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BRITISH ASSOCIATION
FOR THE ADVANCEMENT
OF SCIENCE
x
&
a “S
CO Sse
SS my
REPORT
OF THE
ANNUAL MEETING, 1938
(108rH YEAR)
CAMBRIDGE
AUGUST 17-24
LONDON
OFFICE OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
BURLINGTON HOUSE, LONDON, W.1
1938
iii
CONTENTS.
PAGE
OEEICERS AND COUNCIL, 1938-30). wi. Stee ee eee ete eee cee Vv
SECTIONAL OFFICERS, CAMBRIDGE MEETING, 1938 .............-+- Vili
ANNUAL MEETINGS: PLACES AND DATES, PRESIDENTS, ATTENDANCES,
RECEIPTS, SUMS PAID ON ACCOUNT OF GRANTS FOR SCIENTIFIC
RURP OSES (OST — LOGS) ee aie: as ocs oerereranh ere seyshore agi a ereretelene wiesvede x
NARRATIVE OF THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING ..........-.00ee eee eees Xiv
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL TO THE GENERAL COMMITTEE (1937-38) .. Xvi
GENERAL 'TREASURER’S REPORT AND ACCOUNT (1937-38).......-.- XXXVili
RESEARCH COMMITTEES (1937-38) ........--- irotoacleye sala ce Maree aie hii
RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS (CAMBRIDGE MEETING) ..... Iviti
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS :
I. Vision in Nature and Vision aided by Science. II. Science
and Warfare. By the Rt. Hon. Lord Ray eicuH, Sc.D.,
IPAUCID PARE RRO cyte cm wh ener saree ties eee oere tole « cheue: dreeeminalaeie I
SECTIONAL PRESIDENTS’ ADDRESSES :
Logic and Probability in Physics. By Dr. C.G. Darwin, F.R.S. 21
Recent Investigations in the Chemistry of Gold. By Prof. C.S.
GIBSON NOUBA GbR a. bac otis cette e Meera te alot Onis iain cher 35
Development and Evolution. By Prof. H. H. SwINNERTON.... 57
Oceanography and the Fluctuations in the Abundance of Marine
Animals. By Dr. STANLEY Kemp, F.R.S. ............... 85
Correlations and Culture. By Prof. GrirFITH TAYLOR........ 103
Scope and Method of Economics. By R. F. Harrop ........ 139
The Changing Outlook of Engineering Science. By Prof. R. V.
SS OMMUEM WY BIT SUE SER 5 ca aie’ car eyavsep ener e btthes «aie chlsntutes iaemans a 163
The Orient and Europe. By Prof. V. G. CHILDE ............ 181
Eye and Brain as Factors in Visual Perception. By Dr. R. H.
PIBETOUIEESS eet ceres tances es oers elo trove Gk aac ie Gi a Pe elle a connate 197
The General Physiology of the Plant Cell and its Importance in
Pure and Applied Botany. By Prof. W. StiLes, F.R.S. ... 213
The Function of Administration in Public Education. By
PSVRIRGEINT: cis ciounicle «i atsie giercial ove/'eiuere aioe Giaeenen ase tietcbaas Shak 235
Ley-Farming and a long-term Agricultural Policy. By Prof.
RAGS OTAPLEDONS C2B. Es co cccciels satis cis « sere sean wens 245
iv CONTENTS
PAGE
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE ............---5 airditat'y Sheree 263
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .....--.eeeeeeeeeeees Bic | ones KOT
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES ......-.. 523
EVENING DISCOURSES ........--.. HES Pde ot ae es RR EENOI IIA hos 0G ic 535
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS 537
ALEXANDER PEDLER LecTuRE. By Prof. H. L. Hawkins, F.R.S... 546
Norman Lockyer Lecture. By Dr. H. SpENcEeR JoNsES, F.R.S. .. 557
APPENDIX.
A ScIeNnTIFIC SURVEY OF CAMBRIDGE AND DISTRICT ....... AAS I
MERIDIEN dee char ese yeusl sicvencve si SEUNG hr DAR tuere ete saehetie day 6 at Otte eae 2ou
PUBLICATIONS OF THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION .............2.++25- At end
EE EE
BRITISH ASSOCIATION FOR THE
ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE.
OFFICERS & COUNCIL, 1938-39.
PATRON:
HIS MAJESTY THE KING.
PRESIDENT, 1938 :
Rr. Hon. Lorp Ray teicH, D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT, 1939:
Str ALBERT SEWARD, F.R.S., Sc.D., LL.D.
VICE-PRESIDENTS FOR THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING.
The CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVERSITY
(Rt. Hon. the Eart BALDWIN OF |
BEWDLEY, P.C., F.R.S.).
The VicE-CHANCELLOR OF THE UNIVER- |
sity (Professor H. R. Dean, M.D., |
Master of Trinity Hall).
The Lorp-LIEUTENANT OF CAMBRIDGE-
SHIRE (C. R. W. ADEANE, C.B.,
aR).
The HicH SHERIFF FOR CAMBRIDGE-
SHIRE AND HUNTINGDONSHIRE
PEAKE, J.P.).
THE Mayor OF CAMBRIDGE (E. SAVILLE
Peck, M.A.).
Alderman W. L. Briacs, J.P.
| The CHAIRMAN OF THE CAMBRIDGE-
(T. |
SHIRE County Councit (Councillor
A. R. ForpuHam, J.P.).
The Rt. Rev. the Lorp BisHoPp oF ELy
(Rt. Rev. B. O. F. HEywoop, D.D.).
The Rt. Hon. Lord FarrHAvEN, D.L.
Alderman H, FRANKLIN.
W. A. H. Harpine, M.A.
W. W. PEMBERTON, M.B., B.Ch., J.P.
Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., F.R.S.
Prof. Sir F. GoWLAND Hopkins, O.M.,
F.R.S.
Sir ALBERT SEWARD, F.R.S.
| The Very Rey. the DEAN oF ELy (Very
Rev. LionEL E. BLACKBURNE, M.A.).
Rev. Prof. C. E. Raven, D.D.
VICE-PRESIDENTS ELECT FOR THE DUNDEE MEETING.
(To be appointed.)
Vi OFFICERS AND COUNCIL
GENERAL TREASURER.
Prof. P. G. H. BoswE Lt, O.B.E., D.Sc., F.R.S.
GENERAL SECRETARIES.
Prof. F. T. Brooxs, M.A., F.R.S.
| Prof. ALLAN FerGuson, D.Sc.
SECRETARY.
O. J. R. Howartn, O.B.E., Ph.D.
ASSISTANT SECRETARY.
D. N. Lowe, M.A., B.Sc.
ORDINARY MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
R. W. Aten, C.B.E.
Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S.
Prof. F. AVELING.
Prof. F. BALFOUR-BROWNE.
Sir T. Hupson BEARE.
Rt. Hon. Viscount BLEDISLOE, P.C.,
G.C.M.G., G.B.E.
Dr. W. T. Carman, C.B., F.R.S.
Prof. F. DEBENHAM, O.B.E.
Wren Gankxen EVAN
Prof. W. G. FEARNSIDES, F.R.S.
Prof. H. J. FLEuRE, F.R.S.
Prof. F. E. Fritscu, F.R.S.
Sir RicHARD GREGORY, F.R.S.
Prof. A. V. Hitt, O.B.E., Sec.R.S.
Prof. T. G. HI.
Prof. T. S. Moore.
Prof. J. C. Puiir, O.B.E., F.RS.
Prof. J. G. SMITH.
Lt.-Col. W. CAMPBELL SMITH.
Prof. C. SPEARMAN, F.R.S.
Dr. C. TIERNEY.
Dr. J. A. VENN.
Prof. Sir GILBERTWALKER,C.S.I.,F.R.S.
R. S. WHIPPLE.
J. S. WILson.
EX-OFFICIO MEMBERS OF THE COUNCIL.
Past Presidents of the Association, the President for the year, the President
and Vice-Presidents for the ensuing Annual Meeting, past and present General
Treasurers and General Secretaries, and the Local Treasurers and Local Secretaries
for the Annual Meetings immediately past and ensuing.
PAST PRESIDENTS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., F.R.S. (1909).
Sir OLIVER LoD3E, F.R.S. (1913).
Sir ARTHUR Evans, F.R.S. (1916-18).
Prof. Sir C. S. SHERRINGTON, O.M.,
G.B.E., F.R.S. (1922).
H.R.H. The PrRiNcE oF WALES, K.G.,
D.C.L., F.R.S. (1926).
Prof. Sir ARTHUR KEITH, F.R.S. (1927).
Prof. Sir Wit~t1am H. Brace, O.M.,
K.B.E., Pres.R.S. (1928).
Sir THomas H. Horranp, K.C.I.E.,
K.C.S.I., F.R.S. (1929).
Prof. F. O.. Bower, F.R.S. (1930).
Gen. The Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C.,
C.H.,-F.R:S. (1931).
Sir F. GowLanpb Hopkins, O.M., F.R.S.
(1933).
Sir JamEs H. Jrans, F.R.S. (1934).
Prof. W. W. Watts, LEZD3 Sc.D:
F.R.S. (1935). :
Rt. Hon. Lord Stamp, G.C.B., G.B.E.,
D.Sc. (1936).
Prof. Sir EpwarD PouLtTon, F.R.S.
(1937).
PAST GENERAL OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION.
Prof. J. L. Myrss, O.B.E., F.B.A.
Prof. EF. Jj. M:; Stratton, D.S:0.,
O.B.E., M.A.
Sir FRANK SMITH, K.C.B., C.B.E.,
Sec.R.S.
OFFICERS AND COUNCIL Vii
HON. AUDITORS.
Dr. Ezer GRIFFITHS, F.R.S. | R. S. WHIPPLE.
HON. CURATOR OF DOWN HOUSE.
Sir BucKstoN Browne, F.R.C.S.
LOCAL OFFICERS
FOR THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING.
LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES.
C. H. Kemp, Town Clerk of Cambridge.
A. Tasrum, O.B.E., M.A., LL.M., Clerk to the Cambridgeshire County Council.
F. P. Wuite, M.A., St. John’s College, Cambridge.
E. N. Wittmer, M.A., Physiological Laboratory, Cambridge.
LOCAL HON. TREASURERS.
R. Epx, M.A., School of Agriculture, Cambridge.
R. H. Parker, M.A., D.L., M.C., Barclays Bank, Cambridge.
LOCAL OFFICERS
FOR THE DUNDEE MEETING.
(AUGUST 30 TO SEPTEMBER 6, 1939.)
CHAIRMAN OF THE LOCAL GENERAL COMMITTEE.
THE Lorp Provost OF DUNDEE
Joun Puin, LL.D.
LOCAL HON. SECRETARIES.
W. A. R. ALLarpicE, Lord Provost’s Secretary, Dundee.
Prof. E. T. Copson, University College, Dundee.
Davip Latto, Town Clerk, Dundee.
LOCAL HON. TREASURERS.
Wo. AITKEN, City Chamberlain, Dundee.
Quintin B. Grant, Royal Bank of Scotland, Dundee.
viii OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1938
SECTIONAL OFFICERS.
A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
President.—Dr. C. G. Darwin, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—Prof. W. L. Brace, O.B.E., F.R.S., Sir ARTHUR EDDINGTON,
O.M., F.R.S., Prof. R. H. Fowrer, O.B.E., F.R.S., Dr. G. W. C. Kaye,
O.B.E., Prof. F. J. M. Stratton, O.B.E.
Recovdey.—Dr. EzER GRIFFITHS, F.R.S.
Secretavies.—]. H. AWBERY, Prof. W. H. McCrea, Dr. D. M. WrincH.
Local Secretaries —Dr. N. FEATHER, Dr. J. WISHART.
B.—CHEMISTRY.
President.—Prof. C. S. GiBson, O.B.E., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—Sir F. GowLanpD Hopkins, O.M., F.R.S., Dr. W. H. MILts,
F.R.S., Sir Wm. Pops, K.B.E., F.R.S., Dr. F. L. Pyman, F.R.S., Prof. E. K.
RIDEAL, M.B.E., F.R.S.
Recorder.—Prof. J. E. Coates.
Secretaries —Dr. H. J. T. ELL1INGHAM, T. W. J. TAYLOR.
Local Secretary.—Dr. A. E. MOELWyN-HUGHEs.
C.—GEOLOGY.
Pyresident.—Prof. H. H. SwINNERTON.
Vice-Presidents—Dr. H. voN ECKERMANN, Dr. A. HARKER, F.R.S., Prof. O. T.
Jones, F.R.S., Sir ALBERT SEWARD, F.R.S., Prof. C. E. Tittry, F.R.S.,
Prof. L. J. WILts.
Recordev.—l. S. DOUBLE.
Secretavies.—Dr. O. M. B. Burman, W. H. WILcockson.
Local Secretary.—M. BLAck.
D.—ZOOLOGY.
President.—Dr. S. W. Kemp, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. L. F. DE BEAuForRT, Prof. H. Boscuma, Prof. F. A. E.
Crew, Prof. J. STANLEY GARDINER, F.R.S., Prof. J. Gray, F.R.S., Dr. A. D.
Imns, F.R.S., Dr. TH. MORTENSEN.
Recorder.—Prof. W. M. TATTERSALL.
Secretavies.—Dr. G. S. CARTER, H. R. HEWER.
Local Secretavy.—Dr. F. S. J. HoLricx.
E.—GEOGRAPHY.
President.—Prof. GRIFFITH TAYLOR.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. DEBENHAM, O.B.E., B. B. Dickinson, Prof. C. B.
Fawcett, Lt.-Col. L. TEBBuTT.
Recordey.—J]. N. L. BAKER.
Secretavies.—Dr. R. O. BucHANAN, D. L. LINTON. -
Local Secretavy—J. A. STEERS.
F.—ECONOMICS.
President.—R. F. Harrop.
Vice-Presidents.—Sir W. BEVERIDGE, K.C.B., Dr. C. R. Fay, Prof. P. SARGANT
FLORENCE, Dr. J. N. Keynes, Mrs. M. MARSHALL.
Recordey.—Dr. P. Forp.
Secretavies.—S. R. DENNISON, E. D. McCatium.
Local Secretary.—D. G. CHAMPERNOWNE.
OFFICERS OF SECTIONS, 1938 ix
G.—ENGINEERING.
President.—Prof. R. V. SOUTHWELL, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents—O. Borer, Sir ALEXANDER GipB, G.B.E., C.B., F.RS.,
Prof. C. E. Incuis, O.B.E., F.R.S., C. C. Mason.
Recordey.—Wing-Commander T. R. CavE-BROWNE-CavVE, C.B.E.
Secretavies—H. M. Crarke, Prof. W. J. Joun.
Local Secretary.—Dr. R. D. Davigs.
H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
President.—Prof. V. GORDON CHILDE.
Vice-Presidents—L. C. G. CLARKE, Dr. A. C. Happon, F.R.S., Prof. J. H.
Hutton, C.I.E., Prof. E. H. Minns, F.B.A.
Recorder.—R. U. SayYce.
Secretaries.—Miss C, FELL, K. H. Jackson.
Local Secretary.—Dr. G. E. DANIEL.
J.—PSYCHOLOGY.
President.—Dr. R. H. THOULEss.
Vice-Presidents.—Prof. F. C. BartLett, F.R.S., R. J. Bartrett, Dr. Mary
Coxuins, E. FARMER, Prof. H. S. LANGFELD, Prof. A. MIcHoTTE.
Recordey.—Dr. S. J. F. PHILport.
Secretarvies.—Dr. HitpA OLpDuaM, Dr. P. E. VERNON.
Local Secretary.—Miss M. D. VERNON.
K.—BOTANY.
President.—Prof. W. STILEs, F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents.—G. E. Brices, F.R.S., Prof. F. T. Brooxs, F.R.S., Sir Roy
Rosinson (Chairman, Dept. of Forestry, K*), Prof. E. J. Sarispury, F.R.S.,
Sir ALBERT SEWARD, F.R.S., W. L. Taytor, Dr. H. H. Tuomas, F.R.S.
Recordey.—Dr. B. Barnes.
Secretaries.—Prof. T. M. Harris, C. H. THompson, T. THomson, Dr. S. WILLIAMS.
Local Secretary.—G. C. Evans.
L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
President.—J. SARGENT.
Vice-Presidents—Prof. E. BARKER, A. R. ForpHam, G. F. Hicxson, Prof.
G. R. Owst, H. G. WELLs, D.Litt.
Recordery.—A. GRAY JONES.
Secretaries —S. R. Humpy, N. F. SHEPPARD.
Local Secvetary.—J. O. Roacu.
M.—AGRICULTURE.
President.—Prof. R. G. STaPLEDON, C.B.E.
Vice-Presidents.—J. M. Catz, J.S. CH1vEers, Sir Wm. DAMPIER, BOR: S) erot hod.
ENGLEDOW.
Recordey.—W. GODDEN.
Secretary.—G. V. Jacks.
Local Secretary —F. HaNLEy.
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
President.—Rt. Hon. the EARL oF OnsLow, C.B.E., P.C., F.S.A.
Secretary.—Dr. C. TIERNEY.
ANNUAL MEETINGS
TABLE OF
Date of Meeting
1831, Sept. 27......
1832, June ig ...
1833, June 25
1834, Sept. 8
1836, Aug. 22 F
1837, Sept. II......
(838, Aug. Io......
1839, Aug. 26......
| 1840, Sept. 17 ....
1841, July 20
1842, June 23
1843, Aug. 17
1844, Sept. 26......
1845, Junerg ..
| 1846, Sept. Io......
1847, June 23.
.| Dublin...
.| Cambridge
bel Oxfords. i cces
Where held Presidents
Mark: nevastvaccersp ieee Viscount Milton, D.C.L., F.R.S. ......
Oxtord ... ..| The Rev. W. Buckland, F.R.S. ......
Cambridge .. .| The Rev. A. Sedgwick, F.R\S. .........
Edinburgh ..
Bristol...
Liverpool
Newcastle-on-Tyne
Birmingham
Glasgow
Plymouth ..
Manchester..
Southampton ...
"| The Rev. Provost Lloyd, LL.D.,F.R.S
.| The Marquis of Lansdowne, F.R.S.
"| The Earl of Rosse, F.R.S.
.| The Rev. G. Peacock, D.D., F.R.
Sir T. M. Brisbane, D.C.L., F.R.S.
The Earl of Burlington, F.R.S..........
‘The Duke of Northumberland, F.R.S.
The Rev. W. Vernon Harcourt, F.R.S.
The Marquis of Breadalbane, F.RS.
The Rev. W. Whewell, F.R. s.
The Lord Francis Egerton, F.G.S
Chrue
Sir John F. W. Herschel, Bart., F.RS.
Sir Roderick I. Murchison, Bart. ay Re
| Sir Robert H. Inglis, Bart., F.R.S.
S
The Marquisof Northampton, Pres.R.S.
1848, Aug. 9 ...... Swansea ..... ce
| 1849, Sept. 12..... Birmingham .| The Rev. T. R. Robinson, D.D., F.R.S.
| 1850, July 2r...... Edinburgh .. ..| Sir David Brewster, K. He ERGte =
PeESS aL ULY 2.0.03. Ipswich .| G. B. Airy, Astronomer Royal, F.R.S.
eiS52, cept. X ...... Belfast .| Lieut.-General Sabine, F.R.S.
| 1853, Sept. 3 ...... TEI ES aes ..| William Hopkins, F.R.S...
1854, Sept. 20...... Liverpool .| The Earl of Harrowby, F.R.S.
/ 1855, Sept. 12 .| Glasgow .. The Duke of Argyll, F.R.S. ............
| 1856, Aug. 6 ‘| Cheltenham .., Prof.C.G.B.Daubeney, M.D.,F.R.S. .
| 1857, Aug. 26...... Dublin........ .| The Rev. H. Lloyd, D.D., F. Rise
| 1858, Sept. 22...... Leeds ...... Richard Owen, M.D., D. Cr , F.R.S.
| 1859, Sept. 14...... Aberdeen H.R.H. The Prince Consort .......++0+-
| (860, June 27 ...| Oxford ..... The Lord Wrottesley, M.A., F.R.S.
| 1861, Sept. 4 ......| Manchester... .| William Fairbairn, LL.D., F.R.S....
Weeos Oct. eer. Cambridge ............ The Rev. Professor W illis, "M.A. ,F.R.S
1863, Aug. 26...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | Sir William G. Armstrong, C. B., F.R.S
1864, Sept. 13...... DOU Sencancenveacenaese Sir Charles Lyell, Bart., M.A., F.R.S
1865, Sept. 6 ......| Birmingham .. .| Prof. J. Phillips, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S
1866, Aug. 22 Nottingham .. ..| William R. Grove, Q.C., F.R.S. ...
1867, Sept. 4 ...... Dundee ..... .| The Duke of Buccleuch, K.C. B.,F.R.S
1868, Aug. I9...... Norwich Dr. Joseph D. Hooker, F.R.S. ........
1869, Aug. 18...... Exeter ... Prof. G. G. Stokes, D.C.L., F.
1870, Sept. 14...... Liverpool .. Prof. T. H. Huxley, LL.
COP I AUPS 2 Uecenes Edinburgh Prof. Sir W. Thomson, L nis
1872, Aug. 14...... Brighton Dr. W. B. Carpenter, FEURS ees
1873, Sept. 17...... Bradford Prof. A. W. Williamson, F.R.S e.
1874, Aug. 19 Belfast Prof. J. Tyndall, LL.D., F.R.S.
1875, Aug. 25 Bristol Sir John Hawkshaw, F.R.S.
1876, Sept. 6 Glasgow Prof. T. Andrews, M.D. oy R.S.
1877, Aug. I5...... Plymouth ..| Prof. A. Thomson, M.D., F.R.S
1878, Aug. 14...... Dublin...... .| W. Spottiswoode, M.A. ela shee
1879, Aug. 20...... Sheffield ..| Prof. G. J. Allman, M.D., F.R.S.
| 1880, Aug. 25...... Swansea .| A. C. Ramsay, LL. Ds ty See meen
1881, Aug. 31...... Niorkiyy cesta. eee Sir John Lubbock, Ba art., F.R.S.
1882, Aug. 23...... Southampton ...... Drews Siemens, Pee rectacesccctsnen
| 1883, Sept. r9...... Southport! 228, ..-0.s< Prof. A. Cayley, D. en, A aCe ra
1884, Aug. 27...... Montreal ..| Prof. Lord Rayleighy Bult peusst dees ies
1885, Sept. 9 Aberdeen ..... .| Sir Lyon Playfair, K.C.B., F.R.S. ...
1886, Sept. 1 Birmingham .. Sir J. W. Dawson, C.M.G., S.
1887, Aug. 31 Manchester Sir H. E. Roscoe, D.C.L., F.
1888, Sept. 5 ...... Bathiiecssnascnesececers Sir F. J. Bramwell, IBERES Ss 3,
1889, Sept. I1...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | Prof. W. H. Flower, C.B:, F.
1890, Sept. 3 ...... Leeds Sir F. A. Abel, C.B., F.R.S.
1891, Aug. I9...... Gardifie sce .| Dr. W. Huggins, F. R. Si 3
1892, Aug. 3 ...... Edinburgh ..... Sir A. Geikie, LL.D., F. RS.
1893, Sept. 13 Nottingham ..| Prof. J.S. Burdon Sanderson, F.R.S.
1894, Aug. 8 ...... Oxford .| The Marquis of Salisbury, K. Gs F.R.S.
1895, Sept. 11...... Ipswich . ..| Sir Douglas Galton, K.C.B., F. RSs
| 1896, Sept. 16 iverpool .| Sir Joseph Lister, Bart., Pres, RS. .
| 1897, Aug. 18 Toronto . Sir John Evans, K.C.B., F.R.S. .....
| 1898, Sept. 7 .| Bristol Sir W. Crookes, F.R.S. ........
1899, Sept. 13...... Dover .| Sir Michael Foster, K.C.B.
|
* Ladies were not admitted by purchased tickets until 1843.
Old Life | New Life
Members | Members
er dele Pt tal
Hcleal Si ichislinth deste
169 65
303 169
109 28
226 150
313 36
241 10
314 18
149 3
227 12
235 9
172 8
164 10
141 13
238 23
194 33
182 14
236 15
222 42
184 27
286 21
321 113
239 15
203 36
287 40
292 44
207 31
167 25
196 18
204 21
314 39
246 28
245 36
212 27
162 13
239 36
221 35
173 19.
201 18
184 16
144 11
272 28
178 17
203 60
235 20
225 18
314 25
428 86
266 36
277 20
259 21
189 24
280 14
201 57.
327 21
214 13
330 st
120 8
281 19
296 20
+ Tickets of Admission to Sections only.
[Continued on p. Xii.
ANNUAL MEETINGS
_ ANNUAL MEETINGS.
Old
eg Mol
an
2
327
324
;
|
i
j
; New
' Annual | Annual
Members Members |
bo
| } Sums paid
Amount P
Asso- | yadies | Forei received | 0” account
biicintes adies fe ears Total fon of Grants
| | Tickets for Scientific
| | | Purposes
| ral | aa aa | 353 = —
} ea — ,; = | 900 a =
| — — —_— 1298 _ £20 0 0
| == => | = | _ —_ | 167 0 Oo
| = Fel BO} MERSBO == 435 0 0
| = — — 1840 = ig 022/22) V6
| _ II1O*. +} — | 2400 — 932 2 2
= er 34 | 1438 = 1595 II o
= = 40 1353 ar 1546 16 4
_ 60* _ 891 — | 1235 I0 11
33t 331* 28 1315 = | 1449 17 8
—_ 160 —_ —_ —_ | 1565 I0 2
| ot |. 260° | —_ _ _— | 981 12 8
| 407 172 35 1079 = 831 9 9
270 196 36 857 — 685 16 o
495 203) jinin’53 1320 Tar 208 5 4
376 197 15 Brg, |, £797" 0410 7275 1 8
| 447 237 22 1071 963 0 0} 15919 6
510 273 44 1241 1085 0 0 345 18 oO
244 | I4I 37 710 620 0 0} 39% 9 7
510 292 | 9 1108 | 1085 0 o 304 6 7
367 236 6 | 876 | 903 0 Oo 205 0 O
765 524 10 | 1802 | 1882 0 o| 38019 7
1094 543 26 hy rae) | 23x0.o oe) 480 16 4
412 346 ores 1098 0 0} 734 13 9
goo 569 26 | 2022 | 2015 0 oO 507 15 4
710 509 13 1698 | 1931 0 0 618 18 2
1206 821 22 | 2564 | 2782 0 oO 684 Ir 1
636 463 47 1689 | 1604 0 oO 766 19 6
1589 791 15 | 3138 3944 0 ©O|} IIII § Io
433 242 25 |} 16x | 1089 O oO} 1293 16 6
1704 1004 25 | 3335 | 3640 0 o| 1608 10
1119 1058 13 | 2802 2965 o o| 1289 15 8
766 508 23 1997 2227 0 0.) 1591 °7 10
60 771 Ir 2303 2469 0 0Oj| 175013 4
1163 771 77 2444 2613 0 o| 1739 4 0
720 682 45t | 2004 2042 0 0| 1940 0 O
678 600 17 ' 1856 I93I O o]| 1622 0 Oo
1103 g10 14 2878 3096 0 oO} 1572 0 0
976 754 21 2463 | 2575 0 O| 1472 2 6
937 giz | 43. 2533 2649 0 O| 1285 0 Oo
796 | 601 II 1983 2120 0 o| 1685 0 o
817 630 12 1951 1979 0 O| II5I 16 0
884 672 17 2248 2397 0 0| 960 0 o
1265 712 25 2774 3023 0 O| 1092 4 2
446 283 Ir 1229 3268. 6 0.) 3126, 9 7
1285 674 17 2578 2615 0 Oo 725 16 6
529 349 13 1404 1425 0 ©| 1080 11 I1
389 147 12 915 899 © O| 731 7 7
1230 514 24 2557 2689 0 Oo 476 8 1
516 189 21 1253 1286 o 6} 1126 ¥ II
952 841 5 _ | 2714 | 3369 © 0 | 1083 3 3
826 74 26&60H.§ 1777 1855 0 o| 1173 4 0
1053 447 6 2203 2256 0 o| 1385 0 Oo
1067 429 II 2453 2532 0 0 995 © 6
1985 493 92 3838 4336 0 oO} 1186 18 o
639 509 12 1984 2107 0 O/] I5II O 5
1024 | 579 21 2437 2441 O O|} 1417 OIL
680 | 334 12 1775 | 1776 0 0} 78916 8
672 | 107 35 1497 1664 © ©O| 1029 10° 0
733 439 50 2070 2007 0 Oo 864 10 o
773 268 17 1661 1653 0 Oo 907 15 6
O4r | 45% 77 2321 2175 0 O 583 15 6
493 261 22 1324 1236 0 0 O77 115, 5
1384 | 873 41 3181 3228 o ©O| rro4 6 1
682 100 41 1362 1398 o oO} 1059 10 8
1051 639 33 2446 2399 0 O/| 1212 0 0
548 1z0 SO 27 1403 1328 0 O| 1430 14 2
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
§ Fellows of the American Association were admitted as Hon. Members for this Meeting.
[Continued on p. xiii.
xii ANNUAL MEETINGS
Table of
Date of Meeting Where held Presidents id te Ney tie
1900, Sept. 5 .....- Bradford ..........+. Sir William Turner, D.C.L., F.R.S. ...| 267 13
1gor, Sept. 11...... Glasgow .... ...| Prof. A. W. Riicker, D.Sc., Sec. R.S. 310 37
1902, Sept. 10...... Belfast ...| Prof. J. Dewar, LL.D., F.R.S. ......... 243 21
1903, Sept. 9 Southport .... .| Sir Norman Lockyer, K.C.B., F.R.S. 250 2I
1904, Aug. 17 Cambridge .... Rt. Hon. A. J. Balfour, M. P., FURS;.. 419 32
1905, Aug. 15. South Africa Prof. G. H. Darwin, LL.D., F.R.S. ... 115 40
1906, Aug. 1 . Yor .| Prof. E. Ray Lankester, LL.D., F.R.S. 322 Io
1907, July 31 ......| Leicester .| Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S. 276 19
1908, Sept. 2 ...... Dublin......... ..-| Dr. Francis Darwin, ERS. 294 24
1909, AUg. 25 .....- Winnipeg . ...| Prof. Sir J. J. Thomson, F.R.S. 117 13
1g10, Aug. 31...... Shetfield ...... ....| Rev. Prof. T. G. Bonney, F.R.S. 293 26
Igt1, Aug. 30...... Portsmouth ...| Prof. Sir W. Ramsay, K.C.B., 3. 284 21
1912, Sept. 4 ...... Dundee ......... ...| Prof. E. A. Schafer, F.R.S. ......ee.0ee 288 14
1913, Sept. I0...... Birmingham ....| Sir Oliver J. Lodge, F.R.S. 4 376 40
1914, July-Sept. | Australia......... ...| Prof. W. Bateson, F.R.S. ..... ae 172 13
1915, Sept. 7 ...- Manchester ......... Prof. A. Schuster, F.R.S........ mupedus asialt 242 19
1916, Sept. 5 ...... Newcastle-on-Tyne | ) 164 12
1917 No Meeting) ...... , Sir Arthur Evans, F.R.S. ............ — _—
1918 No Meeting) ...... | — —
1919, Sept. 9...... Bournemouth......... Hon. Sir C. Parsons, K.C.B., F.R.S....) 235 47
1920, Aug. 24...... ...| Prof. W. A. Herdman, C.B.E., F.R.S. 288 II
1921, Sept. 7 ...... .| Sir T. E. Thorpe, C.B., F.R.S. ......... 336 9
1922, Sept. 6 ...... Hull Sir C.S. Sherrington, G.B.E., Pres.R.S.| 228 13
1923, Sept. 12...... Liverpool Sir Ernest Rutherford, F.R.S. ......... 326 12
1924, Aug.6 . Toronto ......... ...| Sir David Bruce, ae ees saeeke 119 7
1925, Aug. 26. Southampton .| Prof. Horace Lamb, F.R ade 4 280 8
1926, Aug. 4 Oxford . H. Spa The Prince of ‘Wales K.G.,
ose i 358 9
1927, Aug. 31 ...... MCCS jecaccccscnveencans Sir Arthur Keith, ERS. es 249 9
1928, Sept. 5 ...... Glasgow ...... ...| Sir William Bragg, KUB-E.“ ERISA. 260 10
1929, July 22 ...... South Africa Sir Thomas Holland, K.C.S.1.,
Les Py ha, UE SOS sce eroereecreoneeee 81 I
1930, Sept. 3 ...... MBYIStOMS cacveupsanesvss Prof. F. O. Bower, F.R.S. ............... 221 5
1931, Sept. 23...... London’ <..2:c0.:.05+0. Gen. the Rt. Hon. J. C. Smuts, P.C., }
COHISREG i cncensaeaseenccseetpcntesencss 487 xaee
1932, Aug. 31...... NMOL) teecssseperasessnes Sir Alfred Ewing, K.C.B., F.R.S. 206 re
1933, Sept. 6 ...... Leicester ............| Sir F. Gowland Hopkins, Pres. R.S.. 185 37
1934, Sept. 5 «s+. i -eee| Sir James H. Jeans, F.R.S.'4.......... 24 199 21 |
1935, sept. 4 «....- .| Prof. W.W. Watts, F.R.S......... at I9gI II
1936, Sept. 9 ...... : Sir Josiah Stamp, G.C.B., G.B.E....... 188 10
19975 DEDE.L tuwaene Nottingham ....| Sir Edward B. Poulton, F.R.S. ......... 213 6
1938, Aug. 17...... Cambridge .......+..++ Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S.......... 263 a5i6
1 Including 848 Members of the South African Association.
2 Including 137 Members of the American Association.
e 2 Special arrangements were made for Members and Associates joining locally in Australia, see
Report, 1914, p. 686. The numbers include 80 Members who joined in order to attend the Meeting of
L’Association Frangaise at Le Havre.
« Including Students’ Tickets, ros.
* Including Exhibitioners granted tickets without charge. :
* Including grants from the Caird Fund in this and subsequent years,
' Including Foreign Guests, Exhibitioners, and others.
ANNUAL MEETINGS xiii
Annual Meetings—(continued).
| Sums paid
Old New INR poe on account
Annual Annual ine Ladies /|Foreigners} Total z f ay of Grants | Year
Members Members| © Tickets for Scientific
Purposes
ee Se ————_— — ——
207 45 | 801 482 9 1915 |£1801 0 o |f1072 10 0o | 1900
374 131 794 246 20 Igi2 2046 0 0 920 9 II | Igor
314 86 647 305 6 1620 1644 0 0 947 0 O| I902
319 (ole) 688 365 21 1754 1762 0 0 845 13 2 | 1903
449 113 1338) 317 121 2789 2650 0 O 887 18 II | 1904
937! 411 430 | 181 16 2130 2422 0 0 928 2 2] 1905
356 93 SIZe" | 352 22 1972 ISIT +O) 40: 882 0 9g | 1906
339 61 659 251 42 1647 1561 0 0 757 12 10 | 1907
465 112 1166 222 14 2297 2317 0 O| 1157 18 8 | 1908
290? 162 789 go 7 1468 1623 0 O|} 1014 g 9] 1909
379 57 563 123 8 1449 1439 0 0 963 17 0] IgI0
349 61 vi ta 81 31 1241 1176 0 Oo 922 0 OO] I9g1II
368 95 1292 | 359 88 2504 2349 0 O 845 7 6] 1912
480 149 1287 | 291 20 2643 2756 0 O 978 17 I | 1913
129 4160° 539° a 21 5044° | 4873 0 O| 1861 16 4°} 1914
287 116 6284 141 8 1441 1406 0 0} 1569 2 8/ 1915
250 76 251° 73 —_— 826 821 0 0} 985 18 10 | 1916
_ _ _ — _ _ _ 677 17 2 I917
— _ — _— _ _ _ 326 13 3] 1918
254 102 6884 153 3 1482 1736 0 O 410 0 0O| IgI9
Annual Members
Old
Annual Te ae ona Students’
wResular | Meeting | Meeting | Tickets | Tickets
Report only
136 192 571 42 120 20 1380 1272 10 0| 1251 13 0*| 1920
133 410 1394 121 343 22 2768 2599 15 Oo 518 xX 10] 1921
90 294 757 89 235° 24 1730 | 1699 5 O| 722 0 7 | 1922
Compli-
mentary?
123 380 1434 163 550 308 3296 | 2735 15 ©} 777 18 6°| 1923
37 520 1866 41 89 139 2818 3165 19 Of! 1197 5 9 | 1924
97 264 878 62 119 74 1782 1630 5 OO] 1231 O O|} 1925
Ior 453 2338 169 225 69 3722 3542 0 0 917 I 6] 1926
84 334 1487 82 264 161 2670 2414 5 0 761 10 O| 1927
76 554 1835 64 201 74 3074 3072 I0 0 | 1259 10 O | 1928
24 177 12274 —_— 161 83 1754 1477 15 O| 2193 2 I | 1929
68 310 1617 97 267 54 2639 2481 15 Oo 631 Ir g | 1930
78 656 2994 157 454 449 5702 | 4792 10 0 | 1319 9 6 | 1931
44 226 1163 45 214 125 2024 1724 5 O|} 1218 13 11 | 1932
39 236 1468 82 147 74 2268 2428 2 0| 562 19 1133} 1933
30 273 1884 181 280 7o 2938 2900 13 6| 1423 4 9 | 1934
29 237 -| 1444 142 107 7o 2321 2218 14 6] 1649 2 4 | 1935
29 257 1184 128 178 93 2067 2006 14 0] 1098 £r 1 | 1936
28 290 1096 102 200 92 2027 1883 12 0 720 15 I | 1937
32 355 1932 53 209 114 2983 3072 I9 O| 1066 6 8 | 1938
* The Bournemouth Fund for Research, initiated by Sir C. Parsons, enabled grants on account of
scientific purposes to be maintained.
® Including grants from the Caird Gift for research in radioactivity in this and subsequent years
to 1926.
19 Subscriptions paid in Canada were $5 for Meeting only and others prorata; there was some gain
on exchange.
11 Including 450 Members of the South African Association.
12 Including 413 tickets for certain meetings, issued at 5s. to London County Council school-teachers.
18 For nine months ending March 31, 1933.
14 Sir William B. Hardy, F.R.S., who became President on January 1, 1934, died on January 23.
15 Including 8 representatives of Corporation Members.
NARRATIVE OF THE CAMBRIDGE
MEETING.
On Wednesday, August 17, at 8.30 p.M., the Inaugural General Meeting
was held in the Regal Cinema, when the Vice-Chancellor of the University
of Cambridge (Prof. H. R. Dean, M.D.) and His Worship the Mayor of
Cambridge (Councillor E. Saville Peck, M.A.) welcomed the Association
to Cambridge. ‘The President of the Association, the Rt. Hon. Lord
Rayleigh, F.R.S., delivered an address entitled: (Part I) Viston in Nature
and Vision aided by Science, (Part 11) Science and Warfare, for which see
p. 1. A vote of thanks to the President was proposed by Sir Joseph
J. Thomson, O.M., F.R.S., Master of Trinity College, and seconded by
Dr. G. D. Birkhoff, Past President of the American Association for the
Advancement of Science.
Evening Discourses were delivered to the members as follows :
(1) Friday, August 19, in the Arts Theatre, Peas Hill, Dr. H. Godwin :
The History of the Fens. (See p. 535.)
(2) Monday, August 22, in the same theatre, Prof. M. L. Oliphant,
F.R.S.: The Contribution of the Electrical Engineer to Modern Physics.
(See p. 536.)
On Tuesday, August 23, at 8.30 P.M., in the Reception Room (Examina-
tion School), members of the Scientific Delegation in India, 1937-38,
spoke of the experiences of the Delegation. Sir James Jeans, F.R.S.,
General President of the Indian Science Congress Association for its
Jubilee meeting, was in the chair, and the other speakers were Dr. C. G.
Darwin, F.R.S., Dr. J. A. Venn, Prof. Winifred Cullis, C.B.E., Prof. J. H.
Fleure, F.R.S., and Prof. W. W. Tattersall. A series of lantern slides
from photographs by the late Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., was shown.
Photographs by delegates were on exhibition in the Reception room
throughout the Cambridge Meeting. For a oie on the proceedings of
the Delegation, see p. xxvi.
A summary of Sectional Transactions on August 18-24 will be found on
pp- 381 and following.
On Thursday evening, August 18, a Reception was given by the Vice-
Chancellor on behalf of the University of Cambridge, in the Senate House
and Old Schools. By kind permission of the Master and Fellows of
Gonville and Caius College there was dancing in the hall of that college.
NARRATIVE OF THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING XV
On Tuesday afternoon, August 23, the Mayor and Mayoress of Cam-
bridge (Councillor and Mrs. E. Saville Peck) entertained members at a
Sherry Party, held in Emmanuel College by kind permission of the
Master and Fellows.
Garden Parties were given at the following Colleges: Downing and
Sidney Sussex (August 19), Christ’s and Queens’ (August 22); and in-
formal evening conversaziones were held at Trinity College (August 19)
and St. John’s College (August 22).
On Saturday, August 20, general excursions were arranged as follows,
with the co-operation of institutions and individuals whose premises
were visited :
(1) King’s Lynn, Castle Rising, and Sandringham (by gracious per-
mission of H.M. The King).
(2) Hengrave Hall, Bury St. Edmund’s, Lavenham, Long Melford.
(3) Tring Museum, London Gliding Club, and works of Stonehenge
Bricks, Ltd. An additional visit was arranged to Whipsnade Zoological
Park through the courtesy of the Zoological Society of London.
(4) Ely, Sutton, and Earith.
(5) Audley End, Saffron Walden, and Thaxted.
Visits were arranged to colleges and to many other points of interest
in Cambridge, and to the works of the British Portland Cement Manu-
facturers, Ltd., the Cambridge Instrument Co., Ltd., Messrs. Chivers
& Sons, Ltd., Messrs. Pye Radios, Ltd., and Messrs. Towgood and Sons
and Dufay-Chromax, Ltd. Other excursions and visits devoted to the
interests of particular sections are mentioned among the Sectional Trans-
actions in later pages.
_The official sermon was preached by the Rt. Rev. the Lord Bishop of
Winchester in Great St. Mary’s Church on Sunday morning, August 21.
An exhibition of paintings and other objects of art by members of the
Association was on view throughout the period of the Meeting.
At the final meeting of the General Committee on Wednesday,
August 24, it was resolved :
That the British Association places upon record its deep gratitude for the
reception ‘afforded to it by the University, the Borough, and the County of
Cambridge. The Association wishes to convey its most cordial thanks to
the departments and colleges of the University which have so generously
provided accommodation for its meetings and hospitality for its members.
Its thanks are due also to the Corporation of the Borough and the County
authorities, as well as to the many commercial and industrial institutions in
Cambridge and the neighbourhood, for co-operation in the arrangements
for the meeting, for generous entertainment, and for the facilities which
have been provided for excursions and visits. Finally, the congratulations
as well as the gratitude of the Association are offered to the local officers
and their efficient helpers, to whose unsparing efforts the brilliant success
of the meeting has been due.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38.
OBITUARY.
The Council have had to deplore the loss by death of the following
office-bearers and supporters :—
Prof. W. A. Bone, F.R.S. Mr. Hugh Ramage
Dr. G. A. Boulenger, F.R.S. Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S.1
Prof. E. W. Brown, F.R.S. Lady Robertson
Prof. H. B. Fantham Prof. the Rt. Hon. Lord Ruther-
Prof. L. N. G. Filon, F.R.S. ford of Nelson, O.M., F.R.S.t
Prof. A. Hutchinson, F.R.S. Sir John Snell, G.B.E.
Prof. A. Lodge Miss Edith Stoney
Prof. Magnus Maclean Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S.
Prof. G. H. F. Nuttall, F.R.S. Dr. W. W. Vaughan, M.V.O.1
The Association was represented at Lord Rutherford’s funeral by the
President, Sir Edward Poulton, F.R.S. (a pall-bearer), Sir James Jeans,
F.R.S., and Prof. A. Ferguson, General Secretary, and at the memorial
service in Trinity College Chapel, Cambridge, by Prof. F. T. Brooks,
F.R.S., General Secretary, and Prof. F. J. M. Stratton.
Dr. W. T. Calman, F.R.S., represented the Association at the funeral
of Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S.
The President, the Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, F.R.S., and the Secretary,
Dr. O. J. R. Howarth, on behalf of the General Officers, represented the
Association at the memorial service for Dr. W. W. Vaughan, M.V.O.
REPRESENTATION.
Representatives of the Association have been appointed as follows :—
Meeting held at the House of Lords to dis-
cuss the desirability of nature reserves in
National Parks (by invitation of the
Society for the Promotion of Nature
Reserves) . ’ : , ; > Dro vj Ste wblexley:
: F.R.S., and Prof. E
J. Salisbury, F.R.S.
Sub-committee of the International Seismo-
logical Association, dealing with the
Seismological Summary ; Dr. H. Jeffreys, F.R.S.
International Congress of Anthropology .
and Ethnology, Copenhagen p Mr. H. J. E. Peake.
International Union of Chemistry, Rome . Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S.
1 See narrative of the Scientific Delegation in India, annexed to this report.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 xVil
RESOLUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS.
Resolutions and recommendations, referred by the General Committee
to the Council for consideration, and, if desirable, for action, were dealt
with as follows. The resolutions will be found in the Report for 1937,
p. xlviii.
(2) On a resolution from Section A (Mathematical and Physical
Sciences), the Council laid before the Corporation of the City of
Nottingham a report on the bad condition of the grave of George
Green in Sneinton churchyard in that city, and were gratified to learn
that the Corporation had undertaken to restore the grave.
(6) On a resolution from Section D (Zoology), the Council com-
municated to the Trustees of the British Museum an expression of
their hope that the custody of the late Lord Rothschild’s museum at
Tring would be undertaken by the Trustees.
(c) The Council were informed by the Ministry of Agriculture and
Fisheries (i) that the resumption of the publication of one-inch Ordnance
Survey maps in the ‘ relief’ style will be considered when the publica-
tion of the present Fifth Edition in the ordinary style is nearing com-
pletion ; (ii) that with regard to maps showing physical features only
the Minister is prepared to arrange for an edition, showing water and
contours only, when the ordinary edition of each forthcoming sheet
is printed. (Resolution of Section E, Geography.)
(d) The General Secretaries were authorised to consult the Secretary
of the Institution of Civil Engineers on the subject of a resolution
from Section G (Engineering) on the desirability of improving the
co-ordination of arrangements for publishing and indexing new
engineering knowledge and the results of engineering research.
(e) The Council received unofficial information from a representative
of the India Office to the effect that, while it was admitted that a
knowledge of Anthropology would be of advantage to civil servants,
the present syllabus, as reviewed recently by an authoritative committee
set up by the Secretary of State, would not allow of the introduction of
an additional compulsory subject. The Council therefore decided
not to transmit the resolution of Section H (Anthropology) officially
to the India Office.
(f) In reply to the resolution of Section L (Educational Science) on
adult education, the officers of the Board of Education have under-
taken to consider the resolution when reports are presented of a survey,
at present in operation, of existing provisions for adult education in
England and Wales.
(g) A resolution for the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Societies, supported by Section D (Zoology), on the necessity for an
inquiry into methods of dealing with rodents and other wild mammals
which affect agriculture, was communicated to the Ministry of Agri-
culture and Fisheries and to the Department of Agriculture for Scotland.
Both departments replied to the effect that experiments on the control
of rabbits were already in progress.
xviii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
(h) The Council approved a resolution from the Conference of
Delegates of Corresponding Societies on the desirability of establishing
through the Corresponding Societies Committee a close liaison with the
Association for the Study of Systematics in Relation to General Biology,
with a view to the Corresponding Societies undertaking work bearing
upon systematic problems.
FINANCE.
The Council have received reports from the General Treasurer
throughout the year. His account has been audited and is presented
to the General Committee.
The Council made the following grants from funds under their
control :-—
From the Caird Fund.
£
Seismological investigations ; , : ; -1) Go
Mathematical tables : : : : : . 200
Critical geological sections ; 3 : : . 25 (contingent)
Reduction of noise . ‘ , é , : 10 (contingent)
Perseveration and its testing : 5 : b j 10 (contingent)
Kent’s Cavern, Torquay . : : ; , : 5
From the Bernard Hobson Fund.
Critical geological sections rs 3 : _ , 25
Odlite of Stow-on-the-Wold ‘ : , : ‘ 25
From the Leicester and Leicestershire Fund.
Archeology of the Fens . : ; ; : ‘ 25
Transplant experiments. : 3 ‘ 5
Organisation of research in Education” : f : 5
Gaps in the informative content of Education : : 10
From the Norwich Fund.
It was reported that a grant of £40, made last year from the Norwich
Fund to the Norfolk Research Committee for the investigation of the
post-glacial deposits of East Norfolk, would not be required, with the
exception of a sum of £2 13s. 9d., the payment of which was authorised.
The balance of the fund was granted as follows : —
(a) To Mr.J.E. Sainty, to continue eee uons: ontheLong £ s. d.
Barrow at West Rudham, Norfolk ; PP agmeei*. O
(6) To Dr. A. S. Watt, to continue work on rhythmic
phenomena of Breckland plants . : ; : < 20O--.0
Corporation Membership.— Messrs. Metropolitan - Vickers Electrical
Company, Ltd., and the Educit’onal Institute of Scotland have been
admitted to corporation membership of the Association.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 xix
PRESIDENT (1939), GENERAL OFFICERS, GENERAL COMMITTEE,
AND COUNCIL.
President (1939).—The Council’s nomination to the Presidency of the
Association for the year 1939 (Dundee Meeting) is Sir Albert Seward,
F.R.S.
The General Officers have been nominated by the Council as follows :—
General Treasurer, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, F.R.S.
General Secretaries, Prof. F. 'T. Brooks, F.R.S., Prof. Allan Ferguson.
General Committee ——The following have been admitted as members
of the General Committee, mainly on the nomination of Organising
Sectional Committees under Regulation 1 :—
Dr. H. B. Cott Mr. A. Rodger
Mr. H. R. Hewer Dr. B. Semeonoff
Dr. F. S. J. Hollick Mr. W. J. H. Sprott
Dr. R. G. S. Hudson Dr. W. Stephenson
Dr. M. M. Lewis Dr. E. C. Stoner, F.R.S.
Mr. J. A. McMillan Mr. S. H. Straw
Miss A. E. Miller Mr. F.C. Thomas
Mr. F. Rayns, O.B.E.
Council.—The retiring Ordinary Members of the Council are: Prof.
R. N. Rudmose Frown, Mr. H. M. Hallsworih, C.B.E., Pref. G. W. O.
Hewe, and Prof. F. E. Weiss, F.R.S., and a further vacancy is created
by the death of Dr. W. W. Vaughan, M.V.O.
The Council have nominated as new members Mr. R. W. Allen, C.B.E.,
Prof. F. E. Fritsch, F.R.S., and Sir Richard Gregory, Bt., F.R.S.; leaving
two vacancies to be filled by the General Committee without nomination
by the Council.
The full list of Ord'nary Members nom‘nated is as follows :—
R. W. Allen, C.B.E. Prof. A. V. Hill, O.B.E., Sec.R.S.
Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S. Prof. T. G. Hill
Prof. F. Aveling Prof. T. S. Mcore
Prof. F. Balfour-Browne Prof. J. C. Philip, O.B.E., F.R.S.
Sir T. Hudson Beare Prof. J. G. Smith
Rt. Hon. Viscount Bledisloe, P.C., Lt.-Col. W. Campbell Smith
G.C.M.G., G.B.E. Dr. C. Tierney
Dr. W. T. Calman, C.B., F.R.S. Dr. J. A. Venn
Prof. F. Dekenham, O.B.E. Prof. Sir Gilbert Walker, C.S.I.,
Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, F.R.S. FR.S:
Piof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S. R. S. Whirple
Piof. F. E. Fritsch, F.R.S. J. S. Wilson
Sir Richard Gregory, Bt., F.R.S.
Future MEETINGS.
Dundee has been already determined by the General Committee as
the place of meeting in 1939. The dates now proposed for the Dundee
Meeting are August 30 to September 6.
There have been received invitations for the Association to meet in
xx REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1940, in Belfast in 1941 or any year nearly
following, in 1942 in Birmingham. As previously reported, there is
also an invitation to meet in Swansea in any convenient year. In view
of informal discussion as to the possibility of an invitation from Australia
for the year 1942, the General Committee should be made aware that
such an invitation will not be forthcoming.
MISCELLANEA.
Scientific Delegation in India.—A narrative report of the activities of
the Scientific Delegation in India is annexed to this Report of the Council.
Proposed Overseas Delegation Fund—The General Committee last
year granted a sum not exceeding {£1,000 from the general funds of the
Association towards the expenses of the Scientific Delegation in India.
In the event, it was necessary to use only £217 of thissum. The Council,
recognising the great success of the Indian visit, and believing that
similar opportunities may arise to send delegations elsewhere, and that, if
arising, advantage should by all means be taken of them, now recommend
to the General Committee that the unexpended balance of the above
grant should be held as the nucleus of a fund from which to assist expenses
of such delegations.
British Science Guild Lectures—Prof. H. L. Hawkins was appointed
to deliver the Alexander Pedler Lecture for 1939 at the Worthing Congress
of the South-Eastern Union of Scientific Societies, and did so on June 24.
Dr. H. Spencer Jones, F.R.S., was appointed to deliver the Norman
Lockyer Lecture on December 6.
British Science Guild: South Australian Handbooks.—Following upon
the incorporation of the Guild into the Association, the important Work
of the Handbooks Committee of the South Australian branch of the
Guild was brought to the notice of the Council, and it was resolved that,
while no financial aid could be offered to assist in the production of forth-
coming books, an expression of the Council’s ‘ appreciation of the great
value of the handbooks of the flora and fauna of South Australia’ should
be recorded and conveyed to the Committee.
Geology in Schools.—During the past year the Association’s two reports
on the teaching of geology in schools have been distributed to appropriate
educational authorities, together with an expression of the Council’s
hope that careful consideration would be given to the question of in-
troducing geology into the school curriculum, either by inclusion in a
course of general elementary science or as a separate subject.
Discussion on Planning the Land of Britain —Reprints of this discussion,
which took place at the Nottingham Meeting last year and appears in
the Report of that Meeting, have been widely circulated to planning
authorities and organisations interested in this subject.
Scientific Advisory Committee of the Trades Union Congress.—The -
Trades Union Congress asked for the co-operation of the Association in
proposing names of scientific workers who might be invited by the
Congress to serve on a Scientific Advisory Committee. The General
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 xxi
Officers were authorised to advise the representatives of the Congress
informally in this matter.
Reports on a Division for Social and International Relations of Sctence,
and a Publication —The Countil have approved in principle, and recom-
mend, the establishment of a Division of the Association to deal with the
social and international relations of science. A Ccmm‘ttee was appointed
to formulate a scheme for the working of this Division. The same
Ccmmittee was instructed to consider and report upon present methods
of publication by the Association, and to suggest alternative methods if
thought desirable. The reports of this Committee are appended hereto.
Down House.
The following report for the year 1937-38 has been received from the
Down House Committee :—
The number of visitors to Down House during the year ending June 6,
1938, has been 7,185, compared with 6,148 in 1936-37.
A number of valued gifts have been added to the collection during the
past year. Sir Buckston Browne acquired and presented a portrait of
Darwin in oils, by E. Pailthorp, apparently made from a photograph already
in the collection, as Darwin is believed to have sat only to Ouless and
Collier. Sir Buckston Browne also collected photographs of members of
Darwin’s family, which, have been framed together. He received from
Mr. Sidney Spokes, M.R.C.S., a copy of the second edition of Lyell’s
Elements of Geology, on a flyleaf of which there appears in Lyell’s hand the
note: ‘ Darwin recommends a short chap. on metallic veins, giving the
present state of our knowledge. He denies seeing a beginning to each crop
of species. Jan. 26, 1842.’ With this volume is now shown one of Lyell’s
geological hammers, presented by Miss D. Pertz. Darwin’s aneroid
barometer now hangs again in the old study, through the generosity of
Miss Hooker. Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S., has presented an important
series of letters, which his father, Prof. Daniel Oliver, F.R.S., had from
Darwin. Mr. T. M. Ragg gave a reproduction of a portrait of Fitzroy,
commander of H.M.S. Beagle. Sir Josiah Stamp presented a reproduction
of the armorial bearings of the Association in stained glass. The statuette
of Darwin, mentioned in last year’s report as by an unknown artist, has been
recognised as a studio model by Horace Montford: no statue appears to
have been executed from it.
A new edition of the Catalogue has been prepared and will be brought
into circulation shortly.
Rainfall is now read regularly from the standard gauge. The total
precipitation last year (1937) was 39°12 in., but as the standard gauge was
not in use in the first half of the year, no return was made to the Meteoro-
logical Office. By way of contrast, it may be mentioned that the rainfall
in January to March, 1937, was over 15 in.; in January to March, 1938, it
was 5 in., of which 3:54 in. fell in January, 0°895 in February, and 0-565
in March.
The Committee were glad to hear of the visit of a party to the House on
May 27 in connection with the celebration of the 150th anniversary of the
foundation of the Linnean Society.
The following financial statement shows income and expenditure on
account of Down House for the years ending March 31, 1937 and 1938 :—
xxii REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
Corresponding
Income figures, 1936-37
PRRE NK GE eae SS.
By Rents receivable : : : ‘ T3005, 70 I4I oO oO
,, Income Tax recovered : : : 077, ROTO 168 I 6
,, Interest and Dividends 807515, 0 CLF 2" 0
,, Donations 3789 ler
», dale of Catalogues, Postcards and Photo-
graphs . : ; 26118254. PAS} ohm!
,, Pilgrim Trust Grant . : : : I50 0 0 I50 0 O
», Instalment of Grant from Herbert
Spencer Bequest . 366 9 Oo DR ja.
,, Balance, being excess of expenditure over
income for the year, transferred to
Suspense Account : : : 50 I 2 —
£1,720 15 3° Sidgaee 25-8
Corresponding
Expenditure figures, 1936-37
To Wages of Staff . : 2 : : 822 8 10 803 19 7
,, Rates, Insurance, etc. j 3 ; Ti Ones 69 5 6
2 Heating, etc. ‘ 175) 0) 7 138 14 8
,, Lighting and Drainage (including oil
and petrol) . : OI 7 FQ ATL
», Water ! : F : 14 Oe ee b Oy) A ois
,, Repairs and Renewals | : ; P AZo 3° AE T5ON aaa
,» Garden and Land: Materials and
Maintenance . : : 61 8 5 4519 8
,, Donations to Village Tnstitutions i : Si SO ian a
», Household Requisites, etc. . : ; 12) 15 MrT I5 18 ro
,, Transport and Carriage ; ; 3 14 10 TATO 6
,, Printing, Postages, Telephone and
Stationery . ; BEL BU Le) Bis a Aa |
», Sundries (non- recurrent) ; — 915 8
,, Balance, being excess of income over
expenditure for the year, transferred
to Suspense Account : F : — 55 15 OT
£1,720 15 93)" £1, 4g 1S.
Thanks to the grant of £500 by the Council from the Spencer Bequest,
it has been possible to carry out important repairs and renovations during
the past two years without drawing upon the general funds. This sum
has now been expended.
As the Council are already aware, the Pilgrim Trustees have made a final
grant of £150, payable as to £100 and Us 50 in the two ensuing financial years
respectively.
The Council desire to commend, and to bring to the notice of Members
of the General Committee and others, a proposal which has received the .
approval of the Down House Committee that steps should be taken to form
a collection of biographies of Darwin and of contemporary literature
bearing upon his work, for addition to the library now at Down House.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 XXiii
PROPOSAL FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT OF A DIVISION
TO DEAL WITH THE SOCIAL AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS OF SCIENCE.
The following report, and proposals contained therein, were adopted by the
General Committee at its Meeting on August 17, 1938.
Ar the present time a strong feeling exists that the social relations of science
demand close and objective study. The question has been dealt with
recently in the press and elsewhere. At an informal meeting of persons
specially interested, it was stated that there is nothing in the constitution
of the British Association to prevent the establishment of machinery
within that organisation for the purpose desired. A resolution was
thereupon addressed from this meeting to the Council of the Association,
inviting the Association to establish a special department which would
consider the social and international relations of science, by means of
enquiry, publication, and the holding of meetings not necessarily confined
to the annual meetings of the Association.
International relations were specified in this resolution primarily because
of the deep interest of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science in the subject. Discussion is expected to take place between
officers of the two Associations, during the present summer, on the best
means for international co-operation.
The Council supported the proposal to establish an organisation for
these purposes within the Association. They appointed a Committee to
formulate a scheme for the working of such an organisation, to be presented
to the General Committee at the Cambridge Meeting. It is thought that
the organisation should work on lines in some respects different from
those of a Section, and should not bear that title. The term Division is
therefore recommended.
The purpose of the Division would be to further the objective study
of the social relations of science. The problems with which it would
deal would be concerned with the effects of advances in science on the
well-being of the community, and, reciprocally, the effects of social
conditions upon advances in science.
The Division would be worked by a Committee, nominated annually
by the Council and appointed by the General Committee. The Council
should have power to appoint additional members of the Committee
during the year.
The Committee should embody the existing British Science Guild
Committee of the Association, inasmuch as the Norman Lockyer,
Alexander Pedler, and Radford Mather Lectures, now administered by
that Committee, would appropriately come within the purview of the
Division.
The President of the Association and the General Officers should be
ex-officio members of the Committee. A chairman of the Committee
should be appointed for a fixed period of office. A fixed proportion of the
ordinary members of the Committee should retire annually (as in the case
of the Council) and should not be eligible for immediate re-election.
XXiv REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
The functions of the Committee would be:
(a) To arrange meetings of the Division both at the time and place of
the Annual Meetings of the Association, and elsewhere at other times, as
invited or otherwise arranged; to appoint speakers, and to accept or
reject communications offered to the Division.
(6) To furnish material for the information of the public.
(c) To co-ordinate work dealing with the social relations of science, both
at home and abroad.
(d) To be prepared to act in a consultative capacity and to supply
information, and to that end to establish relations with organisations and
persons engaged in practical administration.
(For the furtherance of the above objects, the Committee, immediately
upon the establishment of the Division, should issue an announcement |
thereof, together with a reasoned statement of its aims, to institutions and
other organisations and individuals known or likely to be interested in its
work.)
(e) To set up sub-committees for executive purposes, or for research,
enquiry, or co-ordination. If any such sub-committee should require a
grant of money for its work, the Committee should be empowered to
apply for such grant to the General Committee or the Council in accord-
ance with the usual procedure relating to research committees.
(f) To maintain close relations with the Sections of the Association and
their Organising Committees. In particular, there may be imagined
subjects which two or more Sections might be disposed to recommend
to the Division for discussion, in lieu of arranging joint meetings of the
Sections. ‘The Committee of the Division, on its part, should be enabled
to invite the advice of the sectional organisations on all appropriate
questions. The Organising Sectional Committees should be kept
regularly informed of the activities of the Division.
The Committee should meet regularly throughout the year, at intervals
determined by itself, and in particular it should hold a meeting at or near
the time of the joint meetings of Organising Sectional Committees in Jan-
uary, in order to assure the relations with the Sections referred to above.
The Committee should report to the Council as and when necessary,
and annually through the Council to the General Committee.
PROPOSAL FOR A QUARTERLY REPORT
IN PLACE OF THE ANNUAL VOLUME PUBLISHED BY THE ASSOCIATION.
The following report was adopted by the General Committee at its Meeting
on August 24, 1938, excepting the portion enclosed in [brackets] and dealing
with the Journal, which was amended so as to admit of the retention of
abstracts, more strictly limited as to length, for use at the Annual Meeting
and subsequently for record if necessary.
_In November 1937 the Council directed the General Officers to con-
sider and report upon the format and printing of the Report of the
Association. Subsequently, the Committee which was appointed to
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 XXV
formulate a scheme for the new Division referred to above was instructed
also to consider and report upon the whole question of publication by the
Association.
The Committee, after considering various schemes in detail, recommend
that as from the year 1939-40 the Annual Volume should be superseded
by a Quarterly Report. The annual volume following the Cambridge
Meeting would thus be the last of its series.
The principal considerations which have led the Committee to make this
recommendation are as follows :
Quarterly publication should go far to overcome the widespread belief
that the British Association is inactive except during its annual meeting.
The fact that it now administers the Norman Lockyer, Alexander Pedler,
and Radford Mather lectures (which are given at times and places other
than those of the annual meetings) points to the desirability of publication
at less than annual intervals ; and the establishment of the new Division
on the lines recommended would strongly reinforce this argument.
Quarterly publication would provide the means of keeping members
and the public informed as to the activities of the Association, as an annual
volume cannot. Quarterly publication should achieve a wider circulation
than the annual volume does for individual communications which call
for a wider publicity than they receive by inclusion in an annual volume.
It is recommended that the Quarterly should appear in October,
January, April and July. The size proposed is royal octavo (approxi-
mately 10 x 64 in.). It is suggested that the title The Advancement of
Science should be transferred to the Quarterly from the present publica-
tion which bears that name and contains the presidential addresses given
at the annual meeting. In substitution for the publication of all these
addresses together, it is proposed to issue individual addresses separately,
at the time of the meeting.
The bulk of the material made available from the annual meeting would
appear in the October and January numbers. There should, however,
be the fullest possible measure of elasticity. This consideration might be
expected to apply especially to the reports of research committees, for
which delayed publication is sometimes found desirable ; or on the other
hand publication in advance of the meeting at which a particular research
is to be discussed might be allowed at the discretion of the appropriate
Organising Sectional Committee.
[It is considered that the Journal of Sectional Transactions, as at present
issued at the annual meeting and subsequently incorporated in the Annual
Report, is of little value as a permanent record. It is proposed that the
present Programme and Timetable should include the programme of
each Section separately (as the Journal does now), with abstracts of the
briefest possible nature, or none where titles of communications would
suffice alone. The transactions of the Sections should be reported in the
Quarterly in narrative form, and] so far as finance would allow there should
be additional opportunity for publication in extenso or full abstract, and
for the reporting of discussions.
No changes in the terms of membership subscription are recom-
mended ; life members and annual members now entitled to receive the
XXVI REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
Annual Report would receive the Quarterly. The price of 3s. 6d. per
part is recommended for non-subscribers.
The Quarterly should be marketed by arrangement with a publishing
firm.
The division into quarterly parts would in itself cost little more than the
annual volume, even allowing for improvement of the format. Additional
matter for publication, however, would be expected from the new Division
and from more effective reporting of the work of the Sections. The
establishment of the new Division would increase clerical work in the
office. On these considerations it has been estimated that the proposals
here made might involve the Association in an additional annual ex-
penditure of £400-{£500 in a few years’ time; and in this event a
temporary draft upon capital would be necessary.
It is hoped, however, that such additional expenditure would be offset
by increased sales of the Quarterly and reports of Presidential Addresses,
as against those of the Annual Volume and the present Advancement of
Science, and also by receipts from advertisements in the Quarterly. More-
over, the establishment of the new Division and the publication of a
Quarterly are both measures which should help to increase the membership
of the Association.
THE SCIENTIFIC DELEGATION IN INDIA, 1937-38.
At the Norwich Meeting of the British Association in 1935, the General
Committee of the British Association received Professor J. N. Mukherjee,
one of the General Secretaries of the Indian Science Congress Association,
who announced that that body would celebrate its jubilee at a meeting in
Calcutta in the winter of 1937-38. The Indian Association was founded in
1912-13, and the first meeting took place at Calcutta in the following year.
Professor Mukherjee, with Professor S. P. Agharkar, had been appointed
to negotiate with the British Association for the purpose of securing the
organisation of a.representative scientific delegation to participate in the
jubilee meeting. ‘The proposal was new in the sense that the British
Association had never before received a definite invitation to co-operate in
this manner with a kindred association overseas—that is to say apart from,
and in addition to, its own overseas meetings. The General Committee
recognised the far-reaching importance of the proposal, and directed the
Council to carry on negotiations with the Indian Science Congress Associa-
tion. This was done, and the Council were able to report in the following
year that the formal invitation of the Indian Association had been received
and accepted. The Calcutta Congress was appointed to be held from
January 3 to 9, 1938.
The Indian Association appointed Professor the Rt. Hon. Lord
Rutherford, O.M., F.R.S., to be its President for the jubilee year. He
died on October 19, 1937; he had intended to leave England for India
on November 26. His loss, deplored by the whole scientific world, was
very specially grievous to the delegation and to the Congress. The
Indian Association, through the British Association, invited Sir James
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 XXVii
e Lahore Pree
s 2 ra DIAGRAM OF ROUTE
= MUSSOORIE ™., OF
DEHRA DUD ES THE SCIENTIFIC DELEGATION IN INDIA
Showing places visited by the Delegation
(in CAPITALS) and by individual delegates
ae
d
3 ec
ws ae iia
pee
# DARJEELING
toni
Tatanagar
Jamshedpur
Norbade R Eb
Tapti'R
BOMBAY &
Ernakulam
Trivandrum
Scale of miles
———k—————— =]
Colombo 100 50 0 100 200 300
XXVIli REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
Jeans, F.R.S., to take Lord Rutherford’s place in the chair, and fortunately
for both bodies he was able to do so at short notice.
The Indian Association presented to the British Association lists of
scientific representatives whose presence was specially desired. The
Council of the British Association appointed a Committee to supervise
invitations and arrangements generally, and under the direction of that
Committee the General Secretaries issued invitations to persons named
as above by the Indian ‘Association, to members of the British Association
who had occupied sectional chairs or other high offices, and to certain
others whose attendance was desirable in order to assure proper repre-
sentation of departments of Science specially appropriate to India. The
Indian Association itself issued direct a limited number of invitations,
principally to representatives from European countries. ‘The number
of invited delegates who accepted invitations was 65, and with the addition
of relatives of some of these and certain other members the total number
of the visiting party was Ior.
The Indian Science Congress Association placed at the disposal of the
British Association a sum of £3,125, including a grant from the Govern-
ment of India and contributions from other sources. ‘The British Associa-
tion collected from institutions, firms, and individuals in Great Britain
a sum of £1,356 11s., and made a contribution from its own funds.
Grants in aid of travelling expenses were made to invited delegates (with
some few exceptions), amounting in total to £4,590. Particulars of the
Delegation Account are included in the General Treasurer’s Report for
1937-38. The President travelled as the guest of the Indian Science
Congress Association. ‘The same Association appointed at its own charge
a tour manager for the official journey of the visiting party in India.
Of the party of 101 members, all except eleven either left England by
the P. & O. Company’s steamer Cathay on November 26, 1937, or joined
her at Marseilles after leaving England at the beginning of December
and travelling overland. ‘They reached Bombay early on December 17.
Here one of the delegates, Dr. A. B. Rendle, F.R.S., who had been in
poor health, was advised not to continue the journey. He remained in
hospital at Bombay for a short time, and then returned to England, but
died shortly after reaching home (Jan. 12), to the deep regret of his
colleagues in the delegation.
On landing at Bombay the party was received on the lawn adjacent to
Ballard Pier by Mr. V. N. Chandavarkar, Vice-Chancellor of the Univer-
sity, Rao Bahadur T. S. Venkataraman, retiring President of the Indian
Science Congress Association, Professor J. N. Mukherjee and other
representatives. ‘The local reception committee entertained the party
to dinner on December 17 at the Willingdon Club, and to luncheon on
December 18 at the Taj Mahal Hotel. Opportunities were afforded for
visiting departments of the University, St. Xavier’s College, the Royal
Insititute of Science, the Grant Medical College, the Haffkine Institute,
and other institutions, and also. for seeing something of the many points
of interest in the city and its neighbourhood. Lectures or short addresses
were given by Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., Prof. F. A. E. Crew (two), Dr. F. W.
Aston, F.R.S., Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S. (two), Dr. C. G. Darwin,
F.R.S., Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S., Mr. H. J. E. Peake, and Prof. H. J.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 Xxix
Fleure, F.R.S.; and Mr. H. M. Hallsworth, C.B.E., had a discussion
with advanced students in the Department of Economics in the Univer-
sity. Prof. Winifred Cullis, C.B.E., addressed Bombay University
Women at the Cama Hospital. It may be stated here, and taken as apply-
ing at all points throughout India where general or public lectures were
given by delegates, that the numbers and enthusiasm of the audiences
were such as to gratify and even astonish the visitors. Broadcasts were
given from the Bombay station of All-India Radio by Prof. Winifred
Cullis, C.B.E., and Prof. F. A. E. Crew.
The party left Bombay in the afternoon of December 18, in the special
train which was to be their headquarters during the tour through northern
India until January 2, and again for those of them who joined the southern
tour after the Congress in Calcutta. The train consisted of the Punjab
Limited rolling-stock of the Great Indian Peninsula Railway, and for the
outward tour included seven corridor coaches with compartments affording
very comfortable living and sleeping accommodation for two persons each,
two dining cars, a brake, a servants’ car, and a commissariat car. The
travel arrangements were made by the Indian Science Congress Associa-
tion in collaboration with the railway companies concerned and with
Messrs. Thos. Cook & Son as agents. Mr. W. D. West, one of the
General Secretaries of the Indian Association, had principally dealt with
the details of organisation of the tours in advance, and Prof. J. N.
Mukherjee, the other General Secretary, accompanied the tour preceding
the Congress, and dealt with all the arrangements therefor excepting
those at Agra and Dehra Dun and those of the geologists’ visit to
Dhanbad, etc.
In the morning of December 19 the party reached Hyderabad, the capital
of the Deccan State of that name, and during their sojourn within its
frontiers they were guests of the State in respect not only of entertainment,
but also of accommodation and travel. They visited the site of the Osmania
University, which was established in 1918, and were shown the buildings
and departments already erected and in operation. The medical college
and Osmania hospital, the museum, the Nizamiah Observatory, and the
Cottage Industries Institute were seen by individual members. Sir James
Jeans, F.R.S., addressed the University staff and students, and various
members of the party were enabled to meet professors and students in the
departments in which they were specially interested, and to discuss their
work. The whole party was entertained to lunch in the University hostel.
Afterwards Golconda, an immense hill-fort and the capital of the Kutb
Shahi Kingdom of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, was visited,
and also tombs of the kings of this dynasty. Sir Arthur Eddington,
F.R.S., gave a lecture in the Town Hall, and a banquet was held in the
Address Hall of the University. The party left at night for Aurangabad
in a narrow-gauge train provided by the State, and next day (December 20)
visited the rock-hewn temples at Ellora, which range in dates from the
third to the ninth century a.D., and in which the Buddhist, Brahmanic,
and Jain religions are represented. The hill-fortress of Daulatabad,
founded probably in the twelfth century, and other historic sites were also
seen. On December 21 the party was taken by road to Ajanta, the site
of another great series of rock-temples, where the architecture, sculpture,
XXX REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
and painting ‘ represent every stage of Buddhist art from the first century
B.C. to the middle of the seventh century a.p.’1_ From Ajanta the party
proceeded by road to Jalgaon, where the broad-gauge train was rejoined
at night.
rie morning of December 22 a halt was made at Sanchi, in Bhopal
State, where the Buddhist stupas and other remains, dating from the
third century B.c. to the twelfth century A.D., were visited. In the
evening the train arrived at Agra. Some of the delegates visited the Taj
Mahal the same night, and it was here that Dr. W. W. Vaughan met with
the lamentable accident which resulted in his death. In the darkness he
fell from a terrace which is unprotected by any parapet. One of his
legs was broken, and after a long illness he died in the Thomason Hospital
at Agra on February 4, 1938, to the keen distress of all his colleagues
in the delegation.
On December 23 the Fort and the Taj Mahal, superb monuments of
the Mogul Emperors Akbar, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb (1556-1707),
were visited, and some of the party were able to see the fort of Fatehpur
Sikri and also the Latitude Variation Observatory of the Survey of India,
and the Upper Air Observatory of the Meteorological Department. Sir
James Jeans, F.R.S., gave an address to students at the University. The
main party left Agra in the evening of December 23, and arrived at Delhi
in the morning of December 24. Some members, however, diverged in
order to visit Aligarh, where, at the University, short addresses were given
by Prof. Ernest Barker, Sir Arthur Eddington, F.R.S., Prof. W. T.
Gordon, Dr. W. G. Ogg, and Dr. Dudley Stamp.
At Delhi on Christmas Eve and Christmas Day the great modern
group of Government buildings—the Viceroy’s House, the Secretariat,
and the Council House—and the new Imperial Institute of Agricultural
Research were visited, as well as many historical monuments, such as
the fort, the palace, and Juma Masjid (mosque) of Shah Jahan (c. 1640),
the ruined old fort of the fifteenth century, the mosque of Sher Shah,
and the twelfth-century Tower of Victory known as the Kutb Minar,
with its adjacent Jain and Hindu temples and mosque and the famous
iron pillar to which is assigned an age of fifteen centuries or more. The
Government of India entertained the party to luncheon on Christmas
Eve, and on Christmas Day most generous entertainment was extended
to individual members by many residents, Indian and British, in New
Delhi. Broadcasts were given on Christmas Eve by Sir James Jeans,
F.R.S., and Dr. O. J. R. Howarth.
Leaving Delhi on Christmas night, the party reached Dehra Dun in
the morning of December 26. Here members visited the Forest Research
Institute and the Geodetic Branch of the Survey of India. The Forestry
Research Institute, established in 1906, occupies an estate of 1,400 acres,
and its fine buildings, besides administrative and residential quarters,
include a chemical branch, insectary, saw mill, pulp and paper plant,
wood workshops, and timber testing, seasoning and preservation labora-
tories, while there are also an arboretum and botanical and experimental
? This quotation, and much of the information throughout this report, are
taken with grateful acknowledgment from the guide-book specially prepared for
the delegation by the Indian Science Congress Association.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 Xxx
gardens. The work of the Geodetic Branch includes, among other
activities, precise levelling for the determination of heights, tidal pre-
dictions and the publication of tide tables for ports between Suez and
Singapore, the magnetic survey, astronomical observations for the
determination of latitude, longitude, and time, seismographical and
meteorological observations, and topographical survey and map reproduc-
tions. Most of the party found time to drive up to Mussoorie (6,500 feet),
from which the view of Himalayan snow-mountains is restricted, but that
over the foothills and the plains to the south is of impressive extent.
The party left Dehra Dun late on December 26, and reached Benares
in the afternoon of December 27. Sir Arthur Eddington, F.R.S., visited
Allahabad, and presided over a colloquium on astrophysics. On arrival
at Benares the party was conveyed to Sarnath, where, about five centuries
before Christ, Buddha first preached after his enlightenment, and where
Asoka set up the great Dhamekh stupa in the third century B.c., and a
column of which broken remains are seen on the ground, while the
richly sculptured capital is in the adjacent museum. On December 28
the party viewed from boats the famous river-frontage of Benares with
its temples, ghats, and steps. Afterwards members were entertained
in the Benares Hindu University, and attended its twentieth Convocation,
at which, among others, the following delegates received honorary
degrees: Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., Sir Arthur Eddington, F.RS.,
ir. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof. E. C. C. Baly, C.B.E., F.R.S., Prof.
V. H. Blackman, F.R.S., Prof. C. G. Jung, and Prof. F. A.E. Crew. Sir
_ James Jeans addressed the Convocation, and lectures or short addresses
to students were subsequently given by Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof.
mc. C. Baly, C.BE., F.RS., Prof. Ernest Barker, Prof. V. H.
Blackman, F.R.S., Prof. F. A. E. Crew, Sir Arthur Eddington, F.R.S.,
and Prof. C. G. Jung.
From Benares, which was quitted on the night of December 28, the
special train proceeded to Calcutta, which was reached in the afternoon
of December 29. It crossed the great Chinsurah bridge over the Hooghly
above the city, in order to enter Sealdah station, where it remained for
little more than an hour, and then proceeded through the night to
Siliguri, taking the great majority of the members for a visit to Darjeeling.
It will be apparent from the preceding narrative that much of the
railway-travelling was done at night, but sufficient took place in daylight
to afford, together with the long road-journeys in Hyderabad and shorter
drives elsewhere, at least a cursory view of the main geographical regions
of central and northern India which were traversed. After the departure
from Bombay in the late afternoon, there remained just sufficient light
to reveal the transition from the flat lowland of the Konkan country to
the flat-topped hills of the Western Ghats with their isolated pinnacles
and bold escarpments of basaltic lavas, deeply eroded. The plateau of
peninsular India, wherever it was traversed, whether in Hyderabad or
during the tour after the Congress, farther south, was seen in dry condi-
tions ; occasionally even a semi-desert type of vegetation was apparent.
If the scenery of the plateau left a general sense of monotony, it was at
any rate possible to distinguish some of its different physical character-
istics. The vast tracts of red laterite soil gave a peculiar impression of
XXXil REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
aridity, by contrast, especially, with the alternating areas of black cotton
soil. Again, during the traverse of Hyderabad State it was possible to
observe the distinctions of form between the volcanic region of the Deccan
trap and the undulating plains and rounded hills of the Archaean crystal-
line rocks with their irregularly weathered tors of granite boulders,
One of the escarpments of the trap country was finely seen on the descent
to the gorge in which the caves of Ajanta are excavated, and here, as well
as at Ellora and in the moat and scarp of Daulatabad fort, the manner
in which the basalt on the one hand had lent itself to artificial working,
and on the other its resistance to the influences of weathering, was
wonderful to see. ‘The area of Pre-Cambrian sandstones which ‘ have
furnished a great wealth of building stone to the architects of ancient
India and stimulated their art’ were crossed in the vicinity of Sanchi,
and the rough and rather barren quartzites and metamorphic rocks of
the Delhi system offered a further contrast both to the Sanchi country
and to the rich alluvial plains of the Gangetic rivers, which were traversed
northward towards Dehra Dun and eastward to Calcutta. ‘ The plains
rise in gentle undulations away from the river banks, and for miles there
is an unbroken succession of fields, orchards, and mango groves, surround-
ing clusters of mud villages.’ The scenery thus described was un-
interrupted during December 29, save where the Rajmahal hills in
Bihar rise as outliers of the Chota Nagpur plateaux to the south. This
last district was visited by a small geological party, which left the special
train at Kodarma on December 29, and proceeding by way of Ranchi,
Gua, Jamshedpur, and Dhanbad, arrived in Calcutta early on January 3.
At two points the route of the special train traversed the rich sub-
montane tracts bordering the plains on the north-east, and afforded views
of the impressive approaches to the wall-like foothills of the Himalayan
mountain-system. ‘The first of these occasions was at Dehra Dun as
already indicated ; the second at Siliguri on December 30. Here the
railway was left for the ascent by road to Darjeeling, where, at a height
of some 7,000 feet above sea-level, the party had the extreme good
fortune to enjoy two-and-a-half days (December 30-January 1) of perfect
weather, in unclouded view of the Himalayan range which culminates
in Kangchenjunga (28,146 feet). The party returned to Calcutta in
the morning of January 2.
From Calcutta the President, Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., conveyed thanks
on behalf of the party to the following gentlemen who had been instru-
mental in arranging for the hospitality and facilities afforded at the
various places visited :—
Bombay : Rao Bahadur V. N. Chandavarkar, Vice-Chancellor of the
University.
Hyderabad : 'The Rt. Hon. Sir Akbar Hydari, President of the Executive
Council and Chancellor of the Osmania University; the Hon. Nawab
Mehdi Yar Jung, political and education member and Vice-Chancellor of
the University ; Prof. Kasi Mohamed Husain, Pro-Vice-Chancellor of the
University.
Agra: Mr. Zafar Hasan, Superintendent, Archeological Survey of India,
Northern Circle ; Mr. G. Chatterjee, Meteorological Office ; Prof. K. C.
Mehta, Department of Botany, Agra University.
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 XXXIil
Delhi: Sir Girja Sunkar Bagpai; the Hon. Sir Shah Sulaiman ;
Mr. Lala Sri Ram.
Dehra Dun: Mr. L. Mason, C.I.E., Inspector-General of Forests ;
Col. C. M. Thompson, Director of the Geodetic Branch, Survey of India.
Benares : Pundit M.M. Malaviya, Vice-Chancellor of the Benares Hindu
University ; Raja Juala Prasad, Pro-Vice-Chancellor of the University.
The Silver Jubilee Session of the Indian Science Congress Association
was opened by H.E. the Viceroy of India (the Marquess of Linlithgow),
in the University College of Science, Calcutta, on January 3, 1938.
Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., after his own short prefatory address, com-
municated to the Congress the presidential address which had been
prepared by Lord Rutherford. The reception room, offices, and
section meeting rooms of the Congress were in the Presidency College,
the University Buildings, the All-India Institute of Hygiene and Public
Health, and the School of Tropical Medicine. The transactions of the
Congress were continued daily until January 9, with the exception of
January 6, a day devoted to excursions. The transactions are fully
reported by the Indian Science Congress Association, but it may be
mentioned here that occasion was taken during the week to hold also
the annual meetings of the National Institute of Sciences of India, the
Indian Chemical Society, the Indian Physical Society, the Indian Section
of the Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland, the Indian
Botanical Society, the Society of Biological Chemists of India, the Indian
Psychological Association, the Indian Society of Soil Science, the
Physiological Society of India, and the Indian Anthropological Institute.
Diplomas of honorary Silver Jubilee membership were presented to
Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof. L. F. de
Beaufort, Prof. A. H. R. Buller, F.R.S., Prof. Sir Arthur Eddington,
F.R.S., Sir Frederick Hobday, C.M.G., Prof. C. G. Jung, and Prof.
J. L. Simonsen, F.R.S., of the delegation, and also to Sir Venkata
Raman, F.R.S., Sir Prafulla Ray, Prof. M. N. Saha, F.R.S., and
Sir M. Visbesbaraya.
Public lectures were given by Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., and other
members of the delegation, including Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof.
Ernest Barker (two), Prof. F. A. E. Crew, Dr. C. G. Darwin, F.R.S.,
Prof. Sir Arthur Eddington, F.R.S., Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S., and
Dr. J. A. Venn. Among other lectures given by the delegates to various
bodies in Calcutta were the following. The Indian Association for the
Cultivation of Science conferred upon Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., and
Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., the Joy Kissen Mookerjee Medal for 1937 and
1938 respectively, and each delivered an address to this Association on
the occasion of the award of the medals. The same Association heard
three lectures by Prof. J. E. Lennard-Jones, F.R.S., as Coochbehar
Professor, and three by Sir Arthur Hill, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., as Ripon
Professor ; while Dr. A. E. H. Tutton, F.R.S., devoted much time to
discussion in the laboratory of the Association. Sir Henry Tizard,
K.C.B., F.R.S., and Prof. J. L. Simonsen, F.R.S., addressed the Institute
of Chemists ; Sir Arthur Eddington, F.R.S., the Indian Physical Society
and also the Rotary Club ; Prof. F. A. E. Crew the local branch of the
Indian Medical Association. ‘The Institution of Engineers received
XXXIV REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
lectures by Prof. R. V. Southwell, F.R.S., and Prof. G. W. O. Howe ;
and Prof. Howe also addressed the Association of Engineers. Four
lectures in the University and one to industrialists were given by Dr.
C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S., and two in the College of Science by
Prof. C. G. Jung. Prof. Winifred Cullis, C.B.E., and Dr. E. P. Poulton
addressed the Physiological Society of India, Dr. Poulton the Indian
Medical Association, and Prof. R. Ruggles Gates, F.R.S., the Botanical
Society of Bengal and the Bose Institute. Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, F.R.S.,
addressed University students. Broadcasts were given by Dr. W. G.
Ogg, Sir Arthur Hill, K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Prof. P. G. H. Boswell,
F.R.S., Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S., Sir Arthur Eddington,
F.R.S., and Prof. H. J. Fleure. F.R.S. Sir James Jeans, Sir Arthur
Hill, and other delegates took part in the celebration of the 150th an-
niversary of the Botanical Gardens on January 6. A number of the
delegates attended a Vice-regal garden party at Belvidere on January 4,
and H.E. the Governor of Bengal (Lord Brabourne) and Lady Brabourne
gave a garden party for the Congress on January 7, which was followed
at, Government House by a special Convocation of the University of
Calcutta, at which honorary degrees were conferred upon Sir James
Jeans, F.R.S., Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof. Ernest Barker, Sir Arthur
Eddington, F.R.S., Prof. A. H. R. Buller, F.R.S., Prof. R. A. Fisher,
F.R.S., Prof. C. G. Jung, Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S., and Prof. W.
Straub. The Corporation of the City of Calcutta gave a civic reception
on January 4; a Science Congress dinner was held on January 8; the
University of Calcutta gave a farewell party in the afternoon of January 9,
and the hospitality of other official and non-official bodies and private
residents was lavish and extensive. The Indian Science Congress
Association, at the conclusion of the Congress, embodied their thanks
to all concerned in a series of resolutions, and on behalf of the delegation
Sir James Jeans, F.R.S., issued the following message to the Press :
‘At the moment of leaving Calcutta, the visiting scientific delegation
tender their most sincere thanks to all the kind hosts who have helped to
make their stay in Calcutta so enjoyable.
‘The Scientific Congress which we have been privileged to attend has
impressed us all with its extraordinary vitality, with the widespread and
generous attention accorded to our own contributions, and with the keen
public interest which the transactions of the meeting have aroused. The
huge audiences at the public lectures have been specially gratifying.
“I must reiterate our appreciation of the compliment paid by the Indian
Science Congress Association to the British Association for the Advancement
of Science in inviting its co-operation in the arrangement of the delegation ;
that invitation has forged a powerful new bond-between Indian and British
Science, to the great advantage of both, and we all hope that the effects of
that bond may prove wider even than the bounds of science.
“We offer our thanks to the Indian Science Congress Association, to its
kindred scientific institutions, to the many organisations which have
contributed to the success of the Congress, to the City and University of -
Calcutta and to the province of Bengal.
“The women of the party owe special gratitude to the ladies, resident in
Calcutta, who have afforded them such ample opportunities for learning of
the manifold interests of the City.’
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 XXXV
On the conclusion of the Congress some of the delegates proceeded
to various points in India in pursuance of personal scientific interests
and engagements. A party of over fifty of the visitors, however, left
Calcutta for the south in the special train on the night of January 9g.
On the following day they saw something of the picturesque scenery of
the maritime plain bordering the Eastern Ghats, and they reached Madras
in the forenoon of January 11. Here they were entertained by the
University of Madras at a luncheon, visited the museum, the aquarium,
and other points of interest, and on the invitation of the Sheriff of
Madras attended a garden party arranged by the city in honour of the
Viceroy. The thanks of the party were subsequently conveyed by
the President to the Vice-Chancellor of the University and to the
Sheriff of the city. Lectures were given by Prof. Ernest Barker, by
Prof. F. J. M. Stratton at the Christian College, Tambaram, and by
Prof. J. L. Simonsen, F.R.S., at the Presidency College Chemical
Society.
The special train left Madras at night, and the next morning (January 12)
the party changed at Bangalore into a narrow-gauge train for Mysore City.
At Bangalore and Mysore, and for the intervening journey, they were the
guests of the State of Mysore. At Mysore City they were accommodated
in Government House and in a camp (a term of more elaborate connotation
in India than at home). Lectures were given by Sir James Jeans, F.R.S.,
Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof. Ernest Barker, Sir Arthur Eddington,
F.R.S., and Prof. C. E. Spearman, F.R.S. The Maharaja’s palace, the
University, the Technical Institute, the Zoological Gardens, and various
institutions were visited by members, and after nightfall they viewed
with wonder the illuminated fountains at the great dam on the river
Cauvery, and the city, brilliantly lit up, from Chamundi Hill. On the
morning of January 13 the fort at Seringapatam and the tombs of Hyder
Ali and Tippu Sultan were inspected, and the party entrained for Banga-
lore. Here again a number of institutions were visited, including the
Indian Institute of Science and the College of Science. Sir James Jeans,
F.R.S., addressed students at both the college and the institution, and the
following also spoke: Dr. F. W. Aston, F.R.S., Prof. Ernest Barker,
Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, F.R.S., Prof. F. A. E. Crew, Dr. C. G. Darwin,
F.R.S., Prof. W. T. Gordon, and Prof. J. L. Simonsen, F.R.S. The
thanks of the members were subsequently conveyed by the President
to His Highness the Maharaja of Mysore, to Sir Mirza M. Ismail, Dewan
Sahib of Mysore, and to Sir Charles Todhunter, K.C.S.I., private
secretary to the Maharaja.
The party entrained at Bangalore on the night of January 13, and
travelled direct to Bombay, where on January 15 they embarked on the
S.S. Strathaird for the voyage home. Before doing so, Prof. Ernest
Barker and Dr. R. N. Salaman, F.R.S., gave lectures, and Prof. Winifred
Cullis, C.B.E., addressed the Association of British Women Graduates
in India.
The members who took both the tours described above, before and after
the meeting, travelled close upon six thousand miles in India. The
weather was beautiful throughout the visit, except for a storm of short
duration at Calcutta in the afternoon of January 9.
b2
XXXVI REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38
Before leaving Bombay, the President, on behalf of the Delegation,
issued the following message through the Press :—
‘In taking leave of India, we of the Scientific Delegation desire again to
express our thanks for the overwhelming kindness with which we have
been received in all parts. A month ago we landed here, eagerly expectant
of what we were to see and learn. We are now returning home after a
journey of more than five thousand miles through the country, during which
we have been able to visit many monuments of ancient civilisations, and
have admired the care with which the legacies of the past are preserved.
But more of our time has been devoted to the present, and we have realised
to the full the scientific and cultural developments which are in progress
both in the universities and in the field of practical applications throughout
the country. :
‘Nothing has more deeply impressed us than the interest shown in
Science by the community at large and the eagerness with which students
are following and practising the most recent advances in research. India
has achieved self-sufficiency in many directions, but there is an acknowledged
need for influences which shall further bind together her varied races.
Her achievements in the realm of thought and her progress in the develop-
ments of industry lead us to hope that Science, which transcends all national
and racial frontiers, may provide such a unifying influence. Long may
Science continue to help in maintaining and advancing the position of India
in the community of civilised nations.’
The activities of delegates were not confined to Calcutta and to the
places visited during the tours. ‘Thus, Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S.,
following from Bombay an itinerary independently of the main party,
lectured at Hyderabad (twice), Lucknow (twice), Aligarh, and Benares,
and again at Bombay on his homeward journey, besides giving a course
at Calcutta University. Before the Congress at Calcutta, Sir Henry
Tizard, K.C.B., F.R.S., visited the Tata Iron & Steel Works at Jam-
shedpur, and lectured there. Sir Frederick Hobday addressed students
in the Indian Veterinary Colleges at Bombay, Calcutta, Lahore, Madras,
and Patna. At Madras, at times other than that of the visit described
above, Prof. C. B. Fawcett gave lectures in the University and to the
Madras Geographical Association ; Prof. F. E. Fritsch, F.R.S., gave four
post-graduate lectures, and Lt.-Col. R. B. S. Sewell, C.I.E., F.R.S.,
three lectures in the University ; and Prof. R. Ruggles Gates, F.R.S.,
also lectured there. Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. R. Ruggles Gates, F.R.S.,
Prof. C. G. Jung, and Prof. W. M. Tattersall visited and spoke at the
University of Travancore in Trivandrum; Sir Arthur Hill, K.C.M.G.,
F.R.S., and Dr. E. M. Crowther, the Agricultural College and Research
Institute in Coimbatore ; Prof. J. E. Lennard-Jones, F.R.S., the University
of Lahore; Mr. J. McFarlane that of Patna; Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E.,
F.R.S., that of Allahabad. Prof. R. Ruggles Gates, in addition to lectures
already mentioned, spoke at Bombay (Royal Institute of Science), Banga-
lore (Central College), Coimbatore (Association of Economic Biologists),
and Ernakulam (University College). Prof. H. H. Read fectured to the
Indian School of Mines Scientific Society at Dhanbad. Prof. A. G.
Ogilvie lectured to the Bombay Geographical Association, and informally
addressed students at Wilson College in that city and at Hislop College,
Nagpur. Prof. P. A. Buxton, visiting Ceylon, addressed the Colombo
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL, 1937-38 XXXVil
branch of the British Medical Association. Dr. W. G. Ogg advised the
State authorities in Hyderabad on the Tungabadhra irrigation project,
and other delegates were called into conference at many points for advice
on matters connected with their special interests.
After the return of the delegation to England, the Council adopted the
following resolution :—
The Council of the British Association have learned with gratification
of the complete success that attended the visit of the Scientific Delegation
to India, the members of which, through the invitation of the Indian
Science Congress Association, were enabled to co-operate in its Jubilee
Meeting in Calcutta, to visit many places of scientific and historical interest
in India, to become acquainted with the work of many universities and
other institutions, and to make or renew personal contacts with large
numbers of Indian scientific workers and leaders of thought. ‘The Council
are glad to hear of the opinion, widely expressed in India, that much good
would result from the visit, and this belief the Council heartily reciprocate.
The Council desire to endorse the expressions of gratitude which have
already been transmitted, on behalf of the Delegation, to the Government of
India, to all other participant authorities and individuals, and very specially
to the executive of the Indian Science Congress Association.
The Executive Committee of the Indian Science Congress Association
at its meeting on September 20, 1938, returned the following reply to
the above resolution :—
The Executive Committee of the Indian Science Congress Association
have received with sincere pleasure and gratification the resolution of
the Council of the British Association stating that the visit of their
Scientific Delegation to India has been a complete success and has enabled
the Members of the Delegation to make or renew personal contacts
with Indian scientific workers and leaders of thought. They share with
the Council of the British Association the belief that much good would
result from the visit. "The Executive Committee very much appreciate the
friendly feelings expressed by the Council of the British Association on
behalf of the Delegation to the authorities and individuals who contributed
towards the success of the Silver Jubilee Session and expressed in par-
ticular their appreciation of the reference to the Executive Committee of the
Indian Science Congress Association. The Executive Committee convey
to the Council of the British Association their warmest appreciation of the
manner in which the British Association have responded to their invitation
to join the Indian Science Congress Association in joint session to celebrate
the Silver Jubilee Session.
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT
Balance Sheet,
XXXVili
Corresponding LIABILITIES
irae GENERAL PURPOSES :—
1937. Sundry Creditors . : : 2
£ os. d. Hon. Sir Charles Parsons’ gift
(£10,000) and legacy (£2,000)
The late Sir Alfred Ewing’s legacy
British Science Guild : Capital Fund
Bequest of Jaakoff Prelooker . =
Yarrow Fund
As per last Account £4,744 16 1
Less Transferred to In-
come and Expendi-
ture Account under
terms of the gift . 383 9 8
Life and Corporate Compositions
As per last Account 3,138 12 2
Add Received gunng
Wear) ov. . iS) A730
3014 92
Less Transferred to In-
come and Expendi-
ture Account ° 55 10
Contingency Fund ““ A”
As per last Account 1,940 17 1
Add Amount trans-
ferred from Income
and Expenditure
Account 3 59 2 il
Contingency Fund “B’”’
Amount transferred from Income
and Expenditure Account
Accumulated Fund
As per last Account 16,488 9 0
Less'‘Transfer to Indian
Science Congress
Delegation Fund . 21615 6
42,702 0 11 | SPECIAL PURPOSES :—
Caird Fund
Balance at Ist April, 1937
Less Excess of Expenditure over In-
come for the year .
9,791 15 10
Mathematical Tables Fund
Balance at Ist April, 1937 .
Receipts from Sales .
Less Payment to Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, re Vol. VI -
144 6 3
Cunningham Bequest Fund
Balance at Ist April, 1937 .
Add Excess of Income over Expendi-
ture for the year
1,395 9 10
fe ts: red:
785 2 9
12,000 0 0
500 0 0
3,431 9 1
10 0 O
4,361 6 5
3,258 19 2
2,000 0 0
29 16 3
16,271 13 6
9,791 15 10
41 1
144 6 3
29° 294
173i gu) ad
150 0 0
1,395 9 10
12
Carried forward
Leese de
42,648 7 2
9,750 14 2
1,407 18 6
53,830 8 5
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT xxxix
31st March, 1938
Corresponding ASSETS
igure
31st March, eS a Eis rd,
1937. GENERAL PURPOSES :—
Investments as scheduled with Income
and Expenditure Account, No.1 . 41,979 7 7
Sundry debtors and Borns in ad-
vance . i % 528 10 9
Cash at bank . 3 ; . ‘ 96 9 7
‘ Cash in hand . : : $ ‘ 43 19
42,702 0 11 ———_ 42,648 7 2
SPECIAL PURPOSES :—
Caird Fund Account
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure Account, No. 2) . 3 O,582el6~ 3
Cash at bank : : : - Like be 0
9,791 15 10 OU ere
Mathematical Tables Fund (ae
Cash at bank ; : 23. Sid
Sundry debtors . ce - - -—
144 6 3 ae 23 8 7
Cunningham Bequest Fund Account
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure Account, No. a 5 a, 1300 baa
Cash at bank . : - 102 11
1,395 9 10 Se Ae 186
& DO
Carried forward . 7 953,930 8 5
xl GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT
Balance Sheet,
nee penaing LIABILITIES (continued)
3ist March, Lees. de 9G Tai Tee
1937. Brought forward = - 53,830 8 5
£ 8. d.| Toronto University Presentation Fund
Capital . 0 5 : 178 11 4
Revenue . : : A : 4 7 6
182 18 10 182 18 10
Bernard Hobson Fund
Capital . 1,000 0 0
Revenue—Balance per
last Account . oe ooorel=.3
Less Excess of Expendi-
ture over Income for
the year SAPs
—__. SHUNT pe
1,058 1 3 tre Ae? 1,031 7 9
Leicester and Leicestershire Fund, 1933
Capital - - 1,000 0 0
Revenue— Balance per
last Account . 42 2 6
Less Excess of Expendi-
ture over Income for
the year . = “ 15 10
— 41 6 8
1,042 2 6 ok APSE 1,041 6 8
Herbert Spencer Bequest Fund “ 1107 9 0
Less Excess of Expenditure over
Income for year : y - 384 4 6
1,107 9 O 723).4'i6
Norwich Fund, 1935
Balance per last Account . : 105° 30, 0
Less Expenditure for year . : 50 18 0
105 0 0 Amora
Radford Mather Lecture Fund
Capital . : 2 250: 00
Sundry Creditor . < : : 30 AG
250 0 0 ——<———— 289 4 6
Down House
Endowment Fund : -. 20,000 0 O
Sundry Creditors and Credit
Balances : 5 < : LZ M2576
Suspense Account
BalanceperlastAccount 80 13 9
Less Excess of Expendi-
ture over Income for
the year. - emo hihi
a 30 12 7
20,093 5 5 pe 20,043 5 1
NOTE,—There are contingent Liabilities in respect of grants voted
to Research Committees at Nottingham and by Council in
1937 but not claimed at 31st March, 1938, amounting to
£416 17s. 9d.
77,872 9 10 £77,195 17 9
I have examined the foregoing Account with the Books and Vouchers and certify”
and the Investments, and the Bank have certified to me that they hold the
Approved.
EZER ret) Auditors.
R. S. WHIPPLE
OE —————————— rl CC ee ——
EEE oe i
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT xli
31st March, 1938 (continued)
See roncing ASSETS (continued)
31st March, eae nS aC if ism, fda
ak ‘ Brought forward : : : 53,830 8 5
$s.
Toronto University Presentation Fund Account
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure Account, No. 4) . é 178 11 4
Cash at bank - : ; ‘A 400 6
182 18 10 a 182 18 10
Bernard Hobson Fund Account
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure Account, No. 5) = 1,000) 505 3G
Cash at bank . : Z : Sy e7ee9
1,058 1 3 oe ees) 103i 7 9
Leicester and Leicestershire Fund, 1933 Account
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure Account, No. 6) 15000" 00
Cash at bank - $ c 3 41 6
1,042 2 6 don oe 1,041 6 8
Herbert Spencer Bequest Fund Account
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure nia image No. 7) 2 123° 4. 16
Cash atbank . = é ae
1,107 9 O ae TOBe CAG
Norwich Fund, 1935 Account
(Income and Expenditure Account,
105 0 0 No.8) . a < 3 3 54552) 10
Cash at bank ; —-
Radford Mather Lecture Fund Micaat
Investments (see Income and Ex-
penditure Account, No. 9) . 250 0; 40
Add Excess of Expenditure over
Income for the year . r 5 39 4 6
250 0 0 —_——_—— 289 4 6
Down House Account
Endowment Fund Investments (see
Income and Expenditure Account,
No. 10). 5 : 2 . 20,000 0 0
Cash at bank : 4 - 3113 4
Cash in hand - F --
Sundry debtors and payments in
advance . Hil >9
20,093 5 5 ——— 20,043 5 1
77,872 9 10 £77,195 17 9
the same to be correct. I have also verified the Balance at the Bankers
Deeds of Down House.
