.

Village, land and Sahyer expenses

per cent.
6-86

per cent.
7-36

per cent.

per cent.
19-52

Native establishment for collections

1017

7-92

2-81

2-28

306

5-70

4-96

7-87

17-08

1-73

...

8-18

1-39

2-29

2-93

4-69

4-67

2-63

0-85

11-27

4-52

Total

14-46

4303

24-12

59-13

20-89

20-40

None.

Grand Total

35-35

63-43

24-12

59-13

For the proper understanding, however, of some omissions
in the above abstracts, short notices are called for.

Under the items of " village, land and Sahyer expenses,"
" Shet Sundee," "Mokassa," and " Hukdars," there are blanks
in the Dharwar collectorate, the whole land expenses amount-
ing to 24" 12 per cent. ; it is to be presumed the charges under
these heads have merged in the " Native establishment for
collections." Under Khandesh there is a blank for the Huk-
dars ; the expense of these persons is no doubt included in
"village, land, and Sahyer expenses." Under Nuggur there
are blanks under " Mokassa" and " Shet Sundee;" they must be
included in the "Land and village expenses." Of the omissions
in the Poona abstract it is unnecessary to speak, as they are
intentional.

The charges, revenue, magisterial, and judicial, upon the re-
venue of Ahmednuggur in 1827 — 28, amounted to 43*03 per

302 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

cent., and remissions were granted in that year to the amount
of 20*40 per cent. ; the total deduction from the revenue was
63*43 per cent. In Khandesh, without any remissions, the
charges were nearly six-tenths of the whole revenue. In
Poona I have only shown the charges which are strictly and
permanently fixed upon the land in all the collectorates, which
are not mutable, and therefore scarcely susceptible in justice
of modification ; these amount to 14*46 per cent : they com-
prise village expenses, militia, Mokassa, and Hukdars. In
Dharwar, the collector's establishment has been added to the
above, and it brings the charges strictly bearing on the land to
24*12 per cent, on the revenue.

A review of the above tables and abstracts suggests the fol-
lowing observations. The collectorate of Dharwar, having the
smallest area a (with the exception of Poona) of the collect-
orates of Dukhun, has the greatest population, and produces
the greatest revenue, which bears lightest by average upon the
inhabitants individually. 1. Judging from the lowness of the
customs, it has the weakest indications of commercial industry ;
nevertheless, the manufacturers, particularly the weavers, ex-
ceed those of the other collectorates in the ratio of 100 to 11,
or 89 per cent. The shopkeepers and tradespeople are very
numerous, and their individual taxes rise to the average of
those of Poona and Khandesh. Finally, the means of the
people (remissions not being called for) must be more efficient
than in the other collectorates, and a proportional ratio of
imports and exports might have been looked for.

Khandesh has the largest superficial extent, d a population e
29 per cent, less than that of Poona, or granting an increase
to its population 15*32 per cent, less, with a revenue never-
theless equal to that of Poona, bearing in consequence with
unusual pressure upon the people, its average being 5 rupees,
1 qr. 40 reas to each soul ; involving the fact that the assess-
ments in this collectorate are greater than in any of the others.
Admitting, however, the estimated increase to the population
previously noticed, (which certainly exceeds the truth,) the
average f individual payment will still exceed that in the other
collectorates. It is possible this apparent pressure may be

* 9122 square miles, including the cultivated area of the Talooks Cheekoree
and Manowlee.

b 838,767, including the estimated population of the Talooks of Cheekoree
and Manowlee, 3 rupees, 1 qr. G reas per head.

c 10 rupees, 2 qr. 2 reas. d 12,527 square miles.

' 371,404, but supposed this year to be 443,548 in government villages.

f 4 rupees, 1 qr., 92 reas.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DT7KHUN. 303

inferred to the extent of its garden cultivation, which is much
greater than that of Dharwar, and, as far as I can judge from
observation, that of Poona and Ahmednuggur also. In Khan-
desh in 1826., there were 82,697 beegahs a of garden-land,
being 9*36 per cent, of the whole cultivated land, the garden-
land in Dharwar not amounting to one-half per cent. In the
Nuggur and Poona collectorates, in the towns of Kurmalleh,
Kurjut, Angur, and Rawgaon, the proportion of garden to
field-land in cultivation was 5 '45 per cent. only. But, under
all circumstances, the villages of Khandesh average b the least
revenue in Dukhun ; it stands third in the number of its cul-
tivators, but second in the amount of the rent of its farms. d
The magnitude of this rent, it is inferred, originates in the
comparative high rate of assessment per beegah, and not in the
greater size of the farms. I have not the number of beegah s
of land in cultivation in 1827-28 in Khandesh, but justify my
inference from the following data : — In 1826 there were 37,311
cultivators, and 883,548 beegahs under cultivation, averaging
23*68 beegahs to each farm.* 3 Last year, there were 44,608
cultivators, and supposing them to hold individually the ave-
rage number of beegahs of 1826, the result will be as
cult. beegahs. cult. beegahs.

37,311 : 88,348 : : 44,608 : 1,056,345;

and as the land revenue of 1827-28 was 1,664,904 rupees,
the rate per beegah is therefore 1 rupee, 2 qr. 30 reas, f which
exceeds s that of the other collectorates from 50 to 100 per cent.

In the Sahyer branch of revenue' the increased pressure is still
visible upon the people ; it exceeds the mean pressure of Dhar-
war and Poona 10*35 decl. per cent., and that of Ahmednuggur
in the extraordinary ratio of 63*91 per cent.

The customs' per centage on the whole revenue is identical
with that of Ahmednuggur, although, in the present state of
Khandesh, it could not have been looked for.

Ahmednuggur stands second in superficial extent.* 1 The
land revenue is only inferior in amount to that of Dharwar,
although it has the least number of cultivators i in all the col-
lectorates. The average rent of farms therefore is the greatest ;

a . 62,023 acres. h 839 rupees, 3 qr., 7 reas. c 44,G08.

d 37 rupees, 1 qr., 33 reas.

e Beegahs 883,448, _ 9 „. rs f Rupees 1,664,904 ru.qr.rs.

Cultivators-37^lT. ~ Beegahs 1,056,345 = * 2 30 P er ^egah.

8 Poona and Nuggur 3 qr. 58 reas per beegah, including garden-land. The
whole of Dharwar 2 qr. 94 reas per beegah, including garden-land.
h 9910 square miles. > 41,948 cultivators.

304 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

and from averages struck in different villages in various parts
of the Desh in this collectorate, I would refer it to the
increased size of the farms rather than to enhanced assess-
ments.

In a table, which will be met with in treating of the condi-
tion of the people, farms are made to average about 45 beegahs
each ; and the assessments, including extras, do not amount
to a rupee per beegah. a In the hilly tracts the farms are neces-
sarily much reduced in size, and an average for the whole col-
lectorate would bring them down probably to 35 beegahs each ;
41,948 cultivators therefore would occupy 1,468,180 beegahs
of land, which, divided into the land revenue, (1,815,837 ru-
pees,) 15 give 1 rupee, 95 reas per beegah. I am rather disposed
to rely upon the general average, than upon the average struck
from the examination of the papers of a few towns in the most
favourable parts of the country.

The very low amount of the Sahyer, which is only 2*90 per
cent, of the whole revenue, has been already adverted to.
The taxable persons, nevertheless, under this head, exceed
those of Khandesh.

The customs bear a fair proportion to the whole revenue.

The average revenue d per village may be subject to a slight
modification, as in the number of British villages, amounting to
1878^, furnished to me by the acting collector, which paid
revenue last year, deserted villages are not distinguished, part
of whose lands are under cultivation ; and the want of popula-
tion returns disables me from ascertaining them.

The revenue, viewed as a poll tax, e bears easier than in any
other collectorate, excepting Dharwar. The means to insure
an approximate accuracy in this calculation have been already
explained.

Poona has the smallest land revenue, and the smallest super-
ficial extent/ Previously to the addition of the four Talooks
of Sholapoor, Mohol, Moodeebeehall, and Indee, agreeably
to information furnished by the Survey Department, it com-
prised an area of 4990 square miles only. Neither the extent
nor population of these Talooks being known, it was necessary
to estimate them ; the process was conducted by analogy,
which has been explained elsewhere ; 2888 square miles

. _ „, b Rupees 1,815,837 n>. qr. rs.

» 2s. 8d. per acre. ^ ' ' ■ = 1 95 per beegah.

Beegahs 1,468,180 l a

e 14,267. d 1082 rupees, 2 qr. 99 reas.

e Revenue as a poll tax, 3 rupees, 3 qr. 77 reas.

Area 7878 square miles.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 305

resulted from the calculations, giving the Poona collectorate an
area of 7878 square miles. Poona has the greatest number of
cultivators a excepting Dharwar ; and this is to be attributed, not
to the extended cultivation, but to the Mawul, or hilly tracts,
occupying a great deal of the collectorate, where the farmers are
multiplied and the individual agricultural operations of very li-
mited extent. In the whole Turruff of Mhurkhoreh the farms
average only 13 beegahs each ; b but in the eastern and south-
eastern parts of the collectorate they have the same average as is
given to Ahmednuggur. From the above facts the farms might
be expected to average a very low rent, as is found to be the case.
The following estimate justifies the inference that the land
assessments are comparatively not very onerous.

In the Desh, or Table Land, the farms average . . 45 beegahs.
In the Mawuls, or hilly tracts 13 do.

2)58

Mean average of farms .... 29 beegahs.

In 1827-28 there were 52,668 cultivators, which multiplied
by 29, the average number of beegahs to each farmer, will give
1,527,372 beegahs of land under cultivation; and as the land
revenue of 1827-28 amounted to 1,516,323 rupees, 37reas;
the assessments would only be at the rate of 3 qr. 97 reas per
beegah, c including garden land and extras. There are still
however some marked features which are not satisfactory : the
villages average a greater revenue (excluding the city of Poona)
than in the other collectorates, although the average village po-
pulation is less for that part of the Poona collectorate, whence
population returns have been received.

The 574 villages of the sub-collectorate of Sholapoor average
1272 rupees, 1 qr. 12 reas each, d including customs. The magni-
tude of the average of the remaining villages may be attributed to
the great amount of the customs ; e but deducting a suitable pro-
portion of the customs f for the inhabitants of the city of Poona,s
and the whole of the revenue of the city, Sahyer/* land, 1 and
Abkauree, k and mint 1 ; villages (always excluding the four
talooks of Sholapoor) still average 1241 rupees, 1 qr. 76 reas

= Rupees 1,516,323 n „ t ,

Beegahs 1^372 = 3 V- ^ reas per beegah.
d Revenue of sub-collectorate of Sholapoor 730,289 rupees, 1 qr. 93 reas.
e 215,361 rupees, 2 qr. 37| reas. f 61,756 rupees, 1 qr. 63 reas.

8 81,515 inhabitants. •> 56,202 rupees, 3 qr. 50 reas.

1 27,981 rupees, 81 § reas. k 12,000 rupees. ' 3301 rupees.

VOL. VI. 1837. x

» 52,668. ■> 94 acres.

306 SEVENTH REPORT— 1837-

each, which is higher than in any other collectorate ; and as the
villages in this part of the collectorate average a fraction more
than 226 inhabitants, 8 the taxes, assessments, and customs, 1 '
after deducting the share for Poona, 151,241 rupees, fall upon
the people with the unexampled pressure of nearly 5g- rupees
per head, c while the people in the city d average only I rupee,
3 qr. 44 reas per head, including a proportional share of the
customs, and the city, Sahyer, and land-tax, &c.

For the whole collectorate of Poona, including the four talooks
of Sholapoor, hy a process previously explained, the assessments
average 4 rupees, 1 qr. 78 reas per head, which closely approxi-
mates to that of Khandesh.

Poona has the greatest number of taxable persons e after
Dharwar in the Sahyer branch of the revenue, and ranks
second in the total amount, of the sum raised, which falls with
a less pressure individually than in Dharwar and Khandesh, but
greater than in Ahmednuggur. The manufacturers, as contri-
butors to the Sahyer, are very limited in number.

The proportion that the customs bear to the whole revenue
is a very striking feature : they are derived principally from
imports, a good part of which passes on to the eastward ; much
is consumed in the city of Poona, and the rest is dispersed into
the districts. I have observed that imports from the coast
have gradually cheapened in their retail price within the last
three or four years, owing, no doubt, to the combined causes of
increased importation and scarcity of money in Dukhun.

The collectorate of Dharwar, whether viewed with respect
to the quantity of land under cultivation ; the size of its farms ; f
the amounts of its revenue; the lightness with which it falls
upon the people, considered as a poll-tax ;? the magnitude of its
Sahyer ; the comparative denseness of its population ; its nu-
merous towns b and tolerably well-peopled villages ; the facility
offered for instruction in the number of its schools, and the mani-
festations of manufacturing industry in its numerous weavers, 1
is unquestionably the finest British province in Dukhun.