W. B. Keen, Chartered Accountant.
23 Queen Victoria St., London, E.C. 4.
and June, 1938.
GENERAL TREASURER’S ACCOUNT
xii
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RESEARCH COMMITTEES, Etc.
APPOINTED BY THE GENERAL COMMITTEE, MEETING IN
CAMBRIDGE, 1938.
Grants of money, if any, from the Association for expenses connected
with researches are indicated in heavy type.
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
Seismological investigations.—Dr. F. J. W. Whipple (Chaivman), Mr. J. J. Shaw,
C.B.E. (Secretary), Miss E. F. Bellamy, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E.,’
F.R.S., Dr. E. C. Bullard, Dr. A. T. J. Dollar, Sir Frank Dyson, K.B.E.,
F.R.S., Dr. A. E. M. Geddes, O.B.E., Prof. G. R. Goldsbrough, F.R.S.,
Dr. Wilfred Hall, Mr. J. S. Hughes, Dr. H. Jeffreys, F.R.S., Mr. Cosmo Johns,
Dr. A. W. Lee, Prof. E. A. Milne, M.B.E., F.R.S., Prof. H. H. Plaskett,
F.R.S., Prof. H. C. Plummer, F.R.S., Prof. J. Proudman, F.R.S., Dr. A. O.
Rankine, O.B.E., F.R.S., Rev. C. Rey, S.J., Rev. J. P. Rowland, S.J., Prof.
R. A. Sampson, F.R.S., Mr. F. J. Scrase, Capt. H. Shaw, Sir Frank Smith,
K.C.B., C.B.E., Sec. R.S., Dr. R. Stoneley, F.R.S., Mr. E. Tillotson, Sir G. T.
Walker, C.S.I., F.R.S. £100 (Caird Fund grant).
Calculation of mathematical tables——Prof. E. H. Neville (Chaiyman), Dr. J.
Wishart (Secretary), Dr. A. J. Thompson (Vice-Chairman), Dr. W. G. Bickley,
Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S., Dr. J. Henderson, Dr. E. L. Ince, Dr. J. O.
Irwin, Dr. J. C. P. Miller, Mr. F. Robbins, Mr. D. H. Sadler, Mr. W. L.
Stevens, Dr. J. F. Tocher. £200 (Caird Fund grant).
SECTIONS A, C.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
GEOLOGY
The direct determination of the thermal conductivities of rocks in mines or
borings where the temperature gradient has been, or is likely to be,
measured.—Dr. Ezer Griffiths, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. D. W. Phillip
(Secretary), Dr. E. C. Bullard, Dr. H. Jeffreys, F.R.S. (from Section A) ;
Dr. E. M. Anderson, Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, F.R.S., Prof. G. Hickling, F.R.S.,
Prof. A. Holmes, Dr. J. H. J. Poole (from Section C).
- SECTIONS A, J—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
PSYCHOLOGY.
The possibility of quantitative estimates of sensory events.—Prof. A. Ferguson
(Chairman), Dr. C. S. Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S. (Vice-Chaivman), Mr. R. J.
Bartlett (Secrvetavy), Dr. H. Banister, Prof. F. C. Bartlett, F.R.S., Dr. Wm.
Brown, Dr. N. R. Campbell, Prof. J. Drever, Mr. J. Guild, Dr. R. A.
Houstoun, Dr. J. O. Irwin, Dr. G. W. C. Kaye, Dr. S. J. F. Philpott,
Dr. L. F. Richardson, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. Shaxby, Mr. T. Smith, F.R.S.,
Dr. R. H. Thouless, Dr. W. S. Tucker, O.B.E.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
To excavate critical geological sections in Great Britain.—Prof. W. T. Gordon
(Chairman), Prof. W. G. Fearnsides, F.R.S. (Secretary), Prof. E. B. Bailey,
F.R.S., Mr. H. C. Berdinner, Mr. W. S. Bisat, Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E.,
F.R.S., Prof. W. S. Boulton, Prof. A. H. Cox, Miss M. C. Crosfield, Mr. E. E. L.
Dixon, Dr. Gertrude Elles, M.B.E., Mr. C. I. Gardiner, Prof. E. J. Garwood,
F.R.S., Mr. F. Gossling, Prof. H. L. Hawkins, F.R.S., Prof. G. Hickling, F.R.S.,
Dr. R. G. S. Hudson, Prof. V. C. Illing, Prof. O. T. Jones, F.R.S., Dr. Murray
liv RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC.
Macgregor, Dr. F. J. North, Dr. J. Pringle, Prof.S. H. Reynolds, Sir Franklin
Sibly, Dr. W. K. Spencer, F.R.S., Dr. W. E. Swinton, Prof. A. E. Trueman,
Dr. F. S. Wallis, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S., Dr. W. F. Whittard, Sir A.
Smith Woodward, F.R.S., Dr. S. W. Wooldridge. £60 (Bernard Hobson
Fund, £40 contingent).
To consider and report upon petrographic classification and nomenclature.—
Lt.-Col. W. Campbell Smith (Chaivman and Secretary), Prof. E. B. Bailey,
F.R.S., Dr. R. Campbell, Dr. W. Q. Kennedy, Dr. A. G. MacGregor,
Prof. S. J. Shand, Mr. S. J. Tomkeieff, Dr. G. W. Tyrrell, Dr. F. Walker,
Dr. A. K. Wells. £10.
To consider and report on questions affecting the teaching of geology in schools.—
Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S. (Chairman), Prof. A. E. Trueman (Secretary),
Prof. P. G. H. Boswell, O.B.E., F.R.S., Mr. C. P. Chatwin, Prof. A. H.
Cox, Mr. J. Davies, Miss E. Dix, Miss Gaynor Evans, Prof. W. G. Fearnsides,
F.R.S., Prof. A. Gilligan, Prof. G. Hickling, F.R.S., Prof. D. E. Innes, Prof.
A. G. Ogilvie, O.B.E., Prof. W. J. Pugh, Mr. J. A. Steers, Prof. H. H.
Swinnerton, Dr. A. K. Wells.
The collection, preservation, and systematic registration of photographs of
geological interest.—Prof. E. J. Garwood, F.R.S. (Chairman), Prof. S. H.
Reynolds (Secretary), Mr. H. Ashley, Mr. G. Macdonald Davies, Mr. J. F.
Jackson, Dr. A. G. MacGregor, Dr. F. J. North, Dr. A. Raistrick, Mr. J.
Ranson, Prof. W. W. Watts, F.R.S.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.
To nominate competent naturalists to perform definite pieces of work at the
Marine Laboratory, Plymouth.—Dr. W. T. Calman, C.B., F.R.S. (Chairvman
and Secretary), Prof. H. Munro Fox, F.R.S., Dr. J. S. Huxley, F.R.S., Prof.
H. G. Jackson, Prof.C. M. Yonge. £50.
To co-operate with other sections interested, and with the Zoological Society,
for the purpose of obtaining support for the Zoological Record.—Sir Sidney
Harmer, K.B.E., F.R.S.°(Chaiyvman), Dr. W. T. Calman, C.B., F.R.S.
(Secretary), Prof. E. S. Goodrich, F.R.S., Prof. D. M. S. Watson, F.R.S. £50.
To investigate the density of living organisms.—Dr. S. W. Kemp, F.R.S. (Chair-
man), Mr. A. G. Lowndes (Secretary), Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S., Dr. C. F. A.
Pantin, Dr. F. S. Russell. £40.
To investigate sex in salmon.—Prof. F. A. E. Crew (Chaiyman), Prof. J. H.
Orton, Prof. J. Ritchie. £25.
To study the progressive adaptation to new conditions in Artemia salina (Diploid
and Octoploid, Parthenogenetic v. Bisexual).—Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Mr. A. C. Fabergé (Secretary), Dr. F. Gross, Mr. A. G. Lowndes,
Dr. K. Mather, Dr. E. S. Russell, O.B.E., Prof. D. M. S. Watson, F.R.S.
£20.
To study insular faunas.—Prof. Sir E. B. Poulton, F.R.S. (Chairman), Prof.
G. D. Hale Carpenter (Secretary), Prof. H. G. Jackson, Capt. N. D. Riley.
£10.
To investigate the adaptations of freshwater animals to waters of very high
salinity in Algeria.—Prof. P. A. Buxton (Chaivman), Mr. L. C. Beadle
(Secretary), Dr. G. S. Carter, Dr. E. B. Worthington. £5 4s, 8d. (unexpended
balance).
To investigate the social behaviour of the grey seal.—Prof. J. Ritchie (Chair-
man), Dr. Fraser Darling (Secretary), Prof. F. A. E. Crew, Dr. J. S. Huxley,
F.R.S., Dr. E. S. Russell.
To consider the position of animal biology in the school curriculum and matters
relating thereto.—Prof. R. D. Laurie (Chaiyman and Secretary), Mr. P.
Ainslie, Dr. H. W. Cousins, Dr. J. S. Huxley, F.R.S., Mr. Percy Lee, Mr. A. G.
Lowndes, Prof. E. W. MacBride, F.R.S., Dr. W. K. Spencer, F.R.S., Prof.
W. M. Tattersall, Dr. E. N. Miles Thomas.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. lv
SECTIONS D, E, K.—ZOOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, BOTANY.
To assist in the preservation of Wicken Fen.—Prof. F. T. Brooks, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Dr. H. Godwin (Secretary), Prof. F. Balfour-Browne, Dr. H. C.
Darby, Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner, F.R.S., Mr. J. A. Steers, Dr. W. H. Thorpe,
Dr. D. Valentine. £50.
SECTIONS D, I, K.—ZOOLOGY, PHYSIOLOGY, BOTANY.
To aid competent investigators selected by the Committee to carry on definite
pieces of work at the Zoological Station at Naples.—Prof. E. W. MacBride,
F.R.S. (Chairman and Secretary), Prof. Sir J. Barcroft, C.B.E., F.R.S., Dr.
Margery Knight, Dr. J. Z. Young. 50.
SECTIONS D, J.—ZOOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY.
To conduct field experiments on bird behaviour.—Dr. J. S. Huxley, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Mr. F. B. Kirkman (Secretary), Prof. F. Aveling, Dr. C. S.
Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S., Dr. E. S. Russell. $40. :
SECTIONS D, K.—ZOOLOGY, BOTANY.
To aid competent investigators selected by the Committee to carry out definite
pieces of work at the Freshwater Biological Station, Wray Castle, Winder-
mere.—Prof. F. E. Fritsch, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. E. B. Worthington
(Secretary), Prof. P. A. Buxton, Miss P. M. Jenkin, Dr. C. H. O’Donoghue
(from Section D) ; Dr. W. H. Pearsall (from Section K). $75.
Co-ordinating committee for Cytology and Genetics.—Prof. F. T. Brooks,
F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. D. G. Catcheside (Secretary), Mr. E. B. Ford, Prof.
F. A. E. Crew, Dr. C. D. Darlington, Prof. R. A. Fisher, F.R.S., Prof. R. R.
Gates, F.R.S., Dr. C. Gordon, Prof. Dame Helen Gwynne Vaughan, G.B.E.,
Dr. J. Hammond, Dr. J. S. Huxley, F.R.S., Dr. T. J. Jenkin, Mr. W. J. C.
Lawrence, Dr. F. W. Sansome, Dr. W. B. Turrill, Dr. C. H. Waddington,
Dr. D. M. Wrinch. £5.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
To prepare a scheme for a projected National Atlas of Great Britain and Northern
Ireland.—Prof. E. G. R. Taylor (Chaivman), Dr. S. W. Wooldridge (Secretary),
Dr. H. C. Darby, Prof. F. Debenham, Mr. C. Diver, Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S.,
Mr. D. L. Linton, Brig. M. N. MacLeod, Prof. E. J. Salisbury, F.R.S.,
Prof. A. G. Tansley, F.R.S. §10.
To collect and record information on demography and seasonal activities in
relation to environment in Inter-Tropical Africa.—Prof. P. M. Roxby
(Chairman), Prof. A. G. Ogilvie, O.B.E. (Secretqry), Mr. S. J. K. Baker,
Prof. C. B. Fawcett, Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S., Prof. C. Daryll Forde,
Mr. R. H. Kinvig, Mr. J. McFarlane, Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., Mr. R. A.
Pelham, Mr. R. U. Sayce. §2,
To consider and report upon ambiguities and innovations in geographical
terminology.—Prof. E. G. R. Taylor (Chaiyman), Dr. S. W. Wooldridge
(Secretary), Mr. H. King, Mr. R. H. Kinvig.
To co-operate with bodies concerned with the cartographic representation of
population, and in particular with the Ordnance Survey, for the production
of population maps.— (Chairman), Prof. C. B.
Fawcett (Secretary), The Director General of the Ordnance Survey, Col. Sir
Charles Close, K.B.E., C.B., C.M.G., F.R.S., Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S.,
Mr. A. C. O’Dell, Mr. A. Stevens, Mr. A. V. Williamson.
SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.
To review the knowledge at present available for the reduction of noise, and
the nuisances to the abatement of which this knowledge could best be
applied.— (Chaiyman), Wing-Commander T. R.
lvi RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC.
Cave-Browne-Cave, C.B.E. (Secretavy), Dr. A. H. Davis, Prof. G. W. O.
Howe, Mr. E. S. Shrapnell-Smith, C.B.E. £10 (Contingent).
Electrical terms and definitions.—Prof. Sir J. B. Henderson (Chaivman), Prof.
F. G. Baily and Prof. G. W. O. Howe (Secretaries), Prof. W. Cramp, Prof.
W. H. Eccles, F.R.S., Prof. C. L. Fortescue, Prof. A. E. Kennelly, Prof.
E. W. Marchant, Prof. J. Proudman, F.R.S., Sir Frank Smith, K.C.B.,
C.B.E., Sec. R.S., Prof. L. R. Wilberforce.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
To co-operate with a Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the
exploration of caves in the Derbyshire district.—Mr. M. C. Burkitt (Chair-
man), Mr. A. Leslie Armstrong (Secretary), Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S., Miss
D. A. E. Garrod, Dr. J. Wilfred Jackson, Prof. L. S. Palmer, Mr. H. J. E.
Peake. £25.
To co-operate with the Committee for the Standardisation of Anthropological
Technique (a permanent committee of the International Congress of Anthro-
pological and Ethnological Sciences).—Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E. (Chaiyman),
Miss M. Tildesley (Secretary), Prof. A. Low, Dr. G. M. Morant. £20.
To investigate early mining sites in Wales.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chaiyman),
Mr. Oliver Davies (Secretary), Dr. C. H. Desch, F.R.S., Mr. E. Estyn Evans,
Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S., Prof. C. Daryll Forde, Sir Cyril Fox, Dr. Wil-
loughby Gardner, Dr. F. J. North, Mr. V. E. Nash Williams. 48.
To investigate blood groups among primitive peoples.—Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S.
(Chaiyman), Prof. R. Ruggles Gates, F.R.S. (Secretary), Dr. F. W. Lamb,
Dr. G. M. Morant. £7. (£2 unexpended balance.)
To co-operate with the Torquay Antiquarian Society in investigating Kent’s
Cavern.—Sir A. Keith, F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E. (Secre-
tary), Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Miss D. A. E. Garrod, Mr. A. D. Lacaille. £5.
To co-operate with a committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in
assisting Miss G. Caton-Thompson to investigate the prehistoric archeology
of the Kharga Oasis.—Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E. (Chaiyvman), Miss G.
Caton-Thompson (Secretary), Dr. H. S. Harrison, Mr. H. J. E. Peake.
To report on the classification and distribution of rude stone monuments in the
British Isles.—Mr. H. J. E. Peake (Chaiyman), Mr. E. Estyn Evans (Secretary),
Mr. A. L. Armstrong, Mr. H. Balfour, F.R.S., Mrs. E. M. Clifford, Dr. G. E.
Daniel, Sir Cyril Fox, Mr. W. F. Grimes, Mr. W. J. Hemp, Mr. A. Keiller,
Mr. T. D. Kendrick, Dr. Margaret A. Murray, Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E.,
Mr. C. W. Phillips.
To carry out research among the Ainu of Japan.—Prof. C. G. Seligman, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Mrs. C. G. Seligman (Secretary), Dr. H. S. Harrison, Capt. T. A.
Joyce, O.B.E., Rt. Hon. Lord Raglan.
To conduct archeological and ethnological researches in Crete.—Prof. J. L.
Myres, O.B.E. (Chairman), Dr. G. M. Morant (Secretary), Mr. L. Dudley
Buxton, Dr. W. L. H. Duckworth. ,
To report to the Sectional Committee on the question of re-editing ‘ Notes and
Queries in Anthropology.’-—Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S. (Chaivman), Mr.
Elwyn Davies (Secretary), Prof. J. H. Hutton, C.I.E., Dr. G. M. Morant,
Prof. A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, Prof. C. G. Seligman, F.R.S., Mrs. C. G.
Seligman. .
To report on the composition of ancient metal objects——Mr. H. J. E. Peake
(Chairman), Dr. C. H. Desch, F.R.S. (Secretary), Mr. H. Balfour, F.R.S.,
Prof. V. G. Childe, Mr. O. Davies, Prof. H. J. Fleure, F.R.S., Mr. C. Hawkes,
Miss W. Lamb, Mr. M. E. L. Mallowan, Mr. H. Maryon, Dr. A. Raistrick,
Dr. R. H. Rastall.
RESEARCH COMMITTEES, ETC. lvii
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
To deal with the use of a stereotactic instrument.—Prof. J. Mellanby, F.R.S.
(Chairman), Prof. R. J. S. McDowall (Secretary).
SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY.
To develop tests of the routine manual factor in mechanical ability.—Dr. C. S.
Myers, C.B.E., F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr. G. H. Miles (Secretary), Prof. C. Burt,
Dr. F. M. Earle, Dr. Ll. Wynn Jones, Prof.T.H. Pear. £40.
The nature of perseveration and its testing.—Prof. F. Aveling (Chairman),
Dr. W. Stephenson (Secretary), Prof. F. C. Bartlett, F.R.S., Dr. Mary Collins,
Prof. J. Drever, Mr. E. Farmer, Prof. C.-Spearman, F.R.S., Dr. P. E.
Vernon. £5.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
Transplant experiments.—Sir Arthur Hill, K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Dr.
W. B. Turrill (Secretary), Prof. F. W. Oliver, F.R.S., Prof. E. J. Salisbury,
F.R.S., Prof. A. G. Tansley, F.R.S.
SECTION L.—EDUCATION.
To consider and report on the gaps in the informative content of education, with
special reference to the curriculums of schools.—Sir Richard Gregory, Bart.,
F.R.S. (Chaiyman), Mr. A. E. Henshall (Secretary), Prof. C. M. Attlee,
Mr. G. D. Dunkerley, Miss L. Higson, Mr. D. Shillan, Dr. F. H. Spencer, Mr.
H. G. Wells. £15 (Leicester and Leicestershire Fund).
To consider and report on the possibilities of organising and developing research
in education.—Prof. F. Clarke (Chairman), Mr. A. Gray Jones (Secretary),
Miss D. Bailey, Dr. M. M. Lewis, Sir Richard Livingstone, Mr. W. H.
Robinson, Mr. N. F. Sheppard. £10 (Leicester and Leicestershire Fund).
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES.
Corresponding Societies Committee.—The President of the Association (Chairman
ex-officio), Dr. C. Tierney (Secretary), the General Secretaries, the General
Treasurer, Dr. Vaughan Cornish, Mr. T. S. Dymond, Prof. W. T. Gordon,
Mr. N. B. Kinnear, the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Onslow, P.C., Dr. G. F. Herbert
Smith.
RESOLUTIONS & RECOMMENDATIONS.
The following resolutions and recommendations were referred, unless
otherwise stated, to the Council by the General Committee at the Cam-
bridge Meeting for consideration and, if desirable, for action :
From Section A (Mathematical and Physical Sciences).
That the Committee of Section A request the Council to communicate
to the University authorities their satisfaction on learning that the establish-
ment of a Museum of Historic Scientific Instruments is contemplated, and
hopes that the scheme will be brought to fruition.
From Section D (Zoology).
That it is in the highest interest of the history of Science that the objects
of historic and scientific importance now being shown in the exhibition
arranged under the auspices of the Cambridge Philosophical Society should
be kept together so far as possible to form the nucleus of a permanent
University Museum illustrating the history of Science in Cambridge.
The substance of the two preceding resolutions was ordered to be com-
municated to the Vice-Chancellor of the University of Cambridge as from
the Association.
From Section H (Anthropology).
That the Association views with appreciation the recognition by the
Commonwealth Government of Australia of the value of the application of
scientific anthropological methods to the solution of the problems associated
with the aborigines, and the renewed efforts directed to the preservation of
. the remaining native tribes.
Inasmuch as it is now generally recognised that a thorough knowledge
of the material and spiritual life of a people is the best approach for solving
the problems connected with the administration of native affairs and in
view of the rapid decline of the Australian aborigines and the great value to
Science, both now and in centuries to come, of the information about their
languages and cultures that might still be collected by scientific field-work
during the next fifteen or twenty years, it is urgently necessary that the
research work financed for ten years by the Rockefeller Foundation and
subsequently by the Commonwealth Government should be continued.
It is respectfully suggested to the Commonwealth Government that the
best method of safeguarding the remaining tribal natives, in particular
those of Arnhem Land, who are still in possession of their own culture,
would be to segregate them effectively from all alien influences pending
the establishment of a settled uniform policy for the treatment of the whole
of the natives of Australia.
From Section H (Anthropology).
The Committee of Section H desire to maintain on record their resolution
adopted last year to the effect that in view of the importance of anthropology
as a means of promoting concord and understanding between men of
different traditions, the British Association earnestly recommends to the
Secretary of State for India that anthropology should be made a com-
pulsory subject of study in the training of all probationers appointed to.
proceed to India and Burma.
The Committee understand that it has been found inexpedient to give
effect to this resolution during the past year, but they trust that the Council
will ask the Government of India to re-consider the matter sympathetically
whenever opportunity may arise. AAG Ue
Hritish Association for the Advancement
of Science.
CAMBRIDGE: 1938
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
PART I
VISION IN NATURE AND VISION
AIDED BY SCIENCE
PART II
SCIENCE AND WARFARE
BY
Tue Rt. Hon. LORD RAYLEIGH, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT OF THE ASSOCIATION.
133
VISION, AND ITS ARTIFICIAL AIDS AND SUBSTITUTES.
Tue last occasion that the British Association met at Cambridge
was in 1904, under the presidency of my revered relative, Lord
Balfour, who at the time actually held the position of Prime Minister.
That a Prime Minister should find it possible to undertake this
additional burthen brings home to us how much the pace has
quickened in national activities, and I may add, anxieties, between
that time and this.
Lord Balfour in his introductory remarks recalled the large share
which Cambridge had had in the development of physics from the
time of Newton down to that of J. J. Thomson and the scientific
school centred in the Cavendish Laboratory, ‘whose physical
speculations,’ he said, ‘ bid fair to render the closing year of the old
_ century and the opening ones of the new as notable as the greatest
which have preceded them.’ It is a great pleasure to me, as I am
sure it is to all of you, that my old master is with us here to-night.
'
—_—_— = = —
2 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
as he was on that occasion. I can say in his presence that the lapse of
time has not failed to justify Lord Balfour’s words. What was then
an intelligent anticipation is now an historical fact.
I wish I could proceed on an equally cheerful note. The reputa-
tion of the scientific school in the Cavendish Laboratory has been
more than sustained in the interval under the leadership of one
whose friendly presence we all miss to-night. ‘The death of Ernest
Rutherford leaves a blank which we can never hope to see entirely
filled in our day. We know that the whole scientific world joins
with us in mourning his loss.
Lord Balfour’s address was devoted to topics which had long
been of profound interest to him. He was one of the first to
compare the world picture drawn by science and the world picture
drawn by the crude application of the senses, and he emphasised
the contrast between them. A quotation from his address will
serve aS an appropriate text to introduce the point of view which
I wish to develop this evening.
“So far,’ he said, ‘as natural science can tell us, every quality
of sense or intellect which does not help us to fight, to eat, and to
bring up our children, is but a by-product of the qualities which do.
Our organs of sense perception were not given us for purposes of
research . . . either because too direct a vision of physical reality
was a hindrance, not a help in the struggle for existence . . . or
because with so imperfect a material as living tissue no better result
could be attained.’
Some of those who learn the results of modern science from a
standpoint of general or philosophical interest come away, I believe,
with the impression that what the senses tell us about the external
world is shown to be altogether misleading. ‘They learn, for ex-
ample, that the apparent or space-filling quality of the objects called
solid or liquid is a delusion, and that the volume of space occupied
is held to be very small compared with that which remains vacant
in between. This is in such violent contrast with what direct
observation seems to show that they believe they are asked to give
up the general position that what we learn from our senses must be
our main guide in studying the nature of things.
Now this is in complete contrast with the standpoint of the experi-
mental philosopher. He knows very well that in his work he does
and must trust in the last resort almost entirely to what can be seen,
and that his knowledge of the external world is based upon it: and
I do not think that even the metaphysician claims that we can learn
much in any other way. It is true that the conclusions of modern
science seem at first sight to be very far removed from what our
senses tell us. But on the whole the tendency of progress is to
bring the more remote conclusions within the province of direct
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS B
observation, even when at first sight they appeared to be hopelessly
beyond it.
For example, at the time of Lord Balfour’s address some who
XQ . . .
were regarded as leaders of scientific thought still urged that
the conception of atoms was not to be taken literally. We now
count the atoms by direct methods. We see the electrometer
needle give a kick and we say, ‘There goes an atom.’ Or we
see the path of an individual atom marked out by a cloud track
and we see where it was abruptly bent by a violent collision with
another atom.
Again, the theory of radioactive decomposition put forward by
Rutherford, however cogent it may have seemed and did seem to
those who were well acquainted with the evidence, was originally
based on indirect inferences about quantities of matter far too small
to be weighed on the most delicate balance. Chemists were naturally
inclined to feel some reserve ; but in due course the theory led to a
conclusion which could be tested by methods in which they had
confidence—the conclusion, namely, that lead contained in old
uranium minerals ought to have a lower atomic weight than ordinary
lead and in all probability to be lighter, and on trying this out it
proved to be so. More recently we have the discovery of heavy
hydrogen with twice the density of ordinary hydrogen and heavy
water which is the source of it.
Lastly, the conclusion that ordinary matter is not really space-
filling has been illustrated by the discovery that certain stars have a
density which is a fabulous multiple of the density of terrestrial
matter. Although this is in some sense a deduction as distinguished
from an observation, yet the steps required in the deduction are
elementary ones entirely within the domain of the older physics.
This and many other points of view have seemed at first sight to
contradict the direct indication of our senses. But it was not really
so. ‘They were obtained and could only be obtained by sense
indications rightly interpreted. As in the passage from Lord Balfour
already quoted the senses were not primarily developed for purposes
of research, and we have in large measure to adapt them to that
purpose by the use of artificial auxiliaries. ‘The result of doing so
is often to reveal a world which to the unaided senses seems
paradoxical.
I have chosen for the main subject of this address a survey of some
of the ways in which such adaptations have been made. I shall
naturally try to interest you by dwelling most on aspects of the subject
that have some novelty ; but apart from these there is much to be
gleaned of historical interest, and when tempted I shall not hesitate
to digress a little from methods and say something about results.
I shall begin with a glance at the mechanism of the human eye,
4. THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
so far as it is understood. I shall show how the compromise and
balance between different competing considerations which is seen
in its design can be artificially modified for special purposes. All
engineering designs are a matter of compromise. You cannot
have everything. ‘The unassisted eye has a field of view extending
nearly over a hemisphere. It gives an indication very quickly
and allows comparatively rapid changes to be followed. It responds
best to the wave-lengths actually most abundant in daylight or
moonlight. This combination of qualities is ideal for what we
believe to be nature’s primary purpose, that is for finding subsistence
under primitive conditions and for fighting the battle of life against
natural enemies. But by sacrificing some of these qualities, and in
particular the large field of view, we can enhance others for purposes
of research. We may modify the lens system by artificial additions
over a wide range for examining the very distant or the very small.
We can supplement and enormously enhance the power of colour
discrimination which nature has given us. By abandoning the use
of the retina and substituting the photographic plate as an artificial
retina, we can increase very largely the range of spectrum which can
be utilised. This last extension has its special possibilities, par-
ticularly in the direction of using waves smaller than ordinary, even
down to those which are associated with a moving electron. By
using the photoelectric cell as another substitute for the retina with
electric wire instead of optic nerve and a recording galvanometer
instead of the brain we can make the impressions metrical and can
record them on paper. We can count photons and other particulate
forms of energy as well. We can explore the structure of atoms,
examine the disintegration of radioactive bodies, and trace out the
mutual relation of the elements. Indeed, by elaborating this train
of thought a little further almost the whole range of observational
science could be covered. But within the compass of an hour or
so one must not be too ambitious. It is not my purpose to stray very
far from what might, by a slight stretch of language, fall under the
heading of extending the powers of the eye.
Most people who have a smattering of science now know the
comparison of the eye with the camera obscura, or better, with the
modern photographic camera—with its. lens, iris, diaphragm,
focussing adjustment and ground glass screen, the latter correspond-
ing to the retina. ‘The comparison does not go very far, for it does
not enter upon how the message is conveyed to the brain and appre-
hended by the mind ; or even upon the minor mystery of how colours
are discriminated. Nevertheless, it would be a great mistake to
suppose that the knowledge which is embodied in this comparison
was easily arrived at. For example, many acute minds in antiquity
thought that light originated in the eye rather than in the object
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 5
viewed. Euclid in his optics perhaps used this as a mathematical
fiction practically equivalent to the modern one of reversing the
course of a ray, but other authors appealed to the apparent glow of
animal eyes by lamplight, which shows that they took the theory
quite literally. ‘The Arabian author Alhazen had more correct ideas
and he gave an anatomical description of the eye, but apparently
regarded what we call the crystalline lens as the light-sensitive organ.
Kepler was the first to take the modern view of the eye.
The detailed structure of the retina, and its connection with the
optic nerve, has required the highest skill of histologists in inter-
preting difficult and uncertain indications. The light-sensitive
elements are of two kinds, the rods and cones. The rods seem
to be the only ones used in night vision, and do not distinguish
colours. ‘The cones are most important in the centre of the field of
view, where vision is most acute, and it seems to be fairly certain
that in the foveal region each cone has its own individual nervous
communication with the brain. On the other hand, there is not
anything like room in the cross-section of the optic nerve to allow
us to assign a different nerve fibre to each of the millions of rods.
A single fibre probably has to serve 200 of them.
The nervous impulse is believed to travel in the optic nerve as
in any other nerve, but what happens to it when it arrives at the brain
is a question for the investigators of a future generation.
The use of lenses is one of the greatest scientific discoveries :
we do not know who made it. Indeed, the more closely we inquire
into this question the vaguer it becomes. Spectacle lenses as we
know them are a medieval invention, dating from about A.D. 1280.
Whether they originated from some isolated thinker and experi-
mentalist of the type of Roger Bacon, or whether they were developed
by the ingenuity of urban craftsmen, can hardly be considered certain.
There are several ways in which the suggestion might have arisen,
but a glass bulb filled with water is the most likely. Indeed, con-
sidering that such bulbs were undoubtedly used as burning glasses
in the ancient world, and that the use of them for reading small and
difficult lettering is explicitly mentioned by Seneca, it seems rather
strange that the next step was not taken in antiquity. Apparently
the explanation is that the magnification was attributed to the nature
of the water rather than to its shape. At all events, it may readily
be verified that a 4- or 5-inch glass flask full of water, though not very
convenient to handle, will give a long-sighted newspaper reader the
same help that he could get from a monocle.
The invention of lenses was a necessary preliminary to the inven-
tion of the telescope, for, as Huygens remarked, it would require
a superhuman genius to make the invention theoretically.
The retina of the eye on which the image is to be received has
6 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
structure. We may compare the picture on the retina to a design
embroidered in woolwork, which also has a structure. Clearly such a
design cannot embody details which are smaller than the mesh of the
canvas which is to carry the coloured stitches. ‘The only way to get
in more detail is to make the design, or rather such diminished part
of it as the canvas can accommodate, on a larger scale. Similarly
with the picture on the retina. The individual rods and cones
correspond with the individual meshes of the canvas. If we want
more detail of an object) we must make the picture on the retina
larger, with the necessary sacrifice of the field of view. If the object
is distant we want for this a lens of longer focus instead of the eye
lens. Wecannot take the eye lens away, but, what amounts to nearly
the same thing, we can neutralise it by a concave lens of equal power
put right up to it, called the eyepiece. ‘Then we are free to use a long
focus lens called the telescopic objective to make a larger picture on
the retina. It must of course be put at the proper distance out to
make a distinct picture. This is a special case of the Galilean
telescope which lends itself to simple description. It is of no use
to make the picture larger if we lose definition in the process. ‘The
enlarged image must remain sharp enough to take advantage of the
fine structure of the retinal screen that is to receive it. It will not
be sharp enough unless we make the lens of greater diameter than
the eye. Another reason for using a large lens is to avoid a loss of
brightness.
It seems paradoxical that the image of a star should be smaller
the larger the telescope. Nevertheless it is a necessary result of
the wave character of light. We cannot see the true nature of,
for example, a double star unless the two images are small enough
not to overlap and far enough apart to fall on separated elements of
the observer’s retina.
When the problem is to examine small objects we look at them as
close as we can: here the short-sighted observer has an advantage.
By adding a lens in front of the eye lens to increase its power we can
produce a kind of artificial short sight and get closer than we could
otherwise, so that the picture on the retina is bigger. This is a
simple microscope and we can use it to examine the image produced
by an objective lens ; if this image is larger than the object under
examination we call the whole arrangement a compound microscope.
Given perfect construction there is no limit in theory to what a
telescope can do in revealing distant worlds. It is only a question
of making it large enough. On the other hand, there is a very
definite limit to what the microscope used with, say, ordinary daylight ©
can do. It is not that there is any difficulty in making it magnify
as much as we like. This can be done, e.g., by making the tube of
the microscope longer. The trouble is that beyond a certain point
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 7
magnification does no good. Many people find this a hard saying,
but it must be remembered that a large image is not necessarily
a good image. We are up against the same difficulty as before.
A point on the object is necessarily spread out into a disc in the image,
due to the coarseness of structure of light itself as indicated by its
wave-length. I cannot go into the details, but many of you will
know that points on the object which are something less than half
a wave-length, or say a one-hundred-thousandth of an inch apart,
cannot be distinctly separated. This is the theoretical limit for a
microscope using ordinary light, and it has been practically reached.
The early microscopists would have thought this more than satis-
factory ; but the limit puts a serious obstacle in the way of biological
and medical progress to-day. For example, the pathogenic bacteria
in many cases are about this size or less ; and there is special interest
in considering in what directions we may hope to go further.
Since microscopic resolution depends on having a fine structure
in the light itself, something, though not perhaps very much, may
be gained by the use of ultra-violet light instead of visible light.
It then becomes necessary to work by photography. We are nearing
the region of the spectrum where almost everything is opaque. In
the visual region nearly every organic structure is transparent and
to get contrast stains have to be used which colour one part more
_ deeply than the other. In the ultra-violet, on the other hand, we
get contrast without staining and, as Mr. J. W. Barnard has shown,
the advantage lies as much in this as in the increased resolving power.
For example, using the strong ultra-violet line of the mercury
vapour lamp, which has about half the wave-length of green light,
he finds that a virus contained within a cell shows up as a highly
absorptive body in contrast with the less absorptive elements of the
cell. So that ultra-violet microscopy offers some hope of progress
in connection with this fundamental problem of the nature of
viruses.
With ultra-violet microscopy we have gone as far as we can
in using short waves with ordinary lenses made of matter, for the
available kinds of matter are useless for shorter waves than these, and
it might well seem that we have here come to a definite and final end.
Yet itis notso. There are two alternatives, which we must consider
separately. Paradoxical as it may seem, for certain radiations we
can make converging lenses out of empty space; or alternatively
we can make optical observations without any lenses at all.
The long-standing controversy which raged in the nineties of the
last century as to whether cathode rays consisted of waves or of
electrified particles was thought to have been settled in favour of
the latter alternative. But scientific controversies, however acutely
they may rage for a time, are apt, like industrial disputes, to end in
8 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
compromise ; and it has been so in this instance. According to
our present views the cathode rays in one aspect consist of a stream
of electrified particles ; in another, they consist of wave trains, the
length being variable in inverse relation to the momentum of the
particles.
Now cathode rays have the property of being bent by electric
or magnetic forces, and far-reaching analogies have been traced
between this bending and the refraction of light by solids; indeed,
a system of ‘ electron optics ’ has been elaborated which shows how
a beam of cathode rays issuing from a point can be reassembled into
an image by passing through a localised electrostatic or magnetic
field having axial symmetry. ‘This constitutes what has been called
an electrostatic or magnetic lens. It is then possible to form a
magnified image of the source of electrons on a fluorescent screen,
and that is the simplest application. But we can go further and form
an image of an obstructing object such as a fine wire by means of
one magnetic lens, acting as objective, and amplify it by means of a
second magnetic lens, which is spoken of as the eyepiece, though of
course it is only such by analogy, for the eye cannot deal directly
with cathode rays. ‘The eyepiece projects the image on to a fluor-
escent screen, or photographic plate. So far we have been think-
ing of the electron stream in its corpuscular aspect. But we must
turn to the wave aspect when it comes to consideration of theoretical
resolving power. ‘The wave-length associated with an electron
stream of moderate velocity is so small that if the electron microscope
could be brought to the perfection of the optical microscope, it
should be able to resolve the actual atomic structure of crystals.
This is very far indeed from being attained, the present electron
microscope being much further from its own ideal than were the
earliest optical microscopes. Nevertheless experimental instru-
ments have been constructed which have a resolving power several
times better than the modern optical microscope. ‘The difficulty
is to apply them to practical biological problems.
It is not to be supposed that the histological technique so skilfully
elaborated for ordinary microscopy can at once be transferred to the
electron microscope. For example, the relatively thick glass sup-
ports and covers ordinarily used are out of the question. Staining
with aniline dyes is probably of little use, and the fierce bombard-
ment to which the delicate specimen is necessarily exposed will be
no small obstacle. Certain standard methods, however, such as
impregnation with osmium, seem to be applicable: and there is
some possibility that eventually the obscure region between the
smallest organisms and the largest crystalline structure may be
explored by electron microscopy.
In referring to the limitations on the use of lenses I mentioned
;
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 9
the other alternative that we might, in order to work with the shortest
waves, dispense with lenses altogether : and in fact in using X-rays
this is done. We are then limited to controlling the course of the
rays by means of tubes or pinholes. This restriction is so serious
that it altogether defeats the possibility of constructing a useful
X-ray microscope analogous to the optical or the electron microscope.
In spite of this the use of X-rays is of fundamental value for dealing
with a particular class of objects, namely, crystals, which themselves
have a regular spacing, comparable in size with the length of the
waves. Just as the spacing of a ruled grating (say one 1/20,000th
of an inch) can be compared with the wave-length of light by measur-
ing the angle of diffraction, so the spacing of atoms in a crystal can
be compared with the wave-length of X-rays. But here the indica-
tions are less direct than with the microscope, and depend on the
object having a periodic structure. So that the method hardly falls
within the scope of this address. How essential the difference is will
appear if we consider that the angle to be observed becomes greater
and not less the closer the spacing of the object under test.
Colour vision is one of nature’s most wonderful achievements,
though custom often prevents our perceiving the wonder of it.
We take it for granted that anyone should readily distinguish the
berries on a holly bush, and we are inclined to be derisive of a colour-
blind person who cannot do so. But so far anatomy has told us
little or nothing of how the marvel is achieved. Experiments on
colour vision show that three separate and fundamental colour
sensations exist. It is probable that the cones of the retina are
responsible for colour vision and the rods for dark adapted vision
which does not discriminate colour. But no division of the cones
into three separate kinds corresponding to the three colour sensa-
tions has ever been observed. Nor is any anatomical peculiarity
known which allows a colour-blind eye to be distinguished from a
normal one.
Can artificial resources help to improve colour discrimination ?
In some interesting cases they can. Indeed, the whole subject of
spectroscopy may be thought of as coming under this head. We
can recognise the colour imparted by sodium to a flame without
artificial help. When potassium is present as well, the red colour
due to it can only be seen when we use a prism to separate the red
image of the flame from the yellow one. Such a method has its
limitations, because if the coloured images are more numerous they
overlap, and the desired separation is lost. To avoid this it is
necessary to make a sacrifice, and to limit the effective breadth of
the flame by a more or less narrow slit. And if the images are verv
numerous the slit has to be so narrow that all indication of the
breadth of the source is lost. This, of course, is substantially the
B2
10 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
method of spectroscopy, into which I do not enter further. But
there is an interesting class of cases where we cannot afford to
sacrifice the form of the object entirely to colour discrimination.
Consider, for example, the prominences of the sun’s limb, which are
so well seen against the darkened sky of an eclipse, but are altogether
lost in the glare of the sky at other times. In order to see them
prismatic dispersion is made use of, and separates the mono-
chromatic red light of hydrogen from the sky background. A slit
must be used to cut off the latter : but if it is too narrow the outlines
of the prominence cannot be seen. By using a compromise width
it is possible to reconcile the competing requirements in this com-
paratively easy case. Indeed, M. B. Lyot, working in the clear air
of the observatory of the Pic du Midi, where there is less false light
to deal with, has even been able to observe the prominences through
a suitable red filter, which enables the whole circumference of the
sun to be examined at once, without the limitations introduced by a
slit. A much more difficult problem is to look for bright hydrogen
eruptions projected on the sun’s disc, and at first sight this might
well seem hopeless. A complete view of them was first obtained by
photography, but I shall limit myself to some notice of the visual
instrument perfected by Hale and called by him the spectrohelio-
scope. A very narrow slit has to be used, and hence only a very
small breadth of the sun’s surface can be seen at any one instant.
But the difficulty is turned by very rapidly exposing to view successive
strips of the sun’s surface side by side. The images then blend,
owing to persistence of vision, and a reasonably broad region is in-
cluded in what is practically a single view. I must pass over the
details of mechanism by which this is carried out.
There are now a number of spectrohelioscopes over different
parts of the world, and a continuous watch is kept for bright erup-
tions of the red hydrogen lines. Already these are found to be
simultaneous with the ‘fading’ of short radio waves over the
illuminated hemisphere of the earth, and the brightest eruptions
are simultaneous with disturbances of terrestrial magnetism. At
the Mount Wilson Observatory such eruptions have been seen at the
same time at widely separated points on the sun, indicating a deep-
seated cause. ‘There are therefore very interesting and fundamental
questions within the realm of this method of investigation.
We have so far been mainly considering how we may adapt our
vision for objects too small or too far off for unassisted sight, and for
colour differences not ordinarily perceptible. This is chiefly done’
by supplementing the lens system of the eye by additional lenses
or by prisms. We cannot supplement the retina, but in certain
cases we can do better. We can substitute an artificial sensitive
surface which may be either photographic or photoelectric.
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS II
That certain pigments are bleached by light is an observation
that must have obtruded itself from very early times—indeed, it is
one of the chief practical problems of dyeing to select pigments
which do not fade rapidly. If a part of the coloured surface is
protected by an opaque object—say a picture or a mirror hanging
over a coloured wallpaper—we get a silhouette of the protecting
object, which is in essence a photograph.
Again, it is a matter of common observation that the human skin
is darkened by the prolonged action of the sun’s light, and here
similarly we may get what is really a silhouette photograph of a
locket, or the like, which protects the skin locally. In this case we
are perhaps retracing the paths which Nature herself has taken : for
the evolution of the eye is regarded as having begun with the general
sensitiveness to light of the whole surface of the organism.
The sensitivity of at all events the dark adapted eye depends
on the accumulation on the retinal rods of the pigment called the
visual purple, of which the most striking characteristic is its ready
bleaching by light. We can even partially ‘ fix’ the picture pro-
duced in this way on the retina of, for example, a frog by means of
alum solution. ‘This brings home to us how clearly akin are the
processes in the retina to those in the photographic plate, even though
the complexity of the former has hitherto largely baffled investigation.
There are then many indications in nature of substances sensitive
to light, and quite a considerable variety of them have from time
to time been used in practical photographic processes. But com-
pounds of silver, which formed the basis of the earliest processes,
have maintained the lead over all others. The history of photo-
graphy by means of silver salts cannot be considered a good example
of the triumph of the rational over the empirical. For instance, the
discovery of developers came about thus. The first workers,
Wedgewood and Davy (1802), had found that they got greater
sensitivity by spreading the silver salt on white leather instead of
paper. An early experimenter, the Rev. J. B. Reade (1837), was
anxious to repeat this experiment, and sacrificed a pair of white
kid gloves belonging to his wife for the purpose. When he wished
to sacrifice a second pair, the lady raised a not unnatural objection,
and he said, ‘ Then I will tan paper.’ He treated paper with an
infusion of oak galls and found that this increased the sensitivity
greatly. It amounted to what we should call exposing and develop-
ing simultaneously. But, in using the method, it is easily observed
that darkening continues after exposure is over, and this leads to
beginning development after the exposure. ‘This step was taken by
Fox Talbot a year or two afterwards. Instead of crude infusion
of galls he used gallic acid. Later pyrogallic acid was used instead
of gallic acid, and still survives.
12 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
The use of gelatine as a medium to contain the silver halide was
a more obvious idea. But it was not so easy to foresee that the
sensitivity of silver salts would be much further increased when they
were held in this medium. For long this remained unexplained,
until it was noticed that some specimens of gelatine were much
more active than others. This was ultimately traced by S. E.
Sheppard to the presence of traces of mustard oil, a sulphur com-
pound, in the more active specimens. ‘This, in turn, depends in
all probability on the pasturage on which the animals that afford the
gelatine have been fed. The quantity present is incredibly small,
comparable in quantity with the radium in pitchblende.
The value to science as well as to daily life of the gelatine dry
plate or film can hardly be overestimated. Take, for instance, the
generalised principle of relativity, which attempts with considerable
success to reduce the main feature of the cosmical process to a geo-
metrical theory. The crucial test requires us to investigate the
gravitational bending of light, by photographing the field of stars
near the eclipsed sun. For this purpose the gelatine dry plate has
been essential : and here, as we have seen, we get into complicated
questions of bio-chemistry. ‘This is to my mind a beautiful example
of the interdependence of different branches of science and of the
disadvantages of undue specialisation (or should I say generalisa-
tion ?). We may attempt to reduce the cosmos to the dry bones
of a geometrical theory, but in testing the theory we are compelled
to have recourse again to the gelatine which we have discarded from
the dry bones !
To come back, however, to the development of the photographic
retina, as I may call it. As is well known, the eye has maximum
sensitivity to the yellow-green of the spectrum, but ordinary silver
salts are not sensitive in this region. Their maximum is in the blue
or violet, and ranges on through ultra-violet to the X-ray region.
It was not at all easy to extend it on the other side through green,
yellow and red to infra-red. The story of how this was ultimately
attained is one more example in the chapter of accidental clues
skilfully followed up which forms the history of this subject.
In 1873, Dr. Hermann Vogel, of Berlin, noticed that certain
collodion plates of English manufacture, which he was using for
spectrum photography, recorded the green of the spectrum to which
the simple silver salts are practically insensitive. The plates had
been coated with a mixture which contained nitrate of uranium,
gum, gallic acid and a yellow colouring matter. What the purpose .
of this coating was is not very obvious. It rather reminds one of
medieval medical prescriptions which made up in complexity what
they lacked in clear thinking. But Vogel concluded with true
scientific insight that it must owe the special property he had dis-
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 13
covered to some constituent which absorbs the green of the spectrum
more than the blue: for conservation of energy requires that the
green should be absorbed if it is to act on the plate. He then tried
staining the plate with coralline red, which has an absorption band
in the green, with the expected result. With much prescience he
says: ‘I think I am pretty well justified in inferring that we are in
a position to render bromide of silver sensitive for any colour we choose.
Perhaps we may even arrive at this, namely photographing the ultra-
red as we have already photographed the ultra-violet.’ It was,
however, half a century before this far-seeing prophecy was fully
realised. ‘The development of the aniline colour industry gave full
scope for experiment, but it has been found by bitter experience
that dyes which can produce the colour sensitiveness are often fatal
to the clean working and keeping qualities of the plate. However,
success has been attained, largely by the efforts of Dr. W. H. Mills,
of the chemical department of this University, and of Dr. Mees, of
the Kodak Company ; and we all see the fruits of it in the photo-
graphs by lamplight which are often reproduced in the newspapers.
It is now known in what direction the molecular structure of the
sensitising dye must be elaborated in order to push the action further
and further into the infra-red, and the point when water becomes
opaque has nearly been reached, with great extension of our know-
ledge of the solar spectrum. The spectra of the major planets
have also been extended into the infra-red, and this has given the
clue as to the true origin of the mysterious absorption bands due
to their atmospheres, which had baffled spectroscopists for more
than a generation. ‘These bands have been shown by Wildt to be
due to methane or marsh gas. Neptune, for example, has an atmo-
sphere of methane equivalent to 25 miles thickness of the gas under
standard conditions. In this Neptunian methane we have a paraffin
certainly not of animal or vegetable origin ; and I venture in passing
to make the suggestion that geologists might usefully take it into
consideration in discussing the origin of terrestrial petroleum.
The photographic plate is not the only useful substitute for the
human retina. We have another in the photoelectric surface. The
history of this discovery is of considerable interest. Heinrich Hertz,
in his pioneering investigation of electric waves (1887), made use of
the tiny spark which he obtained from his receiving circuit as an
indicator. The younger part of my audience must remember that
this was before the days of valves and loud speakers. His experi-
ments were done within the walls of one room. When he boxed
in the indicating spark so as to shield it from daylight and make it
easier to see, he found that this precaution had exactly the opposite
effect—the spark became less instead of more conspicuous. ‘To
express it shortly and colloquially, this action was found to depend
14 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
on whether or not the spark of the receiver could see the spark of the
oscillator. Moreover, seeing through a glass window would not do.
It was ultra-violet light from the active spark that influenced the
passive spark. Further, Hertz was able to determine that the
action occurred mainly, if not entirely, at the cathode of the passive
spark.
The next step was taken by Hallwachs, who showed that it was
not necessary to work with the complicated conditions of the spark.
He found that a clean zinc plate negatively charged rapidly lost its
charge when illuminated by ultra-violet light.
The final important step was in the use of a clean surface of alkali
metal im vacuo which responds to visible light and passes compara-
tively large currents. This constitutes the photoelectric cell very
much as we now have it, and was due to two German schoolmasters,
J. Elster and H. Geitel. English physicists who met them during
their visit to Cambridge a generation ago will not fail to have
agreeable memories of their single-minded enthusiasm and devoted
mutual regard. Sir J. J. Thomson has recalled them to our recol-
lection in his recent book. ‘They could scarcely have foreseen that
their work, carried out in a purely academic spirit, would make
possible the talking films which give pleasure to untold millions.
The sensitiveness of the dark-adapted eye has often been referred
to as one of its most wonderful features; but, under favourable
conditions, the sensitivity of a photoelectric surface may even be
superior. According to our present ideas, no device conceivable
could do more than detect every quantum which fell upon it. Neither
the eye nor the photoelectric surface comes very near to this standard,
but it would seem that the falling short is rather in detail than in
principle. The action of the photoelectric cell depends on the
liberation of an electron by one quantum of incident energy, and
under favourable conditions the liberation of one electron can be
detected, by an application of the principle of Geiger’s counter.
The action of the dark-adapted eye depends on the bleaching of the
visual purple. According to the results of Dartnell, Goodeve and
Lythgoe it appears likely that one quantum can bleach a molecule
of this substance, and in all probability this results in the excitation
of a nerve fibre, which carries its message to the brain.
The photoelectric cell can be used like the photographic plate at
the focus of an astronomical telescope. It might seem from the
standpoint of evolution a retrograde step to substitute a single sensi-
tive element for the 137 million such elements in the human eye. .
In this connection it is interesting to note that in certain invertebrate
animals eyes are known which have the character of a single sensitive
element, with a lens to concentrate the light upon it. Such an eye
can do little more than distinguish light from darkness. But its
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 15
artificial counterpart using the photoelectric surface has the valuable
property that the electric current which indicates that light is falling
upon it can be precisely measured, so as to determine the intensity
of the light. In contrast with photographic action, the energy
available to produce the record comes not from the original source
of light, which only, as it were, pulls the trigger, but from the battery
in the local circuit, and it may be amplified so as to actuate robust
mechanisms. It has been applied with success to guiding a large
telescope or, in a humbler sphere, to open doors, or even to catch
thieves.
However, the scientific interest lies more in the possibility of
accurate measurement. As an interesting example we might take
the problem of measuring the apparent diameter of the great nebula
in Andromeda. As is known, modern research tends to indicate
that the Andromeda nebula and other like systems,are the counter-
parts of the galaxy, being in fact island universes. But until lately
there was such a serious difficulty in that all such systems appeared
to be considerably smaller than the galaxy. Stebbins and Whitford,
by traversing a telescope armed with a photoelectric cell across the
nebula, have found that its linear dimensions were twice as great
as had been supposed, reducing the discrepancy of size to com-
paratively little.
But, it may be suggested, could we not go further and make a
photoelectric equivalent, not only for the rudimentary kind of eye
which has only a single sensitive element, but for the developed
mammalian eye which has an enormous number? Could we not
build up on separated photoelectric elements a complete and detailed
picture ? In point of fact this has been done in the development of
television ; and since this new art which interests us all can properly
be considered as an extension of the powers of normal vision, no
excuse is needed for devoting some consideration to it. We must
divide the photoelectric surface into minute patches which are
electrically insulated from one another. This is not too difficult ;
but if it were proposed directly to imitate nature, and attach a wire,
representing a nerve fibre, to each of these patches, so as to connect
it to the auxiliary apparatus, we might well despair of the task ; for
there are probably half a million such connections between the human
retina and the brain. In the artificial apparatus for television, one
single connection is made to serve, but it is in effect attached to each
of the patches in rapid succession by the process of ‘ scanning ’ the
image. The photoelectric mosaic is on one side of a thin mica sheet,
and a continuous metal coating on the other side gives the connec-
tion, which is by electrostatic induction. Each element of the surface
forms a separate tiny condenser with the opposing part of the back
plate. Scanning is achieved by rapidly traversing a beam of electrons
16 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
over the mosaic line by line. The whole surface, and therefore
each element, must be scanned at least twenty times a second. In
the intervals an element is losing electrons more or less rapidly.
The scanning beam comes along, and restores the lost electrons,
discharges the little condenser formed by the element and the back
plate and sends an electric signal into the wire attached to this plate.
The strength of this signal will depend on how many electrons the
element had lost since the previous scanning, and thus on the
luminous intensity of that part of the image. An important point
is that the element is in action all the time, and not only while it
is individually being scanned. We have thus transmuted the
momentary picture into a series of electric pulses occupying in all
a time of one-twentieth of a second, and these can be amplified and
sent out as wireless signals. How are they to be turned back again
into a visible picture at the other end ? Well, that is not perhaps so
difficult as the first conversion of the picture into signals. We must
make a beam of electrons follow and imitate the periodic movements
of the scanning beam at the other end. The beam of electrons
falls on a luminescent screen, and makes it light up, more or less
brightly according to the intensity of the electron beam. If we use
the incoming signals to modulate the electron beam, we can make
them correspond with the intensities at the sending end, and the
original picture is reconstructed piece by piece. ‘The reconstruction
is completed in one-twentieth of a second or less, and the process
begins again. The successive pictures blend into one another as
in the cinema, and movement is shown with apparent continuity.
It seems not unlikely that the electric eye or iconoscope, as it has
been called, may have applications apart from television. Dr. V. K.
Zworykin, who took an important part in its development, suggested
that it might be used to make visible the image in the ultra-violet
microscope, which would be much too faint for direct projection
on a fluorescent screen. For that purpose the sending and receiving
apparatus would, of course, be connected directly, without radio
transmission. It might also be used for rapid photography, if the
photographic plate replaced the viewing screen. The beauty of
the device is that the energy is supplied locally, the distant light
source merely releasing it. The principle of amplification may thus
perhaps be applied to the photographing of faint objects.
I come to the close of this part of my subject.
Much of modern scientific doctrine appears at first sight to have
an elusive and even metaphysical character, and this aspect of it
seems to make the strongest appeal to many cultivated minds. Yet °
upon the whole, the main triumphs of science lie in the tangible facts
which it has revealed ; and it is these which will without doubt —
endure as a permanent memorial to our epoch. My main thesis
eS ——————EI—————E— KS Uh LU
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 17
has been that these are discovered by methods not essentially
different from direct scrutiny. It is hoped that the present survey
may remind you that if we allow for a reasonable broadening of the
original meaning of the words, it remains true after all that ‘ seeing
is believing.’
ik:
SCIENCE AND WARFARE.
During the Great War itself, few scientific men in any country
doubted that it was their duty to do what they could to apply their
specialised knowledge to the purposes of war; nor was it often
suggested by publicists that there was any countervailing considera-
tion: on the contrary they urged strongly that our resources in
this direction should be efficiently mobilised. It is chiefly in vague
general discussions that the opposite view becomes vocal.
Science, it is urged, is the source of all the trouble : and we may
look to scientific men for some constructive contribution to finding
aremedy. It is worth while to inquire what basis there is for this
indictment, and whether, in fact, it is feasible for men of science to
desist from labours which may have a disastrous outcome, or at any
rate to help in guiding other men to use and not to abuse the fruits
of those labours. I may say at the outset that I have no sanguine
contribution to make. I believe that the whole idea that scientific
men are specially responsible is a delusion born of imperfect know-
ledge of the real course of the process of discovery. Indeed, very
much the same complaint was made before the scientific era. Let
me refer you to Shakespeare’s play of Henry IV :—
‘ Great pity, so it was
This villainous saltpetre should be digged
Out of the bowels of the harmless earth
Which many a good tall fellow had destroyed
So cowardly.’
The quotation leads us to inquire how far the further development
of this particular kind of frightfulness into modern high explosives
was deliberate or not.
In the course of systematic study of the chemistry of carbon
compounds it was inevitable that the action of nitric acid on sub-
stances like benzene, toluene, glycerine, cellulose and the like should
be tried. No one could foresee the result. In the case of benzene,
we have nitrobenzene, the key to the aniline dye industry. In the
case of glycerine, Sobrero obtained in 1846 the highly explosive
liquid called nitro-glycerine. He meant no harm, and in fact his dis-
covery lay dormant for many years, until Nobel turned his attention
18 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
to the matter in 1863, and showed how by mixing nitro-glycerine
with other substances, solid explosives could be made which admitted
of safe handling. Dynamite was one of them. They proved
invaluable in the arts of peace, e.g. in mining and in making railway
tunnels, such as those through the Alps. ‘They were used by the
Irish Fenians in the dynamite outrages of the eighties. ‘These
attempted outrages were not very successful, and so far as I know
no one was inclined to blame science for them, any more than for
the Gunpowder Plot. Like-the latter, they came to be considered
slightly comic. If anyone doubts this, he may agreeably resolve his
doubts by reading R. L. Stevenson’s story The Dynamiter. At
all events, high explosives had been too long in use in peaceful
industry for their misuse to be laid directly to the account of science.
Coming next to poison gas. We read that Pliny was overwhelmed
and killed by sulphur dioxide in the eruption of Vesuvius in A.D. 79.
During the Crimean War, the veteran admiral Lord Dundonald
urged that the fumes of burning sulphur should be deliberately used
in this way, but the suggestion was not adopted. Even if it had been,
scientific research ad hoc would obviously have had little to do with
the matter. During the Great War, chlorine was used on a large
scale. I need hardly insist that chlorine was not isolated by chemists
for this purpose. It was discovered 140 years before, as a step in
the inquiry into the nature of common salt.
Coming to the more recondite substances, we may take mustard
gas—treally a liquid—as typical. It is much more plausible to suggest
that here was a scientific devilment, deliberately contrived to cripple
and destroy. But what are the real facts ?
Referring to Watts’s Dictionary of Chemistry (edition of 1894),
there is an article of less than forty words about mustard gas (under
the heading of dichlordiethyl sulphide). After the method of
preparation used by Victor Meyer has been mentioned, the sub-
stance is dismissed with the words ‘ oil, very poisonous and violently
inflames the skin. Difference from diethyl sulphide.’
There are sixteen other compounds described at comparable
length on the same page. So far as I know, none of them is of any
importance. A not uncommon type of critic would probably say
that the investigation of them had been, useless, the work of un-
practical dreamers, who might have been better employed. One
of these substances, namely mustard gas, is quite unexpectedly
applied to war, and the production of it is held by the critics to be the
work not of dreamers, but of fiends whose activities ought to be
suppressed |! Finally, at the bottom of the page begins a long article
on chloroform. ‘This substance, as you know, has relieved a great
deal of pain, and on the same principle the investigator who pro-
duced it was no doubt an angel of mercy. The trouble is that all
THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 19
the investigators proceeded in exactly the same spirit, the spirit that
is of scientific curiosity, and with no possibility of telling whether
the issue of their work would prove them to be fiends, or dreamers,
or angels.
Again, there is the terror of thermite incendiary bombs, spreading
fire broadcast through our great cities. The notion is, sometimes
encountered that thermite was invented for this purpose. Nothing
could be further from the truth. I first made acquaintance with it
myself in 1g01 by hearing a lecture at the Royal Institution by the
late Sir William Roberts Austen on ‘ Metals as Fuel.’1 He drew
attention to the great amount of energy which was liberated when
aluminium combined with oxygen, and showed how aluminium
powder mixed with red oxide of iron would react violently with it,
withdrawing the oxygen from the iron, and becoming brilliantly
incandescent in the process. He showed further how this mixture,
called thermite, could be used for heating metal work locally, so
as to make welds, e.g. in joining two iron pipes end to end. I
venture to say that it never occurred to him or to any of his hearers
that thermite had any application in war.
In discussions of this kind a distinction is often implied between
what I may call old-fashioned knowledge and modern scientific
knowledge. The latter is considered to be the special handmaid
of ‘ frightfulness.’ The futility of this distinction is easily seen by
considering a special case. Iron is thought of as belonging to the
pre-scientific era, while aluminium is thought to belong to the
scientific era. From the standpoint of chemistry both are metals,
and the problem of producing them in either case is a chemical one.
When produced they both have their function in ‘ frightfulness ’ :
iron to cut and stab ; aluminium to make thermite bombs to burn
and destroy. If modern science makes its contribution to ‘ fright-
fulness ’ in giving us aluminium, ancient craft did so in giving us
iron. It is obviously absurd to make any distinction in principle
between the two cases. Science properly understood includes all
real knowledge about material things, whether that knowledge is old
or new.
All these terrors have only become applicable against a civilian
population by the development of aircraft. Military objects were
certainly not the incentive of the successful pioneers of artificial
flight. ‘They were fascinated at first by the sport of gliding, and
afterwards by a mechanical transport problem.
It is true that brilliant writers of imaginative fiction, such as Jules
Verne and H. G. Wells, had foretold all, and more than all, the horrors
that have since come to pass. But it is perhaps more to the point to
inquire what were the contemporary views of practical men. The
1 Proc. R.I., Feb. 23, 1901, vol. xvi, p. 496.
20 THE PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
Wrights made their first successful flight in 1903. In 1904 I myself
heard the then First Sea Lord of the Admiralty repudiate with scorn
the suggestion that the Government were interesting themselves in
the matter ; and I know with equal definiteness that even as late as
1908 the Chief of the Imperial General Staff did not believe in the
military importance of flight. Would it be fair then to blame the
inventors for not having realised it, and for not having stayed their
hands ?
Summing up what may be learnt from the experience of the past,
I think we may say that the application of fundamental discoveries
in science to purposes of war is altogether too remote for it to be
possible to control such discoveries at the source.
For good or ill, the urge to explore the unknown is deep in the
nature of some of us, and it will not be deterred by possible con-
tingent results, which may not be, and generally are not, fully
apparent till long after the death of the explorer. The world is ready
to accept the gifts of science, and to use them for its own purposes.
It is difficult to see any sign that it is ready to accept the advice of
scientific men as to what those uses should be.
Can we then.do nothing? Frankly, I doubt whether we can do
much, but there is one thing that may be attempted. The Associa-
tion has under consideration a division for study of the social
relations of science which will attempt to bring the steady light of
scientific truth to bear on vexed questions. We rejoice to know that
our distinguished American visitors are in sympathy with this aim,
and we hope that our discussions with them will bear useful if modest
fruit in promoting international amity.
+
—e
SECTION A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
LOGIC AND PROBABILITY IN
PHYSICS
ADDRESS BY
DriG:, Gz DARWIN, .F-R:S:;
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
BEFORE coming to my main subject it is appropriate that I should begin
by referring to the quite exceptional loss that physical science has in-
curred during the past year in the death of Lord Rutherford. It is not
easy for contemporaries to judge what the future estimates of history
will be, but in this case I think we may expect the verdict that he was
the greatest of all experimental physicists—perhaps with the exception
of Faraday. It was my good fortune to serve in his laboratory in Man-
‘chester during those days when he had got the subject of radioactivity
into fair order, and was profiting by it to explore the structure of matter,
the days when the «-particle was giving its best as a probe into the nature
of atoms. I suppose that the most important thing that came out was the
discovery of the nucleus. This arose out of investigations into the
scattering of «-particles in a sheet of gold foil. A few of them were
scattered through very much larger angles than they had any right to
be, and from this hint Rutherford guessed that the atom must contain
a powerful centre of force. I remember the occasion of a Sunday evening
supper when he told us about it, in fact only a few minutes after he had
worked out the consequences, and I remember being astonished at the
use he could make of the vague recollections of what he had learnt at
school about the hyperbola. It is easy for us now to say how reasonable
it all was, because we have got used to atoms like that, but we have to
remember that at the time it certainly caused a great deal of trouble.
One single very rare phenomenon was explained, but every critical mind
could point out endless objections. For example, there was the prime
difficulty that until the advent of Bohr’s theory there was nothing to
hold the nuclear atom to a fixed size, a difficulty which was explained
at any rate roughly by the older idea of a sphere of positive electricity ;
and then there was the trouble, which in fact worried Rutherford a good
deal, as to how a B-particle could ever escape from such a strong attrac-
tive force. But he got it right; it was a process I have heard described
by saying that if Rutherford went into a chemical laboratory for a reagent
he would somehow always go to the right bottle even if there were no
labels. Of his later work, disintegration and so on, I will not speak,
but only refer to one characteristic he showed init. This was his capacity
22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
for changing his methods. In the Manchester days the work was all
done with astonishingly simple means—old tobacco tins for home-made
electroscopes and so on—and it would have been easy for anyone to say,
‘We have got many first-rate results out of these tobacco tins, and there
are plenty more to get, so why change?’ ‘There would have been plenty
more to get, and he could have occupied a whole laboratory getting them,
but all the time the world was going beyond them to costly apparatus
on an engineering scale, which were beginning to yield results beyond
the capacity of tobacco tins. Rutherford perceived this as early as any-
one and was ready to undertake these engineering feats—and to collect
the money to pay for them too. But I will say no more of this work,
since it is only necessary to apply to him in this place and during our
present week of meeting the words written on the tomb of another great
man— Si monumentum requiris, circumspice.
When we try to assess the qualities, as opposed to the performance, of
great men of science, we can make a dichotomy of them into two classes ;
the dichotomy is of course not exact, but it divides them as well as such
things do. There is the type of genius who seems to have been born
with a knowledge of some branch of nature, so that he has only to grow
up, learn to read and write, and then be told what the difficulties are in
order to understand and explain them. Perhaps Lord Kelvin was the
typical instance, for he seemed to know all about thermodynamics
spontaneously at the age of 22. Then there is the opposite type of which
the late Lord Rayleigh was an example, who seem not to have a natural
understanding of things, but to know more precisely than common men
what they do not understand and by mastering it to gain a very deep
insight into nature. It is a question of whether it is easier to conquer
the world by understanding it or by not understanding it. It is a matter
of taste which type each of us prefers, whether the inspiration which
seems to know what the world is like directly, or the careful induc-
tion, picking a cautious way between this difficulty and that objection.
Each type may show the demerits of its quality, in the one case a certain
inelasticity that follows the inspiration, in the other a sometimes too
pedestrian rate of advance. On the principle that I like to see the
machinery as well as its products, I confess that it is the second type
that attracts me more. A rigid dichotomy of this kind is a misleading
over-simplification, and most scientific men have shared the two characters
in various proportions, but it is not hard to classify Rutherford. He
had that quality of being prepared for anything, of making each discovery
fit on to the last and suggest the next, of taking the world as he found it,
which is typical of my second class, those whom I have called great by
not understanding. But I must turn to my main subject, and will only
add that the life and work of Rutherford is the best possible text I could
choose for the kind of view which I want to put before you.
In choosing a theme for my address I was in some difficulty. The
main subjects of present interest in physics, the nucleus of the atom,
cosmic rays, and the phenomena at deep temperatures, are being dealt
with in the discussions of our Section, so that they would be excluded
even apart from the fact that I cannot speak on them with authority. It
A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 23
would have been possible for me to choose a narrower subject, but I
could not feel that this would have possessed the general interest that
such an occasion demands, and so with some trepidation I am venturing
on an even wider theme and am going to touch on the philosophy of our
subject. This is a dangerous thing to do for one who has never made
more than the most superficial study of pure philosophy, but still I do
not apologise for it, because it appears to me that recent scientific history
has revealed a deep schism between the professional philosophers and
the scientists, and this schism is worthy of examination.
General philosophy claims to be the critical subject which lays down
for all of us what we may be allowed to think, and yet it has played no
part whatever in the great revolutions of human thought of the present
century—those connected with relativity and the quantum theory. It
might have been expected that the scientists would have been constantly
consulting the philosuphers as to the legitimacy of their various specula-
tions, but nothing of the kind has happened. Since no one can dispense
with some sort of metaphysic, each scientist has made one for himself,
and no doubt they contain many crudities, but it would seem that a deep
interest in metaphysic is a disadvantage rather than an advantage to the
physicist—at least I have the impression that those of my friends who
are most inclined to speculate on the ultimate things appear to be the ones
whose scientific work is most hampered by doing so. Now I propose
to risk a similar indiscretion. I want to embody in it the practical
philosophy of a physicist, and I do not mean it as an attack on the pure
philosophers, who are very reasonable people, only chargeable with the
minor offence of not having made me want to read their books !
I had better begin by stating shortly the ideas I intend to discuss.
There is a notable contrast between the way we think about things and
the way we think we ought to think about them. We have set up as an
ideal form of reasoning the formal logic which has held the field since
the days of Aristotle. We rarely conform to this ideal, but instead we
usually make use of arguments having no accurate axiomatic basis,
which compel belief because of some large accumulation of favourable
evidence. I intend to develop the idea that the old logic was devised
for a world that was thought to have hard outlines, and that, now that
the new mechanics has shown that the outlines are not hard, the method
of reasoning must be changed. ‘The key to the modification has already
long been in our hands in the principle of probability, but whereas in
the past constant attempts were made to fit this into the old system,
the new mechanics suggests the possibility of a different synthesis.
Though I hope this subject will be found interesting in itself, I would
not have ventured to bring it forward if 1 had not also a very practical
purpose in doing so, and that is to urge that our mathematical education
both at school and university has been gravely deficient in that it has
put all the emphasis on matters susceptible of rigorous proof, while it
has very completely neglected the equally important subjects of statistics
and probability. I shall enter into these matters at the end of my
address.
I have said that there is a contrast between the way we all think about
things and the way we think we ought to think about them. ‘This is
24 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
true not merely of the scientist ; the layman holds the same belief. I
may exemplify this by a quotation from that epitome of the reasoned
thought of the ordinary man, the detective story. After Watson has
expressed admiration at one of the most brilliant guesses of Sherlock
Holmes he is met with the reply: ‘No, no; I never guess. It is a
shocking habit, destructive of the logical faculty.’ The reader is en-
couraged to revere the great detective by being told that all his arguments
are Aristotelian syllogisms. The scientist forms his opinions in much
the same way as Holmes really did, but he is apt to feel that this is a
fault in himself and that he ought to be forming them by the severe
principles of formal logic in the manner that appealed to Watson. Of
course there are branches of knowledge for which this can be done, but
somehow they are not the interesting ones ; indeed, outside pure mathe-
matics any subject is apt to become dead and uninteresting as soon as
it is brought down to this form. The really live branches of physics
call for a very different kind of thought, for a review of a system of
interconnected facts and for a perception of conjectured analogies, and
soon. ‘This is vaguer, but it is more important, and our system ought
to give importance to the important things, so that the actual habit of
thought which the intelligent man finds the most useful is acknowledged
as the right one.
In general literature there is a particular kind of writing which we all
admire on account of its direct simplicity; it is to be found in much
English of the seventeenth century, but specially in the work of many
French authors, both early and late. It is a delight to read and often
admirably achieves its aim of clarifying the subject-matter—but not
always. There are two ways of writing simply about a subject. One
is to understand and make clear the simplicity of it ; the other is to leave
out all the difficult parts. When we entertain the idea that everything
can be brought down to the Aristotelian syllogism, are we not doing this
last? Is it not possible that when a subject is brought down to these
terms, it is merely that we have picked out from it the easy parts and con-
cealed all the rest? If we turn our attention to the question of why
we believe in our various theories, we can see that there is often a quite
illusory simplicity in their presentation.
Why do we believe in the various theories that we are all agreed to
accept ? Once a theory has become well established someone usually
gets to work to find a system of axioms, postulates, indefinables and so
on from which it may be derived. For example, classical mechanics is
based on Newton’s Laws, or whatever system has been substituted for
them by later criticism. The direct derivation of everything from an
axiomatic basis has an attractive simplicity, but it tends to make us
think we believe the theory because of the axioms, whereas the
axioms are only a convenient shorthand summarising a wide field of
information, and they are believed in merely because we believe in -
the theory. This may be seen by an occurrence of a few years
ago. ‘There was a letter to Nature pointing out a rather fundamental
contradiction in the quantum theory—I do not think the author meant
it as strongly as the accident of his wording implied. One’s immediate
feeling was that the idea must be wrong (as indeed it proved to be), but
A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 25
the point of my mentioning it is that I found I did not care much whether
it was right or wrong, because the quantum theory must be right anyhow.
The cumulative weight is so overwhelming that it is not conceivable
that anyone could upset it in a single column of Nature. A little doctoring
of the axioms would certainly put the matter right again, and hardly anyone
would be any the better. We have then to believe that axioms are not
important things, but that it is the whole body of accumulated doctrine
that matters.
Take it from a different angle. The ‘logic’ school of thought has in
its repertory the idea of a ‘ crucial experiment,’ that is the single experi-
ment which gives the answer yes or no to a whole theory. I suppose the
most striking crucial experiment ever done was the Michelson-Morley
experiment on zther drift, which was made the basis of the whole
gigantic theory of relativity. Michelson and Morley showed that to the
order of the square of the earth’s velocity there was no zther drift,
and they showed it to the limits of the precision of their apparatus. For
some twenty years the theory of relativity grew enormously, based on this
one experiment, and then it was felt that it would be proper for some
one else to repeat the work, and Dr. Dayton Miller undertook the
task. We cannot see any reason to think that his work should be inferior
to Michelson’s, as he had at his disposal not only all the experience of
Michelson’s work, but also the very great technical improvements of the
intervening period, but in fact he failed to verify the exact vanishing of
the ether drift. What happened? Nobody doubted relativity. There
must therefore be some unknown source of error which had upset Miller’s
work. But as Miller was improving on Michelson, this contains the
implication that Michelson’s work must have had two unknown sources
of error which happened to cancel one another. What has become of
the crucial experiment ? We do not believe in relativity because of the
Michelson-Morley experiment ; it is one, and an important one, of a
number of cumulative pieces of evidence which all fit together, and it
is this cumulation and not any one of its pieces that makes us believe in
relativity.
From examples like these we conclude that an axiomatic basis, of the
kind demanded for the operations of formal logic, is too narrow for the
understanding of the physical world. Something wider is needed.
Now for more than a century there has been growing up the recognition
that probability plays a part in much reasoning, and that there must
exist a wider system of logic which has probability as one of its features.
Attempts have been made, and are still being made, to bring probability
back into the narrow fold of the old logic. It appears to me that these
attempts are hopeless, but before approaching the question directly I
want to develop an analogy which seems to me important. Like every-
one else I feel the compelling power of the old logic, and I cannot feel
how when we try to go beyond it we can get the same compulsive force.
But on the other hand I know of a case where our thoughts are driven
in one direction by a force which seems to have the same psychological
compulsion as does formal logic, and yet where the result is undoubtedly
wrong.
To anyone who has thought at all seriously about the world, or at any
26 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
rate to anyone who has made an elementary study of mechanics, I suppose
there is nothing more absolute than the law of causality. By this I mean
that the future is completely contained in the present. Passing over
obvious examples where this is true, like the path of a projectile or the
orbit of a planet, we may take an extreme case where we might expect
our faith in the principle would be most severely tried. Take the typical
case of chanciness, the tossing of a coin. We know that in a general
way there is an even chance of heads or tails, even though we sometimes
hear of gifted individuals with muscles so delicately adjusted that they
can control the event. But in the ordinary way the tossing of a coin
is complicated by being produced by a living organism, so let us simplify
the problem by designing a catapult of some kind to project it. Which
of us does not believe the coin would fall the same way every time if
such a mechanism could be made with really complete precision?
When the machine fails to make it do so, we say it is because there may
have been a speck of dirt in the lubricant or something like that. In
other words, we do not feel that the fall of the coin is determined by
chance, but we regard the uncertainty we observe as due to our ignorance
of all the detailed causes. Ignorance is a confession of incompetence,
and so we regard the existence of chance as a blemish in our otherwise
admirable characters. This feeling goes very deep, since we are pre-
vented by it from having the complete control of our surroundings that
we somehow think should be our due. We start prejudiced against
probability and in favour of causality. So much for what we feel about
causality; and about thirty years ago this feeling would have been
regarded as a piece of inescapable reasoning, with the same kind of
compelling power as a logical syllogism. We still have the feeling, but
now we know it is wrong, and what is more, we know that it is wrong
for a reason we never thought of. To understand this oversight we
must review the recent history of atomic theory.
The history of the development of physics in the first quarter of the
twentieth century will rank as one of the greatest in the advancement
of knowledge, but it will also rank as one of the most curious in the
history of human thought. In 1901 Planck started the quantum theory.
Even this was curious. He was trying to find out the law of complete
radiation by the use of ordinary statistical methods, and observed that
he got his answer at what should have been the last stage but one of
his work. ‘The last stage would have involved proceeding to a limit,
and he found that he got the experimental answer without doing so,
and an,absurd answer if he did. The work went rather deep into
statistical theory and there were many for long afterwards who were not
convinced of its compelling force, but it was the great merit of Planck
that he knew that he had got something involving a quite revolutionary
idea—the quantum. In succeeding years other phenomena were seen
to involve the same revolutionary idea: Einstein’s theory of the photo-
electric effect, and of the ionisation produced by X-rays, his theory of *
specific heats, later improved by Debye, and Bohr’s theory of spectra.
All these things fitted in quite obviously with the quantum, but quite
as obviously they violently contradicted the physics of the nineteenth
century. What should a man think about a beam of light which accord-
A—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 27
ing to Einstein had to be composed of arrows, whereas a hundred years
earlier Fresnel had proved that it was a system of waves? What does
a rational being do when faced with two mutually contradictory but both
indubitable pieces of evidence? It was a nice test for the critical spirit,
and it revealed a wide divergence of choices. In making a historical
judgment long after the event, one of the hardest things to do is to recall
the relative scale of importance which contemporaries were inclined to
attach to the different branches of their subject.
The statistical theory of matter had already been well established by
the work of Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs, but it was not regarded
as an essential part of a general mathematical-physical education. For
example, in the various courses I was advised to undertake during my
undergraduate career, no one at any stage ever suggested to me that I
should learn anything about the kinetic theory of gases. I think that
that period was one when the Cambridge mathematical school was not
at its best, and very probably a little more was done at other places, but,
to judge by the available text-books in any language, statistical theory
was not regarded as one of the prime subjects of study, as it would be
now. The period was essentially dynamic, and as such it was moderately
easy for it to take in the new ideas of relativity, to which indeed the
experimental work of the last century had been leading. But there was
no common habit of thought on statistical lines, and so there was a
sharp separation of opinion. ‘The seniors, impressed with the vast mass
of successful physics of the nineteenth century, with only a rather
general knowledge of statistical theory but no facility of thought in it,
found the new ideas completely contrary to their convictions. Such
men would think that these ideas depended on the difficult and un-
familiar conceptions of statistics and would be inclined to judge that
there must be a fallacy in the statistics which would be cleared up later.
On the other hand the laboratory workers, dealing with atoms and electrons
from day to day, could not fail to be more impressed with the discontinuous
phenomena and the beautiful way these could be explained by the
quantum. Such men would cheerfully accept the Bohr orbits as a com-
plete explanation of the hydrogen spectrum, and certainly in many cases
would be actually ignorant of the difficulty, the monstrous absurdity,
of supposing that a sharp jump from one orbit to another could be
responsible for a train of waves shown by the spectroscope to be lasting
for quite a long time. So the majority of rational beings behaved in
the natural human way of managing to forget all the disagreeable facts.
But not every one, for there were Bohr and the other leaders who
recognised the difficulties on both sides but could still maintain an attitude
of balance and could believe that from somewhere there would come a
higher synthesis by which everything would be fitted together.
As time went on the quantum got obviously stronger and stronger,
and began to invade more fields. The nuclear atom in the hands of Bohr
showed itself capable of giving all the broad details of the periodic table
of chemistry, still with nothing done to meet the awful difficulties of
optical theory. But about 1925, guided by the Correspondence Principle,
things were moving towards a tentative theory of the refractive index,
and it was this that finally suggested the break in the contradictions.
28 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Acting on a hint given by the theory of refraction, Heisenberg was led
to the suggestion that the contradictions of atomic theory would dis-
appear if one adopted the idea of non-commutative algebra in dealing
with the motions of electrons in an atom. ‘Then the floodgates broke
and the whole New Quantum Theory burst forth. It would of course
be an incomplete account of it not to mention the quite different approach
made independently by de Broglie and Schrédinger. If we are to trace
this to its origin we must go back a century to Hamilton, for it was his
work in geometrical optics which showed how a wave of short wave-
length could be treated as a ray. It was de Broglie who worked out
the modern analogies, but it was Schrédinger who succeeded in giving
its full form, and by the invention of the wave-function placed in the
hands of the mathematicians the most powerful of weapons for the
technical discussion of atomic problems.
At first the work was of a formal kind, obviously right, and a complete
synthesis of the rival doctrines of particle and wave mechanics, but there
is a very interesting point that has gradually emerged in connection
with the discovery. In his first paper Heisenberg laid great stress on
the idea of building theory only on directly observable quantities. It
is not very clear how the distinction was drawn. The electron’s orbit
is certainly not observable, but is it less so than the electric force which
is the amplitude in the light-wave emitted by the atom? It has seemed
to me that it was not this idea of using the observable that was the merit
of his work, but rather the contrary—the capacity for carrying through
a formal mathematical analogy without ever asking what it all meant
in terms of observable things. However that may be, it was only a year
later that he remedied the defect by making a picture of his process by
means of the Uncertainty Principle. I may remind you that the Un-
certainty Principle asserts that it is impossible simultaneously to measure
the position and velocity of any body, because the measurement of either
inevitably produces a change of indeterminate amount in the other.
The subject has been so often discussed that I am not going into it now,
but as it concerns the centre of my argument, I want to emphasise its
negative side, which as I think is much the most important. In this
role the Uncertainty Principle is to be regarded as the argument used
to defeat the old-fashioned physicist who claims that there is at any rate
ideally no limit to the accuracy with which both position and velocity
can be simultaneously measured. He has to admit the correctness of
experiments such as the Compton effect, and we show him that by his
own admission he will be defeated. On the positive side the principle is
not so useful, because once we have seen the reason for the failure of
classical ideas, we had better take advantage of the full technique of the
quantum mechanics. Here my point is that the Uncertainty Principle
showed up a fallacy in the old arguments about causality, and it was a
fallacy about which we were so unconscious that we did not even know
we were making it. It is now easy to see that there was nothing wrong
with the old inference that if I know all about the present I can forecast
the future exactly; the trouble was the impossibility of knowing the
present. Once this is seen the whole argument becomes obvious, but
nobody saw it until Heisenberg. We had somehow to avoid the com-
A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 29
pulsory causality of the old mechanics, and there seemed no loophole
allowing us to do so until the Uncertainty Principle. Knowing what we
now know we may ask why no one discovered the loophole by applying
a strict analysis, for example by the use of symbolic logic. Such an
analysis would presumably have revealed the fault, but the trouble is
that it would also have revealed other unwarranted assumptions which
we have made but which we do not in the least want to doubt, so that it
would not really have helped in pinning down the exact point of error.
It is invention, not criticism, that leads to the advance of knowledge.
Following up the later history of the subject, the success of Heisenberg
in exploiting the idea of observables for atoms seemed to repeat the
brilliant success of Einstein twenty years earlier in using the same idea
over relativity. It seemed to imply that what was wanted in physics
was to free ourselves of all abstractions and only make theories about
real things. There grew up a great cult of doubting the reality of
unobserved things, and then a curious thing was found; the charm
did not work again, and only a few minor things have come out of it.
The work of the New Quantum Theory has in fact run most surprisingly
in the opposite direction. ‘The technique is largely concerned with
wave-functions, which are quantities much more abstract than anything
in classical mechanics. There is certainly nothing observable, or even
picturable, about waves propagating themselves in many-dimensional
space with absolutely unknowable phase, and with intensity controlled
by the curious extraneous rule of normalisation. Largely by the use
of these wave-functions the whole of atomic physics has been reduced
to order, and so has molecular physics, except that it yields problems in
which so many electrons are interacting that a full discussion is not
feasible. So the doctrine of theorising only about observables was not
really a useful doctrine; it merely provided a germinating idea. In
fact we may well ask what an observable is, and if we go at all beyond
direct sensations, which as physicists we certainly intend to do, the
answer becomes perfectly indefinite. This opinion I heard admirably
expressed a few years ago by the late Prof. Ehrenfest. It was in a
physics meeting in Copenhagen and someone was proposing a way out
of certain difficulties which involved, as he maintained, a reversion to
the cult of the observable. Prof. Ehrenfest said: ‘'To believe that one
can make physical theories without metaphysics and without unobserv-
able quantities, that is one of the diseases of childhood—das ist eine
Kinderkrankheit.’
I have dwelt at some length on the history of the quantum theory
because I think it serves as an analogy to the deeper question of what is
wrong with the old logical processes. Just as we used to feel the all-
pervading compulsive force of causality, so we feel the all-pervading
force of pure logic. Just as we felt that classical mechanics provided no
room for anything beyond itself, so we feel that the old logic is the only
admissible kind of reasoning. We knew that certain things led to the
Old Quantum Theory and obstinately refused to fit into mechanics, and
we know that the principle of probability can cover many things outside
the old logic. Many men tried to force the quantum into the classical
30 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
system, and many are still trying to bring probability within the fold
of the old logic. I do not believe it can be done. This is not the
occasion, nor have I the capacity, for a deep argument on the place of
probability in logic, but one of the most convincing ways of seeing it
may be found in the consideration of another branch of physical theory,
the kinetic theory of gases.
In the early days of kinetic theory the central problem was the law of
distribution of velocities of the molecules, and attempts were made to
prove the law absolutely from dynamics, but the process always failed.
Maxwell made the assumption that with the lapse of time a system of
molecules would pass through all possible phases. ‘There are technical
difficulties in the discussion of this assumption which have never been
overcome, and it is quite uncertain if it is even true. Indeed Kelvin,
who disliked the whole kinetic theory, argued with some force that the
only examples anyone could give contradicted the principle—for example,
the motion of the planets. The greatest contribution to the subject
was that of Gibbs, who recognised that there had to be a big assumption
somewhere and made it quite frankly and without attempt at justification.
The works of Gibbs are not easy reading; in both his great works he
attends to every detail with a particularity that is really rather tedious,
whereas his basic ideas are thrown at the reader almost without explana-
tion. The idea of a canonical ensemble is a really beautiful idea once you
understand it, but where does it come from? An ensemble is an idea
which will be unfamiliar to many, so I had better explain it. We want
to know something about the behaviour of a complicated system com-
posed of a great many parts; say we want to know the pressure of the
. gas in some vessel. If we tried to attack the question by pure mechanics,
we should be faced with an enormous number of mechanical equations
for the motions of the molecules, and even if these could be solved the
solution would be of no use, because it would depend on the initial
positions and velocities of the molecules, and these we should not know.
Instead of trying this impossible and useless task, Gibbs considers a very
large number of possible states of motion of the set of molecules, which
have some character in common such as their total energy, but which
are otherwise unrelated. ‘Though each specimen of the motions is quite
independent of all the others, he looks at them all together ; this explains
the word ensemble—I do not know why he had to take a French word—
and makes the assumption that the pressure of the gas is correctly given
by the average of all the specimens. ‘The actual gas in the vessel at any
instant is one of the specimens ; in its motion it passes into configurations
corresponding to others, but only after a fantastically long time would it
go through even a perceptible fraction of the whole ensemble. Gibbs
is assuming that the behaviour of the actual gas will be determined by
the average of the uncountable millions of specimens in the ensemble.
Almost at the start one finds oneself presented with the ensemble with
hardly an attempt to explain where it comes from or why it is right,
and the beginner is usually troubled by the fact that, though the subject
is obviously mechanical, all the mechanics he laboriously learnt in his
youth seem to have faded into comparative unimportance. ‘There are
various kinds of ensemble, the chief of which is the canonical, correspond-
A.—MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 31
ing to all the possible motions of the gas which would have the same
temperature. Later, almost as a concession to human frailty, Gibbs
introduces the micro-canonical ensemble, composed of much fewer
specimens because they all have exactly the same energy. This is usually
welcomed by the beginner because it seems closer to his familiar
mechanics, but with more experience he will realise that the gap is still
so great that he is really no better off, and he may as well accept the more
general idea at once.
With the old mechanics all this involved ideas which for many readers
were distinctly hard to accept. The principle of probability, embodied
in the averaging over the ensemble, was frankly laid on top of the logical
principles of Newtonian mechanics, and to anyone believing that prob-
ability would ultimately be brought down to the old logic the association
was most repellent. But we can now see that Gibbs was a prophet far
ahead of his time—and indeed, to be frank, far ahead of his own knowledge
—for the new mechanics accommodates the ensemble very much more
easily than did the old. The new mechanics has shown us that it is
impossible to know how the individual molecules are moving, because
when one undertakes an experiment to see, that experiment automatically
alters the condition of the gas and so fails to tell what was wanted, the
state of the molecules without the experiment. In the old days one used
to feel that the validity of Gibbs’s idea would be spoilt by some skilful
experimenter who would really observe the motions of the individual
molecules and would therefore rule out the legitimacy of averaging over
the whole ensemble, but we now know that there is no danger of this.
The real gas in the vessel is not merely one specimen of the ensemble,
unrecognisable only because of our clumsiness ; it is itself the whole of
the ensemble. We used to think of the gas as either in the state A, or in
the state B, or in C, but according to the new physics we have to think
of it as in all the states A and B and C. The distinction is typical of the
change we must make in our habits of thought, and most of us resist
this change strongly, for we find we can hardly help asking: ‘ But which
state was it really in?’ As I have said, we used to be ashamed of
ignorance, but we must now realise that this ignorance is one of the
things that makes the world possible. The principle of probability,
which used to be loosely superposed on the old logical principle, is now
with the new mechanics fully united with it in a higher synthesis.
Before leaving Gibbs I would like to refer to one thing in his book,
where I think he has not even yet come into his own. He considers
various types of ensemble of increasing generality. In the micro-
canonical the members all have the same energy. Now we never know
the exact energy of the gas in a vessel, so that a better idea is the wider
one of a gas at a given temperature which therefore has a certain range
of admissible energies. This is represented by Gibbs’s canonical
ensemble, and it is the main one that he uses. In both these the number
of atoms in the ensemble is constant. But in the last chapter of his book
Gibbs introduces a still wider ensemble. He calls the ones with a
constant number of atoms petits ensembles, which I shall translate as petty
ensembles, and regards them as parts of a grand ensemble in which the
total number of atoms is not fixed. He uses the idea to some extent in
32 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
connection with. semi-permeable membranes, but on ‘the whole does
not get far with it. As in much of Gibbs’s work, it is the idea itself,
rather than what he does with it, that isimportant. This idea of the grand
ensemble is not yet incorporated in the new physics. In the quantum
theory we take a number of electrons and nuclei and, allowing for their
interactions, we construct something that is practically the canonical
ensemble. But we take fixed numbers of them—this is partly reflected
in the technical process of using normalised wave-functions. Now in
an experiment dealing with a large number of particles we are never
really sure exactly how many there are, and to assume this number is
much like assuming a constant energy for them. If the canonical ensemble
is a better idea than the micro-canonical, then the grand ensemble is
superior to the petty ensemble. In the new mechanics nobody has yet .
succeeded in making anything of it, or has made any proposal how to do
so, but I will venture the forecast that when some of our present difficulties
in the quantum theory are cleared up, it will be found that we shall be
using the grand ensemble with its indefinite number of atoms.
Reverting to my main theme, what is the moral of all this? It is
that the new physics has definitely shown that nature has no sharp
edges, and if there is a slight fuzziness inherent in absolutely all the
facts of the world, then we must be wrong if we attempt to draw a picture
in hard outline. In the old days it looked as if the world had hard
outlines, and the old logic was the appropriate machinery for its dis-
cussion. ‘Things went wrong when it was found necessary to call in
the help of the principle of probability ; this appeared first as an alien,
but there was hope in the old days that the alien might be naturalised.
It has resisted the process and we now recognise that it cannot be as-
similated, because it provides the necessary step to a wider reason,
that of the new fuzzy world of the quantuin theory, a world which is
not contained in the old. How far it will be possible to make a full
synthesis of the new and the old I do not know, but I like to think there
is something in my analogy from the history of the quantum theory,
and to suppose that we are still in the condition corresponding to the
Old Quantum Theory, and that some. day a real synthesis will be made
like that of the New Quantum Theory, so that there will be only one
thing in the world that has not indefinite outlines, and that will be a new
reformed principle of reasoning.
I may fitly conclude this part of my subject by returning to the point
from which I started. As an example of what the ordinary man regards
as correct reasoning I quoted some words of Sherlock Holmes. I must
now confess that I was not quite sincere in my quotation; the impres-
sion I gave was the impression the reader carries away, but on examining
the text I was interested to find that the great detective had himself
arrived at the ideas I have been putting forward. In the sentence before
he said ‘ No, no; I never guess. It is a shocking habit, destructive of |
the logical faculty,’ he had said: ‘I could only say what was the balance of
probability—I did not expect to be at all accurate.’ The master-mind
uses the word logic in its modern sense.
There may be a feeling among some that the very general suggestions
A.—_MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES 33
I have been making are open to every sort of criticism. Perhaps they
are right; as I have said, it is part of my doctrine that the details of a
physicist’s philosophy do not matter much. But whether it is wrong or
right, my next point is one on which I do very much hope that there
may be a consensus of agreement. ‘This is that the subject of probability
ought to play an enormously greater part in our mathematical-physical
education. I do not merely mean that everyone should attend a course
on the subject at the university, but that it should be made to permeate
the whole of the mathematical and scientific teaching not only at the
university but also at school. To the best of my recollection in my own
education I first met the subject of probability at about the age of 13
in connection with problems of drawing black and white balls out of
bags, and my next encounter was not till the age of 23, when I read a book
—I think it was on the advice of Rutherford—on the kinetic theory of
gases. Things are better now, but mathematicians are still so interested
in the study of rigorous proof, that all the emphasis goes against the study
of probability.
Its elements should be part of a general education also, as may be
illustrated by an example. Every month the Ministry of Transport
publishes a report giving the number of fatal road accidents. Whenever
the number goes up there is an outcry against the motorists, and when-
ever down, of congratulation for the increased efficiency of the police.
No journalist ever seems to consider what should be the natural fluctuations
of this number. A statistician answers at once that the natural fluctuation
will be the square root of the total number, and apart from obvious
seasonal effects that is in fact about what the accidents show ; the number
is roughly 500 + 25. The proof of this does not call for any difficult
mathematics, neither the error function nor even Stirling’s formula,
but can be done completely by the simple use of the binomial theorem.
There is no mathematical difficulty that should trouble a clever boy of
15; it is only the train of thought that is unfamiliar, and it is just this
unfamiliarity that is the fault of our education. The ideas and processes
connected with the inaccuracy of all physical quantities are much easier
to undersfand than many ideas that a boy has to acquire in the course
of his studies ; it is only that at present they are not taught, and so when
met they are found difficult.
This is not the place to describe a revised scheme of education. I would
only say that it is not special new courses that are needed, but rather a
change in the spirit of our old courses. When a boy learns about the
weighing machine, emphasise its sensitivity, and consider the length of
time that must be taken for the weighing. When he has a problem on
projectiles, make him consider the zone of danger and not merely the
point of fall. At a rather higher level, but still I should hope at school,
introduce the idea of a distribution law; for example, in doing central
orbits work out Rutherford’s law of scattering. Calculate the fluctuations
of density of a gas, or the groupings in time of the scintillations of «-
particles. All these things ought to be examples of a familiar train of
thought, and not merely a highly specialised side branch of mathematics
first met at the university. It is the incorporation of probability in the
other subjects on which I want to insist, but there will of course remain
Cc
34 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
some higher aspects—things like least squares or significance tests—
which are still to be treated in separate university courses. Even these
I should hope would come to be recognised as subjects of central interest
and not, as they are at present, relegated to a remote corner of specialised
study.
If these reforms are carried out I shall hope that generations will grow
up which have a facility that few of us at present possess in thinking
about the world in the way which the quantum theory has shown to be
the true one. The inaccuracies and uncertainties of the world will be
recognised as one of its essential features. Inaccuracy in the world will
not be associated with inaccuracy of thought, and the result will be not
only a more sensible view about the things of ordinary life, but ultimately,
as I hope, a fuller and better understanding of the basis of natural
philosophy.
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
RECENT INVESTIGATIONS IN THE
CHEMISTRY OF GOLD
ADDRESS BY
Pror. CHARLES S. GIBSON, O.B.E., M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
* How is the gold become dim! how is the most fine gold changed ! ’
(Lam. iv. i)
By the results of investigations in which workers in this country have
played an important part during the last ten years it is now realised that
fewer anomalies exist among the metals of sub-group 1B, copper, silver
and gold, than was formerly believed to be the case. The only funda-
mental property which these metals have in common with the alkali
metals is that they are all capable of being univalent. The metals of the
sub-group differ from the alkali metals in their atomic structure; the
former have eighteen electrons in their penultimate electronic group
whereas the latter have eight electrons in that group. While there are
differences in their multivalency, the multivalency of copper, silver and
gold must be correlated with the eighteen electronic group of these
metals. The univalency and bivalency of copper and silver are well
established ; the tervalency of silver must still be regarded as doubtful.
On the other hand, while the bivalency of silver has only been established
comparatively recently, modern investigations have shown that it is ex-
tremely unlikely that gold can exist in the bivalent condition and this
metal continues to exhibit the anomaly, distinguishing it from copper and
silver, of existing only in the univalent and tervalent conditions.
As far. as the existence of normal salts is concerned, argentous silver
differs greatly from cuprous copper and aurous gold. There is no
evidence for the existence of any normal aurous salt and, for example,
cuprous sulphate is at once decomposed by water with separation of
metallic copper, and cuprous nitrate does not exist. On the other hand,
in the solid state cuprous and silver halides have non-ionic lattices in
their crystals which are isomorphous. Since cuprous chloride is bi-
molecular, it is reasonable to assume that in its halides the cuprous atom
is 2-covalent. Recently, chemical evidence has indicated that this is also
true of aurous gold in the analogous compounds and therefore under
36 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
ordinary conditions the cuprous halides, the silver halides and the aurous
halides would appear to have the general formula :
x
poy oN
M M
a
x
where X = halogen, indicating the 2-covalency of cuprous copper,
argentous silver and aurous gold in these compounds.
Unlike bivalent copper, bivalent silver in its salts has been shown by
Morgan and Burstall (1928) to exist only as a complex ion, e.g. bis-x«’-
dipyridylargentic persulphate, [Ag 2dipy]S,Og, ¢ris-x«’-dipyridylargentic
nitrate, chlorate and perchlorate, [Ag 3dipy]X,, from which it is obvious
that bivalent silver may have co-ordination numbers of 4 and 6. On the
other hand, Cox, Wardlaw and Webster (1936) have shown that bivalent
silver is completely analogous to bivalent copper in giving like the latter
metal a derivative with picolinic acid and which like the cupric compound
has a planar structure. The constitution of these compounds is con-
veniently represented thus :
indicating the 4-covalency of bivalent copper and bivalent silver in this
type of compound.
That cuprous copper and argentous silver can exhibit 2- and 4-covalency
is well established. It was proved by Bassett and Corbet (1924)in the course
of their phase-rule study of complex cyanides. ‘They isolated the salts,
K[Cu(CN),], K[Cu,(CN)3].H,O, K,[Cu(CN),], _K,[Cu(CN),].H,0,
K[Ag(CN),], K[Ag.(CN)3].H,O and K,[Ag(CN),].H,O ; but the only
complex cyanide of aurous gold of which they were able to prove the
existence and to isolate was the well-known potassium aurocyanide,
K[Au(CN),]. The inability of aurous gold to exhibit a higher co-ordi-
nation number than 2 has also been recently emphasised by Mann, Wells
and Purdie (1936 and 1937) in their studies of the trialkylphosphine
and trialkylarsine derivatives of cuprous, silver and aurous halides. The
cuprous and silver compounds derived from the iodides have the general
formula [R,P(As)>Cu(Ag)I], as shown by their molecular weights and,
are systematically named by the authors as ¢etrakis[iodotrialkylphosphine
(or arsine) copper (or silver)]. Crystallographic investigations strikingly
revealed the existence of these four-fold macro molecules in the solid
state and the tetrahedral configurations of the 4-covalent cuprous and
argentous silver complexes and, in addition, and for the first time, the
aa ee eS
B.—CHEMISTRY 37
tetrahedral configuration of 3-covalent iodine. The trialkylphosphine
and trialkylarsine derivatives of aurous chloride and aurous iodide have,
however, the general molecular formula R,P(As)—>AuCl(I) and the mole-
cule has probably a linear configuration. ‘The trialkylphosphine-gold
compounds are remarkably stable and can be distilled at low pressures
without decomposition. On the other hand, Mann and his co-workers
have suggested that in the non-electrolytes, Et,P(NH ;),AuCl and
(EtO),P(NH;),AuCl prepared by Levi-Malvano (1908), the aurous gold
atom is 4-covalent, acquiring seven electrons and having an Effective
Atomic Number of 86, the atomic weight of radon, the next inert gas.
If this is the case these compounds are unique in the chemistry of gold ;
but it would appear that the determination of co-ordination numbers
from ammonia derivatives is not always satisfactory. Aurous com-
pounds having the compositions NH,AuCl, (NH;),AuCl, (NH;),AuCl
and even (NH;),;,AuCl have been described. Of these monoammino-
chlorogold and diamminoaurous chloride having the respective con-
stitutions :
H,N-—-Au—Cl and [H,N—Au<-NH,]Cl
are by far the most stable and in these compounds the aurous gold atom
is 2-covalent. The well-authenticated salts (NH;),HCl (Joannis 1902),
(NH,;),HBr (Bakhuis-Roozeboom 1885) and (NH;)4HNO, (Kuriloff
1898) may be compared with Levi-Malvano’s compounds and with
triamminochlorogold. It would appear more doubtful that such com-
pounds afford evidence of the 4-covalency of hydrogen or aurous gold
rather than that they indicate the existence of chain formation of ammonia
molecules with links of co-ordinated hydrogen. If, however, by using
a more suitable co-ordinating compound than ammonia, it could be
established definitely that aurous gold may be 4-covalent as well as 2-
covalent, it would be interesting to determine whether such quadri-
covalent aurous compounds like the quadricovalent cuprous and argentous
compounds have a tetrahedral distribution of valencies. In this con-
nexion, the use of thioacetamide by Cox, Wardlaw and Webster
(1936) for the successful preparation of tetrakisthioacetamidocuprous
and tetrakisthioacetamidoargentous chlorides :
CH,
|
C=S }J—Cu(Ag) |Cl
INE Zig
does not appear to give an analogous aurous gold compound. The only
aurous derivative of thioacetamide which Dr. F. H. Brain and I have
been able to isolate is the somewhat unstable bdzsthioacetamidoaurous
bromide (1937) :
CH, CH,
|
C=S—Au<S=C Br
| |
NH, NH,
38 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
in which, as usual, the aurous gold atom is 2-covalent and has an Effective
Atomic Number of 82. In the light of available information we must
conclude that in all its compounds the aurous gold atom is co-ordinated
and, with the possible exception of the two compounds mentioned above,
it is always 2-covalent. At the present time there is no example of an
aurous compound in which the gold atom is known to be 4-covalent,
and attempts to produce such a compound have failed. Since the ter-
valent gold atom is also always co-ordinated and in its stable compounds
always 4-covalent—there may be a slight tendency for it to become
5-covalent—its chemistry can have little in common with that of other
tervalent metals which form normal salts.
It will be shown later that the four valencies of the tervalent gold
atom have a planar configuration and, since 5-covalent and tervalent
gold compounds may always be too unstable, it would appear that the
only type of gold compound capable of exhibiting optical activity must
be a suitable 4-covalent aurous compound, if that can be prepared.
These four valencies would be expected, according to Pauling’s theory,
to have a tetrahedral configuration. It has already been shown that
various 4-covalent cuprous and argentous compounds having a tetrahedral
configuration have been prepared and a 4-covalent argentous compound,
the silver derivative of 8-hydroxyquinoline, appears to have been obtained
by Hein and Regler (1936) in optically active forms.
Much of the confusion of knowledge regarding the chemistry of gold
as described in almost all text-books and more comprehensive works
arises from the fact that the simple halide and cyanogen derivatives
are regarded as normal metallic salts and given the formule AuCl,
AuBr, Aul, AuCN, AuCl,, AuBr, according to the fundamental uni- or
tervalency of the metal. This is all the more surprising in view of the
long-established and well-known fact that whenever gold is in solution
or in the form of a soluble salt it is always present as a complex. There
is only need to mention as examples potassium aurocyanide, probably
—on account of its application in the metallurgy of gold—the most
completely investigated derivative of the metal and the very interesting
sodium aurothiosulphate prepared as long ago as 1845 by Fordos and
Gélis. Even at the time of its discovery, this latter compound was
known to give neither the usual reactions for gold nor the usual reactions
of a thiosulphate. It has long been used for fixing and toning silver
photographic prints. Since its introduction in 1924 by the Danish
physician, Mollgaard, for the treatment of tuberculosis and, later, by
others for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis it has been considerably
investigated and has formed the basis of the modern ‘ gold therapy.’
Curiously enough, in a standard text-book published as recently as 1937,
the formula, Au,S,03.3Na,S,0;.xH,O seems to be preferred to the
correct Na,[Au(S,O3),].2H,O which may be fully written
O One a
cant fe
Na, | O—S—S—Au—S—S—O |.2H,O
t
}
O O
B.—CHEMISTRY 39
in which, of course, the aurous gold atom is 2-covalent, the compound
being of the same type as the well-known potassium aurocyanide,
K[N=C—Au—CEN], already mentioned.
The halogenoaurates, probably the best known auric compounds,
have been long known as salts of acids which have been fully investigated
and which have the constitution :
X X
Nhs
Au
Me
xX XJ
Some more recently investigated compounds belonging to this type
are:
hydronitratoauric acid (Schottlander 1884, Jeffrey 1916)
; NO, NO 3]
H (X = halogen, Cl or Br).
A
u .3H,O
DOO.
Og NO
2
LN
having the same number of molecules of water of crystallisation as hydro-
chloro- and hydrobromoauric acids as usually prepared, hydrodi-
succinimidochloroauric acid (Pope 1931)
3
7 CH,—CO el OC—CH,
Me tar vib
H N—Au—N
Gf widirdy via nla
CH,—CO Cl OC—CH,
hydrodiphthalimidohydroxyauric acid (Gibson and Tyabji 1937)
CO OH OC
PGE AR) Fi] YOR.
ELCs N—Au—N Cry
| sab svi iaiga Nes A
f CO O OC
and hydrodimethylglyoximinylbromoauric acid (Brain and Gibson 1937)
, CH,—C—=N—O Br
Ok a 3
H Au
Meats
CH,;—C=N—O Br
In all these compounds, the 4-covalency of the auric gold atom is obvious,
- but it is only recently that the persistency of the 4-covalency of auric
gold in all its compounds has been recognised. Before the beginning
of the present series of investigations in my laboratory, it was shown by
W. Fischer (1929) that the molecular formula of auric chloride (trichloro-
gold) as determined by Horstmann’s vapour pressure and transport
40 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
method between 150° and 260° is Au,Cl, and although it was not suggested
at the time, and, indeed, not until 1931, the constitution of this and
the analogous bromo compound is only adequately represented by the
general formula:
X Xx Xx
Soy nee
Aue. Adlai X—Cl, Be)
Oh ii a7 oa
xX xX xX
in keeping with the already recognised 4-covalency of auric gold. This
constitution followed from the constitution of the dialkylmonohalogeno
derivatives and from the direct determination of the molecular weight
of auric bromide (tribromogold)! in boiling bromine (Burawoy and
Gibson 1935). In a systematic discussion of the chemistry of gold,
and allowing for the differences in fundamental valencies and covalencies
of the metals, it would appear that gold is much more allied to palladium
and to platinum—the pair of metals having the lowest melting points
and the lowest densities of the six ‘ precious’ transitional metals—than
it is to any of the other metals. The comparison of gold with platinum
is also of historical interest. Mendeléeff (1871) placed gold and platinum
in the same horizontal series of his classification but for reasons which
do not concern the present discussion.
1 My suggestion for a modified nomenclature of certain gold compounds may
be criticised as being, if not pedantic, unnecessary. It arises from obvious
analogies of the organic compounds of gold with similarly constituted inorganic
compounds of the metal; its only object is to avoid further confusion in the
chemistry of gold. Such confusion is constantly occurring. At the present
time, in books of reference and even in original literature ‘ auric chloride’ may
imply hydrochloroauric acid in the presence or absence of hydrochloric acid, or
it may imply a neutral salt—generally the sodium salt—of hydrochloroauric
acid and, much less frequently gold trichloride or—to alter its name more pro-
foundly in order to indicate that the compound is not a salt—trichlorogold.
As a result of this confusion the statement is repeatedly found in the literature
that ‘ auric chloride is soluble in ether.’ If this statement refers to the pure
compound having the molecular formula (AuCl,)., it is not true. Hydro-
chloroauric acid and hydrobromoauric acid containing water of crystallisation,
the compounds HAuX,.3H,O, are soluble in ether but they are insoluble when
anhydrous. Although the fact was known long before, the definite statement
that gold chloride is soluble in ether appears to be due to Willstatter (1905) ;
but it is clear that the material he was investigating was not (AuCl,),, but an
aqueous solution of hydrochloroauric acid which he termed gold chloride; and,
as a result, the above erroneous statement is still in text-books published as
recently as 1937. The hygroscopic nature and solubility of ‘ auric chloride,’
i.e. gold trichloride, in water is not due to the solubility of the compound per
se, but to the formation in the first place of a compound diaquodichloroauric
chloride,
Cl OH,
es eZ
Au
VS
Cl
Cl
OH,
a type of co-ordinated auric gold salt, frequently met with in the present series
of investigations, which is soluble in water and undergoes further changes in that
medium resulting in the formation of hydrochloroauric acid and aurous choride
(monochlorogold).
B.—CHEMISTRY 41
As far as the work on the chemistry of gold in which my colleagues
and I have been concerned the chief advances have been achieved by
studying in the first place the organic derivatives of the metal and, more
recently, the gold derivatives of certain types of organic sulphur com-
pounds.
(a) Dialkyl halogeno compounds.
It is almost exactly thirty-one years ago since Sir William Pope and
I (1907) prepared the first organic gold compound, then styled diethyl-
auric bromide, just after he and Peachey (1909) had prepared the first
organic platinum compound, trimethylplatinic iodide. But it was not
until 1930 that the work could be resumed (Gibson and Simonsen 1930,
Gibson and Colles 1931). In the earlier investigations the poor yield
of the product of the interaction of the Grignard reagents and the ether
soluble hydrochloro- or hydrobromoauric acids, HAuX,.3H,O, rendered
the detailed study of these new organic gold compounds somewhat
difficult. As starting material, the easily prepared pyridinotrichlorogold
—less frequently, the corresponding bromine derivative—is now used
and the following reaction is carried out in an ether-pyridine mixture
using the relative quantities indicated :
2C;H;N.AuCl, + 4MgRBr - 2C,H;N.AuR,Br + 3MgCl, + MgBr,
The pyridine co-ordination compound is decomposed later by the action
of hydrobromic acid and the compound isolated through its water
soluble co-ordination compound with ethylenediamine which, again,
may be decomposed by a suitable acid. It takes some three to four hours
to obtain the pure material and the average yield is rather more than
25% of the theoretical quantity and yields as high as 38% have been
obtained.
The isolation of homologues of the first prepared compound was easily
accomplished. ‘The experimental proof that these are non-electrolytes,
that they have molecular weights corresponding to those of twice their
empirical formule and that they and their co-ordination compounds all
contain 4-covalent auric gold led to the realisation that the 4-covalency
is an essential feature of all auric compounds. The existence of gold
compounds having the general empirical formula, AuR; (R = univalent
hydrocarbon radical), is therefore impossible since such compounds
could not contain 4-covalent gold. ‘Taking the ethyl compounds as
typical, the following are examples of some of the non-electrolytes which
have been prepared :
GH Br Oriel
ers ee SL
Au Au
es TIS am es
C.b Br CoH
Diethylmonobromogold.
Col. anorthic needles, m.p. 58° (decomp.).
mol. wt. = 670. w = 1.41 D in CCl, or CgHg.
42 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
C,H; Br Clay Br
Relsexe NS
Au Au
tts Ye i
C,H NH, C,H; NCAq-
Amininodiethylbromogold. Pyridinodiethylbromogold.
Col. doubly refracting needles. Col. needles.
Cais Br CoH: O—C(CH,)
N
Au Au CH
aya Litt ORI oe
C,H; S(C,H,). C,H; O=C(CHs;)
Dibenzylsulphidodiethylbromogold. Acetylacetonediethylgold.
m.p. 91°. Col. needles. Col. plates, m.p. 10°.
All these and analogous compounds are soluble in hydrocarbon and other
organic solvents and some interest attaches to the fourth and fifth com-
pounds. Dibenzylsulphidodiethylbromogold (Brain and Gibson 1938)
is the first auric compound of this type to be prepared by the direct
addition of an organic sulphide to an auric compound. ‘The compound
separates rapidly and no reduction of the auric compound or oxidation
of the sulphide takes place. Acetylacetonediethylgold is the first of
these organic gold compounds containing no halogen to be prepared.
It was the first organic gold compound from which brilliant gold films
were obtained. ‘These films are obtained when the compound in solu-
tion in a solvent such as ethanol is exposed to light at ordinary tempera-
tures and also on gentle warming. Obviously, the compound prepared
easily by the action of thallousacetylacetone on diethylmonobromogold
is but one of a number of similarly constituted gold compounds which
can be obtained from metallic derivatives of -diketones. ‘The decomposi-
tion of such compounds by suitable alkali salts is a convenient method
of preparing chlorine and iodine derivatives of the parent dialkyl gold
compounds.
One would expect that non-electrolytes analogous to the above ammino
and pyridino derivatives containing ethylenediamine should exist. The
first compound of the type:
Br ‘ Br
| |
R—Au< NH,—C,H,—H,N > Au—R
h R
was prepared from di-n-propylmonobromogold (R = Pr*) and no ana-
logous compound was obtained from diethylmonobromogold ; but
analogous cyanogen compounds are easily obtained both in the ethyl
and propyl series. Monoethylenediaminotetra-7-propyldibromodigold
(Burawoy and Gibson 1934) is a fairly stable colourless crystalline,
4-covalent auric compound soluble in certain organic solvents. On
le. eee ee ee ee
B.—CHEMISTRY 43
standing at the ordinary temperature, its solutions in chloroform or
benzene slowly become cloudy due to the following change :
Br Br Pre NH, 7
| NeeG 9
2 Pre—Au <- en > Au—Pr* . — = 2 Au C,H, |Br-+-
| JOUR
Fe Ret iPr? NH,
P aa
r Br P
PSI GENES
Au Au
YE ERGB POW
Pre Br Pr
The salt, ethylenediaminodi-n-propylgold bromide, is insoluble in such
solvents as chloroform and benzene. By repeatedly washing the com-
pound with water the above change goes to completion from left to right,
the di-n-propylmonobromogold being insoluble in water. The de-
composition of the monoethylenetetraalkyldicyanodigold compounds
follows a different course (see below). On being heated to its melting
point, monoethylenediaminotetra-n-propyldibromodigold undergoes the
following change :
Br Br
a
|
Pre—Au <- NH,—C,H,—H,N —> Au—Pr"
|
Pr2 Pre
Br
= a < NH,—C,H,—H,N —> Au—Br + 2 Pr’
| (CHy.)
Pre
The solid product of the reaction is monoethylenediaminodi-n-propyl-
dibromodigold and this reaction indicated that suitable organic gold
compounds may be the potential source of free radicals (see below) and
that it is possible to prepare mixed auric-aurous compounds containing
4-covalent auric gold and 2-covalent aurous gold in the same molecule.
While the analogous ethyl compound has not been prepared, Dr. F. H.
Brain and I (1938) have recently prepared the following compounds :
Br Br
|
Et—Au < NH,—CH,—CH, -O—CH,—CH, —H,N -> Au—Et
|
Et Et
mono-(3’-diaminodiethylethertetraethyldibromodigold, m.p. 87°,
Br Br
|
Et—Au < NH,—CH,—CH,—NEt, — Au—Et
|
Et Et
mono-asym.-N-diethylethylenediaminotetraethyldibromodigold, m.p. 84°,
44 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
and both these compounds exhibit the same evolution or gas as does
monoethylenediaminotetra-n-propyldibromodigold on being heated to
their melting points. Other cases of the initial production of free radicals
will be mentioned and their production from compounds containing
two 4-covalent auric gold atoms in the molecule always results in the
simultaneous production of a mixed auric-aurous compound in which
the gold atoms are 4-covalent and 2-covalent respectively. Such
decompositions as those just described raises the question of the possibility
of establishing the existence of chlorine and bromine derivatives of gold
having the formula Au,X, (formerly written as AuX, and given as examples
of bivalent gold). Such halides would be mixed auric and aurous com-
pounds having the constitution :
oe es \
Au
ot i
and they may be produced as intermediate products in the decomposi-
tion—not completely reversible—of the trihalides to the monohalides.
The first stable salt to be isolated in this series of organic gold com-
pounds was the colourless highly crystalline auric compound ethylene-
diaminodiethylgold bromide,
mene NH, 7
x
which with its homologues has proved of utility in the preparation of
the dialkyl and diaryl compounds. Although evidence of the formation
of the analogous ammonia and pyridine compounds
‘Cale ts NH, Cite NC Hea
x Dea (ee
Au Br Au Br
GEIS 1 nS
OY ia b= NH, (Or 31 NCEE
has been obtained they are too unstable (owing to loss of one molecule
of the volatile base resulting in the formation of the non-electrolytes
already mentioned) to be isolated. ‘The corresponding co-ordination
compound of diethylmonobromogold with the asymmetrical N-diethyl-
ethylenediamine is of special interest (Brain and Gibson 1938). The .
interaction of these two substances in molecular proportions results in
the production of a colourless crystalline compound soluble in water
and also soluble in benzene. The compound therefore appears to be
both a salt and a non-electrolyte. Bearing in mind that the co-ordinating
power of tertiary amines is less than that of primary amines it might be
B.—CHEMISTRY 45
suggested that its constitution should be represented in some such way
as :
C,H, NH, af C,H; Br
rd
Au C,H, 1 ia Au
Mins Hla
C,H; N(C,H5)» CH; NH,—C,H,—N(C,H5),
This appears to be an unique case of tautomerism, of course, not reson-
ance. ‘The compound, with others, is still under investigation and another
anomaly remains to be explained. The compound is dissociated in
aqueous solution, but shows considerable association in organic solvents
(approximately bimolecular in bromoform and quadrimolecular in ben-
zene), and it is suggested that the association may be explained thus :
NEt, NEt, NEt,
|
|
NH, NH, NH,
|
eA A ee ee
| x Me AE 2 8 Ne
Et Bie hte ht Et
the auric gold atoms, (2), (3), etc., being 5-covalent—probably not a
stable covalency—their Effective Atomic Numbers becoming 86 (the
atomic number of radon) whereas the auric gold atom (1), as in a normal
auric compound, is 4-covalent and has an Effective Atomic Number
of 84.
(4) Monoalkyldibromo compounds (Pope and Gibson 1907, Burawoy and
Gibson 1934 and 1935).
The monoethyl and mono-n-propyldibromo compounds have been
studied in some detail. ‘They are easily prepared by the action of the
calculated quantity of bromine on the dialkylmonobromogold compounds
in chloroform or carbon tetrachloride solution. They are highly
crystalline and deep red in colour; they are soluble in solvents which
are not readily brominated or oxidised and therefore unstable in such
solvents as ether, alcohol, acetone, benzene, ligroin, etc. ‘Their molecular
weights (determined in freezing bromoform) show that their general
formula is (RAuBr,), and the high dipole moment in carbon tetrachloride
solution of the -propyl compound (u. = 6 D) affords proof that the con-
stitution of these auric compounds is correctly represented thus :
R Br Br
Ped ioe oh”
Au Au
ade ook wi<
R Br Br
46 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
This is in keeping with their formation from equimolecular quantities of
dialkylmonobromogold compounds and tribromogold and with their
physical and chemical properties. Slowly, on standing, more rapidly, in
a current of an inert gas at the ordinary temperature, and still more rapidly,
when heated at a temperature just above the boiling point of the alkyl
bromide, they decompose quantitatively into alkyl bromide and gold
monobromide, thus :
Br Br
<< i \ oe Koes
= 2 RBr+ Au Au
Ye Bis
This decomposition also seems to afford chemical evidence concerning
the constitution of the aurous halides to which reference has already been
made. ‘The aurous bromide (monobromogold) is left in a state of purity
as highly crystalline apparently pseudomorphs of the monoalkyldibromo
compound, and, prepared in this way, it is suitable for X-ray investigation
to which such an aurous compound does not yet appear to have been
submitted.
Chemically, the monoalkyldibromogold compounds behave as equi-
molecular mixtures of gold tribromide and the dialkylmonobromogold.
For example, in contact with the many solvents which decompose them
they yield dialkylmonobromogold compounds and the solvents are either
brominated or oxidised and aurous bromide is left as a yellow precipitate.
With hydrobromic acid, they yield hydrobromoauric acid and the dialkyl
monobromogold compound and with aqueous solutions of alkali halides
the reaction is similar. With ethylenediamine, they yield equimolecular
quantities of the ethylenediaminodialkylgold bromide, [R,Au en]Br, and
diethylenediaminogold tribromide (Gibson and Simonsen 1930, Gibson
and Colles 1931), having the constitution :
j~CH,—H,N NH,—CH,]
| Wtsinws
Au | Br,
|
|
| Moca |
| CH,—H,N NH,—CH,
This is a crystalline yellow salt which is highly soluble in water and
insoluble in ethanol. It is readily prepared by the action of ethylene-
diamine on gold tribromide or on a suitable salt of hydrobromoauric acid.
It constitutes one of the few examples known in which the 4-covalent
auric gold complex is a tervalent cation in halide salts. It is analogous to
tetraamminoauric nitrate, [Au(NH3;),](NO;)3, the corresponding phos- °
phate, RPO,.H,O, the oxalonitrate, R(NO,)(C,0,), the chlorate, R(C1O3)3,
the perchlorate, R(ClO,)3, the oxaloperchlorate, R(ClO,)(C,O,), the
sulphonitrate, R(NO,)(SO,), and the chromate R,(CrO,),; where R =
[Au(NH,),]*+* (Weitz 1915). Like the above diethylenediamino com-
pound, these are very stable salts ; they retain their ammonia even in the
B.—CHEMISTRY 47
presence of concentrated acids. ‘The corresponding salts with the halogen
acids, hydrocyanic acid and thiocyanic acid have, however, not been
obtained.
(c) Cyano derivatives of organic gold compounds (Gibson, Burawoy and
Holt 1935, Burawoy, Gibson, Hampson and Powell 1937).
By the direct action of silver cyanide on the dialkylmonobromogold
compounds, the corresponding cyano derivatives are easily prepared.
These compounds have unique properties and the detailed investigation
of the ethyl and n-propyl compounds have revealed a number of interesting
features in connexion with the general chemistry of gold.
The dialkylmonocyanogold compounds are colourless highly crystalline
non-electrolytes, soluble in hydrocarbon solvents, and their molecular
weights in freezing bromoform are four times those required by their
empirical formula. These compounds, therefore, unlike any other gold
compounds so far described contain four atoms of tervalent gold in the
molecule. In the molecule of such compounds, the gold atoms must be
attached to the carbon atoms of the cyanogen groups and the nitrogen
atoms must be co-ordinated to neighbouring gold atoms.
Constitution (I) (R = Et, Pr*) indicating a symmetrical twelve atom
planar ring structure is the only possible one in keeping with the stereo-
chemical configuration of the cyanogen group, with the small dipole
moment—y = 1°47 D in carbon-tetrachloride at 25° for the n-propyl
compound—with the 4-covalency of auric gold atoms and, as will be
pointed out later, with the results of X-ray crystallographic investigation.
R R
|
R—Au—C=N-> Au—R
t | CN CN
N Cc | |
II II R—Au<NH,—C,H,—H,N->Au—R
R R
R—Au<N=C—Au—R
| II
I
R NH, 7
XS |
Au C,H, |CN
ifs ERI
R NH,
48 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
These compounds yield with ethylenediamine colourless crystalline
non-electrolytes of type II — monoethylenediaminotetraalkyldicyano-
digold—analogous to the above described monoethylenediaminotetra-n-
propyldibromodigold, the molecules of which unlike those of the parent
substances contain only two atoms of 4-covalent auric gold. In this series,
it has so far been found impossible to isolate compounds of type III which
would be analogous to the corresponding bromides. One particularly
interesting feature of compounds of types I and II is the mode of their
decomposition to give finally monocyanogold (aurous cyanide). Com-
pounds of type I are converted into compounds of type IV on standing
at the ordinary temperature and the ethyl compound undergoes this
change explosively on mere rubbing ; at their melting points the change
takes place very rapidly in all cases. These decompositions which have
been quantitatively investigated are illustrated :
R R R
| | |
R—Au—C=N-> Au—R R—Au—C=N-> fe
| +
if C N C
II [II == 4! P ||| {|| 3 ——> 4R’ +
N
R—Au<N=C—Au—R Au<N=C—Au—R
| | Au—C=N-> Ai
R R t
N
I IV {||
8
o.
Au<+N=C—A
CN CN 7 R NEG a
| | Nea :
R—Au<NH,.C,H,.H,N->Au—R —>2R’+ Au WCE, Au(CN),
| | ye EON
R R LR NH,
II VI
The dialkyldicyanodigold compounds (IV) are non-electrolytes like
the dialkyImonocyano-gold compounds (I), but unlike the latter they are
very sparingly soluble in organic solvents and they decompose without
melting. ‘They constitute further examples of mixed 4-covalent auric
and 2-covalent aurous compounds. The decompositions I > IV + V
afford chemical evidence regarding the constitution of monocyanogold
(gold monocyanide, aurous cyanide), indicating that it is a non-electrolyte,
that it is a 2-covalent aurous compound and that there are four such gold
atoms in the molecule which like that of a compound of type (I) is planar.
Pure gold monocyanide prepared in such a way should be suitable for
X-ray crystallographic investigation. The ethylenediaminodialkylgold
B.—CHEMISTRY 49
aurocyanides (VI) are electrolytes and mixed 4-covalent auric and 2-co-
valent aurous compounds, a type of compound of which the first example
appears to have been described by Sir William Pope in 1929. It will be
appreciated that the conversion of compounds of type VI into those of
type IV by means of acid, which goes quite smoothly, is somewhat
complicated involving changes of electrovalencies into covalent and
coordinate linkages.
The free radicals were not identified as such although there is evidence
for believing that they are initially evolved. ‘The decompositions are of
either solid or liquid compounds and so far free radicals have only been
identified as such when they have produced by decompositions in the
vapour phase. Actually the free radicals were identified as the paraffin
hydrocarbons to which they should give rise, m-butane from the ethyl
derivatives and n-hexane from the m-propyl derivatives. This was the
first time that n-hexane had been obtained from the decomposition of a
n-propyl compound. Previously, when n-propyl radicals had been
anticipated as likely to be produced a mixture of ethane, butane and
ethylene (Frankland 1877) or a mixture of only ethane and ethylene
(Paneth and Lautsch 1931) had been obtained.
(d) The structure of gold compounds.
During the past two years, our knowledge of the structure of various
types of gold compounds has developed considerably as a result of X-ray
crystallographic investigations. ‘Those on the organic compounds are
being carried out at Oxford by Powell (1937) and his collaborators, those
on Mann’s co-ordination compounds of aurous gold at Cambridge by
Wells (1936) while Cox and Webster (1936) have carried out their investi-
gations on potassium bromoaurate at Birmingham. ‘These investigations
have established the planar configuration of the four valencies of tervalent
gold and the linear configuration of the two valencies of aurous gold.
The X-ray investigation of the simplest organic gold compound,
diethylmonobromogold, is attended with difficulties arising from the
instability of the crystals to X-rays and even to light. In spite of these,
Powell has been able to carry out his analysis satisfactorily. The results,
are summarised in figures (1) and (2), reproduced by permission of the
Chemical Society. The orientation of the molecule in the unit cell is
indicated in the perspective diagram (Fig. 1) where, for convenience, the
origin has been moved to } $ 4. The molecule, projected on the plane
of the gold and bromine atoms, is shown in Fig. 2. ‘The carbon atoms
marked @ and © are, respectively, above and below the plane of the
other atoms. The distances marked on Fig. 2 are subject to a probable
error of +0-1 aA. The results show that two gold atoms and two
bromine atoms lie close together near the origin and that the mole-
cule is Au,(C.H;),Br,. These four atoms form a rough square in a plane
somewhat inclined to (oor). In order that the molecule may fit into the
unit cell, all the atoms must lie approximately in one plane as is shown by
the very small c dimension, and the four gold valencies must accordingly
lie in one plane and will be approximately at right angles to one another.
The suggested structure is in agreement with the needle habit of the crystals
50 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
and the very high negative double refraction with the smallest refractive
index roughly along the needle direction. ‘The molecule thus has a centre
of symmetry and the structure deduced from molecular weight determina-
tion and electronic structure is fully confirmed, although the substance
has a small but definite dipole moment. The planar and symmetrical
distribution of the four valencies of tervalent gold in a non-electrolyte
thus confirmed the same results obtained by Cox and Webster in the case
of the salt, potassium bromoaurate, KAuBr,.2H,O.
The crystallographic investigation of the much more complicated com-
pound, di-z-propylmonocyanogold, (Pr*,AuCN),, has only recently been
completed by H. M. Powell and R. F. Phillips and the results, which will
be published in detail later, strikingly confirm the constitution deduced
from the chemical and especially the physical properties of the substance.
Cc
t
M4
Eire. re Biel 2.
Di-n-propylmonocyanogold crystallises in the polar class of the ortho-
rhombic system: ‘The unit cell contains sixteen Pr,AuCN units. Oscil-
lation photographs and Weissenberg photographs about the three principal
axes show the absences characteristic of the space group, Pca. The photo-
graphs were obtained with copper radiation and intensities estimated
visually with the aid of a photographic intensity scale. A two dimen-
sional Patterson analysis on the (hkO) spectra gave approximate a and b
axis coordinates for the gold atoms and signs of the F(,,0)’s could there-
fore be determined and the corresponding two dimensional Fourier
synthesis carried out. Two successive approximations led to the final
Fourier projection, Fig. 3. This shows the association of four gold atoms”
in one molecule, the peaks corresponding to the gold atoms lying at the
corners of parallelograms in the projection suggesting that the plane of the
molecule is considerably inclined to the plane of projection (oor). The
lighter carbon and nitrogen atoms are not resolved being, in any
case, largely overlapping. Ridges of electron density indicate the
51
B.— CHEMISTRY
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jo ourjd oy} 0} oArTZeTeI VINOITOUI 9Yy} JO 4 2YY
0} SUIMO potez1oyser0y sreadde orenbs oy], ‘“papeys
A[IAvoy JOU Siay}ZO eAOqe SutAT sojnosjour s}usseid ‘soul, UexoIq Aq UMOYS IN0jU09 jsaMo]
-o1 Suipeys Aaeofzy *(100) wo sinzonIys Jo ux[G—'hb “O17 ay} ‘(100) uo pozoford Azsuap uos0a9[9 VATZeJaY—"E “OT
H
)
@-N @-9
52 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Au—C=N -+ Au group of atoms and the positions of the propyl groups
are shown to be :
Pre
|
— (CSS) = A SS Ie
|
C
(||
N
The projections on (100) and (oro) are non-centrosymmetric, but
owing to the overwhelming influence of the gold atoms, whose ¢ co-
ordinates can be estimated, the arbitrary phase constants corresponding
to the Foyy’s and Fooy’s can be calculated for the completion of the
projection on (o10) and (100). ‘The three projections so obtained give
the coordinates of all the gold atoms and indicate approximately the
positions of the carbon and nitrogen atoms. Consideration of these
projections and of the space available permit the assignment of coordinates
to all atoms. Between atoms in different molecules there is no approach
less than the usual 3-6 A. The Fourier analysis shows clearly the general
positions of the n-propyl groups and the ‘ square’ character of the gold
valencies, but it must be understood that the details concerning the
terminal parts of the n-propyl groups is only suggested to be as indicated,
alternatively tilted above and below the plane of the square, in order to
leave sufficient space between molecules (Fig. 4). The shape of the
molecule approximates to a real square and the distance, Au—C=N-—>Au,
is the same for each side and equal to 5-18 a, thus confirming the suggested
formulation, Au—-C=N — Au, which, from available data on bond
lengths, should require 5-28 a.
(e) Among the studies of gold derivatives of organic sulphur com-
pounds being carried out in my laboratory, I will only refer to one which
presents certain unusual features. My collaborators and I have studied
the reactions which may be briefly outlined, thus :
; Bz,S — Au—Br
A I nN
Jf 4 \
o/ / | Ne
S lz |e ey, “%,
Rely / Rey ne) 3
LZ aS %,
oS | ® is %, .
By | 2 “i ‘
/ yi | , 2
th ane |
ABE SA uBio es aes a Aue LBs (Bz,SAuBrl),
IV NBs Ul
Analogous substances have been previously prepared by different
authors. Substance (IV), for example, was described by McPhail
—— Oe ———— — — —— — — LL
B.—CHEMISTRY 53
Smith (1922) as ‘ dibromogolddibenzylsulphide,’ an addition compound
of ‘gold bromide’ ‘to which was assigned the formula, Br,Au.SBz,.
On the other hand, Ray and Sen (1930) described the chlorine analogue
of the same substance as auroaurichloride dibenzyl sulphide having
the constitution, AuCl,Bz,S.AuCIBz,S. Ray and Sen, however, stated
that the molecular weight of their substance agreed with the molecular
formula they assigned to it. This does not agree with the results
obtained. by previous workers nor by Dr. Tyabji and myself for the
bromine analogue (1937).
There is nothing unusual concerning the structure and properties of
the colourless 2-covalent aurous compound (I), (dibenzylsulphidomono-
bromogold), or of the structure and properties of the deep red 4-covalent
auric compound (II), (dibenzylsulphidotribromogold) ; but the structure
and properties of the substances (III) and (IV), which, as compounds,
would be termed bis(dibenzylsulphidobromoiodogold) and bis(dibenzyl-
sulphidodibromogold) respectively, present interesting features. Of these,
only (IV) in which the halogen atoms are the same needs to be con-
sidered in detail. All these substances are non-electrolytes and (IV), in
addition to the method already indicated, can be prepared by mixing
equimolecular quantities of compounds (I) and (II) in a suitable solvent,
for example chloroform. The molecular formula of (IV) cannot be the
same as its empirical formula otherwise it would be a 3-covalent derivative
of bivalent gold. The apparent molecular weight of each of the substances
(III) and (IV) in freezing bromoform is a little less than that indicated
by the empirical formula affording no information as to their constitutions.
In this particular case, our knowledge of the chemical and physical
properties is inadequate for determining the constitution of the sub-
stance in the solid state. All that is possible is for the chemist to suggest
reasonable alternatives based on recognised principles of the constitution of
co-ordination compounds. None of these alternatives is capable of being
confirmed by chemical or physico-chemical methods and the only method
of determining the constitution is by careful crystallographic and X-ray
analysis. In the solid state the substance is obviously a mixed aurous-
auric complex of a new type, since the mixed aurous-auric compounds
already encountered are stable both in solution and in the solid condition.
For the constitution of the substance in the solid state, two not un-
reasonable possibilities immediately suggest themselves. In the linking
up of the aurous and auric compounds, (a) the aurous gold atom may
become 4-covalent, its four valencies probably assuming a tetrahedral
configuration, having now eight electrons in its outer shell and assuming
an Effective Atomic Number of 86, or (4) the auric gold atom may
become 5-covalent, its five valencies probably assuming a pyramidal con-
figuration, having now ten electrons in its outer shell and assuming an
Effective Atomic Number of 86.
I have put the two alternatives in this order, because there seemed
to be a possibility, if crystallographic and X-ray analysis proved it, of
obtaining the first incontrovertible evidence of a 4-covalent aurous com-
pound which, up to the present, remains a theoretical conception un-
supported by experimental evidence to explain the constitution of certain
complex compounds (compare p. 37). Arising from suggestion (@) there
54 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
are two ways in which the two compounds may be linked together in the
complex. In the one case, the gold atoms may be connected thus:
Br
ata
Au
te 4
Br
Au
the aurous gold atom having four valencies—two co-ordinately attached
bromine atoms (shown), a co-ordinately attached sulphur (of dibenzyl-
sulphide) atom and a covalently attached bromine atom—tetrahedrally
disposed, while the auric gold atom has its four valencies in a plane,
three being covalent links attached to bromine atoms and a co-ordinate
link from the sulphur atom of dibenzylsulphide. The dissociation of
the complex in non-aqueous solvents might then be explained by the
particular disposition of the co-ordinate Br —> Au links since, in the stable
mixed aurous-auric compounds already known and some of which have
been referred to above, such linkages are alternately disposed thus :
Br
yi
Au Au
Ress
Br
In the other case arising from suggestion (a) the solid complex may
consist of alternate auric and aurous units linked together by co-ordination
of a bromine atom from the former to the latter, each aurous unit being
linked to two auric units. ‘The simplest possible molecule would thus
be a ring containing two auric and two aurous units thus :
Br SBz,
|
Bz,S->Au—Br->Au—Br
Denideraeital
Br Br
v |
Br—Au<-Br—Au<SBz,
|
SBz, Br
If, in this case, the four valencies (three co-ordinate and one covalent)
of the aurous gold atoms are as we would expect tetrahedrally disposed,
the structure becomes much more complicated than is represented by
the above plane diagram. Arising from suggestion (b), there is the
possibility that in the solid state an auric unit becomes linked to an aurous
unit by the bromine atom of the latter becoming co-ordinately linked to
the gold atom of the former. The auric atom now becomes 5-covalent
and its five valencies may assume a pyramidal configuration whereas the
four valencies of the auric atom had a planar configuration. This would
appear to cause the minimum displacement of atoms in the two units
OO a a a
B.—CHEMISTRY 5
uw
concerned. Actually, it would only mean the altering of the position
of the auric gold atom from the centre of a square to a position within
the pyramid of which the base is the original square; this may be
illustrated by Fig. 5:
tr
Er
Bas a Bz2S
Br S §Bzo "SS Br SBZ9
r Br
ey de
Br = Au* Br
crystalline (BzgS.AuBro)
Fic. 5.
Such a constitution would not be out of keeping with the separation of
the two parts of the complex compound in non-aqueous solvents since
5-covalent auric compounds may be expected to be unstable (compare
45).
‘ I ee elaborated this example to draw attention to the fact that not
a few present-day investigations of which this is one are accumulating
in which chemists will have to rely almost completely on crystallographic
technique for the determination of the constitution of substances whose
structures have so far not proved amenable to elucidation by treatment
by the older methods. In the present instance, the above suggestions
have been excluded at once by my collaborators, H. M. Powell and R. F.
Phillips at Oxford. ‘There are no indications of the ‘ bridge ’ and ‘ ring ’
structures now well known from previous investigations, and there are
no indications of such a disposition of gold, bromine and sulphur atoms
as required by the structure indicated in Fig. 5. In other words, this
work again reveals the small tendency—if any—of aurous gold to become
4-covalent and of auric gold to become 5-covalent. Finally, having ex-
cluded the direct linking of the auric and aurous parts of the complex,
there remains apparently only the possibility of the fitting together
in the solid state of the aurous and auric compounds by a close
packing arrangement which, again, only the crystallographer is capable
of resolving. The result of this crystallographic investigation will be
awaited by me with some interest, and it may be that investigations such
_as this will give some useful information about ‘complex molecules’
generally.
There are still many problems, some of them fundamental, in the
chemistry of gold waiting to be solved. Even as it is, I have only men-
tioned a few of those which my co-workers and I have tried and are
trying to investigate; but there is a limit to the topics which can be
discussed at any one time and I venture to conclude with the apology
of that interesting man of the world, chemist and theologian, Richard
Watson, D.D., F.R.S., sometime Professor of Chemistry in the University
of Cambridge, later Regius Professor of Divinity and Bishop of Llandaff :
‘Chemists must excuse me, as well for having explained common
56 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
matters, with what will appear to them a disgusting minuteness, as for
having passed over in silence some of the most interesting questions.’
REFERENCES,
Bakhuis-Roozeboom. 1885 ec. trvav. chim., 4, 361.
Bassett and Corbet. 1924 Jour. Chem. Soc., 1660.
Brain and Gibson. 1937 As yet unpublished.
Oso NAS HVeL Gl pelushed:
Burawoy and Gibson. 1934 Jour. Chem. Soc., 860.
1935a Jour. Chem. Soc., 219.
Sa OD De OUT Gheme S06, 217:
Burawoy, Gibson, Hampson and Powell. 1937, Jour. Chem. Soc., 1690.
Cox and Webster. 1936 Jour. Chem. Soc., 1635.
Cox, Wardlaw and Webster. 1936 Jour. Chem. Soc., 775.
Fischer, W. 1929 Z. anorg. Chem., 184, 333.
Frankland, E. 1877 Experimental Researches, p. 238.
Gibson and Simonsen. 1930 Jour. Chem. Soc., 2531 ; Gibson and Colles. 1931
Jour. Chem. Soc., 2401.
Gibson and Tyabji. 1937 As yet unpublished.
Gibson, Burawoy and Holt. 1935 Jour. Chem. Soc., 1024.
Hein and Regler. 1936 Ber., 69, 1602.
Jeffrey. 1916 Tvans. Faraday Soc., 11, 172.
Joannis. 1902 Compt. rend., 185, 1106.
Kuriloff. 1898 Z. physikal. Chem., 25, 1908.
Levi-Malvano. 1908 Atti R. Acad. Lincei, 17, 857.
McPhail Smith. 1922 J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 44, 1769.
Mann, Wells and Purdie. 1936 Jour. Chem. Soc., 1503.
37 | SOU CHEM SUG. T8260:
Mendeléeff. 1871 Amnalen, Supp. Bd., 8, 151.
Morgan and Burstall. 1928 Jour. Chem. Soc., 143.
Paneth and Lautsch. 1931 Ber., 64, 2702, 2708.
Pope. 1931 Brit. Chem. Abs. B., 319. E.P. 338506/1929.
Pope and Gibson. 1907 Jour. Chem. Soc., 2061.
Pope and Peachey. 1909 Jour. Chem. Soc., 571.
Ray and Sen. 1930 J. Indian Chem. Soc., 7, 67.
Weitz. 1915 Annalen, 410, 117.
Willstatter. 1905 Ber., 36, 1830.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
DEVELOPMENT AND EVOLUTION
~ ADDRESS BY
PROF. H. H. SWINNERTON, D.Sc.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
THOSE whose memories carry them back to student days at the end of
the nineteenth century will remember how simple and straightforward
the relationship between Development and Evolution seemed to be.
‘The development of the individual,’ we were taught, ‘ repeated the
history of the race,’ or more technically and concisely, ‘ Ontogeny repeats
phylogeny.’ ‘To us, mere students, the names of Von Baer and Haeckel
were in some way mixed up with all this, but we were not very clear
what their respective contributions were, except that Von Baer lived long
before Haeckel and therefore, we thought, his views must of necessity be
a little out of date. But even then there were voices, like that of Hurst
(1893), that spoke of a fundamental difference between the views of these
two great workers, and maintained that Von Baer was nearer the truth
than Haeckel. That difference is now much more clearly appreciated
and finds expression in a tendency towards the division of thinkers into
separate camps. On the one hand there are those who may be described
as the lineal descendants of Von Baer, who propounded the view that
“the young stages in the development of an animal are not like the adult
stages of other animals lower down the scale but are like the young stages
of those animals.’ On the other hand there are the corresponding
descendants of Haeckel who maintained that ‘the adult stages of the
ancestors are repeated during the development of the descendants, but
are crowded back into the earlier stages of ontogeny, therefore making
the latter an abbreviated repetition of Phylogeny ’ (v. de Beer). This is
variously referred to as the Theory of Recapitulation, the Principle of
Palingenesis and the Biogenetic Law.
Year by year students of fossils, more especially those concerned with
the invertebrates, have discovered an increasing body of facts which seem
to them to fit in with and give support to Haeckel’s theory of recapitula-
tion. Meanwhile students of living forms have, as the result of new as
well as old methods of inquiry, accumulated much additional evidence
which seems to give the lie to this principle. Thus Garstang, whose
survey of this field from the biological point of view has proved most
58 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
helpful, wrote in 1921, ‘ The idea that form changes in ontogeny were
preceded by similar changes in adult ancestry is an illusion.” A few
years later (1929) he reiterated the same opinion in a yet more forceful
way, saying, ‘ the theory of adult recapitulation is dead and need no longer
limit and warp us in the study of Phylogeny.’
Though palzontology has long been the stronghold of the theory of
recapitulation, there have not been wanting among its devotees those
whose faith in the theory has waned and perished. Thus Spath (1924)
with a touch of bitterness against the view he has forsaken writes, ‘ Of
course it may be necessary to assume an inverted geological order if our
views of the biological order of ammonites are to continue to be governed
by discredited ‘‘ laws ’”’ of recapitulation and omission of hypothetical
stages.’ Some years later (1933) his attitude seems to have become
slightly modified, for he then described the law as merely ‘ inadequate.’
In the same work he gives a useful summary of the views of a long array
of previous writers who had expressed doubts concerning the ‘ law of
recapitulation.’
It should be observed here that the bone of contention is not repre-
sented by the word ‘ recapitulation’ but by the word ‘adult.’ Thus, for
example, Garstang (1921), in spite of the apparently uncompromising
statement quoted above, writes, ‘ as differentiation increases combinations
of layers, tissues, organs, etc. at successive stages resemble more or less
distinctly combinations characteristic of successive grades of evolution
represented in phyletic classification. ‘To that limited extent ontogeny
epitomises phylogeny, in the true sense of the word recapitulation, i.e.
sums up.’ Other passages in his writings refer to a like parallelism.
Again Spath (1933), speaking out of his wide experience in the handling
of cephalopods, says of Perrin Smith that ‘ he constantly overlooked
the fact that by heredity an ammonite was an ammonite, and that
like other organisms it had to grow and therefore necessarily had to
pass through more primitive stages.’ It seems to me that this is no
more and no less than a useful but incomplete paraphrase of the term
recapitulation.
On the other hand, Raw, discussing the ontogenies of trilobites, after
allowing for the presence of embryonic and larval characters in the
Protaspis stage, recognises ‘ phylogenetic characters of ordinal and family
value,’ whilst ‘ in the next or Meraspis stage, as the embryonic and larval
characters diminish in strength generic and specific characters appear.’
In talking of higher divisions than species, Raw is obviously not thinking
of a specific resemblance to any definite adult ancestor, but of a general
resemblance such as exists between all the species of a genus, all the
genera within an order, and so forth. Evidently he also has in mind
grades of evolution, and in that respect his position is similar to that of
Garstang and presumably also Spath. Garstang, however, visualises the
structure not of primeval adults but of primeval young, whilst Raw quite”
definitely has in mind the general condition in the adults of the primeval
stock.
The idea of recapitulation in the sense of summing up seems to me, as
also to Crow (1926) and Lillie (1930), to be inherent in Von Baer’s as
jes di a
C.—GEOLOGY 59
well as in Haeckel’s positions. The fundamental difference between
them and their philosophical descendants is that for the former it is a
recapitulation of juvenile conditions, for the latter it is a recapitulation of
adult conditions. It will be helpful in further discussion if the two posi-
tions are referred to as juvenile and adult recapitulation respectively.
In both cases the recapitulation may be either specific or general.
The main point at issue, therefore, is whether or not adult recapitulation,
either specific or general, does occur. Some thinkers, especially upon
the biological side, say emphatically ‘No.’ Others, especially invertebrate
palzontologists, say ‘ Yes.’
Morgan (1925), whilst apparently subscribing to what is here spoken
of as juvenile recapitulation, holds that adult recapitulation is quite ruled
out of court by the fact that variations are germinal in origin and dis-
continuous in mode of appearance. There must, however, be some
defect in his interpretation of the phenomena of variation, for, as will be
seen presently, many well-authenticated cases of adult recapitulation are
known.
At this stage it is well to remind ourselves that even the most ardent
adult recapitulationist realises that the record is usually more or less
vitiated and incomplete. Haeckel himself, by the phrase ‘ abbreviated
repetition of phylogeny,’ acknowledges that the record is curtailed. He
also recognised that it was subject to falsification by the appearance during
early life of features specially adapted to the conditions of life of the
embryo or larva. For this phenomenon he introduced the term * cceno-
genesis.’ As long as these features appeared to be limited in their influence
to the early developmental stages very little importance was attached to
them. In recent years, however, Garstang on the biological side and
Spath (1932) and Schindewolf (1925) on the palzontological side have
shown that their influence may extend in a marked degree even into adult
life, a process for which the last-named writer proposes the term ‘ protero-
genesis.’ This discovery I fancy has played no little part in the recent
intensification of activity in undermining the pre-eminent position held
by the principle of recapitulation.
In matters of this kind there is a danger lest we should slip into the
assumption that only one method has been pursued by Nature, but it is
surely a grave mistake to assume that she is so bankrupt in originality.
The fact that serious workers can hold such diverse views indicates the
possibility that Nature’s methods are equally diverse. It seems appro-
priate therefore that an attempt should be made to re-examine the evidence
in the hope of gaining a clearer understanding of the relationships of the
various view-points to one another. From such a survey, geology as well
as biology has much to gain ; for as long as systematists drift along with
only a confused appreciation of the laws of development and evolution
they will be without fundamental principles to guide them in dealing
with the multitude of specimens which are coming, in ever-increasing
volume, from geologists in the field.
Naturally my approach to this survey will be from the palzontological
side, but I hope there is still enough of the zoologist left in me to enable
me to appreciate fully the more purely biological points of view. My
60 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
illustrative material will be confined mainly to well-known examples,
descriptions of which are easily accessible.
Any consideration of the relationship of development to evolution
must deal with the subject from two aspects, viz. retrospective and
prospective. On the one hand it must inquire whether the evolutionary
changes of the past are reflected in development, and if so to what extent.
On the other hand it must also inquire whether future evolutionary
changes of sudden or of sequential character are foreshadowed in develop-
ment. ‘These two aspects are, of course, very closely interwoven with
one another in the developmental record, and much confusion, which
has crept into discussion in recent years, is due to a want of appreciation
of their fundamental distinctness.
RETROSPECTIVE ASPECT.
In one form or another the retrospective aspect of the problem of the
relationship of development to evolution has attracted the attention of
embryologists even in the earliest stages in the growth of their science.
This is exemplified by the principles enunciated by Von Baer and Haeckel,
even though the former dates back to the pre-evolution age of biology.
These two great workers, had they lived to-day, would have been the
first to condemn any tendency to make a creed of the form of words in
which they expressed the principles they detected; they would have
been the first to welcome any modification or amplification made necessary
by the advance of knowledge. No attempt will be made here to trace
the history of discussion on these problems, for it has been frequently
summarised by various writers referred to in this address.
Concerning the Use of Terms.
Some of the disagreement that exists over the questions under dis-
cussion is due to diversity in the shades of meaning attached to terms in
common use. It will therefore be helpful if some of these are briefly
indicated here.
The term ontogeny is generally taken to mean the development of the
individual, but it is not always clear how much of that development the
writer has in mind. As long ago as 1909 Cumings pointed out that
many biologists used the term ontogeny when they were really visualising
only embryogeny. Even Haeckel himself did this. Strictly speaking, it
includes all stages of growth from the embryonic through the epembryonic
or neanic to the adult.
With regard to phylogeny, De Beer indicates a common though often
quite unconscious restriction in the use of the term when he tells us that
“the distinction between adult and young, i.e. between structures which
appear late or early, is drawn principally because it is only the structures’
of the adult which are concerned in phylogeny.’ Garstang (1921), it
seems to me, gives it the correct significance when he defines phylogeny
as ‘ the procession of ontogenies along a given phyletic line of modifica-
tion,’ though he goes on to point out that ‘ it is expressed in terms of adult
C.—GEOLOGY 61
structure.’ This is not, however, always the case. It is true for such
organisms as belemnites and trilobites in which only adult features are
visible in the fully grown specimen. But it is not quite true for organisms,
like ammonites and gastropods, for which in any given specimen large
portions of the ontogenetic record are exposed to view, and provide
juvenile features which become automatically incorporated into the
diagnosis of the species and consequently into the construction of the
corresponding phyletic series.
Some of the shades of meaning that attach to the term ‘ recapitulation ’
have already been discussed. Another must now be mentioned. For
Haeckel himself this term implied the idea of causation as well as of
repetition. I doubt whether this causal relation of ontogeny to phylogeny
has any place in the thinking of the average paleontologist. For him
recapitulation is merely a descriptive term for the observed fact that there
exists a striking resemblance between some stages in individual develop-
ment and the ancestral types. But even as a descriptive term it requires
the addition of certain qualifying terms such as ‘ general’ and ‘ specific,’
“adult ’ and ‘ juvenile,’ which have been already suggested.
A marked divergence occurs also between various writers in the use
of the terms ‘ ancestor’ and ‘ancestral.’ Thus Garstang, referring to
recapitulation as enunciated by Haeckel, says (1921), ‘The only way I
can see of establishing this theory by purely embryological methods, is
to show that the penultimate stage of the ontogeny of a given type of
adult resembles the final (adult) stages of the ontogeny of some
theoretically ancestral type more closely than it resembles the corre-
sponding penultimate stage of the same.” He then repeats the same
kind of requirement for the antepenultimate stages also.
Discussing various examples brought forward by other workers, he
declares that they all fail to survive the imposition of this test. In
coming to this conclusion he apparently does not realise that they fail
for the simple reason that the material used in the examples quoted did
not conform to that stipulated in his test. His test requires that the
comparison should be between the ontogeny of a given type and that of
an ancestral type. ‘The examples he quotes deal almost exclusively
with the ontogeny of forms co-existing at the present day, and therefore
cannot possibly have the relationship to one another of ancestor and
descendant. They are in fact merely collateral descendants. Had he
selected his material from the works of his paleontological colleagues
he would have found much which closely fulfilled the conditions required
by his test. Some of these will be considered presently.
Another term that calls for consideration is ‘ race,’ for by using it in
quite different senses writers have fallen into much unnecessary contra-
diction. In seeking to discover the relationship between development
and evolution it has always been the custom to think of development in
terms of a specific individual, and of evolution in terms of the ‘ race.’
Now about the development of the individual there is no ambiguity, for
the individual is a single being having a range in time from the cradle
to the grave. On the other hand the phrase ‘ evolution of the race’ is
used in almost as many different senses as there are examples quoted.
62 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Thus the slits in the neck of the human embryo are compared with the
gill clefts of a present-day dogfish, and the similarity between them has
been referred to as evidence that the development of the individual, at
least in this respect, tends to recapitulate the history of the race. On
the other hand the much more striking dissimilarity between the human
embryo as a whole and the adult dogfish is given as evidence against the
‘law of recapitulation.’ What is the sense in which the word ‘ race’ is
being used in these or similar cases ?
Apart from the point already dealt with, that only collateral ancestors
are being compared, the disputants on both sides have in mind the whole
sub-kingdom of the vertebrates with a range extending across nearly the
whole of geological time, and represented by masses of rocks twenty or
more miles in thickness. But when a paleontologist compares the young
stages of growth of Gryphea incurva with the fully grown Ostrea irregulare,
and maintains that the close similarity between them is evidence in favour
of the ‘ principle of recapitulation,’ the conception he has of the word
‘race’ extends only slightly beyond the bounds of a gens or sequence
of closely related species, and corresponds to a range of time represented
stratigraphically by only about 30 feet of rocks near the base of the Lias.
The Gryphea material forms practically an unbroken series, almost as
continuous as the Great North Road, but the dogfish and human materials
are relatively more remote from one, another than are London and
Edinburgh.
In both cases the evidence is valid only as far as it goes and no further.
The evidence of the human embryo, relating as it does to the extremities
of a sub-kingdom separated by several hundred millions of years, cannot
in any way be quoted as invalidating the evidence of Gryphea concerning
the relationship of development to evolution within the limits of a couple
of genera, ranging with almost complete continuity across possibly less
than a quarter of a million years. In recent years the discussion of these
problems has been marked by a strange lack of a sense of proportion, a
sense which must be maintained if any progress of thought is to be made.
To deny that there is any truth in the principle of recapitulation or, on
the other hand, to talk as though it were universally applicable, does not
conduce to clear thinking.
The Evidence of Zaphrentis delanouet.
Now that some of the confusion in the use of various terms has been
cleared up we may proceed to lay a stable foundation for our subsequent
thinking by making a detailed analysis of a well-established evolutionary
series. -For this purpose no better example can be taken than that
provided by the work of R. G. Carruthers (1910) upon Zaphrentis
delanouei. At this point I must express my indebtedness to
Mr. Carruthers and to the Director of the Geological Survey for giving
me every facility for making a careful re-examination of the salient
material upon which this work was based.
This example has the great initial advantage that it nearly fulfils all
the requirements of first-class evidence. In the first place it is based
C.—GEOLOGY 63
upon a large number of specimens which, though they exhibit a wide
range of forms, make up a continuous series. From these Carruthers
selected samples typical of various phases in the sequence and called
them Z. delanouei (s. str.), Z. parallela, Z. constricta, Z. disjuncta (early,
typical and advanced) respectively (Fig. 1). Between these types there
occurred every gradation of form. In the next place these specimens
were collected from a succession of known horizons in the Lower
Carboniferous rocks of Scotland. ‘Though some of these horizons were
separated by relatively wide intervals the range of variation exhibited by
the specimens collected at different levels overlapped to such an extent
(fj402)
pzounlsip'z
+ /
/
/
/
IP Z
- punks
\
i
(p2oupapo)
pqounteip *7
NE
| \ |
| TRANSITIONAL NEANIC
STAGES IN DEVELOPMENT
EMBRYONIC
Fic. 1.—Diagram showing typical representatives of the gens Zaphrentis
delanouei, the order of their appearance in time and the main stages in
their development. (Modified from Carruthers.)
that the continuity in the sequence of forms, from the bottom to the
top, was not broken. Further, the frequency of occurrence of each of
the types was recorded, and when plotted produced a curve which con-
formed to the normal unimodal frequency distribution curve. When
the curves for successive levels were compared it was found that the
mode shifted with the passage of time from Z. delanouei (s. str.) at the
bottom to advanced forms of Z. disjuncia at the top, thus showing that
the stock was undergoing a corresponding evolutionary change during
the period of its existence. The evolutionary character of this sequence
was further supported by the very close similarity of the developmental
stages of the later to those of the earlier types.
For the purposes of making a comparison between the development of
64 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
the individual and the evolution of the stock, the specimens selected for
developmental studies should be taken from among those which lie upon
the mode at each horizon. It will be shown later that if this be not done
a curious inversion of the truth may arise. In this connection it is
interesting to note that, though Carruthers had not in mind the specific
problems we are now discussing, four out of the six specimens whose
development he describes fulfilled this condition exactly, and the other
two lay only a little to one side of the mode. As to the sequence in time
a little doubt attaches only to his middle pair, for from his records it
is not quite certain which of the two specimens belongs to the lower and
which to the higher horizon. Nevertheless the intermediate position in
time of this pair between the other two pairs is beyond dispute.
It has been necessary to enter into all this detail because, as will be
seen later, very great theoretical importance attaches to this material
and it is well to know at the outset its precise standard of reliability. It
will, I think, be agreed that the standard is a high one.
On examining the development of the individuals representative of the
stages in the phylogeny of the Z. delanouei-Z. diyuncta gens it at once
becomes obvious that the penultimate stage in the growth of Z. parallela
bears a much closer resemblance to the adult of the ancestral species
Z. delanouei (s. str.) than it does to the adult of Z. parallela. In like
manner the penultimate stage in the development of Z. constricta repeats
the sum-total of the characteristics which distinguish the adult ancestor
Z. parallela, whilst the antepenultimate stage exhibits a similarly close
resemblance to the ancestral adult Z. delanouei (s. str.). Here then is
an example which fulfils almost, if not quite, perfectly the requirements
of the test imposed by Garstang, and proved beyond dispute that specific
recapitulation of adult characters does under some circumstances actually
take place.
Turning now to the later stages in the evolution of this gens it may
be observed that two tendencies, only faintly indicated in the earlier
stages, now become more openly manifested. One is the tendency
towards the establishment of tadial symmetry. ‘This is expressed, feebly
in Z. parallela and more clearly in Z. constricta, by the central narrowing
and peripheral widening of the fossula. In those later stages which are
referred to as Z. disjuncta a second tendency is rapidly expressed in the
shortening of the septa, and their withdrawal from the centre, a tendency
which in the earlier members of the gens had affected only the cardinal
septum. These tendencies are exhibited in progressive degrees of ad-
vancement not only in the late life of successive adult stages, but they also
pass back into the penultimate and eventually into the antepenultimate
developmental stages of the typical and later forms of Z. disjuncta. ‘Thus
the principle of specific recapitulation of adult characters holds good also
for these two new tendencies.
In addition to being new, these two tendencies are also out of accord
with and may involve a complete reversal and suppression of earlier
tendencies. ‘Thus the assumption of radial symmetry implies the
disappearance of the tetrameral symmetry, so characteristic of the typical
Zaphrentis ; whilst the shortening of the septa is the reverse of the
C.—GEOLOGY 65
process of elongation by which each septum in early phases both of
development and evolution attained the centre of the coral. Thus it
comes about that in the later members of the gens there is as it were a
conflict between these earlier and later discordant tendencies, with the
result that the antepenultimate stages exhibit a mixed combination of
features made up of the long cardinal of Z. delanouei (s. str.), the
elongated septa of Z. constricta and the radial arrangement of Z. disjuncta.
In these stages, therefore, there is merely a recapitulation of some of the
individual features, but not a recapitulation of the combination of features
of the adult of any preceding generation. It becomes advisable, therefore,
to distinguish between complete recapitulation of the whole or part of the
adult combination and the limited recapitulation of only isolated adult
features.
Up to this point the earliest developmental stage which has been
considered has always been one in which the individual was already
sufficiently advanced to have attained a diameter of about half that of
the adult. Obviously, therefore, important earlier stages still remain to
be considered. Unfortunately very little information for these is forth-
coming, for the pointed end in the specimens of this coral is rarely
preserved. My re-examination of Mr. Carruthers’ material, however,
has enabled me to see several earlier stages than those which were figured
by him. Of these there were three which only slightly preceded the
earliest figured by him for Z. delanouei (s. str.) and for typical and
advanced forms of Z. disjuncta. ‘The two latter exhibit the same absence
of resemblance, except in isolated features, to the adult of any previous
species. On the other hand they did closely resemble the correspondingly
young stage of Z. delanouei (s. str.). ‘They provided, therefore, as excellent .
an example of the recapitulation of juvenile conditions described by Von
Baer, and emphasised by modern biologists, as the later growth stages
provided for the recapitulation of adult conditions reiterated above.
In the development of the typical Z. disjuncta a much earlier stage was
fortunately preserved. In this there were only six septa, but these were
arranged in an almost perfectly radial manner. Whether they were equal
to one another in length was uncertain, for the section may have been
slightly oblique to the organic axis of the coral at this level. ‘Though the
corresponding stage in the other members of this gens was not forth-
coming in the material discussed above, it may be noted that it had been
recognised by Duerden (1906), Carruthers (1906), and Butler (1935) in
the earliest stages of development not only of other species of Zaphrentis
but also in other paleozoic genera, viz. Lophophyllum, Cyathaxonia,
Dibunophyllum, Cyclophyllum, Streptelasma, Syringaxon. Duerden sums
up his investigations by saying, ‘The rugose corals and the zoanthid
actinians have both a primary hexamerism.’
The embryo in this case appears therefore to retain features
characteristic only of the embryonic stages in the development of other
members of the phylum, for as yet no adult coral of earlier date is known
to possess them. ‘The examination of this very young stage in the develop-
ment of Z. disjuncta therefore furnishes further confirmation of Von
Baer’s principle. The careful consideration of the example before us,
D
66 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
however, seems to necessitate a modification in the statement of that
principle, for in this case the resemblance is not limited to organisms
lower down in the scale, but extends to embryos of corals of later date
and more advanced structure. Indeed, so far as it goes, the evidence
indicates that this embryonic combination of features is one which may
be characteristic of the whole class Anthozoa. ‘Though Von Baer, like
modern biologists, had in mind only contemporary animals, the facts
show that the principle is applicable to forms belonging to different
periods of time.
No doubt in the development of Zaphrentis there were, as in other
Ceelentera, yet earlier stages, starting with the fertilised egg and passing
on to a free-swimming larva, which of necessity are beyond the ken of the
palzontologist. Keeping these in mind, as well as those discussed above,
we may distinguish in the life-history of this, as indeed of other organisms,
two main phases in development: the embryonic and the neanic re-
spectively. ‘The former covers a series of changes leading up from a
single cell to a condition which, notwithstanding its relative complexity,
has little or no resemblance to the adult but which, nevertheless, provides
the basis out of which the adult may be produced. The latter covers
that series of changes in the course of which the features which characterise
the adult gradually emerge and ultimately attain full expression. ‘These
phases overlap one another and in so doing exhibit stages which are
transitional in character between the two. In Zaphrentis the stages
leading up to and including the corallum with six septa almost radially
arranged belong to the embryonic phase. The immediately succeeding
stages, during which the tetrameral symmetry is being established, are
transitional. ‘Those leading from this point onwards to the adult belong
to the neanic phase.
In the embryonic phase the combination of characters seems to have
attained a state of stability that furnishes a plan of structure which is
common to widely separated members of the class. It must be regarded
as the culmination of a long process of evolution of embryos in which
many factors which concerned adult life have played no part, but in which
factors foundational to adult development have been preserved. So far
as known this embryonic condition in Zaphrentis bears no resemblance to
the adult condition of any coral stock that could be regarded as ancestral
to this genus. ‘The features concerned in this ancient and stable com-
bination appear to me to conform to those ‘ primitive types of structure’
for which Garstang (1921) proposed the term ‘ palezomorphic.’ Should
advancing knowledge bring to light adult fossils of an earlier ancestral
stock and possessing these same features, then this term would have to
give place to Haeckel’s term ‘ palingenetic,’ which Garstang rejects. This
problem will demand very careful investigation. ‘Thus, for example, the
extraordinary resemblance between the attached dipleurula of echino-
derms and the fossil Aristocystis among the blastoids may, apart from the
presence of plates in the latter, be taken as recapitulation of adult
characters. On the other hand the conditions of the resemblance may
have arisen, not in the adult but in the larval blastoid.
In the neanic phase the organism exhibits a combination of less stable
:
i a i i i i al
C.—GEOLOGY 67
characters, superposed upon the stable embryonic foundation. These
undergo, with comparative rapidity, a course of evolution the stages of
which are very completely recapitulated during development. The fact
must be emphasised that in so far as specific and complete adult recapitula-
tion takes place it seems, in the example before us, to be limited to the
neanic phase.
In the controversy briefly referred to at the outset biologists, in
discussing the problems before us, have based their arguments almost
entirely upon embryonic, larval or foetal material. Palzontologists, on
the other hand, have rarely had such material at their disposal, for such
early developmental stages are either not capable of preservation in the
fossil state, or they are such minute and delicate objects as the prodisso-
conch of lamellibranchs, the protoconchs of gastropods and cephalopods,
the protaspids of trilobites, which are easily destroyed. The palzonto-
logist’s evidence therefore is usually drawn from neanic stages which, it
may be noted, make up the major portion of the individual life-history
and are more abundantly preserved in the fossil state. Inasmuch,
therefore, as these two classes of workers are on the whole dealing with
different portions of that life-history, their observations and the con-
clusions they draw are not contradictory but supplementary. As far as
our study of Zaphrentis takes us we may say that the embryonic stages of
development recapitulate the changes exhibited by corresponding stages
of other forms belonging to the same general stock, and that the neanic
stages recapitulate the adult condition exhibited by the preceding members
of the gens to which the species belongs. Further, within the neanic
stages the principle of acceleration or tachygenesis is perfectly exemplified,
but its action, so far as the adult combination of features is concerned,
does not penetrate back into the transitional and embryonic stages. In
these latter the rate of acceleration does not remain the same for all
features and consequently the adult combination undergoes disruption.
In the series Z. delanouet (s. str.)-Z. constricta the development of the
later members runs parallel to but overlaps beyond that of the earlier.
But with Z. disjuncta new tendencies enter, and though the earlier,
typical and later members of this species exhibit in their development
a like parallelism and overlapping, the direction they follow diverges from
that of the former members of the gens. By acceleration these new
tendencies ultimately cut out the older combination almost completely
from the developmental record of the advanced members of Z. disjuncta.
Here then is a very clear case of ‘ skipping of stages’ or lipopalingenesis
of the kind referred to by Trueman as a ‘ straightening of ontogeny ’ as
opposed to ‘mere shortening of ontogeny’ which results from tachy-
genesis. It should be noted that in this case the straightening is rendered
necessary by the fact that divergent changes had previously set in.
Other Examples of Recapitulation.
With this general discussion, suggested by the study of Z. delanouei
(s. at.), as a basis to work upon we must now inquire whether the same
general phenomena are recognisable in the development of other types
68 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
of animal organisms. Unfortunately the number of cases in which the
evidence is as satisfactorily established from the standpoints of quantity,
development, variation and stratigraphical precision as for the example
we have studied in such detail above is relatively small.
There is no group of organisms for which systematists have made such
a full use of the principle of adult recapitulation as in the lowliest forms of
life preserved as fossils, viz. the foraminifera. One illustrative example
may be taken from the Orbitoides group. It includes the genera
Operculina, which first appeared in the Cretaceous ; Heterostegina, in the
Eocene ; and Cycloclypeus, in the Oligocene. In Operculina the shell is
coiled spirally in a single plane and is divided by septa into chambers.
Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the structure and development of Cycloclypeus post-
indopacificus. Protoconch (black spot). Operculina and Heterostegina stages
(thick outline). Cycloclypeus stage (thin outline). (Modified from Tan Sin Hok.)
As the height of the coils increases with growth the chambers become
tall and narrow. In Heterostegina the early development repeats in a -
typical manner the condition exhibited by Operculina, but in the outer or
later coils the height increases greatly and the chambers become corre-
spondingly much taller. Owing to an increasing forward bend in the
middle the latter become practically semicircular, and at the same time
each is divided into a series of chamberlets by the formation of walls
across the chamber. In lowly species of Cycloclypeus (Fig. 2) the inner-
most coils are again typically operculine and are followed by others which
are similarly heterostegine. In later development the height of the coils
continues to increase until the chambers are quite circular. Henceforth
the shell grows in size by the formation of successive chambers added to
the outer margin of the shell. Tan Sin Hok, working upon material
collected carefully from a series of strata in a continuous exposure, showed
——
C.—GEOLOGY 69
that with the passage of time there was a progressive reduction in the
number of heterosteginal chambers. ‘This was established by counting
the number of septa between the chambers and treating the figures for a
large number of specimens statistically. In the lowest part of the section
the range in number was 30-18, with a major peak at 24. At the top of
the section the range was 30-16, with the major peak at 21. The amount
of reduction is not great, but that it took place was indisputable. When,
however, material that has been collected from a series of isolated ex-
posures representing a much longer range of time is examined the evidence
for progressive reduction is much more striking. Workers on ‘Tertiary
deposits, when correlating one exposure with another, find that the
evidence afforded by counting the chambers in these foraminifera is in
complete accord with that derived from stratigraphical and faunal sources.
The reduction indicated above is found to progress steadily from the
base of the Oligocene, where the range is 38-21 with a maximum number
of specimens having from 32-27, to the opening of the Quaternary, where
the range is only 4-2 with a maximum at 3.
In this thoroughly well established evolutionary series we find that the
relationship between Development and Evolution closely accords with
that already seen in Zaphrentis. In the development of the earlier species
of Cycloclypeus both operculine and heterostegine stages are well repre-
sented. In later species the operculine stage disappears and the hetero-
stegine undergoes the progressive reduction described above. Here
also the characteristic cycloidal chamber of Cycloclypeus appears first in
late life and, with the passage of the generations, shifts back to earlier
and yet earlier stages of growth until the heterostegine stage has almost
completely disappeared also. In this example the principle of adult
recapitulation with its accompanying phenomena of tachygenesis and
lipopalingenesis dominates an even larger proportion of the life-history
than it did in Zaphrentis, for apparently only the proloculum is unaffected
by it.
Lack of time and space forbids a detailed consideration of other examples
(cp. Cumings, and George), but lest it should be thought that the above
are exceptional a number of others must be briefly mentioned. Among
the lamellibranchs is the case of the gens Gryphea incurva so well estab-
lished by Trueman (1915). Here the earliest known developmental
stage, the prodissoconch, is a minute embryonic bivalve shell identical
with that of the oyster and of other lamellibranchs. This furnishes a
clear case of juvenile recapitulation. The neanic phases of development
are well known for all the members of the gens from Ostrea irregulare to
Gryphea incurva. In each case the resemblance of the young of later
_ forms to the adults of the earlier forms is most striking. Here, however,
lipopalingenesis plays no actual part. The same is true also for the gens
Inoceramus concentricus-sulcatus established by Woods.
For the gastropods, Smith (1906) has worked out the evolution of
Volutilithes sayana through V. petrosus from V. limnopsis. His material
was abundant and its time succession based upon a series of good geological
exposures. He shows that in the development of V. limnopsis the surface
of the shell is at first quite smooth. It then becomes decorated for a
70 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
short distance with curved transverse ribs upon which longitudinal ribs
are next superposed, thus giving to the ornamentation of the shell a can-
cellated appearance. This condition persists to the end of life. In
V. petrosus the curved rib and cancellated stages appear earlier in develop-
ment and are succeeded in late life by a spiny stage. ‘This latter, in turn,
experiences an acceleration in the time of its appearance in later members
of the species and in V. sayana. Senile characters also exhibit a like
behaviour.
At one time the ammonites were the citadel of recapitulationists.
‘Unfortunately so much scepticism is expressed by present-day specialists
on this group concerning the work of their predecessors that it is difficult
to find examples that are above suspicion. This is not, however, the
case with the detailed work done by Bisat (1924) on the goniatites. Though
he deliberately refrains from analysing his data from the standpoint of
the principles of development, in dealing with Reticuloceras reticulatum
he does allow himself to give, in tabular form, a valuable summary of his
observations upon the changes undergone by the ornamentation of the
shell in the course of the evolution of this species, and upon the times of
appearance of these changes during the development of successive
mutations. He thus provides us with yet another well-established case
of adult recapitulation.
Among brachiopods many examples are forthcoming, but reference
must here be limited to Fenton’s detailed work (1931) on evolution in
the genus Spirifer, a work that will repay careful study by all students of
paleontology. The requirements of ample material in all stages of
development collected with meticulous care from minutely zoned strata
are sufficiently fulfilled to satisfy the most exacting critics. Space does
not permit of the description of specific examples here. We must there-
fore be content to quote Fenton’s own words. Speaking of the two
gentes S. varians and S. obliquistriatus he says, ‘ there is also a close
correlation between ontogeny and phylogeny in each pair of trends.
Recapitulation is detailed, uniform, and generally involves the repetition
of adult characters... .’
In the examples considered hitherto the study of the development has
been easy because, as growth proceeded, the early stages were not
destroyed but were retained, and the later stages were added to them.
With many other organisms this is not the case. ‘Thus the trilobite as it
grew shed its skeleton, and with it all record of its juvenile features, at
more or less regular intervals, so that specimens of adult trilobites show
only adult features. Careful collecting from very fossiliferous beds may
result in the discovery of series in various stages of growth, and workers
who have collected such series claim, with good justification, to have
discovered in them evidence of the working of the principle of recapitula-
tion. But for our purpose, just at this moment such cases are not sufh-
ciently well authenticated. ‘The same is true also for the echinoids which
reabsorb the earlier formed skeletal deposits as growth proceeds.
On glancing back over the general survey of facts made above, one-
overruling condition seems to emerge, viz. that the more lowly and
simple the organism the more complete is the recapitulation. In more
C.—GEOLOGY 71
complex organisms the chances against a perfect repetition of the whole
combination of adult features are greater, and consequently recapitulation
is more likely to be less complete. Nevertheless, even in highly organised
animals limited recapitulation is very common. Odd examples of this
have always attracted attention, and indeed have been the basis upon
which earlier workers, not excluding Haeckel himself, founded their
belief in the general principle. But what was evidence for them can no
longer satisfy us.
Localised Recapitulation.
Another set of facts which bears upon the problem may now be briefly
discussed. They were first noticed by Jackson (1892), who grouped
them under the heading ‘ Localised Stages in Development,’ and are
commonly shown in those parts of the body which are metamerically
repeated or are reproduced by budding. Since it is in such parts that
evidence is forthcoming only limited recapitulation may be expected.
Good illustrative examples of localised recapitulation are found among
the echinoids, but unfortunately detailed stratigraphical evidence is
usually lacking. In the paleozoic Lepidocentride, which appear to be
the forerunners of the mesozoic echinoids other than the cidarids, the
ambulacrum is narrow and made up of low laterally elongated plates
pierced by a pair of pores. In the jurassic genus Hemicidaris, as in all
the echinoids, new plates are added to the ambulacrum at its upper end.
These move downwards towards the equatorial belt of the test and
gradually assume the fully grown condition. The newly formed plates
in the upper part are like those fully grown plates of the palzeozoic genera
in form and number of pores. As they pass downwards the plates become
associated with one another first in pairs and then in threes having a
common outline and decorated by a large tubercle. In its early stages of
growth, therefore, each plate recapitulates the condition shown by the
same structure in the ancestral palzozoic stock. Again, MacBride and
Spencer (1938) have recently drawn attention to the interesting fact that,
in the development of the ambulacral plates in certain modern forms, the
podial pores first appear as notches in the lower border of the plate, a
condition which characterises the adult condition in some ordovician
echinoids.
The case of Micraster, though not so striking, is perhaps more valuable
because the work of Dr. Rowe has produced a well-authenticated evolu-
tional series, based upon very careful and detailed stratigraphical work.
Unfortunately, owing to the mode of growth of the echinoids, the develop-
mental evidence for the test as a whole is not forthcoming. So far as
I am aware, attention has not hitherto been given to the existence of
localised stages in the development of the ambulacra in these micrasters,
but an examination of the uppermost portion of any well-preserved speci-
men of a high zonal variety of M. precursor will show that it reproduces
very closely the condition shown by the fully developed portion of the
ambulacrum seen in low zonal varieties.
72 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Recapitulation in Colonial Organisms.
A third body of facts which testify to the reality of the principle of
recapitulation is yielded by colonial forms. This was concisely expressed
by Lang in 1921 when, referring to a preceding discussion of criteria of
relationship, he wrote, ‘ It was noticed that the colony, like the individual,
exhibits growth stages of its own which recapitulate ancestral characters.’
In illustration of this reference may be made to the polyzoon genus
Stomatopora in which he (1907) traces the evolution of the series of forms
from S. antiqua and S. gregoryi of the Lower Lias (Sinemurian and
Charmouthian respectively) to S. smithi, of the Cornbrash. In this
series the angle between the branches at each dichotomy exhibits a pro-
gressive diminution from 180° in the earlier to 60° in the latest forms.
In the development of successive types acceleration leads to the gradual
elimination of the larger angles from earlier growth stages. The individual
chambers or zocecia exhibit a like phenomenon. In these the evolutionary
change of form is from cylindrical or very slightly pyriform to markedly
pyriform. Here again in the development of the later species accelera-
tion of the quite pyriform stage leads ultimately to the elimination of the
cylindrical zocecium from the early stages of growth.
Summary.
Since the question of recapitulation, more especially of adult characters,
has been the focus of controversy, it has been necessary, in order to
secure its reinstatement in its proper place as an established principle of
evolutionary thought, to deal with it at considerable length. It may be
useful, therefore, before passing on to the next part of our subject, to
summarise briefly the results of our discussion.
The divers shades of meaning which have been attached to the term
‘ recapitulation ’ by various authors in recent years reflect the phases which
the phenomenon exhibits during the development of different organisms.
In ontogeny two main classes of features have been recognised, viz.
adult and juvenile, both of which undergo evolution in phylogeny.
Recapitulation of adult features occurs more especially during the
neanic phases of development. It may be specific and complete, that is
to say it repeats the combination of features exhibited by geologically
recent adult ancestors. Cases in which this is manifested, even in some
detail, appear to be limited to the lower and simpler grades of animal life.
Adult recapitulation may also be specific and limited. ‘That is to say it
may repeat only a few of the features of the adult ancestor. In this case
the features are not necessarily in correct combination shown by the adult
ancestral species, they may indeed be drawn from several such types.
Cases of this kind occur throughout the animal kingdom and include
many well-known examples, such as the teeth in the young Ornitho-
rhynchus, the three centres of ossification in the avian metatarsal, the
horny claws on the wing digits of the unhatched duck. ;
Adult recapitulation is exhibited also during the growth of meta-
merically repeated parts, of colonial forms and rejuvenated individuals.
C.—GEOLOGY 73
However complete and specific the recapitulatory record may be at
the outset, in subsequent generations it becomes curtailed as the result
of increasing acceleration in individual development. This leads to the
‘ skipping of stages’ either by a ‘ mere shortening of ontogeny,’ in cases
where evolutionary trends remain constant, or by a ‘straightening of
ontogeny’ where new trends out of accord with the foregoing set in.
The record also becomes vitiated as the result of the fact that acceleration
is not constant for all features, and consequently the combination of
characters exhibited by the adult ancestor becomes broken up, or even
eliminated from the development of the descendants.
Turning now to the juvenile features which characterise the embryonic
stages of development, we find the problem is more difficult of elucidation.
That these features, exhibited during the early development of the
ancestor, are repeated during the corresponding or slightly earlier stages
of the descendants may be regarded as established. The unsettled
problem is the extent to which they reflect characters which in primeval
times were in the first place peculiar to the adult, or had their first onset
only in the embryo.
PROSPECTIVE ASPECT.
The task that lies before us now is to inquire the ways in which
evolutionary changes may be foreshadowed during development. For
this purpose our attention must be concentrated upon the new features
which mark those changes, upon the mode and time of their appearance,
and upon the way in which they fit into that framework of anciently
derived characters discussed above.
In dealing with this aspect ‘there is no need to stress once more the
importance of basing conclusions upon ample evidence made up of
numerous specimens precisely dated. It should, however, be urged that
specimens used for developmental studies must be selected from among
those which lie upon or close to the mode of the frequency distribution
curve for varieties occurring at each stratigraphical horizon. If this be
not done, conclusions of an extraordinarily contradictory character may
be drawn. This may be illustrated by reference once more to the gens
Zaphrentis delanouei. As already seen, specimens selected from the
mode for varieties collected from the Cementstone and Lower Limestone
horizons belong to Z. delanouei and Z. constricta respectively, and the
development of the latter faithfully recapitulates the adult condition of
the former. On the other hand, if by any chance the specimens selected
happened to be varieties at opposite extremities of the curve, viz.
Z. constricta from the lower horizon and Z. delanouet from the upper
horizon, then the young stages of Z. constricta would appear to anticipate
the adult condition of Z. delanouei and therefore to support the principle
of proterogenesis, which will be discussed below.
In reading Garstang’s discussions of kindred problems from the
biological side, I find myself very largely in agreement with him as far as
the evidence at his disposal takes him. Any difference that exists between
us seems to me to be due to the fact that he had not before him any
satisfactory evidence for the recapitulation of adult stages. He suggests
D2
74 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
therefore the dropping of Haeckel’s terms ‘ palingenesis ’ and ‘ coenogenesis,’
apparently because the former implies that characters which appear in
the adult stage are heritable, whilst the ccenogenetic characters are limited
in heritability to the larval stages. Since the evidence at his disposal led
him to believe that new characters enter the phyletic history only during
early ontogeny he proposed the terms ‘ palzogenetic’ for those ontogenetic
processes which functioned early in phyletic history and “ neogenetic ’ for
those which came into action later. He differentiates structures in a
corresponding manner by using the terms ‘ palzomorphic ’ for primitive
types of structures and ‘ neomorphic’ for modified types of structures.
Ceenogenesis (the appearance of new characters at an early stage of
development).
Though Haeckel’s main emphasis was upon recapitulation he realised
that certain factors were at work which tended to vitiate the developmental
record. Among these was the appearance, in larvae and embryos, of
features which were adaptations to the conditions under which these
immature organisms lived. He crystallised his observations by intro-
ducing the term ‘ coenogenesis’ for this phenomenon and by distinguishing
a coenogenetic stage in development, which he regarded as having no
recapitulatory and therefore no phylogenetic significance. Just as with his
principle of recapitulation the advance in knowledge has entailed modifica-
tion, so is it also with the principle of ccenogenesis, but to a much greater
degree. It may be noted in passing that in the ccenogenetic stage the
resemblance of the young to those of preceding generations is not wiped
out, but the new characters are superposed upon a combination of ancient
or primitive (palzomorphic) characters, built up during the evolution of
the young themselves.
Garstang seems to have objected to the term ‘ cenogenesis’ because
it implied that these larval characters exerted no influence upon the sub-
sequent growth stages in either development or evolution. Nevertheless
some ccenogenetic characters and the evolutionary changes they undergo
are confined wholly to early development, and apparently exert no
appreciable direct influence upon the later stages. This point was
indeed stressed by Garstang himself for certain adaptations to motile
life exhibited by larva. Of these he says, ‘ the modification of the larva
in this way need not affect the organisation of the adult.’
Fossil examples are perhaps less easily demonstrated. One clear
case, however, may be quoted from among the ammonoids in which
the protoconch undergoes evolutionary change. ‘Those changes which
find systematic expression in the terms ‘assellate,’ ‘ latisellate’ and
‘ angustisellate ’ do not appear to have influenced the later developmental
and evolutionary changes in any way. Considerable differences are
recognisable between the protaspids of various trilobites and the proto-
conchs of gastropods. They also appear to have no effect upon the
subsequent development of these organisms. b
Some ccenogenetic characters may possibly have exerted a radical
influence upon subsequent growth and evolution, though they themselves
C.—GEOLOGY 75
have undergone no change since their first appearance. An outstand-
ing example of this has been claimed by Garstang (1928) from among
the gastropods. In some of these, whilst the organism is still embryonic,
the visceral hump with its shell rotates rapidly in relation to the rest
of the body through nearly 180° in only a few hours. Though, for the
sake of discussion, I shall use Garstang’s example I am not convinced
that he is right in concluding that this phylogenetic twist arose primevally
in the larval stage. ‘The twist exhibited by the embryonic gastropod is
not more striking than is the contortion experienced by the equally young
starfish. Starting from a condition of attachment by the preoral lobe
and an outward attitude of the mouth, this passed rapidly to one
of free movement with the mouth facing downwards. Bather (1915)
has shown that the fully grown edrioasteroid of early palzozoic times
must have been equally at home in either position. ‘The Edrioasteroidea
therefore provided a stock through which such freely moving forms as
starfish and sea urchins could have been derived from the more primitive
attached ancestors. When one watches a gastropod, as it crawls along,
rotating its visceral hump and shell from this position to that, he cannot
deny to its primeval ancestors an equal flexibility, and to those that
most frequently rotated the mouth of the mantle cavity into a forward
position possibly a greater selective value. ‘Thus with gastropods, as
with edrioasteroids and their descendants, a bodily position which at first
was assumed by adults as a temporary convenience may have become
stabilised into a permanency.
Consideration of some well-known facts among fossils brings to light
other possible examples of the ccenogenetic origin of new characters
which have influenced subsequent history. ‘Thus in the oysters and in
forms derived from them the process of cementation of the shell to other
objects is confined to early life. It must, in all probability, have
originated at about the close of the embryonic phase and remained with
varying degrees of persistence into early stages of the neanic phase, but
rarely if ever into later life. Here as with the torsion of the visceral hump
of the gastropod the change was ccenogenetic, but it has brought in its
train, or opened the way for, series of other changes such as the marked
variability of form in the oysters and various degrees of coiling in Gryphea
and Exogyra. Nevertheless, even in such an advanced form as Gryphea
incurva this attached stage is preceded in development by the prodisso-
conch which exhibits primitive or palzomorphic characters. ‘These
observations appear to be equally applicable to other organisms which
have become attached by other means such as a byssus or by spines. In
each case the character that has been introduced ccenogenetically does
not displace but plays its part along with those which belong to the
ancient category.
Proterogenesis (the extension of new characters from early to late
stages of development):
The ccenogenetically introduced characters discussed above are either
confined to the early stages of development or, if they last into adult life,
76 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
do not undergo further expression or change. In the case now to be
considered they extend gradually into later stages. Recently Schindewolf
in Germany and Spath in England have done good service by emphasising
the existence of palzontological evidence for characters appearing cceno-
genetically and extending, in subsequent generations, through later stages
into the adult. In 1925 Schindewolf proposed the term ‘ proterogenesis ’
for this principle of ontogenetic anticipation. In 1933 he wrote a fuller
account of the principle and furnished a number of examples of his own
as well as from other writers.
The conception that the larval characters may exert an important
influence upon adult organisation is not a new one. It is indeed familiar
to biologists under the heading of padomorphism. It was also dimly
foreshadowed in the writings of much earlier workers. Thus for example
Haeusler (1887), dealing with certain foraminifera of the family Miliolide
from the Lias of Banbury, showed that forms, now referred to the genera
Nodobacularia, Ophthalmidium, Spirophthalmidium, form a series ranging
from the condition in which the shell is straight, except for the be-
ginnings of a coil at the embryonic end, to one in which the whole shell
is coiled. He ventures to suggest that the first is the more primitive
condition and that, during evolution, the process of coiling extended into
later and yet later stages until it eventually dominated the whole shell.
It should, however, be noted that he produced no evidence for the
actual sequence in time of these members of this series, and it will be
shown later that a quite different explanation is feasible.
Schindewolf, in a treatise which deals with this subject at some length,
assembles a variety of illustrative examples. They are a mixed lot and
include some which do not really exemplify the principle he is discuss-
ing, but, as will be shown later, belong to a quite different category.
For the present our attention must be limited to genuine cases of pro-
terogenesis (padomorphism), that is, to cases in which new characters
appear early in development and extend during evolution into later life.
The simplest, clearest, and at the same time the most fully authenticated
example which Schindewolf describes is yielded by fossils from the
Ordovician rocks of the Scandinavian Baltic belonging to the nautiloid
family of the Lituitide. The central genus Lituites is characterised by
the fact that while the major portion of the shell is straight, the early
formed portion is coiled. On the basis of the principle of recapitula-
tion it has usually been assumed that Lituites was the retrogressive
descendant of a completely coiled ancestor. Schindewolf, however,
describes a series of forms (Fig. 3) which commences in the Vaginaten
Kalk with the genus Rhynchorthoceras in which the shell is wholly straight
or only slightly curved. This is followed in the Platyurus Kalk by a
variety of forms, including Lituites itself, which exhibit various degrees
of coiling. ‘The series ends in the Chiron Kalk in Cyclolituites in which
the shell is almost completely coiled.
Other examples quoted by Schindewolf are far from being convincing.
Reference to a paper on certain foraminifera by Rhumbler (1897) from
which he culls several cases reveals a flimsiness of stratigraphical evidence
which rules them out of court for any serious discussion of the problem.
C.—GEOLOGY 77
Indeed, Rhumbler in summing up his own conclusions says, ‘ We see
therefore that the adult stage is just as good for generating new structures
as is the embryonal end of the shell.’ This can hardly be regarded as
giving strong support to the principle of proterogenesis.
I do not propose to discuss his references to evidence drawn from
human development, for we cannot hope to understand the principles
which govern the development of such highly complex organisms as
man until we have straightened out some of the tangle in which our
ideas of the development and evolution of simpler forms have become
involved.
Cyclolitwites.
Ancistroceras.
Platyurus Kalk. Chiron Kalk.
Lituites.
inaten Kalk.
Rhynchorthoceras.
Fic. 3.—Diagram showing the distribution in time and the development of some
representatives of the nautiloid family Lituitde. (Modified from Schindewolf.)
From time to time over a period of years Spath has made references
to examples illustrative of the principle under discussion. ‘They have,
however, usually been buried in a mass of systematic detail that has made
it difficult for others to extract who have not his unrivalled knowledge of
a great multitude of ammonites. For this reason we look forward to
the publication of his Catalogue of the Liparoceratide in which he
has incorporated his evidence and views in a more accessible form.
Meanwhile he has indicated the lines of his evidence in a recent paper
(1936) and has done me the great kindness of giving me a personal
demonstration with the help of a typical suite of specimens, and thus
enabled me to give the following brief summary.
Dr. Spath claims that the various members of this family arose out
of a stable stock of forms referable to the genus Liparoceras, which ranges
78 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
from the upper part of the Jamesoni zone of the Lower Lias up into the
Margaritatus zone of the Middle Lias. These are characterised by
shells that are closely coiled and are very inflated. Associated with these
are a number of variations which are less closely coiled and not quite so
inflated. In the Ibex zone and the lower part of the Daveei zone occur
forms, of the genus Andrvogynoceras, in which the inner whorls are not
inflated, and are ornamented with stout ribs, and possess that cluster of
features which characterises the capricorn ammonite. ‘The outer whorls
of these, however, revert to the condition seen in Liparoceras. In the
upper part of the Davcei zone forms occur in which the capricorn
condition extends into the adult stage to the complete exclusion of the
Liparoceras combination of characters from the life-history. It seems,
therefore, that the capricorn condition enters the stock as a set of new
characters in the early neanic stage of development of the early genera-
tions and proceeds during evolution through late neanic stages to the
adult in subsequent generations. Other features, such as the forward
bend of the ribs on the venter, so characteristic of Oistoceras, and the
deep lateral lobe in the suture line of Becheiceras, he assures me likewise
put in their first appearance in early development and subsequently invade
the later growth stages of succeding generations.
It may be noticed that the extension of the new features into later
developmental stages is accompanied by a corresponding delay in the
time of appearance of the older features. This latter phenomenon was
also observed by Buckman, who proposed for it the descriptive term
‘ Bradypalingenesis ’ (1920). So near was he, and yet so far away from
realising that some principle other than recapitulation was at work in
development and evolution.
Deuterogenesis and Tachygenests (the appearance of new characters at the
latest stage in development and their extension to earlier stages).
Looking at the facts of recapitulation from the prospective point of
view it will be realised that new trends of change, exhibited by the various
gentes discussed in the former part of this address, show themselves for
the first time in an incipient form in the adults of earlier species, and
become increasingly emphasised in the adults of subsequent generations.
Meanwhile the incipient phase passes by an acceleration of develop-
mental processes (tachygenesis) into the early life of these generations.
In other words, new characters, or rather trends of change, may enter
the stock in the later stages of development, and the changes passed
through in development in later generations go beyond and overlap those
seen in the earlier. This mode of entry of new characters may be
described as DEUTEROGENESIS in contradistinction to ecenogenesis.
There is no need to describe specific examples of deuterogenesis in
detail, since every case of recapitulation looked at prospectively provides |
all that is required. Thus in the gens Z. delanouei, etc., the shortening of
the cardinal septum starts in the adult of Z. parallela, and the shortening
of all the septa starts in the adult of early forms of Z. disjuncta. Similarly
C.—GEOLOGY 79
the coiling manifested in late forms of the gens Gryphea incurva were
anticipated in late stages of growth in the earlier forms.
* Mutation.’
Fenton in the work already mentioned describes a very large number
of new species, sub-species and ‘ forms,’ and provides numerous diagrams
and tables which show their morphological relationships, their times of
appearance and their ranges in time. An inspection of these reveals the
fact that, whilst in some groups the new types appear in sequence at
relatively wide intervals of time, in others they come on rapidly, and in
yet others they appear almost if not quite simultaneously. In this last
case he suggests that they may have arisen by ‘ mutation’ in the De
Vriesian sense. He finds difficulty, however, in definitely asserting this
to be the case because the group of new types may be arranged in a
continuous evolutionary series. Personally I feel no difficulty in believing
in the simultaneous appearance, in a large population, of types which
fit into a series, for such could be regarded as one more phase or degree
©@G@BwAEL
a 6. d. e. A
c.
cS
Fic. 4.—Diagram showing a series of clymenid ammonoids. a-—c, Kampto-
clymenia. d, Triaclymenia. e, f, Parawocklumeria. (From Schindewolt.)
of rapidity in production. There are not wanting facts which indicate
that this simultaneous or sub-simultaneous appearance may be more
common than is generally realised. Several examples may now be
mentioned.
Among the examples quoted by Schindewolf in support of the principle
of proterogenesis is one drawn from the cephalopod family the Clymenida,
which lived during the Devonian period. It consists of a number of
genera and species in which, at one end of the series, the shell has the
normal type of spiral coil (Fig. 4) with an almost circular outline through-
out development. In the next member of the series the innermost
portion of the spiral has a triangular outline. In other members of the
series the latter form of outline finds every degree of expression up to
one in which it prevails at all stages of growth, including the adult. The
series as it stands may be quoted in support of either the proterogenetic
or the tachygenetic view, according to which end of the series is taken as
the starting point. Schindewolf adopts the former. It is natural to
look to stratigraphical evidence as the adjudicator between the two, but
according to Schindewolf’s account, all these grades appear simultaneously
in the lowest stratum; and the simpler forms, that is to say those in
which the triangular outline is exhibited only in the innermost whorls,
are progressively eliminated until in the uppermost strata only those
80 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
remain in which all coils are affected. It may, of course, be said that
more careful collecting from the lowest strata may show that these grades
do actually follow one another in time; but taking the evidence at its
present face value it points to the simultaneous appearance of all grades
of the series, and suggests that the process at work is neither tachygenesis
nor proterogenesis but simultaneous mutation in the biological sense of
the term, and that the close resemblance to progressive evolution with
the passage of time is not due to evolution but to elimination.
The conclusion thus suggested is so startling that the question naturally
arises as to whether any parallel to it is furnished by other groups of
fossils. For an answer it is unnecessary to seek further than Schindewolf’s
own examples. Among these is one, which has already been mentioned,
from among the foraminifera in the family Muiliolide, which bear a
striking resemblance in form to the cephalopod family Lituitide. Haeusler,
who is Schindewolf’s authority for this example, tells us that the material
he describes came from the Lias of Banbury and was supplied to him by
Mr. Walford. The writings of the latter (1879) show that he collected
the material from a layer of blue clay only three feet thick at the base of
the Upper Lias.
In this connection it is interesting to note that Rhumbler in dealing
with Bigenerina and Textularia, which are also quoted by Schindewolf in
support of the principle of proterogenesis, says that the change from
biserial to uniserial is so quick that the two forms occur side by side in
the same geological layer. In view of this it is just as reasonable to
regard this as a case of simultaneous mutation as of proterogenesis.
In dealing with the Ostrea irregulare-Gryphea incurva series attention
has already been drawn to the ccoenogenetic mode of appearance of the
habit of attachment. It may be noted here that the area of attachment
already exhibits a very wide range of extent in this very early liassic
species. Within the genus Ostrea this wide range remains quite constant
even to-day, but in Gryphea this is not the case. Hitherto it has usually
been thought that in the evolution of the more fully coiled species the
area undergoes a progressive reduction in extent. This is not, however,
quite the correct way of stating the facts, for every grade of size already
existed in the O. irregulare stock. What really takes place is not a pro-
gressive reduction of area but a progressive elimination of larger areas,
leading to an increasing preponderance of small areas. This process of
elimination was certainly a vastly slower process than the original pro-
duction of the wide range of variation in size. So far as our knowledge
goes at present it seems as though this wide range was the result of some-
thing akin to an explosion of mutations.
Among ammonites reference may be made to the subcraspedites fauna
of the basement beds of the Spilsby Sandstone. Here side by side in the
same layer, which is only several inches thick, occur a series of forms
ranging from S. primitivus, in which the whole shell possesses a fine
ornamentation, to S. cristatus, in which very coarse ribbing is dominant. .
It will no doubt be said that the deposits containing these very varied
forms are highly condensed, and that future work will prove that the
several varieties follow one another in a definite order of time. Meanwhile
C.—GEOLOGY 81
the condition of preservation of the specimens in the actual deposits
proves that the individuals whose remains have been found were practically
contemporaneous with one another.
In conclusion it may be said that, though the case for such an explosion
of serial mutants cannot be regarded as established, there is sufficient
evidence to warrant us in taking the suggestion seriously. Should its
occurrence be established it would provide a marked contrast to the
type of mutation made familiar by experimental work. ‘The contrast
should probably be regarded as due to differences in method of study
and of material. The experimenter breeds with isolated and controlled
pairs, whilst nature breeds in a large freely mixing population with pairs
drawn together by instincts which for the time being are beyond the
experimenter’s ken and across which his methods may be cutting. Made
matches do not necessarily yield the same results as love matches.
THE INTER-RELATIONSHIP OF PROCESSES.
While, for the sake of clearness, the several processes concerned in the
survival during development of old characters and in the arrival of new
ones have been considered separately, this is not the mode of their occur-
rence in Nature. Here the processes may manifest themselves side by
side or in sequence in the same series of organisms or different processes
may be dominant in closely allied forms.
Inasmuch as the particular individual that is being studied is the last
of an almost infinitely long series of individuals each of which started life
as a single cell, it seems inevitable that there should be some similarity
between them in the succession of stages passed through in development
and attained in evolution. This similarity is proportional to the proximity
of the ancestor to the individual that is being studied. ‘The facts put
forward in the earlier pages lend strong support to this point of view and
emphasise the importance of recognising this similarity, which is indeed
the basis of all theories of recapitulation, as the background of all the
other processes we have been considering. These processes do but render
some portion more hazy and others they hide from view.
On to this background of survivals from the past are superposed all
new characters. These, generally speaking, belong to one or other of
two categories, viz. :
(a) Unit characters or biocharacters—features which appear fully ex-
pressed from the outset and undergo no subsequent change, e.g.
torsion in gastropods, areas of attachment in lamellibranchs.
(b) Trend characters or bioseries—features which at the time of appear-
ance are almost imperceptible but which in subsequent development
and evolution become progressively more fully expressed, e.g.
length of septa in corals, coiling in Gryphea.
Unit characters may appear ccenogenetically, that is to say, at some
early stage in development. Their appearance may open the way to
other changes of a serial quality. Thus, for example, the twisting of the
visceral hump in gastropods was followed by the progressive reduction.
82 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
of the gill and other structures on the morphological left side of the
mantle cavity, and by a tightening up of the twist in some parts of the
nervous system which is the despair of the student who is dissecting his
first gastropod types. ‘Though these changes cannot be followed in
fossils, they are indirectly reflected by certain features in the shell such
as the slits and siphons of the mouth margin, or they are associated with
types of shell such as those of Pleurotomaria, Littorina, Cerithium, and
thus throw some sidelights upon the geological history of these anatomical
changes. Hitherto no cases of unit characters appearing deuterogeneti-
cally have been detected.
Trend characters, on the other hand, arise either ccenogenetically or
deuterogenetically and proceed proterogenetically or tachygenetically
towards later or earlier stages in life-history respectively in successive
generations. In both cases the advancement of the trend is accompanied
by a displacement of homologous characters—that is to say, characters
situated in or on homologous parts. In the former case displacement is
towards late life and culminates in the disappearance of the older characters
at the end of life. In the latter displacement is towards early life and
ends, usually at the junction of the embryonic and neanic phases, in the
elimination of these characters. ‘This phenomenon has long been known
as lipopalingenesis.
A priori there seems to be no reason why both types of development
should not proceed simultaneously in a series of solitary organisms for
different sets of characters, but hitherto I have failed to detect any
examples of this. ‘That they may occur in sequence or simultaneously in
closely allied organisms is well illustrated by the history of certain colonial
forms, more especially the graptolites. As long ago as 1923 Miss Elles
in her illuminating presidential address to this Section drew attention to
a manifestation of the phenomenon now referred to under the heading
proterogenesis. Speaking more specifically of thecz she says, ‘ it may
be noted at this point that all progressive development (anagenesis)
occurs at the proximal and, therefore, youthful region of the rhabdosoma.’
But, she goes on to observe, ‘ when retrogression (catagenesis) occurs it
is in this same proximal region that the signs of former elaboration are
retained.’ In other words, the retrogressive changes proceed according
to recapitulatory principles.
Miss Elles’s statements have been recently amplified and fully illustrated
in a paper by Bulman in which he gives a useful and suggestive summary
of the present state of knowledge of the evolution of graptolites. Only
two examples, selected from his account, may be mentioned here. The
first is a progressive series, viz. Monograptus raitzhainensis-Rastrites
maximus. Here the thecze, that are tubular and distinctly separated from
one another, appear for the first time at the proximal end of the stipe of
the early member of the series. In later representatives the thece of
this type extend progressively along the whole length of the stipe and
thus clearly exemplify the principle of proterogenesis. Nevertheless it
should be noted that the degree of elongation of the thecz increases °
towards the distal end and that the degree thus attained in early types
passes backwards towards the proximal end in later types. In this stock
C.—GEOLOGY 83
then proterogenesis of one feature and tachygenesis of another are pro-
ceeding simultaneously in one and the same series of organisms.
A second series, viz. Rastrites peregrinus-Monograptus urceolus, is
retrogressive and illustrates the second half of Miss Elles’s statement.
In it the primitive closely approximated triangular type of thece re-
appear deuterogenetically at the distal end of the stipe, and in later
members of the series they extend tachygenetically to early and yet earlier
stages of the development of these. In association with this the less
primitive tubular and isolated thecz are gradually eliminated until only
four or five are to be found at the proximal end.
Though in these two examples proterogenesis and tachygenesis happen
to coincide with changes hitherto described as anagenetic and catagenetic
it must not be supposed that these are synonymous terms, for in other
cases the coincidence is reversed. Thus, for example, in the Liparo-
ceratide the passage from the inflated whorls of Liparoceras to the much
thinner whorls of the ‘ capricorn’ would usually be regarded as an
example of catagenesis, nevertheless the origin and extension of the
capricorn condition provides, as we have already seen, a typical example
of ccenogenesis and proterogenesis. It is difficult to refrain from ex-
pressing the hope that Spath will now work out for us the other half of
his story, to wit, the origin of Liparoceras itself. I am inclined to suspect
that will it provide us with a good example of deuterogenesis and tachy-
genesis. But when we begin to hope, to suspect, and to prophesy, it is
a sign that the springs of knowledge are drying up and that it is time to
cease talking.