Dharwar Land Revenue. — The land revenue, in its pro-
portion to the whole revenue, stands third in the Dukhun col-
lectorates, being 80*336 per cent. ; but this apparently inferior
station is to be attributed, not to the diminished quantity of

a 894£ villages with inhabitants, 202,252. b 1,110,470 rupees.

c 5 rupees, 1 qr. 9G reas.

d . Inhabitants of Poona 81,315. Taxes and proportionate share of customs
S-c. 151,211 rupees.
e 23,042. f 32-74 acres, or 4365 bcegahs. & 3 rupees, 1 qr. GO reas,
i> 119. i 13,315.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 307

land under cultivation," which far exceeds that in the other
collectorate, (i. e. 61*11 decls. per cent, of the whole lands,
leaving only 38*89 decls. per cent, of waste,) but to the lowness
of its land* assessments, amounting only to 2 qr. 94 reas per
beegah, including all extras falling on the land. The process
by which this average assessment was struck is as follows. In
1827, agreeably to the population returns, the land in occupa-
tion of a cultivator averaged 32*74 decls. acres, or 43*65 decls.
beegahs ; in 1828, in the Jummabundy settlement, there were
60,701 cultivators, which, multiplied by 43*65 decls. gives
2,649,598. 65 decls. beegahs of land under cultivation. These
divided into the land revenue, 1,945,323 rupees, 2 qr. 8 reas,
give 294 reas per beegah, a low rate, which neither the exami-
nation of village accounts, nor a similar process, will give in
Poona, Ahmednuggur, nor Khandesh. b This light assess-
ment, equal only to ls.ll^d. per acre, is certainly advantageous
in insuring the realization of the revenue ; but when put into
comparison with the rent of land in England, shows the unpro-
ductive and limited character of Indian agricultural resources.

The Sahyer branch of the revenue is highly favourable,
amounting to nearly 14 per cent, of the whole, and, though so
productive, falls as a tax lighter on individuals than in Khan-
desh. The customs, being 2 per cent, lower than in Khandesh
and Ahmednuggur, is at variance with the tolerably efficient
character of the general resources of the Dharwar.

From the examination of village papers I find that remissions
were very rare under native governments, and the facility with
which they are granted under the British government, and their
magnitude, testify strongly to its paternal character. Great
caution, however, is requisite in granting them, not less on ac-
count of the government than on account of the cultivator him-
self. If obtained with facility, and without rigid and sharp
examinations, and some personal inconvenience to the applicant,
(from the habitual indolence of the native character,) his ordinary
industry, which always requires stimulating, would be paralyzed,
applications multiplied, labour diminished, and the farmer would
trust to the forbearance of government rather than to his own
exertions. There is another reason for caution in the strong
motives that the native agents have for urging remissions, with
a view to intercept them in the transit of accounts through
their hands.

The collector cannot possibly personally ascertain the truth of

a 2,308,064 acres in 1827.

b Ahmednuggur 1 rupee, 95.reas; Nuggur and Poona, partial average, 3 qr.
58 reas ; Khandesh 1 rupee, 2 qr. 30 reas per beegah.

308 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

one-hundredth part of the claims set up ; he must leave this la-
bour to his servants, and it can scarcely be believed they will not
avail themselves of the opportunity to turn the discretion given
to them to private profit ; in fact, I know such to be the case.

In an examination of the papers of the villages of Muhrkoreh,
Poona collectorate, I found that many of the cultivators had paid
instalments of their assessments (for 1827-28) previously tore-
missions being granted, which exceeded the amount they were
required to pay after the deduction of the remissions ; the
poverty of some of the cultivators, consequently, must have
been misrepresented. I ascertained also that part of the
remissions of 1827-28 had been intercepted. Remissions are
unavoidable in all calamitous visitations of Providence, which
are not of confined or local operation, and which affect the re-
turns of the earth ; but to insure the benefit of the remissions
to the cultivator, they should be made in a definite per centage
on his total assessment, and the amount should be proclaimed
more than once, and by different persons, in the public place of
every village.

A few words in conclusion will suffice with respect to the
great branches of the revenue. It is seen that 82*30 decls. per
cent, of the whole is derived from the land : already the supply
of agricultural produce exceeds the demand, and the farmer has
a difficulty in finding a mart. In the present state of agriculture
therefore, this branch of revenue is at its maximum, and will
probably decline until supply and demand be adjusted.

The prospects of improvement in the Sahyer branch are
not more favourable than in the land revenue.

The trades pay to the full extent of their means at present,
and manufactures cannot increase when the European import-
ers of cottons can afford to undersell the native manufacturers.
Indeed I believe little more than coarse Sarhees a for women,
and common tent cloth, are now manufactured in the British
provinces in Dukhun.

The improvements in customs should usually depend upon in-
creased wealth and commercial industryin the people. Theextent
of imports will only be commensurate with the means of pur-
chase. If therefore the opinions I have advanced on the land
revenue and Sahyer be well founded, with respect to the
limited means of persons paying taxes under those heads, the
customs will be influenced by causes affecting them.

Any general improvement in the revenue would seem
to require the creation of exportable articles in agriculture,
horticulture, or manufactures ; and to effect this desirable

a Dresses.

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 309

object, the introduction of persons with capital, enterprize,
ingenuity, commercial tact and industry, is necessary ; essen-
tials, of which the country is at present destitute.

The manner in which the revenue yielded by a village is
partitioned, is well exemplified in Neembawee, Pergunnah,
Kurdeh, Ahmednuggur collectorate. The village is in Jagheer
to Bala Sahib Rastea, one of the great Jagheerdars. The
shares in the village are called amuls a , and there are six of
them ; Rastia has three, Suchew b Punt one, and the Honour-
able Company two. The whole shares are considered as an
integer of 123 parts.

Sun, 1236.— A.D. 1826.

Rastia has the Jagheer 50

Sur Deshmookee and Nuzzur d 23

Kussur, e or remainder 7

buchew Punt has the Sahotra 23

The Honourable Company has the Mokassa 15

and the Neem Chowthaee, or half of the tribute

called " Fourth" 5

Total 123

In addition, the fixed money rights on the village are —

Rupees.

bur Pateel Dabaree of Tellegaon 5

Kundeh Kurdehkur Deshmook 101

Amrut Row Joonurkur Deshpandeh 101

Besides the Pateel and Koolkurnee, Chowgulla, Bullooteh, who
have their fees.

It would seem very desirable to abolish the above absurd
verbal distinctions, and to fix the rights of individuals as simple
money dues, without reference to Jagheer, Nuzzur, Kussur, &c.

The revenue of Dukhun, contrasted as a capitation tax, with
that of England, France, and America, would appear to be
as follows. In England, the gross revenue of 1828 was
£50,700,000; poor-rates, parish rates, lighting, watching,

a Amul, " rule," " sway."

b Suchew, "friend," "minister;" one of the eight ministers of the Raiah of
Sattara. J

° A fief.

d Nazar, "sight," "look," a present made on introduction to a person.

e Kasr. " a fraction."