REFERENCES.
Bather, F.A. 1915 Geol. Mag., 393-403.
Beer, G. R. de. 1930 Embryology and Evolution, Oxford.
Bisat, W.S. 1924 Proc. Yorks. G. S., 20, 75, pl. xi.
Buckman, S.S. 1920 Type Ammonites, 8, 11.
Bulman, O. M. B. 1933 Biol. Rev., 8, 311.
Butler, A. J. 1935 Geol. Mag., 120.
Carruthers, R.G. 1906 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 356.
———————. 1910 Q./j.G.S., 66, 523.
Crow, W. B. 1926 Journ. Genetics, 17, 111.
Cumings, E.R. 1909 Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci., 25th Anniversary Meeting.
Duerden, J. E. 1906 Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 242.
Elles, G. L. 1923 Brit. Assoc. Rep., Address, Section C.
Fenton, C. L. 1931 Public. Wagner Free Institute, 64.
Garstang, W. 1921 Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool.), 85, 84, 98, 99.
—————— _ 1928 Brit. Assoc. Rep., Address, Section D, 84.
—————— 1929 Quart. Journ. Micro. Sci., 72, 62.
George, T. N. 1933 Biol. Rev., 8.
Haeckel, E. 1866 Genevrelle Morphologie dey Organismen, Berlin, 7, 9.
Haeusler, R. 1887 Neues Jb. Mineral., 190-194.
Hurst, C.C. 1893 Nat. Scz., 2, 193.
Jackson, R. T. 1892 Mem. Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist., 5.
Lang, W.D. 1907 Geol. Mag., 22, 23.
——— _ 1921 Catalogue of Cretaceous Bryozoa, Brit. Mus., xxi.
Lillie, F. R. 1930 The Development of the Chick, New York, 6.
MacBride, E. W., and Spencer, W. K. 1938 Phil. Tvans. Roy. Soc. B., 229, 111.
Morgan, T. H. 1925 Evohution and Genetics, 27, 28.
Raw, F. 1927 Am. Journ, Sci., 34, 141, 148,
84 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Rhumbler, L. 1897 Verh. deutsch. Zool. Ges., 179.
Rowe, A. W. 1899 Q./J.G.S., 55, 494.
Schindewolf, O.H. 1925 Neues. Jb. Min., 52, 337.
——————-—._ 1936 Palaontologie, Entwickelungslehve und Genetik, Berlin.
Smith, Burnett. 1906 Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phil., 52-76.
Spath, L. F. 1924 Proc. Geol. Assoc., 35, 194.
————— 1932 The Invertebrate Faunas oF the Bathonian-Callovian Deposits
of Jameson Land (East Greenland), Kebenhavn, 79-81.
————-— 1933a Biol. Rev., 8, 420.
————— 1933b Pal. Ind., 702.
1936 Q.J.G.S., 92, 445-452.
Tan Sin Hok. 1932 Landsdrukherij, Batavia.
Trueman, A. E. 1922 Geol. Mag., 59, 256.
Trueman, A. E.,and Williams, D.W. 1925 Tvans. Roy. Soc. Edinburgh, 58, 702.
Walford, E. A. 1879 Proc. Warwick Field Club, Banbury, 12.
Woods, H. i912 Q.J.G.S., 68, I-20.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.
OCEANOGRAPHY AND THE
FLUCTUATIONS IN THE ABUNDANCE
OF MARINE ANIMALS
ADDRESS BY
STANLEY KEMP, Sc.D., F.R.S.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
IN my title to this address I have used the term Oceanography, and I
should like at the outset to enter a protest against the use of this word in a
narrow and restricted sense, as a synonym of hydrography or the physics
and chemistry of sea water. I must maintain that Oceanography is a com-
prehensive term, equivalent to the science of the sea. It includes within
its scope not only physico-chemical work, coastal surveys, soundings and
studies of tides and currents, which may collectively be referred to as
hydrography, but marine zoology and botany as well, together with some
parts of geology and even of meteorology. It is in this broad sense that
the word is understood on the Continent.
The great advances which have been made in the study of oceanography
may perhaps be said to have begun about seventy years ago, when the
first marine biological station was established at Naples, when Maury was
studying winds and oceanic currents, and when zoologists had just become
aware of the new and unexplored realm of nature which exists in the
depths of the sea. Before many years had passed H.M.S. Challenger
made her celebrated voyage, and since then numerous expeditions have
added to the wealth of our knowledge. Some of them, following the
example of the Challenger, had zoological research as their main objective,
but almost all of them made valuable contributions to our knowledge of
the hydrography of the areas they explored, while, in recent times in
particular, many research vessels have concerned themselves exclusively
with this branch of oceanography. Notable results have also been
obtained by ships with other primary objects: we owe, for instance, the
greater part of our comprehensive knowledge of the Antarctic fauna to
expeditions whose principal aim was geographical exploration.
The great marine expeditions have given us much knowledge that could
not have been obtained in any other way ; it is to them that we owe our
acquaintance with the oceanic and abyssal faunas and a very great deal
of information on the currents and other hydrographical features of the
ocean basins. For such work there is still a vast scope, many areas which
would richly repay investigation by modern methods and many which
86 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
are still unexplored. But oceanographic expeditions have their limitations,
for as a rule they are only able to remain for brief periods in any one
locality ; in consequence they have seldom been able to obtain data on
seasonal changes or fluctuations in hydrography, they cannot make any
but the briefest observations on living animals and they cannot follow
their life-histories. At marine stations, though only limited areas can be
dealt with, these and many other studies can be carried out, and such
work thus forms the counterpart to that of the expeditions. Once the
success of Dohrn’s station at Naples was perceived other similar marine
biological laboratories were founded and in more recent times several
institutions have been established which confine themselves to the study
of hydrography. In Europe and in North America, though there is still
ample room for expansion, we may consider ourselves well supplied, at
least so far as biological stations are concerned, but in other parts of the
world the facilities are for the most part quite inadequate. In many
biological studies we are now reaching a point where observations on
other faunas are essential to further progress, and a well-equipped tropical
station in one of the richest areas of the Indo-Pacific region is rapidly
becoming an urgent necessity.
There is, in this very brief outline, another and more recent develop-
ment to be recorded. In 1895, when Sir William Herdman presided over
this section at Cardiff, he spoke of the results of the Challenger expedition
and urged that in the interests of the national fisheries an expedition
should be fitted out, to last two years, to make a systematic exploration of
the waters surrounding the British Isles. He evidently realised what is
sufficiently obvious to us to-day, that expeditions of brief duration cannot
supply all that we require and that for the study of the life history of almost
any marine animal at least a whole year is needed. Matters did not take
exactly the turn that Sir William Herdman advocated, the two-year pro-
gramme was never undertaken ; but a better course was adopted in the
creation of state fishery laboratories, most of them with their own research
ships. Though the activities of these departments are naturally restricted
to economic problems they have contributed most handsomely to the
study of oceanography. ‘To marine zoology in particular they have
brought great benefit, for by their intensive studies they have given us
complete, or almost complete, accounts of the natural history of a number
of fish, with detailed information far beyond what we possess for any other
marine organism. ‘To acquire this knowledge, which is clearly necessary
for the scientific study of fishery problems, is a long and arduous task and
as yet it is by no means finished. We are not yet able, and may never be
able to make two fishes grow where one grew before ;_ but the application
of scientific methods is showing the way in which stocks of fish can be
utilised to best advantage, and the success of fishery prediction must have
struck even the most casual observer. It is not too much to say that the
fundamental knowledge by which the major problem of the conservation
of the stock can be solved has already been obtained, and this is a matter
of vital importance to the fishing industry.
The rapid progress which has been made in oceanography is thus, in
my estimation, due to these three agencies : to the expeditions, the marine
stations and the fishery departments. The expeditions can reach areas
D.—ZOOLOGY 87
which cannot be touched in any other way, while the marine stations and
fishery departments have the great advantage of continuous observation.
The only oceanic region in which continuous observation has been
attempted is the Antarctic where the ships of the Discovery Committee
have been working for the past thirteen years. Such work has proved
to be highly remunerative in results and similar regular long-term investi-
gations, designed to elucidate problems connected with the Gulf Stream,
are now beginning in the western North Atlantic.
If I were asked to specify those branches of marine biology in which
we have recently made the greatest progress I should say physiology and
natural history. Very wonderful advances are being made in our under-
standing of function in marine animals, and this is due to the great volume
of important work achieved by those whom I may call the zoological
physiologists. Their researches are throwing a flood of light on many
difficult problems, and if I do not discuss their work in detail to-day it is
not that I do not recognise its significance and value, but rather that I feel
incompetent to do it adequate justice.
In natural history we have made great strides. Work in this branch of
biology has, I believe, been stimulated by the fishery departments, for
when the importance and interest of the intensive study of individual
species of fish was recognised, zoologists became anxious to apply the
same methods to other marine animals. Though the need for correct
identification will always remain fundamental, the days when the zoologist
felt that his work was ended with a systematic diagnosis and the writing
of a label have long since passed, and in recent times most excellent work ~
has been done on the life-histories of marine animals and on their relations
to their organic and physical environment. In all groups of organisms
from diatoms to whales progress has been made, and for a goodly number
of species we can now answer the simple questions that spring to the lips
of every visitor to an aquarium: ‘ What does it eat?’ ‘ How does it
breed?’ ‘ How long does it live ?’
A most important feature of animal life in the sea is the constant
occurrence of large variations in abundance, and these, though they may
not be greater, appear to be more general in their incidence than in land
animals. We owe this knowledge mainly to the exact work carried out
by the fishery departments, but though it is of fish that we have the best
data there is no reasonable doubt that marine invertebrates are affected in
the same way.
Annual fluctuations in the abundance of a fish may be very great. One
year may be exceptionally favourable, with production far above normal,
to be followed perhaps by several years of scarcity ; and it is not uncommon
to find that fish belonging to one year class are fifty times as numerous
as those of another. These great fluctuations, which are the foundation
on which fishery prediction is based, are for the most part to be attributed
to events which happened in the early months of the fish’s life ; and when
we consider the manifold perils, meteorological, physico-chemical and
biological, to which the eggs and larvae of a marine animal are subject,
it is little wonder that there may be such great differences from one year
to another, nor is it a matter for surprise that the precise reasons for good
and bad spawning seasons are as yet unknown.
88 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Some very valuable information on fluctuations in year classes of fish
has recently been collected by the International Council for the Exploration
of the Sea. The object of the Council was to summarise data on good
and bad survival years in some of the principal food fishes, and the reports
from the specialists who were appointed to undertake the work are of
particular interest. For some fish the available information was found
insufficient ; but for cod, haddock, herring and plaice the data are adequate,
at least for some areas. The results show that in different parts of the
north-east Atlantic there are with rare exceptions no coincidences in
good or bad spawning seasons, even if one species only is considered, and
the evidence thus is that the fluctuations which are observed are regional
in their incidence.
There is, I believe, good reason to hope that with improved knowledge
of the spawning areas and more exact information on the environmental
factors during the critical period the causes of these annual fluctuations
will in due course be discovered.
But, of recent years, it has become apparent that in addition to the
annual fluctuations there are other over-riding influences at work, which
not only affect the abundance of marine animals, but may bring about
great changes in their distribution. Since I have been at Plymouth I
have been impressed with the very marked changes that have taken place
in the western half of the Channel during the past seven or eight years,
and the evidence points to the existence of long-period fluctuations which
are superposed upon the normal annual fluctuations.
For the past thirteen years Mr. F. S. Russell 2 has been studying the
young fish taken in the plankton at Plymouth and has made regular col-
lections by standard methods in the neighbourhood of the Eddystone.
His observations thus give a picture of what is happening on the offshore
grounds in this area. He finds that from 1931 onwards there has been an
alarming decrease in the abundance of larval fish. At first this decrease
occurred in the comparatively small number of summer spawning fish ;
but it has now extended to the spring spawning fish also (see Table II,
p. 91). If we compare the average numbers for the four-year period
1934-37, with those for the same period ten years ago, 1924-27, we find
that the larvae of summer spawning fish have now been reduced to little
more than one-fifth of their former abundance, while the numbers of the
young of spring spawning fish have dropped to one-third. It is par-
ticularly to be noted that all species of fish are similarly affected, and bear-
ing in mind the evidence I have already mentioned on good and bad
survival years, this fact alone is sufficient to show that the decrease is not
due to a chance coincidence in annual fluctuations.
This change which has come about in recent years is not shown only
in larval fish ; it is unfortunately apparent also in the Plymouth herring
fishery, which has declined to such an extent that it is now virtually non-
1 “Comparative Studies of the Fluctuations in the Stocks of Fish in the seas
of North and West Europe.’ Conseil Internat. pour l’Explor. de la Mer. Rapp.
et Proc.-Verb. des Réunions, CI, part 3, 1936. .
2 F. S. Russell, ‘ The Seasonal Abundance of the Pelagic Young of Teleostean
Fishes in the Plymouth Area,’ Parts I-V, Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc. XVI,
p- m75) XX, p. 147; XX, p. 595; XXI, p. 679; XXIL, p. 493 (1930, °35, “36,
37: :
D.—ZOOLOGY 89
existent. Mr. Ford, who has made a close study of this fishery since 1924,
has kindly supplied me with the figures shown in Table I. This Table
gives the returns of the fleet of steam drifters from Lowestoft which
annually visit Plymouth in the winter, together with Mr. Ford’s observa-
tions on the composition of the catch.
As with herring fisheries elsewhere, it will be seen that the catch, which
is best indicated by the average weight per steamer landing, has shown
marked fluctuations—the seasons 1924-25, 1927-28, and 1929-30 were
much above the average. These, however, are normal annual fluctuations
and they are due, as Mr. Ford has shown,? to the great abundance of
five-year old fish: there were specially successful spawning seasons in
1920, 1923 and 1925.
TaBLe I.—The Plymouth Herring Fishery, 1924]5—1937/8
Percentage composition
Average of catch by age‘
Season Weight Number of | weight per
(Dec.—Jan.) | landed cwt. steamers landing
cwt. 6 years Over 6
and under years
1924-5 83,600 86 40 gI 9
1925-6 82,800 153 23 82 18
1926-7 45,900 129 17 | 66 34
1927-8 82,800 ri 46 | 83 17
1928-9 42,200 81 277° Gi | 81 19
eee oe) | ¥345a00 54 39 i 29
1930-1 44,100 75 33 72 28
1931-2 21,000 52 18 52 48
1932-3. 47,800 85 34 35 65
1933-4 | 29,780 85 30 35 65
1934-5 | 46,600 gi 28 25 75
1935-6 33,800 105 16 <20 >8o
1936-7 1,700 56 6 <20 >8o
1937-8 28 I 9°5
The significant point in this Table is, however, the marked change in the
composition of the catch which began in 1931-32—that is to say in the
winter of the year in which the summer spawning fish larvae showed their
first signs of decline. Prior to 1931-32 the younger herring, not more
than six years old, always formed at least two-thirds of the catch. In
that season the younger fish were only 52 per cent. of the total and from
then on there has been a rapid deterioration, until to-day there are less than
20 per cent. of the younger and more than 80 per cent. of the older.
3 E. Ford, ‘ An Account of the Herring Investigations conducted at Plymouth
during the years from 1924 to 1933,’ Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., XIX, p. 373
(1933).
4 Data obtained by E. Ford.
go SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
This change in the constitution of the herring shoals was not immediately
reflected in the size of the catches, which for some years were maintained
at a good level by the considerable stocks of older fish. But as these
passed out they were not replaced by any adequate numbers of the younger
year classes and in recent years the fishery has been profoundly affected.
Formerly the number of Lowestoft drifters which visited Plymouth for
the herring season rarely fell below 75 and was sometimes well over 100;
during the past season only one came. And in similar fashion the weight
of fish landed has fallen from a figure which sometimes reached 80,000 cwt.
to one of under 30 cwt.
It is interesting and perhaps significant to note that as Mr. G. P. Farran
has shown ® the stock of herring on the north coast of Donegal has shown
a pronounced decline in recent years. ‘The decline began in 1930, some
eighteen months before the change in the constitution of the Plymouth
shoals was first seen, and the industry based on this fishery has suffered
greatly. Conditions at Plymouth and on the Donegal coast are not
identical, for the successful spawning seasons in the latter area were 1920,
1924 and 1925, whereas at Plymouth they were in 1920, 1923 and 1925.
The annual fluctuations have thus not operated in exactly the same way.
Mr. Farran tells me, however, that the shortage of herring in recent years
has been accompanied, just as at Plymouth, by a great reduction in the
numbers of the earlier year classes, and it is thus possible that the same
long period fluctuation is affecting both areas.
Since 1931, when the depression in the Plymouth area began, there
has been a marked change in the amount of phosphate in the offshore
waters. Records made by Dr. W. R. G. Atkins and Dr. L. H. N. Cooper
show that the phosphate is at its maximum in the winter, in December
and January, and since the phytoplankton crop is limited by the amount
of phosphate in the water, the winter records give a good indication of
the quantity of food which will be available for fish larvae. The records
show a heavy decrease in phosphate beginning in 1931, and, as seen in
Table II, there is an evident relation between the amount of phosphate
and the abundance six months later of the larvae of summer spawning
fish. If the average phosphate values for the two four-year periods
1924-27 and 1934-37 are compared we find that the decrease has been
about 35 per cent. ‘The fact that the larvae of summer spawning fish were
the first to feel the adverse conditions, and that those of the spring spawn-
ing fish were not seriously affected until 1935, can in theory at least be
explained in terms of nutrient salts; a reduced crop of phytoplankton
will mean a smaller supply of zooplankton, and this will mostly be con-
sumed by the spring larvae, leaving little or none for those that come later
in the year. :
The herring on which the Plymouth fishery depends are mature fish
running up Channel to their breeding places on the Cornwall and Devon
coasts. On this migration they are not feeding and, presumably, they
are unaffected by plankton conditions. It is possible that the disastrous
change which has occurred is due to a long series of unproductive spawning *
seasons caused by the abnormal conditions of the Channel water and lack
5 G. P. Farran, ‘ The Herring Fisheries off the north coast of Donegal,’ Journ.
Dept. Agriculture for Iveland, XXXIV, no. 2 (1937).
D.—ZOOLOGY o1
of food for the larvae ; if that is so the herring has failed in exactly the
same way as the other fish whose larvae Mr. Russell has studied. There
are, however, reasons for believing that this may not be the correct explana-
tion, for the herring spawn in winter and thus differ strikingly from the
majority of fish we have been considering. ‘They are evidently able to
find sufficient food at a time when the plankton is at a minimum and they
are not dependent on the rich zooplankton which follows the spring
outburst of phytoplankton. It is perhaps more probable that the earlier
year classes of herring have responded to the abnormal conditions in the
Channel by forsaking their usual line of migration, and that they now go
to other spawning grounds.
TasB_e II.
_ Phosphate axe Ceca) 7 Sagitta
in preceding
Year winter ¢
% deviation}; Summer Spring Total no.® | S. elegans S. setosa
from mean | Spawners Spawners + 1000 % %
1922 | > + 16
1923 | > +27
1924 + 27 696 2,133
1925 +9 140 1,510
1926 | + 36 909 2,051
1927 = 2 170 1,014
1928 | + 23 Ls in
1929 | + 23 321 502
1930 - 403 1,114 g's 9471 5°9
1931 | —7 230 1,395 L728 ical 20°7 83°3
M320. 16 197 1,359 118°3 6:2 93°8
1933 aid 117 1,220 I17"4 4°7 95°3
1934 | — 14 79 1,065 94°5 3°5 96° 5
1935 | — 25 37 393 48-2 3°6 96° 4
1936 | — 16 115 372 24.°0 39°7 60°3
BO37| 114 174 382 26°1 3°8 96-2
#938 | — 16
Renewal of the phosphate in the Channel appears to be largely depend-
ent on an inflow of mixed Atlantic water, which is rich in phosphate
because it contains water that has upwelled at the edge of the continental
6 For further particulars see L. H. N. Cooper: ‘ Phosphate in the English
Channel, 1933-38, with a comparison with earlier years,’ Journ. Marine Biol.
Assoc., XXIII, 1938 (in press).
7 The numbers of young fish caught in half-hour oblique hauls of the standard
2-metre net, expressed as the sums of the monthly average catches. Hauls were
made weekly, so far as possible, the number varying from 42 to 52 per annum.
[Data by F. S. Russell, published in part in Conseil Internat. Mer, Rapp. et Proc.-
Verb. des Réunions, C, part 3, p. 9 (1936)].
8 The total number in the standard hauls referred to above. Data by F. S.
Russell.
92 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
shelf ; and from the evidence I have laid before you it seems probable
that the normal water movements off the mouth of the Channel have
undergone marked alteration in recent years. Direct proof of this is
lacking, for we have no observations in the waters to the west of the
Channel, but evidence of it is afforded by the very interesting discovery
which Mr. Russell has made that certain planktonic species may be used
as indicators of water-masses.’ A relation of this kind has been found
in a number of plankton species, but it is here only necessary to refer to
those belonging to the genus Sagitta, and these owing to their abundance
are the most useful.
Of the species of Sagitta, S. serratodentata is typical of the open Atlantic,
S. elegans of the mixed Atlantic water and S. setosa of the Channel water.
_ The first of these is only to be found on rare occasions off Plymouth when
the inflow of Atlantic water is exceptional.
The importance of the species of Sagitta as indicators of water move-
ment was first recognised by Prof. Meek, but Mr. Russell’s data from
Plymouth only began in 1930, and the records are therefore not as com-
plete as could be desired. It is, however, known that for some years
prior to this date the offshore plankton in the neighbourhood of Plymouth
was of the kind characteristic of the mixed Atlantic water: it was a very
rich plankton with such forms as Meganyctiphanes and Aglantha. It was
this type of plankton which was found in 1930, and in the regular series
of tow-net hauls made in that year Mr. Russell found that there was
94 % of S. elegans and only 6 % of S. setosa. In the following
year, when the deficiency of phosphate and of summer spawning fish
larvae first became manifest, there was, as will be seen from Table II, a
conspicuous change in the Sagitta population: of S. elegans there was
only 17 % while there was 83 % of S. setosa. Since then S. setosa
has always greatly preponderated in the catches, with a percentage of
93 or over, with the single exception of 1936, when there was 60 % of
S. setosa and 40 % of S. elegans. ‘There is no doubt there was a small
incursion of mixed Atlantic water in the Channel in this year, but it
was apparently insufficient to alter the trend of events.
Attention may be drawn to the high sensitivity of this new method of
distinguishing water-masses. Once the distinctions between the species
of Sagitta have been mastered it is an easy method to handle, and it will
no doubt be widely employed in the future.
We thus have evidence from four separate sources of the changed
conditions which have prevailed in the Channel since 1930-31. These
sources are (i) the winter phosphate maximum; (ii) the numbers of fish
larvae ; (iii) the constitution of the spawning herring shoals ; and (iv) the
predominance of one or other species of Sagitta.
The picture, to my mind at least, is convincing: one gains the impres-
sion that if only we had fuller knowledge corroborative data from many
biological sources would be forthcoming.
The view that the large alteration which has occurred is linked with
9 F. S. Russell, ‘ On the Value of certain Plankton Animals as Indicators of
Water Movements in the English Channel and North Sea,’ Journ. Marine Biol.
Assoc., XX, p. 309 (1935); ‘Observations on the Distribution of Plankton
Animal Indicators . . . in the Mouth of the English Channel, July, 1935,
ibid., XX, p. 507 (1936).
D.—ZOOLOGY 93
hydrographical changes is corroborated from farther afield. Since 1926
continuous records of the currents in the Straits of Dover have been made
from the Varne Lightship with the Carruthers drift indicator. Water
can enter the North Sea both from the English Channel and round the
north of Scotland and Dr. Carruthers infers that these water-masses are
opposed to one another and act in a sort of ‘ buffer relationship.’ At the
Varne Lightship the relative strengths of these two forces are indicated
by a change in the direction of the current. Dr. Carruthers 1° has calcu-
lated the direction of the residual current for each year since 1926 and the
figures which he has given show that from 1931 onwards this residual
current has swung towards the north and has considerably less of the
easterly component which it possessed in the earlier years when high
winter values for phosphate were observed at Plymouth.
A point worthy of consideration is whether a similar series of adverse
years has occurred in the past, but on this unfortunately we have no
reliable data. The statistics of the herring industry are almost the only
source open to us, for we have no regular observations on fish larvae
prior to 1924, and it was not until five years later that the importance of
Sagitta was recognised. But before the War, the herring industry was
conducted on different lines, from sailing vessels, and we have figures
only for the aggregate catch from which it is not possible to draw any
conclusions.
In 1915 and 1916 Mr. D. J. Matthews first began the determination
of phosphate in Channel water. His results, though not obtained by the
methods now in use, have a high degree of accuracy, and they suggest
that in those years there was a deficiency of phosphate comparable with
that in recent times. Unfortunately the Plymouth herring fishery was
greatly reduced during the period of the war and we have no reliable
statistics for comparison.
We may suppose that this long-period fluctuation at the mouth of the
Channel will end in due course, but we have no means of knowing when
this will happen. When the change comes it will be heralded, we believe,
by the return of Sagitta elegans in large numbers, and by a marked increase
in the winter phosphate maximum. The fisherman will presumably not
find any immediate improvement in the bottom fish. As yet he has
perhaps scarcely realised the full extent of the depression which started
some years ago, and when there is a return to better conditions he must
wait until the increased numbers of larvae grow to fish of marketable
size. It is possible, however, that bottom-living fish have been migrating
into the area and that he may thus in some measure escape the worst
effects of the depression. If the younger herring have forsaken their
spawning grounds and gone elsewhere, we may hope that they will at
once return in force when conditions improve, and that the Plymouth
fishery will rapidly be re-established. If, however, they have throughout
held to their former migration routes, and the present dearth is due to
lack of suitable conditions for the larvae, they are in the same position as
the bottom fish and a number of years must elapse before the fishery can
be resumed.
10 J. N. Carruthers, ‘ The Flow of Water through the Straits of Dover,” Part II.
Min. Agric. Fisheries, Fishery Invest., ser. ii, XIV, pp. 15, 64, Table VI (1935).
94 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
You will, I think, have noticed that in this outline of recent events I
have made no reference to other hydrographical data, such as salinity
and temperature, and I must needs do so now lest you suspect me of
suppressing evidence which is not in accord with the story I have told
you. For the plain fact is that the observations we have of salinity and
temperature do not fit into the picture.
For many years past Dr. H. W. Harvey has followed the temperature
and salinity changes at the western end of the Channel,1! and during the
period since 1924 he has found that the most conspicuous movements
were large incursions of low salinity water in May 1928 and in March
and April 1936, while in 1932, 1933 and 1934 (especially in 1933) patches
of water with unusually high salinity moved eastwards up the Channel.
So far as can be seen these movements show no correspondence with the
marked biological changes which have occurred : it is in the phosphate
data only that a correlation can be found.
In the year 1921 there was an exceptional influx of Atlantic water,
which filled the Channel1 and flooded into the North Sea. Salinity
and temperature were much above normal and numbers of unusual
planktonic organisms of Atlantic origin were found in the North Sea.1*
Recent experience at Plymouth might lead one to think that such an
influx as this would bring benefit to the herring fisheries, but actually
it was just the reverse, for at Plymouth and in the North Sea, at Lowestoft,
Yarmouth, Grimsby and North Shields, the herring fishery was much
below normal.14
In recent years also a number of unusual planktonic forms have
entered the Channel, brought apparently by incursions of low salinity
water flowing round Ushant ; but these movements have had no effect
on the depleted phosphate supply.
It thus appears that incursions of Atlantic water into the Channel
may bring advantage to the biology of the area or may be detrimental,
that no obvious connection between the biological data and temperature
and salinity is noticeable, and that so far as we can at present see the
only correlation that can be established is with phosphate. The ex-
planation lies, I believe, in our very considerable ignorance of the
constitution and origin of the water-masses which from time to time
enter the Channel.
There is evidently more than one way in which an influx of Atlantic
water may be advantageous. It may, in the first place, bring water with
a high content of phosphate and other nutrient salts which will subse-
11H. W. Harvey, ‘ Hydrography of the Mouth of the English Channel, 1925-28
and 1929-32,’ Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., XVI, p. 791 (1930); XIX, p. 737
(1934).
2 J. R. Lumby, ‘ The Salinity and Temperature of the Southern North Sea
and English Channel during the period 1920-21,’ Publications de Circonstance,
no. 80 (1923).
18 A, C. Hardy, ‘ Notes on the Atlantic Plankton taken off the east coast of .
England in 1921 and 1922,’ zbid., no. 78 (1923).
14 J. R. Lumby, ‘ Salinity and Water Movements in the English Channel
during 1920-23,’ Min. Agric. Fisheries, Fish. Invest., ser. 2, VII, no. 7) P- 18,
fig. ix (1925). H. W. Harvey, ‘ Hydrography of the English Channel,’ Conseil
Internat. Rapp. et Proc.-Verb. des Réunions, XXXVII, Rapp. Atlantique, 1924,
pp. 82-84 (1925).
D.—ZOOLOGY 95
quently yield an abundant plankton. Or, secondly, though deficient in
phosphate, it may bring in large quantities of phytoplankton or zoo-
plankton, the product of a former richness in phosphate. This plankton
will afford an immediate food-supply for larval fish and other animals,
and when it dies down the phosphate will be regenerated and will serve
for further plankton production in the future.
It is thus what we may call the biological condition of the water that
is of importance, and this no doubt is to some extent determined by the
season of the year. At times, in summer, the surface water may be
largely devoid of both plankton and phosphate and an influx of such
water, even though its high salinity may indicate an oceanic origin, will
bring no improvement to biological conditions and may indeed be harm-
ful. In winter, when the thermocline has broken down and surface
phosphate has been renewed by convection and by stormy weather, an
influx may prove of advantage. But it is perhaps more probable that
upwelled water, rich in the nutrient salts which are always to be found
in the lower layers of the ocean, is the potent source of surface enrichment,
and of the conditions in which such upwelling occurs we are very largely
ignorant. We lack the necessary data and can merely speculate on what
may be happening from analogy with what is known in other areas.
Some twenty-five or thirty years ago Mr. D. J. Matthews !° published
a series of papers on the physical conditions in the English Channel and
adjacent waters, and to this day his work remains one of our principal
and most valuable sources of information. He showed that to the south
of Ireland there is an extensive cyclonic or counter-clockwise circulation,
which may at times reach as far south as 484° N., and nearly a quarter of
a century ago he suggested that this circulation might prove of consider-
able biological importance. ‘ If the strength of the cyclonic system varies
from year to year, so will the character of the water at any place within
its influence, such as the areas of the drift-net fishing off the mouth of
the English Channel and off the south coasts of Ireland.’ There can
scarcely be a doubt that the vagaries of this circulation have a profound
effect on conditions in the Channel. If we possessed, as unfortunately
we do not, a continuous series of observations on the oceanographic
conditions to the south of Ireland and on the edge of the continental
slope, the variations in this cyclonic system could be traced, and even
though it might then appear that the ultimate causes of the present
depression are linked with changes in the Atlantic circulation, and thus
still out of reach, the information which would be gained would un-
doubtedly throw new light on the problem.
I have dwelt at some length on these events in the Plymouth area
because they afford a good example of a long-period fluctuation and
illustrate the way in which observations drawn from widely different
lines of inquiry are linked together. From other sources also there is
18 PD. J. Matthews, ‘ Report on the Physical Conditions in the English Channel
and adjacent Waters in 1903: in 1904 and 1905: in 1906,’ Internat. Invest. Mar.
Biol. Assoc., Rep. I, 1905; Rep. II, part ii, 1909; Rep. III, 1911. ‘ The Surface
Waters of the North Atlantic Ocean, South of 60° N. Lat., Sept. 1904 to Dec.
1905, ibid., Rep. II, part i, 1907. ‘ The Salinity and Temperature of the Irish
Channel and the waters South of Ireland,’ Fisheries, Ireland, Sci. Invest., 1913,
lv, I9I4.
96 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
good evidence of long-period fluctuations in fisheries, and though the
hydrographical changes to which they may ultimately be traced are not,
as it appears, the same as in the Channel, they show that major alterations
extending over a long term of years are by no means unusual.
In 1925 the Norwegians discovered great numbers of cod on the banks
surrounding Bear Island, and ever since that year, except in 1929 when
ice interfered with the operations, the fishery has been maintained, many
trawlers visiting the banks annually to take toll of their wealth. Iverson,1¢
from whose paper my information on this fishery is derived, states that
there was a former occasion when cod were plentiful in this area. That
was from 1873 to 1882. Between 1883 and the time when the present
fishery began the grounds were examined on a number of occasions, but
very few cod were found and the results were unprofitable. It was so
in 1924, the year which preceded the present period of abundance.
Another instance is afforded by the cod fishery in West Greenland.
At certain times large concentrations of cod appear on this coast and
spread as far north as Disko Bay, affording a profitable fishery ; but after
a term of years their numbers suddenly decline and a protracted period
of scarcity follows. In 1917 cod were found in West Greenland in great
abundance and the fishery on this coast has been maintained up to the
present day. Prior to that, as Jensen and Hansen show in their interest-
ing historical account,!’ the grounds were tested on a number of occasions
without finding stocks of cod in marketable quantity ; but early records
indicate that there were at least two periods, in 1820 and in 1845-49, when
cod were present in great numbers. In recent years it has been found
that some of the cod spawn in Greenland waters, while others migrate
for this purpose to Iceland. Marking experiments show that there is an
interchange of cod across the Denmark Strait, and there is reason to
believe that most of the fish found on the Greenland coast during periods
of abundance have come from Iceland, either as fry carried in the west-
going current or by migration of mature fish.1®
To these two instances of large-scale changes in the fish population
in northern waters many others could be added and all are apparently
due to the same cause—to the fact that in recent years the entire
area from Greenland to Bear Island has become appreciably warmer.
Berg 1° has collected much information on the effects of this rise in
temperature, Saemundsson 2° has given an interesting account of the
alterations which have occurred in the fauna of Iceland, while Stephen 24
has shown that marked changes have also taken place in the British
marine fauna. Berg, quoting from Schischow, gives figures of the very
16 T. Iverson, Rep. Norwegian Fishery and Marine Invest., IV, no. 8 (1934).
17 S, Jensen and P. M. Hansen, ‘ Investigations on the Greenland Cod,’ Conseil
Internat. Rapp. et Proc.-Verb. des Réunions, LX XII, pp. 1-41 (1931).
18 E. S. Russell, ‘ Fish Migrations,’ Biol. Reviews, XII, pp. 324-5 (1937).
19 L. S. Berg, ‘ Rezente Klimaschwankungen und ihr Einfluss auf die geo-
graphische Verbreitung der Seefische,’ Zoogeographica, III, Heft 1, pp. 1-15
1935)-
as Saemundsson, ‘ Probable influence of change of temperature on the
marine fauna of Iceland,’ Conseil Internat. Rapp. et Proc.-Verb. des Réunions;
LXXXYI, no. I, pp. 1-6 (1934).
21 A.C. Stephen, ‘ Temperature and the incidence of certain species in Western
European Waters,’ Journ. Animal Ecology, VII, p. 125 (1938).
D.—ZOOLOGY 97
remarkable increase in the herring taken on the Murman coast since 1931.
The quantities taken in that year and in 1932 and 1933 were respectively
23 times, 29 times and 68 times as great as the largest catch in the ten
preceding years.
It is clear that an increased sea-temperature, probably of the order of
1:0 to 2:0°C., has allowed various species of fish to extend beyond the
normal limits of their distribution, with the result that it has been possible
to establish productive fisheries in areas which formerly would not have
yielded an adequate return. It is evident, I believe, that at some future
date conditions will revert to normal and that a time will come when these
lucrative fisheries will cease to exist.
In the present state of our knowledge we can do little more than guess
at the reasons for the increased temperature in these areas ; but the only
source from which warm water can come is the Atlantic drift, and it
therefore appears that in recent years this drift must either have increased
in volume, or, if the volume remains constant, in the temperature of the
water it carries. é
As you will have seen, I have in this address tried to draw a distinction,
which I believe to be a real one, between two kinds of fluctuations, both
of which have a pronounced effect on the marine fauna. Normal annual
fluctuations are a constant feature. They form the basis of fishery pre-
diction and our information, such as it is, is that their incidence is
restricted: a fishery for a certain species in a particular place will be
affected, while other species in the same place, or the same species in
another place will be unaffected. And it is to be assumed that the causes
of such annual fluctuations, though of these we know but little, are also
restricted both in space and in time.
In contrast are what I have called long-period fluctuations, which
extend over a term of years and involve much larger areas. Such
fluctuations as these are due to a widespread change in one or more of
the hydrographic factors in the environment, and large numbers of species,
if not all, are affected simultaneously or within a short period. Long-
period fluctuations may mask the effects of the annual fluctuations and
at times they will render fishery prediction unreliable.
In the illustrations I have given you I have spoken chiefly of fish,
because it is of fish that we have best knowledge ; but it will I think be
evident that invertebrates are influenced in the same way and I believe
it may truly be said that all marine animals show great variations in abund-
ance. You will also not fail to note that though these fluctuations are of
the greatest economic importance they are equally of very high scientific
interest.
The evidence I have given you indicates that long-period fluctuations
may be brought about in entirely different ways. In the Channel, as it
appears, the change can be traced to a deficiency in phosphate, while in
more northerly areas it is due to an increase in sea-temperature. But,
though there is this wide difference, the two sets of circumstances have
this in common, that they originate in the open Atlantic, at the edge of the
continental slope or farther to the west. It is here, in oceanic waters,
that the causes of these large alterations in European fisheries must be
sought.
E
98 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Vladivostok, though it is ice-bound each winter, lies in the same
latitude as Marseilles. ‘This is only one of many facts which impresses
us with the climatic advantages that we derive from the warm water
of the Atlantic drift, and it might be thought that an investigation of
the causes which underlie this phenomenon would long since have been
undertaken by those who reap such great benefit. Yet, to the present day,
these problems remain unsolved and, as Dr. Iselin has recently shown,??
three mutually conflicting theories are extant regarding the circulation
of water in the North Atlantic.
Fortunately there are signs that a period will be set to our ignorance.
On the American side of the Atlantic the Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institution is making a study of the Gulf Stream and of the effect of wind
velocity and direction on the strength of a current. There is to be
British co-operation in this programme, based on the Bermuda Biological
Station. The Royal Society is administering a Government grant which
has been given for the purpose, and additional staff for the Bermuda
station and a small research ship have been provided. Data recently
obtained by the Woods Hole Institution show that the transport of water
in the Gulf Stream has varied by as much as 20 per cent. in fourteen
months, and it may well be that this figure is below the normal range of
variation. When the observations over the five-year period which is
contemplated have been carried out we may hope to know far more than
we do at present of the Gulf Stream and its effects on circulation in the
North Atlantic.
During the present year a German research ship is making a prolonged
investigation of the hydrography of the North Atlantic, and only two
months ago research ships from Denmark, Norway and Scotland were
co-operating with her in studying extensive areas from the Azores to
Iceland.
From such combined attack we shall learn much and there is every
reason to believe that the main features of the circulation in the North
Atlantic will shortly be understood. But though we may look for results
of the highest importance from these investigations it is evident that they
will not solve the biological problems with which we are faced ; for the
work in the eastern Atlantic is an isolated set of observations, most
valuable as a contribution to our knowledge of the general conditions, but
affording little help in solving the problem of long-period faunistic fluctua-
tions of which I have spoken. It is the deviations from the normal
which are of paramount importance to the biologist, and it is only by
repeated observations made over a series of years that they can be detected.
To make such observations at sufficiently close intervals of time and
space over the whole of the north-east Atlantic is clearly not within the
bounds of present possibility; but when we have gained an adequate
knowledge of the normal system of circulation it is to be expected that
certain critical positions or regions will be discovered, and that regular
data from those places will give information from which the variation in
the whole system can be deduced. Even such a programme as this is
far beyond the resources we now possess ; but I believe that the need for
22 C. O’D. Iselin, ‘ Problems in the Oceanography of the North Atlantic,’
Nature, vol. 141, p. 772 (1938).
D.—ZOOLOGY 99
systematic oceanographic work in the eastern Atlantic will be more and
more acutely felt as time goes on, and I feel convinced that it is the only
way in which we can ever reach an understanding of the reasons for the
large fluctuations in our fisheries.
There is much work to be done nearer at hand in improving and
co-ordinating the collection and publication of data from our own coastal
waters—a matter to which the International Council for the Exploration
of the Sea is now giving careful attention. It appears, however, that the
research ships employed by the maritime countries of Europe are for the
most part fully occupied with their own domestic fishery problems and
can only occasionally find opportunity for oceanographic survey. Thus,
unfortunately, it is not a question of devising a programme which will give
the regular data that are needed, but of attempting to obtain the necessary
information with resources which will almost inevitably prove to be
inadequate. Yet, with the knowledge we now possess and the new
methods which have been evolved, it is certain that very valuable results
could be achieved by a comprehensive study of the fluctuations in the
hydrography and plankton, and the work that is now beginning in the
western Atlantic will lose much of its value if we are unable to obtain
comparable data in our own waters.
Before concluding this address I feel I should call attention to the
urgent need throughout a very large part of the British Empire for greater
activity in the scientific administration of the fisheries, for to me at least
it is apparent that the lessons which long years of experience have taught
us in this country are not generally understood elsewhere.
The plain fact is that in the Empire as a whole we are deplorably
deficient in fisheries administration. To this broad statement there are
of course some exceptions. By reason of its situation in Europe the Irish
Free State is obviously one of them, and it has taken its full share in the
progress that has been made during the present century. Another
exception is Canada, where a vigorous fisheries service, with a competent
scientific staff, has been at work for many years. Newfoundland, a
country whose fisheries are of predominant importance, not long since
suffered a shattering blow in the loss of the whole of its laboratory build-
ings by fire, but it will recover from this disaster and we may hope that
the work which had such a brilliantly successful beginning will shortly be
resumed. Australia has now made a fresh start after the tragic loss of the
Endeavour and has at last taken the wise step of founding a Common-
wealth fishery department. ‘These are the high lights, and there are one
or two colonies, such as the Straits Settlements and Ceylon, which give
relief to what is otherwise a very sombre picture. In South Africa with
its astonishingly rich fishing grounds and vast length of coast-line the
fishery staff is utterly inadequate, and in India, where fisheries research has
immense possibilities, there is apparently little hope that proper action
will ever be taken. In India fisheries are what is known as a trans-
ferred subject : that is to say they have been handed over by the central
Government to the provincial administrations. The result is that some
provinces may have a scientific staff of one, others have none at all, while
Madras, which is much the most enterprising and publishes a Fisheries
Bulletin, has three. In such conditions fishery work on any adequate
100 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
scale is clearly out of the question and it is not possible even to begin the
acquisition of the fundamental knowledge that is essential to future
progress. Japanese trawlers, taking advantage of the complete lack of
development of the Indian off-shore fisheries, are now visiting the Bay
of Bengal in increasing numbers, and there is perhaps a possibility that
their activities will cause the Government of India to realise how back-
ward they are in fishery administration. It is evident that little or nothing
can be expected from one or two men working in isolation and that only
an all-India service, with the esprit de corps that such a service would
have, can be sufficient for India’s growing needs.
It has taken more than a quarter of a century of intensive co-operative
effort by most of the leading European nations to build up the information
that we now possess of the fisheries round our coasts, and though with
existing knowledge and the better methods that have been devised it
might be possible to reach the same stage in a shorter time, the accumula-
tion of the necessary facts must inevitably be a slow process. Adminis-
trators are still prone to expect a rapid solution to any question which
they submit to scientific inquiry; but in almost every problem which
touches marine biology it is essential to possess a background of funda-
mental knowledge which can only be acquired by long years of patient
study. If there is one lesson to be learnt from the history of fisheries
research—one that cannot be too heavily stressed—it is that the oppor-
tunity of dealing effectively with a fishery problem will generally be lost
unless this basic knowledge has been obtained in advance and is ready for
application.
I-ven in our home waters, which have been examined so long and so
closely, our information is not within sight of being complete: in almost
every branch of fisheries work there are new fields to be explored, new
methods to be tried, and many large gaps in the knowledge we possess.
But it may at least be said that we have made a beginning, that we are
aware of the deficiencies and are trying with the facilities we possess to
make improvements.
In many other parts of the world, however, not even a beginning has
yet been made; ignorance is profound and there is no background of
knowledge which can be utilised. It is no great exaggeration to say that
in Africa and throughout almost the whole of the vast stretch of the Indo-
Pacific region there is scarcely a fish whose life history is fully known and
whose various stages from egg to adult can be recognised. Of such
matters as age, rate of growth, spawning periods, food and migrations
we are equally ignorant, nothing is known of the incidence of fluctuations
and nothing of the seasonal or other changes in the environment. It is
surely time that the importance of such knowledge was recognised and
that early steps were taken to lay the foundations of fishery science
throughout the Empire.
When speaking of long-range fluctuations I expressed the view that the
facilities we at present possess in Europe are insufficient to give us all the
data we need: regular observations over a much extended area are
required if we are to reap the full advantages of the knowledge we have
gained. In the present state of international politics we can expect little ;
but when, in God’s good time, the nations begin to turn their armaments
D.—ZOOLOGY IOI
to better uses, and the mass production of ploughshares begins, let us
hope it will not be forgotten that there is also a harvest of the sea.
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1936b Conseil Internat. Rapp. et Proc.-Verb. des Réunions, 100,
pt. 3, 9.
1936c Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 20, 507.
1937. Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 21, 679.
———— 1938 Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 22, 493.
en B. 1934 Conseil Internat. Rapp. et Proc.-Verb. des Réunions,
, no. I, 1-6.
Stephen, A.C. 1938 Journ. Animal Ecology, 7, 125.
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
CORRELATIONS AND CULTURE
A STUDY IN TECHNIQUE
ADDRESS BY
Pror. GRIFFITH TAYLOR,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
CONTENTS
Geography and the Social Sciences.
Geography and History.
Evolution of Life and Culture.
Relations of Culture and Race.
General Ecological Approach to Problems in Culture.
Correlations in the Distributions of Languages.
Ecological Notes on the Aryan Problem.
The Race of the Early Aryan-Speakers.
Graphs of Culture Growth.
Determinism v. Possibilism, in Canada and Europe.
Culture in the Twentieth Century.
Bibliography.
HATH TOM OORD
A. GEOGRAPHY AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES.
I mucu appreciate the honour of addressing the Geographical Section in
my old Alma Mater, especially in this fine monument to the importance
of Geography directed by my former sledge-mate, Prof. Debenham.
Many presidential addresses have been devoted to a survey of the pro-
gress made in one or another branch of our very varied discipline during
the past twenty years. This is a safe and sane programme—but is not,
I think, so likely to stimulate research as the unsafe and, as some would
say, insane attempt to forecast somewhat of the advancement of Science
in our special field during the next twenty years. There seems indeed
something incongruous in a scientist from the Antipodes trying to say
something new on the subject of culture amid these colleges renowned
for their study of arts and letters. How can the experience of a geo-
grapher, based on the study of contours, isobars, isotherms and all the
other isopleths which adorn modern maps, help us to obtain a more valid
interpretation of that elusive concept which we call culture? In my
address I propose first of all to consider the field of cultural geography ;
then to discuss a technique which I have found invaluable in research in
that subject ; and finally to suggest that modern education would do well
104 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
to reduce greatly the study of certain fields of culture which were too
strongly emphasised even in the Middle Ages, but which still occupy
our young students to the exclusion of other far more important aspects
of culture.
Our field, fellow geographers, can, I believe, be made the most interest-
ing in the realm of a general education. Partly because it deals with the
vital facts of our environment ; partly because it is so comprehensive ;
and partly because it is so objective. In these days of queer ideologies
and freedom from canons, it should be all the more valuable that we,
in our discipline, can chart our data and so make clear our problems, and
in a sense prove our conclusions. At Chicago, one of the three leading
universities in U.S.A., the whole of the various disciplines were grouped
into the four divisions of Physical Sciences, Biological Sciences, Social
Sciences, and Humanities. But there were a few Jiaison subjects which
were too widespread in their interests to fit into any rigid division.
Geography was one such subject, so that our large staff (and we had
four full professors) was given a place on the Boards of both the Physical
and Social Sciences. It is this feature of Geography which helps to give
it a special place in a general education.
If we look back at the relation of education to these four divisions of
knowledge, we see a most interesting evolution. First of all, in the
fourteenth century, the protagonists of the new Humanism waged a bitter
fight against the Church and the Schoolmen. In the end the modernistic
views of the humanists won, and we call this epoch the Renaissance. Next
around 1600, the physical sciences were damned by the leaders of reaction,
only to emerge triumphant in their turn. Some eighty years ago the
biological sciences, in the persons of Darwin and Huxley, advanced truths
which were anathema to the orthodox. Few educated folk attempt to
oppose these truths now. But to-day the social sciences are challenged
by the forces of reaction. I will only instance the perverted use of
anthropology and sociology to advance the views of some of the totalitarian
nations. We geographers can do yeomen service, as I see it, to clarify
some of these issues if we teach tolerantly and scientifically what is
becoming known as Cultural Geography.
I could talk for half an hour on the question of the field of geography
and yet not make my meaning so intelligible as the impression you will
gain from the study of Fig. 1 for a few minutes. The diagram suggests
that the field of geography (the large circle) contains eight subdivisions
which in turn are linked with eight major disciplines (Griffith Taylor
1937). ‘Thus geography links the four ‘ environmental sciences’ of
Geology, Physics, Astronomy, Botany, with the four ‘ human sciences ’
of History, Anthropology, Sociology and Economics. There are vast
uncharted areas on the borders of regional geography—the core of our
discipline—which merge into the eight subjects specified. Among pro-
fessional geographers the great majority will always carry on the vital work
in the central fields—but we may always hope for Raleighs, Drakes,
Hawkins, and Dampiers, who will explore far afield and extend our realms.
They will perchance trespass on other empires; and doubtless some
conservative historians and anthropologists will call them buccaneers
or pirates. Dropping metaphor, I firmly believe that by applying
—_—— ">
E.—GEOGRAPHY 105
techniques learnt in the realms of geography, biology and geology—and
carried across to anthropology, history and sociology—such pioneers will
ultimately earn the respect of the leaders in the ‘ purer ’ social sciences,
But I must caution any piratical young geographer who cruises in strange
waters that his reward, if any, will probably be a posthumous one.
It seems advisable to consider for a moment definitions of the fields
of geography. Like many other geographers, I have put forth my own
definition, and it runs somewhat as follows, ‘ Geography is concerned with
description, localisation and explanation of the data which relate man to
his material environment.’ As I see it, the essential feature is the Jocalisa-
tion (i.e. charting of the data in question) with a view to explaining
their distribution. In a word we should make maps not solely as an
Fic. 1.—The Liaison Character of Geography, using ‘Environmental’ Sciences
to explain Social Sciences. The map of the continents suggests the
ecological character of Geography.
end in themselves, but with a view to explaining the phenomena in
question (Griffith Taylor 1935). Perhaps, before proceeding farther,
some apology is necessary for the introduction of so many diagrams into
a presidential address. My excuse is that my subject is Geography—
and Geography without maps is, to my mind, as little worth while as
Hamlet without the Prince.
B. GEOGRAPHY AND HIsTory.
Let us now consider how the techniques of geography and allied sciences
can be usefully employed in helping the social sciences. There are, of
course, many ways in which charting data is helpful to the historian or
anthropologist, but curiously enough many workers in the sister disciplines
are extremely sceptical of the value of such a technique. I cannot do
E2
106 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
better than quote a paragraph from a recent paper by my good friend
Ellsworth Huntington on this very topic (Huntington 1937).
‘The majority of historians feel that they need a knowledge of
geography. ‘Therefore, those among them who belong to what we
may call the standard group devote an early chapter to a somewhat
elementary but accurate account of the geography of their selected
region, and then forget about it. Many historians are conscious
that the Alps are really a barrier, and that the climate of Russia as well
as of India is different from that of Belgium. Nevertheless, taking
their work as a whole, an astonishing number of historians seem to
regard a court intrigue as more important than the influence of
climate, relief, occupations, and so forth, upon national character,
or upon specific historical situations. This is not the fault of the
historians. ‘The fault lies simply in the fact that both history and
geography are still in a very crude state of development.’
‘The route to a higher development has been explored a little by
the economic historians. According to their view, man’s need of
food, clothing, shelter, and the other good things of life, has been
the keynote of history. Like the standard historians they have done
yeoman service, and no word here said should be interpreted as dis-
paragement. Yet many of them seem to have little knowledge of
the way in which geographic environment influences not only the
available resources, but man’s desires, and the degree of energy with
which he works to satisfy them. . . . These differences arise in part
from the geographical environment as well as from the historical
development of a culture. Their effect on economic conditions and
historical events is profound.’
I am reminded of a recent congress of historians in which I heard one
of the chief speakers hold up to ridicule the idea that certain historical
sequences in Scotland could be correlated with the Old Red Sandstone.
From the applause, his fellow-historians agreed with him. ‘To the present
speaker nothing is more likely than that such a relation existed; and
indeed I propose to show one or two examples of the same type.
The first example is taken from the finest collection of diaison studies in
English with which I am acquainted. Here the various periods of
English history are treated as separate stages of growth ; in each of which
the effect of the environment on man is shown to be as important as it is
to-day. I refer to the Historical Geography of Britain, edited by H. C.
Darby. Here is history of an unusually valuable type; and it is food
for thought that the authors are, as far as I know, all geographers. Is it
going too far to say that most historians have felt so little need to study
physical correlations that such a work could not be presented by them ?
No historian would deny the vast importance of the wool trade in the
fourteenth century. We owe to Dr. Pelham a map of the Sussex Weald
(Fig. 2) which shows clearly how closely this trade depended on a geo-
logical condition—the outcrop of the Cretaceous Chalk. I do not assert
that this is the most vital feature of the wool trade in this period—but it
did determine the site, which no historian can ignore.
Another example from America explains a peculiar and characteristic
E.—GEOGRAPHY 107
culture-complex in the State of Kentucky. Everyone has heard of the
Blue-Grass Country around Lexington, and its association with horses
and racing. It is rather sharply marked off from neighbouring areas, and
its site is exactly determined by the geological structure (Fig. 3). The
Blue Grass Region is an ‘ Eroded Dome’ much like the Weald. Here
the fertile Trenton formation (of upper Ordovician age) is surrounded by
rather sterile Carboniferous rocks. A similar eroded dome surrounds
Fic. 2.—The Wool Industry in Sussex about 1350, determined by the Chalk
Cuesta of the South Downs (based on R. A. Pelham). The black squares
represent from 500 to 1,000 sheep in a parish.
Na
y\
a)
Fic. 3.—Correlations between Geology (Eroded Domes) and Horse-breeding in
U.S.A. Figures indicate approximately ‘ Horses per square mile.’
Nashville to the south. In Fig. 3, I show the close correlation between
the Ordovician beds and the density of horses in these regions of Kentucky
and Tennessee (Finch and Baker 1917). Such comparisons show how
the geographer can help the historian to elucidate culture in almost any
district in which he may be interested.
Few students seem to have made use of graphical methods in investi-
gating their historical problems. ‘These are, of course, the chief charac-
teristic of geographical research. Especially is this true in regard to the
use of Isopleths (lines of equal abundance), which can be applied to cultural
108 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
facts, almost as readily as to such features as temperature or elevation.
In Fig. 4, a number of isopleths illustrating the spread of the Renaissance
are charted.
In diagram I some of the chief teachers of Renaissance ideas about
1350, such as Petrarch and Boccaccio, are localised. Later writers dealing
with the ‘life of the times in living languages’ (a phrase which in part
describes the Renaissance) were Wyclif, Froissart and Chaucer. Hence
toward the end of the fourteenth century we see the new ideas moving
north up the ‘ Way of Light.’ In diagram JJ (Fig. 4) I have stressed the
spread of printing as perhaps the most characteristic feature of the second
period of the Renaissance (1450 to 1550). Modern research (by J. H.
Hessels and others) seems to refer the invention of movable type to Costar
of Haarlem about 1446. It has spread to Mainz and the vicinity by
1460, moving along the ‘ Rhine-Way,’ and reached Rome by 1465 and
Fic. 4.—The spread of Renaissance ideas in three stages, showing the effect of
the ‘ Way of Light ’ and the ‘ Rhine Way.’
Paris by 1470. We have here an interesting example of a culture spread-
ing along a new route, far removed from the familiar ‘ Way of Light.’
Other isopleths showing the rapid spread of printing throughout western
Europe by 1480 are also charted.
In the third diagram of Fig. 4, I have plotted the ‘ schools’ of the
famous teachers in the third period of the Renaissance (1550 to 1650).
Here I have not attempted to draw isopleths. But when I labelled each
teacher as concerned either with science or letters, it was surprising to
find that practically all the former were to be found in the eastern portion
of the map, and all the latter in the western part. This is an interesting
distribution which is in part no doubt associated with the leading religions
of the two areas. The conservative west held by the old Catholic faith
for the most part, while the eastern region was that where the reformed
religion had the chief control. This distinction in turn is of course bound
up with the deep-seated inheritance of Roman culture in France and Italy,
which was wanting east of the Rhine. The votaries of mediaeval science
were not encouraged by the orthodox Roman Catholic Church, so that
naturally they were not numerous in the western part of diagram JJI.
In the social sciences, we are dealing with disciplines of an intermediate
character. In much of their content, they are not so susceptible to
rigorous proof as are many of the problems in the physical sciences, and
in this they resemble the humanities. But like the latter they have the
E.—GEOGRAPHY 109
great educational advantage that they deal definitely with man rather than
with lower forms of life or with physical phenomena. A disadvantage
inherent in geography and allied subjects is the immense number of facts
whose assimilation would seem to be necessary in the study. This is
wearisome in a scheme making for an all-round education, and in my
opinion memorising facts should never be the vital factor in geography.
You may have heard of the despondent negro preacher who complained
that his flock was either so ignorant that they believed too much in ‘ de
deuce,’ or so sophisticated that they doubted everything. Students of
cultural geography should also learn to ‘ doubt and deduce,’ rather than
to memorise the innumerable facts often presented without coordination.
It is this training in deduction, accompanied by a healthy scepticism of
orthodox dogmas until they have been tested and confirmed, which should
be our aim.
C1. Evo.LuTion or LIFE AND CULTURE.
To the geographer interested in culture-spreads, it seems likely that
the one outstanding fact has often been neglected by sociologists. It
should be clear that as long as man was controlled primarily by the same
factors as the higher mammals his evolution is likely to proceed along
somewhat similar lines. We shall find in many fields of research that
we are dealing with the same phenomena, i.e. with progressive stages of
evolution developing in the Old World ‘ cradle.’ This concept can be
illustrated in Mammals, Human Race and Human Culture alike.
Matthew has shown that the cradleland and stages of evolution for
various related groups of the higher mammals can be deduced wholly from
their distribution in time and space (Matthew 1915). In Fig. 5 at B, I
have summarised his conclusions in a block diagram, which shows that
we are dealing with a typical example of what I describe later as the
‘Zones and Strata’ phenomena. Here is illustrated the problem of the
vast biological changes involved in changing something like an antelope
into a sheep. Needless to say millions of years have elapsed while this
occurred. But the salient control was the marked environmental stimulus
centred in south-central Asia.
There is no reason to doubt that these special conditions continued to
operate in this region from early Tertiary times up to the development
of the first stable civilised communities of man—say, around 10,000 B.C.
If we grant this postulate, then it would seem obvious that the variations
in the Auman species (i.e. racial groups) would almost inevitably arise in
the same region of great stimulus. ‘These might be expected to develop
in a much shorter period, say of the order of half a million years. The
writer has demonstrated this thesis in many books and papers.
Finally, major culture-changes are also essentially responses to environ-
ment—though far more rapid than biological changes. There is, to
the writer, no region more likely than south central Asia where the
tremendous development from the nomadic hunter to settled village-
dweller was so likely to occur. I pointed out this inherent geographical
advantage nearly twenty years ago; and since that time I have watched
the students of culture driven from Egypt to Mesopotamia, and finally to
IIo SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
some, still indefinite, region to the north in their efforts to find the cradle
of civilisation. (I shall return to this aspect of the subject later.)
Thus we arrive at the interesting result that major racial evolution and
major cultural evolution occurred in much the same region; in spite
of the fact—often pointed out—that there is no inherent connection
between a given race and a culture associated with it. The time-factor
is very different in the two phenomena. In the field of Race, during the
short period of the recent centuries, we have only seen the origin of a
few hybrid groups, all unimportant except perhaps for the Mestizos of
Latin America. But we have observed new cultures travel all over the
world ; their speed of expansion increasing with every passing year. Thus
tobacco spread far and wide within a century after Raleigh brought
it to Europe. Nowadays the son of the head-hunting Papuan delights
to drive a motor launch, and the second generation from the cannibal
Fijian is filling the medical services in those tropic isles.
C 2. GENERAL DiscussION OF THE ZONES AND STRATA THEORY.
It was his use (on world maps) of the isopleth method in charting the
criteria of race, in conjunction with the findings in W. D. Matthew’s
memoir ‘ Climate and Evolution,’ which led the writer to publish the
“ Zones and Strata Classification of Races’ in 1919. The general principles
of this concept are illustrated in Fig. 5. Here three parallel cases of
Fic. 5.—Block Diagrams illustrating the ‘Zones and Strata’ Concept applied to
Culture (Evolution of Transport); Mammals (Artio-dactyls); and Major
Races. In each case the centre of evolution is in the centre of the zones,
and the most primitive types have been thrust to the margins. The strata
appear on the vertical edges (at right). All much generalised.
evolution are considered. All anthropologists-will agree as to the explana-
tion of the block diagram on the left. Here we see zones of Methods of
Transport (ox-team, horse-bus, motor-car and aeroplane) arranged round
the city of Sydney—the only settlement of note for sixty years in Australia,
The “ strata ’ resulting from this evolution in Sydney and gradual migration |
to margin, are indicated on the vertical edge of the block diagram.
Clearly there is a common cradleland, where commercial activity is greatest
in the centre of the zones—and the primitive types now occur precisely
where they did not originate.
E—GEOGRAPHY Ill
Turning to Fig. 5 B, we find the same process illustrated in the evolu-
tion of the Artio-dactyls (or even-toed mammals) based on data given by
Matthew (1915). The antelopes are earliest and are displaced farthest
from the centre. The sheep are latest and still characterise the common
cradleland. The fossil strata are in accord, using the palzontologist’s
‘ Law of Superposition.’ No biologist doubts that the zones and strata
in the case of these mammals indicate the order of migration and of
evolution for the Artio-dactyls.
The writer believes that primitive man was differentiated into the five
major races long before the later races reached Western Europe. This
evolution almost certainly took place in Asia and occurred before the last
Ice Age. It certainly far antedated early Neolithic times.‘ Hence early
man of such a primitive type can surely be considered as obeying the same
laws of migration as the higher mammals. If now the pre-Columbian
distribution of the major races (Negro, Mediterranean and Alpine) be
plotted in a block diagram (Fig. 5 C), we find a series of zones and strata
closely resembling the two already charted. It is difficult to escape from
the conclusion that the centre of Asia is the common cradleland where
evolution progressed most actively in the case of primitive man—just as
Matthew has shown it progressed most actively here to produce new types
of the earlier mammals. Indeed, we can almost exactly parallel the spread
of the rhinoceros from Asia with the spread of the negroes, while the spread
of the Pleistocene Equidae is the same as that of Alpine man (Matthew,
Figs. 20 and 17).
The centre of stimulus in Fig. 5 A was the commercial progress in the
city. In the case of the mammals and man it was the stimulating climate
of south central Asia. I have shown in a number of books and papers
(see bibliography) that this region in the past has been characterised to a
marked degree by such climatic features, but lack of space prevents my
covering this ground again.
C 3. CORRIDORS INTO THE CONTINENT.
It is of considerable interest to use our knowledge of the relative
accessibility of the other continents from Central Asia, and to see how
the consequent migrations agree with the ‘ Zones and Strata ’ hypothesis.
Most anthropologists accept Asia as the cradleland of the later, i.e. the
Alpine, Mediterranean and Australoid, Races. If we are to assume that
the earlier negroes or negritoes evolved in Africa, then we are faced with
several cumbrous inconsistencies. Where did the negroes (and negritoes)
of Melanesia and thereabouts come from? If Africa is suggested, the
obvious reply is that it is far simpler to assume that both African and
Melanesian negroes come from south Asia, i.e. the same centre of racial
evolution as did the other races. Moreover, the ‘ Zones and Strata’ hypo-
thesis leads us to believe (even if this be not actually proven) that primitive
races persist in the marginal lands, precisely where they did mot evolve.
1 It is probable that the first Alpine peoples reached France (Solutré, etc.)
in Aurignacian times (vide A. Keith) ; and Koeppen dates this as far back as
74,000 years ago. Neolithic times in France were only 8,000 years ago (Keith
1931 and Koeppen 1932).
112 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
The same arguments apply to the negritoes, and lead us to accept an
Asiatic cradleland.
What was the relation of Africa, Australasia, and America to the
Eurasian land-mass during the later Ice Ages—when we may surely
picture these earlier racial migrations as occurring? Surely something
like this. The easiest of access was Africa, for only the Red Sea—
probably much less of a barrier then—separated that region of deserts
and savannas from the South Asiatic cradleland.
Australasia was the next most accessible. During the Ice Ages no
doubt the broad low area of Sunda Land with the almost dry Bali-Timor
ridge led man to the large low ‘ Sahul Land’ and so to Australia (Griffith
Taylor 1937). Inthe Interglacial period both Sunda Land and Sahul Land
were drowned as the result of the filling of the oceans by the melting
ice caps. Hence we may postulate that Australia and Melanesia were, on
the whole, much harder to reach than was Africa in those early days.
As regards America, all migrations must pass va north-east Siberia.
In the Ice Ages this was covered with an ice cap (Griffith Taylor 1930)
which would definitely discourage migrations. During inter-glacials
the Behring route might be quite feasible—and doubtless during such
a period a few tribes of Australoids or kindred folks reached America.
Possibly during the close of the Wurm Ice Age the Eskimo reached
America while their congeners, late Paleolithic man, were reaching
Western Europe. The main migrations into America seem to have
occurred in the warmer periods (say of the Achen retreat of the ice, or
between the Buhl and Gschnitz minor advances of the ice in Europe)
some ten to twenty thousand years ago.
Now, assuming these geographical relations, what should we expect
to find? Primitive man was thrust out of south central Asia (primarily
by climatic changes leading to greater cold or aridity) and would know
nothing of the outlying areas. He would, no doubt, move off in several
directions (to south, south-west or south-east) more or less equally.
Thus the greater proportion of the earliest (Negro) migrations would
inevitably reach Africa (the easiest outlet, on the whole), while a smaller
number would reach Melanesia by circumventing the very difficult
tangle of mountains in south-east Asia and crossing the ‘ stepping
stones’ of the East Indies ; and, if fortunate enough, making use of the
alternately open and drowned corridors of Sunda and Sahul Lands.
This ‘ paired ’ dispersion to west and east is illustrated in Fig. 7.
As millennia passed the more accessible lands of Africa would fill up,
and Australia would receive a much larger proportion of later (Australoid)
migrations. Finally as the latest migrants were thrust from Asia, the
American corridor became available—and this is why we find so large
a proportion of the last or Alpine-Mongolian Race in the New World.
A glance at the arrangement of the zones (Fig. 7) will show that this
series of migrations is fully corroborated.
C 4. SCANDINAVIAN CLIMATE.
Let us now consider the environmental conditions somewhat more in
detail. In the first place the migrations were probably extremely slow,
E.—GEOGRAPHY 113
and were made quite unwittingly by the primitive peoples concerned.
They would all be hunters, preying on wild animals or upon wild fruits
and grains. With the onset of any Ice Age, the forests, steppes, and
tundras move slowly but en masse to the south. A fall of temperature
of 12° F. is the maximum effect. This temperature range (by the ordinary
ratio explained in any text-book of climatology) ? is normally equivalent
to a journey of some 800 miles toward the Pole. Such a migration of
vegetation would perhaps change half the Siberian forest into tundra,
and change the whole central Asiatic desert belt into steppe, while much
of the southern forest belt would gradually turn into desert.
Research in Scandinavia has made it much easier for us to reconstruct
Fic. 6.—Correlations of Climate and Culture, showing the Northward March of
the Ice-Cap, the Vegetation Zones and Primitive Man in Scandinavia since
the close of the Wurm Ice Age. The front of each diagram shows the Strata
in section.
the movement of ice-caps, vegetation-zones, and of man himself (Griffith
Taylor 1934). De Geer and others working on the Varve-clays have
dated the moraine of the waning Wurm Ice Age as it developed in
South Sweden. They place it about 18,500 B.c. This is shown in Fig. 6,
at A, where Sweden is shown buried under the great ice-cap. Peat bogs
in North Germany and Denmark show that tundra plants were growing
south of the ice-cap at this time. Man had apparently not yet appeared
in Sweden.
In block-diagram B (Fig. 6) we see that the ice-front has retreated
northward half-way along the Swedish Peninsula. This is dated about
gooo B.c. At that time the peat bogs in Germany show remains of
fir-trees, and here also we find the artefacts of Neolithic man. Apparently
Palaeolithic man found the tundra and steppe very unattractive and so
never settled on the Baltic. The next diagram C shows us a further
retreat during 5,000 years. The fir now covers Southern Scandinavia
2 Off China the world isotherms change 1° F. for about 1 degree of latitude.
SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
114
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E.—_GEOGRAPHY 115
and oak-trees cover North Germany. Bronze tools are found in the
bogs in the oak stratum—showing that a higher culture has moved north
with the ice-retreat. Finally, at the dawn of history, conditions were
like those to-day. The beech is now the dominant tree on the Baltic—
and its advent was marked by the coming of Iron Age man. Here, then,
we have a dated set of zones and strata, and we can be sure that similar
movements of vegetation and man, northward and southward, accom-
panied every one of the Ice Ages throughout the Pleistocene.
The general distribution of Races over the World, before the period
of modern marine migrations, is given in Fig. 7. I have devoted nearly
twenty years to this ‘ Migration-Zone’ theory of racial evolution and
classification, the main features of human ecology. I mention it here
primarily because it demonstrates that all the progressive nations of the
world are built up of the same three stocks, ‘Alpine, Nordic and Mediter-
ranean.’ When this thesis is accepted, then much of the evil structure
based on ‘ race-prejudice ’ must fall to the ground. In my opinion, race
prejudice is but another name for ethnological ignorance.
This is a very encouraging idea, for cultural differences of language,
education and religion can be entirely changed in a generation, whereas
a real racial barrier is much more difficult to overcome. ‘Thus the world
must wait a long while for the negro problem (based on a real racial
difference) to be solved. But racial differences exactly like those separat-
ing Europeans, Japanese, Chinese, Indian, Polynesians and Amerinds
have all been smoothed away in Europe itself; where (in my opinion)
their component stocks came into contact with each other long ago in
Neolithic times.
D. RELATIONS OF CULTURE AND RACE.
One of the main results of a knowledge of cultural geography is a much
clearer conception of the distinctions between race, nation, language and
religion than most educated people possess. It can be well illustrated,
as we shall see, by maps in connection with the spread of the Jewish
people. Moreover, this study clearly defines the danger resulting from
powerful political groups dabbling in sciences of which they are ignorant.
We are surely all agreed that the term Aryan can only be applied to
speech; and that Nordic indicates a ‘breed’ and can only be applied
to race. But few folk realise that the term ‘ Jew’ should only be used in
connection with religion. It is much too common an experience to have
to argue with folk, however influential, who insist on talking of a ‘ Jewish
Race.’ We need a new term to express a group linked by purely cultural
characters such as language or religion. For such groups I have been
extending the use of the word ‘ cult.’ For instance, in Canada, we have
in reality no ‘ French Race’ (since Frenchmen may belong to one of
three distinct races), but only a ‘ French cult ’ linked by common language
and religion. So also we should learn to speak of a ‘ Jewish cult,’ since
this large group is linked closely by religion and to a lesser degree by
language. The Jews, like the Germans, are of two different races. If
they come from Poland they belong to the Alpine race; if from Spain
they are of Mediterranean race, like all the original Jews of Palestine.
116 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Since this problem illustrates very concretely the way in which the
social sciences are vitally concerned in world politics, I will dwell on it
briefly. It is illustrated in the two maps in Fig. 8. On the left we see
the logical linguistic divisions in Europe, which are undoubtedly Aryan
and Altaic. Here also is shown in black the realm of the German nation.
In the right-hand map (Fig. 8) are the race divisions in Europe, i.e.
Nordic, Alpine and Mediterranean. The German nation is half Nordic
and half Alpine. The Jew belongs to a ‘ cult,’ but the dominant Jews
in Europe, including about three-quarters of the whole body, are broad-
headed Alpines like the rest of the mid-European peoples. The most
logical explanation is that the Polish Jews are the result of the widespread
conversions carried on by the Jews in eastern Europe. For instance, in
A.D. 740 the Khan of the Khazars (who lived north of the Black Sea)
was converted, and many of this large nation of medieval traders
ZZBOvER 15°F
1-15 %
Fic. 8.—(a) Map of Europe showing the distribution of Aryan and non-Aryan
(i.e. Altaic) Languages. The area of the German Nation is also charted.
(b) Map of Europe showing the distribution of the Nordic Race (dotted),
and of the folk who profess the Jewish Religion. The Alpine and Mediter-
ranean Races (M) are also indicated.
followed his lead (Griffith Taylor 1936b). Racially the Khazars were
akin to the Turks, i.e. they were Alpines; and they are also known
as the Royal Scythians. Indeed the Polish Jews still call themselves
Ashkenazim, which is a Hebrew word meaning ‘ Scythian.’
A year or two ago the German authorities were specifically excluding
the German Jews as of ‘non-Aryan race.’ Of course racially they are
Alpines like the south Germans, and their language is best called Judeo-
German. Anyone with a slight knowledge of German can understand
the following sentence ‘ Es ist gar alles kein Neues nicht unter der Sunn.’
Yet this is Yiddish, which is mostly a medieval German dialect learnt
in the Rhineland (Wiener 1899). It has a considerable addition of
Hebrew words, in the same way that English includes much Latin, but
English does not thereby become a Romance language.. Nor does
English change its Saxon character when it is written in Pitman’s short-
hand. The Semitic script used in Jewish newspapers disguises, but
does not change, the essentially Aryan basis of Yiddish. Thus the
accurate student of social science would describe the Jews as a composite’
culture-group (‘cult’) with a specific religion, most of whom are Alpine in
race, and speak an Aryan language (a dialect of German) which is written
in a peculiar script.
E.—_GEOGRAPHY 117
E. GENERAL EcoLocicaL APPROACH TO PROBLEMS IN CULTURE.
Let us see how ecology can help the study of the evolution of languages.
The early settlers of New England came mainly from Suffolk and the
adjacent south-east of England. They carried to America the pro-
nunciations of early Stuart times, and some of these have changed con-
siderably in England since their departure. In the fifteenth century
words like dark, far, farm, star, etc. were spelled and sounded derk, fer,
ster, etc. So also clerk and new were pronounced clerk and noo in this
part of England. About the time of Elizabeth the pronunciations clark
and nico were growing in favour, and have since become universal in
England.
The older forms were carried to America and survive in rustic New
England. So also certain Elizabethan and Stuart ballads are perhaps
better preserved in the isolated mountain hamlets of the Appalachians
than in most of England. Many old words have become archaic in
England which are still in common use in much of America (Wyld 1920).
MMM ST sii 1
aS
Com PRON: ,¢ 00
COOMA) avo avec ner sens
Oo ARCHRISMS
Fic. 9.—Linguistic Evolution indicated by the distribution of early pronuncia-
tions and folk-lore, which survive in marginal regions. An illustration of the
‘Zones and Strata Concept.’ Three ‘strata’ are suggested on the front
edge.
Examples are fall (autumn), guess (think), sidewalk, whittle, greenhorn,
cordwood, gotten, cracker (biscuit), shoat, etc. Here again, as we saw in
race, the primitive is ‘ pushed to the wall’ far from the cradleland. No
one imagines that Shakespeare lived in the Appalachians because some of
his language is now perhaps more common there than at Stratford !
But many philologists have thought that Sanskrit originated in Lithuania ;
whereas Lithuanian is a marginal survival of an early Aryan akin to Sanskrit,
thrust out from the common cradleland in south central Asia.
These stages in the evolution of the details of a language are charted
in Fig. 9 which illustrates the principle of the ‘ Zones and Strata Concept ’
fairly clearly. As before, we see that the primitive type is pushed to the
margin, while the later types appear first in the central cradleland. Of
course conditions have changed so greatly in America in the last fifty
years that it is now an independent centre of stimulus—possibly the
greatest in the world in regard to modern culture—and Britain is borrow-
ing new terms from the U.S.A. There is, however, not much difficulty
in detecting such new centres of culture in dealing with problems of the
evolution of early culture in the Eur-Asian world. For the most part
they progressed fairly regularly from south-east to north-west. This is
indicated in the following graph dealing in a general fashion with certain
phases of progress in the last 6,000 years.
118 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
This diagram (Fig. 10) illustrates the necessity for defining the amount
of correlation involved in a given comparison. It is, of course, obvious
that the shift of power is not wholly determined by the lower temperature
of high latitudes. There is, however, no doubt that physical vigour is
somewhat higher at lower temperatures, though Huntington is convinced
that the optimum occurs at 63° F.; while the best mental work is done
in regions with an average temperature near 45° F. (Huntington 1938).
These facts must have a bearing on the evolution of all forms of culture.
Probably of equal importance in the shift of empire are other factors
such as ‘ freedom from invasions.’ Invaders attacked Europe from Asia
and Africa at first; and later, Britain was saved by her insular position
from many continental attacks. Command of the Atlantic seaboard, and,
chief of all, readily accessible coal supplies also contributed to this shift
to the north-west.
We may use as an illustration of the value of the ‘ Zones and Strata
Concept’ that complex of races and cultures which characterises the
Sane
( Macedonian ee
ay Le
le man oe
a PR X
sD as
Fic. 10.—Correlations of Temperature and Empire. Other factors are discussed
in the text.
Indian and Pacific areas. ‘The writer has had the advantage of travelling
widely in Eastern Asia and in the Pacific, and this has focused his atten-
tion on the general principles underlying dispersion in this area. It is
quite obvious that every widespread characteristic in Polynesia has
migrated from west to east—and that any cultural contacts with America
can be completely ignored in a general study. Let us examine the data
in Easter Island—the farthest of these isolated groups from Asia (Fig. 11).
It is almost 14,000 miles from the Caspian area to Easter Island, yet I hope
to demonstrate a culture sequence stretching across all this vast expanse.
Two remarkable features in Easter Island are the well-known stone
statues and the undeciphered script incised on wooden tablets. There is
no reasonable doubt (as the Routledges (1919) have shown) that the
statues, with their bird-man decorations, are of the same culture-complex
as is common in the Solomon Islands, some six thousand miles to the
west (Fig. 11). Hevesy (1933) and Hunter (1934) are satisfied that the
script, the only one used by Polynesians, is connected with the remarkable
Mohenjo Culture which flourished in the Indus region about 3000 B.c.
It is true that objections have been raised by Métraux (1938) that the script
was not understood by any living Polynesian, and that the tablets of mimosa
wood, etc., are not likely to be many centuries old, some indeed being
E.—_GEOGRAPHY 119
modern in origin. The present writer thinks that these objections are not
very relevant. Our own alphabet is said to originate from not very similar
signs used by miners in Sinai, though all the links are not yet clear.
The question surely is to determine the origins of the remarkable Easter
script—and to my mind, the Mohenjo theory is plausible and indeed
probable. Moreover it offers a good illustration of clues which may be
furnished by an ecological approach.
Let us consider some of the major culture changes in the Indus region.
Gordon Childe (1934) gives data as to the races which have been discovered
at Mohenjo. Australoids, Mediterranean, Armenoids and Mongoloids
were all present. There can be little doubt that the first settlers (before
3000 B.C.) were the aboriginal ‘ Australoids’ who spoke a Munda language.
Many members of this zone of peoples are now found ‘ pushed to the
margin’ in the East Indies and in Australia. It is represented by
=aoomans
oS ee Balj |
SO oH ENIO age coee
+ EE 5 |Bc soo |. Boo
MAIN CRADLE oF CULTURE S| 5 tbeey “2 25°
Fic. 11.—The spread of cultures from India eastward; showing the Munda,
Australoid culture at the bottom, covered by Dravidian, Polynesian, Aryan-
Buddhist and Moslem ‘strata.’ In the Inset are compared some signs from
the Mohenjo and Easter Island scripts. All much generalised.
Stratum 1 in Fig. 11. The general belief is that the Mohenjo culture
was due to the later ‘ Mediterranean’ races who spoke Dravidian lan-
guages. ‘This constitutes Stratum 2, and in the writer’s opinion is to be
linked with Dixon’s ‘ Caspian Race’ in the Polynesian area (Dixon 1923).
We have little knowledge of the period from 2500 B.C. to 1500 B.C. in
India, when the great Aryan migrations overwhelmed North India. But
it is significant that the earliest stone monuments in India, which are
found at Rajagrha (Rajgir) near Patna,® are of a cyclopean character quite
unlike the work of the later Aryan builders, and rather resemble the
mysterious early stone monuments of the Pacific (Fergusson and Burgess
1880). I have suggested that this culture-complex spread out as Stratum 3.
The Aryan-Sanskrit complex (Stratum 4) never reached Polynesia, but
was carried to Java and dominated that region for several centuries after
200 B.c. In North India Buddhism (Stratum 5) flourished after 500 B.c.
3 The Jarasandha monument (of unknown date) is a square truncated pyramid
85 ft. wide and 28 ft. high. It is built of large uncemented blocks of stone 5 or
6 ft. across. It resembles the truncated pyramids and Mare of Polynesia.
120 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
and was carried to Java about the eighth or ninth century of our era.
It did not displace the older Hindu pantheism—but flourished alongside.
Around A.D. 1400 the Moslems (Stratum 6) conquered Java, and the Indian
religions found a refuge in the island of Bali further east, where they still
flourish. It is not, of course, suggested that the Polynesians migrated
from India, for they probably lived originally in south-east Asia. But
their culture probably followed the same route as that used by the Buddhist
and Moslem teachers in historic times.
We may dwell for a few minutes on the recent discoveries in the vicinity
of Persia. In Mesopotamia the earliest culture of Sumer is known as
“al Ubaid ’ (Childe 1934), and this contained copper tools and is younger
than cultures from Susa and the adjacent Persian Plateau.
To the north near Nineveh is the ‘ Tell Halaff Culture ’ with wheeled
vehicles, but with no metal. This is much older than anything dis-
covered in Sumer near the Persian Gulf. Still older are the lowest
cultures of Samarra in the same region, where they occur in debris
seventy feet below a temple dated about 2450 B.c. Childe corroborates
my statement (of 1919) as to the cradleland of man, with his comment
that the early cultures of China resemble those of Anau in Turkestan
(Fig. 11). It is significant that Zoroaster, the first great religious teacher,
lived in this same vital region. ‘Thus we see that the centre of the zones
of the races of man in Turkestan (as charted in Fig. 7) is also likely to be
near the cradle of civilisation.
F. CORRELATIONS IN THE DISTRIBUTIONS OF LANGUAGES.
The evolution of nations is one of the most interesting and important
problems engaging the attention of the social scientist. A common
language is often the chief ‘ cement’ which links the various races and
‘cults’ to form a nation. Hence languages merit our careful study.
Few problems in Science are so difficult as those concerning the inter-
relations of the main language-groups. Since here we have to do with
an evolving complex arising in something like a cradleland and affected
by wide migrations, it seems likely that some light on the subject may be
obtained by charting the data in the form of the ‘ Zones and Strata’
technique.
The distribution of the main groups of languages is given in a generalised
fashion in Fig. 12. The ecology of language indicates that the order of
evolution in the Occidental area is in the following sense, the marginal
languages being the earliest :—Bantu, Hamitic, Semitic, Basque, Su-
merian, ‘K’ Aryan, ‘P’ Aryan, and latest or ‘Satem’ Aryan. The
problem is, of course, complicated (as in -Biology) by the fact that
independent evolution takes place after the branching of the parent
languages. Thus it seems likely that Proto-Gothic branched off from the
Aryan stock before Sanskrit. Yet English (a descendant of Proto-
Gothic) is a more advanced language (i.e. more analytic, simpler and easier
to learn) than is Sanskrit. E
The following summary (Worrell 1927) gives simple definitions of the
language classes. In primitive languages like Bantu, parts of speech were
differentiated by the attachment of different relationship-words—which,
12!
E.—_ GEOGRAPHY
(‘1z61I ‘HIOX MON ‘mataaaz
a1yGvasoay ay Woy) ‘souoz UoT}eIsTU [eIOAES ay} JO [eoIdA} sosensur] SUIZSIXO UMOYS 91e BOeFINS 9Y} UD ~WOT}eS UT Uses
are ‘sonSuo} Suystxe apun poring ‘se8ensury qissoy ‘Aroydised ay} 0} yno sear] Snorasid 9y3 Jo ysour soysnd ‘mop snotaoid 943
Jo worjz10d aos SurTI9A09 aTTYM ‘pue 91}U90 oY} Wo sastie UoTWdnie Mou YORY “SUOTOOITP [Je Ul VAT JO SUTeOI}s Y}10F Surpues
_uorjdnie oinssy , JO 10s & se painyord st eisy [e1}zUeD UT [TesiodsIp Jo oIyUE0 OY, “SOT}SINSUT] Pure WOTNJOAD Jo SaIpNyzs 07 poydde
ASoyeue MOP-eAP] YL ‘“poestesoues ATYSty sty] ‘onbruyoa3 , e}e13S pue seuOZ , oy} Jo ‘Iz6I ut poysyqnd ‘uorzersnyt wy—zI “O17
‘
anosba
122 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
however, did not fuse with them. Vowel harmony of all the syllables of
such a compound often developed as a means of marking off the group.
This is Agglutinative speech. It survives in the Bantu tongues (prefixing
type) and in the Altaic (e.g. Turkish) as a suffix type.
The Hamitic-Semitic group carried agglutination so far that the re-
lationship-words fused at last with the chief words to which they were
affixed or prefixed, and speech became amalgamating. Words were also
systematically modified by internal vowel-change to give regular altera-
tions of meaning. Dravidian speech is agglutinative—affixing and in-
fixing, so that it is rather generalised and may be the ancestor of several
of the other main languages.
The Aryan group developed external suffixes to indicate variations,
and so produced inflectional language. The three groups Hamitic,
Semitic and Aryan also tend to rely on relationship-words and on word-
order, and increasingly to neglect the word-forms. ‘Thus they become
analytic. ‘There is little doubt in the writer’s mind that this sequence
(e.g. from Bantu to such an Aryan language as Persian) represents lin-
guistic evolution, in much the same sense as the sequence ‘ amoeba to
man’ represents zoological evolution. In both cases many groups
branch off from the main stem producing minor independent evolutionary
groups. In both cases some descendants stagnate, while others advance
rapidly, as stated earlier.
Before Aryan scholars yield to despair because the foundations of
Aryan are ‘wrop in mystery,’ a promising field would be to explore
Dravidian or Altaic for the ancestors of the Aryan. For instance, there
are three possible explanations for the accepted resemblances of Finn to
Teutonic. The one usually accepted is that Finn has borrowed from
Teutonic. But it is also possible that Teutonic has borrowed its ‘ pecu-
liarities’ from Finn. A third view worth considering is that border
(e.g. primitive) languages like Keltic or Teutonic, still retain speech
characteristics which have been carried over from the more primitive
speech (now preserved as a marginal language-zone) from which the Aryan
group as a whole evolved. On this view the features common to German
and Finn may be an inheritance from the common mother-tongue of
Aryan and Altaic.
The lesson to be derived from the ‘ Zones and Strata’ technique is that
marginal languages should be compared with each other. This means
that far-distant speeches may be very well worth comparing. From this
point of view, we should actually expect that Basque would resemble
some Amerind language ; that Gaelic would resemble Pharaoh’s tongue ;
and that early Sinitic, early Altaic and early Dravidian (i.e. marginal
languages) should be studied to learn something about Proto-Aryan.
Thus the writer by no means despairs of the solution of the Aryan
problem.
These ideas have long been engaging the writer’s attention. In 1921
he published a generalised diagram, which was probably the first utilising _
the ‘ Zones and Strata Concept’ as applied to Linguistics. With a few
minor alterations it is reproduced as Fig. 12. Here the concept of a
central cradleland of culture is adopted. But we must ever bear in mind
that we are primarily concerned with events which occurred before
E.—GEOGRAPHY 123
5000 B.C., for all the major language families had differentiated before
that period.
The cradleland is represented as sending forth successive flows of lava
from a centre of eruption. These form concentric zones about south
central Asia, and each flow pushes its predecessor to the margin. The
effect of one flow on its neighbour—involving some contact and assimila-
tion—is also rather usefully indicated. The flows reach the four ‘ pen-
insulas ’ of Asia (i.e. Europe, Africa, America and Australasia) according
to the relative advantages of the connecting corridors. I have elaborated
this concept in several essays already published (Griffith Taylor 1936c).
G. EcoLocicaL NoTes ON THE ARYAN PROBLEM.
We may use the stage-diagram to correlate our scanty knowledge as to
the early wave-fronts of the Aryan languages. There are three fairly
definite subdivisions of Aryan: (1) the early Kentum or ‘ K’ speeches like
Gaelic and Latin, (2) the Intermediate ‘ P’ languages like Welsh (with
which we may associate Teutonic and Greek for convenience), (3) the
later Satem languages like Slav and Indian.
_ Turning to Fig. 13, some idea of our knowledge of the language dis-
tribution in Sumerian times is given in the lowest map of the series.
At this time Hamitic languages were used by the Pharaohs in Egypt, akin
to those still spoken by the Berbers in the Atlas Mountains. Semitic
languages characterised Arabia and Syria, as they still do. Sumerian
itself has some resemblances to the Altaic, though its affinities are not yet
clearly understood. In Europe at this early date there were racial allies
of the present-day Hamitic-speakers—all of Mediterranean race—living
in the western regions, who probably spoke Hamitic according to Rhys
and Jones (Griffith Taylor 1936a). Central Europe was occupied by early
migration of Alpine ‘ Brakephs’ (broadheads), of whose language we
know nothing. It was almost certainly not Aryan, and something akin
to ‘ Basque’ seems most likely. This problem is taken up later. In
view of the important corridor linking Turkestan with China by way of
the Tarim Basin, I have ventured to suggest that a linguistic kinship
between early Chinese (Sinitic) and Sumerian or early Aryan is only to
be expected.
In the second map (Fig. 13 at B), for the period around 1200 B.c., we
are on surer ground. Vast migrations of ‘ Satem ’-speakers had poured
into India from Turkestan. The Hittites, who seem to have spoken an
Aryan tongue somewhat akin to the Kentum Group, were in control of
Anatolia. Semitic was now the chief language of Egypt and Mesopotamia.
In central Europe (if we adopt the suggestions of H. Peake) Kentum
languages were spoken in the regions east of the Alps, while Brythonic
(one of the Intermediate ‘ P ’ type) was that used by the Cimmerians of
the Ukraine and Caucasus areas, It seems logical to assume that many
Satem-speakers still remained in Turkestan, and were perhaps allied to
the Sarmatian tribes.
In the next map (for 400 B.C.) we see the first great Aryan conquest in
the Near East, that of the Persians. They spoke a Satem language, and
it is probable that their Sarmatian kin were occupying the European
124 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
RASSSY
ASSALRATY
TYAS
Sa
9
fewer
WAALS
VAAN
Oe NI
LY (TTX
i EBaene' SA
NSS SSS ———E—E—EEEEE—ee eS
C7
Le pea eeamea eRe
os g
~
~\ <u
~
A
oS
U ites
CULL Mi ‘ CS Seuss =
WECe PERRO
Se yh
=
a
as
Tt SOUS
Xawawe: ahd
Fic. 13.—A Stage-Diagram giving a tentative reconstruction of the distribution
of European languages at various epochs. Black areas are the Primi-
tive (marginal) ‘K’ Aryan languages. It is suggested that the early
Mediterranean Race spoke Hamitic, and that the early Alpines spoke
languages akin to Basque, Abkasian (and Amerind ?). Aryan developed
near the Caspian Sea and spread out in waves. The outer ‘ ripple ’ (AK) was
akin to Gaelic; the second (P) akin to Welsh. The latest type was the
Satem group.
E.—_ GEOGRAPHY 125
steppes about this time. ‘The latter may have been the ancestors of the
Slavs, who already seem to have settled in the Vistula Basin. Mean-
while the marginal K-speakers (Gaelic, etc.) had reached Britain and
Ireland, and still occupied parts of France. ‘The distribution of place-
names in Central and Western Europe clearly shows the migration of waves
of Gaelic and Welsh speakers across much of these areas.
The conditions some seven centuries later (A.D. 300) are shown in the
next map which deals with Europe during the zenith of the Roman
Empire. ‘The marginal primitive Aryan language Latin had been carried
far and wide; so that it later gave rise to Italian, French and the other
Romance tongues—which are clearly offshoots of the ‘ K ’ group of Aryan.
Brythonic (Welsh) was spoken in England, South Scotland and Wales
at this time, and probably in parts of the continent beside Brittany.
Possibly some Hamitic dialects still persisted in the Scottish Highlands,
as suggested by some of the Ogam inscriptions. Gaelic (a ‘ K’ language)
was spoken in Ireland and in most of Northern Scotland.
Of great interest is the discovery that a Kentum language, called
Tocharese, was still in use north of the Tarim Basin in Central Asia about
this time (Fig. 13, at D). ‘Tocharese seems, however, to have some
affinities with the Intermediate and Satem groups also. Hence it may
well be fairly close to the generalised Aryan ancestor from which all three
groups of Aryan have descended (Childe 1936). It is suggested in the
diagrams that this Kentum speech had been continuously used east of
Turkestan since early Aryan times.
The medieval distribution of languages, and of the three subdivisions
of Aryan, is shown in the top map. ‘To-day Gaelic is almost the sole
representative of a little-altered primitive Aryan speech—though the
much-evolved derivatives of primitive Latin are still very important
languages (Jespersen 1894). Hamitic has died out in Europe. Altaic
has encroached in Hungary and Finland, and displaced Hittite and Greek
in Anatolia. Semitic has driven out Hamitic in much of North Africa.
‘Satem’ Aryan, in the form of Russian, is in turn displacing Altaic
throughout much of U.S.S.R.
The conclusion to be drawn from this tentative geographical approach
to the Aryan problem is that the waves of language have spread from
Turkestan towards India, Persia and Europe. There seems to be no
support for the origin of Aryan in the German or Lithuanian regions,
a theory which has been strongly upheld by a number of notable
continental philologists.
H. Tue Race oF THE EarLy ARYAN-SPEAKERS.
Let us turn to another aspect of the Aryan problem. What race first
spoke the Aryan languages? (The name Wiro has been given to this
unknown ‘ race.’) ‘To-day Aryan is spoken by Alpines in central Europe,
by Nordics in the north and Mediterraneans in the south. There can
be little doubt that originally these dissimilar races ‘ despised ’ each other
as bitterly as any pair of ignorant and opposed ‘ cults’ do to-day. It
seems logical to assume that each of the three original races at first had
a somewhat distinct culture, including language. How can we advance
126 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
our knowledge of their early linguistic history ? There are several tech-
niques in use. ‘The oldest method is to study the syntax and etymology
of related languages (i.e. Aryan), and learn, from their many variations,
which was the original. Unfortunately, for many years this technique
was fatally hampered by the idea that language ‘ decayed’ by losing
inflections—whereas this phenomenon is one of the clearest signs of
evolution. However, there can be little doubt that the unwieldy Kentum
languages of the western margin are closer to the original Aryan than the
Satem languages of the centre and east of the Aryan realm.
Let us use an ecological approach. If we plot these languages on the
map, it seems highly likely that the Mediterranean folk of south and west
Europe spoke Hamitic (or its derivative Semitic) before they were con-
quered by Aryan speakers. The research of Rhys and Jones (The Welsh
People, 1908) makes this entirely probable as regards Gaelic and Welsh.
But our chief interest is concerning the original speech of the Nordics.
It is usually taken for granted that they spoke Aryan, and of a type not far
from Proto-German! I do not know any reason for this belief except the
volubility of the high priests of the Nordic fetish. We have seen that it
is possible that the marginal European of the south-west originally spoke
Hamitic. Let us apply the same reasoning on the northern margin of the
Aryan realm. Here dwell the Nordics—and it is very important to
remember that many of the Finns are Nordic, as are some of the northern
Asiatic peoples such as the Ostiaks of the Yenesei. These Finns and
Ostiaks speak Altaic. Applying our general Ecological Law of Lin-
guistics, we should expect that some marginal languages (i.e. Altaic) have
been replaced by later languages (Aryan) migrating from the cultural
cradle.
It is very significant that some of the characteristic features of the
Teutonic group of Aryan remind one of similar features in the speech of
the Finns and Ostiaks. For instance, ‘strong’ verbs like those of
German (and English) are quite common in Ostiak (Encyc. Brit.,
1929). Moreover, Finn and Ostiak have more inflection and less of
agglutination than most other Altaic tongues. There is, therefore, some
ground for the suggestion that the Nordic folk of Germany and Scandi-
navia, originally spoke an Altaic language (like Finn or Ostiak) : and only
relatively lately in linguistic history learnt an Aryan tongue. Indeed,
there seems little doubt that the earliest-known Nordics of central
Sweden, like those of Finland, spoke Finn, not Teutonic. This specula-
tion as to the ancestral tongue of the ‘ Blonde Overlords ’ is not likely
to be acceptable in ‘Teutonic circles.
The Basque problem has intrigued philologists for a century. The
language is quite different from Aryan, but has some slight affinity with
three distant groups, Abkasian in the Caucasus, Altaic, and certain
Amerind (i.e. American Indian) tongues (Fig. 13). So far as I know no
one but myself has suggested any satisfactory reason for the relation
between Basque and Amerind. Yet if we study the zones and strata of
Europe there is one curious feature. Peake (in The Bronze Age) has’
suggested that the earliest Aryan tongues (Gaelic, etc.) reached central
Europe from Asia by way of tribes of Alpine race about 1500 B.Cc., or
thereabouts. But there were folk of Alpine race in Europe for some four
E.—GEOGRAPHY 127
millennia before this period, for instance all the Danubian peoples who
moved across Europe in the third millennium B.c., and many still earlier,
such as the Men of Ofnet. What did they speak ? Look further afield to
the other side of the Old World (Fig. 7). At this date (say the sixth to the
third millennia B.c.) it is generally believed that hordes of Amerinds were
pouring into North America from central and east Asia. As I showed
in 1919 they were of much the same race as the Alpines entering
Europe. 1 suggest that the Pre-Gaelic Alpine invaders of Europe were
members of the same linguistic zone and spoke Basque. Later, Europe
was invaded by the last-evolved group in the cradleland who spoke
Aryan. These ‘ Wiros’ transferred their languages to almost all the
other tribes in Europe excluding the Basques and Finns. In the rugged
valleys of the Caucasus, relics of Pre-Aryan language, such as Abkasian,
seem to have survived. In its syntax it resembles both Basque and many
Amerind tongues.
Following the principle of ‘ doubt and deduce,’ I venture to sow many
seeds of linguistic heresy which I hope will prove fertile in the minds of
some young researchers. Let us consider the typical marginal languages
of Europe, i.e. Gaelic and Welsh. It seems to be rather generally believed
that these have always been spoken by the dark highlanders and their
allies of Mediterranean race in Wales and Ireland. A great deal of natural
pride is based on this belief in this age-long association. But our ‘ Zones
and Strata’ theory suggests that these marginal peoples only recently
learnt these languages from entirely different races. ‘The writer believes
that Hamitic speech (akin to the language of the Pharaohs) was spoken
in most parts of Britain while the Greeks were learning Homer. The
Berbers, Tuaregs and other still more marginal folk of North Africa are
of the same race and still preserve their old speech without change (Fig. 13).
It is to be hoped that Berber will not be made compulsory for the un-
fortunate youngsters in the Irish Free State as the result of this address !
As regards France, we have very little knowledge of the languages spoken
as late as 200 B.C. which are called Gaulic. Study of the migrations of
the Kentum Aryans shows that the western tribes probably spoke some-
thing close to Gaelic—but intermediate between this speech and Latin.
The writer has never been satisfied with the general belief that French is
entirely a derivative of Latin. If the western K Gauls used the same
linguistic roots as did the Romans, why is not French largely based on
Gaulic roots, with the presumably characteristic suffixes, etc. ‘ worn oft’
according to the usual development of a language? I may make my
point clearer by an exaggerated analogy. Supposing we knew nothing
of the English language before 1750, we should be far from correct if we
assumed (because English resembled German) that it was largely due
to the Hanoverian culture of that date.
Few developments in world history are more remarkable than the spread
of the Romance languages which are of course /argely based on Latin.
It is well to realise that Latin is one of the most marginal and, therefore,
one of the most primitive of Aryan tongues. Jespersen pointed this out
many decades ago—but there is such a halo around Latin that this has
not yet become generally known (Jespersen 1894). Many philologists
still maintain that the striking change from Latin to French and from
128 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Anglo-Saxon to English is one of ‘ decay.” They would seem to deplore
the loss of the cumbrous and countless inflections. A study of language-
distribution would show them that the languages still more marginal
than Latin have even larger development of inflections. For instance,
they are peculiarly abundant in Australian aboriginal speech and in West
African languages! I venture to predict that philologists will soon accept
the following general ecological and cultural ‘law’: Marginal languages
are primitive, and characterised by cumbrous inflections ; they evolve
by loss of inflections and by the development of an analytical character ;
this gradual change is illustrated by the concentric zones of actual lan-
guages. This ‘law’ was pointed out by the writer in a tentative dis-
cussion of Language Evolution in 1921 (Griffith Taylor 1921), when
the general ‘ key’ to the whole process (suggested in Fig. 12) was first
published.
I. GRAPHS OF CULTURE GROWTH.
It is often of great help to the research student in cultural problems if
he can make a mental picture of the processes involved in culture-spreads.
In the following section I have endeavoured to realise such a picture.
City growth of a type which is familiar to every geographer is illustrated
in the stage-diagram given in Fig. 14. Here four stages in the develop-
ment of the City of Chicago are represented in a sort of isometric pro-
jection. The years chosen were 1846, 1873, 1899 and 1926. The diagram
is a modification of the ‘ Zones and Strata Concept,’ and emphasises the
fact that ‘ the Zones of to-day are the Strata of to-morrow.’
The maps extend about 16 miles south and 10 miles north of the geo-
graphical centre of Chicago. In the lowest map is shown the site of the
fort which was built in 1816; just where the voyageurs paddled up the
South Chicago River to reach the boggy divide, which alone separated
the Mississippi Basin from the Great Lakes Basin. In 1828 there were
three inns and about a dozen huts near the Forks of the small Chicago
river. Farms existed in Madison Street in 1833, though to-day the nearest
farm is about 15 miles away to the south. So also private houses have
been displaced about 8 miles to the south. Forest covered much of the
area south of Madison and this has been displaced about 30 miles to
the south (Hoyt 1933).
In 1873 factories developed along the small river, while the best
business section was still near the Forks. The old negro quarter was
1 mile south of the river near State Street. It now occupies an elongated
belt from 3 to 7 miles away from the old city centre. The better residences
are also migrating to the periphery. In the last map (for 1926) skyscrapers
have developed along the lake front for a dozen miles, as well as in the
old centre of the city. Very large Polish, Czech and Italian communities
build up most of the population to the west of the city centre.
Crop-farming has now been pushed right out of the city limits, though
small truck-farms are still to be found on some vacant lots. Within this’
fringe comes a zone of small two-story houses which are built mostly of
wood. Still nearer the centre is a zone of better residences both north
and south of the city, wherever industrial pursuits are not too prevalent.
E.—GEOGRAPHY 129
The factories alternate on the west with large areas of wooden or brick
houses occupied by foreign labourers.
The heavy broken lines (linking the four stages in Fig. 14) indicate
the gradual growth of the city. Obviously this growth (as shown in
Fig. 14) resembles a cone, starting at the original humble houses of the
first settlement and gradually expanding (as a ‘ small-house zone ’) on
all sides as time progresses. The later type of building can also be
SMALLER .
nousrs DW
serves nousesla)
IN OUSTRIALL
sxyscrarers S53)
Fic. 14.—A ‘ Zones and Strata’ Diagram Showing the Evolution of Chicago for
Eighty Years. 4
Notice that the older types of structure now occur on the periphery. The
(skewed) squares are four miles across. The heavy broken line linking the
four diagrams indicates the spread of the outer zone of simple wooden houses.
(Cf. Fig. 15.)
represented by such conical growth-forms. The phenomenon is much
like the series of concentric craters built up by the lavas in a gradually
increasing volcano. Each lava-flow may be supposed to cover part of
the preceding flow, but to push some of the mobile earlier lava still farther
to the periphery. The whole concept as applied to culture-spreads has
been illustrated in Fig. 12 earlier in the address.
Since these ‘ craters of growth,’ as I have named them, help us con-
siderably in our search for affinities of isolated tribes, speeches or cultures,
I have developed the concept somewhat further in the next diagram
(Fig. 15). Here the second ‘ crater ’ illustrates how the Mediterranean
F
130 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Race has developed in space and time. Starting from a small group of
people, who originally lived somewhere near the Caspian Cradleland, this
race has gradually spread out as the millennia passed until to-day it is
found all round the margins of Eur-Asia, as well as in North Africa. On
the west the Mediterranean zone is complete—as the rim of ‘ crater 2’
suggests. On the east the later Alpines have burst through in their
journeys to Polynesia and America. But isolated tribes of the Mediter-
ranean Race, such as the Ainu and Lolo, still maintain the growth and
spread of their forefathers. (This zone is shown, in plan, in Fig. 7.)
Within the ‘ Mediterranean Crater’ we may picture an ‘ Early Alpine
Crater,’ which however is not sketched. Below (and concentric with)
Crater 2 we may imagine ‘ Crater 1,’ which shows a much earlier racial
distribution, that of the negritoes. Here the crater did not develop
symmetrically—but extended primarily to the south-west (Congo, etc.)
or to the south-east (New Guinea, etc.). However, the general conditions
1
Negrile Race
pw LURE pay
3.
’amerind Speech
x
~~sumerian ?
i ~
3Alfaic Speech Gas Ilann 2
VA 2. Med: f2 Race y COCR SEN
CASPIAN CRADLE el le ORIGIN
Fic. 15.—‘ Craters of Growth ’ are Space-Time diagrams illustrating the irregular
spread of a culture-type from the point of origin (as suggested in the corner.)
Compare the broken line in Fig. 14.
of growth are the same asin the other craters, and definitely explain the
connection of the Congo negritoes with the Tapiro and Aeta off south-east
Asia.
Turning now to the realm of language, we can illustrate their distribu-
tions by the same technique. As I have explained earlier, it seems highly
probable that the main language-stems originated in south central Asia,
just as did the races—but far later. It must again be emphasised that
there is not likely to be any permanent connection between an expanding
race and an expanding language. Both may originate in the same area—
but language moves so rapidly and is so easily transferred that it is highly
unlikely that its limits would long agree with those of race.
We may if we like picture the three ‘ craters ’ on the right of Fig. 15
arranged one above the other, Altaic below, Kentum on top. As regards
No. 3, it is suggested that the resemblances of the Indian Dravidian
languages to the Altaic (of Siberia) is due to their having a common origin
somewhere in the region between. ‘Two ‘ dead’ languages may have
a place in the south-west of this growth-pattern (Fig. 15 at 3). These
are Sumerian, spoken near Bagdad in 3000 B.c., and Mitanni, spoken in
north Syria between 1550 and 1350 B.c. Both of these, according to
some authorities, have resemblances to Altaic and Dravidian. They
E.—GEOGRAPHY 131
may be near ‘ Proto-Aryan,’ which almost certainly next developed in
this same area of culture origins.
There is little doubt that the main Aryan-speakers of Europe entered
the western continent (following many Alpine migrations who did not
speak Aryan) long after the majority of Mediterranean and Alpine tribes
(constituting the Amerinds) had migrated to the north-east and so reached
America. I have elsewhere suggested that the Basque-speakers belong
precisely to this ‘ horizon’ (if I may use a parallel geological concept)
between Hamitic and early Aryan. Hence on‘ Crater 4 ’ I have suggested
that Basque is the sole relic in west Europe of a pre-Aryan tongue which
may be equated with some forms of Amerind speech.
Still later in development, and occupying the upper position of our
three concentric language craters, is the Kentum type of Aryan. It
spread only a little to the north-east from our hypothetical cradle—where
Tocharese was spoken in Chinese Turkestan (near Turfan) as late as
A.D. 200. Some Hittites spoke something like a Kentum tongue (as their
numerous scripts indicate) in Anatolia about 1300 B.c. Kimmerians
from the Ukraine probably carried the Keltic languages westward across
Europe, though perhaps their language was more like Welsh than Gaelic.
Latin, the typical Kentum speech, seems to have reached Italy (via the
Alps) about 1200 B.c. ‘These data build up ‘ Crater 5 ’ in Fig. 15.
To the cultural geographer the chief value of these representations of
growth is that they emphasise the necessity for looking for missing
kindred-groups around the margins of a given centre of culture. Secondly
they suggest the way in which one group of languages may give rise to
another. For instance, the Satem-Aryan group developed near the cradle-
land from the Kentum-Aryan. The hypothesis also suggests that many
Amerind languages will be found to have risen from a Proto-Altaic. As
stated in an earlier paragraph the writer, on the whole, thinks that the key
to early Aryan may be found in the Dravidian tongues of Southern India.
J. DETERMINISM versus POSSIBILISM.
During the twentieth century the trend of geography has been away
from the belief of Ritter in Providential control, and from Environmental
control as expounded by Ratzel towards the ‘ Possibilism’ concept of
Vidal de la Blache and his school. The latter geographers picture any
particular region as offering almost innumerable possibilities of exploita-
tion to Man. Our material evolution, in their opinion, is essentially a
matter of our own choice depending on which of the possibilities we
choose. I have come to a different conclusion, no doubt primarily
owing to my experience in pioneer countries like Australia and Canada,
where the possibilities offered by Nature to Man are more meagre than
in Britain or U.S.A. Indeed of these three schools, which we may label
the Theocratic, the Geocratic and the ‘ We ’-ocratic, I definitely belong
tothe second. However, I propose to illustrate by the correlative method
first in a pioneer country like Canada, and secondly in the old-established
culture-complex of Europe, that man is not really a free agent—but
definitely a product of his environment.
132 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
The stage-diagram forming Fig. 16 may help to explain how this idea
of ‘ choice of possibilities ’ has arisen. It is true that in Southern Ontario
we have seen man at first dependent chiefly on fur, then on lumber, then
on farming, hydro-electric power, and mining. But all these in turn
depend on Nature’s bounty, and, given sufficient knowledge, could be
predicted as the inevitable development of an expanding nation in the
given environment.
In the lowest stage in Fig. 16, we see a generalised economic map
about 1750, showing that fish, farms, and fur had expanded to the limits
Fic. 16.—A Stage-Diagram of Industrial development in Canada from 1750 to
1930. It supports a deterministic attitude towards man’s occupation of a
country.
approximately there shown (Griffith Taylor 1936d). Some sixty years
later, by 1810, farming had spread approximately to Detroit ; while
Mackenzie was exploiting for furs the river-basin named after him. By
1870 mining was becoming of some importance, and gold (Au), silver (Ag),
and iron (Fe) mines were being exploited both near the St. Lawrence
and on the Fraser River. Still more important, Selkirk had, over fifty
years earlier, settled his isolated band of farmers on the silts of Lake
Agassiz in the heart of the continent. About 1880 the modern migration
to the wheat-fields of the prairies began. In the last and uppermost
stage we see in a generalised fashion the conditions to-day. _ The whole
td
E.—GEOGRAPHY 133
north of the Dominion is being exploited not only for furs but for metal
mines ; the latter in part by air-transport. Agriculture has covered most
of the inland prairies, and will extend north (and into the Clay Belt) as
indicated by the crosses. Manufactures have spread along the
St. Lawrence from Montreal to Ottawa and Windsor, in large part owing
to the bountiful water-power (Taylor 1936d).
But while there have been these striking advances and changes in the
type of industry, man has not really been a free agent. His advance from
fur-hunting to wheat-growing is only possible where rain and sun and
soil are satisfactory. Al/ the fur country cannot be utilised for wheat,
even if man so wishes. Using a foreign example, we shall never see
hydro-electric, power or coalfields leading to the development of factories
Z
iy Uy.
5),
Fic. 17.—The evolution of the social groups in Europe is almost wholly deter-
mined by the environmental controls of Climate, Topography and Coal; as
shown in the Insets. Figures are density per sq. mile.
in that half of the southern continent known as ‘ Empty Australia,’ how-
ever much man may wish to replace the sparsest of pastoral occupation
by better-paying industries. On the other hand, it seems clear to the
writer that in the future the immense coal resources of Alberta must
inevitably be utilised, as the more accessible coalfields are used up else-
where. Man may very probably some day ‘ choose ’ (as the ‘ Possibilist
School ’ would say) to give up ranching in the drier parts of Alberta, and
turn to manufacturing based on the almost inexhaustible coal. But he is
none the less controlled by his environment.
Exaggerating somewhat, I feel that Man’s part in the programme of
a country’s evolution is not unlike that of a trafic policeman. He can
accelerate, slow or halt the traffic, but he does not alter its direction.
This ‘ Stop and Go Determinism ’ has no supporters among the historians,
and not many even among geographers. But it expresses something of
the conclusions that I have arrived at from my lengthy study of the
difficult environments of Australia and Canada.
134 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Let us turn now to Europe, where the population has approached
closer to a state of equilibrium under modern conditions than anywhere
else in the world. Do we find that the present groups depend on racial
or on national or on tribal characteristics ? Only in a very minor degree.
The ultimate pattern of the European population is ‘ Geocratic,’ i.e. it is
almost wholly determined by Environmental Control. In Fig. 17 is shown
this population-pattern, and in the small insets A, B, and C, are shown
the climatic and structural correlations. The sparsely settled areas in the
north (Ar, Az, A3) are in the realm of King Frost, who has resisted all
invaders (Fig. 17, inset at A). In the south-east (B and E) are regions
ruled by King Drought. Of the remaining sparse areas, F is also too
dry for notable settlement, while G and G2 are Young Mountains (inset B).
The remainder of Europe has a good climate and is accordingly somewhat
densely populated. ‘The densest areas of all (T, X, Y and Z) have their
populations determined by King Coal, i.e. by the presence of the coal
trough (Inset C), which in turn results from the geological environment
of 200 million years ago.
To sum up, we can safely affirm that man’s use of Nature’s endowment
in various countries must be based on a scientific understanding of their
relative values. Systems of high protection and of autarchy run directly
contrary to this ‘ natural’ law ; and, as usual, if Man tries to direct his
industrial evolution in a way for which his environment is not suitable,
he himself is the sufferer.
K. CuLTuRE IN THE TWENTIETH CENTURY.
As in all preceding ages education is still a battleground between
conservatives and liberals, or, in less polite terms, between reactionaries
and iconoclasts. ‘Too often the reverend elders in charge of a nation’s
education forget that their chief purpose should be to train the young idea
rather than to protect the literature of a bygone age. It is a dangerous
task to attack vested interests, and in the field of culture, classical interests
are still powerful in school, college and university. Since most cultured
folk receive the main part of their education in the years from fourteen
to twenty-two it is vital to spend these precious eight years wisely. I do
not believe that the curriculum in many of the schools in the British
Empire—at any rate those with which I am familiar in Australia and
Canada—is wisely chosen. It is because I feel that the social sciences,
especially such topics as are discussed in this address, are far more im-
portant to the youth of this generation than almost any other branch of
culture that I raise the somewhat trite issue of Classics versus Modernism.
The youth of to-day has not time for both. -
We have noted in our discussion that primitive ideas persist in marginal
areas. Perhaps it should not surprise us, therefore, that in the two
distant Dominions mentioned, classical teaching is given an undue place
in schools and colleges! When St. Augustine reached Britain about
A.D. 600 with a mission to educate the barbarians, he first found it necessary
to establish grammar schools to teach the classical grammar. Not until
students knew Latin could they begin to study the mathematics, logic,
music, theology and the rudimentary science of the day. Undoubtedly
E.—GEOGRAPHY 135
we are a conservative people ; so that many folk seem to think what
was good enough for St. Augustine ought to be good enough for us !
This is perhaps the main reason why so many of our schools still give
the lion’s share of their time to the acquisition of an inadequate knowledge
of the Latin language. Latin is, of course, of small importance in helping
the average man to-day to pass on to other subjects which he really needs.
Be it understood that the Latin and Greek languages should, in my opinion,
most certainly be studied in the universities for the same reasons that we
study Anglo-Saxon and other sources of our language, and to the same
extent. There is no need to learn Greek to understand Greek philosophy.
Would that the classical protagonist realised the real value of the Greek
education as taught by Aristotle, and would encourage its adaptation to
modern times. Plato and Aristotle in 350 B.c. did not occupy the in-
valuable time of their students by wearisome repetition of the vocabularies
from” EDUCATION
NSw 1928 -
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EQuaToR Sp mine
Se ae 2
z
Which most af fects. Pe
oe
The World of Today
Latino 2000 years ago.
Fic. 18.—A knowledge of the fundamentals of modern culture is far more vital
to the youth of to-day than studies which have survived since the days of
St. Augustine.
of the Egyptians, from whom the Greeks derived much of their culture ;
or of folk-tales written in some foreign language two thousand years before
their date. They trained youth to deal intelligently with existing conditions.
We may not all agree with the scathing words of a well-known writer
(E. D. Martin), who states that culture did not mean for the Greeks
‘the accumulation of dead and inconsequential knowledge, the only
purpose of which was a pedantic display of erudition ’ (Martin 1926); but
We must suit our education to the twentieth century.
We must train our young folk to deal intelligently (i.e. scientifically)
with existing conditions. It will be of interest to draw from my own
teaching experience in this connection in Australia, Chicago and Canada.
In the former continent we see six million Anglo-Saxons living in a hot
arid continent with an environment resembling North Africa and quite
unlike any portion of Europe, not to mention the British Isles (Fig. 18).
Bordering the Commonwealth on the North are 300 million Indians,
400 million Chinese and 60 million Japanese. The empire of the last
reaches to the borders of Australasia. Yet it is safe to say that the students
in the better schools, as I knew them in Sydney, learned little or nothing
136 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
of these environments and of their effect on the inhabitants ; or about
the huge over-populated areas to the north menacing the Australian
Commonwealth. Conditions of matriculation meant that they spent one-
fifth of their time in schools studying classical languages—though only
a few per cent. would ever use this subject at the university or in later life.
In Ontario I find that conditions are not much better. Here also we
have a pioneer country, with the welfare of the citizens far more directly
controlled by the natural environment than in older regions like Britain.
Here also in my opinion we have too great a stress laid on the classics in
the general education. The schools here as elsewhere are controlled by
matriculation conditions. It is perhaps sufficient to compare some of the
social sciences with classics at the University of Toronto. There are
twenty professors (i.e. assistant professors or higher) in classics, while the
total for the five independent and newer departments of Sociology,
Psychology, Anthropology, Archzology and Geography is only sixteen.
The number of students in the second group is of course far greater. On
the other hand at Chicago—one of the three leading universities in the
States—Geography (as regards both students and staff) is on an equal
footing with classics ; and throughout most of the U.S.A. the legend that
culture is impossible without classics is nearly dead. I hope and believe
that education in this respect is better planned in Britain than in the
Dominions.
There is something very wrong with the world to-day. Our outlook on
life is confused whether we are concerned with material, mental or spiritual
values. As Lord Samuel has recently pointed out, Science in modern
times can be trusted to look after material things, but philosophy and
religion are still in the melting pot. In his opinion, that frontier where
science and philosophy meet, and where the conclusions of one are handed
across to be the premises of the other, should be taken as the vital centre
in the wide realm of thought. To my way of thinking this explains the
value of a study of cultural geography. It is a fair example of such a
transfer of concepts from science to a somewhat philosophical field.
What should be the training of the educated man to-day? If we omit
the specialised knowledge he needs for his profession, then we might do
worse than adopt Aristotle’s idea, ‘To deal in the best way possible
(i.e. scientifically) with existing conditions.’ Let us replace the bygone
Trivium of grammar, rhetoric and dialectic by one in sympathy with
modern aims. I like Wells’ summary in this connection. ‘The end and
aim of all education is to teach . . . of the beginnings of life upon this
lonely little planet, and how these beginnings have unfolded ; to show
how man has arisen through the long ages from amidst the beasts, and
the nature of the struggle God wages through him’ (Wells rgrr). In
effect, to make folks realise that evolution is still progressing, and that
they themselves are living factors in the process.
Three subjects seem to be vital in the scheme of education outlined
above. First Biology, which deals with the evolution of man as an animal ;
secondly, History which deals largely with the growth of his ideals and’
institutions ; and thirdly Geography which deals with his present, often
4 Professors in classics and philosophy are almost wholly appointed by the
affiliated Colleges themselves.
E.—_GEOGRAPHY 137
varying, environment which is inevitably moulding himself. ‘This to my
mind is the ultimate reason why Geography can be claimed as one of the
three fundamentals of modern education. I should like to see Wells’
Outline of History, or some similar generalised study of cultural evolution
(and I have tried to write two, myself !), made compulsory for all high
schools. A knowledge of this aspect of culture will be far more helpful
in the present world-crisis than much of the present curriculum.
The aim of civilisation, as I see it, is not to prepare for a better world
beyond this earth, but to prepare a better world on this earth. Our
immediate objective should be a world of peace. ‘This can only be attained
by studying world problems, especially those involving other nations
and cultures. It would seem desirable to swing the attention of youth for
a generation or two from the problems of physical science to the more
difficult and dangerous problems of social science. There is no risk
to-day, though there was in the past, in stating that the earth is a globe,
revolves around the sun, and is of infinitely small importance in the
Cosmos. But there is grave danger in many circles in stating the truth
about Communism, Socialism, Judaism, Nordicism and many other
-isms which conflict with established or dictatorial interests. These
creeds are cultural facts, which can be most readily understood by
a graphical presentation. It is no quibble to say that they are to-day
more vital to the man of culture, i.e. with a well-rounded education, than
is the well-recognised and valuable culture based on art, rusic, or classics.
Thus the geographer whose interests lie not only in the economic but
also in the cultural field can feel that he is working right on the battle-front
in man’s progress towards a higher type of civilisation.
L. BIBLIOGRAPHY
This Address is an expansion of certain chapters of my last two books,
Environment and Nation and Environment, Race and Migration, both of which
have been published at Toronto, Oxford and Chicago, by the University Presses.
Childe, V.G. 1934 New Light on the Most Ancient East, London.
——__—. 1936 The Aryans, London.
Dixon, R. 1923 Racial History of Man, New York.
de Hevesy, M. G. 1933 ‘Sur un écriture oceanienne,’ Bull. Soc. Prehist. Fran,
Encyclopedia Britannica. 1929 Article on ‘ Philology.’
Fergusson and Burgess. 1880 The Cave Temples of India, London, p. 33.
See also 1929 ‘ Indian Architecture,’ Ency. Britt. 12.
Finch and Baker. 1917 Geography of the World’s Agriculture, Washington.
Hunter, G. R. 1934 The Script of Havappa, London.
Huntington, E. 1937 ‘ Geography and History,’ Can. J. Econ., Toronto.
——_—_——._ 1938 Season of Birth, New York.
Hoyt, H. 1933 Land Values in Chicago, Chicago.
Jespersen, O. 1894 Progress in Language, London, p. 36.
Keith, A. 1931 New Discoveries Relating to Man, London.
Koeppen, W. 1932 ‘ Age of Man in Europe,’ Anthropos, p. 955.
Martin, E.D. 1926 The Meaning of a Liberal Education, New York.
Matthew, W. D. 1915 ‘Climate and Evolution,’ Ann. Acad. Sci., New York.
Metraux, J. 1938 ‘Easter Island Tablets,’ Man, London, January.
Routledge, S. 1919 Mystery of Easter Island, London.
Taylor, Griffith. 1919 ‘Climatic Cycles and Evolution,’ Geo. Rev., New York.
——___—_ 1921 ‘Evolution and Distribution of Race, Language and
Culture,’ Geo. Rev., New York.
1930 ‘ Racial Migration Zones,’ Human Biology, Baltimore.
F2
138 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Taylor, Griffith. 1934 ‘ Ecological Basis of Anthropology,’ Ecology, Chicago.
————— 1935 ‘Geography, the Correlative Science,’ Can. J. Econ.,
Toronto.
1936a Environment and Nation, Oxford, p. 108.
1936b Envivonment and Nation, Oxford, p. 417.
1936c ‘ Zones and Strata Theory,’ Human Biology, Baltimore.
— 1936d ‘ Fundamental Factors in Canadian Geography,’ Can.
Geog. Jnl.
1937a Environment, Race and Migration, Fig. 28.
1937b Environment, Race and Migration, p. 460.
Wells, H. G. tro11 The New Machiavelli, London.
Wiener, L. 1899 History of Yiddish Litervature, London.
Worrell, W. H. 1927 Races in the Ancient Neay East, New York.
Wyld, H.C. 1920 History of Modern Colloquial English, London.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS.
SCOPE AND METHOD OF ECONOMICS
ADDRESS BY
R. F. HARROD,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
In my choice of subject to-day, I fear that I have exposed myself to two
serious charges: that of tedium and that of presumption. Speculations
upon methodology are famous for platitude and prolixity. They offer
the greatest opportunity for internecine strife ; the claims of contending
factions are subject to no agreed check, and a victory, even if it could be
established, is thought to yield no manifest benefit to the science itself.
The barrenness of methodological conclusions is often a fitting complement
to the weariness entailed by the process of reaching them.
Exposed as a bore the methodologist cannot take refuge behind a cloak
of modesty. On the contrary, he stands forward ready by his own claim
to give advice to all and sundry, to criticise the work of others, which,
whether valuable or not, at least attempts to be constructive; he sets
himself up as the final interpreter of the past and dictator of future
efforts.
My sense of immodesty is greatly enhanced by the occasion and place
of this gathering. As economists we are singularly happy in having this
meeting of the British Association in Cambridge. There is no need for
me to emphasise the unique contribution which this University has made
to economic studies in recent times; the great names of masters dead
and living are in all our minds. And here I come, a tyro from a Univer-
sity, which, albeit the home of revered economists—may I be forgiven for
mentioning Locke, Senior, W. F. Lloyd and Edgeworth—must in the
modern period recognise its own juniority of status, and dare to lay down
the law in this holy of holies. Inthe sphere of methodology the Cambridge
economists have contributed much both by way of parenthesis in their
major works and by occasional papers. I must refer also to the classic
treatise on Scope and Method by Dr. John Nevile Keynes, who is still
happily with us.
As a small extenuating circumstance I may mention that after taking
my degree at Oxford I spent an all too brief but highly stimulating period
here as the pupil of Mr. Maynard Keynes. And it is a source of par-
ticular pride and pleasure to me that on the first meeting of the Association
in Cambridge thereafter I should re-visit it in this honourable capacity.
My substantial excuse for choosing methodology to-day is that I feel
140 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
a strong inner urge to say something. Also the time appears to be fitting.
English writers have been on the whole wisely chary of the subject ; but
recently there has been an outcrop of speculation upon it. There is
Prof. Robbins’ brilliant essay. My differences from him on certain
matters of emphasis will become manifest ; his effective and conclusive
exposure of many popular fallacies regarding the nature and assumptions
of pure theory considerably lightens my burden. Prof. Fraser has con-
tributed some important articles, and his book on Economic Thought
and Language lies on the borderland of methodology. Most recently we
have Mrs. Wootton’s jeremiad.1_ While her case against too grandiose
claims for our subject is unassailable, I am confident that a circumspect
statement of its achievement and utility would be proof against her shafts.
Most melancholy of all I find her unappetising programme for the future
development of economics.
A word of warning is in place at the outset. In view of the prospective
intensification of economic studies in this country, it might be thought
timely to lay down the lines or set up some finger-posts for the work which
might most profitably be done. Such an attempt would indeed be
presumptuous and would depart altogether from proper methodological
procedure. The principles by which progress in a science proceeds can
only be reached by observing that progress. They cannot be deduced
a priori or prescribed in advance. There are no doubt certain general
logical rules to which all genuine advance in knowledge is subject. The
study of these constitutes logic itself. Each science or discipline has its
own special limitations and conditions; its method of progress has its
own special characteristics ; within the wide field of logical possibilities
some are selected as especially adapted to its problems; it is with this
selection that methodology is concerned. And for this reason the
methodologist is bound to occupy the rear and not the vanguard. He
studies the specific nature of the selected principles after the selection has
been made. Methods of course change from time to time ; but the actual
worker on special problems is more likely than the methodologist to be
able to judge the best line of advance. ‘The methodologist’s contribution
is more indirect.
It is when they endeavour to adopt a forward position that the methodo-
logists are most apt to lapse into barren controversy. The historical
school scolds the deductive school and the deductive school scolds back.
Captions and battle-cries are devised. ‘The ‘ institutionalists ’ appear on
the scene. These rival schools endeavour to prescribe what economic
method ought to be. ‘The function of the methodologist is to say what it
in fact is, or, more strictly, has so far been. The proper and final reply
to the would-be reformer is, ‘ Stop talking and get on with the job ; apply
your method, and, if it is productive, you will be able to display your
results.’
On first glance this relegation of the methodologist to the rear might
seem to give public endorsement to what has all the time been the inward
suspicion of the pioneer that he is an utterly useless being. But in fact
by reducing his claims he at once becomes much more useful. The
1 Cp. also Dr. Lancelot Hogben, Political Arithmetic, Introduction.
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 141
forward worker is inevitably influenced by methods used in the past;
methods that have already achieved good results may be expected to
achieve more ; tools ready to hand are taken up. By going over the old
ground and making a stricter survey, the methodologist may considerably
modify this influence of the past upon the present. For instance, by a
minute examination of assumptions he may show that there are certain
limitations in principle to the productiveness of a given method and that it
has in fact already yielded all the results that its assumptions allow. Or,
he may show that propositions usually deemed to constitute constructive
knowledge do not in fact do so, but consist essentially of definitions of
the terms employed. Or, he may show that conclusions often presented
as the fruits of deductive reasoning were suggested by observation of the
facts and have no other support, the premises used in the pedagogic
demonstration being hypotheses otherwise unsupported. These elucida-
tions may alter the forward worker’s sense of proportion and the reliance
he implicitly places on certain tools. They may give him a greater
understanding of the nature of past achievements and so insensibly
influence him in his gropings towards fresh discovery. ‘To do this is
very different from trying to lay down the lines on which he ought to work.
This survey of economics is confined to what may be called its
scientific aspect—namely, the formulation of general laws and maxims.
Many economists are, naturally, concerned with much besides this.
They are concerned with the bare description of institutions, with com-
piling statistics and presenting them in an informative way. Study of
this sort may be regarded as contemporary economic history. It has
serious methodological problems of its own, which are not considered
here...
It must not be inferred that this paper is solely concerned with so-called
deductive economics. Quite the contrary. Its purpose is to emphasise
the limitations of deduction and the importance of observation of the facts.
Facts may be observed for their own intrinsic interest, or as tending to
establish or overthrow some generalisation. It is the latter type of
observation that falls within this survey.
It may be of assistance at this point to sketch out certain broad con-
clusions which the following reasoning seeks to establish. An advance
statement of this kind may make the course of the argument more easy
to follow.
I propose to divide what is commonly regarded as the pure theory
of traditional economics into two sharply distinguished sections. Con-
fusion appears to me to have arisen from the failure to make this distinc-
tion. On the one hand there is the theory of value and distribution ;
on the other there is the maxim that productive resources should so be
distributed among occupations as to yield an equi-marginal social net
product.?
The theory of value and distribution seeks to show how a number of
circumstances taken as given (the fundamental data)—namely, the pre-
ferences and capacities of individuals and the available resources—serve
2 Cp. Prof. Pigou, Economics of Welfare, 1st ed., pt. ii, ch. 2, sec. 5.
142 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
to determine a structure of output and prices. If a change in these data
occurs, the theory professes ability to predict the consequences within
certain limits on the price-output structure. This professed ability to
predict implies that we have available certain general laws concerning
the succession of events, causal laws in fact. Rigid demonstrability and
certainty, of an almost geometric kind, are claimed for them. Since the
laws concern the succession of phenomena they must have an empirical
basis; and since the phenomena of economics are notoriously highly
complex and unamenable to scientific handling, it is a paradox that the
laws derived from their study should have the high degree of certainty
claimed for them.
The paradox is resolved when we consider that the laws in question
are deducible from a single simple principle (Robbins), itself based on
experience, but on an experience far wider than that vouchsafed by the
study of markets and prices and extending back to the earliest phases of
man’s self-conscious existence—namely, the Law of Diminishing Utility
or the Law of Demand, to be defined more precisely presently. The
experience is so broad that the principle may be taken as an axiom of the
highest possible degree of empirical probability.
But against this very high degree of probability of the principle and the
laws deduced from it must be set their complementary degree of generality.
The degree of generality is indeed so great that, I shall submit, the power
of prediction vouchsafed by them is almost nugatory.
Next, economists, even the most theoretical, have been prone to give
advice on the basis of theory. And I believe that economists would claim
that much of the advice so given since Adam Smith has been valid. A
type of the advice I have in mind, though this by no means covers the
whole field, is the recommendation of free trade. Now it will at once
occur to the critic to ask how, if it is true that the laws of value and dis-
tribution are so general that they yield but a nugatory power of prediction,
can a quite copious array of advisory propositions, admittedly based on
pure theory, be justified.
The reply is that these prescriptions are based on the other department
of what is commonly regarded as pure theory. ‘They are derived from the
maxim that productive resources should be so distributed among occupa-
tions as to yield an equi-marginal social net product. The nature and
justification of this maxim must be considered.
In order to derive from it precepts, which are applicable in the real
world, certain knowledge about that world is necessary. This knowledge
does not, however, relate primarily to causal sequences, nor does it consist
of a bare enumeration of particular features and events. It arises rather
from a simultaneous chart or survey of the economic field and the main
work of the cartographer is analysis and classification. ‘This analytical
work is required both as a preliminary to the construction of the map and
to the derivations of specific causal laws from the law of demand. I
venture to submit that it is this identity of the preliminary groundwork
which has tended to obscure the fundamental distinction between the
set of conclusions which relate to causal sequences and involve predictory
power on the one hand and the comprehensive but simultaneous con-
*
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 143
spectus of the field as a whole, on which the validity of the prescriptions
depends, on the other.
I regard this division of analysis into two departments as of importance,
(i) because it reconciles the fairly copious array of economic precept with
the very limited power of prediction, and (ii) because only by it can the
empirical grounds of our general propositions be properly sorted out. I
should add that recent methodological speculation appears to attach too
much importance to the part played by the general theory of value and
too little to that of the equi-marginal maxim in the history of economic
thought.
Recently economists have had the very proper ambition of obtaining
greater knowledge of causal sequences than is vouchsafed by deductions
from the Law of Demand. The phenomena of the Trade Cycle have been
a special stimulus in this direction. But once they leave the plane of high
generality which pertains to those deductions, their generalisations are
likely to have a much lower degree of probability. All the difficulties
associated with the complex and unamenable nature of the phenomena,
which they have to study, come to the surface. They must say goodbye
for ever to the claims to certainty which they could make, so long as they
remained within the confines of their geometrical system. From being
one of the most exact, albeit narrowly circumscribed, sciences, economics
of necessity becomes one of the most conjectural.
Yet the conjecture of the trained observer may be of value. In the
recent period economists have already offered advice on the basis of their
conjectures in this dubious field. ‘To this department belong many of
the recommendations concerning control of the trade cycle; they are
based on propositions concerning causal sequences not derived from the
Law of Demand: on propositions, therefore, which are to some extent
conjectural. Hence the recent conflict of prescriptions, of which we have
heard so much. Thus we may account for the transition from the
unanimity of advice, common in the last century, of which free trade is a
good instance, to present-day disagreements. ‘The former was based on
the analytical map, making no claim to causal knowledge ; the latter is
based on the necessarily conjectural propositions of cycle theory, which
must make such a claim and are conjectural precisely because they entail
such a claim.
But the new realm of conjecture, though it may drive out the old know-
ledge from its position of central interest in the economist’s mind, does
not invalidate that knowledge. It will be a thousand pities if the con-
flicting nature of prescriptions of the new type, which economists are right
to give, albeit without claim to certainty, since they must give of their best,
undermines the authority of the advice given on the basis of the analytical
map.
r now proceed to a more detailed examination. What remains is
divided into four parts. The first I call the economic criterion, which
deals with the nature and authority of the prescriptions given on the basis
of the analytical map. The second is the theory of value and distribution,
which considers the scope and validity of the causal knowledge derived
from the Law of Demand. There remain the recent strivings after causal
144 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
knowledge outside that ambit. Within this field I carve out a section
named dynamic theory for reasons which will be explained. The residual
section I call empirical study. This must not be taken to imply that the
knowledge considered in the earlier sections is not based on experience.
I expect the studies falling under this fourth head to be the most important
in the future ; but owing to my rearguard position I shall not be able to
say much about them. I hope that appreciation of the necessary limita-
tions to the scope of the other types of knowledge may serve to stimulate
the new empirical work.
if
THE ECONOMIC. CRITERION.
The train of thought here to be considered is derived from Adam Smith.
His chief claim to fame consists in his origination of it, his work on this
topic having far greater cogency and authority than his particular formula-
tion of the labour theory of value or his speculations on the forces deter-
mining wages, profitand rent. Furthermore I conceive it to be the central
core of classical economics, entitled to an easy priority over the theory of
value and distribution to which more recent writers, by reason of the
growing precision of its formulation, have tended to give pride of place.
The contribution of this department of theory must be considered
under two heads: (1) the choice of the criterion itself ; (2) the mechanism
for testing how far existing or proposed arrangements and practices fulfil
its requirements.
The criterion may be defined dogmatically as follows: If an individual
prefers a commodity or service X to Y, it is economically better that he
should have it. Similarly, if the individual prefers work X to Y, or dislikes
it less, it is economically better that he should do it. ‘The economic good
is thus the preferred. If we may adopt Prof. Robbins’ method of regard-
ing the inner structure of thought rather than the verbal formulation of it,
this choice of a criterion may be attributed to Adam Smith.
The act of choice cannot be regarded either as a discovery or a hypo-
thesis, though it partakes to some extent in the nature of each. He per-
ceived that by means of it, it would be possible to make sense of the
confused and conflicting arguments of economic doctors and reduce chaos
to order. This choice involved scientific insight of a high order. Its
merits may be judged by its fruits.
In appraising institutions and practices and making recommendations
the economist has this criterion in mind; it constitutes his standard of
good and bad.
Zealous protagonists for the scientific character of economics have
been disposed, especially recently, to define the advisory capacity of the
economist somewhat differently. Realising that in fully developed
sciences, laws of causation have primacy of position and practical maxims
issue as corollaries from them, they have been unwisely eager to assimilate
economics to this category. Consequently they have suggested that the °
economist in his advisory capacity should state that a given interference
will lead to certain consequences X, Y, Z . . . and then remain silent,
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 145
leaving his client to decide whether X, Y, Z... isa state of affairs
which he wishes to bring about. This formulation is in manifest conflict
with the actual practice of economists. If the methodologist urges that
this ought to be their actual practice, he trespasses beyond his proper
province, which has already been defined. Also this formulation claims
both too much and too little.
It claims too much because it gives an exaggerated idea of the
economist’s power of prediction at the present juncture. It claims too
little because it entails that his advisory power is confined within the narrow
limits of his predictory power. Moreover it would make him present his
information in a form in which it would be of no use to his client.
Suppose, for instance, an import duty on what is under consideration.
He may feel confident that this will cause the price of wheat and wheaten
bread within the country to be higher than it would otherwise be. He
knows also that the duty will have effects on the prices of other com-
modities, on the incomes of various classes, on the foreign exchanges and
the circulation of money. But he cannot put these effects into quantitative
terms and in some cases he may not know the direction of the conse-
quential movements. To do so he would have to have much more detailed
causal laws at his disposal than there is any immediate prospect of his
having. ‘
But even if he could know all these things, his advice would still be in
a form of little use to his client. Having heard all the prospective charges,
the client will want to know whether the last state of affairs is in sum
better or worse than the first and will be unable by his unaided intelligence
to decide.
By resorting to his analytical map, presently to be described, the
economist may be able to come by a short cut to the required answer.
He may be able to say outright and with substantial authority that on the
- whole the individuals of the community will be in a worse position, even
although his power of predicting the actual course of prices and incomes
is negligible. Any definition of the economist’s advisory scope, which
does not recognise this, is unrealistic and fails to do justice to the use-
fulness of the economist even with his present limited powers.
Strictures upon the economist’s proneness to give advice come also
from another quarter—namely, politicians or moral philosophers. What
right, they say, has the economist to lay down that such and such ought
‘to be done, since this depends in part upon the ends sought? Surel
the economist must wait until the ends are furnished to him by the
politician. This criticism is not valid.
The economist is entitled to his criterion of individual preference.
The politician may then say to him, ‘ I am not so much interested in indi-
viduals getting what they prefer, as in the country being self-sufficient.
What I want to know is how to achieve this.’ But there are an infinite
number of ways of achieving it. Which shall the economist prescribe ?
The politician may add: ‘ Oh, well, I want to do it in the most economical
way.’ The economist then interprets this as meaning that subject to the
overriding condition of self-sufficiency, individuals are to get what they
prefer. Without his own criterion he cannot choose among the infinite
146 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
variety of possibilities. ‘Thus he has to employ it, even when a specific
end is furnished to him.®
He uses his criterion both to give advice stmpliciter and to give it sub-
ject to an overriding end furnished to him. If it were true that there is a
latent ethical or political bias when he gives advice simpliciter, it would
be equally true when he advises on the means to achieve an end laid down
by moralists or politicians. Without his own criterion, he is entirely
stultified. With it, he can give advice of precisely equal validity and
freedom from ethical bias whether a specific end is furnished to him or not.
We proceed to our second head within this field of thought: the
mechanism for testing whether the requirements of the criterion are ful-
filled. Here again our main debt is to Adam Smith. He perceived that
the complex phenomena of markets and prices might be regarded as the
result of the efforts of individuals to inform each other of their preferences.
This is the basis of the analytical map. He correctly maintained that
economic study arises from the fact of division of labour. Robinson
Crusoe directs his energies in relation to his own standard of preferences ;
he needs no outside advice. He may indeed misdirect his efforts from
ignorance of agriculture or engineering ; in this the technicians in these
subjects can alone correct him; the economist has no place. The need
for the economist arises from the division in person between the producer
and the consumer.
Economists have constructed a map or model in which individuals
are seen informing each other of their preferences. (It may help the
reader to regard this map as ‘ the theory of perfect competition,’ provided
that all reference to the sequence of events is excluded from that ‘ theory.’)
In order to construct the map in a way which corresponds with the
observed phenomena of the real world, certain important analytical work
was necessary. ‘The relevant propositions may be stated in the form of
truisms or tautologies, such as that the price of an article is equal to the
sum of rewards to all persons contributing to its production, or again, if
services of the same type get equal rewards in different occupations, the
prices of commodities will be proportional to the quantity of services
required for their production. The intellectual intuition behind these
formulations is primarily one of classification. Indeed, it may be said
that the major part of traditional economic theory consists of classification.
Classification is a highly respectable scientific activity of which economists
have no need to be ashamed. By referring more to it and less to so-called
‘laws’ their claim to scientific status, albeit more modest, would be less
suspected.
3 The position may be more complex. The economist may be asked to pro-
vide not for absolute self-sufficiency but for a higher degree of it than obtained
before. He will then be able to lay down the conditions for the attainment of
the greatest amount of economic advantage in connection with any given degree
of self-sufficiency, and he may be able to give some idea of the successive rates
of economic sacrifice involved in the attainment of successively higher degrees
of self-sufficiency. ;
4 More strictly, the prices of commodities will be the sums of parts a, b,c...
charged in respect of services A, B,C . . ., the value of each of which parts will
be proportional to the quantity of the corresponding service used.
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 147
The map is to some extent hypothetical. It supposes that various
activities may be interpreted as notifications of preferences. On the other
hand it is drawn with reference to the facts of the situation, assuming, if
appropriate, such matters as private property, private ownership of land,
unequal division of wealth, even special types of banking institution,
company organisation, etc., and traces how the mutual notification, which
it supposes to be intended, operates in these conditions.
Two points may be noted. (1) By means of the map we are enabled
to get a view of the economic field as a whole. This is necessary for
prescription. A particular piece of legislation may be well designed to
secure its specific object. All reasonable men will wish to know, and it is
the economist’s task to say, how this fits in with the larger purpose, for
which the whole economic mechanism is designed. To what extent does
the specific objective militate against or further the more general purpose ?°
This can be studied by reference to the analytical conspectus. (2) Our
right to interpret observed phenomena as constituting the mutual expres-
sion of preferences depends in the last analysis on introspection. An
observant visitor from Mars who knew nothing of the nature of desire,
purpose and will, might well be unable to make this necessary link ; he
could become expert in the knowledge of causal sequences, but for lack
of the necessary interpretation would be unable to give advice on the basis
of the conspectus.°®
The map is related to the criterion of preference by this principle, that
the more effective the system of mutual notification attained, the more
fully are preferences likely to be realised. Reference may be made to the
example of an import duty on wheat. We may know enough of the
existing organisation of markets to be sure that this will impose an obstruc-
tion to effective mutual notification. We infer that in the presence of this
obstruction preferences are less likely to be secured. The validity of this
inference depends upon the correctitude of our interpretation of existing
market processes. It is independent of knowledge how individuals will
react to the obstruction,’ namely, the consequent course of prices, wages,
etc., which we should have to know if we were required to give a full
statement of consequences before prescribing, but which we only could
know if our causal knowledge were fuller than it is.
How far the facts of real life correspond to those envisaged in the map
is a matter of observation and it should be subjected to continuous check.
Economists of the past were perhaps too hasty in assuming exact corre-
spondence. On the basis of the assumption and the criterion that the
5 If interpret him aright, this account is in accordance with the view expressed
by Prof. Robbins in his section on ‘ rationality ’ in the concluding section of the
Nature and Significance of Economic Science. Cp. also Prof. G. Cassel, Funda-
mental Thoughts on Economics, p. 14.
® This is in principle the position to which Prof. Cassel would reduce
economists by extruding all reference to utility from economics. Cp. Funda-
mental Thoughts on Economics, pp. 66-70. In another place, however, he recog-
nises the fundamental part played by the notion of need, which is only another
word for utility, cp. Theory of Social Economy, vol. i, pp. 8-9 (tr. McCabe).
7 In exceptional cases the precise nature of this reaction might be relevant.
Our map read in conjunction with our interpretation of the market should warn
us if there is any probability of this.
148 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
economic objective was to achieve the preferred position the maxim of
laissez-faire was exalted and a wealth of recommendations vouchsafed.
These may be defended at least negatively. A given interference,
unless specifically designed to shape the real world to a closer approxima-
tion to the map, is likely to distort it further from it. In this case reference
to the criterion makes valid condemnation possible.
More recently there has been a proper tendency to go beyond this
negative attitude and to consider what interferences might be introduced
to make the real world more like the map. Recommendations of this sort
must be based on a vigilant observation of the actual working of real
institutions (but they do not rest on causal laws or predictory powers).
In this connection reference may be made to the formulation by Prof.
Pigou, already referred to, that the marginal social net product of resources
in different occupations should be equal. ‘Time forbids me to consider
the definitions and classifications required to support this. It is the
necessary but not sufficient condition for the fulfilment of the criterion
that individuals should get what they prefer and may be regarded as a
(partial) re-statement of it.
The fact that a large part of Prof. Pigou’s Economics of Welfare consists
in the appraisal of institutions and proposals in the light of his criterion is
evidence that this line of thought still has vitality.
Recent theorems relating to Imperfect Competition, which in my own
mind at least have a direct intellectual connection with Prof. Pigou’s
consideration of Increasing Returns in the light of his criterion, appear
to have their principal value, not in the realm of causal laws or prediction,
but as an endeavour to show in an orderly and systematic way how real
markets are distorted by comparison with those of the map.
In spite of these interesting developments I feel that there is a danger
that this part of economic speculation, the field of its most signal triumphs
in the past, may suffer an undeserved neglect, whether owing to the
economist’s absorption in rival interests or to his discouragement at the
overthrow of free trade. A mistaken methodological ban on advice-
giving might also contribute something.
The widespread growth of government interference makes this function
more and not lessimportant. Officially sponsored rationalisation schemes,
arrangements for the semi-public operation of services, public policy with
regard to road and rail transport, marketing board arrangements all require
vigilant scrutiny in the light of the criterion, to say nothing of more full-
blooded socialist programmes. Even if public policy appears to violate
the advice which the economist would give simpliciter, this is no excuse
for him not to take an interest in the fulfilment of his criterion subject to
the overriding demands of policy. He may think that there is no case for
giving agriculture special protection ; in the face of the opposite policy
he has scope enough to criticise the arrangements introduced to give effect
to it. If he loses interest in this field of thought, the country is only too
likely to get tied up with red tape and be subject to vast avoidable wastage.
One further topic remains for consideration in this section. '
The preference criterion which forms the basis of the kind of investiga-
tion here considered was stated in a form not involving the comparison
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 149
of the claims of different individuals with one another. ‘The preferences
notified in the model market are of the form that a given individual
prefers an nth unit of X to an mth of Y. The need of one individual is
not compared with that of another.
Yet one is tempted to make such comparisons. For example, Marshall
says in the Principles that the marginal utility of twopence is greater in
the case of a poorer man than in that of aricher. If such comparisons are
allowed, recommendations for a more even distribution of income seem
to follow logically. They give scope for a wide range of recommenda-
tions not sponsored by our original criterion.
Objection to this enlargement of the field of prescription may be based
on two grounds.
(i) It may be urged that the economist hereby goes outside his proper
‘scientific’ field. This point is strongly urged by Prof. Robbins.
Whether the th unit of X has greater or less utility than the mth of Y
to a given individual may be made the subject of test. He can be given
the choice. But there are no ‘ scientific’ means of deciding whether the
nth of X has greater or less utility to individual P than the mth of Y has
to another individual Q. The choice can never be put. This implies
that we cannot decide whether two pence have more utility to a mil-
lionaire or a beggar. Yet we may have a shrewd suspicion. But this,
we are told, is ‘ unscientific,’ for lack of a test. This objection would be
very weighty if economics itself were a mature and exact science. Yet
in fact its achievements outside a limited field are so beset on every side
by matters which only admit of conjecture that it is possibly rather
ridiculous for an economist to take such a high line. mexatdsvuévov yap
gottv él tocotrov to dxpibec emilyrety xx0’ Exanotov yévoc, Ep’ Scov H Tod
mekyuatog ovotg émdéyecat.8 Can we afford to reject this very clear
finding of common sense? Of course great caution must be exercised
in not pushing the matter too far. Since the evidence is vague, we must
not go further than a very clear mandate from common sense allows.
It is not altogether certain that the gulf between the prescriptions of the
classical economists and those of, shall I call them, the welfare school
is as great as Prof. Robbins implies. There is no doubt that the marginal
utility of twopence to a given man at a given time and in given other
circumstances is less if he has {1,000,000 a year than if he has £25 a year,
since he will spend the £25 on things which he prefers per 1d. of cost to
the things on which he would spend the remaining £999,975. ‘The further
postulate that the twopence has lower utility to a millionaire than to a
£25 per annum man is based on some sort of assumption about the equality
of men in regard to their needs, which must not be pressed too far. But
so also do the prescriptions favourable to free markets. For the indi-
viduals who gain by the opening of a market are often different from those
who suffer some loss. Consider the Repeal of the Corn Laws. This
tended to reduce the value of a specific factor of production, land. It can
no doubt be shown that the gain to the community as a whole exceeded
8 Aristotle, Ethica Nicomachea, 1094b. ‘For an educated person should
expect to obtain precision in each branch of study to the extent which its nature
permits,’
150 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
the loss to the landlords—but only if individuals are treated in some sense
as equal. Otherwise how can the loss to some, and that there was a
loss can hardly be denied, be compared with the general gain? If the
incomparability of utility to different individuals is strictly pressed, not
only are the prescriptions of the welfare school ruled out, but all pre-
scriptions whatever. ‘The economist as an adviser is completely stultified,
and, unless his speculations be regarded as of paramount esthetic value,
he had better be suppressed completely. No; some sort of postulate of
equality has to be assumed. But it should be carefully framed and used
with great caution, always subject to the proviso ‘ unless the contrary can
be shown.’ In the case of the free market arguments there is usually no
characteristic attaching peculiarly to the beneficiaries of restriction other
than that they are beneficiaries. In the case of the uneven distribution
of income, there are many special characteristics of the rich as a class to
which due consideration must be given.
(ii) Objection may be raised on more general grounds which appear to
me to have greater weight. The distribution of income is intimately
connected with the balance of social and political forces, the study of
which is outside the economist’s province. In prescribing here he knows
without being told that there are other considerations. This is not to say
that he should avoid all questions with political entanglements, for then
again he would be almost completely stultified. Most vested interests
can whip up some political support. It is a matter of degree and sense
of proportion.
It might further be urged that since redistribution is a straightforward
matter widely understood, the economist might well leave it alone, since
he can but reinforce in technical language an argument already before
the public. Projects of redistribution, however, may have complicated
ramifications which the economist is especially qualified by his other
training to trace out. For instance, in his Public Finance Prof. Pigou has
worked out with great elaboration the principles and consequences of a
redistributive system of taxation. It may safely be said that this work
would have been beyond the powers of any but a highly trained economist.
II.
GENERAL ‘THEORY OF VALUE AND DISTRIBUTION (STATIC THEORY).
We now enter the territory which has increasingly come to be regarded
as the special domain of the economic theorist. It is here that we find the
laws relating to the succession of phenomena, claiming a high degree of
authority, on which prediction is based. :
It is not altogether clear why this department of thought has been
so greatly elevated. The trouble may have begun with Ricardo. He
wrote: ‘in different stages of society, the proportions of the whole
produce of the earth which will be allotted to each of these classes, under
the names of rent, profit, and wages will be essentially different . . . to
determine the laws which regulate this distribution is the principal problem
of Political Economy.’ Why the principal problem? We are not told.
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 151
The method of procedure is to take certain elements in the situation as
given—namely, the preference lists of individuals for goods and services,
the terms on which they are willing to contribute their assistance in pro-
duction and the current state of technology ; and to take other elements
as unknowns—namely, the prices of all commodities and of factors of pro-
duction, the amounts of commodities which will be produced and of
factors which will be employed, and the precise methods of production
among the variety of these technically possible which will be used. If
the elements taken as known were in fact known, it would be possible to
write down a number of equations expressing some of the unknowns as
functions of the others. The object of this procedure would be to provide
means of showing how changes in the fundamental data, desires, etc.,
will govern the course of events.
I regard the most notable intellectual achievement in this department
to be the classification of factors of production required as preliminary to
the formulation of the equations. (This classification has also proved of
great service in elaborating the analytical map already considered.)
There is the analysis of the contribution of capital to production as con-
sisting essentially of waiting. ‘There is all the work concerning the rela-
tion between direct and overhead costs. The so-called law of rent has
given rise to a number of dichotomies of great interest. ‘The concept of
profit as a reward for skill and judgment has been rendered fairly precise.
Prof. Knight has shed a penetrating light upon the relation of profit
to uncertainty-bearing, but some puzzles here remain. Meanwhile
Mr. Keynes has produced another concept, liquidity-sacrifice, which bids
fair to find a place as an independent factor; it needs further elaboration,
and its relation to the general concept of uncertainty-bearing requires
precise definition.
These concepts are then applied and their values are expressed as
unknown quantities in a number of forms of functional equations. ‘These
relate to the demands for commodities considered as functions of the
prices of commodities, the quantities of factors used to produce commodi-
ties considered as functions of the prices of factors, and the quantities of
factors on offer considered as functions of their prices. Satisfaction is
expressed if there are as many forms of equations as there are unknown
quantities.
But we run at once into this difficulty that the matters taken as known
for the sake of argument are in fact not known. We may write down
that the quantity of a commodity demanded depends on its price and on
the prices of other commodities. But this does not take us far unless
we know the precise law of dependence. We can only say that there
should be an equation here, and if it could be written out along with a
number of other equations, we should be able to determine the value of
the unknowns and the effect of any specified change upon them. But in
fact we have not got these equations, but only a number of blank forms,
which are nothing more than aspirations to have such equations !
If this were the end of the matter, this department of theory would
yield no causal laws and no power to predict whatever. The situation
is not quite so bad. It is at this point that the Law of Demand is brought
ra
152 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
into play. With its aid we are able to say something about the demand
equations. We say that they will have this in common, that the quantity
of a commodity demanded will be less the higher its price. We are still
unable to formulate the demand equations precisely, but we have this very
general piece of knowledge about their structure. Having regard to it
and also assuming that the other equations relating to supply and produc-
tive methods are not of a very odd structure,‘ limited powers of prediction
with regard to the direction, though not the quantitative value of changes
consequent upon a change in fundamental data, are rendered possible.
How do we come by this law of demand? Here we are certainly at
the very centre of traditional economic theory. I do not believe this to
be based on an observation of markets in the ordinary sense. There the
confusing influence of many forces is operative, and though scatter
diagrams may give a faint suggestion of the law, we hold it with much more
feeling of assurance than they would vouchsafe.
Consider the Law of Diminishing Utility. Is this based on some
psycho-physiological principle, the diminishing reaction to stimuli?
Is the main constructive part of our theory based on a generalisation
borrowed from elsewhere, the verification of which depends on the
observations of others? I do not think so. I believe the matter to be
simpler.
It appears to me that we have here an a priori axiom, albeit based in an
indirect way on observation. In markets we are concerned with com-
modities divisible into parts. ‘The parts are homogeneous in one respect,
namely in all their sensible properties, so as to be perfectly substitutable
one for another, but heterogeneous in another respect, namely the use
to which they may be put. The parts may be used separately. Each
occasion of their use has its own importance. Not each occasion is likely
to have precisely the same importance, save in an exceptional case. This
is all that is required for the law of diminishing utility. If supply is
restricted, use will be confined to the most important occasions. This
appears more general than, and independent of, the law of diminishing
reaction to stimuli. The axiom arises directly out of homogeneity in
one respect and heterogeneity in another. That homogeneity and
heterogeneity thus reside together in exchangeable objects is of course
known by observation, ultimately by introspection and the assumption
that other selves exist and have similar states of consciousness to our
own. ‘The existence of the law explains how it is possible to make pre-
diction on the basis of equations, which themselves seem and claim to be
independent of detailed economic investigation.
With the aid of the general law of demand we are able to predict some
immediate consequences of changes in fundamental data. But we cannot
® Even to this there may be exceptions. Cf. Marshall, Principles of Economics
(8th ed.), p. 132.
10 It is possible that the crucial point in the argument by which Mr. Keynes
throws doubt on the consequences usually supposed to flow from certain changes,
on the basis of the theory of value, is his demonstration that the real supply
schedules of the prime factors are, owing to actual offer terms being expressed
in money, precisely of the odd structure required to invalidate the reasoning.
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 153
go far. In the absence of more precise quantitative knowledge we soon
run into alternative possibilities.
This being so, the next step would appear to be to obtain more precise
knowledge. This must come from empirical investigation. But when we
leave the sure ground of the law of demand in its general form, we are at
once confronted with the appalling problems which the shift and change
in the economic scene with its plurality of causes and unamenability
to experiment present. Heroic attempts have been made by such workers
as Dr. Schultz to obtain quantitative laws of demand, and Prof. Douglas
has made assaults on other parts of the structure of equations. Interest-
ing results have been obtained and more are to be expected.
If this is really the heart and centre of economic science, all our resources
should be put at the disposal of such investigations. Butisit? Wecome
back to the obiter dictum of Ricardo. Can it be justified ?
It may be hazarded that there has been some concentration on the
development of this part of pure theory, precisely because to a certain
point it was possible to proceed by way of deduction from our demand
axiom. But when we proceed beyond this point it is necessary to make
hypotheses about alternative possibilities, and, although with the aid of
mathematical tools elaborate chains of deduction may be forged, the basis
remains hypothetical. It does not seem probable that the predictory
power in the theory of value can be enlarged, save by such empirical
observations as make it possible to fill in the blank-forms of equations
with quantitative data.
This may be done. It should be noted that the results obtained will
at best not have a very high degree of probability. Yet it must be said
that if real equations could be substituted for the present empty forms,
even if the former were conjectural and hazardous in the extreme, economics
would be on its way to looking much more like a mature science than
it does at present. Only by abandoning the theological claim to cer-
tainty and explicitly allowing a wide margin of error can economics rebut
the charge of scholasticism and claim scientific status.
To sum up. The adoption of individual preference as the criterion
for testing arrangements has proved convenient for getting a systematic
ordering of thought. Incompletely but validly formulated as the principle
that the marginal social net product of productive resources should be
equal, it may be used to test existing arrangements or proposals. A
map may be constructed, resembling our economic system, in which
individuals notify each other of their preferences. Interferences may be
condemned for not taking account of this map. Alternatively inter-
ferences may be recommended designed to make our economic system
resemble the map more closely. Both kinds of advice spring from and are
dependent on a vigilant observation of the actual working of our system.
It is highly important that this part of the economist’s function should not
fall into desuetude.
The causal laws of static theory are deducible from the law of demand.
This is well based on a very wide experience ; it is in no need of veri-
fication ; further attempts to verify it could not add to the assurance with
which we already hold it. But the laws are of a very general form and little
154 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
prediction can be based upon them, nor are they the source of the recom-
mendations of traditional economics. More specific laws would have to
be based on detailed empirical research and would be highly conjectural.
While great interest attaches to such empirical work, it is not clear that
this should be the main avenue for future developments ; but, if it is
not to be, then the general theory of value must itself be displaced from its
central position.
III.
Dynamic Economics.
There is no reason why the quest for causal laws should be limited to
those propositions which may be derived from the law of demand. We
may well expect future progress to lie outside that ambit.
Out of the wide field of possibilities I choose for first consideration one
department, which I propose to call dynamic economics. In using this
terminology I am aware that I am departing from recent usage. ‘There
has been a tendency to use the expression broadly for any set of generalisa-
tions lying outside static theory. More specifically it has been used for
the study of the influence of expectations—but these may find full ex-
pression in a system of static equations—or, again, for the study of time-
lags in a process of adjustment to a new static condition. ‘These studies
all have their own place.
I believe that there ought to be alongside of static theory a body of
laws relating to the increase (or decline) of economic magnitudes, and that
with the aid of a very few empirical generalisations, having high authority
if somewhat less than the law of demand itself, it may be possible without
more ado to construct such a body of laws. I conceive the analogy
between the relation of dynamics to statics in mechanics and that of this
branch of economics to the static theory to be much closer than that im-
plied in recent uses of the word dynamics in economics. While the equili-
brium price determined by the maintenance of a steady flow of demand
and supply corresponds to a state of rest, new equations would be formu-
lated to determine regular movements in the economic magnitudes under
the influence of growth of population, savings, inventions, etc.
This line of thought is not, of course, new. ‘The classical economists
attached great importance to the alleged tendencies of rent to rise and
profits to fall. Such considerations are not absent from Marshall. But
generalisations of this kind have tended to recede from view owing both
to their conjectural character and to the more precise formulation of static
propositions in a mathematical garb. The existence of this formulation
has in turn tended to lead monetary and trade cycle theorists, who are
interested in change as such, to regard the phenomena of their study in
terms of transitions from one static equilibrium to another. It may be
that they would be greatly assisted if they could regard them as departures
from or oscillations about a path of growth; but they can only do this
effectively if the laws governing increase are as precisely formulated as the
static laws. We need a system of fundamental equations using simplify-
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 155
ing assumptions ; cf. the frictionless surface, etc., in which rates of increase
will themselves figure as unknown terms.
One reason for holding development along these lines to be needed
is the unsatisfactory condition of the theory of interest in static economics.
I refer now not to the results reached by Mr. Keynes in his important
study of the dual nature of capital supply (waiting and liquidity-sacrifice),
but to a still more fundamental difficulty.1! Using the assumptions
required for static price determination, namely persistence of tastes,
technology and supply of factors unchanged, the demand for new saving
at any given rate of interest is zero, since so long as the fundamental
conditions and the equilibrium are maintained, the volume and method
of production must be unchanged. ‘To put the same thing in other words,
the static equations determine the price of capital and the quantity of it
which will be used. It is the quantity of capital in use which, along with
the quantity of land and labour in use, remains unchanged throughout
the maintenance of a given equilibrium. But if the quantity of capital in
use is the same the rate of saving is zero. I have the impression that
writers, other than the most careful, tend to get one dimension wrong at
this point, and suppose that the ‘laws of supply and demand ’ (static
theory) may determine not the quantity of capital but the amount of
saving, i.e. rate of increase in the quantity of capital at a given level.'*
That it is possible to reach interesting conclusions on the basis of the
static assumption of no saving may be seen from Mrs. Robinson’s article
on the ‘ Long Period Theory of Employment.’ The paradoxical air of
that essay may well be due precisely to her strict adherence to the static
assumption. The fact that she quite properly compels us to consider the
true effect of any change in the light of its consequences in the state of
equilibrium only reached when all saving has fallen to zero, suggests
that it would be expedient to tackle the problem more directly. In
place of a succession of static equilibria we need the concept of motion
under the influence of steadily operating forces.
11 T regret that it is not possible within the scope of this paper to consider,
from a methodological point of view, the great contributions to thought recently
made by Mr. Keynes. My division into sections was necessarily guided by
reference to economics as a whole, and his contribution, although internally
highly coherent and constituting a unified structure, belongs in part to all my
divisions, so that a full discussion would not be wholly relevant to and would
unduly swell any one. See Econometrica, January 1937; R. F. Harrod,
Mr. Keynes and Traditional Theory. :
12 We might imagine a static state as follows. People would save out of earned
income in their early years and invest in life annuities such sums as would make
their income rise at a rate which would make its marginal utility fall at a rate
equal to the rate of interest. Meanwhile the rate of interest would be fixed at a
critical level, sufficient to make them hand on their inherited capital intact,
despite their inferior regard for their heirs. These conditions would, on the
assumption of a stationary age distribution, make saving equal to zero. If their
regard for their heirs happened to be as great as their regard for themselves, then,
with a positive rate of interest and supposing the state of bliss described by
Ramsey in his well-known article not to be reached, there would be some positive
saving, and the assumptions of the static theory would be mutually inconsistent.
Similarly a socialist state in conditions otherwise static should arrange for
positive saving.
156 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
The laws will govern the relation between and determine the mutual
consistency of the rates of increase of various magnitudes, e.g. working
population, technical powers, quantity of capital, of circulating medium,
etc. Some empirical foundation is necessary. Bare study of mutual
implications will not yield much, since there is an infinite variety of pos-
sibilities. But I have the impression that a few basic empirical laws, of a
generality not much inferior to that of the law of demand in statics, may
yield, in connection with the study of mutual implications, an elaborate
structure of deductive theory.
An example of a basic empirical generalisation may be found in the
proposition put forward by Mr. Keynes in his recent work, that at a given
rate of interest people will save a larger absolute amount from a larger
income. We could get still further if we could establish, but this is
perhaps too audacious for the early stages, that people save a larger pro-
portion of a larger income. Both these propositions are clearly open to
empirical verification. They will be subject to ceteris paribus clauses
regarding the distribution of income and institutional arrangements, but
these would probably not impair their high scientific utility. The
statistical work of verification required is no doubt substantial, but light
compared with that required to fill in the blank forms of the static theory
equations. ‘The phenomena are much more amenable to the attainment
of reliable results in this field than in that of static supply and demand
schedules. The de facto growth of society assists the former while it
hinders the latter type of statistical enquiry.
May I be excused for touching on a theory in which I believe, subject
of course to the eroding researches of historians of thought, that I have
certain proprietary rights? If it is true that the most important factor
governing the demand for new capital is the rate of growth of the system,
and the most important factor governing its supply is the absolute size
of the system, then, having regard to the truism that demand must be
equal to the supply, a host of interesting conclusions should follow.
Premises containing these peculiar mathematical relations should surely
be a gift, precious beyond compare, to economists of mathematical bent
seeking new conclusions. I risk saying that if, when trade cycle theory
comes to be established on firm and agreed foundations, these relations
are not judged to have central causal significance, I shall be dumbfounded.
IV.
EMPIRICAL STUDIES.
I now come to the most difficult, the most tentative, and withal the most
important section, the search for causal laws outside the realm of deduc-
tions from the law of demand or the simple laws of growth.
Having previously tended to belittle the causal significance of the theory
of value and distribution, I should like to pay tribute to the high import-
ance of the work of classification, not achieved without much toil and the ~
insight of genius, which is the groundwork of that theory as well as of the
analytical map. This is likely to prove a valuable and indeed indis-
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 157
pensable tool for further investigation, and the empiricist, however radical,
is likely to flounder if he is unable to use it. In the classificatory work I
include truisms like the quantity theory of money, and the wages fund
theory, which serve to give precision to the concepts.
How shall I proceed into this unmapped territory? At this stage
there should be no dispute on matters of principle. On the one hand,
for every proposition purporting to relate to the succession of events it
must be possible to point to the empirical evidence. Any attempt to
assume superior airs may be met with the rejoinder that if empirical
evidence is lacking, the proposition can be no more than a definition of
the terms which it employs. On the other hand, attention must be paid
to the mutual consistency of generalisations and each one must be valued
according to the extent to which it contributes to making the whole system
more coherent.
One might draw up a methodological classification by reference to how
the investigator spends his day. There is armchair cogitation ; there is
the application of statistical technique to the great body of statistical raw
material already available, which may well require an elaborate apparatus
and assistant workers ; there is the compilation of fresh statistical material
by work in the field; there is also the field work directed to gaining a
closer knowledge of how institutions actually work and the motives which
govern behaviour. It may safely be said that all these kinds of activity
have utility; they may be regarded as ‘ factors’ in the production of
economic truth to be mixed in due proportions in accordance with the
general principles of production ; what is a due proportion depends in part
upon the abilities and temperaments of the workers available. I will only
add that the institutional arrangement whereby most professional econo-
mists are heavily burdened with teaching and administrative duties may
militate against a sufficient admixture of the more laborious forms of
statistical and field work. The remedy for this, now already in process
of application, is the endowment of full-time workers of the right tem-
perament and the provision of adequate laboratory equipment and skilled
assistants. It may be noticed with satisfaction also that statistical method,
on which economic advance depends, has recently displayed a great
vitality under the influence of such distinguished pioneers as Dr. Ragnar
Frisch.
There is, however, a more fundamental difference between the outlook
of the more and the less empirically minded. This consists of a difference
of judgment as to the most hopeful source of clues for the future develop-
ment of the subject. On the one hand there are those—I believe that it is
fair so to represent the view of Prof. Wesley Mitchell—who believe that
clues are most likely to be obtained by the diligent scrutiny, arrangement
and rearrangement of the empirical data. The facts will one day speak
for themselves. By patient and continuous observation the investigator
will find the appropriate generalisation borne in upon him. On the other
hand, some believe that clues are more likely to be found by an inspection
of the existing body of theory. Close examination of it will reveal gaps,
and in those very gaps may be found clues suggesting new generalisations
which will render the theory more coherent, or even wider generalisations
158 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
leading to a revolution of the kind which occurs from time to time in
physics. Or, more moderately, they may lay some stress on observation,
but urge that this should be done very much in the light of existing theory,
to test hypotheses directly suggested by that theory.
Both schools must be given our cordial blessing. Past achievements
are still too exiguous for us to be sure which is the method most naturally
adapted to our study.
It is sometimes claimed that the major part of established generalisa-
tions have been reached in the less empirical way. But my feeling is that
the great fruitfulness of the analytical map in yielding valid prescriptions
has obscured the extreme paucity of our knowledge with regard to causal
sequences. ‘Two circumstances militate against the more deductive
method. One is the impossibility of the crucial experiment. In the
mature sciences which rely mainly on this method, such as physics, or,
to name a more recent comer, genetics, the crucial experiment is of central
importance. Secondly, it is extremely difficult to test hypotheses by
the collected data of observation. The operation of the plurality of
causes is too widely pervasive. Thus numerous hypotheses are framed
and never submitted to decisive test, so that each man retains his own
opinion still.
I do not wish to press these considerations hard, but only sufficiently
to upset the complacency of dogmatic upholders of one exclusive method.
To give a contrary example, I believe that in so far as the monetary
explanation and the demand-for-capital-goods explanation of the trade
cycle be regarded as rival hypotheses suggested by theoretical considera-
tions, the course of events in this country and the United States in the
last ten years enhances the probability of the latter. It should be possible
to devise statistical methods to increase the cogency of this indication of
experience. I assume that even the more deductive or hypothetical
method of advance should be fortified by statistical verification.
It is a doubtful point whether the more radically empirical method has
been as barren as is sometimes suggested. To give a rather trivial ex-
ample, Gresham’s Law is an instance of the facts speaking. However
convincing the ex-post theoretical explanation of the phenomena, the
process of discovery was by observation rather than hypothesis. A more
striking example may be derived from trade cycle studies. It is an
accepted generalisation, not indeed possessing the universal validity of
the law of demand but none the less of substantial authority and interest,
that in the upswing of production prices have a rising tendency and in the
downswing a falling tendency. It may safely be said this could not be
deduced from the propositions of static theory nor from that part of
monetary theory which is deducible from them. Falling prices would
be regarded as an equally (if not more !) likely accompaniment of rising
output and vice versa. ‘The generalisation is a direct result of observation,
an excellent example of the facts speaking for themselves. And if theo-
retical explanations have subsequently been woven round it, this must not
blind us to the true source of our knowledge. If rather crude observa-"
tional data can yield appetising morsels of this sort, may we not legiti-
mately hope that when subjected to refined statistical treatment they will
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 159
yield more fruit in plenty? It will still be necessary to relate such
generalisations to each other and to those of a more deductive origin in an
orderly fashion.
Having made this plea for the more radical empiricist, I will conclude
by mentioning one or two types of investigation suggested by the present
condition of theory. If I make no mention of others now under way, I
hope it will be understood that this is not because I regard them as unim-
portant, but for lack of space and because the former happen to have
caught the speaker’s eye first.
Emphasis has recently quite properly been placed upon the importance
of expectations with regard to the future in determining the present
actions of the individual, and upon the slender basis of knowledge on
which he is obliged to form his expectations. Speculation upon the
consequences of this may therefore be regarded as arising directly out of
theoretical considerations.
Ignorance with regard to the future drives the agent back to an im-
perfectly rational dependence upon past experience, particularly his most
recent experience. It is reasonable on this basis to make the hypothesis
of a time-lag between certain adjustments. By introducing a systematic
lag it is possible to give a mathematical demonstration that an oscillation
of behaviour must result. The interesting survey by Dr. ‘Tinbergen
(1935) in Econometrica discusses a number of hypotheses of this
nature.
Statistical verification may proceed from two ends. On the one hand
it may be possible to verify the particular lag assumed by reference to two
statistical series. On the other the cycle mathematically deducible from
the assumption of such a lag may be compared as to its general features
with the real cycle. One might hope that even with the data already
available the determination of lags in this empirical manner might give us
a theory of the trade cycle, which would be self-consistent and consistent
with the broader generalisations of theory and also subject to fairly
approximate empirical verification at both ends. Fortified by such tests,
with what far higher degree of confidence might we call upon legislatures
to take remedial measures! I may add that the framework of equations
within which the lag hypothesis should be applied are those of dynamic
economics. This gives another reason for wishing an early precise
formulation of these.
I now pass to an entirely different type of empirical work. General
considerations suggest that the entrepreneur acts under the influence of
certain defined forces. When we come to examine these, it is surprising
how largely the entrepreneur must be ignorant of their precise value. This
is evident enough in the case of capital outlay, decisions regarding which
must be based on prognostication. But even current output is properly
determined by reference to the value of the loss or gain of customer good-
will and to that of ‘ user cost’ (Keynes), both of which depend upon
prognostication. And apart from the future, there are other matters of
uncertainty. Correct behaviour in the field of imperfect competition, and
this is the greater part of the whole field, presupposes knowledge of the
value of marginal revenue, which in its turn requires knowledge of the
160 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
current elasticity of demand. Yet even that magnitude of central import-
ance, which theorists are apt so glibly to take as given, is one about which
many entrepreneurs are quite in the dark.
Having regard to the fog of uncertainty, by which the entrepreneur
is thus shrouded, it has seemed to some of us in Oxford that valuable
information about how he does in fact steer his course might be gained
by the method of direct question. It is desirable to obtain a wide sample
and to conduct the questionnaire in such a way as to make it probable that
the victim will speak his true mind. I select two lines of thought for
mention.
1. Theory may assume that the change in a certain magnitude, e.g.
the rate of interest, will cause a defined change in the entrepreneur’s
behaviour. But in fact if his margins of possible error owing to uncertainty
about various factors are very wide, such a specific change, even although
definitely known, may be treated by him as of too small account to affect
his reckoning. The method of direct question does not seem an
unreasonable one for obtaining reliable information about this.
2. The entrepreneur lives by action; even if ignorant of the relevant
data, he must decide one way or another. Nor can each and every de-
cision be reached by an independent act of judgment; some rules of
thumb are necessary to the efficient conduct of a business. In the
absence of data, the rules must be supplementary to those envisaged in
static theory. What are they? Again this seems a suitable subject for
direct question. Generalisations may be possible and valuable, even if
confined to certain types of industry. For instance, an irrational but
systematic and consistent treatment of overhead costs might give rise to a
pattern of behaviour of significance in the trade cycle.
I believe that we may be on the eve of a great advance in economic
theory, taking us right outside the ambit of the static system of equations.
The wealth of statistical data, together with the indications resident in
the trade cycle that the succession of events is governed by laws still
undiscovered, should be a spur to the inventiveness and enthusiasm of
every student to whom the ways of science make appeal. He may
reasonably feel that any day he may light upon some general relation of
wide validity, satisfying to the intellect and capable of yielding vast benefit
to humanity. The prospect is an inspiring one.
Kindled by it, the worker who is an economist at heart will reject with
contempt proposals for relegating him to the banausic work of the mere
cataloguer. Nor will he be likely to wish to take up a position of polite
subordination to the sociologist or anthropologist, as Mrs. Wootton has
recently suggested. All honour be to those allied branches of investiga-
tion into human behaviour. I hope that I have indicated that the
economist should take a broad view ; he should be very much awake to
the possibility of obtaining hints from and using the results of workers
on the periphery of his subject. But if the status of a subject may be
‘ judged by the number and width of its general laws established on a
firm foundation, then, even adopting my very modest assessment, the
economist may still claim without insolence that his subject is more mature
than other sociological studies. And it may be added that the wealth and
F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND STATISTICS 161
precision of the data at his disposal suggest that a further advance on
broad front is likely to occur in the near future. The notion that investi-
gators in other branches of social study should be asked to help forward
their lame brother economist and guide him on his proper path must, in
the interest of intellectual honesty, be set down as fatuous and derisory.
To some minds it may seem that in the field of the social studies,
workers who treat of human values in direct, simple and intelligible terms
are the most useful members of the fraternity. But not to minds well
informed of the progress of the sciences. ‘To reach general laws it is
usually necessary to abandon the straightforward terms of common sense,
to become immersed for a time in mysterious symbols and computations,
in technical and abstruse demonstrations, far removed from the common
light of day, in order to emerge finally with a generalisation which may
then be retranslated into the language of the workaday world.
Zealous humanitarians may be impatient for quick results. All men
of goodwill may see without more ado that there is much amiss with the
world. Should not social students postpone their abstruse intellectual
problems, of fascination mainly to themselves, and get together in a sort
of academic tea-party to list our known abuses and our known resources
and arrive at a programme of reform on the basis of mutual goodwill ?
And do they not in fact, so the critic proceeds, bury themselves in unintel-
ligible jargon, because they fear that, if they proceeded with their more
immediate duties, they would disturb vested interests, incur social odium
and signally fail to feather their own nests ?
The criticism misconceives the duty of the student and the true source
of his power for good. It may be the case that much could be put to
rights without further scientific knowledge. But the sociologist will agree
that if known abuses are not redressed it is not for lack of a catalogue of
them or even for lack of men of goodwill. He may not be able to formu-
late the sociological or psychological laws by which society is held in a
fatal equilibrium of internecine hostility. But his experience will lead
him to suspect that the equilibrium is not likely to be shattered by the
breath of an academic tea-party. Nor have academic students a monopoly
of goodwill or the power to express it.
Only in one way can the academic man change the shape of things,
and that is by projecting new knowledge into the arena. In goodwill
he may partake in greater or less degree along with more practical persons,
and he is at liberty to join with them in political parties or social welfare
groups. His specific contribution is the enlargement of knowledge and
particularly of the knowledge of general laws. ‘The task of the economist
is rendered arduous by the intractable nature of the phenomena which he
has to study ; but he is better placed than other social students, and, if
he turn a deaf ear to cavillers, the past achievements of his subject and
its present vitality may buoy him with a reasonable hope.
REFERENCES.
Aristotle. Ethica Nicomachea, 1094b.
Cassel, G. Fundamental Thoughts on Economics, 1925, 14 and 66-70.
——— Theory of Social Economy, vol. 1, 8-9 (tr. McCabe).
162 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Douglas, P. The Theory of Wages, 1934.
Fraser, L.M. Economic Thought and Language, 1937.
Harrod, R. F. Econometrica, January 1937, ‘Mr. Keynes and Traditional
Theory.’
Hogben, L. Political Arithmetic, Introduction, 1938.
Keynes, J. M. General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936,
ch. vi.; and generally. :
Keynes, J. N. Scope and Method of Political Economy.
Knight, F. H. Risk, Uncertainty and Profit.
Marshall, A. Principles of Economics (8th ed.), 132 ; and generally.
Pigou, A.C. Economics of Welfare (1st ed.), pt. ii, ch. 2, sec. 5; and generally.
—————_ Public Finance.
Ramsey, F. Economic Journal, December 1928, ‘A Mathematical Theory of
Saving.’
Ricardo, D. Principles of Political Economy and Taxation, Preface, 1.
Robbins, L. Nature and Significance of Economic Science, 1932, 77-82; 85-6;
and generally. :
Robinson, J. Essays in the Theory of Employment, 1937, ‘ Essay on Long Period
Theory of Employment.’
Schultz, H. Statistical Laws of Demand and Supply, 1928.
Smith, Adam. Wealth of Nations.
Tinbergen, J. Econometrica, July 1935, ‘Annual Survey: Suggestions on
Quantitative Business Cycle Theory.’
Wootton, B. Lament for Economics, 1938.
SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.
THE CHANGING OUTLOOK OF
ENGINEERING SCIENCE
ADDRESS BY
PROF. R. V. SOUTHWELL, F.R.S.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
1. By custom Section G, in conferring the high honour of its presidency,
turns alternately to the practising and to the academic sides of the engineer-
ing profession. I suspect that the practical man has less trouble in pre-
paring a presidential address, for his work has wide appeal. By contrast
few are interested in teaching or in specialised research, and consulting
reports of recent meetings I have not been surprised to find that academic
presidents, for the most part, have either dealt with semi-political matters
like the state of patent law, or given reviews of progress in particular
fields of engineering.
Seeking a theme for my own address this morning, I resolved to find
if possible some topic that concerns us all ; and one topic I thought might
usefully engage our attention, which past presidents seem to have left
alone. We have had discussions of particular problems—the organisation
of applied research, the training of recruits for industry ; but in no year
since the war have we attempted a general stock-taking—to view the trend
of engineering science regarded both practically and academically, both as
an art and as a field for study, teaching and research. And meanwhile
all the circumstances which should influence our policy—the trend of
modern physics, the attitude of industry towards the university graduate,
the nation’s organisation for applied research—have altered profoundly.
Is not the time appropriate for an attempt to bring them under review,
seeking now to foresee and plan for changes that are inevitable, rather
than wait for action to be forced on us by pressure from without ?
Here then is the reason for the title of my address. The outlook of
engineering science is changing, as I believe, for reasons which for the
most part are beyond our control ; and it is changing fast. . From day to
day, absorbed in immediate duties, we may not be conscious of the change :
it is not fast enough for that. But now and again (and a meeting such as
this affords a convenient opportunity) we ought as I think to step back
and take a wider view. The trend of engineering concerns us all, and the
policy to be adopted in the face of changing circumstances. Neither can
we, whose profession is teaching, afford to disregard changing conditions
in industry, nor can you, because your work is practical, afford to be
unconcerned in the state of engineering schools where now the men are
164 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
being trained who within another quarter-century will be leaders in their
profession.
I will not waste your time protesting my inadequacy for the task I set
myself: it is patent, and I think it does not matter. Even if I could
speak with authority, the ground is too wide to be covered in an hour’s
address ; nor am I so much concerned now to win adherents for my views,
as to provoke thought and discussion where I believe them overdue.
2. Such as they are, I shall try to present my views under three main
headings: (1) our policy in regard to the teaching of engineering science ;
(2) our policy in regard to engineering research ; and (3) ‘ foreign policy’ :
our relations with the community. Throughout it will be the keynote
of my argument that whatever may have been the circumstances of the
past, those of to-day forbid a policy of isolation ; so that whether academic
or practical we must do our planning in collaboration, because ultimately
our objectives are the same. It will make for brevity if I may use the
words ‘engineering’ for the practical, ‘engineering science’ for the
academic aspect of our profession, so making partial distinction between
application (the art) and study (the principles). But the separation is
artificial, and should be permitted only for temporary convenience. Our
objectives are the same, and frontiers should be ignored in our discussion
of common policy.
3. Engineering was defined by Thomas Tredgold as ‘ the art of direct-
ing the great Sources of Power in Nature for the use and convenience of
man’: engineering science I define, conformably, as ‘ science studied
with a view to application’. It can trace its ancestry (I suppose) back
to Archimedes or even further; for its name shows geometry to have
originated in surveying—a branch of engineering science as defined just
now. But notwithstanding this very respectable pedigree it was not,
I think, until 1840 that our subject was admitted into the select circle of
university studies, not until much later that its status was acknowledged
by the award of an honours degree. Here as in other subjects wise
conservatism will resist light-hearted innovation, but here a die-hard
conservatism may not take shelter in long-established tradition. Our
history is short, and it covers very eventful years: a policy that was
right before the war may not be the best policy to-day.
Nor can we safely argue from experience gained in allied subjects of
university teaching. For engineering science is not, like chemistry or
physics, a separate branch of natural philosophy, but natural philosophy
studied from a particular standpoint and with a special purpose. Thus
the planning of instruction for our undergraduate students is a problem
very different from the planning of an honours course in chemistry ;
because the chemist will use later, for his -work in the world, the same
technique that he has used in his university laboratory, whereas the engineer
is being prepared for work quite different—his lectures and laboratory
courses are not so much of practical value in themselves as a means of
training him to think.
There is a further point of difference, in that the content of our subject
is determined not only by the growth of knowledge but by the trend of
practice ; it includes all natural science that has been applied to the
service of man. It is a commonplace that the boundaries of natural
G.—ENGINEERING 165
science have so extended that no man now can hope to comprehend the
whole of physics, or chemistry, or any other field: specialisation has
become imperative. But engineering science embraces all these fields ;
its boundaries extend not only continuously, as knowledge grows in
tracts already surveyed, but at times by a sudden accretion of new terri-
tory—as when recently the new technology of plastics came to replace,
for many purposes, older methods of fabrication in wood or metal. ‘Thus
a problem strictly speaking insoluble confronts, and will always confront,
all schemes of training for industry: What should be the content of a
university training ? What is to be our policy in the face of this con-
tinuous accretion of knowledge, seeing that there is no corresponding
increase in the capacity of undergraduates to absorb ?
4. I mean to offer later some tentative answers to these questions, but
now I am concerned with something more important. ‘The time I say
is past when they could be discussed as it were 7m vacuo, without regard
to developments outside ; and the same is true of the other main activity
of engineering schools, which is original research. Policy must be dictated
by circumstances, and in research our circumstances have changed most
drastically since the war: first, by the trend of modern physics, which
has profoundly altered the relations of pure and applied science ; secondly,
by a quite unprecedented growth of industrial and governmental institu-
tions concerned with scientific experiment. We see this change of
environment if we study the records in past reports of grants made
by our Association to special committees charged with the study of
particular problems. From 1832, when it called for a report on the
state of knowledge in Hydraulics (a report which ended on the wistful
note: ‘It only remains for us to notice the scanty contributions of our
own countrymen. While France and Germany were rapidly advancing
upon the traces of Italy, England remained an inactive spectator of their
progress ’), through the ’sixties, when it made its invaluable contribution
to electrical engineering by providing accurate standards, and up to quite
recent times, the Association has done much through the agency of these
special committees. But the fact that now its funds are less widely
devoted to such aims need not, I think, be matter for regret. Provision
exists elsewhere, and its contributions now are of different kind.
Supposing that like the fat boy I were minded to ‘ make your flesh
creep ’, could I not find argument here for pessimism in regard to the
future of engineering schools? As to research, I have always held that
in universities it must find justification not in what is consequential—
the utility of its results—but in what is intrinsic: the urge of the scientist
to discover, like the urge of an artist to create, is something that will not be
denied. But will the engineering laboratory continue to be essential,
if more and more the trend of engineering practice is towards applica-
tions of fundamental chemistry and physics, and especially if provision
for ad hoc experimentation continues to extend as it has in the past twenty-
five years? Can we gainsay that our science is not, like chemistry and
physics, a separate branch of natural philosophy, but natural philosophy
studied from a particular standpoint and with a special purpose? Well
then, does it not follow logically that we, as non-specialists, must look to be
ousted ultimately as specialisation becomes more intense? Will there
166 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
continue to be a demand for engineering graduates ? Will not the demand
of industry be more and more for specialists, trained in laboratories
appropriate to the purer sciences ?
5. I have my answers to these questions: I am not really pessimistic !
But I have put the case for pessimism, being convinced that these argu-
ments must be faced and countered now, by intelligent foresight, if
they are not to accumulate uncomfortable force in years to come. They
are, as I maintain, arguments that concern us all, though more immediately
the concern of academic engineers like myself. That view may find
acceptance or it may not, but in one field you will agree, I think, that
engineers whether practising or academic must stand side by side: I
mean in the field of ‘ public relations’, of their concern with the bearing
of their work on the life of the community. It is a matter which of late
has greatly exercised the minds both of our Association and of thinkers
and publicists in the world outside, and it too must receive attention in a
conspectus of engineering such as I attempt to-day. Inevitably, as I
believe, its consideration will lead us into wider and deeper issues, and for
that reason I shall turn to it last in my address. Then more than ever
I shall be conscious of my inadequacy to my theme ; but the task must be
attempted, and I take shelter behind my statement that the only purpose
of this address is to provoke discussion by others better qualified.
And now, having outlined my headings, I confront the necessity of
committing myself. It is no light ordeal to one who represents the smallest
of our engineering schools, that he should incur the reproach of pretending
to know how things should be done! I implore the indulgence of my
listeners.
iP
6. No one I think will question that a dilemma confronts all teachers of
engineering science : no two of us, I fancy, will agree in detail regarding
the action by which it should be met. On the one hand more and more
specialised knowledge finds application in engineering practice: on the
other our industrialists—now, with rare exceptions, well disposed to the
engineering graduate whom once their predecessors regarded with a blend
of amusement and contempt—seem agreed in demanding that students
shall come to them not as incipient specialists or as trained technicians,
but as men who have been educated to take wide views, trained to think
and qualified to negotiate and to control. Here are conflicting demands,
to be reconciled as best we may in the construction of our time-tables.
Inevitably they conflict, since days have not lengthened, nor is there any
noticeable increase in the power of the average undergraduate to absorb.
Faced with this dilemma, different teachers propound different solu-
tions—none claimed as wholly satisfactory or as disposing finally of a
problem which inevitably will become more acute. That as I see the
problem is its crux. It is not enough to be opportunist and to find a
makeshift solution now, because of all sciences engineering is the least
static. Unless we plan radically, though our trouble be allayed for the
time it will inevitably return.
Since I claim no authority for my views, some vigour in presentation
G.—ENGINEERING 167
is perhaps allowable. I maintain that it is both an easy and an unsatis-
factory solution that they propound, whose recipe in effect is either a
lengthening or an intensification of our academic courses. ‘The lengthen-
ing may be overt—the addition of another year to the honours course—
or it may be concealed in a demand for a higher standard at entry, which
would mean if adopted a more severe specialisation at school. The
alternative, which I have termed intensification, is to load still further our
already heavily loaded time-tables : whatever knowledge will or may be
useful to the practising engineer, that knowledge must be acquired and
therefore (for this is the essence of the argument) it must be represented by
courses in our lecture lists.
It will be said that I am entitled to call this policy unsatisfactory, not
to call it easy. But I am impenitent; for what I mean by easy is this
facile assumption that a subject once on the lecture list will be taught and
therefore learned. I am aware that at the age of twenty or thereabouts
a student’s power of memorisation can be almost uncanny ; moreover it
can be (and I am afraid often is) stimulated by intensive ‘coaching’. But
what concerns us now is his ability to absorb, and this I believe to be a
quantity much more obstinately constant. Excepting the really first-
class man (who is not the essence of our problem) I maintain that planning
must be conditioned, first and foremost, by ineluctable limits to the
instruction we can give with confidence that it will really be assimilated. It
is easy, I repeat, to proceed on the assumption that lectures delivered are
lectures absorbed; but the fallacy of that assumption will be shown
by our third-class students in their examination scripts, by our better
students when they come to attempt research.
As it seems to me, the real and difficult duty of a professor is to decide,
not what subjects of instruction should be included because of value, but
what can be omitted on the ground that, pushed into a mind already taxed,
it will push out something still more valuable. Choice is hard, for there
is so much that he would wish to include, so much that has undoubted
value ; yet the choice must be made. It will be made harder for him by
his colleagues, though from motives of the highest. Abraham Lincoln
used to tell of the farmer who said, as to wanting more land, ‘I ain’t
greedy ; I only wants what jines mine.’ So every lecturer worth his salt
will want, as he approaches the allotted boundary of his subject, to move
that boundary just a little back, into fields he sees that are rich and fruitful.
It is as though a raft were being equipped for passage on a course as yet
unknown, and every lecturer were proffering stores of some different kind.
All are of excellent quality, and every kind may be needed in some circum-
stance which can occur. Yet attempting to take all, the raft will surely
founder: that is the dominating consideration, and we forget it at our
peril.
Neither in a lengthening nor in an intensification of engineering courses,
as I believe, shall we find more than a temporary and makeshift solution
of our problem; and this for a reason that is fundamental. However
long we make our terms, however full our time-tables, and however great
be the capacity of our students to absorb, still we shall have failed to
satisfy the demand of industrialists for men of personality, educated to
take wide views. I hold it a profound mistake to believe (or to plan as
168 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
though we believed) that all that universities can give to the young
engineer is given in their engineering schools. Specialisation is easy,
if the demand of industry were for specialists ; but that, as I tried just
now to show, would be a sorry outlook for ourselves, and we ought to be
glad that in fact the demand is plainly different. Glad, but not com-
placent: for to meet that demand deliberately, instead of merely assuming
that it will be met, we shall have to adopt a standpoint very different from
what is customary in discussions of ‘ training for industry’. We must
not lightly assume that ‘ first year work’ can be done at school without
detriment to the cultural education which industry has begun to value ;
or that we have done our duty by our students, when every hour of the
working day is absorbed by some lecture or laboratory course, and no
appreciable time is left for those divergent pursuits which we lump
together under the heading of ‘ undergraduate activities’. In my experi-
ence it is these activities—too often forgotten in our planning—which do
most to develop the qualities that are desired in our products. Their
scientific and technical training must be our first concern; but seeking
to fulfil this duty we must not plan as though automatically, in any odd
hour that we leave vacant, our other aims will be realised.
7. I am not so foolhardy as to obtrude my personal views in detail,
but in principle I will try to state them plainly, and I will outline now one
possible scheme of action in this business of planning. First of all we must
decide the purpose which our honours courses are meant to serve. Here
my view is at least clear-cut: their purpose is to train recruits for industry,
and the taking of honours in a final examination should indicate an
assimilation of engineering principles adequate in a man who is starting
a professional or industrial career—but not more than this. It may be
objected that this view makes no provision for the really first-class man :
I agree that it makes no special provision, but not that this is an objection ;
because to me, as I have said already, the first-class man does not seem the
essence of the problem.
For what, after all, is this first-class ability, that it should demand an
examination specially designed to detect it? Is it something that would
escape detection otherwise? If you mean qualities of such value to
industrialists that they should seek it even at the cost of higher salaries,
then I suggest that we ought to inquire of industrialists, whether in their
view these qualities can be expected to reveal themselves in a written
examination. I suspect that the answer will be something of this kind :
“In examinations as they are to-day, it matters little to us whether a man
has taken a first- or second-class, provided that his personality is suitable.
He must have the requisite personality, and his knowledge of engineering
principles must be real and ready—ready to be turned to the various
problems that arise in our particular activities. But what we want we are
as likely to find in your second class as in your first.’
If, on the other hand, when you talk of first-class ability you mean
ability to do research, then I am prepared to hazard an answer of my own.
Research ability reveals itself as ability to do research. Examinations are
not its best detector: their proper function is to test that what has been
taught has been absorbed, and research cannot be taught—or even its
methods—except informally, in the course of some actual investigation.
G.—ENGINEERING 169
If this is first-class ability, let it reveal itself in the only way that leaves
no doubt, by research actually performed. Restricting our examinations
in the way that I have suggested, we shall provide the requisite oppor-
tunity ; for what the normal student can absorb only in three years the
‘ really first-class ’ student will be able to absorb in two. We shall have
time to give him what he really needs, which is training specially suited
to the individual.
Do not think I want my views (even assuming that they are sound)
to have result in closer standardisation. As Sir Henry Tizard emphasised
in his presidential address to Section L at Aberdeen, in education diversity
is a sign of health. But speaking for myself alone I would say: On all
counts let us shun ‘ harder papers’ in our examinations! No one could
claim that they are tests of personality, and very seldom, as I believe,
are they concerned with new principles not to be covered in easier papers.
(How should they be, seeing that ours is not a separate branch of science,
but science studied with a special purpose ?) At the worst they are founded
on some special course of lectures, delivered with a view to some special
paper: a vicious circle in truth! At best, too often they provide for the
intending specialist a test of knowledge in mathematics, chemistry or
physics which could be acquired better, and tested as well, if a more
restricted examination in principles were followed by further study of
those subjects in their special schools.
8. Secondly, in discussing this and consequential problems I would
call industrialists into council. In the jargon of Section F, they and we
are in the relation of consumers and producers ; and though in the past
it was our part to stimulate demand by producing something that they
needed without realising the fact, we cannot now afford to disregard the
consumer’s point of view—as in some fields, it seems, British producers
are prone to do. But I mean more than this: I mean that the time is
past, or all but past, when his three years at a university and his two years
of apprenticeship could be regarded as wholly distinct phases in the train-
ing of an engineer, to be planned both separately and independently.
Most of us will remember, either from hearing or from reading it, the
paper on ‘ Training for Industry’ which last year, at Nottingham, Mr.
Fleming and Dr. Willis Jackson (now Professor) presented to this Section.
To me its most striking feature was its view of engineering training as an
integrated whole, as five years devoted to a single objective. Whether or
not we should agree regarding details in our planning for those five
years, this I believe to be a most important principle. Much in the same
way medicine (of all professions the nearest to ours, I think, in its nature
and requirements) calls for university preparation followed by practical
experience in the hospitals. Like medical schools we should plan, I
think, with all five years in mind—not think of our responsibility as ending
with the conferment of a degree.
And to industrialists, having called them into council, I would say:
‘Let us seek to work out a plan whereby you may be provided with
the recruits you say you want—men who with adequate knowledge of
engineering principles combine some breadth of background, who by
intercourse with men of other training have gained some maturity of
bearing. To achieve this end it is essential, as I believe, that we forbear
G2
170 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
to regiment them too strictly in the five years we are apportioning ; we
must not forget the importance of leisure to the formation of personality.
And here I fancy that you no less than ourselves will find your details apt
to negative your principles : you too in my experience are inclined to fill
the whole of every available day. But to show that we mean business we
teachers now, as a first step, ask you to scrutinise our syllabuses and say
from your experience whether items could be omitted either (1) as never
likely to be applied in practice, or (2) as being easily and more appropriately
learned in works. We do not engage to drop a subject because you have not
found it useful: that may be an accident of your particular interests, and
even though no industrialist finds it useful (speaking professionally) we
must still reserve a right to teach what we believe to have educational
value. But every item on your list we will undertake to scrutinise care-
fully—to put, so to speak, on trial; and I for my part do not doubt
that thereby we shall find much that has crept into our courses more by
accident than design.’
I leave the problem there, for in detail my views should be expressed
in the council that I advocate, where they can be countered, rather than
here as it were ex cathedra. Stated broadly, my thesis is our need of
‘lightening ship ’, and here I would only emphasise that I am not advo-
cating the exclusion from lectures of all matters excluded from a syllabus.
As engineering advances, inevitably as it seems to me things that were
essential tend to become rather of academic or historical interest. Con-
crete examples are dangerous ; but I feel that forms of link motion, with
which every engineer had to be familiar in days when the reciprocating
steam engine had no serious rival, should be discussed now (in a non-
specialised course) rather as examples in the theory of velocity and
acceleration images, and ought no longer to have a place of their own in
the syllabus.
iE;
g. I turn to research. Other teachers will feel as I do that life would
be a duller thing if teaching were all, if we ceased to have that zest for the
unsolved problem, and the rarer thrill of a problem solved, that every
researcher knows, though his problem be of interest to himself alone.
What answer then can we make to the pessimistic forecast, that engineering
research at universities is doomed to ultimate extinction, because as
engineering comes to make ever fuller use of mathematics, physics and
chemistry, more and more its problems will be such as only specialists
in those subjects can investigate, while for ad hoc experimentation generous
provision exists, and will increase, in government institutions and in the
research departments of our larger works? Here too, as I see it, is a
challenge we must face together, whether we be users or purveyors of
research. Demand will react on supply, and supply on demand : unless
in collaboration we shall not plan aright.
For my own part I am persuaded that here, where the case for pes-
simism seems at first most strong, it is most easily answered. I do not
believe that departments of engineering will either cease from research
activity or be merged in departments of physics or chemistry, for the
G.—ENGINEERING 171
reason that though engineering is not a separate branch of natural philo-
sophy, but natural philosophy studied with a view to application, yet the
attitude of the engineer to his problems is as I believe something both
peculiar and worth preserving.
It will suffice to explain my meaning if I make comparisons with the
mathematician and physicist, leaving others better qualified to deal in
like manner with the chemists. Wherein, then, does the outlook of the
engineer differ from that of the physicist ? Mainly, I think, in that his
problems are inexorable, and he recognises them as such. The physicist
despairing of progress along a path attempted, is free to try some
other: the engineer has to solve the problem as it is presented, and some
solution he must have, even though it be only approximate. It has been
the fashion of late to jeer at the engineer’s ‘ factor of safety ’—changing
its name to ‘ factor of ignorance’, and asserting that like charity it covers
a multitude of sins. We must I think admit the criticism to be largely
true as regards the past: too often factors of safety have been a refuge
and an excuse rather than the extra assurance that they ought to be. But
they have come down greatly of late, since aeronautics set an added value
on weight-saving achieved without loss of efficiency ; and the time I think
is near when they will have values strictly dependent on the reliability
of our materials. As ‘factors of uncertainty’ they will always have a
raison d’étre.
Now uncertainty of this kind does not, as I see the matter, enter into
the physicist’s scheme of things at all. (He has his own ‘ uncertainty
principle ’—so quaintly advanced in recent years as an argument for human
free will; but I can conceive no argument for free will based upon the
variability of constructional materials,—the Victorians missed no path to
spiritual comfort there!) The physicist’s problems are fundamental,
and he is not the man to let them be complicated by additional difficulties.
If corrosion is a potential source of trouble, then he will use gold if need
be; if magnetic flux is calculable only for one or two particular shapes,
then he will use those shapes. Because throughout he is free to choose ;
his shapes are not dictated by constructional or manufacturing require-
ments, nor his materials by considerations of strength or cost.
Simple illustrations are best: let us visualise the attitude to elasticity
of a physicist who still retains some interest in nineteenth-century physics.
He will be interested in Hooke’s law, and in its interpretation as a statistical
average of effects due to forces from very many atoms. He will recognise
two distinct types of strain, the first involving change of dimensions
without change of shape, the second change of shape without change of
volume; and he will devise ingenious experiments for measuring the
two relevant elastic moduli. In this connection he will study Saint-
Venant’s theories of torsion and of flexure, and he may even pursue the
harder parts of elastic theory with the aim of eliminating errors in measure-
ment that result from straining due to weight. But speak to him of the
strength and distortion of an engine crankshaft—a matter of interest in
practice, so long as engines tend to fail by torsional vibration ; and if you
find him interested then—well, he is an engineer in disguise! For
speaking gua physicist he will say: ‘I see that both torsion and flexure
are involved—that is, both of the two fundamental types of strain ; but
172 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
why study these in a body of such appalling shape?’ And the engineer
can only reply: ‘ Because I must. ‘This shape was not evolved for its
intrinsic interest, but its strained form is important none the less—and
very difficult to calculate.’ There you have the clash of interests: the
physicist wants his problems unalloyed, the engineer is not free to choose.
‘Go to the applied mathematician, thou sluggard !’ is likely to be the
final word.
Well, and suppose he does? Will he find what he is seeking—a power
of analysis that turned on his problem will lead to its solution? No:
he will find that mathematical analysis, developing in its own way, has
come to include a very beautiful technique for solving the general equa-
tions of elasticity, but the body in question must have one of a number
of shapes—among which his crankshaft is not included! Again he is
sent away empty-handed, but now for a different reason. The applied
mathematician is not, as the physicist was, interested only in principles
(usually—as was said by Sir Horace Lamb (1924) in writing of early
elasticians—it is a relief to him when he finally arrives at his differential
equations, and feels really at home) ; but he is interested in method, and
his zest of discovery is experienced i in applying new methods, let their
limitations be what they must.
10. So, as I see the matter, in this and countless other problems of
practical engineering—problems far too difficult for routine investiga-
tion—there will still be scope for academic engineers: they have a point
of view, and it is needed. In particular they possess a sense which the
modern ‘ high-brow’ mathematical physicist at times seems almost to
boast of having discarded: they can wvisualise—which is what is meant,
really, by this talk of ‘ nineteenth-century model-making’. Hard things
have been said in recent years about the Victorian physicist: one gathers
that his love of ‘ models ’ was a vice which led him from the light, acquired
by debasing association with engineers. ‘.. . When the physicist sought
an explanation of phenomena his ear was straining to catch the hum
of machinery’. Well, the work of nineteenth-century physicists is
still, I fancy, a fairly potent argument in their defence ; and I hope that
we engineers, working in fields that they explored, will avoid undue
humility in our answer to these taunts. I for one am defiant—and there-
fore perhaps impertinent ; but as a gesture of defiance I will maintain
that the tools of these mathematico-physical critics—theories of orbits,
elastic solids, fluids compressible and incompressible, wave motions—
were made for them by men who could visualise—‘ model-makers ’—
and are applied by them now to problems which often they do not under-
stand or even seek to understand, relying instead on intermittent experi-
mental verification to show that they haven’t yet gone wrong! I think
it quite a sound line to follow in a fog, but I cannot see reason for so much
self-congratulation.+
1 So H. Jeffreys in Nature, April 23, 1938 (p. 718): ‘ The modern quantum
theories have begun by direct and successful attempts to co-ordinate what we
know, without attending to the details of any deeper interpretation, and as a
matter of method I think that their procedure is right. I should disagree,
however, with the elevation of the rejection of unobservables into a magic
philosophical principle.’
G.—ENGINEERING 173
However that may be, engineering as I see it still calls for this nineteenth-
century gift of visualisation, and if now mathematical analysts see fit to
eschew visualisation, that is no concern of ours except as meaning that we
must go our own way. I feel profoundly certain that in the engineering
student who intends research a gift of visualisation must be fostered
deliberately : he must develop intuitions not only in geometry plane and
solid, but of membranes, gases, elastic solids, incompressible fluids. It
is a gift very different from a gift for observation, because a solid may be
visualised clearly which is unlike any solid that he has ever seen. So in
hydrodynamics the fluid that he visualises has no colour, scent, taste,
viscosity, compressibility, surface-tension : it is a fluid in his own brain,
and it is unlike real fluids in this at least, that its presence there does no
harm.