310 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

£12,000,000; contributions of congregations to their clergy,
colleges, schools, &c. about £17,300,000 : total £80,000,000 a .
The population being 20,000,000, the tax per head is £4. In
France, the taxation, including provision for the clergy, schools,
&c. is £40,000,000; the population 30,000,000; equal therefore
to £l. 6s. per head. In America the population is between
10,000,000 and 11,000,000, and the taxation £5,000,000, or
not quite 10*. per head. The revenue of Dukhun, viewed as a
capitation tax, is 8s. per head.

Assessments.

Assessments and land measurements are so intimately con-
nected, that it would not answer any good purpose to treat
of them in separate sections. With respect to the portions of
land variously denominated for the purpose of assessment, I
am clearly of opinion that the prevailing denominations
amongst the Hindoos were not descriptive of superficial extent,
and that the assessments were founded on the productive
power of the land without reference to its quantity, and were
uniform only for similar denominations of land in a village.

The Moosulmans, no doubt, endeavoured to be more system-
atic; they measured garden lands, and probably in some few vil-
lages, the field lands, under the denominations of Kundhee,Mun,
Tukeh, Piceh, Seer, &c. with a view to the general conversion
of such terms into the uniform and appreciable term of Bcegah;
but the Hindoo terms not applying to quantity, the bcegahs of
different villages could only be equal when there existed an
accidental identity in productive power in the unmeasured
Mun or Kundhee, &c. of land in one village with the measured
Mun, Kundhee, &c. intended as common types. This will
account for the varying extent of the beegah in field cultivation
in Dukhun. How little successful the Moosulmans were in their
attempt to supersede the old terms, is proved in the limited
extent to which the assessments by beegahs obtained when we
took possession of the country. It may be well doubted whe-
ther we shall be more successful in our introduction of acres :
the ramifications of ancient usages amongst a people are in
general too deeply fixed to be eradicated by legislative enact-
ments. A plant may be cut off by the surface, but there is
always a latent disposition to reproduction from the untouched
roots. Whatever may be our success, a revenue survey was
imperatively called for under the indefinite Hindoo land deno-
minations, to enable a collector to regulate his assessments
with a shadow of equity.

a Speech of Colonel Davies in the House of Commons, May 8, 1829.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 311

With respect to the denominations under which land is as-
sessed in the comparatively limited space of my inquiries, their
variety and absurdity demonstrate a wanton bizarreness that
could scarcely have been looked for in a people reputedly sim-
ple and uniform in their opinions and economy. The assess-
ment on a beegah is definite as it depended on positive mea-
surement, and I have remarked that it obtains at, and in the
neighbourhood of the established seats of Moosulman author-
ity, as at Ahmednuggur, Purunda, Sholapoor, Mohol, Bar-
lonee, Wamoree, Tacklee, &c. The Chahoor and Rookeh, as
at Alkootee, Kheir, Wangee, Taimbournee, Kurkumb, Angur,
Mahreh, Kurmalleh, Kurjut and Meerujgaon, being multiples
of the beegah, are intelligible. Even the Doree or rope, used
at Hungawarreh and Neembee, as it implies measurement and
superficial extent, is admissible. The old Hindoo terms,
Kundhee and Mun, at Ranjungaon, Jamgaon, Parnair, &c. &c.
as they are founded on positive properties, furnish sufficiently
precise ideas. But the Tukeh, with its constituents, of Suj-
gunnees and Piceh, (copper coin,) at Dytna and Ankolner,
the Seer of weight and its Nowtanks or ^ Seer, as at Koorul and
Wangee, and the Pyhnee and its Annas a at Serrolee, Brulunun-
warreh and Muhr, are not reducible by any operation of the
mind to an appreciable portion of land, whose produce shall
admit of the government share on it being equitably assessed.
The assessment by the hatchet, rude as it is, still involves the
idea of as much copse-wood land as one hatchet can clear, and
one man can sow and reap in the year. To add to the confusion,
similar denominations of land are not made up of common and
uniform constituents. The Tukkeh at Kothoul is raised from
the Rookeh, each of which is supposed to contain 10 beegahs,
or 7^ acres. At Ankolner the Tukkeh is composed of Suj-
gunnees, Piceh and Rookeh ; the Rookeh being equal only to 2|
beegahs, or If acres. At Lakungaon there are 10 Tukkeh to
one Pyhnee, and as the Pyhnee is said to contain 30 beegahs,
the Tukkeh here contains only 3 beegahs instead of 480, as at
Tellegaon; or 240, as at Ashtee.

In respect to the Mun at Ranjungaon, it is rated at 10
beegahs ; at Jamgaon, belonging to Seendeh, it is not reducible
into beegahs at all ; at Parnair 6^ beegahs only are equal to
the Mun. The Pyhnee at Seerolee has the Chahoor of 120
beegahs as a typical standard, 4 Pyhnees being equal to one
Chahoor, or 120 beegahs ; at Muhr the Pyhnee of 30 beegahs is
considered as identical with the Kundhee of 20 Muns, reducing
the Mun therefore to 1| beegahs.

a One-sixteenth of a rupee.

312 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837-

Under such complex definitions and involved contradictions,
my limits will not permit me to give further explanations,
but which my lengthened tables afford.

The principal assessment necessarily falls on the land, and
it is raised on the various land denominations above noticed ;
the land in the first instance being separated into the two great
classes of Bhaghaeet, or garden-land ; and Zerhaeet, or field-
land. Both these terms are evidently of Moosulman intro-
duction, Bhaghaeet being a word of Persian origin, meaning
"gardens," "orchards;" and Zerhaeet, of Arabic derivation,
meaning a "sown field," "sown land."

There are marked traces of the land assessment having once
been systematic in the Sostee or permanent rate, which was
uniform and unchangeable for all lands of the same denomi-
nation. This rate is found in most villages, it is distinctly
stated in the accounts, and separated from subsequent and in-
creased assessments, and its existence is a proof that assess-
ments formerly were not on the superficial extent, but on the
productive power of the soil; since, as lands were not all equally
fertile, more of the unfertile land must have been held than
of the fertile, to enable the cultivator to pay a fixed sum in
quantity of grain for a piece of land under a common denomi-
nation. The Sostee Dur, or permanent assessment, was the
pride of the Meerasdar, but unhappily not his safeguard.
The various governments which have passed away do not
appear ever to have raised the pemument rate, but they rendered
the advantages derivable under it abortive from gradually
adding extra cesses ; their excuses in the first instance being
unlooked-for contingencies. The cesses were originally mostly
in kind, and temporary ; but the exigencies of government, or
the facility with which they were raised, made them perennial,
and their pressure upon the cultivator has been enhanced, par-
ticularly under our government, by the cesses in kind being
commuted into money payments. The Moosulmans, on intro-
ducing measurements, must necessarily have subverted the
Sostee, or uniform rate, since the same rate could not have
been equitable for beegahs of land of different qualities. We
find, in consequence, that when the lands are classed in bee-
gahs otherwise than as constituents of Hindoo land denomi-
nations, that there the assessments are on the quality of the
soil, and vary accordingly.

Gardens being dependent on the local advantages of a suit-
able supply of water and some depth of soil, usually met with
in hollows or on the banks of rivers, it might be expected that
considerable uniformity would prevail in the quality of garden-

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 313

land, and that it would rarely be divided into classes j such is usu-
ally found to be the case. Most commonly all garden-land apper-
taining to a village pays the same rate per beegah ; and where
classification exists, it is founded, not on the quality of the
land, but on the extent of the supply of water.

The first great feature, in this respect, is whether the garden
is watered from small streams conducted from rivulets or rivers,
or whether it is watered from wells ; in the former case it is
called Paatsthul, a and in the latter Mohtsthul. b Most Pahts
failing in the dry months of March, April, and May, the
former land is usually assessed at a lower rate than the latter,
as at Tellegaon and Parnair; but where the Paht supply is
perennial, as at Dytna, both descriptions of land pay the same
rate. Dependent on these primary distinctions, are modifi-
cations, affecting garden assessments : land with a perennial
and sufficient supply of water, whether from pahts or wells, is
called Wohol-Waho, or fully watered, and pays the highest
rate ; this rate, unless on rice land, and isolated spots, where
fruits of considerable value are raised, such as grapes and
golden plantains, &c, as at Joonur, within my observation,
has never exceeded 6 rupees per beegah, c including sugar-cane
land. The other classes of land are comprised in the Kord
Waho or not fully watered. It is readily intelligible that a well
may supply a sufficiency of water for great part of a garden
within a reasonable distance of the well, but that the extremities
may be inadequately watered, and this affords just grounds to de-
mand a lighter tax for the extremities : two classes should
result from such circumstances, i. e. fully watered and not
fully watered, and such is generally the case where distinc-
tions are made at all : but at Ahmednuggur there is an af-
fectation of discrimination, which has determined that gar-
den-land receives its watering in the proportions of "fully,"
" thirteen-twentieths," "three-fifths," and "one-half," and
such lands are respectively assessed at 5 rupees, 3£ rupees, 3
rupees, and 2\ rupees per beegah. The assessment on garden-
land at present is unequal, and the whole requires revision.
There is every motive to make garden- cultivation assessments
light with a view to insure to each cultivator, if possible, his
well and little, plot of garden ground. Gardens produce all
the year round ; they are comparatively unaffected by the
droughts which destroy field crops ; and independently of the
constantly saleable garden stuffs, fruits, and aromatic seeds,
there is usually room for a beegah or more of bukshee or johr

a From Paat " a channel," and Sthul " a field."

b From Moht "a water-bucket," and Sthul "a field." c 16s. 8d. per acre.

314 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

wheats, which require watering, and a plot or two of sugar-
cane. To his garden the cultivator is indebted for many of the
little enjoyments his situation is susceptible of. In some in-
stances, in the Mahloongeh Turruff, Poona collectorate, I
found cultivators paying their entire assessments, and reaping
profit by their garden produce of chillies a alone, which were
sent into the Konkun.

Usually it has been deemed sufficient to arrange Zerhaeet or
field-land into four classes, as at Jehoor, namely, Awul (best),
usually black land, Rehsee (modified black), Burrud (dashed
with lime and some decomposing greenstone), and finally,
Khumid (stony, thin, and poor). The first, throughout the
country, does not average more than 1 rupee the beegah, the
second f , the third |f , and the last T 8 6 of a rupee per beegah ;
but at other places there are other distinctions. In the Ma-
wuls, or hilly tracts along the Ghauts, lands are classed as
Bhat, Khatan, and Wurkus, the first being rice land, the
second wheat and grain land, and the third being on the slopes
of hills, producing the dry grains Sawa b and Wuree ; c there
being a great deal of red soil also in these tracts, it is di-
stinguished by the term Tambut or copper-coloured. The Awul,
or best, where it occurs, is called Kalwut (black), and the rocky
and stony Maal.

These explanations are sufficient to show that where assess-
ments on the quality of the land have been introduced, uni-
formity has not obtained in distinguishing the qualities ; they
show also that the people were satisfied to limit the qualities to
four gradations ; but at Ahmednuggur, the Shaikdar or in-
spector of cultivation has had the microscopic ability of vision
to mark twelve shades of difference in the field-land. The ac-
counts are, in consequence, a mass of perplexity, and it is very
probable the revenue is frittered away in distinctions which the
cultivator never dreamt of, and never profits by.

Field-lands,, on which the cultivators sink wells, are not as-
sessed as garden-lands. At Kanoor, Nuggur collectorate, I
found lands so circumstanced had been free from any extra
assessments from a period beyond the memory of man.

The above notices are sufficient to show the anomalous cha-
racter of the money assessments strictly on the land. Not only
are they arbitrarily fixed on the productive power of the land, or
on measurements, real or supposed ; but lands of the same deno-
mination and quality are differently assessed in neighbouring
villages without apparent cause.

" Capsicum annuum, and other species.
b Panicum frumentaceum. c Panicum miliare.

ON THB STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 315

The average of all the rates at many towns and villages in all
parts of the country, derived from personal inspection of the
village accounts, gives 3 rupees, 41 reas for a beegah of garden-
land, or 8*. 3^d. for an English statute acre. The average of
field-land is 3 qr. 93f reas per beegah, or 2s. *]\d. per Eng-
lish acre.

To determine an approximate average assessment per beegah
in Khandesh, I may use elements, which although not just, may
be expected to give results not very far from the truth ; namely,
the total number of beegahs of land under cultivation in the
population returns in 1826, and the land revenue in 1827-28 :
the former is 883,548 beegahs, and the revenue 1,664,904 ru-
pees : the average rate per beegah is 1 rupee, 3 qr. 54 reas, a
much higher rate than exists in the other collectorates.

These assessments comparatively with those of all European
countries, of most Asiatic countries, and relatively to the va-
luable nature of the garden produce, comprising, independently
of the ordinary fruits and vegetables, grapes, oranges, sugar-
cane, cotton, two kinds of fine wheat, and aromatic and pungent
seeds, — the field produce also embracing all the bread grains,
gram, and other pulses, — are unquestionably very low; and were
there no extra cesses even in the present depreciated value of
agricultural produce, could not only be borne by the cultivator,
but he might flourish under them even with the burthen of 25
per cent, on his produce — fees paid to the Hukdars and Bul-
lootehdars. These rates, howevei*, are considerably enhanced by
extra cesses called Puttees, many of which were levied for con-
tingencies and particular exigencies, or resulted from the con-
version of voluntary offerings in kind into compulsory money
payments.