11. I ought not to spend more time on this heading of my thesis, yet
one point I would try to make because it has been very much in my
thoughts during the past three years. So far from our being always
dependent on professional mathematicians, I suspect that the time is
coming when we shall have methods of our own for doing most of what,
hitherto, we have looked to them to do for us. Those methods will not
be exact in the mathematical sense, but I think they will be none the
worse for that, even philosophically speaking. For there is, as it seems to
me, something wrong philosophically in an approach which envisages
even the possibility of an exact solution to any actual problem. In practice
data are subject to a margin of error, no less than the quantities required ;
yet in theoretical work (perhaps as a bad result of the examination system)
we almost invariably start as though the data had absolute certainty.
On two occasions in the past three years this Section has borne with
patience my exposition of ‘ Relaxation Methods ’—an attempt to construct
a ‘ mathematics with a fringe’. Grateful for that indulgence, I will not
weary you this morning with a recital of problems which have been
attacked with success up to date. Some you will hear of later, when short
papers are given by my research students in accordance with a scheme
which Section G is trying as an experiment this year. I will only say that
I have been astonished as well as gratified by the way in which problems
regarded as difficult have yielded to the new attack.
12. You are thinking, perhaps, that I lay too much stress on theory
and on calculation, that I have been talking only of the ‘ high-brow’
sort of study that would have been the preserve of physicists before the
war. But that is how I visualise the trend of university research, con-
sidering how generous is the provision which now exists for more ad hoc
and expensive studies. Inevitably, as I believe, there will be some shift
of the focus of our interest,—schools of engineering will find problems
different from those which engaged their energies a generation ago.
It is not that those problems have lost importance or been solved, but that
better facilities now exist elsewhere, and can be made available. When a
problem can be turned over to trained men who will work on it full time,
common sense suggests that it is uneconomic both of brains and money
to pursue it at universities in hard-won spells of leisure from the duties
of teaching and administration.
Moreover, though paradoxical is it not the fact that engineers, usually
174 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
regarded as more practical than the pure physicist, are for that very reason
more concerned to calculate correctly ? The physicist at every stage can
test his theory by experiment : in engineering, nine times out of ten, the
only real check on calculation—a test to destruction—is too expensive
and dangerous to contemplate. Here, I think, is the real explanation
of what I have termed ‘ factors of uncertainty’: they are needed because
we can rely neither on our materials nor on our calculations, and only
improved methods will enable us to reduce them.
Confessedly (for I do not claim to be propounding more than a personal
point of view) I think of university research as approximating more and
more closely, with the passage of time, to what in the last century was
called pure physics. Avoiding mention of the living, I would say that it
is in Osborne Reynolds and Ewing—yes, and Clerk Maxwell, Rayleigh,
Kelvin, Heaviside in some of their manifold activities—that future pro-
fessors of engineering will find the models which they should aspire to
emulate. Their aim will be, not so much to make inventions in the manner
of Bessemer, Parsons, Otto, Diesel, or to test the working of large prime
movers (that will be done at works and in the research institutions), as
to break new ground in the physics that has application to engineering—
more especially near the ‘ border-lines ’ that tend always to be drawn too
sharply when research is highly organised. Where controlled research
has become too systematic, there they will try to be a disturbing factor ;
and having made their small disturbance, they will seek not to pursue the
new problems themselves, but as soon as possible to turn them over to
men who command greater facilities but have less freedom of choice.
As I envisage the future, it is the universities who must maintain that
irresponsible quality which otherwise research is in danger of losing, pre-
cisely because now it is taken so seriously, as a matter of national concern.
III.
13. So I come to my third heading—‘ public relations ’, or engineering
as it concerns the community. ‘Time is short, and here my remarks must
be very brief. In any event I should not have wished to say much—
conscious that I am trespassing on ground belonging to a specially ap-
pointed joint committee of the Engineering Institutions, and should be
better occupied listening to its chairman Sir Clement Hindley.
Briefly, here too my thesis is that we should avoid undue humility !
The times are out of joint, and having attained to command of Nature
greater than the world has seen before, because man has not learned to
use his mastery wisely, illogically now (as it seems to me) he inclines to
question the value of that mastery, and the labours that have given it.
In particular I want to record my protest against what seems to be an
implication in much that is written nowadays, that because the range
of engineering includes guns, battleships, aeroplanes, tanks, therefore
engineers are to be regarded as a class more than others responsible for
the horrors of modern war.
Here are words spoken by Sir Alfred Ewing, in a presidential address
to the Association (1932) which I keep to read ever and again, for its
showing of what at the best an engineer’s outlook may be:
G.—ENGINEERING 175
“An old exponent of applied mechanics may be forgiven if he expresses
something of the disillusion with which, now standing aside, he watches the
sweeping pageant of discovery and invention in which he used to take unbounded
delight. It is impossible not to ask, Whither does this tremendous procession
tend ? What, afterall, isits goal? ...
‘ The cornucopia of the engineer has been shaken over all the earth, scattering
everywhere an endowment of previously unpossessed and unimagined capacities
and powers. Beyond question many of these gifts are benefits to man, making
life fuller, wider, healthier, richer in comforts and interests and in such happiness
as material things can promote. But we are acutely aware that the engineer’s
gifts have been and may be grievously abused. In some there is potential
tragedy as well as present burden. Man was ethically unprepared for so great
a bounty. . . . The command of Nature has been put into his hands before
he knows how to command himself.’
Here too are words spoken somewhat earlier, in his wonderful James
Forrest Lecture, 1928, on ‘ A Century of Inventions’. In them still more
clearly, as I read them, he seems to feel as engineer a sense of special
responsibility :
‘TI used, as a young teacher, to think that the splendid march of discovery
and invention, with its penetration of the secrets of Nature, its consciousness of
power, its absorbing mental interest, its unlimited possibilities of benefit, was
in fact accomplishing some betterment of the character of man. . . . But the
war came, and I realised the moral failure of applied mechanics. . . . We had
put into the hand of civilisation a weapon far deadlier than the weapons of
barbarism, and there was nothing to stay her hand. Civilisation, in fact, turned
the weapon upon herself. The arts of the engineer had indeed been effectively
learnt, but they had not changed man’s soul. . . .
‘Surely it is for the engineer as much as any man to pray for a spiritual
awakening, to strive after such a growth of sanity as will prevent the gross
misuse of his good gifts. For it is the engineer who, in the course of his labours
to promote the comfort and convenience of man, has put into man’s unchecked
and careless hand a monstrous potentiality of ruin.’
To which I personally would answer : ‘ Yes, for the engineer as much
as any man, but no more.’ And when, in more recent pronouncements,
I find the charge so glibly formulated—‘ It is engineers who have given
men these potent weapons of destruction: on them more than others, then,
rests the responsibility for their use ’—then, admitting the premise, I
protest against the deduction. I would say rather: ‘ On them as much
as on others (but no more) rests the responsibility for their use.’ Do not
think that I imagine the load thus shared will be light for all. I have no
illusion about the weight of responsibility—it is appalling; but I hold
that we must share it equally, as citizens, not look for scapegoats when we
have been free to choose either our path or leaders to direct us.
14. I can conceive no subject in which, more than this, clear thinking
is wanted to-day: the desire to hand on responsibility is so deep-seated,
and the will to believe that we could have had the benefits of science
without its risks and its temptations. But knowledge is of good and evil :
it is of its essence that we cannot know how to cure poison without know-
ing poison and its action, how to control and use explosives without
acquiring power for harm as well as good. We may elect either to shun
it or pursue, but we cannot have it both ways. Either we must choose,
deliberately, impotence as preferable to the power of doing evil, or we
must accept knowledge for the double-edged tool it is, vowing to use it
176 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
wisely. We may not say to the scientist, “ Keep searching, but let your
discoveries be such as must benefit and cannot hurt us’; or pretend that
the use we make of science is something outside our responsibilities as
citizens, a thing imposed upon us by science itself. Knowledge is not
moral: good and evil are its opposite sides, inseparable in its very
nature. I have no quarrel (though no sympathy) with the plea we some-
times hear, for a cessation of scientific activity: it is arguable that on
balance knowledge is undesirable. But when men talk of ‘ beneficent ’
and ‘ destructive’ science as though we were free to pick and choose,
then I say that they have not even begun to understand what science is.
Holding these views, I find it matter for regret that so often our concern
with the impact of science on the life of the community, which is good
and healthy, is expressed in a manner that is neither. Too often we seem
to be weakly apologising for results that have followed our activities, as it
were because we did not take sufficient care. Need the geneticist apologise
for having increased the earth’s fertility, because we have found no bettet
use for plenty than to destroy food while thousands are in want? Ought
doctors to regret that by coming to a fuller understanding of disease they
have lengthened the span of life in a world where birth rates are falling ?
Here and in countless other instances, science impinging on the life of the
community has set problems that will tax to the utmost its courage and
intelligence ; the hardest and clearest thinking will be wanted, and it is
right that engineers and scientists should seek to contribute their share.
But I think that we only confuse the issue when we intervene as specialists
in discussions which concern us really not as specialists but as members
of a community.
15. Whether in these days, when all but a small minority seem con-
vinced of the necessity of rearmament, the engineer is still regarded as
scapegoat or has (for a time) been transferred to the réle of saviour, I
have no means of judging. But if any still reproach him for making what
all men now seek to buy, I would answer that horror is not peculiar to
modern war ; all war is horrible, both in nature and by purpose, and wars
are made not by engineers but by communities. No war is righteous,
though it seem so at the time ; or inevitable, except as a penalty of national
sins: pride, greed and indolence ; and those more contemptible because
weaker sins, vacillation of purpose, persistence in shams, clinging to safety
even at the loss of honour.
More and more frequently, in lectures and in editorials, the decline of
international standards is noticed with consternation andlament. Naturally,
perhaps, in this country we are apt to see it mainly as an increasing
tendency towards ‘ repudiation of law and order in favour of brute force ’,”
revealed most clearly in states that have abjured the democratic ideal.
But I think that the malady is at once deeper and more general. Dare we
claim that our own policy has shown no falling away from earlier belief
in straight-dealing, generosity, and the sanctity of contracts ?
Increasingly, as it seems to me, nations incline to put trust in the adroit-
ness rather than the sincerity of their statesmen. Ethics are out of fashion,
and while as individuals we may still admit the moral imperative, the
2 Vide Nature, May 28, 1938.
G.—ENGINEERING 177
notion that motives recognisable as moral can have place in international
affairs seems now to be rejected as impracticable idealism. Force and
deceit, it appears, although unpleasant are held to have ‘ survival value’ :
the gangster compels our unwilling admiration, at least in the field of world
affairs. But what if there should be something in the notion, that because
success in the life-struggle can come not only by individual strength but
also by ability to associate and combine, morality has survival value as
being (thus regarded) one of the factors which make association possible ?
A bank may come to ruin not only through fraudulent or incompetent
direction, but because its depositors, panic-stricken, seek each his own
legitimate interests at the expense of the common weal: may not a less
narrow concept of moral obligation be necessary to the continuance of
our civilisation, even as wider than national horizons are necessary in the
spheres of economics and finance? Perhaps this ‘idealism’ is not so
impracticable after all ?
Collective security attained by higher standards of fair dealing—it is
an epitome of man’s progress from the cave to association in the village,
in towns, and in nations, and I see no ground for believing that the notion
can never transcend national barriers. Men write as though it were
new—a product of post-armistice utopianism. ‘That it is not new let these
sentences, none written less than 100 years ago, bear witness (Guedalla
1931):
‘Soyez sir qu’en politique il n’y a rien de stable que ce qui convient aux
intéréts de tout le monde ; et qu’il faut regarder un peu plus loin que soi-méme.’
. . although the aggrandizement and security of the power of one’s own
country is the duty of every man, all nations may depend upon it that the best
security for power, and for every advantage now possessed, or to be acquired,
is to be found in the reduction of the power and influence of the grand disturber.’
‘ If we lose our character for truth and good faith, we shall have but little to
stand upon in this country.’
‘I would sacrifice Gwalior, or every frontier of India, ten times over, in order
to preserve our credit for scrupulous good faith, and the advantages and honor
we gained by the late war and the peace. . . . What brought me through many
difficulties in the war, and the negociations for peace? The British good faith,
and nothing else.’
If this be utopianism, then some of our historical judgments will need
revision ; for all were said or written by Arthur, Duke of Wellington—
a man not lightly to be charged with saying what he did not mean.
16. You will say, now I am drifting perilously near to politics! It is
precisely the point I want to make: I say that inevitably, when instead
of science we discuss its impact on the life of the community, we must
verge on politics, because what concerns the community 7s politics, both
etymologically and in fact. The old convention, that science should have
no politics, seems to me sane and wise : how to preserve it if as scientists
we are to concern ourselves with the life of the community, that is a
question I must leave to others more subtly-minded. For myself I see
no reason why as scientists we should meet to discuss anything but science.
Contrary to common belief, it is not our habit to pursue science throughout
the whole of every day ; and on all counts I hold it were better that we
came to political discussions in hours: of leisure, unlabelled, than give
178 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
support to a notion that political problems will yield to something known
as ‘the scientific attack’. ‘Talk to me of the scientific approach in physics,
and I shall have an idea of what you mean, though you will easily bewilder
me with detail : talk to me of ‘ scientific approach’ to problems of real
life, I shall suspect you of indulgence in mere jargon.
This is not to assert that science unfits a man for political discussion :
if only because by training men of science are prepared to believe that
problems of urgency may yet be hard, I hold on the contrary that some
scientific leaven is beneficial in almost any body of administrative
humanists. It is a protest against our facile modern use of the word
“ scientific ’ (which if it means anything connotes a special kind of approach
to special problems) where ‘ trained common sense’ is the faculty which
is really needed. In science we seek to explain phenomena which we
believe to be outside man’s control: it is the faith in which our work is
done—for if the facts were not inexorable, and could be altered at man’s
pleasure, how could we hope to find enduring ‘laws’? But politics is
concerned with action in fields where we believe that we can influence
results : I see no reason to believe that the same technique will serve.
17. Rather than seek to defend our activities from the charge that evil
can come of knowledge misapplied, might it not be better that we under-
took a harder task, trying to instil into the mind of the public a clearer
notion of the aims with which real scientific work is done ? For what is
that notion now, in these days of ‘ popular science’? At best, a picture
of life lived monastically by men who care nothing for the world outside
their laboratories, but spend their energies unceasingly in the quest for
more and more knowledge of less and less. (Is it surprising if the public
question the right of such men to leisure, seeing that by their carelessness,
as it appears, forces are unleashed which may bring our civilisation to
utter ruin?) At worst, an uncomprehended picture of modern ‘ wonders
of science ’—gifts which these same men have conferred upon their
fellows, altruistically wresting from nature the secrets of spiritual and
material benefit ; so that somehow, while the astronomer fosters humility
by telling the vastness of interstellar space, Heisenberg’s principle of
determinacy is thought to bring mystic comfort to men oppressed by the
notion of all-pervading law. Equally unfounded, it is I believe the other
side to that sense of responsibility for the consequences of science, about
which I have spoken already ; and on a more material plane it is the main-
stay of the patent medicine business! For it has given us a public super-
ficially acquainted with ‘recent progress in science’, yet in reality no less
ignorant, and more gullible, than was the public of Victorian days.
Never have greater powers of exposition been devoted to the ‘ populari-
sation ’ of science: when, I wonder, shall we find like powers devoted to
the harder task of a real apologia? ‘To telling, not of the treasure found,
but of the quest; to showing the true man of science (for it is the fact)
neither as care-free dilettante nor as philanthropist, but seeking truth like
the artist, because he must ?_ That, I maintain, is the real spirit of science,
be it pure or applied; a spirit that breathes in every book of science’
worth the name: to make of difficulty a stimulus, to be unwearied in
determination to do good work. Is it not there, rather than on a favourable
trade-balance of benefits conferred, that we who have chosen science
G.—ENGINEERING — 179 ,
should stand in our defence? Were it not better that the public be told
plainly : This is our work, which we do because we must ?
18. A lead has been given, and we may be proud that the giver was
an engineer ; for the gleam is seen in that noble presidential address by
Sir Alfred Ewing from which I have quoted already :
‘The quest of truth goes on endlessly, ardently, fruitfully. And yet with
every grain of knowledge we realise more clearly that we can never really know.
To understand, as Einstein lately said, is to draw one incomprehensible out of
another incomprehensible. From time to time we discover a fresh relation
between observed phenomena, but each of the things which are found to be
related continues to evade our full comprehension ; and that is apparently the
only kind of discovery we can achieve. Our joy in the quest itself never fails ;
we are constantly learning that it is better to travel than to arrive.’
That I say is the spirit! Let us have the courage of the artist to exalt
our calling, and while deploring the folly that has led us and other men
to misuse them, let us not weakly question that the gifts of science hold
potential good. Fairly regarded, the record of engineering is not such that
we need feel ashamed of our calling. Again to quote Sir Henry Tizard
(1938) :
‘There is nothing new in the fact that experiment and invention are trans-
forming the habits of men and are adding to their problems. What is new is
that we are all more aware of it, because the rate of change has been steadily
increasing. . . . Bad news is, as a rule, better copy than good news. But can
it seriously be argued that any section of society is worse off and living under
worse conditions than a hundred years ago? Broadly speaking, the natural
result of all scientific discovery has been greatly to improve the conditions of
life and all our social relations, in spite of—or possibly even because of—the fact
that scientific workers have been too busy doing their own jobs well to worry
about other people’s.’
So Dr. Johnson to Mr. Boswell: ‘My dear friend, clear your mind
of cant. . . . You may say, ‘“ These are bad times; it is a melancholy
thing to be reserved to such times” . . . You may talk in this manner ;
it is a mode of talking in Society : but don’t think foolishly.’
REFERENCES.
Eddington. The Nature of the Physical World, 209.
Ewing, Sir A. 1928 A Century of Inventions, 20, 21.
Guedalla, P. 1931 The Duke, 317, 241, 110, 114.
Lamb, H. 1924 The Evolution of Mathematical Physics, 39.
Tizard, Sir H. 1938 Nature, 735.
aia
wr ar
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
THE ORIENT AND EUROPE
ADDRESS BY
Pror. V. G. CHILDE,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
I po not intend to inflict upon the Section an abstract discussion of
archzological method. Ten years’ of excavation throughout the Old
World have yielded results startling enough to affect our concrete picture
of human history. From this vast field I want to gather together some
new facts that should mould our total synthesis... But my aim in so doing
will be not to attempt in an hour an impossible reconstruction of human
history. I shall rather focus attention on some new data which will
permit a concrete answer to a rather abstract question. Why is a pre-
historian asked to preside over a section in this Association from which
historians, as such, would be de facto excluded? And if a prehistorian
have some title to occupy this eminence, denied to a historian, how far
are British prehistorians, including my humble self, conforming to the
obligations conferred by this privilege? In a word, on what grounds can
prehistory in general and British prehistory in particular claim to be
a Science ?
Is prehistory experimental? Yes, but only within very narrow limits,
and in a restricted sense. I have recently described experiments to show
how the puzzling phenomenon of vitrifaction may have been produced
by our prehistoric forerunners. We knew the results of their activities ;
we formulated hypotheses to explain how these results were attained ;
we actually conducted under controlled conditions some of the suggested
operations, and found that one would produce the desired result. In
the same way Breuil and Coutier have demonstrated how an Acheulian
hand-axe may have been made. But possibilities of this sort of experi-
ment are very limited. Normally only one sort of experiment is open to
the archeologist, an experiment that can never be repeated—I mean
excavation.
Or does prehistory work ? Can it formulate general rules that serve
as guides to successful action? Yes, but again in a very limited sphere.
No one who has been privileged to see Dr. Wheeler’s excavations at Maiden
Castle, can fail to recognise in his brilliant sections the effective application
to the particular of general laws inferred from accumulated experience
and from observation of the site. Prehistorians can indeed go further.
In many regions the general aspects of prehistoric culture have been so
far reduced to a system and pattern that we can say where a given
182 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
phenomenon should be sought, and what should be found at a given site.
Given the right maps, one can soon find out where in Great Britain to
look for an unrecorded long barrow or hill-fort. When Anatolia was still
a blank archeologically, Dr. Frankfort was able to predict in a general
way what would turn up when excavation began. ‘This sort of prediction,
verifiable by experiment with the spade, clearly gives the same sort of
guidance as hypotheses in natural science. But only, mark you, as to
how to acquire fresh knowledge.
In the end our claim to be scientific is mainly this. We base our
deductions upon solid facts—relics and monuments—which are available
for all to examine and relations between them which, if no longer sub-
sisting, have been objectively recorded with photographs and diagrams
and verified by the greatest possible number of independent observers.
We rely in our discussions on such substantial and public data, not upon
any mystic revelations, vouchsafed once and irrevocably to a prophet or
a Fuhrer, nor upon the ambiguities of sentences spoken or written by
individuals now dead. Prehistorians ‘ first enquire diligently into the
nature of things and then proceed more slowly to hypotheses for the
explanation of them.’ Or to quote a leader in Nature last April, ‘ The
study of man must be based on impartial and objective study of the facts,
and not on forcing the facts to fit a biased and distorted dogma.’
‘How slender is this thread that links prehistory to natural science has
been demonstrated all too glaringly by the distortion of the subject that
we can recognise beyond the Channel. ‘The forcing of facts to fit a
biased and distorted political dogma’ has, as Nature showed, in certain
quarters made anthropology ‘a science travestied in masquerade.’ The
writer was referring particularly to the theory of Nordic racial superiority.
He might equally have referred to lapses into scholasticism in another
quarter. ‘ Good results in scientific research depend upon their correct
orientation—upon the acquisition by the investigator of the sole truly
scientific methodology—that of dialectic materialism. A merciless com-
bat against any sort of alterations in Marxism-Leninism is a particularly
urgent necessity,’ ran the leader in the first number of Sovietskaya
Archeologiya.
Let us not complaisantly exaggerate our neighbours motes! Some of
the latest German works on prehistory are just as objective as works on
mathematics. The seconi number of Sovietskaya Archeologiya de-
nounced the scholasticism of the first as sabotage and called for ‘ an
intensive, methodical and objective study of the primary sources’ to
replace dogmatic schematism. And if any archzological dogma were
officially imposed by a totalitarian British State, it would I fear be more
sterile than Nordicism or pseudo-Marxism.- Its character can be fore-
cast all too well from the talks broadcast just a year ago and subse-
quently printed in the Listener. That sort of farrago is what an insular
bureaucracy might make canonical had it the chance! Would the bureau-
crats be alone to blame? Do professional archeologists always keep so
closely within the bounds of definite evidence ?
The prehistorian’s aim is to reduce to an ordered and intelligible system
the scattered and isolated splinters of evidence collected through surveys,
excavations and chance discoveries. But only a few regions and short
H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 183
periods have as yet been so thoroughly explored and investigated that the
facts of themselves make an intelligible pattern. We have to fill up the
gaps with guesses and assumptions. In constructing his synthesis, said
Dr. Randall MaclIver at York, ‘ the general writer is often carried far
beyond the possibilities of strictly logical proof. But so long as the author
keeps his fancies and his facts distinct, he can remain perfectly scientific.’
Speculations outrunning the ascertained facts are indeed necessary for
the strictly scientific purpose of ascertaining fresh facts and guiding
research—so long as fact is kept distinct from hypothesis. But in London
Prof. Radcliffe-Browne complained that in ethnology ‘ generalizations are
the postulates with which the subject starts, not the conclusions which it
aims to attiin as the result of the investigations undertaken. ‘The pro-
cedure is often that of disciples of a cult rather than of students of science.’
Can a like complaint be levelled against archzology ?
The title of my address is intended to recall an assumption which has
exercised a profound formative influence on archeological studies, which
is indeed held by many as an axiom above discussion. In 1899 Montelius
stated this faith in the book, entitled, like my address, ‘The Orient and
Europe.’ ‘ At a time when the peoples of Europe were so to speak without
any civilisation whatsoever, the Orient and particularly the Euphrates
region and the Nile valley were already in enjoyment of a flourishing
culture. The civilisation which gradually dawned on our Continent was
for long only a pale reflection of Oriental culture.’
In 1899 such a statement was very much more an affirmation of faith
than a deduction from accumulated data. When our spiritual ancestors
first turned for light to the East, they gazed on an uncharted plain, its
limitless horizon broken only by the Oriental mirage or the dust-clad
ruins of pyramids and ziggurats. In 1899 the Palace of Minos was still
a mound where olives grew and Sargon of Agade still reigned placidly in
the empty firmament of the fourth millennium B.c. To-day the dust
stirred up by excavating spades settles to disclose a landscape no longer
uncharted. Beneath the ziggurats and behind the pyramids we can
descry Tel Halaf villages and Badarian cemeteries. Sargon has been
dragged down from his remote pinnacle and set among mortal men
a thousand years later. Exploration has left no terram incognitam wherein
to picture the sun recuperating when forest obscured his light on the
Dordogne. We can no longer plead ignorance as a pretext for treating
a successful working hypothesis as an axiomatic truth. We must instead
make the hypothesis explicit and scrutinise it anew in a light that is no
longer mythical.
But even before we begin to apply the touchstone of experiment to it,
we find that Montelius’ statement is itself a complex of postulates. His
hypothesis rests upon other assumptions and has given birth to corollaries,
which, treated as facts, have been used to re-enforce it. These too must
be first made explicit and tested by experience.
Montelius tacitly assumes diffusion. Dr. Harrison at Bristol ex-
pounded convincingly the logical justification for the general diffusionist
assumption implicit in the passages I quoted. But in general terms
diffusion must remain a postulate incapable of rigorous proof. ‘That
does not justify us in treating it as an axiom applicable to every special
184 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
case ; if we are scientists rather than devotees, each case of alleged
diffusion must be examined on its merits. At York Dr. Randall Maclver
reminded the Section of a rigorously objective criterion by which the
opportunity for diffusion may be scientifically established. ‘ When the
natural distribution, as known to geologists, of rocks, ores, or other
natural products is artificially changéd, there can be no doubt that man
has been at work.’ In other words, if we find in one region, in this case
say Central Europe, substances naturally occurring only in another,
e.g., the Mediterranean basin, intercourse between the communities
inhabiting the two regions is unambiguously proved. And intercourse
implies the opportunity for diffusion of ideas. Graebner and Schmidt
have formulated criteria for enhancing the probability of diffusion
between two regions—the number of traits common to the suspected
areas and the continuity of their distribution. How far have fresh
discoveries and the co-operation of petrologists and conchologists de-
monstrated intercourse between Europe and the Near East and enhanced
the likelihood of diffusion by multiplying the traits common to both
areas and filling in gaps in their distribution ?
Montelius’ phraseology implies another assumption that is really a
corollary of the first. He is implicitly comparing Oriental cultures with
contemporary cultures in illiterate Europe. But how compare cultural
phases, dated by written records, with those where ex hypothest no such
records survive? You all know the postulate by which Montelius and
his colleagues resolved the antinomy and set out to frame a general time-
scale applicable alike to Europe and Asia. He notes that type-fossils,
used to distinguish typological periods in Europe, recur in historical
periods in Mesopotamia, Egypt and the AEgean. In accordance with
his general assumption he assumes that the age of the type-fossils in the
Orient provides a terminus post quem for dating the European periods
which they serve to define. The rigorous application of this principle
by the present and former occupants of this chair has had results little
expected by Montelius. The neolithic period, for instance, then a hoary
giant reckoned in millennia, has been squeezed to the stature of a slim
Minoan youth. And yet, precisely at this moment, geologists and palzo-
botanists have come along with chronological systems of their own for
dating in terms of solar years the earlier periods of European prehistory.
These tend to enhance the antiquity of the Old Stone Age. The gap
between the geological and historico-archzological record is widening.
The old hiatus is becoming more distended. When Montelius wrote,
the mesolithic had just been created to bridge it. To-day it will take a
lot of microliths to fill the chasm !
I have unmasked a formidable conspiracy of assumptions masquerading
as facts. Let us critically examine the evidence put in for their defence.
Restated in simpler, but still not altogether unambiguous terms, the
statement quoted from Montelius resolves itself into the following pro-
positions, treated as axioms: (1) Civilisation in the Orient is extremely.
ancient ; (2) Civilisation can be diffused ; (3) Elements of civilisation
were in fact diffused from the Orient to Europe; (4) The diffusion of
historically dated Oriental types provides a basis for bringing prehistoric
Europe within the framework of historical chronology ; (5) Prehistoric
H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 185
European cultures are poorer than contemporary Oriental cultures,
i.e., civilisation is later in Europe than in the East. To-day, none of
these propositions except No. 2 need be treated as ‘ postulates rather
than as conclusions from the results of investigations.’ For the excava-
tions published during the last five years have provided abundant data
by which to test the axioms’ validity.
The high absolute antiquity of Oriental civilisation has been very
dramatically confirmed by excavations in Mesopotamia and Syria and
Anatolia. Opportunities for applying the criteria, already enumerated,
to the possibility of diffusion between the Orient and Europe have been
multiplied. Discoveries in Anatolia at Alisar, Alaca, Kusura, Thermi and
Troy have in fact revealed long missing links between Mesopotamia
and the AEgean. Heurtley’s work in Macedonia, taken in conjunction
with the publication of the relics from Vinéa, has established the con-
tinuity of neolithic culture from the AXgean to the Danube. We no
longer have to compare two remote areas separated by an ambiguous
tract of unexplored territories, but can survey a continuous province
over which cultural phenomena interlock from the Tigris to the Rhine.
The opportunities for the diffusion, assumed in axiom 3, can be estimated
in the light of the phenomena observed herein.
The validity of the chronological axiom 4 is to some extent confirmed
by the enhanced likelihood of diffusion revealed by the exploration of
intermediate regions and by the discovery in Mesopotamia and in
Anatolia of an imposing number of the type fossils, long familiar to
European prehistorians. But these have turned up in such unexpectedly
early contexts that the conclusions Montelius drew from them forty
years ago need drastic revision. Only when European chronology has
been thus revised, can the earliest cultures of the Orient and Europe,
as concretely revealed by the latest excavations, be compared. The
result will be to transform the fifth axiom from a postulate into a
conclusion.
Let me first summarise the results of excavations in Hither Asia that
tend to establish the first axiom—the antiquity of Oriental culture.
The beginning of the historical or Dynastic period in Egypt and Sumer
now constitutes a fairly accurately dated horizon. The coincidence of
Egyptian and Mesopotamian sources is now close enough to permit of
this horizon being dated with general consent about 3100 + I00 B.C.
The latest additions to knowledge resulting from Frankfort’s masterly
operations at Tel Agrab, Tel Asmer and Khafaje, have not only to be
mentioned as enhancing the likelihood of diffusion and providing fresh
data for European chronology, but intensify our appreciation of the high
level of Oriental civilisation and emphasise the long duration of the
Early Dynastic Age. The Sin Temple at Khafaje was rebuilt five times.
In the same period the Temple of Abu at Tel Asmer underwent four
reconstructions.
And the Early Dynastic period itself was far from the beginning of
urban life. In the Tigris-Euphrates delta it is preceded by two periods,
termed respectively the Jemdet Nasr and Uruk phases, during which
monumental buildings were already being erected. At Erech, below the
earliest dynastic temple ruins, the German excavators uncovered the wall
186 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
stumps of a gigantic edifice that had been reconstructed once or twice
in the Jemdet Nasr period. These walls in turn rested on ruins of a
no less imposing building, the Red Temple ; a veritable cathedral adorned
with a mosaic of clay nails and with friezes of stucco beasts. The Red
Temple itself was twice remodelled and was after all only the successor
of a still earlier, but no less monumental, cathedral, termed in view of
its unusual stone foundations the Limestone Temple. Now you do not
build a cathedral every fifty years, even if it be built only of mud brick.
This series of three prehistoric temples with their several reconstructions
must cover a period of several centuries. (Incidentally writing was
invented during that period.)
But even in the Limestone Temple we are dealing with a highly-
organised urban civilisation presupposing centuries of experimentation
and development. Some aspects of that development are explicitly
revealed in the archzological record. From the floor level of the Lime-
stone Temple the Germans sank a shaft, 17 m. or just under 60 ft. deep
to virgin soil. It was dug entirely through the debris of prehistoric
dwellings. As one winds down the ramp into that dizzy abyss one can
distinguish in the pit wall 18 layers marked by hearths, floors, stumps of
walls and heaps of sherds and artifacts. As Dr. Randall Maclver has
insisted, nothing could be more perilous than an attempt to estimate in
years the time taken for such an accumulation to form. But I must
confess that nothing has driven home so vividly the antiquity of settled
life in the Tigris-Euphrates delta as the descent of that great shaft.
Admitting that I am now guessing perhaps rashly, I cannot believe that
the al’Ubaid culture represented in the lower levels at Erech is later than
4500 B.C.
But no one has ever suggested that the geologically very recent delta
of Lower Mesopotamia was the cradle of food-production. It is in fact
evident that the al’Ubaid farmers who settled on the freshly emerged
land-surface there, brought with them from older regions a culture
already mature. And in the last five years the excavations of Mallowan
and Speiser in Assyria and Syria have given us glimpses of what preceded
al’Ubaid in the Fertile Crescent. It is true that history does not fully
dawn there till relatively late—till the time of the Dynasty of Akkad
indeed. But relations with Lower Mesopotamia were so close and so
continuous that the archeological record provided by the prehistoric
levels of Gawra, Nineveh and Chagar Bazar can be proved parallel to
that from the protohistoric levels of Sumer. Imported Assyrian pottery
actually found at Tel Asmer thus shows that Gawra VI is at least Early
Dynastic and Gawra VIIa not later than Jemdet Nasr in Babylonia.
Below the last-named level come four or, five architectural periods,
Gawra VIIIb to XII, presumably parallel to the Uruk period of Sumer.
So when we find in Gawra XIII pottery and other relics typical of the
earliest or al’Ubaid phase of Sumer’s prehistory, we have no reason to
doubt that al’Ubaid in Assyria is virtually contemporary with al’Ubaid
in Sumer. But Gawra XIII already boasted a cluster of three handsome-
and monumental temples, decorated with painted buttresses and niches
and grouped round a court 20 m. by 14 m. in area.
And the al’Ubaid temples at Gawra are perched upon a tell, formed
H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 187
from the ruins of older settlements and rising already 25 to 30 m. above
the plain. Below the al’Ubaid foundations come settlements belonging
to the Tel Halaf culture. Mallowan found the same culture beneath,
and therefore older than, al’Ubaid remains at Arpachiya, 38 ft. below
the historical horizon at Nineveh and in deep layers at Chagar Bazar.
The Tel Halaf culture is accordingly older than the al’Ubaid—if you
want a guess, I would hazard 5000 B.c. as a moderate date—but it is no
less sophisticated. Monumental circular buildings, cobbled streets,
delicate and beautifully painted vases, ingeniously carved stone beads
and stamps already used for sealing property attest already a well-organised
society, an advanced economy, highly developed craftsmanship. If the
collection of pit-dwellings and wattle-and-daub huts sheltering under the
gigantic ramparts of Maiden Castle be termed a city, can we deny that
name to the Tel Halaf settlements at Arpachiya? Its cobbled streets
disclose a community as well organised for works of public utility as
were Iron Age Britons for defence preparations. Even the economic
aspect of city life is represented. The richest house at Arpachiya would
seem to have belonged to an artist-craftsman presumably producing for
sale, not merely for the satisfaction of domestic needs. And even long
distance trade is dramatically attested by a shell of Cypraea vitellus
imported from the Persian Gulf to the Tel Halaf village at Chagar Bazar
on the Khabur.
The Tel Halaf culture must have flourished for several generations.
Mallowan uncovered at least five building levels at Arpachiya and seven
at Chagar Bazar.. And yet at Gawra, Nineveh and Chagar Bazar, the
oldest Tel Halaf foundations rest upon the ruins of villages characterised
by painted pottery of the Samarra style. Guessing frankly once more
these might take us well back into the sixth millennium B.c.
Yet the culture revealed even in these remote depths resembles the
European neolithic only in the most formal sense—in the continued use
of polished stone adzes and some other tools. The earliest cultures of
the Fertile Crescent, like its Early Dynastic cities, are so unlike anything
we know in Cis-alpine Europe before Roman times, are economically
so far ahead of Kéln-Lindenthal or Skara Brae or even Toszeg as to seem
almost incommensurable. Yet some comparison is inevitable if Montelius’
fifth postulate is to be objectively criticised.
The abruptness of the contrast may to-day be softened by reference
to a region that is more than spatially intermediate between Mesopotamia
and Europe. During the last five years a promising beginning has been
made in reducing to a system Anatolian prehistory. The results are
relevant not only to the antiquity of Oriental culture, but also to the
probability of the diffusion postulated in axiom 3.
The results of the long campaign conducted at Alisar Hitytik by the
Oriental Institute of Chicago which were published this year have given
the first definite clue to the culture-sequence on the plateau. In particular
they provide the skeleton of a chronology. Recorded history began
relatively late in the Halys basin ; continuous records disclosing names
and dates do not go back beyond the foundation of the First Hittite
Empire in the twentieth century B.c. But intercourse between Anatolia
and Mesopotamia is attested by business documents: several centuries
188 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
earlier and by tradition as far back as the reign of Sargon of Agade. It
is faithfully reflected in the archeological record.
Below the Hittite foundations on the acropolis at Alisar (but not on
the terrace) came a deposit with Cappadocian painted ware now termed
Early Bronze Age or Alisar C. Below that, five building layers, account-
ing for 11 m. of deposit, represent the Copper Age or Alisar B. This
must end by 2000 B.c. A beginning towards 3000 B.c. might be inferred
from an imported Mesopotamian cylinder of Jemdet Nasr style, stone
figurines like those regarded as Anatolian intruders in the Early Dynastic
layers of Gawra and Tel Asmer, and animal pendants of stone remark-
ably like those from the Early Dynastic temple of Sin at Khafaje. To
this same Copper Age belong the ruins and burials at Ahlatlibel near
Ankara. It was a period when commerce was sufficiently organised
for metal to be common and seals to be useful.
But beneath the lowest Copper Age floors von der Osten’s shaft
pierced 8-5 m. of debris, divisible into seven building levels, before
reaching virgin soil. The earliest Anatolian culture, represented by
Alisar A, is already so advanced that it is accurately termed Chalcolithic.
However sparingly used, copper, silver and lead were common enough to
indicate well-established commercial channels of distribution and special-
ised producers. Stamp-seals were already employed. But certain pot-
forms and fabrics are already comparable to the Central European ; two-
handled tankards, like those of the Hungarian Copper Age, occur in the
topmost layers only (Alisar Az) ; for the rest lugs take the place of handles,
but a distinctive shape is a high-pedestalled bowl, at first with a remarkably
Danubian profile. ‘The fabric is self-coloured, black to red but generally
muddy and sometimes particoloured—black inside and round the rim,
but brownish below on the exterior. ‘The Anatolian Chalcolithic seems
rooted in the fourth millennium B.c., but how far back remains quite
uncertain.
Despite conspicuous divergences the Copper Age and Chalcolithic
cultures of Central Anatolia are patently related to, and continuous with,
those of north-western Anatolia, long known from Schliemann’s excava-
tions at Troy. And there re-excavation under Blegen has substantially
enhanced the impression of the antiquity of Anatolian culture. If the
Americans have not yet provided unimpeachable data for determining the
absolute age of the earlier ‘ cities,’ they have at least filled in and expanded
the scheme propounded by Schliemann and Dérpfeld. The Troy that
the Achaeans might have sacked about 1200 B.c., did Lord Raglan allow
us to believe in a Trojan War, was not VI but VIla. Troy VI goes
back on the strength of Helladic imports to 1500 B.c. Cities V, IV and III
turn out to be quite important settlements, divisible into several archi-
tectural levels and making up together a formidable accumulation 4 m.
deep. Troy II, thus separated from the Mycenaean horizon, can no longer
be brought down to the Shaft Grave epoch, however neat Aberg’s typo-
logical comparisons may look. It is firmly anchored in the third millen-
nium whatever its precise limits may be. And Troy I below it was
already a city girt by an imposing wall. Its citizens were executing
monumental sculptures that provide a new limiting date, on Montelius’
assumption, for the statue-menhirs of Atlantic Europe. And by this
H.—ANTHROPOLOGY 189
time, as Miss Lamb has shown at the contemporary Lesbian township of
Thermi, copper and even bronze were already being worked, celts might
have hammered flanges, battle-axes were used in war, while trade brought
marble vases from the /Egean Islands. And remains of a still earlier
phase of culture may be discerned at Kum Tepe. Soundings there pro-
duced pedestalled bowls like those from the earliest Chalcolithic of Alisar
that seem still missing in Troy I and the contemporary Lesbian site.
The experiments in Anatolia thus go far to re-enforce with objective
facts the antiquity and relatively high level of Oriental culture assumed
in axiom 1. Moreover, taken in conjunction with Heurtley’s excavations
in Macedonia, they concretely demonstrate connections between Asia
and Europe that are the precondition for admitting axiom 3 and provide
a crucial instance for testing axiom 5, i.e. for comparing demonstrably
contemporary cultures in Europe and Asia. Heurtley has convincingly
demonstrated the Anatolian ancestry of the Early Macedonian Bronze
Age culture ; it begins with fully developed horned tubular lugs growing
from the bowls’ rims. The evolution of this odd type that appears fully
formed in Europe can be traced stratigraphically on the Asiatic side. It
emerges as a finished product first in phase B at Thermi ; its earlier stages
are illustrated in phase A. For once we have, fully documented, a cultural
spread which is irreversible ; in this concrete instance axiom 3 becomes
a conclusion from ascertained facts.
But, implanted in Europe, Anatolian culture appears poorer than its
Asiatic parents. Even in phase A Thermi was quite a township, the con-
temporary Troy I a fenced city. ‘Their economy was so far advanced that
copper and even bronze could be used for tools as well as weapons ;_ metal
was so plentiful that quite a lot was left lying about for Miss Lamb to find.
The Early Macedonian settlements which are not older than Troy I give
the impression of rustic villages. For all the metal collected among their
ruins, they might be neolithic. Macedonia was still veiled in mists which
the Oriental sun must pierce before an economic system comparable even
to the Anatolian could function.
But if the Early Bronze Age culture of Macedonia is unambiguously
rooted in Asia, the later neolithic culture which it supersedes is no less
securely linked with that of Vinéa and Tordos in the Middle Danube
basin beyond the Balkan ranges. Comparison of the Macedonian relics
with those from the Morava-Middle Danube-Maros sites shows that we
are dealing not with two cultures but with different facies of one and the
same culture. Common to both regions are stone adzes of shoe-last form,
bone combs, bracelets of Spondylus shell, clay figurines, clay altars,
_ carinated bowls and chalices on solid pedestals in dark-faced, parti-
coloured and red-slipped wares decorated by incision, fluting, stripe-
burnishing and painting in black or white on red sometimes with spiral
motives and embellished with lugs modelled as animal heads. A veritable
cultural continuum traversing the Balkans connects the Aégean coasts
with the Danube basin. We may reasonably speak of a Vardar-Morava
culture extending from the coasts to the Maros.
How such a continuum was constituted remains a question for debate
elsewhere. Its absolute antiquity in Macedonia cannot be defined with
precision owing to the difficulties of applying the Minoan-Helladic systems
190 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
to what may have been a cultural backwater and the uncertainties in the
systems themselves. Even the position of the Vardar-Morava culture
in the Danubian sequence remains ambiguous. ‘Though the deposit at
Vin¢éa is 10 m. thick and comprises type-fossils of Danubian II, the methods
of excavation and publication do not permit of the distribution of the relics
between stratigraphically defined periods. For our purpose the supreme
importance of the Vardar-Morava complex is that it establishes at least
once a continuity of culture from the /Egean to the Danube basin. What-
ever be the chronological horizon of that continuity, its existence enhances
enormously the significance of the south-eastern analogies to cultural
phenomena in Central Europe. It provides a justification for admitting
axiom 3—diffusion from Asia to Central Europe is likely.
Fortified by this conclusion let us turn to axiom 4—the prehistoric
chronology of Central Europe. ‘There the cultural sequence is reasonably
clear at least north of the Bakony and the Little Carpathians. The
divisions which I tentatively suggested ten: years ago have on the whole
been fully justified by recent research. A reference to the comprehensive
survey of the Danubian and Western Cultures in Germany published
by Buttler last year will show how well my scheme works. ‘Thanks
particularly to the work of Banner round Szeged it can even be extended
to the Hungarian plain more fully than I could do. The Copper Age
Bodrogkeresztur culture there is plainly the counterpart of the so-called
Nordic and Bell-beaker cultures of my Danubian III in the Sudeten
lands, and Banner’s KGrés culture may well fill up my period I. But to
what Oriental cultures shall these several phases be compared? En-
couraged by the newly-revealed proofs of intercourse, let us apply
Montelius’ fourth axiom to dating the Danubian sequence.
The earliest bronze objects found in Central Europe (in graves and
hoards of the Aunjetitz culture) include a whole constellation of specialised
and arbitrary forms of ornament that are now known also in historically
dated horizons. Ingot-torques have been found in Early Dynastic
levels at Tel Agrab and recur in North Syria and in the Copper Age
graves of Ahlatlibel in Turkey. Earrings and lock-rings with flattened
ends are common in Early Dynastic Sumerian graves and in the‘ treasures’
of Troy II ; racquet pins are found in the Royal ‘Tombs of Ur ; the knot-
headed pin goes back to Gerzean times in Egypt and appears at Troy II ;
its principle was applied to Sumerian toilet sets in Early Dynastic times.
By then tin bronze was already known to the Sumerians as to the Lesbians
in the time of Thermil. Ina word all the type-fossils of the Early Bronze
Age in Central Europe, and the technical discovery that defines the period,
can be traced back to somewhere about 3000 B.c. in the Orient. On
the strictest application of Montelius’ axiom the beginnings of the Con-
tinental Bronze Age should be nearer 2800 B.c. than 1800 !
And as far as Central Europe is concerned that chronology would involve
no glaring contradiction. Oriental parallels can be found to the types
that define earlier periods, while Mediterranean shells, imported even to
the Rhine Valley, prove intercourse with the south-east right back to
Danubian I. Stone battle-axes such as characterise period III are found
already at Thermi I. The Early Dynastic levels of Tel Agrab ‘have
yielded rather degenerate specimens ; better battle-axes come from the
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY IQI
al’Ubaid settlement at Arpachiya and from Gawra VIII-IX, that is
equivalent to Uruk in Sumer. Hence Danubian III could be equated
with the Uruk period.
Clay stamps, generally called pintaderas, appear in Danubian II (and
in K6rés sites that may be older). In form they closely resemble
Asiatic stamp seals of stone and, like the latter, often bear a filled cross
design. In Europe, such stamps, nowhere very numerous, are common
only in the extreme south-east—Bulgaria, Wallachia, Transylvania, the
Middle Danube plain; stray examples reach Moravia ; still fewer the
Upper Elbe and Oder basins. Such a distribution justifies their interpre-
tation as copies of Asiatic stone seals. But in Asia prototypes can be
found as early as Tel Halaf times and in the Chalcolithic layers of Alisar.
And there there are pedestalled bowls remarkably like those characteristic
of Danubian II. The upper limits for that period could accordingly be
pushed back to Alisar Chalcolithic or even Tel Halaf.
And that is not the end of our comparisons. As Spondylus shells were
being imported from the Mediterranean even in Danubian I times, so
some Danubian I vases are decorated with patterns in which Neustupny
rightly sees a representation of a double-axe. For the models he looked
to Minoan Crete. But double-axes were used in Assyria as amulets even
in Tel Halaf times. So the terminus post quem provided by that motive
can be relegated to a remote Tel Halaf period.
Testing this long chronology in the other direction, it can still be made
to work. Aberg and Reinecke have indeed insisted on Middle Helladic
and Shaft Grave parallels to Aunjetitz bronzes of period IV. But on the
whole Middle A®gean armament—rapiers, ogival daggers, socketed
spear-heads—is typologically parallel rather to that proper to the Middle
Bronze Age or period V, in Central Europe. A halberd from Shaft
Grave IV is admittedly an Early Bronze Age type, but Forssander has
plausibly compared its contours with those of a Middle Age sword from
Hajdu Samsén. The pottery from Middle Age Bronze graves at Vattina
and from south-eastern Hungary includes many tankards and goblets
with crinkled rims and grooved handles that might be copies of well-known
Middle Minoan silver vessels. In a word a limiting date about 1700 B.c,
for the Middle Bronze Age is defensible.
And with the fall of the Mycenaean culture we have admittedly reached
the Late Bronze Age or period VI of Central Europe. The barbarian
invaders who sacked late Mycenaean Vardaroftsa, in the twelfth or
eleventh century, brought ceramic traditions proper to the Late Bronze
Age urnfields like Knoviz and Hétting. And this date is for once a
terminus ante quem for the continental period. An even higher limit might
be deduced from the fibulae and flange-tanged swords that appear in
Greece during the thirteenth century. Accordingly the following scheme
of European chronology might be defended :—
Danubian VI
(urnfield cultures fibulae and slashing swords) 1200 B.C.
Danubian V
(Vattina ware, rapiers, ogival daggers,
socketed spear-heads) 1700 B.C.
192 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Danubian IV
(bronze, ingot torques, knot-headed pins,
lock-rings) : ; 3000 B.C.
If geologists and botanists can show good grounds for demanding an
enlargement and prolongation backward of the neolithic age, archzeological
chronology can be adjusted to meet theirs without violating Montelius’
axioms. Danubian I, admittedly the earliest neolithic culture in con-
tinental Europe, would still be limited by Tel Halaf. If the former have
to be dated to the sixth millennium, the latter can just as reasonably be
assigned a like antiquity.
The foregoing dates are advanced only as extreme possibilities. The
Oriental analogies cited provide under axiom 4 only upper limits for the
corresponding period. It is not till the Late Bronze Age that we get a
terminus ante quem from our comparisons. But for the moment let us
adopt the maximal dates as a framework for comparing Asiatic and Euro-
pean cultures. How would Montelius’ general view of the relations
between Europe and the Orient be affected by adopting the long chrono-
logy outlined here? What happens to his fifth axiom if the Central
European Bronze Age began about 2800 B.c. ?
By that date we should have the following picture of the tract we have
been surveying. We should see in Egypt and Lower Mesopotamia
populous cities, covering like Erech perhaps two square miles of area,
governed by a well-established organisation, emancipated from immediate
dependence on environmental conditions by extensive public works and
a rich technical equipment and regular far-flung commerce and all fully
literate. ‘Then in Assyria and Syria come smaller cities, only slightly
less richly equipped and still at least semi-literate. Further afield in
Anatolia and peninsular Greece are fortified townships whose walls protect
a variety of specialised craftsmen so well served by regular commerce
that metal at least could be freely used for tools ; their citizens may already
need and use seals, but seem to be illiterate. Next, in the Balkans and
on the Hungarian plain, we find rustic townships occupied principally
by farmers. ‘Their rural economy is advanced enough to support a truly
sedentary population, but virtually the sole outlet in industry for the
surplus is offered by metallurgical employments, and trade is so imper-
fectly organised that metal has to be reserved mainly for armaments.
The same picture would apply to Bohemia and southern Germany with
the important reservation that agriculture seems not to have advanced so
far as to allow the population to be really stable. Denmark and southern
Sweden are still frankly in the Stone Age. And still further north
food-gathering is the sole economy.
Look back as many thousand years as may be necessary to reach
Danubian I times, which have been for this purpose equated with the
Tel Halaf period in the Fertile Crescent. In the Orient we see already
little townships permanently occupied by experienced farmers, comprising
already expert craftsmen and supplied by trade at least with obsidian.
In Crete and Thessaly too perhaps more self-sufficient farmers are still
applying sufficient science to their fields to be able to live permanently
on the same site. But beyond the Balkans nomadism reigns. ‘The KG6rés
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY 193
herdsmen are roaming over the Alféld, tilling and grazing patches for a
few seasons and then moving on. And Danubian I peasants are spreading
over the léss, shifting their little hamlets of twenty or so households to
new virgin fields every few years. And beyond the frontiers of the léss
are only food-gatherers, fishing and fowling along streams in the forest
or collecting shell-fish on the coasts.
Yet earlier still beneath Tel Halaf villages we have glimpses of settled
cultivators who, judging by the few items of equipment so far recovered,
were at least as far advanced as the Danubians.
Even on this extreme chronology Montelius’ fifth axiom is justified.
Oriental cultures are richer than the contemporary European. Moreover
the first picture discloses a very significant cultural zoning. As we pass
north-westward from the Orient we descend through regular gradations
from the many-sided richness of urban civilisation to the stark poverty
and immediate dependence on external nature of food-gathering hordes.
Such a grading is exactly what would be deduced from Montelius’ third
axiom. Its discovery in the archzological record is the best demonstra-
tion of diffusion that I canimagine. I take it as confirming the diffusion of
bronze-working with all its economic implications.
But on the extreme chronology this demonstration could not be applied
to food-production, to the more important discovery-complex that made
possible what I term the neolithic revolution. The Vardar-Morava
culture, that as yet alone establishes concretely continuity across the
Balkans, could hardly be put so early in relation to Oriental cultures,
however it may be related chronologically to Danubian I. Objective
proof of cultural continuity, giving effective opportunity for diffusion
between the Near East and Central Europe, would be still lacking. The
belief that agriculture and stock-breeding, the foundations of any neolithic
culture, were introduced into Europe from the Orient would remain only
a probable hypothesis which, however much its plausibility has been
enhanced, must await final confirmation or refutation in the observed
facts of excavation. The Balkans are still but little known. Till the
crucial experiments have been made there, it would be permissible to
hope for confirmatory evidence in that quarter.
Montelius’ thesis has come unscathed through the severest test. Even
on a chronology based on geological rather than archzological premises
and designed to meet the demands of an extraneous discipline, his axioms
4 and 5 prove workable. If geologists demand dates of the order just
outlined, archzologists can meet them without sacrificing any essential
_ principles, but preserving intact their own proper methods and all the
historically vital deductions therefrom. But these high dates for Central
European prehistory have been advanced provisionally simply and solely
to test the applicability of Montelius’ method, and not as proven or even
probable. ‘To justify them archzologically we have had to sacrifice
many tempting comparisons and to explain away observed facts that must
be admitted as relevant. .
Remember that down to 1200 B.c. no date in European prehistory
could be justified archzeologically by an actual object of Oriental manu-
facture found in Central Europe, still less by an admittedly European
product in a historically dated context. We have had to rely exclusively
H
194 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
on copies of Oriental models made in Central Europe. Remember
further that all the types on which we have relied enjoyed a long popularity
in the Orient: seals that could serve as models for Danubian II ‘ pinta-
deras’ were current in Crete and Asia Minor throughout the third
millennium and later. Battle-axes for comparison to those of Danubian III
were brandished equally long in central Anatolia and first appear in
peninsular Greece in Middle Helladic times. The type-fossils of
Period IV only came into fashion in the East in the third millennium
and fashions did not change abruptly. Knot-headed pins were still being
worn in the third (Hittite) settlement at Kusura during the second
millennium. Ingot-torques, racquet pins, lock-rings and earrings with
flattened ends are common in Caucasian graves well after 1500 B.c. ‘The
archzological ‘ synchronisms’ so far considered are really just upper
limits.
Accordingly till geologists present their demands with more unanimity
and confidence, it is permissible to remind you of other comparisons
between Central European and south-eastern phenomena that entail
substantially lower dates for our prehistoric periods. Characteristic of
Danubian II are cubical blocks of clay, with one, or rarely two, cups
hollowed out in them and perforated at the corners. ‘These have been
convincingly explained as clay copies of Early Minoan block vases of
stone. ‘Thus interpreted, they would bring the limits of Danubian II
down into the third millennium under axiom 4.
Found allegedly in an Aunjetitz grave of period IV at Nienhagen in
Central Germany was a clay cup; its curious handle is strikingly like
those of the metal Vapheio cups of Late Minoan I, most popular between
1600 and 1500 B.c. Parallels between Aunjetitz weapons and those of
the Mycenaean Shaft Graves of roughly similar age have already been
mentioned—and explained away. Still the amber beads from these and
later Mycenaean graves should re-enforce the arguments for a parallelism
between Central European Aunjetitz and Late Helladic Greece. The
amber trade was a mainspring of the Aunjetitz commercial system. Did
it involve nothing more than barter between barbarians in Denmark,
Bohemia and Upper Italy? The brilliance of the Early Bronze Age in
Bohemia would become much more intelligible if that region were already
connected by the amber trade with civilised Greece. The probability of
such a connection is enhanced by Piggott’s recognition among the amber
beads from Kakovatos (Nestor’s Pylos) of massive forms and space-
plates in the Danish style such as often occur in graves contemporary
with Aunjetitz. All these pointers converge upon a date for the be-
ginning of the Central European Bronze Age a full thousand years later
than the upper limits deduced from the metal ornaments.
Such considerations are, however, frankly speculative and can if needful
be dismissed. It is less easy to explain away certain actual AXgean or
Egyptian imports found in an apparently Early Bronze Age context in
Central Europe. Segmented fayence beads occur in four graves near
Szeged associated with pottery of the Perjamos type and in two Moravian
graves with Aunjetitz pottery. ‘Though the blue glaze is generally less
well preserved, these beads, Dr. Stone assures me, agree perfectly in form
and technique with those from Wiltshire and from Grave 1808A at Abydos,
H.— ANTHROPOLOGY 195
dated about 1400 B.c. Now admittedly the coincidence of Perjamos and
Aunjetitz may not be altogether exact, and Aunjetitz and Perjamos ceramic
forms and even knot-headed pins and ingot-torques outlast the bounds
of the Early Bronze Age or Danubian IV as defined by hoards. But even
if the relevant graves be transferred to the beginning of the Middle Bronze
Age (Reinecke B), it is difficult to admit that Perjamos jugs and Aunjetitz
mugs persisted virtually unchanged for 1400 years or to spread over so
long a period even the 180 graves of the Széreg cemetery from which some
of our beads come.
And the foregoing are not quite the earliest imports recognised in
Central Europe. Willvonseder found a very small blue segmented bead of
the sort made in Egypt from 1600 to 1300 B.c. at Leopoldsdorf near
Vienna in a grave with a Bell-beaker. Of course, it is now recognised
that Bell-beakers are not confined to period III ; some are contemporary
with early Aunjetitz. Still taken altogether these undoubted imports
provide really cogent arguments for the limiting date of 1500 B.c. proposed
by Aberg for Aunjetitz. Clearly that would fit in beautifully with the
more speculative considerations adduced above for earlier periods. And
notoriously it is difficult to make a Bronze Age of two thousand years
look credible outside the Central European and Britannico-Hibernian
economic systems—in south France for instance.
Perhaps then it may be legitimate to consider a short chronology such
as I have previously advanced on several occasions as a still plausible
alternative to the long one outlined to-day. ‘Till incontrovertible evidence
from the geological or botanical side makes it obsolete, it is still permissible
to consider in conclusion how the low dating endorsed by the fresh data
just adduced affects the general credibility of Montelius’ hypotheses.
In our previous pictures of the Tigris-Rhine tract we shall have to
transpose individual items to fit a Central European chronology based on
synchronisms through Greece with Egypt and altogether independent of
Asia. We then get two scenes both disclosing the cultural continuity
and gradation recognisable only in the first picture on a long chronology.
At the beginning of the Central European Bronze Age towards the middle
of the third millennium B.c., the following zones could be distinguished :
(1) The metropolitan civilisations of Egypt and Babylonia.
(2) Relatively provincial civilisations in Crete, Syria and Hittite Asia
Minor, but all fully literate and truly urban.
(3) Bronze Age towns in western Anatolia and peninsular Greece
whose walls may enclose from 4 to 11 acres and defend not only smiths
but also specialised potters and many other craftsmen. Most are illiterate,
but literate urban civilisation is already dawning at Mycenae.
(4) In Macedonia and the Balkans and on the Middle Danube stable
villages exist ; their size can be estimated from the cemeteries comprising
a maximum number of 180 graves. Besides farming the only specialised
industry is metallurgy, and commercial organisation is too rudimentary to
make metal generally available for tools.
(5) In Czechoslovakia and South Germany a similar economy reigns,
but the settlements are less permanent and the maximum number of
graves so far reported from a cemetery is 100.
(6) In North Germany, Denmark and South Sweden are bands of
196 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
herdsmen and small hamlets of self-sufficing peasants still equipped with
only stone weapons.
(7) In the extreme north the sole source of livelihood is food gathering.
Fifteen hundred years or so earlier the gradations would be similar but
the zones would have contracted. We should see :—
(1) In Egypt and Mesopotamia true cities whose walls may already
enclose nearly 2 sq. miles, relieved from immediate dependence on
environmental accidents by public works and organised commerce,
comprising a variety of artisans and officials including scribes.
(2) Smaller cities in Syria less richly equipped and only partially
literate.
(3) Copper Age townships in Anatolia and peninsular Greece with a
walled area of 2 to 4 acres and a population comprising specialised smiths
and some other craftsmen adequately provided by trade with metal and
other raw materials.
(4) In Thessaly, Macedonia and the Morava-Maros region beyond
the Balkans neolithic villages are permanently occupied by experienced
farmers who are content to do without metal.
(5) North of the Maros Kérés herdsmen and Biikkian troglodytes are
grazing and tilling patches of léss and then moving on; still further
north Danubian I hoe-cultivators are shifting their hamlets of twenty
odd huts every few years to fresh fields till they reach the confines of the
léss.
(6) Beyond these on the North European plain are only scattered
bands of food-gatherers hunting, fowling and fishing and collecting nuts
or shell-fish.
In each picture we see within a continuous area of interlocking cultures
gradations such as would be deduced from the diffusionist postulate.
But a comparison of the second picture with the first reveals just that
expansion of the zones affected by the neolithic revolution that would be
anticipated were its effects being indeed diffused. The acceptance of
axiom 4, the rigorous application of his chronological method alone,
would virtually allow the graphic demonstration of Montelius’ remaining
assumptions,
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Owing to the coincidence of the International Physiological Congress
(Ziirich, August 14-19, 1938), no separate meetings were arranged for
this Section.
SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY.
EYE AND BRAIN AS FACTORS
IN VISUAL PERCEPTION
ADDRESS BY
R. H. THOULESS, M.A., Ph.D.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
Tue title that I have chosen for my address describes a larger field than
it is possible to deal with adequately in a single hour. My aim to-day is
to consider only some aspects of this question, illustrating my remarks
by reference to those problems of visual perception with which I happen
to have been most closely concerned.
That we see with our eyes is known to everyone and has been known
for along time. That we see also with our brains is less generally realised,
and the implications of this fact are relatively recent importations into
the theory of vision. The full statement of the physiological mechanism
of vision would include not only the sensitive retinal surface and the
visual areas of the cortex but the whole system which includes retina,
optic nerve, visual area of the cerebral cortex, and other sensory areas of
the brain as well.
I. THe TRANSMISSION THEORY OF VISION.
It is possible, of course, to study vision in such a way that everything
except the activity of the retina is neglected altogether or relegated to a
secondary position, and it was in this way that the scientific study of
vision began. This is the point of view which we find in the work of
Helmholtz and in much of the experimental research into vision which
has followed his deservedly great authority. The basic assumption is
that the essential process of vision is the formation of an optical image
on the retina and its transmission to the visual centres of the brain by
means of the optic nerve. Differences between the sensations transmitted
to the brain and the finished perception which appears in experience
were attributed to the action of the higher processes of judgment and the
influence of past experience.
This theory of vision, which we may call the ‘ transmission theory,’
has behind it not only the weight of the authority of the great originators
of the experimental study of vision. It has also the advantage of being
the view of the man in the street. Its truth seems to many to be so
axiomatic that its denial may have the appearance of wilful paradox.
It is, nevertheless, now clear that the transmission theory is wrong,
198 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
and that a wholly different way of approaching the problems of visual
perception is necessary if we are not to be led astray. To say this is not
to deny the greatness of the achievements of those investigators in the
past whose work on vision was guided by this theory. Within a certain
limited field, it proved itself a fruitful guide to research. This field was
that of the sensory physiology of the retina. If we wish to discover what
is happening on the retina we must arrange conditions of experiment so
as to cut out, as far as possible, the complicating effects of the cerebral
components of the visual part of the nervous system. This was what
was done when the early experimenters made observations through tubes
or on black backgrounds. So such workers as Helmholtz, Konig, Abney
and a host of others made a firm foundation for a science of vision in the
sensory physiology of the retina. The error, however, has sometimes
been made of mistaking the foundations for the completed building.
When we get rid of tubes and black backgrounds and open both eyes to
look at objects surrounded by other objects we find that what we see
follows other and far more complicated principles than the laws of sensory
physiology.
Against the successes of the transmission theory of vision in originating
fruitful lines of research, we must set its failures. Fruitful in the field of
sensory physiology, it left most of the field of perception a barren waste.
Its underlying assumption was that any visual experience which could be
exactly correlated with an event in the sense-organ was a true element of
experience (a ‘sensation ’), while those that could not were regarded as
due to the action of higher processes on these elements or were relegated
to the class of ‘illusions’ or mistaken judgments. There were many
investigations of the perceptual experiences (such as that of depth) which
were attributed to correct judgments about sensations, although the
successes in this field were much less striking than in that of sensory
physiology ; the ‘ illusions,’ however, were almost wholly abandoned to
anecdotal report.
Fruitful experimental work on perception began when psychologists
began to doubt the validity of the distinction between true perceptions
and illusions. Katz, for example, in 1911, devoted a considerable part
of a book to a description of such differences between colours as are not
due to differences between the local retinal stimulations. Thus the
difference between the appearance of yellow and of red is accompanied
by a difference in the bands of wave-lengths of light stimulating the eye,
and is regarded on any theory as a real psychological difference. There
is, however, also a difference between the appearance of a red book (a
surface colour) and a red patch seen in the spectrum of the same brightness
and the same composition of wave-lengths (a‘film colour), This difference
is accompanied by no difference in the conditions of local retinal stimu-
lation and is, therefore, from the point of view of the transmission theory,
an illusory difference. It was only when psychologists adopted what has
been called the ‘ phenomenological’ point of view of regarding all differ-
ences in appearance as equally reputable objects of experimental study,
whether or not they were accompanied by differences in local physiological
stimulation, that the serious experimental study of such things as the
modes of appearance of colours became possible.
J.—PSYCHOLOGY 199
II. EXPERIMENTAL OBJECTIONS TO THE TRANSMISSION 'THEORY.
Although the way was undoubtedly paved for criticism of the trans-
mission theory by earlier researches, the main attack on it developed from
Wertheimer’s investigation (published in 1912) of the so-called ‘ phi-
movement ’ which results from successive stimulation at certain intervals
of two retinal points. This is one of many known examples of the
appearance in perception of something which does not exist in the pattern
of stimulation. On the retina there is only intermittent stimulation of
stationary points ; in the perceived world there is movement. Wertheimer
argued that this movement must be regarded as a genuine element in the
total system of physiological events which determine the perception, and
that it is not to be explained as an illusion of judgment. These experi-
ments formed also the starting point from which Kéhler launched his
more general attack on the ‘ constancy hypothesis ’ (i.e. the transmission
theory of perception).
Criticism of the transmission theory and exploration of the implications
of the inclusion of the brain as a factor in vision might obviously have
started from other investigations. It is not my purpose to discuss
Wertheimer’s work or the arguments that have taken place about it, but
instead to invite you to consider these problems in connection with a
field of experimental study with which I happen to be more familiar.
We may begin by considering a simple experiment which can be
performed by anyone with no more complicated apparatus than an oval
table-mat or a sheet of cardboard and a pair of scissors.
We place on a table an elliptical object with its long axis pointing
directly to and from the observer. If his head is directly above the object,
it will, of course, look elliptical. If now he moves his head from the
position directly above, but still keeping it in the vertical plane passing
through the long axis, the object will at first still look elliptical, but with
a smaller apparent elongation than when it is viewed from directly above.
If the head is now lowered, but still kept in the same plane, the apparent
shape of the object becomes nearer and nearer toacircle. It then becomes
truly circular and, if the head is still further lowered, the object appears
elliptical again only now with the really longer axis apparently the shorter.
So far everything appears to be as one would predict on the transmission
theory by the elementary principles of perspective. Measurement of the
actual angles at which these various appearances are found reveals, how-
ever, a considerable discrepancy from the expectations aroused by the
transmission theory. At the height, for example, at which the ellipse
looks circular, it is found that the retinal image is not of a circle but of
an ellipse with the vertical axis much shorter than the horizontal, that is,
an ellipse flattened in the opposite direction. It is as if the shape that is
seen (the phenomenal shape) is in between the real physical shape of the
ellipse and the shape that is projected on the retina (which we may call
the stimulus shape).
The natural expectation on the transmission theory would be that the
stimulus shape and the phenomenal shape would be identical. Plainly
they are not, and the discrepancy is large enough to show clearly without
any great refinement of measurement. Can we save the transmission theory
200 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
by making some supplementary hypothesis to explain how the pheno-
menal shape gets changed from its expected identity with the stimulus
shape? A suggestion that has been made is that the flattened elliptical
shape as projected on the retina does produce its own ‘ sensation’ of
shape, but that this sensation becomes changed by a process of judgment.
Plainly it is not a judgment in the ordinary sense of reflective judgment
since the subject is carrying out no conscious process of inference, but it
is claimed that there is a more primitive unconscious process of perceptual
judgment which is always modifying our sensations in accordance with
the knowledge we have of the nature of the objects producing them.
There are, I think, many objections to this explanation. First, it does
not explain the fact which has to be explained. This is not that the
subject judges the ellipse he looks at to be circular, but that, at that
inclination, he sees it as circular. He may quite correctly judge it to be
really an elongated ellipse, and if he is well informed about such experi-
ments (but not otherwise) he may judge it to be making a retinal image
which is a flattened ellipse. He may or may not make such judgments,
but his immediate experience is of a circular shape.
Secondly, a process of judgment is affected by the knowledge that the
subject has about the facts relevant to the thing which is being judged.
This, however, is not the case here. A subject who has not done these
experiments before will think that his retinal image is circular when the
inclined ellipse looks circular, whereas one informed about the nature of
the experiment will know that it is not so. The angle of inclination of the
line of vision at which it looks circular will be found to be in no wise
affected by the presence or absence of such knowledge. We can, how-
ever, make the subject see the inclined ellipse in its retinal shape by
giving it a dark structureless background and making him look at it with
one eye through a blackened cylinder. Now it will look like a circle only
when the retinal image is circular, and under these conditions it will look
circular whether or not he is told that he is really looking at an inclined
elongated ellipse and not at a circle normal to the line of vision. Again
knowledge of what he is looking at does not make any difference ; what
is necessary for the apparent shape to be intermediate between the stimulus
shape and the real shape is the actual presence of perceptual cues which
indicate that the real object is an elongated ellipse with its long axis away
from the observer.
A last and most fatal objection is that this hypothesis requires at least
that a sensation corresponding to the retinal image should have been
transmitted to the brain in order that a judgment about it may take place.
There is, however, no indication that this supposed sensation has any
existence as an element of experience. The-subject doing this experiment
under ordinary conditions—with both eyes fully open—is quite unable
to see the flattened ellipse which is the shape of the retinal image. He
can do so, as we have seen, by altering the conditions of perception, as,
for example, by monocular observation.through a tube. ‘This, however,
is no reason for saying that in any sense he sees this retinal shape under
ordinary conditions of vision. Obviously we cannot discover what is
seen under one condition of perception by finding out what is seen under
another condition of perception. Looking with one eye through a tube,
J.—_PSYCHOLOGY 201
we see a flattened ellipse ; looking with both eyes and no tube we see a
circular shape, and the flattened ellipse which is the retinal shape is not
an element in our experience at all. If it is not an element in our experi-
ence, we cannot make a judgment about it of any kind, and the hypothesis
of perceptual judgment is in no better position than that of reflective
judgment.
I know that it has sometimes been stated (e.g. by Gelb) that we can see
an object in its stimulus character by adopting a special ‘ critical ’ attitude.
I think this, however, is a mistaken observation based on the undoubted
fact that some subjects can, by adopting a special attitude, see the object
more nearly to its stimulus shape ; they can reduce the effect of its real
shape on the apparent shape, but I do not find that they can reduce it to
zero, nor do I know of any evidence that anyone else has found this.
We can test this question by asking our subject in the above experiment
to try to place his head, not at the height at which the ellipse looks circular,
but at that height at which he thinks it makes a circular retinal image
(prohibiting him, of course, from partially closing his eyes or otherwise
altering the conditions of perception). Now, if the retinal shape (the
‘sensation’ of the transmission theory) were itself an element of experi-
ence, this should be an easy task. In fact, the subject does not find it
easy. He has no immediate knowledge of when the retinal image is
circular. He has immediate experience of the phenomenal or apparent
shape, and on this he must base a judgment. If he knows nothing about
effects of this kind, he will generally judge that the ellipse is making a
circular retinal image when it looks circular to him. If he is better
informed, he will judge that the retinal image is circular at some angle of
inclination at which the ellipse looks elongated along its vertical axis,
but any adjustment he makes is merely a guess and generally wildly
inaccurate. Even if he happens to guess more or less correctly, he will
say: ‘I think this must be about the position, but the ellipse doesn’t look
circular here.’ How could this be, if the retinal image were itself
transmitted to the brain ?
We are led from consideration of this experiment to the same con-
clusion as was arrived at by Wertheimer as a result of his experiment on
phi-movement, that the ‘ sensation’ corresponding to the conditions of
local retinal stimulation, as an element in a complex perception, is a mere
fiction. Although it is clear that the conditions of local retinal stimulation
affect the resultant perception, we can find no trace of evidence that they
do so by being transmitted to the brain as ‘ sensations.’
III. AN ALTERNATIVE WAY OF TREATING VISUAL PERCEPTION.
I have examined this experiment in detail because it seemed as good
a text as any on which to hang a homily against the transmission theory of
vision. Other, more familiar, psychological facts might have been used.
Indeed it may be argued that even the familiar fact of the perception of
depth cannot be explained on the transmission theory without doing
violence to obvious facts of experience. Yet, for many reasons, our
minds tend to cling to the transmission theory. Most of all, I think,
H2
202 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
because it is simple and easily intelligible. It is indeed the explanation
of visual perception which any person informed of the nature of the retinal
image and of neural transmission of impulses would come to by his own
reflection. ‘The objections to it he would be unlikely to realise by
everyday experience, since these depend on laboratory experiments and
observations of which those who do not work in laboratories have, in
general, no knowledge.
The transmission theory is easily intelligible because it can without
difficulty be explained by a physical analogy. Photographs might be
transmitted telegraphically by forming an image on a plate made up of a
large number of small photo-electric cells each of which was connected
by a wire with a corresponding reproducing cell at the other end. This
is not, of course, the method actually used for the telegraphic transmission
of photographs, but it is physically a possible one. If the receiving
electric cells are replaced by the retinal organs, the transmitting wires by
the fibres of the optic nerve, and the reproducing cells by the nerve cells
of the visual centres of the cerebral cortex, we have a perfect analogy to
the physiological process of vision on the transmission theory.
Yet this advantage of simplicity and easy intelligibility must be given
up if the transmission theory does not fit the facts. We have so far
criticised it only in connection with one experiment. Perhaps this will
be a convenient place to summarise the whole case against it.
First, there is a physiological difficulty as to the mechanism of trans-
mission. Such a method of transmission as is suggested by the above
analogy would require a number of wires equal to that of the receiving
cells. ‘This condition is not fulfilled by the visual system since the number
of retinal end-organs is two hundred times as great as the number of
fibres in the optic nerve.
Secondly, a breach in the transmitting part of such a system would lead
to a corresponding gap in the received picture. ‘This expectation is not
fulfilled in vision. We might explain away on the transmission theory
the fact that we do not see a gap in the part of the monocular visual field
corresponding to the blind spot, but Fuchs has shown that similar comple-
tion may take place over a blind area of the retina caused by an acquired
destruction of part of the optic nerve.
Thirdly, if this theory were true it would be necessary that differences
in the picture at the sending and at the transmitting end should always
accompany one another. ‘The experiment already discussed has given
one example of that not being the case, since the impression of a circular
shape may be given either by the circular retinal image given by a circular
object at right angles to the line of vision, or by a retinal image which is a
flattened ellipse if this is made by an object which is itself an elongated
ellipse viewed at a suitable angle of inclination.
There are plenty of other examples of this in visual perception ; indeed,
except in those conditions of simplified perception which were character-
istic of the early investigation of visual ‘ sensations,’ exact correspondence
between the details of the retinal image and of what is perceived is the
exception rather than the rule. In Rubin’s reversible figures, for example,
we may have a pattern which is seen either as a row of black T’s on a white
J.—_PSYCHOLOGY 203
ground or as a row of white fleurs-de-lys on a black background. Thus
we have a single stimulus pattern on the retina giving rise to two wholly
different perceptions. The after-image of a circle, moreover, will look
large or small as it is projected on to a far or a near object respectively,
although the area of retinal activity remains unchanged. And if a subject
seated below the object glass of a projection lantern looks at a picture
projected on to an inclined screen, he sees the picture as distorted although
it is easy to demonstrate that his retinal image is identical with that which
he would have received if the screen had been at right-angles to his line
of vision. ’
Such facts as these are not easily reconcilable with the theory of simple
transmission of a retinal picture to the brain. That there is a close
relationship between the condition of physiological stimulation of the
retina and of the resulting pattern of visual perception is, of course,
obvious and is denied by nobody, but the relationship may not be of the
kind suggested by the analogy with telegraphic transmission.
A better analogy for the modern view of perception is, I suggest, the
construction of one of the charts published with weather forecasts. ‘The
lines of equal pressure on the charts are constructed from information
received from various land stations and ships, just as the perceptual
picture constructed by central activity depends on information received
from the sense organs. If no information as to barometric pressure is
received from a certain area, this does not mean that the corresponding
area must be left blank, but that the person constructing the chart must
fill it up by guess-work, which he generally does by constructing smooth
curves consistent with the other information. In the same way, in
Fuchs’s experiments, it was found that central perceptual activity tended
to fill in areas from which no information was received from the retina
by simple completions providing ‘ good continuation’ with the figure
received on the rest of the retina.
This view of visual perception may be expressed in various ways. We
may follow the Gestalt psychologists in speaking of perception as being
due to the combined effect of ‘ external forces ’ belonging to the pattern
of retinal stimulation and of ‘ internal forces’ belonging to the central
factor in perception. Or we may speak of the processes of retinal stimu-
lation as ‘ cues’ for the resulting perception. ‘These are different ways
of expressing the same fact that perception is regarded as a central activity
of which sensory stimulation is generally a determining cause, but not a
necessary condition.
The analogy of the construction of a weather chart suggests a possible
way of looking at the process of visual perception which is alternative to
the transmission theory and which, I think, gives a much better account
of the experimental facts. It regards the mind (or the brain acting to
some extent as a unitary whole) as active in perception, responding to
information given by the sense organs and not merely reproducing a
pattern of stimulation from the sense organs.
We have shown that seen shape is a product not only of the shape of
retinal stimulation but also of the perceived inclination in space of the
object looked at. Other experiments (to be mentioned later) show that
.
204 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
the seen size of an object is similarly a product not only of size of retinal
stimulation but also of the perceived distance of the object, and that seen
brightness is not a product only of the brightness of the retinal image but
also of the perceived illumination of the object (being greater if the object
is seen to be shadowed and less if it is seen to be strongly illuminated).
Such facts ‘as these show that a visual characteristic of an object is not
(as we should expect on the transmission theory) a product only of the
corresponding local stimulation of the retina or of a projection of this
local stimulation on a corresponding area of the visual cortex. We must
rather regard it as the product of the combined action of different activities
of the visual cortex which also may make their contributions to other
characteristics of the perceptual field.
Thus apparent size is not the product only of size of retinal stimulation
but is determined also by those cortical activities which give us the
perception of depth (such as those aroused by binocular disparity of
retinal images). If we do not accept the theory of ‘ perceptual judg-
ments,’ we must conclude that such factors as binocular cues to distance
affect seen size as directly as they affect seen distance. In the same way,
we must suppose that sensory cues indicating illumination and illumination
gradients affect the seen brightnesses of objects as directly as do the
brightnesses of their retinal images.
We are led then to think of the visual cortex to some extent as acting
as a whole in determining the properties of parts of the visual perceptual
field. ‘This whole activity is not, however, confined to the visual cortex
since we perceive visually characteristics of objects whose sensory origin
is not visual. ‘Thus we see the surface of the table as smooth and hard,
that of a carpet as rough and soft, a slug as slimy, and so on. These
appearances certainly form part of our visual world and no effort of ours
can get rid of them, although they are appearances referring to properties
which come from other sense organs than the eye. Their appearance in
the visual world can be best explained by supposing that not only do
various parts of the visual cortex contribute to the visual appearance of a
particular object, but also sensory areas of the cerebral cortex other than
the visual areas.
The converse fact that visual cues may contribute to other sense modali-
ties than the visual is shown by the size-weight illusion. If we ask a
subject to compare the weights of two canisters, a small and a large one,
both weighing fifty grams, he reports that the smaller one has the greater
apparent weight. ‘The sense of resistance has, therefore, been determined
not only by the sensory impulses from the muscles and joints but also by
visual cues. Again we must remind ourselves (as in all the appearances
which are here being discussed) that we are dealing with the relative
phenomenal weights of the two canisters and not with judgments about
their actual weights. If the subject puts the two canisters on opposite
. sides of a balance he will see that their weights are equal, so he will no
longer judge that they are unequal. They will, however, still feel unequal
to him. The phenomenal difference in weight contributed by the visual
factor does not disappear when he has correct knowledge of the actual
weights. This contribution from vision is a genuine determinant of
phenomenal weight.
J.—PSYCHOLOGY 205
IV. INpDIvipuAL DIFFERENCES IN VISUAL PERCEPTION.
Let us now return to the experiment with the inclined ellipse to note a
particular feature in it which is, I think, a characteristic of the perceptual
processes that has often been ignored. ‘This feature is the wide range of
individual differences. Apart from such obvious differences as errors of
refraction, colour-blindness, etc., the optical system of different individuals’
eyes and consequently the conditions of local physiological stimulation
on the retina for a given arrangement of external objects is very much
the same. The perceptual responses of different individuals are, how-
ever, widely different, so that any two of us in the same physical sur-
roundings may create from them a very different phenomenal world.
If two or three people perform the experiment I have just described,
we shall find that the height at which they say the apparent shape of the
inclined ellipse is circular is different to an almost incredible extent.
One may see the ellipse as circular when his head is only a few inches from
the table so that his retinal image is of a very much flattened ellipse,
while another sees the ellipse as circular when he is looking well down
on it so that his retinal image is‘itself not very far from circularity. The
first individual shows a very great effect of the real shape of the ellipse in
determining its apparent shape, the second shows a relatively smaller
effect of the real shape on apparent shape.
It is true that the exact height at which each subject reports the ellipse
as looking circular is somewhat variable and may depend to some extent
on his mental attitude, but the limits within which variation occurs in
any one individual are small compared with the differences between
different individuals. If a subject showing little effect of the real shape
on apparent shape look at the ellipse from the height at which one with
small effect sees it as circular, he will report that by no effort of imagina-
tion can he make the ellipse look circular at that inclination, and he will
generally add that he does not believe that any one else can.
That these are real individual differences and not merely accidental
variations in measurement is shown by the fact that they show great
consistency from one time to another. I once retested, after an interval
of two years, a group of twenty-five subjects for each of whom I had
measured the apparent shape of an inclined object. They differed widely
amongst themselves at each test, but the agreement between the two sets
of tests was extraordinarily high. The coefficient of correlation was 0-92,
which is as high as one expects to get in psychological measurements.
There are, then, genuine and large individual differences between
different persons in the apparent shapes of inclined objects. We may
add that there are similar individual differences in the apparent sizes of
objects at different distances and in the apparent whiteness of objects
under different illuminations. In both of these cases, the same general
law holds. If an object is moved to twice its previous distance from our
eyes, it does not look half its previous size. It may, for different indi-
viduals, look three-quarters of its previous size or nineteen-twentieths.
With rare exceptions (which I shall mention later) the law holds that the
apparent size is in between the retinal size and the real size. In the same
way, if a piece of white paper is put into shadow so that it reflects less
206 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
light to the eyes than a brightly lighted piece of black paper, it does not
necessarily look less white than the black paper, although it may do so if
the shadow is very deep. The seen whiteness is in between the ‘ real ’
whiteness and the stimulus intensity of the retinal image. Again, in this
tendency to see objects in their real whiteness irrespective of illumination,
we find wide individual differences.
These effects have been generally described under the name ‘ the
constancy tendency.’ I do not much like this name since the distinc-
tive feature of these effects is not that phenomena (or appearances) tend
to remain constant while stimuli change. It is easy to arrange an experi-
ment (such as that of the inclined lantern screen already mentioned) in
which the stimulus remains constant and the phenomenon changes. A
more fundamental feature of the effects seems to be that phenomena are
determined not only by local stimuli but also by the perceived ‘ real ’
characters of the objects causing the stimulus. I have, therefore,
suggested that we should call these effects ‘ the tendency to phenomenal
regression to the “real” characters of objects.’ I have no wish to
quarrel with those who prefer the term ‘ phenomenal constancy,’ but it
is convenient to stick to one name, so for the purpose of the present
address, I shall speak of ‘ phenomenal regression,’ and I shall call the three
effects above described : phenomenal regression for shape, for size, and
for colour, respectively.
When we include under one name (whether ‘ constancy’ or ‘ pheno-
menal regression ’) these three tendencies to see objects more or less in
their real shapes, sizes, and colour, irrespective of their inclination,
distance and illumination respectively, we are implying that these three
effects are all of the same nature. For this assumption, we need better
evidence than the mere fact that all three can be described in similar
terms. ‘The direction in which to look for this evidence is suggested by
the fact that in all of them there are wide individual differences. If now
the individual who shows a large tendency to see things in their real sizes
tends also to see inclined objects near to their real shapes and objects in
different illuminations near to their real albedos, we have positive evidence
to justify the natural suspicion that these are simply different aspects of
one general tendency.
We can easily determine by experiment whether or not this is the case.
If we test a group of subjects in their tendency to phenomenal regression
for shape, for size, and for whiteness, we find that those who have a large
tendency to see the ‘ real’ size of an object tend also to have a large
tendency to see the ‘ real’ shape and the ‘ real’ whiteness. The cor-
relations between these tendencies are about 0-6, which shows that they
have a considerable factor in common. We can thus speak of individuals
as having high phenomenal regression if their perceptions of apparent
shape, size and whiteness are largely determined by the ‘ real ’ characters
of the objects looked at, while those whose perceptions are determined
relatively more by the conditions of retinal stimulation (i.e. who see |
objects getting much smaller as they go farther away, and so on) we shall
describe as those of low phenomenal regression.
It may seem fantastic to suggest that there are such large individual
differences in the way the world looks to different people since certainly
J.—_PSYCHOLOGY 207
most people are unaware of these differences until they have been shown
to them by experiment. This, however, should not surprise us when we
remember that most psychological individual differences remain un-
suspected until revealed by measurement. The enormous individual
differences in imagery, for example, are not generally known, and most
people imagine that others have much the same equipment of imagery as
themselves. In the same way, a colour-blind person is rarely aware of
the difference between his own and other people’s colour perception
unless his attention is drawn to it by his inability to perform some task
such as that of recognising the difference between red-covered and green-
covered wires in a cable.
So it is with phenomenal regression. The shapes and sizes of objects
in the phenomenal world differ widely for two people from the same
view-point, but they are not aware of this difference since neither can see
the world through the other’s eyes and they have generally no occasion
to discuss apparent shapes and sizes. One can, however, easily start a
dispute between a group of people when driving through the country by
asking them whether the cows in a distant field look larger or smaller
than a sparrow perched on the hedge. The answers will be very different
and each will think that he is giving the only reasonable answer and that
others must have misunderstood the question. They will not easily
understand that the origin of the different answers is that the phenomenal
world does really look different to different persons.
We may ask the question: Are there any laws governing these changes
of phenomena with changing distance, inclination, and illumination,
other than the fact that they differ from one individual to another (a fact
which suggests lawlessness rather than law) and that their amounts tend
to be approximately the same for any one individual? It might be
possible that there were no invariant relationships within these indi-
vidual variations, and, however unsatisfactory that situation might appear
to the scientific mind, it might be necessary to accept it. It does not
appear, however, that things are as bad as this. I have found one invariant
relationship, within a certain range of distances, for phenomenal size.
If we measure, for a given individual, the apparent size of a disc at
different distances we find that its linear dimensions decrease as the
distance becomes greater, this decrease becoming slower as the distance
is increased (as, of course, do the linear dimensions of the retinal image).
The decrease of apparent size is always much slower than the decrease of
retinal size (in accordance with the principle of phenomenal regression),
and with those individuals who have high phenomenal regression it is much
slower than with others. If apparent size is plotted on a graph against
distance, therefore, we have a curved line, which, so far, gives us no law.
If we now plot on a graph the apparent linear size of the disc at various
distances for any one individual against the stimulus size (that is, against
a size proportional to the retinal projection), alaw emerges. All the points
plotted fall on a straight line inclined upwards from the P axis. If pro-
jected backwards towards the P axis it would not pass through the origin
but would intersect the P axis above the origin. This means that the
relation between phenomenal and stimulus linear dimensions of the object
at different distances can be expressed by the equation P=a+).S.
208 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
Expressing this in words, we may say that for any one individual under
uniform conditions of observation, the apparent linear dimensions of a
disc at different distances change as if they were made up of the sum of
two parts, one of which remains constant at all distances while the other
is inversely proportional to the distance.
If this were true for all distances it would lead to the odd conclusion
that at no distance, however great, would the apparent size of an object
be reduced to less than a certain amount (that represented by a in the
above equation). This appears to contradict common experience, since
we know that if an object is far enough away its apparent size can be
reduced to zero.
The above relationship was found for objects at distances ranging from
30 to 400 cm. from the observer. The next step was to investigate the
effect of still further increasing the distance. ‘The law appeared to hold
up to a distance of 10 m. One subject was tested beyond this point,
and it was found that at greater distances than about 10 m., apparent
size decreased with distance more rapidly than the law would indicate.
No great reliance can be placed on this limit of 10 m., since it was
determined for one subject only, but accepting this provisionally as the
limit of operation of the law, we must restate it in the form that P=a+6.S
for distances of an object not exceeding 10 m.
There are, no doubt, other regularities of phenomenal regression which
it will be possible to express in the form of laws. I think it is encouraging
to discover that, in spite of individual differences, the relationships within
phenomenal space are not so chaotic as might at first sight appear.
It seems most likely that the tendency to see the real characters of objects
is one that increases through life, being least with young children. ‘That
seems to be indicated by common experience. Many of us may have
noticed that young children are disappointed in the size of large objects
when seen at a distance. I vividly remember my own disappointment
when about forty years ago I first saw lions and elephants going along the
street to a Barnum and Bailey’s circus and found them contemptibly
small. I think now that this was because I was at such a distance that
their retinal images really were small. If I had seen them close up I
think they would have appeared satisfactorily large. Since then I have
noticed similar disappointments in other children. A small boy of about
six seeing wild red deer for the first time at a distance of about 400 yd.
said: ‘ Are those deer? ‘They only look as big as rabbits.’ On another
occasion he was taken to see the Queen Mary at the other side of the Clyde.
He maintained that it was not big, not so big as a tug which was passing
near his side of the river. q
This is only anecdotal evidence of no scientific value. What experi-
mental evidence is there on the subject? On the whole, the experimental
evidence seems to support the expectations aroused by common observa-
tion. Working with adult male subjects, I found a tendency for pheno-
menal regression to increase with age. The group used was small (36)
and the significance of the result was not sufficient for strong conviction
1 An exception to this law is to be found in the rare cases of ‘ anomalous
phenomenal regression ’ who, over a certain range of distances, see objects as
larger when their distance is increased.
J —PSYCHOLOGY 209
of its validity. Other evidence, however, points in the same direction.
Beyrl found that children showed a greater tendency to see objects in
their real sizes from two to ten years and that this tendency was even
larger in an adult group. Brunswik found an increase in the tendency to
see real whiteness through childhood at any rate up to the age of fourteen
ears.
; Against these findings, we have Katz’s denial of an increase with age
based on experiments of Burzlaff who found that it was possible to devise
an experiment on size perception in which objects were seen as their real
sizes at very early years. I do not think this experiment is relevant to
the question. If the size experiment can be so arranged as to give com-
plete phenomenal regression for early years, this way of doing the experi-
ment is unsuitable for determining whether or not the effect increases
with age. A real increase may be masked by an unsuitably designed
experiment.
On the whole, it looks as if the tendency to phenomenal regression does
increase with age. This suggests that the tendency is to some extent
plastic to experience. This suggestion is considerably strengthened by
the observation that although the tendency to see things in their real
shapes and sizes was not absent in a group of artists, it was significantly
less than in a control group of corresponding age. This might be ex-
plained not as due to the artists’ acquired habit of reacting to the stimulus
characters of objects but as the result of selection, those of high pheno-
menal regression not being likely to become artists since this characteristic
handicaps them in learning to draw in perspective. ‘The second explana-
tion seems, however, to be ruled out by the further observation that there
is no such difference to be observed between a group of art students and
a control group of university students. The decisive factor in lowering
the tendency to phenomenal regression in the artist group must, therefore,
be the greater length of time during which they have formed the habit of
reacting to the stimulus characters of objects.
It is, nevertheless, very improbable that the tendency to phenomenal
regression is wholly the product of experience. Kéhler has shown that
it is, at any rate, found amongst animals with less highly organised nervous
systems than our own, since both chimpanzees and hens could be trained
to take food from the whiter of two greys even when it was so much less
illuminated than the other that its stimulus intensity was lower than that
of the darker grey. Phenomenal regression to real colour is also reported
to have been observed in fishes and in chicks of three months old.
These facts have been claimed to disprove an empiricist theory of the
origin of those properties of perceived space which determine phenomenal
regression (e.g. by Koffka). This claim can hardly be maintained, since
the empiricist may retort that we know nothing of the possible speed of
learning of spatial relations or of the level of nervous development at
which this learning is possible. We can, however, agree that these facts
render the empiricist theory somewhat improbable. They do not,
however, even offer an argument against the view that the tendency to
phenomenal regression may be influenced though not originally produced
by experience. The hypothesis that I would suggest is that a phenomenal
space so organised in its properties as to produce the phenomenal regression
210 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
effects is born with us, but that individual differences in the amount of
phenomenal regression are largely or wholly determined later by individual
experience. If phenomenal regression is to be regarded as a product of
the organisation of individual phenomenal space, there may be other
aspects of spatial organisation whose changes run parallel to the changes
in phenomenal regression. It would, for example, be interesting to know
whether there is a parallel change in size contrast effects with increasing
years.
V. PRACTICAL CONSEQUENCES.
It may be asked whether the kind of thing we have been talking about
has any practical importance. It certainly may have. We test for such
differences in the sensory physiology of the eye as colour-blindness
because they may lead to practically important incapacities, and it is very
likely that individual differences in the cerebral side of perception may also
affect an individual’s practical capacities. Some years ago I suggested
that a person of high phenomenal regression might be expected to drive
a car more easily through traffic than one with low. He sees a gap in the
traffic in something near its real size before he drives up to it, whereas
the person with low phenomenal regression sees it as smaller than it
really is when it is at a distance. Neither, of course, adjusts his driving
to the apparent size of the gap ; both must make a judgment as to its real
size. ‘The person with low phenomenal regression has, however, a much
larger gulf between appearance and reality to bridge by means of judg-
ment. Judgment being a slower and more uncertain process than per-
ception, he may be expected to drive through gaps with more difficulty
and less certainty than the individual who can trust to his immediate
impression of size. ‘The individual with high phenomenal regression may
therefore be expected to drive more easily and better through traffic.
This prediction appears to have been justified by a research in motor
driving by the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, who found
that a test of phenomenal regression showed a correlation with driving
ability.
It has already been mentioned that some individuals show the odd
peculiarity of seeing objects as larger when they go farther from the
eyes. This may be called ‘anomalous phenomenal regression’ or
‘superconstancy.’ It seems to be rare. I have found two cases in the
course of testing over two hundred subjects. These showed the peculiarity
(each over a certain range of distances) repeatedly and under different
conditions of testing, so there is no doubt of its reality. One subject who
was presbyopic was tested with and without ‘glasses and gave identical
results, so it is not due to any peripheral defect of vision. Theoretically
this condition is interesting. It seems strongly to indicate that the ex-
planation of phenomenal regression is not to be found wholly in experience,
since it is inconceivable that any experience should have taught the .
subject that, of two objects casting equal retinal images, the nearer is the
larger. I can suggest no explanation. All that we can say at present
is that the organisation of these individuals’ phenomenal space is such that
there is a reversal at some distances of the ordinary condition that an object
J.—PSYCHOLOGY 211
producing a retinal image of a certain size is seen as larger when it is located
at greater distance from the observer.
The rarity of this condition might seem to make it of little practical
interest. It may, however, be of considerable importance in motor driving.
Following the same argument as before, we may see that the probable
effect of this condition will be that the subject driving a car will see a gap
at a distance as big enough to get through when, in fact, it is too small.
Unless he has learned to make correct judgments to counteract this per-
ceptual peculiarity, this would be as dangerous a condition for the motor
driver as one can imagine. Further research is necessary, but at present
there are indications that the condition may be dangerous. One of my
subjects did drive a car but admitted having smashed a wing in getting
through a gate. The other had found himself unable to learn to drive
because he drove into gaps where he had no room to pass, and I have had
one other case like the last reported to me. A condition which may be
lethal to the motor driver is not unimportant even if it is found in only
about 1 °% of individuals.
The effect of drugs on individual organisation of phenomenal space is
an interesting problem. I have made only preliminary experiments on
one subject in the hope that someone better equipped to experiment on
drugs will take the enquiry further. The indication I obtained was that
(as might be expected) alcohol decreased phenomenal regression while
caffeine increased it. I think that it might be worth while for those
investigating the effect of alcohol on motor driving to consider the
possibility of disturbance of spatial perception as well as of speed of motor
responses. That a change of spatial organisation can affect driving I am
sure from personal experience. I was driving one night towards Buxton
suffering from the effects not of alcohol but of fatigue (which probably
affects spatial organisation in the same way as alcohol). At one point,
I found my perception of the road so much disturbed that I had to stop
my car. and get out. The road seemed to narrow almost to a point in
front of me; I seemed to be driving not on a parallel-sided track but
into afunnel. I recognise the condition now as one of extreme reduction
of phenomenal regression. One result of this condition was an almost
irresistible impulse to drive in the centre of the road. A persistent
tendency to drive on the crown of the road is a common fault of many
drivers. I suggest that it may be a fault characteristic of an individual
with low phenomenal regression, and that if this were proved to be its
origin, an understanding by the driver of the cause of his fault would put
him into the way of correcting it.
Mist and fog may disturb the perceptual world even of the motorist
who is wise enough to avoid the effects of alcohol and fatigue. It is a
matter of common experience that the apparent sizes and distances of
objects undergo strange changes even ina slight mist. Exact measurement
of the effects of fog and of such veiling glare as that of headlights shining
through mist have been made by Martin and Pickford.
I have one last indication of a possible practical importance in individual
differences in phenomenal regression for which I am indebted to Dr. S.
Bernfeld. He had a patient suffering from anxiety. One of her causes
of fear was the change that took place in the sizes of objects as they
212 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
approached her. An object at a distance looked very small, but be-
came terrifyingly big as it approached her. Dr. Bernfeld was not
able to make any experimental measurements of the variation for this
patient of seen size with distance, but the condition is clearly recog-
nisable from her description as one of extreme loss of the tendency to
phenomenal regression. As to why approaching objects should look
terrifying if phenomenal regression is very small, we can only guess.
There is one observation in biology which suggests a clue. It has been
pointed out to me by Dr. Cott that many creatures protect themselves
from their enemies by sudden increases of size. It looks as if sudden
increase of size of an object may be one of the situations innately provoca-
tive of fear. We might even be tempted to speculate that one reason
for the development of phenomenal regression might be as a protection
of the individual against the fear-provoking situation of approaching
objects increasing in apparent size. There seem to me to be other
more likely explanations of the biological function of phenomenal re-
gression to real size. I mention this only because it seems interesting to
explore all possibilities, the improbable as well as the probable.
CONCLUSION.
The change that has taken place in the psychological study of vision
during the last twenty-five years may be expressed in a summary way
as a change from the time when it was treated as if vision were a function
of the eye alone to a time when the eye and higher centres are regarded as
co-operating in visual perception. ‘The psychology of vision is not and
cannot be merely the sensory physiology of the eye. At the present time,
these wider aspects of visual perception offer a more fruitful field of re-
search than do those of sensory physiology which have been so adequately
dealt with in the past. Particularly, I should’ like to suggest that indi-
vidual differences in visual perception and the statistical study of these
differences is a field whose surface has hardly yet been scratched. Let
us hope that, in the next twenty-five years, psychologists may be as
successful in resolving the many remaining problems of visual perception
as were the great Helmholtz and his contemporaries in making a scientific
study of the sensory physiology of the eye.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
THE GENERAL PHYSIOLOGY OF THE
PLANT CELL AND ITS IMPORTANCE
IN PURE AND APPLIED BOTANY
ADDRESS BY
PROF. W. STILES, F.R.S.
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
ALTHouGH few subjects are of more'importance to the life of man than the
physiology of plants, the investigation of this physiology is a field of
endeavour which has attracted attention only comparatively recently.
A few men, it is true, working in the eighteenth century with the scanty
equipment of physics and chemistry then available, did indeed lay the
foundations of the science of plant nutrition, but any deep insight into
the mode of working of the plant was impossible until, on the one hand,
the development of microscopical technique had rendered possible the
determination of the internal structure of the organism, and, on the other,
the physical and chemical sciences had so far developed as to provide the
botanist with information which was fundamental for any sort of under-
standing of what took place in the plant. While now the structure of the
plant is largely known, the work of the physiologist still waits on the work
of the physicist and chemist, and must, of necessity, lag behind develop-
ment in physics and chemistry. Occasionally, indeed, the botanist,
impatient of this state of affairs, has taken matters into his own hands and
has advanced into the field of the physicist and chemist; perhaps the
outstanding example of this is afforded by the work of the botanist
Pfeffer in attacking the problems of osmotic pressure, but this is not an
isolated case. It is thus no accident that any depth of knowledge of the
physiology of plants has been acquired in comparatively recent times.
The first development in knowledge of the physiology of plants was,
as I have already indicated, in the field of plant nutrition. It was made
clear during the eighteenth and first half of the nineteenth centuries that
the plant absorbed certain substances from its environment and that from
these substances the plant body was built up. ‘That the different organs
of plants had different functions in this respect also became clear. But
up to the middle of the nineteenth century the actual processes taking
place in the building up of the plant body from the materials absorbed
from the environment were not understood in the least. Nor is this to be
wondered at. We know very well now that the complex activities of the
214 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
plant are related to the protoplasm, but although the cellular structure of
plants had been recognised with the work of Hooke, Grew and Malpighi
in the seventeenth century, the discovery of protoplasm and appreciation
of the supreme importance of this substance only dates from 1835, when
Dujardin described the protoplasm, or sarcode, as he called it, of animal
cells. ‘The importance of protoplasm in the plant appears not to have been
recognised until 1846. The credit for this is due to von Mohl, although he
cannot, as Sachs asserted, be credited either with the discovery of proto-
plasm or with the invention of its name.
In spite of the fact that by the end of the first half of the nineteenth
century the connection between protoplasm and life must have been
evident, little attempt was made for many years towards a serious investiga-
tion of the properties of this substance, or to determine the general
activities of the protoplasm as manifested by every living cell. This may
have been due partly to the traditional outlook on plant physiology, which
had emphasised the nutritional relationships, and partly to the impetus
given to other aspects of botany by Hofmeister’s work on the life history
of plants and by the publication of the Origin of Species, which diverted
thought on botanical matters to problems of descent and comparative
morphology. And yet even as far back as 1828 Turpin had put forward
the idea that the cell is the elementary primary organism, and the plant
built of these cells a sort of community or colony of such elementary
organisms. ‘This view appears to have enjoyed considerable popularity
for atime. It is found in Meyen’s Neues System der Pflanzenphysiologie
published in Berlin in 1837, and was held in no uncertain fashion by as
distinguished a botanist as Schleiden, and even appears as late as 1861
in the fourth edition of his Grundziige der wissenschaftlichen Botanik,
although it should be pointed out that this was no more than an unaltered
reprint of the third edition of 1849. Such a view is, of course, as wrong
as one which takes no account of individual cell activities. Phenomena
of nutrition, development and irritability combine to refute such an idea.