These cesses are no less than 62 in number in the three col-
lectorates of Poona, Ahmednuggur, and Khandesh, and the
whole of them are for different objects ; many of them result
from local circumstances, and are therefore of a local bearing.
The majority of these Puttees are not of uniform operation in
the three collectorates, but one or more of them up to a score
may be found in every village.

A few observations on the origin, character, and practical
effects of some of these Puttees may be necessary. Most of
them profess to bear directly on the land, such as those for
grain, forage, and ropes to government, grain to Ramooses,
Havildar, Gosawees, and Meeras tax, tax for sugar, &c. : other
taxes which originally fell upon tradespeople, such as those
for skins, shoes, wool, blankets, and oil, are no longer derived
from their legitimate sources, but fall upon the cultivator.

316 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

Milch cattle, fowls, mango trees, and pumpkin beds respect-
ively continue to supply the means to pay the taxes for Ghee,
thickened sour milk, fowls, and fruits. Some of the Puttees
involved personal labour, such as those for grass cut and fur-
nished gratis to government, for firewood, for dinner plates
composed of leaves sewn together, for monsoon great coats
made of wicker work and leaves, and for sticks to pound rice
with. The Rabta Mahr, spoken of under "tenures," is in lieu
of personal services. Some of them in their name indicate their
professedly temporary character, such as the Eksalee, or foe
one year, and yet they have been perpetuated. The Shadee or
marriage cess at Angur, Pergunnah Mohol, and Ashtee Per-
gunnah Oondurgaon, amounted to nearly 12 per cent, of the
whole revenue of the towns, and could only have been for a
passing event. The Wurgut at Wangee and Ashtee, which
was raised by the village authorities for village expenses, is one
of these unjustifiable taxes. At Ashtee, the scene of the battle
of Ashtee and capture of the Sattarah princes, in 1818, the
Wurgut was 1405 rupees, in a revenue of 6386 rupees, or 22 per
cent. ; of this sum government took 900 rupees, leaving 505
rupees to the villagers for their expenses. This Puttee at the
town of Kurjut, Pergunnah Kurreh Wullet, is 6 annas per rupee,
or 37 h per cent, on the land and Sahyer assessments, and Bur-
goojur or tax on betel gardens. At Rawgaon, the Wurgut
amounted to 14| annas per rupee on the land assessments and
taxes, or more than 90 per cent. The Kaateh Mornawul, or
pecuniary punishment, inflicted on a village for a Mamlehdar's
running thorns into his feet on perambulating its lands, should
have had some limits in its duration. The Puttees for sturdy
Gosawees, Havildars, Ramooses, Naikwarees, should have
ceased when there were no longer Gosawees to beg with arms
in their hands, or Havildars, Naiks, and Ramooses to exercise
respectively certain functions.

The fractional apportioning the above taxes to the cultiva-
tors, involving also the compound operation of providing reduced
shares for the privileged classes, the fractional deductions,
in a certain ratio in case of remissions, the fluctuating amount
of the individual shares dependent on the fixed commutation
cesses, heing yearly divisible amongst a variable number of cul-
tivators, the mutable character of the Seerusteh Butta, which
necessarily changes with the yearly varying total assessments
of the village, and which Seerusteh Butta is not determinable
until all other assessments be fixed, combine great evils, and,
unless to the most practised, patient, and persevering investi-
gator, present an inexjtricable mass of confusion. The evils

ON THE STATISTICS OP DUKHUN. 317

are, that a cultivator, be he lettered or not, cannot by possibi-
lity know what he will have to pay the ensuing or even the
present year, because fixed sums, payable by the village, are
divisible amongst a varying number of cultivators. Even if
fixed sums were divisible amongst a fixed number of cultiva-
tors, the limited progress in arithmetic of the poor people
would utterly disable them from determining their respective
fractional shares; for instance, of 4 rupees for skins and
shoes, 1 rupee for beit, a 4f for ghee, and 1^ for leaf plates,
&c. &c. In the whole course of my personal inquiries amongst
this class for more than six years, I never met with one Koon-
bee who could or would give me a detail of his assessments or
their amount ; the constant reply was, " The Koolkumee
knowsJ' This very uncertainty of their means and liabilities
makes men improvident and careless.

The next evil is, that the Koolkumee, in apportioning the
fixed sums, and the Seerusteh Butta, the commutation money
for grain, for ghee, sugar, pumpkins, &c. &c. is assured of
impunity in defrauding the cultivators, from their want of liabi-
lity in their accounts, even if they were aware of the value and
amount of the cesses and the number of persons they were to
bear upon. It is almost waste of labour to give the cultivator
a note from government of what he will have to pay, as in nine
instances out of ten he cannot read it ; his expounder is the
Koolkumee, or the Koolkurnee's relations, and they read it
agreeably to their own calculations.

The above is an exposition of the assessments as they now
bear on the land, which produces 82-30 per cent, of the whole
revenue. The remaining portions of the revenue, which appear
in village papers are usually classed under the term Sahyer,
and are in fact taxes. The two principal heads of Sahyer are
Mohturfa, properly " Arhan," or taxes on shops, houses, and
professions ; and Bullooteh.

Operation of Sahyer Taxes.— An idea of the operation of
these taxes will be formed by the following details from
Wangee, Pergunnah Wangee.

Wanees, or sellers of grain and groceries, from 4 to
6 rupees a shop ; oilman, for one oil-mill in

™ ork • • • 6 rupees.

Weavers, per loom 3 do.

Other tradesmen pay proportional taxes. The threshold
tax is called Oombraputtec, from Oombra, threshold: it is
generally a rupee per house.

At Tellegaon, Pergunnah Paubul, Poona collectorate, the
* Beit, " o present."

318 SEVENTH REPORT 1837-

taxes on trades are fixed on a scale of annas relatively to the
visible means and profits of the tradespeople. The anna is
considered equivalent to 3£ rupees. The trades are taxed from
^th anna to 2 annas, or 7 rupees, which is the highest sum
for one shop.

The highest tax on one weaver is half an anna, or If rupee ;
oilman, highest rate one anna, or 3^ rupees ; the saddler, dyer,
and butcher, at half an anna each, or If rupee; fishermen,
dealers in sweet potatoes, and makers of bridles, 1 rupee each ;
the community of braziers, 10 rupees. All the Momeens who
are Moosulmans and weavers of turbands taxed in the lump at
25 rupees ; shepherds at 14 rupees. These taxes are not raised
on any systematic principles of application.

Bullooteh Tax. — The Bullooteh is a tax levied on the per-
sons called the Bara Bullooteh, or artizans and functionaries
twelve in number, who are important personages in the village
constitution.

The taxes on the Bullooteh are generally deemed to be on the
exercise of their profession ; but this is a mistake, as the
astrologer and Guruw, or sweeper of the village temple, pay
Bullooteh tax, although not artizans ; and I have known indivi-
duals of a trade (in one instance a boy the survivor of a family)
paying from 20 to 25 rupees per annum, which they could not
possibly do from the gain of their handicrafts.

The fact is, the Bara Bullooteeh have annual grain fees from the
cultivators ; and government, in former times, deeming these
fees more than commensurate with the value of the labours per-
formed, took a part of them in money. The taxes on the Bul-
lootehdar, are therefore indirectly derived from the land ; some
of these taxes fall very heavily. At Wangee three carpenters
pay 36 rupees Bullooteh tax, Wurgut 9 rupees, and house tax 3
rupees for three houses. At Tellegaon, Turruff, Paubul, the
Bullooteh taxes are yet higher : carpenter 50 rupees, shoe-
makers 60 rupees, Guruw or sweeper of the temple 30 rupees,
barber 24 rupees, washerman 8 rupees, Moolana, or Moosul-
man priest, who also gets Bullooteh, 8 rupees ; but the culti-
vators are numerous, and the lands of Tellegaon under cultiva-
tion extensive. The Bullootehdar on the whole therefore reaps
a rich harvest, in spite of government participating in his fees,
from the cultivators. It is unnecessary to multiply instances of
the bearing of the Sahyer taxes. Taxes for the sale of spirituous
liquors, and the amount of customs or transit duties, rarely
appear in village papers, as those branches of the revenue are
mostly farmed.

My limits do not permit me to give a detailed statement of
the manner in which village accounts are kept under a native

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 319

government. It would much assist to illustrate the internal
ceconomy of a village and many local usages, but I have not space.
I can only say that the whole accounts of a village are kept on
a ribbon of paper, about five inches wide and some yards long, not
rolled up but folded in lengths of twelve inches or more : one of
these is required for each year. At Wangee it is called Gao
Jarah, or village search ; at K.ur muMaJhartee A kaar, or figures
or signs of search ; at Barlonee it has the compound term of
Lownee Putruck, (detail of cultivation,) and Zumeen Jarha,
(land search) ; at Rawgaon it is called Wussool Jarha, or
search of collections : occasionally it is Akaarbund, or roll of
signs, items, figures. These varying names result from the
union of two papers which are usually kept separate ; namely
the Thul Jarha, or roll of lands by family estates ; and the
Loivnce Putruck, or roll of cultivation and assessments.

In closing the notice of assessments, a few words are neces-
sary to explain the method of keeping village accounts. At the
head of the paper called Gao Jarha is the name of the village,
the Pergunnah and Soobeh it is in, the year and the name
of the government it is under ; this is followed by the Tunkha
or Moghul money assignment upon the village, the Moosul-
mans having fixed each village to pay a definite sum, leaving
the whole details of assessment and distribution to the Pateel
and villagers ; then follows the total quantity of land belonging
to the village : deductions are made for land in boundary
disputes, for Eenams of all kinds, whether to the temples,
to the village officers, to the Deshmook or Deshpandeh, or
to individuals, the quantity to each being carefully marked ; all
these being deducted, the remainder is distinguished into
garden and field-land ; then follows a roll of the cultivators, with
a number of columns to record the quantity of land held upon
each tenure, and the amount payable for each ; a column for
the share of the extra assessments, previously noticed, inclu-
ding the share of village expenses, which is always consider-
able ; also columns for totals of the different heads. Then follow
rolls of the Bullooteh, shopkeepers, trades, and others subject
to fixed taxes, with columns for the proportion of tax upon
the particular trade ; the Bullooteh, the house-tax, and share
of extra assessments, which these people pay although they are
not landholders.

An abstract of the preceding details is now made, called the
Ekunder Tereej. The contract for the transit duties, if not
farmed, is added ; and the Kumall, which means "total," "all,"
"whole," is put at the bottom. Then follow the deductions under
the heads of money — Eenams, Hukdars, village, and other ex-
penses, every item of which is detailed. Amongst the expenses

320 SEVENTH REPORT — 1837.

are village festivals, dinners to government officers, donations to
brahmans, feeding pilgrims, interest on money borrowed, ex-
penses of tbe Pateel and village officers when attending the go-
vernor of the district, oil in the temples, the Moosulman saint's
tomb (if there be one) coming in for its share of donation or
annual allowance, strange as it may appear, from Hindoo cul-
tivators. I regret much that my limits do not permit me to
detail the expenses, many of which are very curious, and illus-
trate habits and customs. The expenses being deducted from
the collections, a balance is struck, which, under native govern-
ments, left the Tunkha, or government original assignment,
together with any extra assessment, if levied, such as Sur Dcsh-
mookee, Chouth, &c. &c. To show how large a proportion of
the village collections did not go to government, in one village,
whose accounts I translated, the Tunkha, or government share,
was 5500 rupees ; and the Kumall, or total collections, 8522
rupees; 60 that 3022 rupees, or more than 35 per cent, of the
whole, went in village expenses, Hukdars, (Deshmooks and
Deshpandehs,) and other claims.

Wages.

The amount of wages of agricultural labourers is of so much
importance to the class constituting the major part of the
community, and it assists the judgement so materially in
estimating the condition of the people, that I shall offer all the
details I was able to collect in the Dukhun bearing on the
question.

Farmers' Artificers'' Work executed for Fees in Kind. —
The trifling artificers' and mechanics' work required by the
farmer being performed by the village artisans, in virtue of their
offices and for fees in kind, it will not be necessary to enlarge
on the remuneration for their labour : but to afford distinct
ideas of its value, at the end of this paper I shall put into
juxtaposition the rates paid by the Peshwah's government and
the British government to artificers, mechanics, and others.

I made my inquiries on the subject of wages in towns and
villages, the most distant from each other, to prevent the mistake
of the adoption of local rates for those of general operation.

Wages of Husbandmen and other Labourers at Nandoor. —
At Nandoor, a British town in the Ahmednuggur collectorate,
in March, 1827, I found that yearly husbandry servants got
from 12 to 20 rupees" per annum and their food; a smart
active man got about 15 rupees per annum and supplied him-
self with clothes.

» From 24 to 40 shillings.

ON THE STATISTICS OF DUKHUN. 321

Day labourers, when paid in cash, get If anna per day, or
■gz of two shillings, (about two pence farthing,) supplying them-
selves with every thing : but day labourers are never paid in
money unless when grain' is very dear.

Quantity given. — The most usual plan in harvesting crops
is to give each labourer three sheaves of whatever grain he is
cutting down ; and provided he ties up the sheaves and stacks
them, he gets five sheaves a day.