There are, nevertheless, activities which are characteristic of all living
cells. ‘They all exhibit respiration in the sense of a release of energy from
substances present in the cell, a release which in the very great majority
of plants is brought about by the oxidation of carbohydrate or fat. Again,
all living cells are capable of absorbing water and dissolved substances,
and of giving out these materials under certain conditions. For an under-
standing of these activities a knowledge of the system in which they take
place is important, so that the study of the cell system, and in particular
of the protoplasm, comes within the sphere of inquiry of the general cell
physiologist. ‘This includes the study of enzymes, which undoubtedly
plays an extremely large part in protoplasmic activity.
Thus investigations in general cell physiology fall for the most part into
four groups, namely (1) those concerned with the chemical and physical
constitution of the protoplasm and other cell constituents ; (2) the study
of enzyme action; (3) those dealing with absorption and excretion of
water and dissolved substances which have, for the sake of convenience;
generally in the past been referred to as problems of cell permeability ;
and (4) those concerned with respiration. The first two are largely
biochemical studies, and it is with the more purely physiological problems
K.—BOTANY 215
of respiration and salt and water relations that I propose mainly to deal
in this address.
Inasmuch as investigations into these various aspects of vital activity
involve different techniques, it is not surprising that our knowledge of
them has developed to a large extent independently. They are, of course,
not independent, for it must be realised that the functioning of the plant
machine depends on the harmonious working together of all plant pro-
cesses. And that the various aspects of our subject mentioned above are
closely connected is now, for the most part, fairly clear. It is obvious
that, since all vital activity depends on the presence of protoplasm, the
chemical and physical constitution of that substance must determine that
activity, while, coming to details, many investigators have sought to connect
the passage into and out from the cell of water, and particularly of dissolved
substances, with the existence of limiting plasmatic layers of a constitu-
tion different from the inner part of the protoplasm. ‘The composition
of the vacuole determines without doubt to a very great extent the absorp-
tion of water by the vacuolated cell. This absorption is, however, also
dependent on the presence of protoplasm, since when this is destroyed,
the water relations of the cell are quite altered. Enzymes are only pro-
duced by living tissues and their production presumably depends on the
presence of protoplasm. Respiration, again, is a function of living cells,
and, although exact proof may still be wanting, it is almost certain that
enzymes are intimately concerned in the respiratory process. ‘That the
solute relations of cells are intimately connected with respiration is not so
obvious, but that this is probably the case I indicated first in 1927, and later
work has left this connection in little doubt, although the nature of the
connection is not so evident.
With regard to the protoplasm itself, it is now generally recognised that
it forms a colloidal system of probably a number of phases in which the
chemical constituents have as their basis water, proteins and complex
fatty substances. Carbohydrates are also constantly present in protoplasm,
but whether they are to be regarded as dead inclusions playing no essential
part in vital behaviour, or whether they are necessary for the maintenance
of protoplasm in its living condition, is not clear. Nor is it at all clear
how these various substances are distributed among the various phases.
It is sufficient indication of the doubt that surrounds the problem of the
constitution of protoplasm that one authority on it emphasises its generally
low viscosity, while another lays stress on its slimy character. One regards
it as having the character of a suspensoid, another that of an emulsoid.
If we accept the reports of observations on the physical qualities of
protoplasm, and there is no reason for supposing that the majority of such
observations are incorrect, we must inevitably conclude that protoplasm
varies very considerably in its constitution from one object to another,
and probably in the same material at different times. In general, how-
ever, there is little difference to be observed under the microscope, or
even the ultramicroscope, between samples of protoplasm from widely
different materials, yet there must be fundamental differences between
the protoplasm of different species. What these differences are, whether
they are subtle chemical differences or differences in arrangement of
molecules or molecular aggregates, is a matter on which our ignorance
216 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
is exceptionally complete. Indeed, it looks very much as if some
altogether new technique is required for any advance to be made in this
direction, and in this connection I may refer to some remarks made by
Sir William Bragg last November in his Anniversary Address to the Royal
Society. He pointed out that there is to-day a very considerable interest
in magnitudes which are too small to be examined under the microscope
and too large to be studied conveniently by X-ray methods. While with
the microscope it is possible to observe the presence of particles with a
diameter of about 0-15 (1,500 A.U.) and while the ultramicroscope can
reveal the presence of particles as small as 5my. (50 A.U.), neither the
microscope nor the ultramicroscope can reveal any details of structure
in objects as small as this. On the other hand, X-ray methods have
enabled the arrangement of atoms and molecules to be determined with
great accuracy, but they do not enable the details of larger structures
to be determined. 'The invention of a method for determining the
structural details of particles larger than those with which X-ray analysis
can deal, and which are yet too small for the microscope to resolve, could
not fail to provide the general physiologist with a powerful weapon with
which to attack the problem of protoplasmic constitution.
At present, then, we must be content with recognising in the protoplasm
a system in which an essential feature is the possession of a large internal
surface, with all that this involves, in which there are various phases of
different chemical composition, a composition roughly but by no means
accurately known. One of the characteristics of this system is that, in
so far as it can be regarded as a system in equilibrium, it is in a state of
dynamic, not static, equilibrium, for all the time it is absorbing oxygen
and giving out carbon dioxide. The process does not end in this, for it
involves the loss of material, if not from the protoplasm itself, from
material held in the protoplasmic complex, and this material must there-
fore sooner or later be replaced, so that the respiration process must in
any case be linked up with a movement of material into the cell, from the
outside environment, either directly from this or through the medium of
some other cell or cells of the plant body, most frequently indeed also
after profound chemical changes in the material so absorbed.
That plants, like animals, absorb oxygen and give out carbon dioxide
was recognised by Ingen-Housz and de Saussure towards the end of the
eighteenth century, but for long the greatest confusion of ideas prevailed
on this question, a confusion which was only dispersed by Sachs with
the publication in 1865 of his book on the Experimental Physiology of
Plants. Sachs not only made clear the parts played by the respective
gaseous exchanges involved in photosynthesis and respiration, but he
laid stress on the universality of the respiration process, and emphasised
the fact that it is a property of every living cell. ‘Thus, in his text-book
of Botany published in 1868 he wrote: ‘ The respiration of plants con-
sists, as in animals, in the continual absorption of atmospheric oxygen
into the tissues, where it causes oxidation of the assimilated substances
and other chemical changes resulting from this.’ And further: ‘ But
in all the other organs also—in every individual cell—respiration is con-
stantly going on; and it is not merely the chemical changes connected
with growth that are dependent on the presence of free oxygen in the
K.—BOTANY 217
tissues ; the movements of the protoplasm also cease if the surrounding
air is deprived of this gas; and the power of motion possessed by
periodically motile and irritable organs is lost if oxygen is withheld from
them ; but if this happens only for a short time the motility returns when
the oxygen is again restored.’ This is, as far as I am aware, the first
reference to the fact that respiration is a constant function of cell activity.
Although this doctrine has been accepted without adequate proof, it
must be admitted that no evidence has been adduced against it and it
has never been disputed, and it is clear that respiration is as much part
of the field of general. cell physiology as the absorption and excretion of
water and dissolved substances. Although Sachs is thus to be credited
with establishing the view of the constant incidence of respiration in cell
activity, neither he himself nor his pupils contributed a great deal towards
the elucidation of the respiratory mechanism nor to the part played by
it in cell activity, although a few important investigations were made in
his laboratory, and later in that of his pupil, Pfeffer. The greatest
activity in this field was displayed by Russian investigators, and, com-
mencing in 1875, there has issued a constant stream of records of re-
searches on plant respiration from Russian workers, among whom
Palladin and Kostytschev were particularly conspicuous.
As work on respiration proceeded it came to be more and more supposed
that enzyme activity played a leading part in the respiratory process.
But it must be admitted that whereas during recent years considerable
advances have been made in elucidating enzyme systerns in animal cells
and relating them to the processes of respiration, the part played by such
systems in plant respiration is still rather a matter of speculation than of
indisputable fact. Indeed, in spite of much careful and painstaking work,
our knowledge of the enzyme systems themselves is still very chaotic.
If experimental observations have been interpreted aright, and if it is
a fact that every living cell respires, then we must conclude that respira-
tion is something most inextricably connected with-life. Yet it seems to
me that explanations of the function of respiration in the plant are not
altogether satisfying. Let us examine the views of the great authorities
of the past on this question. Sachs wrote: ‘The loss of assimilated
substance caused by respiration would appear purposeless if we had only
to do with the accumulation of assimilated products; but these are
themselves produced only for the purposes of growth and of all the
changes connected with life; the whole of the plant consists in com-
plicated movements of the molecules and atoms ; and the forces necessary
for these movements are set free by respiration. The oxygen, while
decomposing part of the assimilated substance, sets up important chemical
changes in the remaining portion, which on their part give rise to diffusion
currents, and these bring into contact substances which again act chemi-
cally on one another, and so on. The dependence on respiration of the
movements in protoplasm and motile leaves is very evident, since, as has
been mentioned, they lose their motility when oxygen is withheld from
them. These considerations lead to the conclusion that the respiration
of plants has the same essential significance as that of animals; the
chemical equilibrium of the substances is being constantly disturbed by
it, and the internal movements maintained which make up the life of the
218 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
plant.’ That is, the function of respiration is to provide the energy for
plant movements and for the building up of materials of higher energy
content than the assimilates synthesised in photosynthesis. Pfeffer’s
statement is less precise. ‘A continual supply of energy is necessary for
the maintenance of vital activity, and hence the possibility of aerobic or
anaerobic respiration is a primary essential for all vital processes, including
those which do not involve any direct consumption of kinetic energy.’
This is simply a statement that for a plant to remain alive a continuous
supply of energy is necessary, and that this is provided in respiration.
Palladin’s view was much the same as Sachs’s. ‘ Plants grow, and in
growing they produce various metabolic changes and movements of
materials. It thus comes about that work of various kinds is performed
in living plants, and this necessitates the consumption of energy. . . .
The processes of living plants in which organic reserve substances are
oxidised by oxygen are quite analogous to combustion, and this vital
oxidation is known as respiration.’ Kostychev regarded respiration as
yielding the necessary release of energy for important vital processes,
and he pointed out that ‘ most syntheses of organic substances, such as
the synthesis of proteins,’ and ‘the various types of architectural pro-
cesses of tissue differentiation’ require a supply of energy, although it
must be admitted that what exactly he meant by the latter group of
processes which, as far as energy requirements were concerned, were not
included in the former, is not obvious. At any rate it is quite clear that
the general view of respiration, put in as precise terms as possible, is
that it provides energy for certain plant movements, and for the building
up of substances of higher energy content than the products of photo-
synthesis which serve as the substrate.
While it is not clear that all plant movements obtain the necessary
energy for their occurrence from respiratory activity, no doubt some do,
and there is every reason to believe that the energy required for the pro-
duction of various constituents of the plant arises from the same process.
But having agreed to this, can we really be satisfied that we have obtained
a complete explanation of the function of respiration? In the case of
germinating seeds, growing organs, the formation of flowers and fruit,
this view seems completely adequate, but we must remember that storage
tissues such as potato tubers and carrot roots respire at a by no means
negligible rate, and that the same is true of senescent organs such as
mature fruit. Indeed, such tissues, notably those of the apple, have
provided some of the most interesting data of plant respiration. With
what movement, or with what synthesis of materials, is respiration of the
cells of a mature apple concerned? Such considerations lead one to
wonder whether respiration is not concerned in some much more subtle
way with the maintenance of life. It does look as if the mere maintenance
of the protoplasm in a living condition depends on the continuous occur-
rence of these processes which manifest themselves in the oxidation of
organic material to carbon dioxide and water by means of absorbed.
oxygen. ‘The only exception to this rule is found in certain so-called
“resting ’ organs, such as seeds, in which the amount of water present is
very low, and in which, presumably, the protoplasm is in some very
different state from that of active cells.
K.—BOTANY 219
If we cannot answer this question we can, at any rate, attempt an
examination of the functions of respiration of which we feel more certain.
The most universal of these, as we have seen, is the provision of energy
for the building up of materials of higher energy content. A problem
which awaits solution here is the mechanism by which the energy released
in the oxidation of the substrate is transferred to the actions bringing
about the synthesis of proteins and other complex plant constituents.
The solution of this problem no doubt involves that of what is generally
known as the mechanism of respiration, that is, the stages in the process,
the enzymes involved, the conditions of the process: in fact, the general
course of the breakdown of substrate into carbon dioxide and water. The
assumption is usually made that the breakdown of sugar follows the same
course in its earlier stages as in its fermentation by yeast, in which, accord-
ing to the theories of Neuberg and of Embden and Meyerhof, pyruvic
acid, CH;CO.COOH, is an intermediate product, and in which enzymes
of the zymase complex play a leading part. Both in presence and absence
of oxygen the course of the breakdown is supposed to be the same up to
the splitting of pyruvic acid under the action of the enzyme carboxylase
to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide evolved in
this action accounts for the whole of this gas evolved in the absence of
oxygen, and for one-third of the carbon in the sugar broken down, the
other two-thirds, contained in the acetaldehyde, finally appearing as
ethyl alcohol. If the rate of sugar breakdown, or glycolysis, remains the
same in both presence and absence of oxygen, then the ratio of anaerobic
to aerobic respiration depends on the fate of the acetaldehyde in air. If
none of this appears as carbon dioxide the ratio is unity, if all the carbon
contained in it appears as carbon dioxide the ratio is 1:3, and it must
be supposed that if the ratio exceeds this value some of the acetaldehyde
is built either into some fresh product or back into the system. Indeed,
this was realised as long ago as 1880 by Wortmann, who actually found
with seedlings of Vicia faba that the rate of carbon dioxide evolution was
the same in presence and absence of oxygen. To explain this finding
he put forward a theory that in air the alcohol produced in the first stage
of the process is converted back to sugar, so that the whole of the respira-
tory process can be summarised by two equations which he wrote as
follows :
1. 3(C,H,,0,) = 6(C,H;OH) + 6CO,.
2. 6(C,H;OH) + 12 O = 2(C,H,,0,) + 6H,O.
The second equation he also wrote :
C,H,0,
3. 6(C,H;,OH) + 120 =2 (cx0:) + 6H,0.
C.H,0,
2(C,H,.06)
In short, he accounted for the fact that the same amount of carbon dioxide
was released under anaerobic conditions as under aerobic conditions, by
supposing that two-thirds of the sugar broken down was re-synthesised
in presence of oxygen into sugar.
220 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
But there is also the possibility that the rate of sugar breakdown is
affected by oxygen. According to F. F. Blackman’s analysis of the
observed data of respiratory activity of apples in air and pure oxygen,
there is evidence that the rate of production of the active substrate for
glycolysis from stable sugar is increased with increase in oxygen con-
centration. J. K. Scott and I have obtained what may be further evidence
of the possibility of this from a consideration of the relationships of
respiration to surface and volume in bulky tissues. Here, owing no
doubt to the low oxygen tension in the middle region of such tissues,
there is a low rate of respiration, although there may actually be no
indication of anaerobic respiration. The observed results can be ex-
plained on the view that the low oxygen tension induces a minimum rate
of production of the active substrate and so limits the rate of respiration.
It may be noted, as a corollary to this view, that the anaerobic respiration
usually observed after a period of aerobic respiration should gradually
fall to a lower level owing to oxygen shortage bringing about a lessening
in the rate of production of active substrate. Investigations on the
quantitative relations between aerobic respiration and anaerobic respira-
tion have made it clear that this is what generally happens, so that it is
frequently difficult, or indeed impossible, to fix a value for the rate of
anaerobic respiration, since this undergoes changes with time, sometimes
rising at first, but always subsequently falling. Researches carried out in
my laboratory by J. K. Choudhury indicate, however, that there may be
exceptions to this rule.
From the course of anaerobic respiration it is, however, often possible
to calculate the initial rate of anaerobic respiration at the moment
when the material is first transferred to an atmosphere of nitrogen before
secondary effects have come about. This was done by F. F. Blackman
and P. Parija in their well-known work on the respiration of apples,
and they showed that the output of carbon dioxide at the beginning of
a period in nitrogen was actually greater in this case than the output of
carbon dioxide in air immediately before transference to nitrogen. From
a very careful analysis of the experimental data, Blackman concluded
that in respiration in air a large amount of some substance is formed along
with the carbon dioxide and water and that this substance does not
accumulate but is built back into the stream of katabolites. There is no
evidence yet to show whether this substance is actually built back into
sugar as Wortmann supposed to be the case in the broad bean, or whether
some intermediate substance of the breakdown is formed. It is important
to note, however, that here also evidence of an anabolic process linked
with the breakdown is obtained, a process called by Blackman oxidative
anabolism since it is dependent on the presence of oxygen. Similar
evidence for the existence of oxidative anabolism in storage tissues such
as potato tuber and carrot root has been obtained in long series of
experiments carried out in my laboratory by W. Leach, J. K. Choudhury
and J. K. Scott.
It is more than likely that the investigation of the organic acid meta-—
bolism of plants may shed light on our problem. It is well known that
in many plants, notably in succulents, but in many non-succulents as
well, organic acids such as malic, citric and oxalic, are present in con-
K.—BOTANY 221
siderable quantities. In the succulents the output of carbon dioxide is
usually very small and acid, particularly malic acid, accumulates in the
leaves and stems during the night and disappears during the day. It is
generally held that the malic acid arises as a product of respiration, but
two main views have been put forward to explain the actual part played
by this acid in the sequence of actions following the breakdown of carbo-
hydrate. Ruhland and his collaborators hold that this breakdown follows
the same course as in normal respiration as far as the pyruvic acid stage.
Owing to the inhibiting action of high concentration of acetaldehyde the
normal action of carboxylase is inhibited and the pyruvic acid, instead of
breaking down under the action of this enzyme to acetaldehyde and
carbon dioxide, undergoes synthesis to diketoadipic acid, which then
breaks down to succinic acid and formic acid, from the former of which
malic acid arises.
COOH COOH H.COOH
: : +
CO CO COOH COOH
CH, CH, CH, CHOH
+ — . —_ . —_>>>—=.
CH; CH, CH, CHy
co co COOH | COOH
: : =r
COOH COOH H.COOH
pyruvic diketoadipic succinic malic
sh
formic
Disappearance of malic acid is ascribed to its oxidation to oxalacetic
acid, the conversion of this to pyruvic acid, and the breakdown of the
latter on removal of the inhibitor of carboxylase.
Bennet-Clark has pointed out a number of objections to this theory,
among which perhaps the most important are that formic acid does not
accumulate in the tissues, while, so far from succulent plants containing
a high concentration of acetaldehyde, the concentration of this substance
in succulents is very low (o-o1 to 0-001 %), and is, in fact, too low to
have any appreciable inhibiting effect on carboxylase.
From his own researches and a critical consideration of the work of
others, Bennet-Clark has shown that for each molecule of sugar which
disappears from succulents not more than one molecule of malic acid is
formed, so that for every molecule of sugar which is lost by glycolysis at
least two atoms of carbon must be involved in the formation of some
other material. This is not carbon dioxide, and in fact, no carbon
compound with one, two, or even three carbon atoms in the molecule
accumulates in the tissues, and Bennet-Clark therefore concludes that
the carbon compound formed from glycolysis along with malic acid
must be built back to polysaccharide. The carbon dioxide evolved by
22 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
succulents does not come from malic acid, for the rate of carbon dioxide
evolution is not proportional to the concentration of malic acid.
Bennet-Clark’s view of the breakdown of sugar by succulents is thus
represented by the scheme :
sugar
intermediate products
of glycolysis —> malic acid — polysaccharide
co,
and the malic acid is thus an intermediate product of anabolism.
Lack of time prevents a further discussion of this interesting subject
of the part played by organic acids in plant metabolism: it must suffice
to say that in other plants besides succulents evidence is accumulating
which indicates that the part played by these acids in oxidative anabolism
may be quite a general phenomenon.
While then data are accumulating which indicate the linkage of anabolic
processes with those of the breakdown of sugar, it is important to note that
there is no evidence of the formation of products other than carbohydrates.
Is it possible, however, that syntheses of more complex substances are
indeed involved, and that we have here a dim glimpse of the mechanism
for the production of these substances, and that along with the formation
of sugar or some intermediate there may be also the formation of protein
or other complex substances ; that, indeed, we have here the mechanism
by which the carbohydrate is brought into a suitable form for combination
with nitrogenous and other compounds ? If this is so we should expect to
find the strongest evidence of oxidative anabolism in actively growing
material. It is therefore disappointing that in tissues such as those of
germinating seeds the indication of oxidative anabolism is often wanting.
In work by Leach on the respiration of germinating seeds of different
types it was found that in those seeds storing carbohydrate as their chief
food reserve the ratio of anaerobic to aerobic respiration was about I : 3 or
less, so that in these the experimental data suggest that the same amount
of carbohydrate is broken down to carbon dioxide and water in presence
of air as is broken down to carbon dioxide and alcohol in absence of
oxygen. In seeds which contain a considerable amount of fat the ratio
of the initial rate of anaerobic to the previous rate of aerobic respiration
was found to be greater than 0-33, and in these, therefore, some oxidative
anabolism might take place. On the other hand, a high rate of anaerobic
respiration has been observed in other fruits besides apples, and it is
curious that the indications of anabolism should appear in just those
materials where it would seem to have least meaning. However, many
seeds contain a considerable reserve of protein which suffers break-
down, at least in part, during germination. Thus Isaac has shown
that in the seeds of the same variety of sweet pea in which Leach found
a ratio of anaerobic to aerobic respiration of only about 0-2, there is a
continuous breakdown of reserve protein during the first ten days of
germination, over a third of the protein disappearing in this period.
K.—BOTANY 223
While a synthesis of what may be called protoplasmic proteins and other
substances is taking place in the growth centres, this synthesis is much
less than the breakdown of protein reserves, and it would therefore
appear that in such material there is a source of energy available apart
from that provided by the breakdown of carbohydrate. Before we can
hope to present a picture of the relations between respiration and vital
syntheses in germinating seeds, and perhaps in all other material as well,
it seems to me that we need not only many more data regarding respira-
tion rates under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions throughout the
whole germination period, but also a detailed biochemical analysis of the
carbohydrate and various nitrogenous materials present in the seedlings.
So expressed, this may sound and look a simple enough matter, but
actually, as anyone who has attempted to tackle such problems knows, it
is one that abounds in difficulties.
As far, then, as the mechanism by which respiration provides the
energy for the formation of compounds of higher energy content is
concerned, we are still very much in the dark. There is even the possi-
bility that we are completely wrong in assuming a connection between
aerobic and anaerobic respiration. While there is very strong evidence
that anaerobic respiration in plants is often similar to fermentation, in-
asmuch as the substrate and the end products are the same, there are so
many exceptions, or apparent exceptions, to the production of ethyl
alcohol in the correct quantity demanded by the equation for fermenta-
tion, that one may well hesitate in accepting this view as of universal
applicability. On the other hand, the opinion of Miiller and Lundsgaardh
that anaerobic respiration is a process quite distinct from aerobic respi-
ration, in which different enzymes function and in which the course
of the breakdown is different from the beginning, has found little support
from more recent work. The view of anaerobic respiration as the effect
of deprivation of oxygen on the normal aerobic process, appears to me
by far the more reasonable one. For if the two processes were completely
independent we should expect anaerobic respiration to proceed at ail
times, in both presence or absence of oxygen, or we should have to assume
that oxygen inhibits the breakdown of carbohydrate to carbon dioxide
and ethyl alcohol. Now the first hypothesis is untenable because it
would mean that in air aerobic respiration took place in addition to
anaerobic respiration, so that the output of carbon dioxide under such
conditions should always be greater than in absence of oxygen, which
is not always the case. Nor do the products of anaerobic respiration
normally appear in presence of air. On the other hand, the breakdown
of carbohydrate to carbon dioxide and alcohol by the enzyme complex
zymase does not appear to be inhibited by oxygen.
While it has generally been assumed that respiration is linked in some
unknown way with the synthesis of proteins and other substances, its
connection with those other processes, the absorption and excretion of
materials which are characteristic of cells, has only come to be appreciated
more recently. The absorption and excretion of water and dissolved
substances was generally more or less tacitly assumed to be determined
by the physical laws of osmosis and diffusion. Water was supposed to
224 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
diffuse into or out of the vacuole according to the difference between the
osmotic pressure of the cell sap and the sum of the osmotic pressure
of the external solution and the inwardly directed pressure of the stretched
and elastic cell wall. Dissolved substances were supposed to enter the
vacuole according to the laws of diffusion expounded by Graham and
Fick more than eighty years ago. The method of measuring the rate
of entry of dissolved substances by observing the rate of deplasmolysis
of plasmolysed cells placed in a solution of a penetrating substance assumes
that this substance diffuses unchanged through the protoplasm into the
vacuole, where it still remains unchanged and so increases the osmotic
pressure of the vacuole approximately in proportion to the amount of it
which has entered the cell.
Although Collander’s work on the absorption of a number of non-
electrolytes indicates that this assumption may, in the case of such
substances, be quite justified, it has been known now for thirty years that
the entry of electrolytes into cells cannot be explained as the simple
diffusion of a substance through a membrane (cell wall and protoplasm)
from a region of higher concentration to one of lower concentration. In
the first place it was shown that the two ions of a salt could be absorbed
at different rates by living cells as long ago as 1909. In that year obser-
vations of this kind were published by Meurer and by Ruhland on the
absorption of salts by storage tissue (carrot and beetroot) and by Pantanelli,
using a great variety of plant material. ‘These observations have since been
extended by many others, and it has been established beyond a doubt
that, at any rate under certain conditions, the two ions of a salt are
absorbed by living cells at different rates. Since the total of positive
and negative electrical charges must remain equal in the external solution,
it follows that either some other ion must accompany the excess of the
more rapidly absorbed ion into the cells, or that some ion of the same sign
as the more absorbed one*must diffuse out into the external solution to
balance the excess of the less absorbed ion remaining. If the former is
the case and the external solution is one of a single salt, the solution must
become acid or alkaline, since an excess absorption of kation would involve
some absorption of the hydroxyl ions of water, leaving some of the anion
balanced by hydrogen ions; similarly, if there is an excess absorption of
anion the solution will become alkaline. It was suggested by Pantanelli
that this might be the reason why culture solutions sometimes become
acid or alkaline. My own experience has been that all plant tissues
absorb hydrogen and hydroxyl ions with considerable rapidity, and
that solutions containing plant tissue tend to become less, and not more,
acid or alkaline. It would be unwise, however, to assume that such is the
case under all conditions, and, as far as I am aware, there is no evidence
regarding the range of hydrogen-ion and hydroxyl-ion concentrations
over which absorption of these ions takes place. W. J. Rees and I found,
however, that organic acids of the formic acid series are absorbed until
the pH of the external liquid is as high as 6-55, a value little removed from
that of pure water.
At any rate, the few experiments I have made myself on this point
indicate that the excess of sodium absorbed by carrot tissue from a
K.—BOTANY 225
solution of sodium chloride is replaced by ions of calcium, potassium and
magnesium which diffuse out of the tissue, Although to be regarded as
only preliminary in character, they indicate that an exchange of ions
between tissue and external solution can occur in connection with excess
absorption of one ion of a salt.
Even more strikingly at variance with the earlier view of solute
absorption by plant cells is the phenomenon which is now generally
described, not altogether happily, I think, as accumulation. In 1919
F. Kidd and I showed that when thin slices of storage tissues, carrot and
potato, were placed in solutions of various salts in different concentrations,
absorption took place towards a condition of equilibrium which is not
that of equality of concentration inside and outside the cell, but which
depends on the concentration of the salt. With dilute solutions the
concentration attained inside the cell may be many times that of the
solution outside, while in concentrated solutions the reverse is the case
and the concentration of the salt inside, even after 48 hours’ immersion
of the tissue in the solution, may be very much less than that outside.
Thus, while more salt is actually absorbed from a stronger solution than
from a weaker one, the absorption relative to the concentration is less,
both as regards rate and total amount, from a stronger than from a weaker
solution.
These observations by Kidd and myself, though definitely establishing
on broad lines the relationship between concentration of salt and absorp-
tion, did not pretend to provide more than approximate quantitative
data. Thus we found that the relationship between concentration of
salt and absorption was much the same as it would have been if the salt
were adsorbed by an adsorbent within the cell. It is easy to suggest
that a first stage in the absorption of salts by plant cells is the adsorption
of the ions of the salt by some constituent or constituents of the proto-
plasm. While I have pointed out the similarity of the absorption of
salts by plant cells with an adsorption phenomenon, I have more than
once stressed the point that this similarity is in itself not sufficient to
justify the advocacy of an adsorption theory of salt absorption. Yet it
must be admitted that later work by more exact methods has only served
to confirm the approximate similarity of the relationship between salt
absorption and adsorption. Reference in this connection may be made
to the work of Laine on the absorption of manganese and thallium by
roots of Phaseolus multiflorus, as well as to observations of my own on
the absorption of sodium chloride by carrot root. Further, if the proto-
plasm contains adsorbents of the ions presented to it, then adsorption
must take place if conditions demand it.
Before leaving this question for the moment I would like to point out
that it is obvious that if the similarity between the relationship of salt
absorption to concentration and the adsorption equation is more than a
coincidence, then adsorption can only be the first stage in this absorption,
at any rate by actively growing tissues in which the absorbed ions must
be transferred elsewhere. Again, the adsorbing material one would
expect to be present in the protoplasm, whereas a number of more recent
observations by various investigators indicate that there is actually an
I
226 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
increase in concentration of the absorbed ion in the vacuole. The
adsorption would then have to be followed by elution of the salt at the
surface of the vacuole. In this connection it is interesting to note that
S. C. Brooks has obtained some evidence that Valonia, immersed in
sea-water containing rubidium chloride, accumulates rubidium in the
protoplasm for two days, after which this kation passes from the proto-
plasm to both vacuole and external solution. The same worker has also
found that when cells of Nitella are placed in 0-o1M. solutions of radio-
active potassium chloride there is an accumulation of potassium in the
protoplasm after 6 hours before any appreciable amount of potassium
appears in the vacuole. Previously M. M. Brooks had found that when
Valonia is immersed in a solution of methylene blue the cell wall and
protoplasm become deeply stained by the dye before any appreciable
coloration of the vacuole is observable.
If adsorption is indeed operative in the absorption of salts, one would
expect it to be partly mechanical and partly electrical, and the unequal
absorption of the two ions of a salt could be related to the electrical
charges on adsorbents in the protoplasm. Further, the occurrence of
electrical adsorption would render the conformity of salt absorption with
the equation for mechanical adsorption only approximate.
Another mechanism which has been suggested as possibly operative
in the absorption of salts is one of interchange between ions within and
without the cell under conditions which give rise to the ionic distribution
between the cell interior and exterior characteristic of what is called
Donnan equilibrium. If the solution exterior to the cell contains a salt
both ions of which can penetrate the cell membranes, while the interior
of the cell contains an electrolyte one ion of which can penetrate the
membrane while the other is immobile, then at equilibrium there will
generally be inequality of concentration of any ion on the two sides of
the cell membrane. There are probably in the protoplasm protein salts
which provide the necessary conditions for Donnan equilibrium. A
difficulty is that in a condition of Donnan equilibrium the products of
the concentration of any pair of oppositely charged ions should be the
same on the two sides of a membrane, so that if one ion of a salt is
absorbed to such an extent that its concentration is higher inside the
cell than outside, the other ion can only be absorbed to a concentration
inside the cell which is lower than its concentration outside. But actually
this is not necessarily the case. Thus I showed in 1924 that storage tissue
can absorb both ions of sodium chloride until the concentration of both
is higher than that of the same ion outside the tissue, it being assumed
that the ion remains active inside, an assumption for which there is good
evidence. Briggs has shown that this ddes not present an insuperable
difficulty to the view that absorption may be conditioned by Donnan
equilibrium if the two ions are absorbed by different phases in the cell,
and he shows that actual observations of salt absorption can be so
explained if the kation is absorbed by the protoplasm and the anion by
the vacuole. And in this connection it must be emphasised that just as
adsorption must take place if the cell contains adsorbents of ions capable
of reaching the adsorbent, so, if the cell system involves the conditions
K.—BOTANY 227
giving rise to Donnan equilibrium, it is inevitable that the movement of
ions demanded by these conditions must result.
The possibility that respiration has a direct effect in bringing about
the absorption of ions has been pointed out by several workers, notably
by Briggs and S. C. Brooks. The production of carbon dioxide in the
cell leads to the appearance of carbonic acid and hence of its ions hydrogen
and bicarbonate, H and HCO;. The interchange of ions required by the
Donnan equilibrium will lead to the diffusion out of hydrogen ions which
are replaced by kations from the external medium, while the bicarbonate
ions will be exchanged for anions from the external medium. As the
tissue continually respires the production of hydrogen ions continues to
replace those which diffuse into the external solution, and so the absorption
of ions continues as part of an interchange between tissue and external
medium.
An interesting theory of salt absorption which hypothesises some sort
of combination of the absorbed ions with constituents of the protoplasm
followed by passage of the ions into the vacuole through exchange with
hydrogen and bicarbonate ions, has recently been proposed by S. C.
Brooks. According to this theory, the substances in the protoplasm
responsible for the initial absorption are the proteins. In the protoplasm
are proteins of various kinds, which are differently ionised, some with the
protein group carrying a positive charge, others with the protein ion
carrying a negative charge and thus constituting a proteinate ion. When
a salt such as potassium chloride is absorbed the potassium ion unites
with a H-proteinate and the chloride ion with a protein-OH. The
potassium proteinate and protein chloride thus produced unite with the
basic and acidic groups of adjacent molecules and so move through the
protoplasm until they reach molecules adjacent to the vacuole. Here
exchange with H and HCO, ions produced as a result of respiration is
supposed to take place.
Against the view of a direct effect of respiration on salt intake by ionic
exchange it has been urged by Hoagland and Steward that accumulation
of ions is negligible or slight when tissue is deprived of oxygen, although
there may be a considerable anaerobic production of carbon dioxide.
But as regards this objection it must be noted that under conditions of
anaerobiosis the rate of carbon dioxide production usually falls rapidly
with time, so that it is doubtful whether a considerable production of carbon
dioxide anaerobically generally continues for any length of time. The
question is obviously one requiring further experimental investigation.
That the absorption of salts by tissues is related to a supply of oxygen,
and probably in some way to respiration, there can, however, be no doubt.
As long ago as 1913 Hall, Brenchley and Underwood showed that barley
and other plants in aqueous culture solutions grew more rapidly in
aerated solutions than in non-aerated ones, an observation which was
confirmed by Jorgensen and myself in 1917 in regard to barley and balsam
and by Knight in 1924 with wallflower, Chenopodium album and Elodea.
The conclusion could be drawn that in these experiments the augmenta-
tion of the oxygen supply to the roots brings about an increase in the
rate of absorption of the nutrients necessary for metabolism and growth,
228 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
but the problem is complex, for the effect of carbon dioxide accumulation
in poorly aerated solutions may bea factor, and there is a marked difference
in the reaction of different species, for both Free in America and Jorgensen
and myself in this country found that buckwheat cultures did not react
to differences in the oxygen supply to the roots, while as regards maize,
whereas Andrews and Beal found that aeration of the culture solution
very greatly increased the yield, Knight found that this was the case with
soil cultures, but not with water cultures. Whether this divergence in
behaviour is to be related to varietal differences or to some undefined
factor in the experiments is not clear.
More direct evidence of the effect of oxygen on the salt relations of the
cells has been obtained in work with storage tissues. In 1927, as a result
of observations on the behaviour of such tissues when placed in water
either kept still or agitated, I called attention to the importance of respira-
tion in regard to the salt relations of the cells. I pointed out the import-
ance of maintaining the supply of oxygen to such tissues for the maintenance
of their vitality, and that in the absence of an adequate oxygen supply
exosmosis of electrolytes took place, leading to the speedy death of the
tissues, whereas with maintenance of a supply of oxygen absorption of
electrolytes continued, in the case of beetroot, for example, for periods
of about three weeks. Towards the end of this time a condition of
equilibrium was reached or approached, in which the content of
electrolytes in the external liquid was very low. During this period
conditions leading to lower oxygen and higher carbon dioxide concentra-
tion led to increase in the electrolyte content of the liquid, while addition
of fresh oxygen led to a decrease. In similar experiments carried out by
Briggs and Petrie in 1931 in which a continuous stream of air was passed
through the liquid, these workers examined the course of respiration along
with the changes in electrolyte content of the external solution, and
established the fact that there was a general parallelism between the rate
of respiration of the tissue and the electrolyte concentration of the external
liquid. If the stream of air was replaced by nitrogen the respiration rate
increased, and so did the concentration of electrolytes in the solution,
while replacement of the nitrogen by air brought back the original dis-
tribution of electrolytes between tissue and external liquid. Steward and
collaborators have shown that reduction of the oxygen supply to storage
tissue of potato, carrot and artichoke below a certain value limits the
accumulation of both the ions of potassium bromide by the tissues, while
Hoagland and Broyer have obtained a similar result with barley root
systems. In attempting to explain this effect of oxygen one must bear in
mind that the relationship between respiration and salt accumulation
may not be a direct one. The maintenance of an adequate supply of
oxygen is necessary to maintain the vitality of the tissue, possibly on
account of the deleterious effects of the products of anaerobic respira-
tion. Thus the fact that accumulation depends on oxygen supply may be
regarded as an expression of the fact that under conditions of partial or
complete anaerobiosis the functioning of all or many vital processes
dependent on the protoplasm is adversely affected, and along with them
that of salt accumulation. From this point of view the effect of conditions
K.—BOTANY 229
leading to poor oxygen supply may be related not only to oxygen con-
centration but also to accumulation of carbon dioxide and other products
of anaerobic respiration. Hoagland’s observations on the absorption
of potassium bromide by cells of Nitella may, perhaps, be of significance
in regard to the part played by oxygen in salt absorption. He found that
absorption of bromide only took place if the cells were exposed to light,
or if they have been previously exposed to adequate illumination. If for
some time previously they had been growing in weak light no accumulation
of the salt or its ions took place. From a consideration of all the data it
seems to me that the following conclusion can be drawn regarding the
relationship of respiration to the absorption of salts by plant cells, namely,
that accumulation of salt depends on the vitality of the cells and that the
maintenance of this vitality depends, as has been long recognised, on the
presence of oxygen, either because aerobic respiration or some other
process requiring oxygen is essential for this maintenance of vitality,
or because in the absence of oxygen the accumulation of carbon dioxide
and other products of anaerobic respiration adversely affects the function-
ing of the protoplasm. ‘This dependence of absorption of salts on the
vitality or healthiness of the tissue was clearly shown by my experiments
of 1927 and the later ones of Steward in which stress was laid on the effect
of aeration of the tissues. I think Hoagland’s observations fall into line
with these. Nitella kept for some time in low light is probably somewhat
unhealthy, just as is tissue that is deprived of an adequate supply of
oxygen. In other words, most of the work published on the relationship
between respiration and salt accumulation does no more than show that
this accumulation is a vital process, depending on the normal functioning
of the protoplasm. Any general relationship between respiration and salt
accumulation, as regards the linkage of reactions involved or the transfer
of the energy required for the entry of a salt against its own diffusion
gradient, may thus be very indirect.
This view of the necessity of oxygen for salt accumulation does not rule
out the possibilities of adsorption, chemical combination and ionic inter-
change as playing a part in salt absorption, and indeed, my experiments
of 1927 and those of Briggs and Petrie of 1931, to which I have earlier
referred, are most readily explicable in terms of ionic interchange. Apart
from the more obvious physico-chemical relationships already mentioned,
what is called decline in vitality, health or activity is associated with
changes in the protoplasm, which may involve changes in the state of
aggregation of the protoplasmic colloids and in the distribution of their
various constituents, which will profoundly alter their capacity for ad-
sorption or chemical combination and the nature of ionic exchanges.
I am certain that in the present state of our knowledge there is no justi-
fication for putting aside any of these processes as possibly playing a part
in determining the salt relations of cells. What is required for the clari-
fication of the problem I have emphasised for many years, namely, the
accumulation of experimental data regarding these relations, and it should
help greatly if data are obtained for different kinds of cells and with
different kinds of solutes. With the development of both chemical and
physical methods for the measurement of small quantities, such data can
230 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
now be obtained which were impossible to acquire twenty or even ten
years ago. The katharometer, spectrograph and polarograph are three
physical instruments which in particular will prove of the greatest aid to
such work.
One significant fact does, at least, emerge from the information so far
acquired, namely, the absorption of dissolved substances by plant cells
is as much a vital process as the respiratory function and, like it, depends -
on the presence of the living substance. On what does this dependence
consist ? On the presence of a protoplasmic membrane, which is broken
down when the protoplasm changes in the direction of loss of vitality ?
On the state of aggregation of the particles in the colloidal complex which
constitutes the system, and which certainly changes as the cell becomes
moribund? On the respiratory process itself? On the presence of
certain enzymes or other substances which are contained in the proto-
plasm? I have indicated how certain suggestions have been made in
regard to these various possibilities, but only further research will provide
the answer.
It is a remarkable fact that with the continued application of the prin-
ciples of physical chemistry to the investigation of vital plant activities,
it has gradually become more and more evident that simple explanations
of these activities in terms of physical chemistry are not forthcoming.
Even the usually accepted simple explanation of the water relations of the
plant cell is now suspect. Ever since the classical investigations of De
Vries and Pfeffer it has been supposed that these relations, at any rate for
vacuolated cells, were explained with complete satisfaction on what I
have called the ‘ simple osmotic view,’ the assumption being made that
the protoplast, or the limiting layers of it, functioned as a semi-permeable
membrane permeable to water but impermeable to many solutes. Now
Bennet-Clark, Greenwood and Barker have found that this explanation
is not always valid. ‘They have measured the osmotic pressure of the
cell sap of a number of plant cells by the plasmolytic method, and also
cryoscopically after extraction of the sap from the tissues. In some cases
(petioles of Caladium and Rheum) the values obtained by the two methods
are the same, and hence in these cases the simple osmotic view affords a
satisfactory explanation of the observed facts, but in other cases (petioles
of Begonia and roots of beet and swede) the osmotic value of the sap
determined plasmolytically was found to be markedly greater than the
value obtained for the expressed sap by cryoscopic determination. ‘This
means that in the latter cases the pressure sending water into the vacuole
is greater than can be accounted for by the actual osmotic pressure of the
sap as determined physico-chemically, and hence such cells possess a
power of active secretion of water analogous to the capacity for accumulat-
ing salts which I have already discussed. That this is so is confirmed by
the fact that cells of such tissues are not plasmolysed by their own sap,
whereas in the case of those tissues which do not exhibit this phenomenon
approximately half the cells of the tissue are plasmolysed by sap ex-
pressed from the tissue. So here also the vital activity of the protoplasm
is operative, and it may be presumed that the energy required for this
active secretion of water from the external medium is ultimately provided
K.—BOTANY 231
by respiration, but how the transfer of the energy is brought about is as
obscure as in the case of salt accumulation.
Thirty years ago, when the importance of the principles of chemical
dynamics in life processes was coming to be fully realised, it looked as if
the solution of many of the problems of plant physiology in terms of
physical chemistry was fairly imminent. But with the application of
these principles to our investigations into living processes we find that in
every one of them the protoplasm introduces a factor which renders
these processes not readily explicable in this way. Clearly we must seek
an explanation in the apparent divergence of vital processes from physical
or chemical laws in the constitution of the protoplasmic system, and hence
a fuller analysis of this system now appears to be a requisite for further
advance in our understanding of physiological processes in general.
There is at present no reason to suppose that with further advance in
knowledge of the protoplasmic system we shall not ultimately be able to
explain physiological processes in physico-chemical terms, and I would
re-affirm what F. F. Blackman emphasised in his Presidential Address
to this Section thirty years ago, namely, ‘the inevitableness of physical-
chemical principles in the cell.’
It is scarcely necessary to emphasise how the principles of general cell
physiology must be of fundamental importance in plant metabolism, for
inasmuch as this depends on the activity of specialised cells and tissues,
these, wherever they are alive, must also exhibit the normal features
characteristic of protoplasmic activity. The process of photosynthesis
involves the absorption of substances by the assimilating cells, and, like
those more general cell processes we have considered, depends on the
protoplasm in some way not clearly understood, although there is a
probability that at least an enzyme is concerned. ‘The passage of the
products of photosynthesis from the assimilating cells to the phloem must
take place according to the laws governing the movement of dissolved
substances into and out of living cells in general. ‘The importance of
general cell physiology to absorption by roots is obvious, and here it may
be pointed out how the relatively rapid absorption of nutrient salts from
soils in which the soil solution is known to be very dilute, is explained by
the relationship between concentration and rate of absorption of solutes :
the diluter the solution the more rapid the uptake of solute in relation to
the concentration. Other physiological problems such as winter hardiness
of plants and the effects of extreme conditions in general are also problems
of general cell physiology. But in spheres of botanical science outside
the range of pure physiology the general physiology of the cell is just as
important. ‘This applies in particular to ecology. This study, in so far
as its aim is the determination of the relationship of plants to their environ-
ment, is indeed nothing else than physiology, a fact which was clearly
recognised by Clements more than thirty years ago. Of the two groups
of factors which determine the distribution of vegetation, the climatic
and edaphic, the mode of action of the latter in particular can only be
studied with any hope of success by those with an adequately deep know-
ledge and appreciation of cell physiology. It does not need a knowledge
of physiology, it is true, to determine plant distribution, but such
232 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
knowledge is essential for what Tansley, in a paper read to this Section in
this place thirty-four years ago, called ‘the higher branch of ecology, i.e.
the detailed investigation of the functional relations of plant associations
to their surroundings.’ However desirable and necessary the collation
of existing knowledge of plant distribution may be, I am certain that the
solution of the fundamental problems of ecology will only be achieved by
the use of physiological methods, and particularly by the application of
our knowledge of the general physiology of the cell. For edaphic factors
must act through the root and by the absorption of materials from the soil,
or the exchange of material between the soil and root; in fact the
processes of respiration and salt absorption would appear to be of the first
importance.
Certain aspects of mycology have much in common with physiology ;
indeed, that part of mycology which concerns pathogenic organisms is
inevitably closely linked with problems of the relation of host and parasite,
problems which are, in their very essence, physiological. Years ago it
was questioned whether the physiology of the plant physiologists was not
half pathology. Certainly the reverse question can be answered with
more assurance ; pathology is at least partly physiology, and therefore
the principles of general cell physiology must here also be of immense
importance, and an intimate acquaintance with these principles should
be an important part of the equipment of the experimental plant
pathologist.
Perhaps no branch of botany has made such spectacular advances in
recent years as that of cyto-genetics. At least it has produced a nomen-
clature which rivals or excels the early efforts of the descriptive ecologists.
And just as descriptive ecology can do little more than correlate certain
types of vegetation with certain environments, so cytology can do little
more than correlate visible structures in the cell with genetical behaviour.
I cannot help thinking that a real insight into these problems also will only
come with the interpretation of cytological observations in physiological
terms, and that the greatest advance in the study of cytology will come with
the linking up of the knowledge of the cell acquired by these two lines of
investigation, the cytological and physiological. And it is surely a rather
remarkable fact, one indicating how far away we are at present from the
achievement of this end, that the physiologist tends to think of the cyto-
plasm as the essential factor in determining vital activities, while the cyto-
logist almost exclusively concerns himself with the nucleus. Neither the
physiologist nor the cytologist appears at present to have anything but
the vaguest ideas of the relationship between the two, a relationship which,
however, we may feel sure is most intimate and fundamental to life.
I would now like to pass on to the economic importance of cell physio-
logy and say a few words about its importance in applied botany. We
all know, but it cannot be too strongly emphasised, that botany is the pure
science of a great part of the most important industry of the world, agri-
culture, and that, like every other industry, it can only be carried on wisely
if its practice is based on scientific principles. Almost all branches of
botany are important for agriculture, but mycology, genetics, and physio-
logy are particularly so, and certainly physiology is not the least of these.
K.—BOTANY 233
Absorption of water and nutrients from the soil, assimilation of carbon,
water relations of the plant, vegetative development, flowering and fruiting
are all problems of agriculture which are essentially physiological, and in
many of which the principles of general cell physiology are of importance.
Similarly in forestry physiology must play as equally important a part.
But besides these more obvious economic applications there are numerous
industries in which the principles of general cell physiology are no less
fundamental. There are all those industries, ever increasing in number
and importance, which are based on some particular plant product, such
as cotton, linen, jute, rubber, tea, sugar and tobacco, to mention only a few
of the more important. Apart from the growing of the plants themselves,
which like any other form of agricultural practice should be based on sound
physiological principles, a knowledge of these principles may be equally
important in the subsequent treatment of the plant material. In par-
ticular a knowledge of cell organisation, the action of enzymes contained
in the cell, its behaviour towards various reagents, all aspects of general
physiology, are essential. Finally the great food storage industry depends
greatly on the application of knowledge of cell physiology. As an ex-
ample of this I may refer to pioneer work on the scientific principles of
cold storage by Jorgensen and myself carried out some twenty years ago.
From a consideration of what was then known of the constitution of the
cell we concluded that the satisfactory preservation of certain tissues in
the frozen condition depended on rapidly freezing the tissues, a method
which was subsequently put into practice in certain branches of the food
storage industry. It was indeed encouraging to read in the daily press
last December of what was described as the scientific discovery of the
week, which turned out to be none other than the rapid freezing method
for the preservation of fruit, a method that had been examined and ad-
vocated by Jorgensen and myself nearly twenty years previously. This is,
of course, only one instance of the bearing of general cell physiology on
the subject of food preservation. The effect of the conditions of storage
on enzymes and other cell constituents, and on the vitality of different
kinds of cells, tissues and organisms are among the problems which a
knowledge of the facts and methods of general cell physiology will help
to solve.
With the ever-increasing mass of knowledge in the various branches
of botany, an increase which is especially noticeable to-day in those
aspects of our subject which are undergoing rapid development,
physiology, mycology and genetics with cytology, it is impossible for
anyone to be an active worker in more than a relatively very small field of
botanical endeavour. We sometimes meet with reference to a mysterious
gentleman called the ‘ general botanist ’ who is expert in general botany,
as someone distinct from the morphologist, physiologist, mycologist or
other worker in a defined field. But in these days, when to make any
contribution to knowledge necessitates specialisation, there can indeed
be no such person as the expert in ‘ general botany,’ for there is, indeed,
no such subject. But in whatever part of our subject our own special
interests may lie, we can still appreciate the efforts and aims of workers
in other fields, and realise the bearing of work in these fields on our own
Iz
234 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
problems, and in this sense we are all general botanists; that is, just
botanists.
For if ‘general botany’ as something distinct from ‘botany’ is a
myth, there is no doubt that the various branches of our subject are related
in the whole. In this address I have tried to indicate not only the scope
and present position of our knowledge of the general physiology of the
cell, but where this particular part of the science of plants comes into
contact with other branches of botany, and how the application of a know-
ledge of the facts, principles and methods of cell physiology may be
expected to lead to an increase in knowledge, not only of the physiology
of the plant, but of other aspects of botanical science and of its industrial
applications.
SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
THE FUNCTION OF ADMINISTRATION
IN PUBLIG EDUCATION
ADDRESS BY
J. SARGENT,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
Tue British Association in general, and this Section of it in particular,
have long been accustomed to Presidential Addresses which, with less
than the usual compromise between truth and politeness, have generally
been described as brilliant and provocative. Certainly there would be
no exaggeration in applying these epithets to those addresses to which I
myself have had the privilege of listening.
This year I can at any rate promise the Section a change, but it will
not be a change for the better. Even if, in my undergraduate days, I
occasionally staggered College societies with visions of things to come, I
can only say that, after twenty-five years in the service of local government,
the instinct of self-preservation if nothing else has taught me to confine
myself to things as they are.
At the same time I am proud to be old enough, or young enough, to
have been at school and college at a period when young men looked for
a new book by my immediate predecessor with something of the same
spirit of hope and excitement as the Christians of Macedonia may have
awaited a communication from St. Paul. There was a memorable
evening in our Senior Common Room when I laboured, not with entire
success, to persuade our venerable Dean that, in spite of a certain similarity
in title, Kipps, the book I was commending to his notice, was not identical
with another modern work called Kim, which had earned his disappro-
bation and was in fact by quite a different author.
I will not at any rate blame my subject, even if at first sight it may
appear a dull one, for the shortcomings of this address. ‘The reasons
I chose it are twofold ; in the first place it is the only serious topic I know
enough about to justify my discussing it in the presence of an audience
of such various distinction, and in the second I am rapidly approaching
a state of suspended animation so far as my association with local govern-
ment is concerned, so that without aspiring to brilliance or even provoca-
tion I can air my views with greater freedom and possibly less offence
than any of my colleagues who are still bound to the wheel of official
discretion.
236 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
At the same time I am not unmindful that this address is being delivered
to the Educational Science section of the British Association, and that to
some the connection between educational science and practical problems
which to a large extent are common to local government as a whole rather
than peculiar to educational administration may well appear remote.
I am not quite sure what educational science connotes but I imagine
it may comprehend not only the philosophical principles upon which
educational practice is or ought to be based but also experiment and
research into method. The administrative machine, particularly in the
public education service, is an instrument which, if improperly employed,
may well distort the first and hamper the second. For that reason alone
it deserves an occasional inspection by the educational scientist whatever
his particular interest may be. Moreover, in recent years the British
Association has attached special importance to the impact of science on
society. For the great majority of teachers, pupils and parents in this
country the medium through which this impact is felt so far as education
is concerned is the Local Education Authority,
Furthermore this question of local administration, uninspiring as it may
appear, may not be without its significance in relation to current issues of
world-wide importance. Only the other day I heard a prominent member
of a local education authority quoting, or as I believe misquoting, a still
more eminent personage to the effect that ‘ local government is the last
bulwark of democracy.’ Exactly what he meant by the word ‘ last’ is
obscure, and as nautical metaphors are notoriously tricky things there is
a possibility that he may have meant bulkhead rather than bulwark.
I take it, however, that his meaning was that, if democracy is going to
founder, the immediate cause will probably be found not so much in the
legislative eccentricities of Parliament as in the inefficiency of local
administration. It is when men begin to feel miserable that the value of
political liberty begins to slump, and it is when intelligent men feel the
pinch worst that revolutions begin to happen. It may be a hasty and in-
adequate generalisation, but there seems to me to be much in the view that
the totalitarian state has arisen from the economic and spiritual destitution
of the professional classes. I must, however, resist the temptation to
platitudinise on this popular problem and try to confine myself to certain
tendencies in the administration of local government, and of education in
particular, which can have at most only an indirect bearing on the much
wider question of the relation of the State to the individual.
Political thinkers throughout the ages have frequently defined or
described the function of administration. Of all their attempts the one
which appeals most to an harassed official is the late Lord Fisher’s
cynical aphorism that it consists in the intelligent anticipation of agitation.
From a somewhat less negative point of view it may be regarded as com-
pounded of deliberation and execution, of which the latter should but
does not always follow the former. In very simple terms, administration
is neither more nor less than a method of transacting business, and
particularly public business, as cheaply and as quickly as is compatible
with doing it reasonably well. Even this lacks precision and is by no
means free from ambiguity. Where for instance is the standard to be
L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 237
found by which from time to time ‘ reasonably well ’ shall be measured ?
It may be argued that the practical administrator will in fact know at any
given time the standard he has to aim at in order to satisfy public opinion,
just as the craftsman may point to contemporary taste as the criterion of
production.
Whether it is possible or not to find an acceptable definition of adminis-
tration, it will probably be agreed that it expresses itself through two
functions, the legislative and the executive. Most of the administrative
problems which come within the purview of local government fall in the
latter category.
By a process which is at once historical and natural, the legislative side
of administrative activity has remained largely in the hands of the central
Government, though it would be to fall into an error which professed
experts have not always avoided if the fact were overlooked that in many
instances experiments legitimately conducted by local authorities within
the powers conferred upon them by Acts of Parliament have often led to
new ideas and consequent legislation. Side by side with this distribution
of legislative and executive activities, and to a large extent determining it,
there has proceeded a fundamental change in the conception of the
function of the State in relation to the individual citizen which has marked
the last century and, with increasing emphasis, the last quarter of it.
The change to which I refer is one from a negative to a positive con-
ception of legislative objectives and has profoundly modified the scope
and character of local administration. Until a hundred years ago the main
interest of government was to restrain men from living evil lives ;_ since
then the intention, however mysterious in operation, has been to help
them to live good ones.
This change has coincided and is’no doubt connected with another
conception widely developed if not created during the same period, viz.
the idea of human progress or the infinite perfectibility of man. A social
order designed by those who believe that every day and in every way
men are getting better and better may be expected to exhibit fundamental
differences from one the main object of which is to postpone as long as
possible the coming of inevitable decay.
The obvious result of this evolution from a negative to a positive view
of the function of government has been a vastly increased interference by
the State in the goings and comings of the ordinary citizen; and the
problems which form the subject of this paper arise from the steps which
have been and are being taken to make this interference effective. The
growth in this business of government, as in other businesses, has forced
home the need for administrative devolution, with the consequent rise
of local government as the machinery through which much of the will
of Parliament must be implemented.
It is no part of this paper to try to trace the process of this devolution,
but it is relevant to point out that there have been occasions when the
need for defining satisfactorily the respective spheres of the central and
the local government has presented itself as an extremely urgent problem,
at any rate to the minds of many local administrators. ‘There is little,
however, for me to say on this point because the rules according to which
238 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
the game is to be played are now generally accepted, and the players, in
my experience, are observing them in an increasingly friendly and
harmonious spirit. We all think and may even speak unkindly about
Whitehall from time to time, but on calm reflection cannot but admit
that we are treated on the whole with delicacy and consideration.
There is one aspect of this relationship, however, which is important,
and that is the financial one. I shall have something to say a little later
on the question of the adequacy or otherwise of exchequer grants so far
as Local Education Authorities are concerned. On the wider issue we
may rest content with the fact that, whatever arguments may be adduced
or principles invoked, so long as there are local administrators they will
continue to pursue the laudable object of getting as much money and as
little interference from the central authority as they possibly can. But
if devolution is to remain a necessity, and granted the continuance both
of a democratic system and of the parental interest of the State, there
seems no alternative. The really disconcerting problems for the future
seem to me to arise from the present nature of the local government
bodies themselves. The first difficulty would appear to lie in the unit,
i.e. in the size and geographical distribution of local government areas.
Recognised authorities, who are mostly foreigners and seem to regard our
political institutions with greater enthusiasm than we do ourselves, tend
to congratulate us on our ingenuity in adjusting them to meet new social
and economic needs as they arise. It would be difficult to detect this
evolutionary process at work so far as local government boundaries are
concerned. It is true that towns have grown and encroached on county
areas and that there has been a distinction in the degree of autonomy
conferred on authorities of different sizes by successive Acts of Parliament,
but substantially it remains true that our local government boundaries
derive mainly from Saxon times when the problems of modern administra-
tion can hardly have been foreseen.
When the present Local Education Authorities were established by the Act
of 1902, there was an opportunity to devise areas with regard to administra-
tive convenience rather than historical association, but it is significant
that there does not appear to have been any serious suggestion to do
other than to allocate the new powers and duties among the existing local
units. Consequently we find the control of public education, under the
benevolent supervision of the Board of Education, distributed among
318 different bodies varying from London with 4,396,821 inhabitants
down to Tiverton (Devonshire) with 9,610.
These Local Education Authorities inherited the property of the School
Boards and Technical Instruction Committees, including a number of
buildings in various states of repair, and of officials in much the same
condition, together with some strange and embarrassing residuary legacies,
like the Cockerton Judgment and Dual Control.
It is very much to their credit that within three and a half decades, with
a great war intervening, they have not only introduced some kind of order
into this confusion but have also built up a great system of secondary
education, put the salaries of teachers on a more satisfactory basis,
and undertaken the task of reorganising the whole system of so-called
L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 239
elementary education, the full effect of which it is too early to appreciate.
It is significant of the success they have achieved that those pioneers in
public education, the Scots, should recently have reconstructed their
administrative machine on the English model and so driven another nail
in the coffin of the ad hoc education authority. And yet we must confess
that we are still very far from that adjustment of opportunity to ability
which is, I suppose, the fundamental aim of any democratic system of
public education.
If I appear to be devoting most of my time to pointing out the defects
in our local education system, I should like to make it clear that my object
is to contribute my mite towards smoothing out the long road which has
yet to be travelled and in no way to belittle the efforts of a by no means
ignoble army of public servants.
Apart from questions of size and population, Local Education
Authorities also vary greatly in their financial resources as regards both
their own rateable value and the contributions which they receive from
the Exchequer towards their net expenditure. Neither the money they
raise themselves nor the grants they receive from Government are in any
arithmetical proportion to their respective areas or populations, and,
although the formula by which the grant is calculated was no doubt
intended to take account of local circumstances affecting expenditure, the
conditions which it was designed to meet in many cases no longer obtain.
The resultant anomalies are a fruitful cause of dissatisfaction in many
areas and of acute embarrassment in some; in fact the whole question
of the financial relationship between the central government and the
local authority is one which calls for an immediate and comprehensive
review.
Then again Authorities vary very much in character, some being purely
rural, many purely urban, while others contain a mixture of the two, or
are in process of transition from the former to the latter. A further and
ever-present difficulty so far as many of them are concerned is the fact
that while some of them are empowered to deal with all forms of education
in their area (Counties and County Boroughs, technically known as
Part II Authorities), others are only empowered to deal with elementary
education (Part III Authorities). Part III Authorities, and particularly
the smaller ones, are naturally jealous of their prerogatives and one cannot
but admire the courage with which many of them are facing the strain
on their resources, financial and otherwise, which the provision of ele-
mentary education on reorganised lines must entail. At the same time,
when it is realised that ‘ higher ’ education usually starts at the age of 11 or
even earlier, while ‘ elementary’ education will shortly extend to 15 or even
16, and that most of the larger Part III Authorities have exercised the
right of establishing selective central schools, which in many cases approxi-
mate in standard and aim to the other forms of selective post-primary
institution provided by the Part II Authority in the same area, the possi-
bilities of confusion, overlapping and friction will need no emphasis.
It is true that many of these difficulties can be and are in fact being
overcome by co-operation between the Authorities concerned, but it
should be pointed out that, while co-operation ranks high among the
240 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
blessed words in the educational vocabulary, it usually involves a com-
promise and is never the ideal method of administrative procedure. No
departmental chief, I imagine, would set two typists to type the same
letter or two office boys to lick the same stamp simply in order that they
might have the advantage of co-operating.
The next problem is concerned with the personnel of the Local Educa-
tion Authorities. The personnel is divided into the amateur and the
professional elements, or the unpaid and the underpaid as I have heard
it expressed. The amateur element is again divided between persons
co-opted for their knowledge of and interest in education, and others
elected by the people not solely, experience suggests, because they are
known to possess either or both of these qualifications. The co-opted
members for obvious reasons are generally among the most valuable
members of an Education Authority, but the fact that they are not
members of the County or Borough Council, and so have no direct re-
sponsibility to the electorate, is usually regarded as disqualifying them for
occupying really responsible positions, e.g. chairmanships of committees.
The most serious aspect of the problem to my mind is the steady and
even accelerating deterioration in the amateur personnel which has taken
place since the War. ‘This is particularly marked in the case of the
elected representatives of the people. The reasons are as plain as the
fact. The most obvious of course is the gap caused by the War itself
in the ranks of those who, if they had survived, would probably have been
the first to offer themselves for public service. But this is by no means
the whole or even the main explanation. ‘The vast increase in the
responsibilities laid upon local authorities by legislation since the same
period makes it necessary that any member who is to become really
au fait with the business of education should be able to devote a
considerable amount of his weekly time to it, whereas before the War
it was possible for a person of average intelligence to grasp not
only the general lines of policy but also day-to-day happenings by
occasional attendance at committee meetings. Outside tendencies have
also been at work during the same period to make such extra attention
increasingly onerous and difficult; the business of making a living has
also become more strenuous, and people, who might have been able to
devote before the War the amount of time which was necessary to grasp
the business of administration, now find themselves, so far from being
able to give the additional time which the increasing duties demand, in
a position to give much less time than before. Consequently local
administration is being progressively denuded of persons actively engaged
and occupying positions of responsibility in industry and commerce.
There seems no sign whatever that either of these tendencies is likely
to lose its effect. Everything in fact points in the other direction, and
the result is already apparent in the increasing tendency of Education
Authorities to consist of people who have retired from work, or have never
had work, or who are in fact professionals rather than amateurs because,
as Officials of political or other associations, it is expedient for them to
become members of Local Education Authorities from the point of view
of promoting the objects which their associations have at heart. It is no
L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 241
reflection on the personal integrity of these last to express the opinion
that they constitute a serious danger to the system on the ground that if
there is a bureaucratic habit of mind, and if as some people believe it is
inimical to good government, these people possess it and bring it to bear
on their consideration of educational problems without the saving grace
of the professional educationist’s training in and knowledge of the
particular branch of administration with which he is dealing.
There remain, of course, many splendid people who give their services
to educational administration, and I must safeguard myself against
appearing to suggest by the use of the word deterioration that graft or
other forms of dishonesty are on the increase. ‘That, I am glad to say,
has not been my experience. There is the risk, however, which is more
than theoretical, of intellectual dishonesty creeping into the discussion of
educational affairs when the Authority contains any substantial number
of members who are pledged to a set of opinions which may have a cross-
bearing on purely educational considerations.
As I have pointed out the difficulties—I will not say the defects—in our
local government system at considerable length, I suppose I am under
some obligation to attempt to indicate possible remedies. So far as
the numbers, sizes and financial arrangements are concerned, it is not
difficult either to indicate the general lines which reform in theory should
follow or to envisage the practical difficulties which will confront the
reformer when he sets out to tamper with the traditional boundaries of
English local government. It would be a bold man who would under-
rate the strength of that local feeling which in its nobler aspects is
not unworthy of being termed local patriotism, but at other times
merely vocalises the parish pump. It is, however, possible for prac-
tical experience and even a priori reasoning to suggest certain of the
attributes which the ideal local government unit should possess.
It should be large enough to be able to provide the variety of
services which a modern community requires, but not so large that the
day-to-day discharge of routine administration necessitates a rigid or
bureaucratic attitude towards the problems presented for solution. In
education in particular it is important that the area should contain
sufficient children or students to justify the provision of the various
types of educational institution which modern needs demand. It is
difficult, for instance, for a small area to face the cost of modern schools,
particularly of the most expensive form of them, the technical college,
and although a solution may be found in co-operation between neigh-
bouring Authorities, it does not always follow that Authorities who are
contiguous geographically have similar needs, and there is also the risk
that the standard of co-operative effort may come to approximate to the
lowest common multiple among the Authorities concerned.
Another important consideration from the economic point of view is
that the Authority should be sufficiently large to be able to obtain good
contracts for the supply of the various materials which it requires.
Modern methods of mechanisation and rationalisation have been slowly
but surely invading the province of local government, but their advocates
have not always been ready to recognise the fact that, while centralisation
242 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
under the control of one committee or one officer makes for efficiency
and economy up to a point, the stage can easily be reached when the
activities and responsibilities both of the committee and the officer
become so large that neither they nor he are able to keep the threads
comfortably within their grasp. When this stage is reached the question
of devolution becomes just as important as that of centralisation at the
earlier stage.
I have come to the conclusion that for Education Authorities, and I
believe for other Authorities also, the minimum size of any local govern-
ment unit should be an area with a population of 250,000 ; the ideal size
would be between 500,000 and 750,000, and the maximum size 1,000,000.
The establishment of areas of this size would, of course, pre-suppose the
total abolition of Part III Authorities, by conferring complete autonomy
on the largest, or on the amalgamation of others where they are
geographically contiguous, and by abolishing the rest.
There is one other matter in this connection which is worth some
consideration, and that is the question of so redistributing areas that none
of them may in future be exclusively rural or exclusively urban. This is
a proposition which has commended itself widely to many social reformers
who have advocated a regional organisation for local government. I am
not sure that it is quite as important as some of its advocates have
supposed, partly because with the development of modern transport and
of town and country planning the difference in outlook and needs between
the town and country dweller is tending to disappear. I would, however,
admit that in such matters as technical education a purely rural area tends
to be penalised, at any rate where agriculturists have still to realise that
their industry is just as much in need of technical instruction as any other.
To some extent the establishment of geographical units of a more
uniform and rational size would contribute towards the solution of the
major difficulty of personnel because, while it is true that some small
Authorities enjoy admirable committees and officials whereas some of the
larger ones are notoriously below standard in these respects, it will remain
true on the basis of probability that within reason the larger the area the
wider the choice it will have among people for its members of committees,
and the larger salary it will be able to afford and consequently the wider
field it will be able to draw upon for its administrative appointments.
Larger areas and higher salaries will not, however, by themselves over-
come the personnel difficulties which have bulked so largely in this
paper. Unless people who are competent to govern can be made to
realise that the preservation of liberty must depend on the capacity of
those who voluntarily serve the community, that is, unless people are
moved in greater numbers to offer themselves for public service by the
Socratic urge, namely, fear of being governed by worse people than them-
selves, the prospect of arresting the deterioration in the amateur personnel
of local authorities is small.
Something of course may be done by so easing the burden falling upon
committees that members may be freed from the tedium of what are at .
present known as ‘ dustbin’ debates and enabled to devote themselves
to the wider issues of policy and the supervision of their officials. The
L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE 243
trouble is that the present type of member often prefers the ‘ dustbin ’
debate to any other kind because its subject is a matter with which he is
familiar ; it is common experience that memoranda embodying recom-
mendations of high policy are much easier to get through committees
than those which deal with comparatively trivial issues.
It may be a pessimistic opinion, but my own view is that local govern-
ment will have in future to counteract the deterioration in its amateur
element by a corresponding improvement in the professional element ;
that is, it will have to look to recruiting better officials in the future than
it has recruited in the past. This is not simply a matter of higher salaries,
it is more a question of placing the training and status of the local govern-
ment officer on a basis at least equal to that of the central civil servant.
I am not shutting my eyes to the fact that there has been a steady improve-
ment in the conditions of service for local government officers during the
last twenty-five years and, as a natural consequence, in the type of officer
who is now coming forward. In the education service, for instance, the
Associations of Local Authorities have recently approved proposals affecting
the status, emoluments and recruitment of entrants to the higher ranks of
the service. Other people thinking along other lines have played with
the idea of the City or County Manager. There may be possibilities in
this idea provided that areas do not exceed the limits to which I have
already referred, and provided that the traditional idea that the chief
officer of an Authority should be a lawyer can be finally laid to rest.
The legal mind has many virtues and administration would become
chaotic without its restraining influence, but it is by temperament and
training a restraining influence and is consequently unfitted to take
quick decisions or give prompt effect to them when taken.
But if there is any validity in my contention that the salvation of
democracy as exemplified in our local government is to be sought in an
improved type of official, I must in conclusion try to give some answer to
the question, ‘ Who is the happy warrior?’ The Association of Directors
and Secretaries for Education, of which body I am proud to be a member,
answered this question more adequately than I can hope to do so a few
years ago when they gave evidence to a Royal Commission on Local
Government, and I can only refer those interested to a document which
is almost lyrical in its fervour. Speaking in more mundane terms, I would
say that the educational administrator should have had a university training
and some experience as a teacher in one branch or other of the education
service. It is essential that he should possess the qualities of a sound
administrator, that he should know how to initiate, when to delegate,
when and where to advance, how to endure setbacks—above all, how
to handle men. If he can retain a genuine enthusiasm for the science
of education, it will not be so necessary for him to have a profound
knowledge of educational theory.
Finally, he must beware of the hardening effects of custom and
precedent. The needs of society are changing rapidly and it is the func-
tion of all educators to study these needs and to consider how best they
can be met. At its highest this demands from him a philosophy of life in
which he is compelled to study continually the philosophical basis of
244 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
education and the principles on which this great human science has
developed ; at the worst he can fall back on Pope for comfort and
inspiration :
‘ Whate’er is best administered is best.’
There is a story that there was once a subaltern in a famous cavalry
regiment who was so stupid that his brother officers noticed it. There is
an equally apocryphal incident of an educationist who was so platitudinous
that an educational conference noticed it. I wonder whether I have
emulated him.
SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.
LEY-FARMING AND A LONG-TERM
AGRICULTURAL POLICY
ADDRESS BY
PROF. R. G. STAPLEDON, C.B.E., M.A.,
PRESIDENT OF THE SECTION.
My own leaning is towards the word ‘ley,’ although according to the
Oxford Dictionary this word is obsolete, but in adopting ley I follow the
best agricultural precedent.
It is not my intention to talk about farming for laymen, for in my
opinion ley-farming properly understood is the most highly scientific
farming that it is possible to practise. The ley farmer must be a proficient
stock-master and a proficient cultivator, versed alike in the arts of animal
and crop husbandry. ‘To be a farmer’ is ‘to till the soil,’ and in
‘till’ is implied the bringing of the soil into a fit condition for the
production of crops—the care of the soil. A farmer in the true and
proper meaning of the word is a man who has ever before him two pur-
poses: the one to put all his fields to optimum use in respect of com-
modity production, and the other, and of even greater ultimate importance,
to attend to the maximum need of all his fields in respect of soil fertility.
Thus judged, my thesis is that the ley farmer is a farmer in excelsis.
My address has to do with the most honourable, and what should be
the most venerated, aspect of the whole of agriculture—the rotation, for
upon the rotation I claim everything depends. So I at least respond to
the honour that has been done me in placing me in the position in which
I find myself to-day in the selection of my subject. It is a neglected
subject. I am the first President of Section M to do homage to the
rotation. I have researched amongst the utterances of my distinguished
predecessors ; incidentally, although only of interest to myself, I find
that the first Presidential Address to Section M was given by Sir Thomas
Middleton in the year that I came into Wales and began my researches on
grassland—that was in 1912. The only mention of the rotation in the
total of twenty-four addresses that have been given was by Sir John
Russell, who in 1916 started off promisingly with winter corn: spring
corn: fallow, but to my intense disappointment followed the rotation no
further.
In view of the immense amount that has been published during the
present century it is not without significance that the leading agricultural
journals contain but few articles dealing primarily, or even remotely,
246 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
with the rotation, and next to nothing relative to the basal philosophy of
the rotation. The truth is that agricultural thought in recent decades
has turned ever more exclusively towards the narrow, too narrow as I
think, path of commodities, each considered as such. Excessive con-
centration on commodities leads inevitably towards monoculture, and to
what we too lightly please to call specialisation, and leads away from the
rotation and ultimately to disaster. Greatly daring, then, I have set myself
to combat this modern fetish of over-concentration on commodities, a
fetish that has revealed itself not only in the trends of agricultural science,
but in a very great deal of what the State has endeavoured to achieve for
agriculture and which daily reveals itself in the actions and utterances of
the leaders of the agricultural industry.
I think that everybody will be agreed that such is the precarious state
of the world to-day, and of this country in particular, that there can be
only one approach to the problems of agriculture, and that is the national
approach. We must not so much consider what is good for the farmer
as what is good for the State: then what is good for the State must be
made good for the farmer. That is the only possible approach towards
a stable and long-term agricultural policy. A long-term agricultural
policy, if it is to be enduring and adequate, must envisage both present
and future needs of the State. ‘The success of the policy must be judged
in the main by one overriding consideration, namely, the sureness and
rapidity with which the farmers of the country (all the farmers of the
country) in order to meet any emergency prove themselves able either
to pass from the production of one series of commodities to the pro-
duction of another, or, radically to alter the proportions of the several
commodities produced.
It so happens, at least it appears to me, that the present needs of the
State, and also the more menacing of the foreseeable contingencies, unite
to demand one and the same essential contribution from our agriculture.
It is not for me to attempt to decide whether war danger, or the danger
of our about-rapidly-to-dwindle population is the greater peril; little
less disconcerting are the effects of soil erosion and soil depletion in those
countries from which we are wont to obtain abundant and cheap supplies
of food. I am concerned with a long-term agricultural policy, the kind
of policy that would take at least ten years to put into full operation, and
consequently we have to consider not so much immediate war danger as
war danger as such, a danger that owing to our island position would
seem to be something from which it is now hard to see how we shall ever
escape. I believe the extent of the influences of soil erosion and depletion
are not even yet fully realised. All methods of countering this must in
the last resort react against the British housewife, and must tend to in-
crease the cost of overseas production, while taking soil erosion, soil
depletion and land deterioration together a vaster area of the globe is
undoubtedly affected than is generally supposed.
Our own rough and hill grazings have manifestly deteriorated : witness
the spread of bracken, to quote only the most obvious but by no means’
the most serious example. They have become increasingly depleted of
lime and phosphates in recent decades, and the same thing must be
happening to a greater or lesser extent—and sometimes accompanied by
actual erosion—in all the great ranching areas of the world. In framing
M.—AGRICULTURE 247
our own long-term agricultural policy heed must be taken of every shred
of evidence on land deterioration that is available all the world over, for it
is patent that when the sum is totted up the total will far exceed what is
already only glaringly manifest.
The immediate, and on all hands generally admitted, need of our
peoples is an abundance of fresh food. An abundance of fresh food is
not compatible with a superabundance of permanent grass. Since
permanent grass flows like the sea right up to the very doors of some of
our largest centres of population, such centres of population are auto-
matically denied an abundance of really fresh vegetables.
I make no apology for this somewhat long, and in a sense non-agri-
cultural and at all events non-technical introduction, for it seems to me
imperative to stress our national needs, for it is these needs which should
govern our whole agricultural outlook and, therefore, should determine
all our systems of farming. To sum up so far, and on the strength of
the various considerations I have brought forward, I would say this.
What is demanded of our agriculture is, firstly, to maintain as large a
rural population as possible, for probably on a large and contented rural
population depends to a marked degree the increase of our population as
awhole. Secondly, to maintain as large an acreage as possible in a highly
fertile and always ploughable condition, and thirdly, so to conduct our
farming as to allow at all times, and in all places, for the absolute maximum
of flexibility in commodity-production.
Before further developing my argument I must endeavour to put ley-
farming in its proper perspective in relation to other systems of farming.
I must therefore, and as a further preliminary, attempt to define the
systems of farming as conducted in this country.
My concern is to define the systems not in terms of commodity pro-
duction, but in terms (a) of their flexibility, (b) of their indebtedness to
imported feeding stuffs, (c) of their relation to the maximum needs of
the soil in the matter of maintenance and enhancement of soil fertility,
and (d) as to the amount of labour demanded. For if my major premises
are anything approaching to correct, these are the matters of supreme
national importance. My classification is, of course, amenable alike to
amplification and simplification, and I put it forward to-day quite tenta-
tively, and primarily to illustrate the principles which I consider absolutely
basic to any rational consideration of a long-term agricultural policy for
this country. Here is my classification.
Arable Farming—A small acreage of permanent grass—a few odd
corners, a couple of fields—may be conceded to even the arable farmer.
For the rest he must be presumed to take the plough around his whole
farm, and
(a) work on a rotation of crops without any resort to the ley,” or
1] first put forward this classification in an article, ‘Agricultural Policy,’
appearing in The Fortnightly for March 1938.
2 A ley is a field sown down to grass and/or clovers, and is such that it is
designed to take a definite place in the rotation of crops. Leys are of two main
types: the one-year, or ‘ arable’ ley, and the ley of two or more years’ duration.
Implicit in the idea of the ley is, however, the conception of ‘ due date’: after
an appropriate, and within fairly narrow limitations, pre-defined, period it becomes
due to be ploughed up.
248 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
(6) adopt a rotation which involves the use of the one-year ley only.
The arable farmer as thus defined is never a grazier. When the one-
year ley is employed this is for the primary purpose of producing hay for
horses or stall-fed animals, and contributing to the muck heap, while
the clover sod as such contributes to the fertility of the farm. The major
function of the ley is here the maintenance of soil fertility. The chief
concern of the arable farmer is the production of cash crops. His system is
capable of extreme flexibility within the sphere of crop husbandry, it is
capable of employing much labour—market gardening, and relatively little
labour—mechanised wheat growing. It is a system: which from the point
of view of soil fertility is easily abused, and which in some of its forms,
e.g. market gardening, makes excessive claims on farm and stable manure
(when obtainable) from sources outside the boundaries of the farm.
The robbing of ‘ Peter’ (‘ Peter’ in this case being the hay and straw
producing fields of other, and often remote, farms) to pay ‘ Paul’ (the
truck crop fields) is an aspect of large-scale market gardening which has
from the national point of view, I think, never been fully appreciated.®
It is likely that the market gardener in his own interest will be driven
increasingly to adopt a system of alternate husbandry as presently to be
defined—town stable manure being a rapidly waning commodity.
Alternate Husbandry, or, as I prefer to call this system, Ley-Farming.—
A couple or so fields of permanent grass can be conceded to the ley as
to the arable farmer, but for the rest the ley-farmer takes the plough
in ordered sequence around the whole farm. Ley-farming is of two main
types, but always the majority of the leys employed will be of two or more
years’ duration, and always in any particular year the area of the farm in
leys (and therefore in grass) will be not less than one-third of the plough-
able acreage ; will frequently be over three-quarters of that acreage, and
in extreme cases, and at unusual periods, the whole of the farm may be
in leys. The main points to be emphasised are these. ‘The ley-farmer
is of necessity, and essentially, a grazier and a crop husbandryman; he
may also be a feeder. He must, therefore, be equipped for crop and
animal husbandry, and, as I have already said, to be successful he must
be proficient in both arts of farming. His system, his mental stock-in-
trade, and his equipment on the farm all bear the same hall-mark, and
the hall-mark above all others of value to the nation, to wit, FLEXIBILITY.
The ley to the ley-farmer has two equally important functions to
perform: the sward, or animal ration function, and the sod, or soil
fertility function; of this duality, which to my mind is at the root of
successful farming in all the moderate to high rainfall areas of the
temperate regions of the world, I shall in a moment have much more to
say.
The two main types of ley-farming I will define as follows :
The Arable-Grass Rotation.—In the arable-grass rotation most usually
the leys are of two or three years’ duration. The area in grass at any
time will not exceed 50 per cent. of the farm, and may be somewhat less:
3 A good many acres near London once devoted almost entirely to the produc-
tion of hay for the City horse, and therefore also of manure for the market
gardener, still show the mal-influence of that type of monoculture.
M.—AGRICULTURE 249
Good examples of this system are the arable dairy farming of Denmark,
and the rotations practised in Aberdeenshire in connection with beef
production. In both cases animal products are the chief concern of the
farmers, and the holdings produce at least a good proportion of the
winter rations. The mechanised cereal grower may also adopt the arable-
grass rotation, primarily with a view to maintaining soil fertility and to
making it easier to get on his land during periods of sketchy weather.
A typical rotation would be wheat : grass : grass : wheat.
Grass-Arable Rotation.—In these rotations the majority of the leys are
left down for long periods, from four to as many as twelve, or in some cases
even more, years. Most usually as much as three-quarters, or even more,
of the farm will be in leys at any one time. Ordinary animal products
are the major concern of those following the grass-arable rotation, and it
is on these farms that dairy bailing, poultry and pig folding are often such
important and telling features of the system. Grass-arable farms at a
moment’s notice can be turned over to cereal production on a grand scale
and hence, if for no other reason, the enormous importance of the system
and of farms conducted on this system to our national welfare. What is
achieved by this system properly conducted is to farm without wasting
a gallon of urine or a blade of grass; it marries the animal to the soil as
can no other system, and ensures that the sod performs its maximum
function in respect of soil fertility and crop production, and the sward
its maximum function in respect of animal production. The nation is
under an incalculable debt to Mr. Hosier and his followers, and this will
eventually be realised, for it is not so much what the Hosierites do on
their own acres as the principles which underlie their activities.
To the credit of ley-farming as a whole is to be placed the fact that it
makes heavy, or at least reasonable, demands upon labour; it is less
dependent upon imported feeding stuffs than most other systems, and it
maintains its acres and its practitioners in a condition of maximum
flexibility and ready for anything.
Nondescript.—In so far as acres are concerned the nondescript system is
the one I should imagine most generally practised in England and Wales.
I mean when a man practises ley-farming or arable-farming on one
corner of his farm, and maintains the rest in permanent grass. Such a
system is not incompatible with reasonably high production, but it is
under this system that we see some of the worst examples of slovenly,
negligent and deplorable husbandry. Our nondescript farms stand as
a token of the fact that a system of farming by which under present condi-
tions a farmer may contrive just to keep body and soul together is likely
to be a system completely out of harmony with the needs of the nation.
Many nondescript farms are family farms, and the amount of tillage is a
function of the size of the family, or of the number of sons willing to stay
at home—both dwindling in number.
Permanent Grass——The permanent grass farms are those upon which
there is no cultivation of any kind: on some it is still possible to find a
plough, but only as a museum specimen. The number of permanent
grass farms has demonstrably increased ; such farms are apt to be run
together, when generally fences will be more than ever neglected and the
whole (and too large) unit operated as a ranch. In the national interest,
250 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
as I have defined and envisaged that interest, this system suffers from
every conceivable defect. In the first place, speaking quite generally,
the permanent grass farms contribute nothing more valuable than inferior
hay to the winter ration; they afford the minimum of flexibility, and
maintain the minimum of acreage in a ploughable condition. Permanent
grass farms serve as an excuse for an immense amount of national and
private laxity, because’in brief, however bad they are they generally have
some slight earning capacity, and that with the minimum of trouble to
anybody—landlord, agent or farmer. Thus these farms frequently
stand on land in urgent need of drainage and of lime, and so in the main
they continue to stand.* It is perhaps the greatest tragedy of British
agriculture that even the poorest of poor grass has some earning capacity.
Milk production on permanent grass farms, and especially on those
deficient in lime and phosphates—and they are many—and particularly
where the stationary night paddock figures prominently in the manage-
ment, stand as the best example I know of ultra-dependence on imported
feeding stuffs and exaggerated waste of the manurial residues from such
feeding stuffs: waste as such down the drain, and waste because of
extraordinarily inept grassland management (on this latter point I will
enlarge in a moment); waste also of the potential fertility tied up in
the sods of the night and other more heavily dunged and urinated
paddocks.
At this point I would urge that unless we know the number of farms
and the gross acreage of such farms operating on each of the four systems
I have enumerated we know next to nothing as to how this country stands
relative to potential food production. Furthermore, schemes for helping
the farmer via commodity subsidisation and by planned marketing
cannot be assessed in their influence on the maintenance and enhance-
ment of soil fertility—and that is what matters above all things—unless
we know the systems of farming under which the assisted commodities
are being predominantly produced. How much quota wheat, for example,
is being produced respectively on arable farms, nondescript farms, or
on ley farms? Where is most of the milk being produced—and this is
a matter of fundamental national importance in the interest alike of the
health of the cattle and of the children of this country—on nondescript
farms, permanent grass farms, or on ley farms? Where is most of the
permanent grass of the country, and where is the best and where the
worst—on nondescript farms, or on permanent grass farms? ‘These are
all essential facts to be known in the formulation of a long-term national
policy for agriculture. The facts are only on the land, the agricultural
statistics cannot give anything approaching a full answer to any one of
these questions. ‘The answer to these questions, and to equally important
questions connected with facilities at the farmstead and over the fields
(watering, drainage, and the condition of fences), can only be given by
4 Rice Williams (see ‘ The Growing Danger of Lime Depletion in Welsh Soils,’
Welsh J. Agric., 1937) has estimated that the permanent grass and arable land
of Wales alone require at least 14 million tons of lime to bring the lime status
to a satisfactory level. The distribution of lime for England and Wales together
under the Land Fertility Scheme has not, up to date, been materially in excess
of one million tons.
M.—AGRICULTURE 251
‘a properly conducted survey carried out over the whole country and on
a uniform plan. Map also the type or class of all the rough grazings and
permanent grass (in a manner broadly similar to the survey of Wales
recently undertaken by my department), and map the ploughability of
the several fields: then, and only then, should we know where we stand.
To conduct such a survey would be a relatively simple matter. To my
mind, until such a survey is put in hand, and the lessons of the same—
cruel and bitter the lessons will be—duly digested, there is little hope that
the country at large will realise either the deplorable condition of our
acres or their immense potentialities. The first necessity from all points
of view—that of the statesman, the townsman, farmer and countryman,
in short, that of the nation—is literally and in fact to put rural Britain
on the map.
Only when rural Britain is on the map shall we be able amongst other
matters to decide where in the national interest it is desirable to extend
arable farming, and where ley-farming, and where it may be necessary
or permissible to tolerate nondescript and permanent grass farming.
Having discussed systems of farming and levelled certain well-founded
criticisms against nondescript and permanent grass farming, I am now
in a position to unloose a whole barrage of criticism against permanent
grass as such: and note this, the case for ley-farming is implicit in almost
every word of just criticism that can be levelled against permanent
grass.
My criticisms of permanent grass are general and particular; here
are my general criticisms. The psychological influences of permanent
grass go much further than I have already indicated ; of course there are
clever managers of permanent grass, but I doubt if even the best
practitioners are on a par with the most proficient arable and ley farmers ;
while speaking generally, the standard of management of permanent
grass, I should say, stands to the management of arable land, taking the
country as a whole, as certainly not more than 60 (and probably hardly
as much as 40) to 100. Leys as long as they continue to be managed as
such are almost invariably managed better than permanent grass; they
are both easier to manage properly and the inducement so to manage
them is greater.
My next general criticism is that of the veterinarians who are telling
us with a voice that becomes daily louder and more united that permanent
grass harbours many of the organisms of disease.
My next, because as I have already said an enormous proportion of our
permanent grass is in urgent need of lime, a need that becomes ever more
serious in view on the one hand of extended milk production, and on the
other of the movement in the direction of rearing and slaughtering
increasing numbers of young animals. There is only one correct and
entirely satisfactory way to apply lime, and that is under the plough, and
I think this fact alone is sufficient to condemn not thousands, but at the
very least three million acres of ploughable permanent grass, mostly
quondam arable, in England ; in Wales to my own certain knowledge it
is enough to condemn something over 700,000 acres.
My last general criticism of permanent grass is that good young grass
properly conserved can be made of immense value to help out the winter
252 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
ration. Grass silage (and probably dried grass also) is bound eventually
to come into its own. Bad grass cannot, however, make good silage or
good dried grass, while everything is to extend the season over which
it is possible to dry grass and make silage—special purpose leys can help
enormously to this end.
My particular criticisms of permanent grass, considered as grass, are
these. Even the best permanent grass is far too weedy and much more
weedy than first-class leys, and the best permanent grass has a shorter
growing season than can be arranged for by a sequence of good leys.
Exceedingly productive leys can be maintained on soils incapable of
holding and incapable of being made to hold good permanent grass.
I want first to say a little about weediness, and this will lead naturally
to the considerations around which the strongest case for ley-farming
on grounds of pure husbandry is to be made.
Weediness makes for uneven grazing—witness, for example, the effect
of buttercups ; it therefore makes for a waste of valuable material ; it
also makes for an uneven spread of urine which cannot be mechanically
rectified. Because of this, and for another reason now to be explained,
weediness or any tuftedness in a pasture reacts against the enhancement
of soil fertility, as well as causing the waste of edible material.
My ‘other reason’ is that herbage returned to the soil through the
animal, provided the lime and phosphate status of the soil is maintained
at a proper level, leads to greater soil enrichment and productivity than
when such herbage is allowed to rot back, a fact which has been shown
by numerous experiments conducted at Aberystwyth,° and which tends
to add emphasis to the teaching of our own and other experiments, as,
for example, those of Mr. Martin Jones, on the profound influence of
night paddocking and of any even slight robbing of Peter to pay Paul.
These experiments, coupled with observations over a great number of
years, particularly striking phenomena now presenting themselves on
the lands where we are conducting our Cahn Hill experiments, force the
conclusion upon me that urine has a virtue greater than is fully appreciated,
and a virtue that reveals itself on land no matter how generously manured
with what have come to be regarded as standard dressings of CaPKN.
Consequently any system of grassland management, or for that matter
of farming, that does not make the best use of what Mr. Bruce Levy of
New Zealand has so aptly, but possibly one-sidedly, described as stock
nitrogen, is open to grave criticism.
Because of weediness, tuftedness and uneven grazing, and of herbage
never converted, and because of night paddock and quasi-night paddock
effects, stock nitrogen is wasted, or uneconomically distributed, to a far
greater extent on permanent grass than on leys; it is so wasted, and
often to an exaggerated extent, on even the best fatting pastures, and
particularly so when watering arrangements are ill arranged. The
matter, however, goes much further; the fertility accumulating under
the best grassland (permanent grass and leys alike) becomes in excess
of what can be cashed from the grass-clover covering. All very old-
5 Experiments now in progress at the Welsh Plant Breeding Station, and see
R. G. Stapledon, ‘ The Improvement of Grassland,’ Journal of the Bath and West
and Southern Counties Society, 1937-38.
M.—AGRICULTURE 253
sods become in effect, and to a greater or lesser extent, pot-bound, with
the result that the plant covering is incapable of reacting in full measure
to the inherent fertility of the soil, while to plough, aerate and lime
(where necessary) is to give life to favourable biochemical changes and
further to enhance the productivity of the soil. The best grassland
holds within itself an immense store of arable potentiality, while the soil
rejuvenated by ploughing and aeration, even after yielding several white
straw or other crops, can be put back to ever better and better grass.
That is the experience of every competent ley-farmer, and ley-farming
is creeping into ever better and better permanent grassland.
To plough up an old sod full of white clover, and one that has carried
an abundance of stock, and therefore which has been well impregnated
with stock nitrogen, and to harrow lime into such upturned sod, is to
make and spread a compost at one operation. This, in short, is to mix
with the soil three essential ingredients, vegetable and animal residues,
and lime, and under conditions most conducive to favourable biochemical
activity. It is the arable or crop-producing attributes of sod that
I maintain constitute the strongest case for ley-farming, for without the
intervention of cropping the full fertility value of superb sods can never
be cashed.®
At the other extreme—the poorest soils—there is nothing to match
the continued ploughing down of sod, accompanied by adequate liming
and phosphating, to build up fertility. In my own experiences of land
improvement gained on what must be some of the poorest soils in Britain,
as well as on soils of great inherent virtue, I have been astonished at the
progressive improvement in sward and carrying capacity attained when
three or four four-year leys have been ploughed down in succession
(each sown on the upturned sod of its predecessor) without the interven-
tion of a removed nurse crop or of a hay crop. The sequence here is
all grass, all grazing and stock nitrogen the whole way, the plough being
called in only to assist in compost-making and to ensure adequate ad-
mixture of lime, phosphates, organic residues and soil, and to prepare the
way for the sowing of the sequential leys. By the adoption of this pro-
cedure over a sufficient run of years it is possible to bring land of a most
unpromising character into a condition capable of maintaining a rotation
balanced between leys and white straw and other crops.
There is nothing new in the idea of sowing down immediately on the
upturned sod, just as there is nothing new in the idea of ploughing up
grassland as a means of improving it. Marshall as long ago as 1789
remarked, ‘ Old pasture lands overrun with ant-hills and coarser grasses
are not easily reclaimed without the powerful assistance of the plough.’
The idea of the all-grass rotation perhaps, however, has an air of novelty
about it ; wild white clover as a commercial commodity is comparatively
novel; cheap phosphatic manures are comparatively novel; the tractor
and modern implements are a recent novelty, and more recent are the
® It is true that it is sometimes difficult to utilise the richest sod to the best
arable advantage because of wireworm and the lodging of cereal crops. Much
remains, however, to be achieved in the direction of the breeding of short stiff-
strawed cereal varieties, while in so far as cereals are concerned wireworm is not
so destructive after properly managed leys as after permanent grass.
254 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
improved and leafy strains of grasses—all these taken together, if they
are to be used to best advantage, must inevitably spell novel rotations.
One of the greatest merits of improved technique based on modern
facilities for putting down leys on upturned sods, and without resort to
covering crops, is that by the periodic adoption of this method (that is
to say, as and when necessary) the farmer is enabled to take his leys
around the farm sufficiently quickly and before there is any sward
deterioration, and in sympathy with the lime demands of his animals
and the lime requirements of his soil.
It is somewhat remarkable that so little exact experimental or statistical
evidence exists for comparing the yield of leys, either in grass, milk or
meat, with permanent pastures on similar soils and under precisely
comparable conditions. We have Mr. Roberts’s evidence from Bangor,’
which is in favour of the ley, and not a little evidence from Aberystwyth,
also in favour of the ley.8 Evidence from grass less favourable to the
ley has also been brought forward by various authors. The most con-
vincing evidence, however, is the performance and experiences of
competent practitioners in the art of ley-farming, and thus the results
of investigations and inquiries conducted by Mr. John Orr, lately of
Manchester University, are particularly informative and are wholly in
favour of the ley.®
At present I am engaged upon collecting the material for writing a
book on ley-farming. As a preliminary I sent out a questionnaire and
have had a most helpful and gratifying response from farmers. ‘The
evidence from the replies received is overwhelmingly in favour of the
ley, great stress being laid on the improved quality and stock-carrying
capacity of the ley grass compared to the quondam permanent pasture,
and the extended grazing season provided by the leys. The leys would
seem, however, to have justified themselves not only in an extended
grazing season, but by virtue of giving grass at periods within the grazing
season proper when owing to weather or other conditions grass is liable
to go short. Thus Major Dugdale of Llwyn, Montgomeryshire, who is
rapidly and methodically (at the rate of about fifty acres per annum)
converting the permanent grass of his farm into a sequence of leys by
the methods I have discussed, informs me that during the early and
unprecedented drought of this year the leys were invaluable, ‘and thanks
to them my ewes and lambs which had a turn at them all have done better
than usual and have not suffered from the drought.’ Mr. R. L. Muirhead,
of Borsdane Farm, Westhoughton, Lancashire, who is well known for
his enterprise in ley-farming, speaks equally highly of the value and
performance of his leys during the past critical months, and particularly
interesting is his remark that ‘the younger fields stood up to the dry
conditions better than the others, and the youngest of all (sown
7 E. J. Roberts, ‘I. The effect of wild white clover on the live weight incre-
ments from a temporary pasture. II. A comparison of temporary and permanent
pasture,’ Welsh J. Agric., Vol. 8, pp. 84-93 (1932). E. J. Roberts, “Comparison
of (a) an old with a temporary pasture and (b) two temporary pastures, from oné
of which wild white clover had been omitted at seeding down,’ Welsh J. Agric.,
Vol. II, pp. 132-9 (1935).
® See R. G. Stapledon, The Hill Lands of Britain, London, 1937.
® See John Orr, ‘ Grass and Money,’ Scot. J. Agric., Vol. 20, pp. 31-40 (1937).
va
M.—AGRICULTURE : 255
last August) with Italian rye-grass has done best of all.’ 1° Mr. Wilks, of
Whartons Park, Bewdley, Worcestershire, who after prolonged attempts
at improving the poor permanent grass on his farm is now rapidly getting
into the ley system, says that during last back end (1937) the whole of
his grazing came from leys and newly grassed areas. The old permanent
pastures did not recover from the late summer and early autumn drought
of that year, and the leys carried all the stock from July onwards. During
the drought of this spring his position was never difficult, the maiden leys
providing an abundance of good pasture, and these after being grazed
into May will be mown for hay.
In a recent letter to me Mr. Wilks concludes with this peculiarly
significant statement : ‘An interesting sidelight is that the arable crops on
land recently ploughed out have stood the drought much better than those
on the stale old arable . . . the whole thing is complementary and
balanced.’
The experiences of Colonel Pollitt, of Harnage Grange, Cressage,
Shropshire, are in keeping with those of Mr. Muirhead and Mr. Wilks.
Colonel Pollitt has also sown out early in May without a nurse crop
and has been able to start serious grazing (ewes and lambs) in the first
week of July, thus obtaining valuable young grass at what is often a
critical time of the year. On a field thus treated Colonel Pollitt also
wintered cattle continuously from November 1 to May 1, and he
informs me that there was no poaching except at the gate.
The ley, furthermore, affords great scope for special treatment with a
view to providing grass when it will be most wanted. Ley grass put up
for the winter carries green and protein-efficient into February, March
and April altogether more effectively than does permanent grass, and this
is perhaps one of the greatest merits of the ley, and a merit which by
virtue of further research in plant breeding in the direction of producing
winter green and winter growing strains is likely to become increasingly
pronounced.
The employment of different seed mixtures with a view to giving
grass more particularly at different and explicit periods of the year affords
additional scope to the ley-farmer. Thus at Aberystwyth we have found
that a mixture consisting predominantly of Danish meadow fescue and
Aberystwyth S. 48 timothy gives exceptionally good grazing during
July and August. On this and similar points there is, however, need for
greatly extended investigation.
I have now made my case for ley-farming, but I am not at present
claiming that all permanent grass should be brought under the plough;
before that claim could be substantiated we want a proper survey and a
great deal more experimenting. Apart from steepness, boulders and
such like, low rainfall and heavy clays present their special problems.
As to the clays, the fact that it is a perfectly sound procedure to re-grass
10 This performance of Italian rye-grass is on all fours with results obtained
for the past four years with Italian rye-grass at the farm of the Cahn Hill Improve-
ment Scheme,
1 See R. G. Stapledon, ‘Immature Grass and Young Swards.’ Part I, /.
Minist. Agric., Vol. 44, pp. 317-29, July 1937; Part II, J. Minist. Agric.,
Vol. 44, pp. 442-9, Aug. 1937.
256 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
straight away on an upturned sod makes a lot of difference, as does the
soundness and feasibility of the all-ley rotation, while we have the tractor
and modern implements. To make it possible to establish leys without
undue risk of failure on the heaviest soils is to-day, I feel convinced,
only a matter of sufficient experimenting as to ways and means. The
same is, I am sure, largely true of establishing leys in regions of low rain-
fall. Mr. Mansfield seems to have no difficulty in establishing excellent
leys in this district not remarkable for its high rainfall, while everybody
who farms on something akin to the four-course rotation after all establishes
leys. What is wanted in order to establish a foolproof and almost weather-
proof technique is much more experimenting. ‘There is a right date to
sow for every district, while in the driest areas I doubt the wisdom of
sowing under a nurse crop, for the quicker growing cover crop must
compete exaggeratedly with the slower growing seedlings for what little
moisture there may be. It may be unwise under such conditions to
include even Italian rye-grass in the mixture, for this is always by far
the quickest grass seedling to get off the mark, while it would seem to be
of supreme importance to obtain a scrupulously clean seed bed, and to
bring in the mower at the first sign of weeds gaining dominance. The
successful grassing of new golf courses in regions of low rainfall, I think,
holds valuable lessons for the would-be ley-farmer—‘ put as little as
possible to compete with the grasses you ultimately want’ would seem
to be the teaching. I would again emphasise that it is not sufficiently
realised that a ley sown without a nurse crop very soon starts earning
money on its own account, and where 4-6-8-10 year leys are at stake
it is poor economy to jeopardise the whole for the sake of a preliminary
cash crop.
I cannot conclude my address without a little more detailed reference
to the ley itself. The chief points at issue are how to establish it, what ,
to sow and how long to leave it down. Not one of these questions can
be answered in general terms, but there are in each case fundamental
principles at stake. The fundamental principle relative to duration is
the fertility attributes of the sod. From that point of view, and con-
sidering alike soil condition and manurial residues, my friend Prof.
Robinson (1937) in the informative letters he has so kindly, and if I may
say so, attractively, written for my major enlightenment, would seem to
agree with me that there is everything to be said for the four-year ley,
ending, as I would wish to insist, with at least two years of honest hard
grazing, with urination and spread of white clover. ‘The general principle
here is ‘to plough down the sod before it has by one jot deteriorated.’