Value of Wages in Kind, converted into Money. — The grain
in five sheaves, in ordinary seasons, amounts to about two seers.
At the price of Bajree*, in March 1827, at Nandoor, namely 42
seers per rupee, the value of the labour was one penny and T ^ths
per day. Joareef, at 56 seers per rupee, was y^^ths of a penny
per day, or rather more than three farthings. Wheat, at 18
seers per rupee, would have been two pence tuo> or something-
less than two pence three farthings per day. Allowing the
grain in five bundles to be double the quantity stated, which is
rather possible than probable, the highest wages in harvesting
wheat would not have been five pence halfpenny per diem.
When men are employed in ploughing or harrowing, nine
times out of ten, they are paid two seers of Bajree for their day's
work, from daylight to night, allowing one hour for dinner.

At Kanoor. — At Kanoor, a town in Jagheer, Ahmednuggur
collectorate, in March 1827, I found that the two Pateels had
each a permanent domestic servant in his employ; one paid
his man 15 rupees per annum and his food; the other gave
15 rupees per annum, food, and five articles of wearing
apparel, the value of which was 3 a rupees.

Wages at Dyivuree. — At Dywuree, Nuggur collectorate,
in November 1826, the cultivators did not pay their day-
labourers in money, but gave them five sheaves of grain for
every hundred cut down ; a very able man indeed might cut
down two hundred sheaves in a day, which would give him
four seers of grain, the value of which (Bajree) in November,
1826, was about T %ths of a rupee, or three pence English.

Wages at Dytna. — At Dytna, Nuggur collectorate, in Fe-
bruary 1827, I found a man getting 25 rupees per annum,
his food and a blanket, his son being also in employ at six
rupees a year, food and clothes ; but this was looked upon as
high, and the individuals getting such wages fortunate : the
village belonged to a Gosawee \ who paid his people well.

Wages of Women Day Labourers. — At Chambergoondeh,
a large town belonging to Seendeh, Nuggur collectorate, in

* Properly, Sujgooreh, Panicum spicatnm.

t Properly, Jondleh, Andropogon Sorghum. % Gosawee, a religieux.

VOL. VI. 1837. Y

322 SEVENTH REPORT 1837?

November 1827, women weeding in fields got T ^th of a rupee
per day, or one penny halfpenny, and worked from sunrise to
sunset.

Wages at Kurkumh. — At Kurkumb, a Jagheer town in the
Poona collectorate, in December 1827, I found a husbandry
servant getting only twelve rupees per annum, and food twice a
day : no clothes. A man watching a field of grain was a monthly
servant at three rupees a month, without food or clothes.

Highest Wages at Kurkumb. — From the authorities of the
town I learned that the highest rate paid for the cleverest
gardener's assistant or ploughman was 25 rupees per annum
and daily food, but without clothes. The monthly rates for
agricultural servants were from 2f to 3 rupees, without food,
or clothes, fee, or advantage.

Pay of Seypoys at Angur. — At Angur, a British town in
the Poona Collectorate, on the 9th of January, 1828, in looking
over the village accounts, I found two village seypoys charged
respectively three rupees and two rupees for a month's pay.

Wages of Women Labourers at Poona. — On the 21st July,
1827, I found a great number of women weeding in gardens in
the neighbourhood of the city of Poona ; they received each
six pice in money, or (fyths of two shillings, (two pence one-third
per day,) and worked from daylight until dark. This may be
considered high wages, and its amount is to be attributed to
the paucity of field labourers in a great city.

Wages at Pait. — At Pait, a Jagheer town in Pergunnah
Kheir, in the Poona collectorate, on the 16th February, 1829,
in my evening excursion, I overtook twelve or fourteen men
and women with bundles of wheat in the straw on their heads ;
on inquiry I found they had been employed as labourers in
pulling up a field of wheat at Pait. Their wages had been five
sheaves for every hundred gathered ; two or three of the men
only had got five sheaves each, the majority of them only four,
and the women none more than three. Five sheaves they said
would yield about four seers of wheat, and as wheat was
selling in Pait at 28 seers per rupee, each man with five
sheaves received for his labour nine pice, or 3£d. English. These
poor people belonged to the town of Owsuree, five miles
distant from Pait ; they had therefore a march of ten miles to
make besides their day's labour.

Wages at Joonur. — At the city of Joonur, at the end of
February 1829, I found a brahman cultivating the Hubbus
Baugh (about 80 beegahs of land) ; he employed numerous la-
bourers. While I was encamped near his garden, fields of wheat,
and gram, and Booee Moong*, &c. were harvested. For the

* Earth-nut, Arachis hypogea.

ON THK STATISTICS OF DUKHUN.

323

wheat and gram and bread-grains the men got five sheaves
per cent. In the field of Booee Moong there were between
fifty and sixty women employed ; and I learned that, in this
particular product, from the labour and tediousness of digging
it up, and the cheapness of the produce, the labourers were
allowed one-fourth of the whole. In cutting down sugar-cane,
gathering fruits or vegetables, and indeed where the produce
was too valuable to give the labourer a share of it, the Brahman
paid a man eight pice a day (little more than 2^d.) and a woman
four, and they worked from daylight until dark, with an allow-
ance of one hour for dinner.

The above data are gathered from places widely separated in
the Poona and Ahmednuggur collectorates ; and although in dif-
ferent years, are remarkable in their uniformity ; they supply
therefore just estimates for the general rates of wages, and it may
be fairly stated that the highest money wages paid by the natives
to any husbandry or domestic servant is four rupees per
month, with which he finds his own food and clothes, and 2 T g-
rupees per month is the pay when the master supplies food and
clothes ; and the most favourable wages to a man day-labourer
are eight pice per diem *, and to a woman five pice f.

Artificers' and servants' wages, and price of Bread-grains
under the Peshiva's and British Governments.

Rates of hire for a month of thirty days
of artificers, servants, and labourers
in Dukhun, under the British govern-
ment in 1828, and Peshwa's govern-
ment in A.D. 1814.

Prices of grains, pulses, and other
articles, the ordinary consump-
tion of artificers, servants, la-
bourers, &c. at Poona in Duk-
hun, under the Peshwa's go-
vernment, being a mean of five
years from 1811 to 1815, and
under the British in 1828.

Denomination

artificers, servants, &c.

Monthly Pay.

Grains, pulses,

and
other articles.

Seers per Rupee.

J3 oj

13 |S

Maistry, or head "l

Second or under do.

Maistry, or head ]
carpenter, finest V

Rupees.
25, 35, 40
23 &25

30, 35, & 45

Rupees.
15
12

15,20, 4C

Do. Ambemor ...

Wheat, Buckshee

Joaree {Andro- >
pogon Sorghum) )

Seers.
16
13
14

18
20

Seers.
12

Hi*

2*ii

* About 24d.

y 2

t About Hd.

324

SEVENTH REPORT 1837.

Table continued.

Denominations
of

Monthly Pay.

Grains, pulses,
and

Seers per Rupee.

g>£3

■ceo

artificers, servants, &c.

S3* 3