It has, however, to be remembered that grazed swards do not leave behind
them a sod with a deep-going root system; hayed swards develop a
deep-going root system. In the interest of general fertility and soil
condition I hold that it is sound practice, ever and anon, to plough down
sod with a deeply penetrating root system. Now from the point of view
of hay production, the highest yields are obtained from leys in their
first and second harvest year—that is to say, as long as late-flowering red
clover lasts. In general my view is this, that the best practice founded
on scientific principles would be to employ 1-2 year leys for hay and
M.—AGRICULTURE 257
4-6 year leys for grazing only. The three-year ley is rather like the dual-
purpose animal. Although it is a brave southerner who would criticise
Scottish practice, I am inclined to criticise excessive dependence on
dual-purpose (hay-grazing) three-year leys. I would rather have a
sequence of 1-2 year deep-rooting-hay leys following after four-year-
white-clover-replete-shallow-rooting-grazing leys. ‘This procedure would
give more hay, more grazing and more fertility. With apologies to
Aberdeenshire, that is my considered opinion. In any event my criticism
of the very best practitioners of ley-farming is that they do not use leys
of different kinds for different purposes, and do not rotate all the different
sorts of leys after each other all round the farm to anything like a sufficient
extent, for it is thus, and only thus, that all-the-year-round grazing is
to be obtained. ‘This is too large a subject to discuss in detail here, but
it is one demanding much thought and much agronomical research.
In passing I might say that in my view no problems so much as those
of grassland demand prolonged and large-scale agronomical investigation.
I would wish to distinguish between, on the one hand, agronomical re-
search, and on the other, scientific research as normally understood and
conducted. The major aim of agronomical research, which is essentially
field research, is to study all the factors which are operative at once and
together, and in their natural interplay, for ‘ nature is a theatre for the
inter-relations of activities.’ Such a procedure, it may be said, is im-
possible, or at least unscientific. It is certainly not impossible, and if it
is unscientific it will yet remain agronomical, and many of the problems
of agriculture are more likely to be solved, shall I say, by agronomical
investigation than by scientific research, while nearly all the results of
scientific research have to pass through the sieve of an immense amount
of agronomical investigation before they can be made useful, and in some
cases perhaps before they can be other than positively dangerous to the
practitioner. The technique of agronomical research entails a great
deal more than blindly following all the elaborate rules and regulations
laid down by the statisticians; indeed, such rules and regulations are of
no fundamental significance in the proper planning of an elaborate series
of field experiments. They are sometimes, but by no means always,
useful in the actual placing of plots on the ground, and they are some-
times essential, but are by no means always necessary, in the examination
of quantitative data. One effect of the modern glorification of statistical
methods has undoubtedly been a tendency to obscure the wood for the
trees, to concentrate on the part, often an isolated part (yield, for example),
instead of the whole ; and, worse still, to fill the agronomist with a medley
of complexes and inhibitions which have reacted adversely on the develop-
ment of a technique adequate to solve a large number of the problems
that can only be solved by highly complicated field experiments. Many
agronomists are almost too frightened to set up the sort of experiments
their experiences teach should be set up, because they are timorous lest
the data could be made amenable to statistical analyses. Agriculture
would have been the gainer if the agronomist had never been taught to
be timorous, and if he had plodded away undeterred and undismayed at
the details of his own technique, when by now perhaps he would have
K
258 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
been able to justify his claim that what is primarily wanted to-day is
enormously increased facilities for the conduct of field experiments in
contra-distinction to field trials and demonstrations. That at least is
my claim, for I claim to be an agronomist, and in that capacity one who
has been responsible for the setting up of hundreds of weird little field
experiments involving in all literally thousands of plots.
As always, however, the greatest and the final hope is the farmer him-
self, for he at least is untrammelled by the technique of science, and is not
a slave to the fashions current in science, while his major training is not
in collecting data, but in the gentle art of unadulterated observation.
Just because, therefore, of the immense accumulation of scientific know-
ledge, so much of it but half digested in the practical sphere, never so
urgently as at present has there been such a necessity for an abundance
of well-informed, originally-minded and affluent pioneers, men willing
and eager to transgress against every canon of good husbandry, and to
explore, and almost de novo, the whole field of rotation of crops, and the
whole idea of rotation of pastures of different types and of stock over the
surface of the farm.
This has been a long digression ; it has, however, been relevant to my
theme, and it has been on a question of undeniable importance and about
which I think I am entitled to express opinions. I will now return to
the ley.
Grazing management affects the permissible duration of the grazing
ley to a marked degree. Thus he who bails cattle or folds poultry can
keep his leys down much longer than the ordinary farmer who thinks he
is grazing intensively, but in fact is doing nothing of the sort; only the
close folder, or the tetherer, really grazes intensively, and by intensively
I mean without waste of any sort. But even under the cleverest manage-
ment sooner or later the sod will begin to become pot-bound, and
according to soil type, bent, soft brome, Yorkshire fog, weeds or moss will
proclaim the need of the plough and a new start.
What to sow and how to establish are in the main twin problems—
twin to this extent, that what to sow is determined much more by every
shade of after-management that it is proposed to follow than by soil type ;
the trouble here is that agricultural chemistry has such a terribly long
start of agricultural biology. Grassland, like every crop the farmer
handles, is the plaything of soil, climate and the biotic factor ; with
grassland the master factor is the biotic—that is to say, what man himself
does with his animals. One, and the most obvious, example will suffice—
the use and abuse of Italian rye-grass. Italian rye-grass is essentially a
grazing grass ; if allowed to grow away in a hay mixture it will smother
and depress other and higher yielding hay grasses. It should therefore
only be included in hay mixtures when such mixtures will be grazed
long into the spring or early summer, and when after a small and herby
hay crop aftermath is of prime importance. Italian rye-grass is of its
greatest value for sowing with grazing mixtures put down on an upturned
sod. The aim here is two-fold ; firstly, to bring treading feet and urine
on to the developing sward as soon as possible—this is the function of
the Italian rye-grass; and secondly, to encourage the spread of wild
M.—AGRICULTURE 259
white clover as rapidly as possible—this is the combined function of light
(keeping the Italian rye-grass in reasonable subjection), the treading feet
and the urine.
The so-called indigenous strains! Badly called, and I am afraid that
I have been largely responsible. In the few words I have to say on this
subject I will confine myself to the Aberystwyth bred strains, for here at
least I am talking about something definite and about which I myself at
all events may be supposed to know something. For the sake of brevity
I will lump the findings of all our experiments, and of all my own experi-
ences, and those of my colleagues, into a single short paragraph.
For the ordinary three-year hay-pasture ley on medium-good soil,
postulating the inclusion of wild white clover and good urination, the
Aberystwyth pasture and pasture-hay strains are by no means an
absolute necessity, but in reasonable amount-(say up to about one-
fifth to one-third of the rye-grass, cocksfoot and timothy contribution)
I recommend their inclusion for the sake of the extra back-end grazing
they will give, and to add leafiness to the hay crop. For leys of four
years and longer duration, I believe a contribution of Aberystwyth
pasture or pasture-hay strains of not less than one-third of the con-
tribution of rye-grass, cocksfoot and timothy always to be justified.
On really poor soils and for re-grassing derelict grasslands there can be
no question as to the absolute necessity of including the pasture and
pasture-hay strains. On our Cahn Hill lands, and elsewhere, we have
made quite remarkable swards by using such strains wholly, or up to
two-thirds of the mixture, where with the non-pedigree bred strains it
has been impossible to establish a sward capable of maintaining itself
for more than twelve months. You will note I have talked explicitly of
the Aberystwyth pasture and pasture-hay strains. We have now early
hay strains coming on such as Dr. Jenkin’s S. 24 perennial rye-grass,
his S. 51 timothy, and my own somewhat modified S. 37 cocksfoot, which
will I think vie with the ordinary seed of commerce in earliness and bulk
during the first and second harvest years, and which are much more
leafy. The matter here will turn almost wholly on the relative cost of
the pedigree and non-pedigree seed, for manifestly an expenditure on
seed that would be abundantly justified for a four- to twelve-year ley
might not be an economic proposition for a one-, two-, or three-year ley.
If, however, the hay strains ultimately prove themselves to have sufficient
virtue they are bound in due time to replace the ordinary commercial
strains, and in fact by a process of substitution to become in effect the
ordinary commercial product. This I think will be the destiny anyway
of Dr. Jenkin’s S. 24 rye-grass, for as well as being early and relatively
leafy it gives much better July-August grazing than the ordinary Irish
and Ayrshire rye-grass.
In this matter of the Aberystwyth strains, however—such is the deeply
penetrating influence of psychological factors—I can have no cause for
complaint if you deem it well to regard me as a prejudiced witness, but
if you so regard me, please yourselves be sufficiently broad-minded to
come and see our trials, or go and have a look at one of those which with
the help of the Royal Agricultural Society we are setting up in various
260 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
English counties; or better still, experiment for yourselves under your
own, your very own, scheme of management. It may be that management
in some cases is so superbly good that it hardly matters what a man sows,
while in others it may be so supremely bad that no proper use can be
made of a good thing when a man has got it.
I am afraid I have adopted an unusual course in my approach to my
subject ; I have not followed normal practice, for instead of reviewing
the data and evidence available I have in effect reviewed my own reactions
to the implications of the work with which I have been connected for the
past twenty-five years and more. Perhaps I need not apologise for this,
for after all facts and data are of no practical use until people grapple
with the practical implications. Instead of my ‘ facts ’—and scientific
‘facts’ are not always correct—I have put my grapplings before you,
that is all, and if justification is necessary I think sufficient justification is
the admittedly deplorable condition of a huge acreage of this country,
the dilapidated condition of many of our farms and farmsteads, and the
therefore necessarily backward state of much of our farming. Two
needs seem to me to be crystal clear: first, the conduct of a survey on the
land—and I believe every agricultural scientist, though perhaps not every
farmer and every economist, would agree to ‘on the land’ somewhat
on the lines I have suggested—and then the ways and means of getting
the plough into the grasslands that the survey conclusively proves ought
to be ripped up. Working capital, and the correct expenditure of that
working capital, is in the last resort the only solution for our derelict and
quasi-derelict acres.
I like the American idea of loans with a working plan; of loans with
advice. I do not believe that the history of the years since about 1894
show that the spasmodic periods of agricultural prosperity that have on
occasion intervened have been responsible for a great deal of land im-
provement, or for a proportionate improvement in the equipment
necessary for productive farming. Prosperity as such in agriculture, as
in industry, is to a large degree a function of equipment, for without the
necessary equipment it is impossible to farm economically, just as it is
impossible to manufacture economically.
Again, it is unreasonable to expect that a man devoid of working capital,
and probably the son of a man similarly devoid, should have all the
knowledge of how best to farm, and particularly of how best to improve
land (in which art he will necessarily have had no sort of experience),
in sympathy with adequate working capital suddenly provided for the
purpose. Advice, and some measure of control, must necessarily go
with credit facilities, and in so far as breaking up grassland is concerned
I like still better the American idea of group loans, and of a ‘ master
borrower.’ The ‘ master borrower’ in this case would be set up as a
contractor with tractor and necessary equipment to break up the grass-
lands, for it is important to remember that ploughing up of this sort is
essentially tractor work, that it interferes with the normal routine of an
ill-equipped farm, while tractors are to all intents and purposes non-
existent in many of the districts where wholesale ploughing up is most
necessary. My own experiences are interesting in this connection. We
want 9
M.—AGRICULTURE 261
tested the desire for contracting last year, and had three times as many
applications as we could fit into the acreage we could do, while now, and
because of the demand our work has created locally, a lorry contractor
in the neighbouring village has acquired a tractor, and is fully engaged
on contract ploughing.
I like also the American idea of being boldly eclectic and scheduling
particular districts as being eligible for their rehabilitation loans; indeed,
I was foolhardy enough to make a suggestion very much on these lines
in my book The Land Now and To-morrow. ‘There are innumerable
districts that should be similarly scheduled and similarly helped in this
country, but always through financial help cum technical advice terminat-
ing in an agreed working plan; and here again my own experience
comes to support my contention, for in those cases where we contracted
we only did so when the farmer agreed to follow all our advice as to
subsequent operations, manures and seeds, to the letter, and in all cases
the farmer has done so, and demonstrably to his own advantage.
The breaking up of derelict grassland is to be helped forward not only
by loans, but by a reorientation of such working capital as the farming
community possesses, and also, I think, by a reorientation of the monetary
and other arrangements existing between landlord and tenant.
Ley-farming in my view affords great scope for such reorientation, for
it would make possible, and on a general scale, a variety of methods of
share farming. For example, one might conceive of a mechanised wheat
grower operating over a large number of neighbouring ley farms on a
share basis ; another man on a share basis might be running the poultry,
the proprietors themselves being primarily interested in the adequacy of
the rotation and farming operations, and possibly in one major product—
milk, shall we say? By this means farmers should achieve a better return
on such working capital as is available, and also the nation should achieve
a more balanced specialisation between farming qua farming and com-
modity production and disposal. Landlords themselves with advantage
could often think out methods of sharing-in with their tenants, and ley-
farming opens many avenues of approach to such sharing-in, but in any
event it behoves the landlords of many districts to be alive to changing
times, and to be ready for the day—not, I think, far distant—when
better tenants will be found for farms which are going concerns on the
ley-farming basis than for those which are nondescript or permanent
grass. It may thus prove to be a wise policy to adjust leases, and even
financially to assist purposeful tenants towards that system of farming
which will accord best with the trend of national and international events.
Let me insist, in conclusion, that the affairs of agriculture, slowly
moving as they necessarily must be, are ill adapted to respond to the
dictates of any immediate expediency, for expediency is ever shifting, and
at the best ‘is the mere shadow of what is right and true.’ To be ever
prepared for change in a world that is ever changing can be the only
possible basis for a sound agricultural policy for this country, since we
are so peculiarly liable to be crucially affected by happenings beyond
our own control, beyond our own jurisdiction and beyond our own
borders.
262 SECTIONAL ADDRESSES
REFERENCES.
Orr, John. 1937 Scot. J. Agric., 20, 31-40.
Rice Williams. 1937 Welsh J. Agric.
Roberts, E. J. 1932 Welsh J. Agric., 8, 84-93.
—____———_ 1935_-Welsh J. Agric., 11, 132-9.
Robinson, G. W. 1937 Mother Earth, London.
Stapledon, R. G. 1937-8 Journal of the Bath and West and Southern Counties
Society.
—_—__—_—— 1937 The Hill Lands of Britain, London.
—_—_—_—_—_———._ 1937a__ J. Minist. Agric., 44, 317-29.
——————— 1937b) Je Mimst. Agric. AS, 442-9.
———__——— 1938 The Fortnightly.
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE,
ETc.
SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS.
Forty-third Report of the Committee of Seismological Investigations (Dr.
F. J. W. Wuippie, Chairman; Mr. J. J. SHAW, C.B.E., Secretary ;
Miss E. F. Bettamy, Prof. P. G. H. Boswett, O.B.E., F.R.S.,
Dr. E. C. BuLiarp, Dr. A. T. J. Dotyar, Sir FRanK Dyson, K.B.E.,
F.R.S., Dr. A. E. M. Geppes, O.B.E., Prof. G. R. Gotpssroucu,
F.R.S., Dr. WitFreD Hatt, Mr. J. S. Hucues, Dr. H. Jerrreys,
F.R.S., Mr. Cosmo Jouns, Dr. A. W. Ler, Prof. E. A. Mine, M.B.E.,
PRio:, Prof. H. H. Puasxetr, F.RiS:, Prof. H.C. Puumner,
F.R.S., Prof. J. Proupman, F.R.S., Prof. A. O. RANKINE, O.B.E.,
F.R.S., Rev. C. Rey, S.J., Rev. J. P. Rowxanp, S.J., Prof. R. A.
SAMPSON, F.R.S., Mr. F. J. Scrasz, Dr. H. Suaw, Sir FRANK
SmiTH, K.C.B., C.B.E., Sec.R.S., Dr. R. SroneLzy, F.R.S., Mr. E.
TILLoTsON, Sir G. T. Watker, C.S.I., F.R.S.)
MEETING OF THE COMMITTEE.
THE Committee met once during the year, on October 29. The annual
grant of £100 from the Caird Fund was allocated to the University
Observatory, Oxford, for work on the International Seismological Summary.
Expenditure on various objects from the Gray-Milne Fund was author-
ised. Dr. E. C. Bullard gave a short account of the methods adopted in
America in the application of seismological methods to the investigation of
the thickness of the strata overlying the continental shelf. In view of the
fact that research on these lines was likely to be undertaken with the support
of the Royal Society, it was decided that no action on the part of the British
Association was necessary. Dr. Dollar gave the Committee an account of
the British Earthquake Inquiry, which he was organising, and it was
decided to give some financial support to the organisation.
THe Gray-MILNE FunpD.
The accounts for the year are reproduced below. The income of the
fund has again improved owing to an increase in the dividend paid by the
Canadian Pacific Railway. Expenditure on the Milne Library includes
the purchase of Dr. Davison’s book, Great Earthquakes.
Gray-Milne Fund.
Le MS Sie hele Sees Gi
Balance, July 1, 1937. 187 4 2 Milne Library Guo tO
Trust Income . - 65 4 10. Insurance . : : 15.0
Bank Interest . é I 110 Printing (Bullen’s Con-
version Tables) : ry, ot) 9)
Jaggar Shock Recorder 21 0 o
British Earthquake In-
quiry. : Tou) O
Balance, June 30, 1938 204 7 10
£253 10 10 £253 10 10
es See
264 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
SEISMOGRAPHS.
The six Milne-Shaw seismographs belonging to the British Association
have remained on loan to the seismological stations at Oxford (2), Edinburgh,
Perth (W. Australia), and Cape Town (2).
During the year a Jaggar shock recorder has been made for the Com-
mittee at Bristol under the supervision of Dr. C. F. Powell. This instru-
ment is to be set up at Dunira, near Comrie, the village in Perthshire
which is famous for the prolonged series of minor earthquakes in the last
century. It may be recalled that a Committee appointed by the British
Association set up seismometers, in Comrie and near by, with which to
measure the amplitude of earthquake waves. Eight of the seismometers
were inverted pendulums, designed by Prof. J. D. Forbes and ‘ working
on the principle of the watchmaker’s noddy.’ These instruments were
affected by the local earthquakes on two or three occasions, but they were
not sensitive enough to be disturbed by the majority of the shocks. After
an interval from 1844 to 1867 the Committee for registering earthquakes
in Scotland was reappointed. Only one of the original seismometers was
then in use, the ro ft. inverted pendulum in the church tower at Comrie.
The Committee decided to adopt a suggestion of Mallet’s and provide a set
of small cylinders which were to topple over when an earthquake occurred.
A special hut, which still stands in the grounds of ‘ Dunearn,’ was allotted
to the cylinders, but it is believed that no earthquake ever bowled them
over. As far as is known none of these primitive seismometers survives
in Perthshire, but there is in the Royal Scottish Museum at Edinburgh
one of Forbes’s inverted pendulums. It is hoped that the new shock recorder
will eventually provide some evidence as to the nature of the earth-move-
ments in the Comrie region. The Committee is indebted to Mr. W. G.
Macbeth of Dunira for allowing the installation of the instrument, and to
Mr. White who is undertaking to operate it.
GEOCENTRIC CO-ORDINATES.
Owing to the progress in the precision of seismological observations,
and in the accuracy of the tables with which the observations can be com-
pared, it has now become desirable to take into account the ellipticity of
the earth, both in locating the epicentres of earthquakes and in discussing
the behaviour of seismic waves of different types. It was pointed out by
Gutenberg and Richter, in 1933, that this could be done most readily by
using geocentric co-ordinates instead of the ordinary geographical co-
ordinates. Investigations by Dr. Jeffreys and by Dr. Bullen have confirmed
the desirability of this refinement. Tables giving for each observatory
rectangular co-ordinates on the new system, or rather the direction cosines
of the radius from the centre of the earth, are required. The Committee
enlisted the help of Dr. L. J. Comrie, who has had the necessary calculations
made and is seeing the resulting tables through the press. These tables
will be published in the autumn. 4
Geographical angular distances have been employed hitherto in the
International Seismological Summary, as in almost all other work on
earthquakes ; 7.e. the angle between the verticals has been regarded as
giving the distance between two points on the globe. A method of utilising
the data without recomputing the distances ab initio has been devised by
Dr. Bullen. Tables computed by Dr. Bullen for use in the application of
this method have been published by the Committee, with an Introduction
by Dr. Jeffreys.
SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 265
BRITISH EARTHQUAKE INQUIRY.
The Organisation for the Collection of Seismic Data.
Through the agency of an organisation developed since October 1935 to
collect detailed non-instrumental data about earthquakes disturbing the
British Isles, twenty-one undoubted earth tremors, thirteen doubtful
tremors, six land-subsidences and the seismic effects of three explosions
have been investigated to date, and material gathered for a catalogue of
quakes noticed between January 1, 1916 and October 1, 1935.
At present the personnel of the organisation involves 287 permanent
voluntary reporters, recruited from forty-four counties in Great Britain
and the Irish Free State, and others in the Channel Islands, each of whom
notifies Dr. Dollar at Emmanuel College, Cambridge, immediately any
earth tremor disturbs the locality of the reporter concerned. Often these
reporters assist in the subsequent distribution and re-collection of question-
naires relating to effects of such a tremor. Their number has been in-
creased by 221 since July 1, 1937, and additional help has been obtained
from officials in Government, University and private seismological ob-
servatories, the British Broadcasting Corporation, the Trinity House
Corporation, meteorological observatories and schools, as well as from the
Press Association and daily newspapers.
The greatest part of the information is gathered by questionnaires, more
than 95 per cent. of which are dispatched from Emmanuel College. In June
1938 a third and abbreviated edition of the questionnaire was issued; this
has proved of greater general utility than previous more elaborate editions.
The Seismic Data gathered between Fuly 1, 1937, and Fune 30, 1938.
Since July 1, 1937 details have been collected about the following tremors
felt in the British Isles :
Earthquakes :
July 9, 1937 i ‘ . Walsall, Staffordshire.
July 20, 1937 i : . Perthshire.
September 8, 1937 3 . Horsham, Sussex.
December 4, 1937. i . Comrie, Perthshire.
March 21,1938 . ‘ . South-East Edinburgh, Edinburgh.
June 11, 1938 ‘ é . Ghent, Belgium.
Subsidences and Mine-shakes :
September 13, 1937 : . Cudworth, Yorkshire.
December 14, 1937 ; . Nelson, Glamorganshire.
December 30, 1937 : . Norwich, Norfolk.
January 1,1938 . : . New Tredegar, Monmouthshire.
Explosions :
November 20, 1937 : . Thrapston, Northamptonshire.
December 1, 1937 : . Waltham Abbey, Essex.
Origins not Established :
November 21, 1937 : . Worthing, Sussex.
December 6, 1937 ‘ . Tenby, Pembrokeshire.
January 29, 1938 . ; . Great Missenden, Buckinghamshire.
April 13, 1938 : : . Stepney, London.
April 20, 1938 : - . Golders Green, Middlesex.
June 18, 1938 : ; . Gilfach Goch, Glamorganshire.
(Now being investigated.)
K 2
266 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
THE BELGIAN EARTHQUAKE OF JUNE II, 1938.
During the 12-month period the most important earthquakes originating
beneath the British Isles were those of Walsall, Horsham and South-East
Edinburgh. ‘These were insignificant, however, in comparison with the
earthquake that was centered below Belgium and shook more than 20,000
square miles of country in twenty-nine English counties on June 11, 1938.
As a result of appeals for information through the daily press, three
wireless broadcasts and the distribution of numerous questionnaires,
856 reports have been gathered about this tremor from 278 towns in England,
the Channel Islands, France, and Belgium. Eight reports have been
obtained from seismological observatories in Britain and North-west
Europe.
The tremor was noticed mainly by people at rest indoors. Positions in
the upper stories of high buildings were especially favourable. Particularly
in the east of the disturbed area at least two phases were distinguished, and
the motion was described as being a succession of smooth undulations in an
approximately east-west direction, conspicuously free from jerks. ‘The
numerous accounts of apparent giddiness may be related to the smooth
wave-motion experienced.
The only damage on this side of the Channel appears to have been a
single fall of a few tiles at Herne Bay, Kent. Appropriately-oriented pendu-
lum clocks were stopped in some cases, and in others, liquids were agitated
or spilled. Dogs, cats, and birds showed signs of alarm, and two reports
suggest that bees in open out-apiaries were so disturbed by the shock as to
have been unmanageable for a time.
The area over which a sound was heard is ill defined, but does not seem
to extend far west of the longitude of London. Generally it was likened to
a rumble such as might be produced by the passage of a heavily-laden
lorry or train.
After-shocks of the Belgian earthquake were recorded at Kew Observatory
on the same day at 12.10 and 13.9, and a much larger one on the next day,
June 12, at 13.26. Only the last of these was felt in England. It was
reported by nine observers. Mutually inconsistent reports of supposed
foreshocks and aftershocks were received from about a score of corre-
spondents. It is understood that Belgian seismologists place the epicentre
of the main shock near Ghent. The best precedent for tremors affecting
approximately the same area is the earthquake of April 6, 1580, which
caused considerable damage in Kent. The epicentre of that earthquake
is thought by R. E. Ockendon, the editor of the recent reprint of Thomas
Twyne’s Discourse on the Earthquake, to have been near the Straits of Dover.
SEISMOLOGY AT Kew OBSERVATORY.
During the year the installation of the seismographs in a new under-
ground house was completed. The three Galitzin seismographs record on
one electrically driven clock drum, the two Wood-Anderson instruments on
another. A description of the installation is being published in a Memoir
written by Dr. A. W. Lee. It is satisfactory to be able to note that the
disturbances which affected so seriously the utility of the Galitzin seismo-
grams in windy weather, and which were attributed to the rocking of the
observatory, have no counterparts in the records obtained in the new
seismological building which is mostly below ground level. A number of
technical points with regard to Galitzin seismographs had to be investigated
SEISMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS 267
on account of the introduction of a new way of operating these instruments.
Details will be found in Lee’s Memoir.
The Wood-Anderson seismographs, which are adjusted with a period
of 24 seconds, record the horizontal components of the earth’s movement.
An instrument with about the same period to record the vertical component
is required. An experimental seismograph of this type was constructed in
the Observatory workshop and has been in operation for some months.
The special feature is the introduction of ‘ viscous coupling ’ (by means of
a plunger working in a cup filled with liquid) between pendulum and
mirror. Some promising records have been obtained from recent earth-
quakes, but modifications to the instrument will be required before
operation is entirely satisfactory.
A paper by Dr. Lee, ‘ The travel-times of the seismic waves P and S,
a study of data from the International Seismological Summary, 1930 and
1931, is being published shortly as a Geophysical Memoir of the Meteoro-
logical Office.
SEISMOLOGY IN THE WEsT INDIEs.
The series of earthquakes which occurred in 1934 and 1935 in Montserrat
led to the despatch of an expedition to that island. Valuable reports on
the geological structure of the island and on the distribution of the earth-
quake centres were written by Mr. A. G. Macgregor and Dr. C. F. Powell.
The Wiechert seismograph and eight Jaggar shock recorders are still in
operation in the care of Mr. Kelsick, who is making regular reports on the
seismic activity in that island and is also collecting information about shocks
which are felt in other islands. From August to November 1937 about
forty earthquakes were reported by observers in Dominica. The Royal
Society has nominated a West Indies Seismological Committee, and this
Committee has under consideration the despatch of an expedition to
Dominica. The earthquakes in that island have been less frequent, how-
ever, in recent months, and the proposal is therefore in abeyance at present.
THE INTERNATIONAL SEISMOLOGICAL SUMMARY.
A Note by }. S. Hughes.
The International Seismological Summary has now been prepared in
manuscript as far as July 1933; January, February and March are in the
press, while April, May and June are in process of being finally checked
through.
The number of earthquakes dealt with in a given period of time remains
roughly constant but with a fluctuation which is mainly dependent on the
presence or absence of cases in which a long sequence of after-shocks to
an earthquake of great intensity occurs in a region well equipped with re-
cording stations. Such a case was provided by the Sunriku earthquake of
March 2, 1933, origin 39°1° N., 144:7° E., off the east coast of Japan.
This earthquake, which is notorious for the devastating tunami it produced,
was followed by a‘large number of shocks from the same neighbourhood,
but apparently not from a single focus. This interesting series of shocks was
worked out in as much detail as possible and a number of different epicentres
were determined. It is not claimed, however, that finality has been attained,
and the observations, extending over many days, would afford a good subject
for special study. Of the earthquakes listed for the month of March 1933,
142 were after-shocks of the series in question.
268 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
In the portion of the Summary dealt with during the past year, there are
many large earthquakes and numerous cases of deep focus. Notable
among the latter are the earthquakes of October 14, 1932, 31°6° N., 13'8° E.,
where distant records are completely absent, and January 9, 1933, 36°5° N.,
70°5° E., where there is a wealth of observations over a range varying in
epicentral distance from 4° to 80°. In the former case, the epicentre being
in the Pacific to the south of Japan, there were excellent observations of
P and S at 40 stations, all within a distance of 11°7°, but there were no
observations outside Japan. The focal depth (determined at Tokyo) was
300 km. ‘The other epicentre, which is in Kafiristan near the north-west
frontier of India, is one to which 10 deep-focus earthquakes were assigned
in the years 1921 to 1930.
From January 1933 onwards an attempt has been made to distinguish
in the Summary between compressional and dilatational longitudinal waves.
For a compressional wave, where the initial motion of P, PKP or PKKP is
away from the epicentre, the letter ‘a’ (anaseism) is entered after the
reading. If the wave is dilatational, or towards the epicentre, the letter
“k’ (kataseism) is used. ‘This notation was adopted by the International
Seismological Association at Edinburgh in 1936, the use of the adjectives
anaseismic and kataseismic having been proposed by the Rev. E. Gherzi, S.J.,
as long ago as 1924.
If the components of displacement in the onset of P are recorded by the
observing station, the direction of initial motion is known, and the dis-
crimination between ‘a’ and ‘ k’ can be made after the epicentre has been
determined. Particularly useful is the Z component, as an upward initial
motion always indicates an ‘ anaseism ’ and knowledge of the position of the
epicentre is not required. A good many observatories are already providing
in their bulletins the necessary information with regard to the initial move-
ment of each earthquake. It is hoped that the practice will be adopted
generally.
WorK ON TRANSMISSION TIMES AND ON PERIODICITY.
By Dr. Harold Jeffreys, F.R.S.
The work on southern earthquakes and the core waves, which was in
progress at the time of the last Report, has been completed. For PKP
only readings at the most reliable stations with vertical component instru-
ments were used and the result was a symmetrical distribution of residuals
with a standard error of about 2 sec., nearly the same as for P. Accordingly
there is a high probability that the dangers of systematic error in PKP have
been removed. The summaries have a standard error of about 0-4 sec.,
about the same as for P at most distances. The times of SKS have also
been rendered somewhat more accurate. Some of the earthquakes used
were found to show signs of multiplicity. There appeared to have been
two or three shocks at the same place, separated by intervals up to 10 sec.,
and P had been read for the first, and S and SKS for a mixture, usually with
a preference for the later ones. This explains most of the ‘ Z ’ phenomenon,
leaving no more than can be reasonably attributed to variations of focal
depth within the upper layers. Cases where the separation is larger have
already been considered by Stoneley and Tillotson and appear to provide
an explanation of most of the recorded cases of apparent ‘ high focus.’
A study has been made of the frequency of after-shocks of the Tango
(Japan) earthquake of March 7, 1927. They were found to agree with
a law, such that the chance of an earthquake in an interval dt is pro-
portional to dt/(t — a), where a is near the time of the main shock. Apart
MATHEMATICAL TABLES 269
from this the after-shocks appeared to be independent. Search was made
for periodicities of the solar and lunar days and half-days, a fortnight and a
month, and for any evidence that returning waves tend to stimulate a new
shock, but no such evidence was found in any case. It appears that, except
within an interval very close to the main shock, after-shocks may be con-
sidered as related to the main shock and nothing else.
It appears, however, that if data used in testing suggested periodicities
include after-shocks, the random amplitudes found would be greatly
increased by the dependence of the after-shocks on the main shocks of their
series. ‘This makes the events occur in batches, and the usual tests for the
significance of an amplitude found by Fourier analysis fail. No alleged
periodicity can be trusted if it is based on data that include different series
of after-shocks.
An analysis of deep focus earthquakes is in progress, in the hope of ob-
taining a test of the 20° discontinuity and improvements in the estimated
thicknesses of the upper layers and in the times of S at short distances. It
_ has been found that the times of P, adapted to a discontinuity and to a
continuous time curve that would be consistent with the data of normal
earthquakes, would differ by a maximum of about 1°6 sec. in deep ones.
This is perhaps just within the range of observability if relevant data can be
found.
REAPPOINTMENT OF THE COMMITTEE.
The Committee asks for reappointment and for the renewal of the grant
of £100 from the Caird Fund.
MATHEMATICAL TABLES.
Report of Committee on Calculation of Mathematical Tables (Prof. E. H.
NEVILLE, Chairman; Dr. A. J. 'THompson, Vice-Chairman ; Dr. J.
WisHarT, Secretary; Dr. W. G. Bicktey, Prof. R. A. Fisuer,
F.R.S., Dr. J. HeNperson, Dr. E. L. Ince, Dr. J. O. Irwin, Dr.
J.C. P. Mitier, Mr. Frank Rossins, Mr. D. H. Sapier, Mr. W. L.
STEVENS and Dr. J. F. Tocuer).
General activity.—Eight meetings of the Committee have been held, in
London.
The grant of £200 has been expended as follows :
£ wisiond:
Wages and insurance for computer for forty-seven weeks . 142 9 5
Calculations for Bessel functions of order greater thanone . 45 6 9
Calculations for Airy Integral, etc. . : : : FAM SOUS
Secretarial and miscellaneous expenses. 4 : BTL aeIO
Personnel.—The Committee has been particularly unfortunate this year
in losing by death two of its oldest members. Dr. J. R. Airey, who died on
16 September, 1937, joined the Committee in 1907, and remained associated
with it until his death. During this period he was indefatigable as a com-
puter, and was responsible for the production, single-handed, of a vast
amount of tabulating work. He was Secretary from 1920 to 1929, and
served as the clearing-house for tabulation work for the British Association
until the time when regular meetings in London became the recognised
270 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
procedure. The Committee desires to record its appreciation of the
valuable work which Dr. Airey performed as a computer, of the generosity
which placed his skill and experience at the service of his friends, and of
the patience with which as Secretary he conducted the affairs of the Com-
mittee during the difficult period of reconstruction after the war.
Prof. Alfred Lodge, who died on 1 December, 1937, attended his first
meeting of the British Association in 1883. He became a Life Member in
1886 and was a member of Council from 1913 to 1915. In 1888 he joined
the first Committee set up by Section A ‘ for the purpose of considering the
possibility of calculating certain mathematical functions and, if necessary, of
taking steps to carry out the calculations, and to publish the results in an
accessible form.’ From that year Prof. Lodge was actively concerned
with the tabulation work of the Association until the day of his death, and
a very great deal of computation work lies to his credit, particularly in connect-
ion with Bessel functions. The Committee records with gratitude its
appreciation of the patient and valuable work Prof. Lodge did as a computer,
of the services which he rendered to the Committee in many capacities, and
of the charm of character which made him the personal friend of every
member.
Dr. Thompson has succeeded Prof. Lodge as Vice-Chairman.
Employment of Computers.—In the last Report mention was made of the
employment of a full-time computer, to work mainly on the Committee’s
National Accounting Machine at the Galton Laboratory, by kind permission
of Prof. Fisher. Mr. F. H. Cleaver, who was appointed to the post in
January, 1937, remained fully employed under the personal direction of
several members of the Committee, and under the immediate supervision
of Mr. Stevens, until he resigned the post on g May, 1938. He has been
succeeded by Mr. H. O. Hartley, who took up his duties on 13 June. The
Committee has arranged for the demonstration of its machine at the
Cambridge meeting, as part of a general demonstration of the possibilities
of a number of modern calculating machines in scientific computing work.
The other machines belonging to the Committee have been in continuous
use, and the Committee records with gratitude the voluntary services
rendered in this connection by Mr. C. E. Gwyther. A number of part-
time computers have been engaged from time to time under the direction
of members of the Committee, and the Committee once more gratefully
acknowledges the facilities offered by the Mathematical Laboratory of the
University of Liverpool for the carrying out of computation under the
supervision of Dr. Miller.
Bessel Functions —The Committee’s sixth volume, being the first volume
devoted to Bessel functions and containing the four principal functions of
orders 0 to 1, was published at the end of 1937. The volume was dedicated
to Prof. Lodge, who, however, did not live to see the tables published.
The work of the Bessel Function Sub-committee on the preparation of a
second volume has been to some extent exploratory, and good progress has
been made in the calculations. During the year the following fundamental
tables have been completed in readiness for sub-tabulation where necessary :
yn(x) = x" Vn(o) n =0(1)20 x =0:'0(0'1)6'0_ 14 figures.
Yu(x) nm =0,1,2, x =6:o0(o'1)21‘0 15 figures.
in(x) = x-"I,(x) mn =0(1)22 x =0-0(0'1)6'0_ 15 figures.
log in(x) n= 20,21 x = 6:0(0'1)20°0 15 figures..
n(x) n=0(1)21 x =—o:0(0'1)6:0 _ 18 figures.
log In(x) n= 20,21 x = 6:0(0'1)20°‘0 15 figures.
Iy(x) n=0(1)21 x = 6:-0(o0-r)10°0 15 figures.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF ROCKS 271
The calculation of J;,(x) is being continued to x = 20. The computation
of K,(x) has been performed for x = 6:0(0-1)11°5 with ro figure accuracy.
The determination of the early zeros of ¥,(x) by inverse interpolation from
the 12 decimal values of #,(x) already computed for x = 0-0(0°1)25°5,
n = 2(1)20 is in progress. An additional term in the asymptotic series for
the zeros of ¥:(x) and Y,(x) has been determined and the coefficients
computed.
Table of Powers ——The computation for this volume, and the preparation
of copy are almost complete, but some checks have still to be applied.
Airy Integral—This work, when complete, will form a part-volume of
some 46 pages, including introduction. The greater part of the copy has
already been prepared, and the remainder will be ready shortly. The
Committee proposes to proceed as soon as possible with the separate
publication of this table.
Legendre Functions—Some delay has occurred in the production of these
tables as a part-volume, for which authority for publication was obtained
last year (see 1937 Report). The entire material has, however, been set up.
Sheppard Tables—Authority has been obtained from Council for the
separate publication of the tables handed to the Committee by the family
of the late Dr. W. F. Sheppard, and referred to in last year’s Report. The
unfinished table, alluded to last year, has been completed. All the tables
have now been checked and every entry verified. Sheppard’s table of the
common logarithm of the tail area of the normal curve, to 12 places of
decimals at interval 0:1, has been sub-tabulated to form an 8 decimal
table at interval o-o1. This small extension of the original scope of the
volume is in response to a demand for a detailed table of this important
function, which is much needed in statistical work. An introduction is
being prepared, and the whole should be ready for press shortly.
Miscellaneous.—In response to an informal suggestion, the Committee is
preparing a card-index of mathematical tables to supplement existing
bibliographies. This should form a very valuable source of reference for
members of the Committee, and be a means of enabling them to answer
outside enquiries. It should be mentioned also that the Committee has
been in touch with the Tables Committee of the National Research Council
of America, which is engaged under the Works Progress Administration in
the calculation of certain tables of mathematical functions.
Reappointment.—The Committee desires reappointment, with a grant of
£200, which would be expended mainly on calculations for further volumes
of Bessel functions.
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF ROCKS.
Report of Committee appointed to consider the direct determination of the
Thermal Conductivities of Rocks in mines or borings where the tempera-
ture gradient has been, or is likely to be, measured (Dr. EZER GRIFFITHS,
F.R.S., Chairman; Dr. D. W. Puitutps, Secretary; Dr. E. C.
Butvarp, Dr. H. Jerrreys, F.R.S., Dr. E. M. ANDERSON, Prof. W. G.
FEARNSIDES, F.R.S., Prof. G. Hickiinc, F.R.S., Prof. A. HoLmgs,
Dr. H. J..H. Poote).
1. Introduction —The heat flow at the surface of the earth is a measure
of the heat being generated below; a knowledge of its variations from
272 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
place to place is therefore of fundamental geophysical interest. To estimate
this heat flow it is necessary to know the vertical temperature gradient and
the thermal conductivity of the rocks in which the gradient is measured.
There exist numerous measurements of temperature in deep bores in various
parts of the world, but almost no conductivity data except that collected by
the former British Association Committee about fifty years ago. Thus
there is no trustworthy data on the variation of heat flow from place to
place, though it is believed by many that considerable variations occur.
In an attempt to remedy this state of affairs the Committee has pursued
investigations along the following lines :
(1) An attempt has been made to get the necessary data from shallow
holes. This investigation has met with difficulties through dis-
turbances of the temperature by percolating water.
(2) Temperature measurements have been made in bores whenever they
became available.
(3) An apparatus has been constructed for the measurement of thermal
conductivities of rock specimens.
In the past it has been somewhat optimistically assumed that the con-
ductivity measured in the laboratory was the proper quantity to use in the
heat flow calculations. As the temperature gradient in the laboratory is
of the order of 10° c./em. and that in nature 0:0003° c./km., this seems a
somewhat unsafe assumption. ‘The investigations on heaters in shallow
holes and on the annual temperature wave employ gradients of the order
of 0°03° c./em. Comparisons of these with the laboratory determinations
therefore provide a most valuable check.
2. Measurements in a Shallow Hole—If the temperature distribution is
steady the flow of heat per cm? of the earth’s surface should be independent
of depth. It would therefore be supposed that the heat flow could be
measured as well in a shallow hole as in a deep one, so long as the hole
was deep enough to get below the effect of the annual temperature wave.
This would avoid the troubles associated with the use of deep bores (see § 3)
and would have the added advantage that the conductivity could be
measured 1m situ by the temperature distribution round buried heaters.
Experiments briefly described in last year’s report showed that tempera-
tures could be measured with thermocouples in a shallow hole with an
adequate accuracy. A heater was installed in a 15-ft. hole in gault. When
it was turned on the temperature of the thermo-junctions changed in the
expected way. Examples are shown in Fig. 1. The change due to the
annual temperature wave was subtracted, and expressions of the form
A(1 — Erf B/t) fitted to the results. The constants A and B are functions
of the conductivity, the specific heat per unit volume and of the positions
of the thermo-junctions. ‘The conductivity deduced from them and from
laboratory measurements of the specific heat was 0:0027. The heat flow
could not be deduced from these measurements since there was a large
annual temperature change even at the bottom of the hole. The results,
however, were taken as indicating that the method was sufficiently promising
to try in a deeper hole. A 100-ft. hole was therefore drilled at a cost of
£19 in a field near the Observatory at Cambridge. Three feet of water-
bearing gravel were encountered on top of the gault and the top 20 ft. of
the bore was cased to exclude this water. In spite of this water continued to
enter the bore from lower levels. ‘The casing was therefore continued to
60 ft., still without stopping the water; the water level was different inside
and outside the casing, showing that the water was really derived from the
gault and not from the surface gravel. As the hole showed signs of caving
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF ROCKS 273
in, three heaters and fifteen thermo-junctions were installed as soon as the
drilling was finished. As the casing was not excluding the water it was
withdrawn.
The presence of water in the hole makes it impossible to make satisfactory
thermal conductivity measurements with buried heaters as the water content
of the clay around the hole has been completely altered. As specimens of
the clay had been taken every 10 ft. with precautions to prevent them being
affected by the water, laboratory measurements of conductivity can be made.
When attempts were made to measure temperatures with the thermo-
junctions completely inconsistent results were obtained. ‘This was traced
to the leads having become damp from water condensed in the tube. This
dampness caused the copper and constantan wires to act as a small battery.
/ - O o- 21'4cem
°C “ 0 7
3-0 HEATER F
TURNED .
ON
|
1 ¢
|
2-0 |
w ] ?
[a4
= |
= | o- 36-6.cm
[- 4 5 0 2
rr] |
a | O
= :
ii Ig 0
1-0 |
] O
; ae
O O 0 L 9 O 62-3¢m
eee
‘* O Z oO “
5 6-0-5-0
|
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
DAYS
Fic. 1.—Temperature of junctions above that of the bottom of hole.
A 100-ohm copper resistance thermometer was therefore constructed in
a water-tight steel case 8 mm. in diameter. Its behaviour was entirely
satisfactory.
‘Temperature measurements were made in a #-in. steel pipe at every 10 ft.
between the surface and the bottom of the hole (with the hole filled with
water) and after it had been filled in with clay. For the lower 30 ft. of the
hole the gradient was constant and equal to 33:8 + 1°5° c./km. for the
filled hole and 33:2° c./km. for the unfilled hole. Between 30 and 7o ft.
from the surface the mean gradient was about the same as in the lower
part of the hole but the individual points deviated by up to 0-05° c. from
a straight line (see Fig. 2). Above 30 ft. the annual temperature wave
obscures the normal gradient. The measurements have been repeated
several times and the departures from a straight line are reproducible and
are certainly real. ‘They are presumably due to the circulation of water in
one or more of the porous bands that are shown to exist by the entry of
274 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
water into the hole during the drilling. The presence of these irregularities
throws considerable doubt on the value of the gradient derived from the
observations. The site for this bore hole was chosen so that the bore
would be entirely in gault as this is one of the most homogeneous and least
porous formations. ‘Thus if irregularities are found in the temperature
curve even in this specially favourable case it is unlikely that useful measure-
ments will often be possible in such shallow holes. The consistency of
the measurements shows however that reliable measurements would be
possible in dry holes if any can be found.
Observations of temperature have been made on 10 thermo-junctions
in a 15-ft. hole at intervals over a period of a year. These observations
should yield an excellent value for the diffusivity of gault. Since they refer
to a large mass of undisturbed clay they provide a standard for checking
Fr.
40
60
xr
=
Qa
Ww
a
80
100
0-0 0-2 0-4 0-6 0-8
°C BELOW TEMPERATURE AT BOTTOM
Fic, 2.
laboratory measurements, for if an apparatus will measure the conductivity
of gault there is little doubt that it would deal satisfactorily with more con-
solidated rocks. A rough reduction of the observations suggests a value
of 0:0037 cm’sec-! for the diffusivity, which combined with a specific
heat of 0°39 cal/°c. grm. and a density of 2-00 gives a conductivity of
00029 cal/em.°c. sec. ‘To make a rigorous reduction involves a great deal
of arithmetical labour, but it is hoped eventually to carry out the work.
3. Temperature Measurements in Bore Holes.—The Anglo-Iranian Oil Co.
very kindly allowed specimens to be collected and temperatures to be
measured in their bore at Kingsclere. As this bore had been made by
rotary drilling with a continuous circulation of mud it was necessary to leave
it for some days for the lower part to get into temperature equilibrium
(see § 4). After the bore had been standing for three days an attempt was
made to lower two maximum thermometers in a sealed case. It was found .
to be impossible to get the thermometers more than halfway down the hole
owing to an obstruction. Attempts were continued for three days without
success. As this work caused great delay and inconvenience to the Anglo-
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITIES OF ROCKS 275
Iranian Co. the work was then abandoned. Measurements in the higher
parts of the hole would have been valueless as they had been cooled for
months by the circulation of drilling mud. Similar difficulties were met
with in some measurements made by the Anglo-Iranian at Portsdown.
This experience shows how difficult it is to obtain satisfactory measure-
ments in rotary drilled holes. Even at the bottom of the hole measure-
ments cannot be taken till some days after drilling has stopped ; and, since
the hole is not lined, it is very likely to become blocked during this time
and can only be cleared by lowering a drilling tool for which it is necessary
to circulate mud which completely upsets the temperature equilibrium
again. Even if the hole should remain clear the measurements cause much
expense to the company drilling the hole, since the Mines Dept. insisted
that such holes should be plugged with cement at various depths and as
the drilling rig cannot be removed till this has been done, it must stand
idle during the temperature measurements.
Measurements are therefore only possible if the hole is lined and the
lining left in for some time after drilling. One such case has occurred.
The Anglo-Iranian drilled a hole at Pevensey 842 ft. deep, cased it to 500 ft.
and left it for some weeks. Temperature measurements were made at
765 ft. and 772 ft. (the hole was blocked below this). ‘The temperatures
found at these depths were 16:2° c. and 16:3° c. There was fluid in the
hole only below about 700 ft. and in any case it had not been left long enough
for satisfactory measurements to be made in the upper part. The gradient
has therefore to be deduced by a comparison of the temperatures at the
bottom with the surface temperature. The mean air temperature at
Pevensey is stated by the Meteorological Office to be 10°3° c.1_ The mean
temperature of the ground a few feet down is normallyo-8° c. above that of
the air.2 We therefore deduce a gradient of 5-1° c. in 668 ft. or 25° c./km.
In order that it should be possible to make temperature measurements
in any bores that became available two inverted maximum thermometers
and a winch for lowering them on piano wire have been purchased. As
the thermometers used at Kingsclere showed a great tendency to shake
down on raising them from the bottom of the hole, an investigation was
made of this source of error with the new thermometers. At Pevensey
the two thermometers were lowered opposite ways up so that shaking would
affect them in opposite directions and their positions in the container were
reversed for the second run. The results agreed to less than o-1° c. As
a further check a weight thermometer was constructed, but there has so far
been no opportunity to use it in a bore hole. Messrs. Negretti and Zambra
state that when maximum thermometers have been much used the constric-
tion becomes worn and they tend to shake down more easily. The new
thermometers are so difficult to shake down that it was necessary to construct
a whirling case to do so.
4. Laboratory Measurements of Conductivity—In order to measure the
conductivity of specimens of rock from bores an apparatus has been con-
structed by Mr. Benfield of the Cambridge Department of Geodesy and
Geophysics* with the advice of Dr. Ezer Griffiths. This apparatus con-
sists of two brass bars one inch in diameter between the ends of which a
disc-like specimen is placed. The top end of the upper brass bar is heated
electrically and the bottom end of the lower is cooled by a stream of water.
1 This is deduced from the mean air temperature at Eastbourne from 1888 to
1935:
2°]. Koenigsberger and M. Miihlberg, Neues. Jahrb. f. Min., beilage bd. 31, 115,
1911. Everett, 2nd Rep. Roy. Comm. on Coal Supplies, 2, 292, 1904.
3 Mr. Benfield also made the temperature measurements in the Pevensey bore.
276 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
The temperature at seven points along these bars is measured by thermo-
junctions. From these the temperature drop across the specimen T and
the temperature gradient p in the bars are determined. If there were no
loss of heat by convection and the specimens were in perfect thermal
contact with the bars, the conductivity of the specimen, k would be given
by
k = CpS/T
where S is the thickness of the specimen and C is a constant that may be
determined by measurements on a substance, such as fused silica, whose
conductivity is known.
The loss of heat by convection may be reduced by enclosing the apparatus
in a bell-jar across which run paper discs. The remaining loss may be
estimated from the departure of the temperature distribution in the bars from
linearity and allowed for.
The error from the lack of perfect thermal contact between the bars and
the specimen may be eliminated by making measurements on specimens of
two different thicknesses. For this elimination to be satisfactory it is de-
sirable that the contact should be as good as possible. Experiments on the
best method of joining the specimens to the bars are in progress. Painting
with a thin layer of very thick cellulose varnish seems the most promising
method. If the specimen is pressed on the bars while the varnish is still
tacky the minute irregularities in surfaces of the specimen and the bars are
filled with celluloid.
The preliminary tests of the apparatus are being made with specimens
from Kingsclere, when it is working satisfactorily measurements will be
made on the Pevensey specimens.
A specially careful investigation will be made on the Cambridge Gault
for comparison with the values obtained by the methods described in § 1.
(5) Theoretical Investigations—If the surface of the earth is not a plane
of constant temperature there will be irregularities in heat flow that may
mask those due to variations in conductivity and in the generation of heat.
Dr. Jeffreys has devised a method of allowing for these ; his investigation,
which has been published in Vol. 4 of the Geophysical Supplement to the
Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, shows that the dis-
turbance Sv of the temperature gradient at a depth Z below the surface is
given by
i ae
su = [e tay? dr P . (1)
oO
where wv is difference between the mean temperature at sea level round a
horizontal circle of radius r and that at sea level under the station; that
is v is the mean value of
(p — p’)h
where p and p’ are the temperature gradients in the earth and in the air
and h is the difference between the height of the station and the mean height
of the circle. From (1) expressions may be derived for the disturbance at
the surface and for the mean disturbance down to any depth. Certain
special cases may be evaluated analytically, for example the gradient at the
bottom of a hemispherical cavity is three times that at a distance from the ~
cavity, and the gradients at the crests and troughs of a series of parallel
simple harmonic ridges and valleys of height 2A and wavelength differ
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 277
by 47 A/A times the normal gradient. Numerical solutions for a number of
actual bores have been made by Dr. Bullard and published in the Geophysical
Supplement ; the biggest disturbance found is for the Simplon Tunnel, where
the observed gradient requires to be increased by 14 %.
Dr. Jeffreys has investigated the disturbance of the temperature gradient
produced by the casing ina bore. Ifa long rod of radius a and conductivity
K is introduced into a solid of conductivity k with a temperature gradient p
in a direction parallel to the rod, the temperature gradient within the rod
at a distance s from the end differs from p by an amount 5p given by
Sp/p = 1(K — k) a®/k s°
If K = rook the error is less than 1 % if a/s = 50, the effect of the casing
is therefore always negligible except within a few feet of the end.
Future Programme.—Owing to the difficulty of obtaining satisfactory
temperature measurements in rotary drilled holes it is desirable to make the
best possible use of data obtained when other systems of drilling were in
vogue. A great mass of temperature data exists from bores in the U.S.A.,
in Persia and elsewhere, much of which has been taken with every pre-
caution; efforts should therefore be made to obtain specimens of the
strata passed through by these bores in order that conductivity determina-
tions may be made. Requests for specimens have been sent to various
organisations who might be able to assist. It is easy to obtain odd specimens
from bores but difficult to get a representative selection.
‘Temperature measurements should be made whenever bores are:available.
Any bore over 500 ft. deep is suitable, and any dry bore over 100 ft. is
worth testing.
No grant will be required for this work.
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS.
Interim Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report upon the
possibility of Quantitative Estimates of Sensory Events (Prof. A.
Fercuson, Chairman; Dr. C. S. Myers, F.R.S., Vice-Chairman ;
Mr. R. J. Bartiert, Secretary; Dr. H. Banister, Prof. F. C.
BarTLeTT, F.R.S., Dr. Wm. Brown, Dr. N. R. CampBeELt, Prof.
J. Drever, Mr. J. Guitp, Dr. R. A. Housroun, Dr. J. C. Irwin,
Poe Gy WC Kaye, OBE. Dr.oS. JF. Parrott, Dr. L. F.
RicHarpson, F.R.S., Dr. J. H. SHaxpy, Mr. T. Smitu, F.R.S.,
Dr. R. H. Tuouxess, Dr. W. S. Tucker, O.B.E.).
INTRODUCTION.
Tuis Committee, whose title indicates its terms of reference fairly
accurately, was appointed at the York meeting in 1932, and has met since
at irregular intervals, much of its work having been carried out by corre-
spondence between members of different views and the circulation of
statements made by members.
In the early stages of the Committee’s existence, it seemed impossible
to reach an agreement, and it soon became obvious that it was necessary
to investigate the general implications of the term measurement and of the
processes involved in the making of measurements, and that it would be
278 ‘REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
profitable to study what was actually ‘measured’ in a number of experi-
ments carried out in psycho-physical research. Further, it was evident
that some of the experimental conditions under which these researches
were carried out must come under review, and that considerable light
would be thrown on the problem by a study of the historical order of
development of the subject of mental measurement.
The Committee has been fortunate in securing the services of specialists
who have collected and discussed, in detail, the evidence for the different
views, and feels that it can best serve the advancement of this particular
branch of knowledge by putting forward the evidence for these views
without at present making any attempt to reconcile them.
To this end Mr. Guild has prepared a statement of the point of view of
those who deny the possibility of quantitative estimates of sensory events,
and Prof. Drever has dealt more briefly with the question from the opposite
angle. Mr. Guild’s statement has been circulated to the Committee, and
notes and criticisms received from members are included in the Report.
Prof. Drever, who had waited for Mr. Guild’s paper before completing his
own work, feels that a longer time is needed for a full presentation of a
reply to Mr. Guild’s position, but has sent in a short statement presenting
the case for those who give the affirmative answer to the question whether
sensation intensity is measurable.
Extensive experimental work has been carried out in the Cambridge
Psychological Laboratory, and Mr. Craik has prepared a short summary
of this work, to which Prof. Bartlett has added an introductory note.
Dr. Semeonoff, of the University of Edinburgh, has collated and studied
critically the immense literature connected with the subject of the measure-
ment of sensory magnitudes, and he has been kind enough to permit the
Committee to include in its Report that portion of his work which refers
to the measurement of sound sensation.
For consideration of the Sections the Committee therefore present the
following :
I. An historical statement by Dr. B. Semeonoff.
II. A short summary of recent Cambridge experimental work by
Prof. F. C. Bartlett, F.R.S., and Mr. K. J. W. Craik, M.A.
III. A statement by Mr. J. Guild.
IV. Notes thereon by:
A. Dr. R.H. Thouless.
B. Dr. L. F. Richardson, F.R.S.
C. Mr. T. Smith, F.R.S.
D. Dr. Wm. Brown.
E. Dr. J. H. Shaxby.
V. A statement by Professor J. Drever.
I. An historical statement by Dr. Semeonoff.
‘THE MEASUREMENT OF SOUND SENSATION.
Earty work on the measurement of sound sensation was closely bound up
with two other studies: (i) the search for a simple method of measuring
sound intensity, and (ii) the experimental verification of the validity of
Weber’s law and its derivatives.
Reviews of the early work on sound measurement were made in 1905 .
by Titchener (57), and in 1910 by Pillsbury (43). These naturally exclude
the recent work using electrical methods, the development of which has
revolutionised the whole field. A brief survey of these later methods was
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 279
made by the present writer (49), who quotes references to fuller and more
technical accounts.
The pioneer researches were marred both by imperfections and in-
adequacies of technique, and by theoretical misapprehensions. Of these
drawbacks, those of the second type apply more particularly to methods
based on the principle of falling bodies, those of the first both to these
methods and to those based on the validity of the inverse square law.
The principle that the intensity of a stimulus which reaches the receptor
from a distant source varies inversely as the square of the distance of the
source from the receptor is still sometimes used, in the form of the ‘ watch
test,’ by practising aurists in the determination of hearing loss. This
method, while suitable for rough estimates, is not to be recommended for
accurate measurement, since reflection of sound waves is inevitable, and
practically uncontrollable, even in the open air.
The method of falling bodies rests on the principle that the energy of a
falling body is proportional to the weight of the body, and to the height
of fall. Gravity being constant, it may be said that the product of height
and weight gives a measure of the energy. Since, however, not all the
energy is effectively transformed into sound, the simple ht. x wt. formula
does not hold, and it was found by the early experimenters that in general
a fractional power of the height had to be taken in calculating sound in-
tensity. These conclusions were often reached as a result of equating for
loudness the sounds produced by balls of varying size and weight, and it
was usually noticed that differences of quality made such observations
extremely difficult. Actually apparent equality of loudness under these
conditions is no criterion of equality of intensity, and it is surprising how
completely this rather obvious point was overlooked. Studies of the
inter-relation of sensory attributes, which for sound may be said to date
from the discovery in 1897 of the Broca phenomenon (6), have now
established beyond dispute the fact that no point-to-point correspondence
can be claimed between the psychological qualities of sensation and their
physical correlates. Following Fletcher (13), we may say that while loud-
ness is the subjective characteristic that is recognised as the magnitude of
the sensation, and which changes most rapidly with changes in intensity,
each of the three main subjective characteristics of sound—loudness, pitch
and timbre—depend on all three of the physical characteristics—intensity,
frequency and overtone structure.
Attempts to measure sound intensity were also made using such devices
as singing flames, percussion systems with or without tuning-forks, phono-
graph records, blowing pressure, and direct microscopic examination of the
amplitude of vibrations.
Some of these instruments were used in investigations of Weber’s law,
and apart from this approach little attempt was made to measure sensation
as such, i.e. to express sensation magnitudes in relative or absolute units.
At the time of the 1913 symposium in the British Journal of Psychology (40),
the general consensus of opinion was that theoretically sensation was not
measurable, but that Weber’s law might hold, at least over a limited range,
in most sense-departments. Fechner’s ‘ fundamental assumptions,’ first
stated in 1860 in the Elemente (12), on which he based his mathematical
development of the S (sensation) = k log R (stimulus) relation,! were taken
1 Sometimes stated S = k log R/Ro, to indicate that the stimulus is measured
in terms of its absolute threshold (R,) as unit. This is the law quoted in Warren’s
Dictionary of Psychology under the heading Fechner’s Law. The definition adds :
“Fechner’s law is frequently incorrectly called Weber’s Law, and is now often
referred to as the Weber-Fechner law.’
280 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
as the necessary conditions on which depended the measurability of
sensation, so that this measurability stood or fell with the constancy of the
“ Weber-Fechner fraction.’
This approach to the relation between stimulus and sensation has now
been almost wholly superseded by other methods, though interest in the
constancy of the difference threshold has not entirely died down. It is,
of course, difficult to date this change of attitude with any degree of
accuracy, but a useful turning-point may be arbitrarily fixed by the
publication in 1920 of a review by Marx (35) of work on die Unterschieds-
schwelle bet Schallempfindungen. Before this date work on the stimulus-
sensation relation for sound was done exclusively by means of what we
may term the ‘ Weber-Fechner approach,’ the value of the just noticeable
difference was usually found to be fairly constant, and the sounds studied
were for the most part unpitched sounds (usually described as ‘ noises ’).
After 1920 developments in electrical apparatus made work with tones
progressively easier and more accurate, the difference threshold was found
to be much less constant than had previously been supposed, and new
methods of investigation were evolved.
‘These new methods may be classified under two main heads : I. Attempts
to assign numerical values to actual sensations, or to determine values of a
stimulus whose subjective effect should bear a given numerical relation to
the subjective effect of another value of the same stimulus; II. Attempts
to discover the relationship between measurable physiological events and
the physical values of the stimulus. When the former can be shown to
bear the same or a similar functional relationship to the stimulus as the
subjective effects noted above, the hypothesis is commonly advanced that
loudness is determined by some such variable as the rate of change of the
physiological process or the number of nerve units activated. These are
not discussed in the present summary, since their relevance to the measura-
bility of sensation depends entirely on whether one is prepared to accept as
valid the hypothesis mentioned.
In addition, the period under discussion has seen the development of
noise-analysis methods, by which a complex sound can be reduced to a
“ frequency spectrum,’ and a better understanding obtained of the apparent
anomalies of masking.
Table I contains a detailed summary of the principal work on Weber’s
law in its application to the intensity of sound ; the following descriptive
notes may be of interest as giving a better indication of the actual experi-
mental procedures employed. They also contain mention of a few researches
not included in the table.
The material may be divided into five groups as follows: (i) the earliest
work, 1856-79; (ii) work reported in a series of articles in Wundt’s
Philosophische Studien, 1883-1900, and performed for the most part in
Wundt’s Leipzig laboratory ; (iii) early work on tones, 1888-1905 ; (iv)
later work on tones, using electrical apparatus, 1922-35 ; (v) miscellaneous
work with a variety of instruments, and usually with some other end in
view than a simple examination of the truth of Weber’s law, 1930-37. The
succeeding sections are numbered in accordance with this classification.
(i) The experiments of the first group gave inconclusive results, and are
of interest chiefly for historical reasons. In particular, the work of Renz
and Wolf (44) is significant in that it is ‘ pre-Fechner,’ and seems to have
anticipated the standardisation of the psychological methods. Renz and
Wolf, medical undergraduates at Tiibingen, experimented with a watch,
intensity being measured in terms of distance. Various devices used to
eliminate accidental errors showed a nice balance between the requirements
~~ 20%
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 281
of experimental accuracy and those of the comfort of the subject. Only
one standard intensity was investigated, but both time-orders were used.
The rather naive conclusion was drawn that certainty of judgment grew
with increasing difference of intensities. Individual differences between
the results of the two experimenters, who acted as their own subjects, also
received comment.
Fechner in the Elemente (12) derived his data on sound intensity from
results obtained by Volkmann, who carried out two series of experiments.
In the first, he used a simple improvised sound-pendulum, consisting of a
strong knitting-needle as axis, and a wooden hammer which struck against
a four-sided glass flask. "Two heights were found such that in the majority
of cases the observer could tell which gave the stronger sound, and observa-
tions were made at four distances, varying from 14 to 18 paces. It was
found that judgment remained as sure and correct at all distances, and from
this it was concluded that the difference threshold was independent of the
absolute value of the stimulus. Experiments with freely-falling bodies
gave for two subjects out of three a ratio of intensities 3:4 for which a
difference could be accurately judged, while with a ratio 6 : 7 considerable
uncertainty occurred.
A much fuller investigation was reported by Nérr (42), who introduced
a number of refinements into his falling-bodies technique. A much wider
range of intensities was used, and catch-experiments were introduced, in
which the standard was presented with itself. Unfortunately, the numerical
results are such as to make the calculation of difference thresholds by any
of the ordinary procedures practically impossible. Nérr, however, con-
cluded that differential sensitivity remained constant from the weakest to
the strongest sounds.
(ii) Dissatisfaction with No6rr’s results seems to have been one of the
contributing causes of the work of the Leipzig group. ‘This series of
researches is of particular interest in that the writers had first-hand contacts
with one another, even to the extent of opportunities of working with the
same subjects and the same instruments. One of their main interests was
the exact measurement of the sounds produced by the falling bodies,
discussed above.
Tischer (56) and Lorenz (31) used Hipp’s fall-apparatus. Tischer’s
results show wide individual differences among his five subjects, and
considerable variation over a fairly small range, together with a progressive
improvement of discrimination with practice. Nevertheless, the results
are described as ‘so gut wie constant.’ Lorenz, on the other hand, was
aware that his results were insufficient for generalisation. He characterises
the constancy obtained as fairly satisfactory, and states that it might have
been better with greater care.
Starke (50, 51), Merkel (36), and Mosch (39) used Wundt’s improved
fall-apparatus, and introduced further experimental refinements. Mosch
laid particular stress on the ‘ error’ aspect of variations in the difference
threshold, and introduced further categories of judgment (‘ much greater,’
“much less’). Kampfe (23) and Ament (3) reverted to the use of the
sound-pendulum, making considerable improvements on the model used
by Volkmann. Ament’s work shows increased recognition of individual
differences, and also a decided drop in the value of the difference threshold
after the weaker intensities had been passed. In both these respects
Ament anticipates the results of later experiments.
A slightly different approach to the stimulus-sensation problem is seen
in the work of Merkel (37) and Angell (5). Merkel and Angell used the
method of ‘ Mean Gradation ’ to find an estimated mid-point between two
282 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
TABLE I
Date. Authors. 'I 2 B 4 5 6
1856 | Renz and Wolf(44) | W fo) Palen -38
1860 | Volkmann (12) . P 22 C? Rk
1860 - . | FA | wide ? 33
1879 | Norr (42) . .| FA 55 Lad) ee k?
1883 | Tischer (56) aie ys 30 Pel eri; “4 indiv. diffs.
1885 | Lorenz (31) Fol ind DIAN EL 8 VAX) ripe hel 79 Gaile 5) upper dev.
1886 | Starke (50,51) . | FA 10 Zeal ele, 13
1888 | Wien (59) . Pe ek entero L, C| -12,:2} dev. at both
ends.
1888 | Merkel (36) . | FA | 40 L 3
1893 | Kampfe (23) d Pi swale snes. pie k
1900 | Ament (3) . ; P 5 in lenle, 3 lower dev. ;
indiv. diffs.
1904 | Hoefer (22) . | FA | small C | notk | irreg. var.
1905 | Deenik (11) Seal Pl Pipl i23 L Zag
1905 ae (OP L | -1--2| irreg. var.
1907 | Keller (24) . | FA | small} 9 | *, L I
1922 | Guernsey (19) . | VO 6} L 3 lower dev.
1922 | Knudsen (29) . | VO/| wide/} 4] L i lower dev.
1924 | Halverson (20) . | VO | 23 xi, 1C 2 lower dev
1928 | Riesz (46) . . | VO | 100 12 | L | -1--3] lower dev.;reg.
var.
1929 | Kellogg (25) . | AO 5 ? 1?
1929 55 (26) . | AO | wide? C *12 | irreg. var.?
1930 | Macdonald and
Allens (32,2) =x) | Vi 10 L | not & | reg. var.
1930 | Kenneth and
Thouless (27) VO | wide| 2] L ar lower dey.; reg.
var.
1934| Churcher, King
and Davies (10) | VO 80 4| C | notk | reg. var.
1935 | Gage (16) . ae peVO) 24 L | not Rk | lower dev. ;
reg. var.
1935 | Telford and Denk | VO | 20 | 12| L | notk | lower dev. ;
(55) reg. var.
1935 | Montgomery (38) | VO 70 4| C |notk | reg. var.
1936 | Semeonoff (49) . | W 12 4 | L | not Rk} irreg. var.
1936 33 . | FA I 3 C "2?
1936 A ied Be Se 80 4 | L | not k| reg. var.
1937 Upton and Holway| VO 28 I not k function of
(58) time.
Notes to columns : :
I. Sources: W, watch; P, sound-pendulum; FA, fall-apparatus; TF,
tuning-fork(s) ; OP, organ-pipes; VO, vacuum-tube oscillator; AO, audio-
oscillator ; V, variator.
2. Approximate range in db.
3. No. of subjects (when stated).
4. Methods: C, Constant method, or some variety thereof: L, method of -
Limits; *, see text.
5. Modal value of threshold; when constant ().
6. Deviations from a constant value at low or high intensities ; course of the
threshold over range studied, etc.
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 283
‘terminal stimuli.’ Merkel’s results suggested that this mid-point lay
nearer the arithmetic than the geometric mean of the terminal values, while
Angell found the opposite to be true. Angell’s result is in accordance with
the requirements of Weber’s law and Fechner’s derivatives ; Merkel’s, on
the other hand, would seem to support Plateau’s ‘ quotient-hypothesis ’
described by Brown and Thomson (7) as the ‘ one-time chief rival of the
Weber-Fechner law.’ This theory postulated direct proportionality between
the just noticeable difference of sensation and that of stimulus, and at one
time had many supporters, though later Plateau himself repudiated it.
The Merkel-Angell controversy attracted a good deal of attention, e.g.,
from Ament (3), who showed that the values of the mid-stimulus were a
function of both the ratio between and the absolute values of the terminal
stimuli.
The work of the Leipzig group was summed up by Wundt himself (60),
who believed that hearing was the sense-department in which Weber’s law
was of the widest application. At the same time he admitted that the
method of mean gradation seemed to yield mean values closer to the
arithmetic than to the geometric mean.
Though not strictly belonging to the same group, the work of Hoefer (22)
and Keller (24) may conveniently be included in the present section.
Hoefer studied auditory differential sensitivity among individuals suffering
from psychoses and functional neuroses. Subnormal sensitivity was found
only in a few cases, though flagging of attention was often evident. Keller,
using a modification of Mosch’s method, found that Weber’s law held good,
with a mean value of about ;},, as against the figure of } usually found by
previous investigators. Keller also believed that the Gaussian law of error
did not hold in psycho-physical experiments, so that methods involving its
application were to be avoided.
(iii) All the work discussed so far was concerned with unpitched sounds.
Wien (59) was the first, by nearly twenty years, to work with tones. These
were produced by electrically-driven tuning-forks of three frequencies, and
the intensity range was much the greatest of any in the early researches.
A resonator, covered with the membrane of an aneroid barometer, served
as an artificial ear-drum, by means of which the relative amplitudes of
vibrations could be measured with great accuracy. Wien’s work is remark-
able not only in respect of its pioneer use of tones, but also in that on the
basis of his results he drew up an empirical equation for the difference
threshold, which, in its integrated form, gave a curve for the relation between
stimulus and sensation surprisingly similar to that recently adopted as a
standard by the American Standards Association (4).
Deenik (11) extended Wien’s frequency range, and experimented with
organ-pipes as well as with electrically-driven tuning-forks. In the case
of the former the subject himself adjusted the intensity of the variable until
a difference was noticeable. Unfortunately Deenik’s intensities were not
so conveniently graded as Wien’s, and in general his interest was con-
centrated rather on differences of sensitivity as a function of frequency. It
is worth mentioning, however, that Deenik found that the finest thresholds
were in the region of 2,000 cycles; this corresponds quite well with the
point at which recent work has shown that the widest range exists between
the upper and lower thresholds of hearing.
(iv) The present section marks the beginning of work with vacuum-tube
oscillators. Unless otherwise stated, it is to be assumed in sections (iv)
and (v) that some form of oscillator was used in all the studies reported.
Like Deenik, Guernsey (19) was chiefly interested in the variation of the
intensity threshold with pitch. Her point of maximum sensitivity, how-
284 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
ever, was located somewhat higher—between 3,000 and 7,000 cycles, results
varying for different observers.
Mackenzie (33) made use of a principle similar to that of optical flicker.
Mackenzie found that if two frequencies alternated in the ear at a fairly
rapid rate, the interruptions of the louder were more conspicuous than
those of the weaker. It was possible to adjust the intensities until the two
tones appeared equally interrupted ; at this point the respective loudnesses
were taken as equal. A comparison of the physical values of the tones
thus balanced showed that except at weak intensities, where room-noise
was held to have an interfering effect, the relative sensitivity of the ear was
invariable over the whole hearing range.
Knudsen (29) also used an alternation method, whereby two intensities
of the same tone were alternated at the rate of about fifty changes per
minute, the difference between them being decreased or increased until
the ‘ flutter * ceased or began to be apparent. ‘The value of the difference
threshold was shown to decrease continuously with rise in intensity, until
a constant value was reached. ‘The point at which the curve flattened in
this way was shown to vary for different frequencies, but on the whole the
value of the threshold seemed to be independent of frequency. Knudsen
also drew up a generalised equation intended to serve as a truer expression
of differential sensitivity, and showed that computed values of the threshold
based on this formula agreed fairly well with his experimental results.
Knudsen’s results share with those of Riesz (46) the distinction of having
been used by subsequent investigators as the basis of theoretical considera-
tions and calculations. Riesz measured differential intensity sensitivity by
determining for a tone of given frequency and intensity the minimal intensity
to which a second tone, differing from the first by 3 cycles per second, had
to be raised to make the beats just perceptible. ‘Twelve observers each
worked with seven tones ranging from 35 to 10,000 cycles; the whole
range of intensities, from the absolute threshold to near the threshold of
feeling, was covered. ‘The general conclusion as regards Weber’s law was
that it held at all frequencies for intensities above 10° times the absolute
threshold value. Curves showing the difference threshold plotted against
a logarithmic intensity scale seem to confirm this, unless the threshold axis
is itself logarithmic, in which case the curves do not seem to flatten per-
ceptibly at any point of the intensity scale. ‘This observation, however, is
based on replotting some of the data of smoothed curves, and as such is no
doubt open to question. 7
Telford and Denk (55) confirmed Riesz’s results rather closely for one
frequency (800 cycles). The form of the curve obtained was almost
identical with those of Riesz, but the apparatus used was such as to make
measurement of intensities in terms of db level impossible. Further, for
some reason not very apparent, thresholds were calculated from the formula
(I,2 — I,?)/I2, where I, and I, were the lower and higher intensities
respectively.
(v) The work of Macdonald and Allen (32, 2) shows a departure from
recent practice in that the sounds studied were variator tones, of which
the intensities were measured in terms of blowing pressure. The authors
follow Merkel and others in their recommendation that the reciprocal of
the threshold be used as a measure of sensitivity, so that a higher numerical
value would indicate heightened sensitivity. The main finding was that
Weber’s law did not hold, since a plot of the reciprocal of the threshold,
against intensity fell into two distinct parts. A new empirical equation
was suggested as holding good (with appropriate changes of constants) for
hearing not only under normal conditions, but also under conditions of
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 285
depressed and enhanced sensitivity, obtained by previously stimulating the
ear to be tested, or the other, with tones of the same frequency as the test
tone and about 15 to 20 times its intensity.
Gage (16) investigated the variation of the uniaural difference threshold
with simultaneous stimulation of the other ear by tones of the same fre-
quency. Gage’s detailed results are not relevant to the present purpose,
but his general results suggest the occurrence of high values of the threshold
at low intensities to a very marked degree.
An unusual approach to the continuity of the value of the difference
threshold is seen in the work of Kenneth and Thouless (27), who claimed
to show that this continuity extended to the absolute threshold. By start-
ing at zero intensity and taking several intermediate values of the stimulus
between this and the absolute threshold of hearing, they demonstrated
that the just noticeable difference varied continuously until a point was
reached at which it so happened that the requirements of Weber’s law were
fulfilled over a certain range.
The work of Churcher, King and Davies (10) is interesting (a) for its
stress on the continuity of variation of the difference threshold, and (b) for
the fact that the just noticeable increments and decrements of intensity
found were not such as would occur if Weber’s law held good. This
suggests the importance of ‘set,’ a point more fully dealt with by
Montgomery (38, see below). Differential sensitivity to cyclical changes
of intensity was also studied, though the discrepancy noted under (b) above
made this method, in the authors’ opinion, not strictly valid. If this
objection is a real one, it would seem to apply also to all the ‘ alternation ’
methods used in other investigations.
In addition to a direct investigation of differential sensitivity at four
intensity levels, Montgomery (38) made a systematic survey of the effect
of ‘ set’ as determined by variations in experimental conditions. ‘Table II
shows thresholds, expressed in both db and fractional form, for the thermal
noise from a high-gain amplifier at an intensity level of 40 db. These
figures stress the difficulty, noted also in connection with loudness estima-
tion, of comparing results obtained by different experimenters using different
methods.
TaBie II. (Montgomery.)
Threshold
Method. db AR/R
Switch not controlled by subject; 1 comparison ;
4-sec. between tones ; 0:8 0:20
Same, but no interval between tones 0°6 orl5s
Repeated comparisons ; no interval 0'4 0096
As above, but switch controlled by subject o°2 0*047
Sinusoidal (cyclical) variation : o's oun
A further point was made by Upton and Holway (58), whose chief
interest was to demonstrate that differential sensitivity to sound intensity
was a specific reproducible function of exposure-time. Interpreted from
the point of view of Weber’s law, the results indicate that while relative
constancy of the threshold was obtained with long exposure-times, with
286 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
times less than 10 seconds considerable fluctuations (of an irregular
character) were found within the range represented.
The present writer (49) carried out short series of experiments with
various instruments. (a) Since watch-tick experiments had apparently
not been performed since the time of Renz and Wolf, it was decided to
see what improvements could be made on their procedure. Four in-
tensities were studied, upper and lower binaural thresholds being obtained
for each of four subjects. A stop-watch which could be operated noise-
lessly was used. Marked individual differences were found, and.only a
very crude approximation to constancy over a limited range. (b) Three
subjects participated in some experiments with Wundt’s fall-phonometer ;
a lower threshold was found for two heights, using both time-orders.
Individual differences were again noted, but an overall average of about
o:2 seemed to be indicated, this value falling between those obtained by
the Leipzig group on the one hand, and Keller (24) on the other. (c) Lower
thresholds for four subjects were found by the method of Limits, using a
valve-maintained tuning-fork (frequency 512 cycles), devised by K. J. W.
Craik. ‘The sound was suitably amplified, and heard in a moving-coil
loudspeaker. The following are some of the conclusions reached :
(1) Weber’s law did not hold, even for a limited stimulus-range ; the value
of the threshold increased at both extremes, and varied continuously
throughout ; (2) Individual differences with respect both to fineness of
discrimination and to shape of curve were found; (3) Although curves
for each subject remained fairly constant in shape, marked day-to-day
variations in sensitivity seemed to occur.
The psycho-physical method commonly known as ‘ Mean Gradation ’
acts as a convenient link between the Weber’s law investigations and the
recent work on the construction of sensation scales, since it can conveniently
be used in either connection. The present writer carried out a series of
experiments with this method, the purpose being to repeat, with variations,
the work of Merkel and Angell. The instrument used was the tuning-fork
described above. The stimulus ratios were 1:10 and 1 : 1oo—rather
higher than those studied by Merkel and Angell. Each ratio was judged
by two subjects at three intensity levels, spaced at intervals of 20 db. Some
difficulty was experienced in finding a criterion of ‘nearness’ to either
mean, but taken all over, the results seemed to favour a closer correspon-
dence of the estimated with the geometric mean.
More systematic work using the same method was carried out by Gage
(17), who was interested in the following problem: If a mid-stimulus
value X, be found between extremes X, and X;, and further mid-values
X, and X, be then found between X, and X, and X, and X;, then a mid-
value X,’ between X, and X, should, if a sensation scale is to mean anything,
coincide with X,;. (This would hold irrespective of whether the mid-values
coincided with the geometric or the arithmetic mean.) Gage found that
the required correspondence did not occur, discrepancies of 5 and 6 db
being obtained over a range of 40 db. Newman, Volkmann and Stevens
(41), on the other hand, repeated Gage’s work, introducing certain refine-
ments in the procedure, and reduced the discrepancies between X 3 and
X,/ to 0-18 to 0:36 db over a range of 20 db, which actually, in terms of
loudness values, was a greater interval than Gage’s. ‘The authors therefore
concluded that the method of ‘ bisection’ (as it is now generally called)
could after all be used as the basis of a loudness scale. f
Other work on loudness scales has been done by a variety of methods,
which, grouped together, may be said to constitute the most satisfactory
and satisfying approach to the stimulus-sensation relationship. In the
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 287
following paragraphs the work is discussed in chronological order, but a
classification may be attempted as follows :
(a) The observer matches for loudness sounds of different frequencies
or frequency spectra, and the results are compared with those of
physical measurement methods.
(6) The observer selects from a given range a sound which he believes
to bear a given numerical relation to a standard sound.
(c) The observer estimates in numerical terms the ‘ loudness-value’ of
a given sound, as compared with a standard sound to which the value
unity is assigned.
The pioneer work, apart from that of Wien (59), was that of Sabine (48),
who performed an experiment in which organ notes of different frequencies
at octave intervals were balanced for loudness. ‘The results, described as
“surprisingly concordant,’ can be expressed in the form of a ‘ loudness
contour,’ which, except for a sharp drop at the two upper frequencies, is
not unlike those of Fletcher and Munson (14, see below).
Fletcher and Steinberg (15, 52), investigating the estimation of overall
loudness of a complex sound, showed that a total loudness could be obtained
by summing a fractional power of the weighted energy of each frequency
region. Calculated and observed values were found to be in good agree-
ment, and a rather complicated empirical equation determined. This
formula has not found universal acceptance.
Kingsbury (28) made a direct comparison of the loudness of eleven pure
tones within a frequency range of 60 to 4,000 cycles, with a 700-cycle tone
as reference. A series of curves relating sensation-level and loudness has
been much quoted by subsequent investigators.
Richardson and Ross (45) were the first to use what have sometimes been
called ‘ intuited’’ loudness units. A tone of pleasant loudness was chosen
as standard, and assigned the value 1:00. This (8S) was presented along
with variables (V) in the form SVSV, and the observer wrote down his
estimates of the numerical value of the variable. Of the eleven observers,
all were able to perform the task with some measure of success, although
many found it difficult, or complained that they were only guessing.
Different forms of relation were obtained for different subjects, but in no
case was it found that the estimates conformed to the formula S = k log R.
Marvin (34) applied the loudness-balance method to the measurement
- of ‘noises’ of various kinds, these being matched against a 1,000-cycle
reference tone. It is not quite clear whether Marvin was testing aural
balancing or the meter which he used, but good agreement between the
two was obtained.
Laird, Taylor and Wille (30) were the first to study ‘ fractional’ and
‘multiple’ loudness. An audiometer buzz was presented along with
another of lower intensity, and the observer was asked to say whether the
latter was half the previous loudness, or whether it had to be raised or
lowered to give half the loudness of the original. The same procedure
was carried out for reductions of one-fourth and three-fourths. ‘The
estimates of half loudness were checked by ‘ doubling,’ i.e. asking for a
loudness judged to be twice that of a standard. Curves drawn on the basis
of the results show a fair degree of consistency, and the authors drew up
a ‘ tentative law’ to express the results. No marked individual differences
were revealed.
Ham and Parkinson (21) carried out experiments similar to those both
of Richardson and Ross, and of Laird, Taylor and Wille. In the first
288 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
group the observer was asked what percentage of an original (i.e. reference)
loudness was ‘ left in’ a comparison loudness. In the second, the observer
was required to select from a range of seven or eight variables a value which
appeared nearest to a given fraction (4, +, +) or a given multiple (2, 3, 5) of
the standard. The stimuli used consisted of warble tones, single frequency
tones, and room noise recordings, all reproduced on special records. The
frequencies covered were 250 to 2,500 cycles, and the intensity levels varied
from 34 to 84 db. Plotting multiple increase of original loudness or re-
ciprocal of remaining fraction of original loudness (y) against energy change
in db, it was found that an equation of the form
y =a + be”
gave the best fit to the data. The best results were obtained with the
second of the methods noted. In all, 175 subjects were tested. Each
individual’s judgments were consistent over a wide range, though they
might differ from those of other observers. The authors proposed a noise
measurement scale on the basis of their results—a straight line relation
between multiple loudness units on a logarithmic scale and db above
threshold.
Geiger and Firestone (18) worked on rather similar lines to those of the
researches just described. In this experiment the observer himself set the
variable loudness to a value bearing the required relation to the standard.
The fractions required were }, +, 45,745; the multiples were 2, 4, 10, 100.
Tones of 60 and 1,000 cycles, and a complex noise of over forty components
were studied at three intensity levels: 30, 35, and 80 db. Results similar
in some respects to those of Kingsbury (28), and showing a good degree
of self-consistency were obtained ; on the other hand, they seemed to
be at variance with those of more recent experimenters. The general
conclusion was that loudness judgments are made on the basis of actual
sensation.
Riesz (47) advanced the hypothesis that two tones of different frequencies
would sound equally loud when their intensities were such that the ratios
of the number of distinguishable steps above the absolute threshold to the
number of such steps above the threshold for a reference tone of the same
frequency were the same for both tones. ‘This was put to the test using as
reference one of Munson’s equal loudness contours, and a good corre-
spondence between observed and theoretical values was obtained, except
at the two highest intensities, at which the influence of the threshold of
feeling was probably operative.
The most authoritative work to date on the measurement of loudness is
that of Fletcher and Munson (14), whose results have been adopted by the
American Standards Association (4). The intensity levels at which pure
tones of frequencies from 62 to 16,000 cycles sound equally loud was
determined by comparison with a 1,000-cycle reference tone. Both ears
of eleven observers were tested, at all intensities. The results are sum-
marised in two sets of curves. The first set shows equal loudness contours
relating frequency to sensation level (i.e. db:above the threshold for that
frequency). ‘The second shows a similar set of contours, but with intensity
levels (i.e. db above a uniform reference level) as ordinates. The greater
part of the authors’ paper is devoted to the calculation of the loudness level
of a steady complex tone; the empirical formula derived is of rather a
complicated character.
A new loudness scale designed for free-space listening, was devised BY
Churcher, King and Davies (9). To begin with, a scale based on a number
of just perceptible increments above the absolute threshold of an 800-cycle
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 289
reference tone was constructed. This relation was found to be more
satisfactory than simply adopting the decibel scale as a loudness scale, but
it still conflicted with introspectional evidence as regards loudness. A
method whereby observers adjusted tones to half an original loudness
was therefore substituted; the procedure was progressively repeated
six times, and estimates of quarter loudness gave a fairly good check ;
thirty-four subjects took part. The authors go on to describe the applica-
tion of their scale to the assessment of total noise by an aural balance
method. This was held to give better estimates of loudness than methods
of frequency analysis, the use of which, it was said, might give discrepancies
of anything up to 40 per cent. when compared with direct noise-meter
readings.
At the discussion following the original reading of the paper just discussed,
various numerical relations approximating to the authors’ scale were pro-
posed. A friend of the present writer, however, has suggested an ex-
ponential equation: JZ (loudness) = 100 e°°5*-5 (where x stands for
sensation level in db); this, though not accurate, especially at the lower
end, corresponds as well as any of the other suggested formule, and is
more in line with the results of Ham and Parkinson, and of the present
writer (49), who experimented on loudness estimation with the tuning-fork
apparatus already referred to in two places. The procedure most closely
resembled that of Richardson and Ross. Estimates of fractional and
multiple loudness were made separately. For the former the unit intensities
were — 30 and — 20 db attenuation on the instrument; for the latter
— 30 and —4o db. Three subjects took part, and while considerable
fluctuations were seen in the results of all three, those of each individual
always showed more resemblance to his other estimates than to those of
the others. Accordingly it was possible and necessary to draw distinct
smoothed curves for each observer, so that real individual differences seemed
to have been established. A full mathematical analysis of the curves was
not attempted, but it was apparent that some at least were of exponential
form. Checks by the ‘ (b)’ method (see p. 286) gave rather mconclusive
results. One further point, however, is of greater interest, namely, that
fractional estimation or judgment did not seem to give curves of the same
form as multiple estimation. This may have been due to the limited
number of estimations made, but it bears out the remarks on the non-
comparability of results of different methods stressed by Riesz (47), Abbott
(1), and others. The fullest single study of the effects of subjective condi-
tions on loudness judgments is that of Steinberg and Munson (53), whose
general conclusion was that ‘ when sounds of different tonal character are
compared by small groups of observers, we must expect appreciable
differences of judgment to occur.’
Stevens (54) states the same point in still more general terms when he
says that ‘ we do not measure the magnitude of a sensation, but only of a
particular dimension or aspect of sensation within a single sensory modality.’
Any auditory attribute is a function of both dimensions of the stimulus
(frequency and intensity), and ‘ loudness is a name which we give to a class
of discriminatory responses on the part of an organism under certain
conditions of “set” and stimulation.’ Stevens goes on to propose a new
unit of loudness, the sone—the loudness of a 1,000-cycle tone listened to
with both ears at an intensity level of 40 db. This corresponds closely to
Churcher’s (8) value 1, and is also said to be of the order of magnitude of
just noticeable differences of moderately intense tones of the musical scale.
The sone has not as yet been at all widely accepted, but it must be
recognised as the first real unit of psychological magnitude. The phon
L
290 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
(B.S.)2 is defined as a unit of equivalent loudness, a sound being said to
have a loudness of 2 phons when it is judged to be equally loud with a 1,000-
cycle reference tone at a level of n db above a reference pressure level of
0:0002 dynes per sq. cm. Thus, on the basis of phon values one can
arrange sounds in order of loudness, but it does not follow that a sound of
mn phons is m times as loud as one of m phons. On the other hand, loudness
values expressed in sones will presumably be true numerical magnitudes
which will conform to mathematical requirements such as that just stated.
Stevens also formulates an equation relating loudness to a power of the
number of just noticeable differences above threshold, and derives a method
of determining the subjective magnitude of a difference threshold.
The claims of the various loudness scales described above, and those of
certain ‘ physical’ scales, were examined by Abbott (1), who concluded
that both were necessary, for different purposes. That of Fletcher and
Munson was recommended for psychological purposes, as using the best
available data for high and low levels, for which accurate information is
often more important than at intermediate levels.
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II. Short summary of recent Cambridge experimental work.
INTRODUCTION BY Pror. F. C. BARTLETT, F.R.S.
The following is a brief memorandum written by Mr. Craik on work
relevant to problems of sensory measurement done mainly in the Psycho-
logical Laboratory, Cambridge, during the last few years. Nearly all the
methods involved rest on a use of the principle, or method, of just percept-
ible differences. They are consequently subject to whatever assumptions
as to measurability may be involved in that method. A considerable amount
of work on supraliminal differences has also been carried out, but the
difficulties encountered have not been satisfactorily surmounted, and in
consequence this work is not dealt with in the present report.
The general upshot of the whole of the work has been to show as clearly
and definitely as possible that all the formule which have ever been pro-
posed correlating physical measurements of intensity of stimuli with just
perceptible difference series are valid only within wide limits. Some of
the limits have now been thoroughly studied : these are,
(a) rate of application of the stimulus ;
(b) degree of practice of the subject ;
(c) knowledge by the subject of the accuracy or inaccuracy of his
reactions ;
(d) state of adaptation
(i) of the peripheral organs,
(ii) of the central nervous system mechanism concerned.
292 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
The experiments also show, though at present less thoroughly, where and
how inhibitions, in the strict and proper sense, are likely to be set up, and
how they can be dispelled and lead to sudden anomalous results.
It still looks as if, given control of all of the determinants indicated above,
and very likely of some others which we have not yet investigated in detail,
human judgments, or perceptions, of equality or of difference in the case
of sensory reactions set up by stimuli of constant physical magnitude do
remain remarkably constant also. But it is certain that these constancies
of reaction cannot be stated in terms of general laws which refer only
to the physical magnitudes compared. Given, for instance, differential
adaptation between the two eyes, it is the case that two simultaneously
presented visual fields, one of which is 500 times as intense as the other—in
terms of physical magnitude—may regularly and constantly be equated.
But that amount of physical difference of intensities will, under other
circumstances, produce reactions which vary widely from one another.
It seems as if, provided the leading groups of physiological and psychological
determining conditions are stabilised, human sensory reactions can be
equated and differentiated (at least so far as liminal differences are concerned)
with a high degree of constancy, and further that under these conditions
the equations and differentiations remain relatively remarkably constant
for constant values of physical magnitude. We conclude that probably
within the human sensory reaction itself there is, or there are, some quality
or qualities which enable remarkably consistent comparisons to be made in
terms of equality and liminal difference. But what that quality is or those
qualities are we cannot at present say.
Factors AFFECTING SENSORY 'THRESHOLDS.
By Mr. K. #. W. Craik.
A considerable amount of work has been done in Cambridge, during the
last four years, on the influence of various factors on the absolute and
differential thresholds of the visual, auditory and tactile senses. It has
had two purposes—the discovery of the various conditions which must be
controlled, in perceptual experiments, in order that reliable results may be
obtained, and the investigation of the mechanism of sensory processes, by
finding the variables on which they depend.
These factors are of various kinds. First, there are such as the subject’s
state of health, the amount of sleep he has had, the criteria used, the number
of readings taken, and the amount of practice allowed. These may be
considered as extrinsic and non-specific influences, though they introduce
possible sources of error and misinterpretation, if insufficiently controlled.
Secondly, there are factors such as inhibition, the organisation or gestalt
of the field presented, mutual interaction between two similar or dissimilar
sense organs, time error, incentives, and knowledge of results, which
presumably originate centrally or at some high level. In some cases these
have been investigated on their own account,.in the hope that their mode
of operation might be discovered ; in other cases, they have been kept
constant, so far as possible, in order that the elementary responses of the
sense organs to simple forms of stimulation might be studied.
Thirdly, there are factors which affect either the stimulus presented or
the sensitivity of the action of the sense organ itself. The spatial accom-.
paniments and temporal precursors of the stimulus, and its rate of applica-
tion, fall under this category ; they may have direct influence on the stimulus,
or on the state of adaptation, and therefore on the sensitivity, of the sense
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 293
organ. It is important to be familiar with these influences, so as to avoid
erroneous or anomalous results in sensory experiments ; they also supply
many interesting ways of observing the behaviour of the senses in unusual
situations or under slightly abnormal conditions.
It is principally the last two classes of factors which have been studied
in Cambridge; the results, and their theoretical implications, will be
briefly summarised, and reference will be made to some of the relevant
work done elsewhere.
Rawdon-Smith (1934, 1) found that the absolute threshold for a pure
tone of 1,000 cycles might be raised as much as 30 db. by exposing the ear
for some minutes to a similar tone at 100 db. above threshold. A similar
rise, though less marked, was found in the ear which had not been stimulated;
this could not be explained as direct fatigue by bone conducted or air
conducted sound, and appeared therefore to be due to central inhibition.
The rise of threshold in the stimulated ear was apparently in great part
central, since it could be ‘ disinhibited ’ by unexpectedly turning off the
light in the room where the subject was seated. A considerable degree of
variability and irregularity in the rise of threshold also suggested its central
nature, as did the absence of any known peripheral mechanism which
could produce so marked an effect. (The tensor tympani and stapedius
muscles were shown in the cat to produce a fall of responses not exceeding
6 db. (Rawdon-Smith and Hallpike, 1934, 1).) Here, then, there appeared
to be two central processes which could affect the auditory threshold—
inhibition following exposure to a loud tone, and disinhibition by changing
the stimulation of a different sense organ, the eye. A similar rise of the
differential threshold, using a loud ‘ adapting’ tone and a much softer
testing one, has been found by Rawdon-Smith and Sturdy (unpublished).
There was a tendency for the differential threshold to be lowest when the
adapting and testing tones were of equal loudness. Thus, after several
minutes’ exposure to a tone at 100 db. above threshold, the differential
threshold at this intensity was often lower than after a period of silence.
Zangwill, and after him Jones (unpublished), measured the differential
brightness threshold for a small patch within a field, and subsequently
gave large numbers of exposures in which the patch might or might not
be present ; the subject was required to state whether or not it was there.
The number of correct judgments was markedly increased day by day if
the subject was informed after each judgment whether he was right or
wrong, in comparison with a control group who were not given this
information.
It was found by Gelb and Granit (1923) that the differential brightness
threshold was raised inside a figure drawn on a background ; they concluded
that the threshold is affected by factors of configuration and organisation
in the visual field. As certain simpler effects of contrast and adaptation
did not seem to have been fully controlled, some experiments were under-
taken in Cambridge by Craik and Zangwill (1938, in press) which showed
a similar rise for figures having the same degree of contrast but much less
strong ‘ figural character.’ Certain other results, to be mentioned below,
suggest that visual brightness discrimination is very largely peripheral, and
in this case higher processes might be expected to have little influence on
it. It is probable, however, that central factors are at work in visual
localisation, after-effect of seen movement, and binocular fusion. An
ingenious proof of the peripheral nature of flicker-fusion was given by
Sherrington (1906), who showed that the critical flicker frequency is practi-
cally the same for both eyes as for one, though the phase relations of the
flicker to the two eyes might be so arranged that one or other was illuminated
294 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
all the time. It seemed, then, that the basis of the judgment ‘ flickering ’
or ‘ steady ’ was given by each eye independently, and was not subsequent
to central fusion of the two fields.
Vernon (1934) found the critical flicker frequency to be affected by
conditions which caused binocular rivalry.
There remains the third group of factors—those which affect the sense
organ itself, by changing either the nature of the stimulus or the sensitivity
of the sense organ.
It was found that the absolute threshold for touch and the differential
threshold for tactile pressure (Grindley, 1936, 1 and 2) and for light in-
tensity (Drew, 1936) were raised if the increase was made more slowly ;
no rise was found for tactile pain, however. Experiments by Rawdon-
Smith (1935) showed indirectly that the differential loudness threshold is
higher for slow than for rapid change. Thus a sound which was made
alternately to increase slowly and decrease rapidly appeared to become
steadily less loud, as the slower increases were not noticed. Direct proof
of the same effect is given by Sturdy’s work, at present in progress here.
The interpretation of these results is uncertain, and the mechanism may
not be peripheral. Explanations might be proposed in terms of a trace-
theory or of adaptation ; at least it seemed desirable to consider these factors
here, since they are more specific and more closely connected with the
stimulus than those considered previously.
The peripheral aspects of auditory adaptation—the action of the tensor
tympani and stapedius—have been investigated by Hallpike and Rawdon-
Smith (1934, 1). The masking of one sound by another is a further
example of the interaction of stimuli, and was studied by Lane and Wegel
(1929) in the Bell Telephone Laboratories.
In visual perception, the presence of black masses or surrounds, or of
glare spots, can affect the absolute and differential thresholds, critical flicker
frequency, and acuity, in neighbouring areas, as shown by Lythgoe (1935),
Vernon (1934) and Stiles (1929). Though similar in its effects to the
‘ masking ’ of one sound by another, the mechanism is probably different.
Unlike hearing, visual perception is multi-dimensional, so that simul-
taneously presented stimuli are not necessarily superimposed in sensation.
It appears more likely that interaction, and contrast effects between different
stimuli presented together, are mainly due to the power of these stimuli
to change the state of adaptation of the retina in neighbouring areas (Lythgoe
and Tansley, 1929). This conclusion is supported by the results of Craik
(1938), showing a close similarity between the effects of previous dark or
bright adaptation upon intensity discrimination or acuity (unpublished) and
those of dark surrounds or glare spots as studied by Lythgoe and Stiles.
There is evidence of other interactive processes in the retina; Adrian has
facilitated neural summation by strychnine (1928). But whether or not
all cases of mutual influence between two simultaneous visual stimuli can
be explained in terms of adaptation, spatially regarded, it is certain that
previous adaptation of the eye to an illumination different from that at
which its brightness discrimination is measured, can cause a marked
deterioration in such discrimination (Rawdon-Smith and Mellone, 1935,
unpublished ; Craik, 1938). The regularity of these effects, their restric-
tion to the stimulated eye, and the failure of attempts to disinhibit them,
suggest a retinal origin.
Throughout these experiments on hearing and vision, an endeavour has
been made to find the main processes at work, to attribute them to their
correct ‘ levels,’ peripheral or central, and to correlate those events which
appear to be peripheral with anatomical and electrophysiological findings.
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 295
Following Sherrington, interaction between two similar or dissimilar sense
organs has been employed as a diagnostic sign of the level at which any
perceptual process was taking place. Irregularity and disinhibition also
provide clues, as noted above. Peripheral factors influencing the frequency
and intensity range of the ear have also been investigated by electrical
recording of auditory nerve-impulses (Hallpike and Rawdon-Smith, 1934,
1; Pumphrey and Rawdon-Smith, 1936 ; Hallpike, Hartridge and Rawdon-
Smith, 1937; Adrian, Craik and Sturdy, 1938), and localisation of pitch
discrimination in the cochlea assisted by the same method (Hallpike and
Rawdon-Smith, 1934, 2).
In the eye, the effects of adaptation are so marked and regular as to give
ground for analysing the behaviour of the eye (in regard to brightness
discrimination and acuity) into two parts—its behaviour at different test
illuminations when maintained in a constant state of adaptation throughout,
and its power of adaptation to different illuminations. To borrow an
analogy from Lythgoe (1935), the eye behaves rather like an ammeter which
can be set to various ranges (adaptation to different intensities) and gives
readings over a certain scale of currents when set to any one range (the
brightness sensitivity of the eye at various test intensities when adapted to
a fixed illumination throughout). It then appears that the eye sets itself
automatically to its most efficient range, for any given illumination, if allowed
sufficient time to adapt; for it is found that the differential threshold is
lowest when the adapting and test illuminations are equal.
It has further proved possible, in some work at present in progress, to
make monocular comparisons between fields simultaneously exposed to the
two eyes, when one eye is bright adapted and the other adapted to some
lower illumination or to darkness. Under these conditions, judgment of
equality to within a scatter of plus or minus 10 % may be obtained
although, owing to the two eyes being differently adapted, the physical
intensities may differ five hundred-fold. That so constant a judgment of
equality can be made between sensations whose physical stimuli are very
widely different indeed, raises once again the problem as to whether sensa-
tions may not be in some sense measurable, that is to say whether there may
not be some quality of the sensory responses themselves that enables them
to be equated, or differentiated in equal appearing steps. It is, at any rate,
clear that what value of physical intensity will be constantly equated to
another, or just differentiated from another, depends upon many other
conditions than the physical intensities themselves.
REFERENCES.
ApRIAN, E. D.: J. Physiol., 65, 273. 1928.
Aprian, E. D., Craik, K. J. W., and Sturpy, R. S.: Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 125,
435. 1938.
Craik, K. J. W.: J. Physiol., 92, 406. 1938.
and ZANGWILL, O. L.: Brit. J. Psych. (in press). 1938.
Drew, G.: Brit. J. Psych., 27, 279. 1936.
Ges, A., and Granit, A. R.: Zits. f. Psych., 12,1. 1923.
GRINDLEY, G. C.: Brit. J. Psych., 27, 189. 1936, I.
Brit. J. Psych., 27, 86. 1936, 2.
HA.tpike, C. S., HARTRIDGE, H., and Rawpon-SmiTH, A. F.: Proc. Roy. Soc. B.,
122,175. 1937.
and RAwDON-SMITH, A. F.: J. Physiol., 81, Pr. 25. 1934, I.
Nature, 133, 614. 1934, 2.
Lane, C. E., and WeceEt, R. L.: In H. Fletcher—‘ Speech and Hearing,’ 176.
London, Macmillan & Co. 1929.
LytuHcoE, R. J.: Trans. Ill. Eng.1,3. 1935.
~— and TAnsLEy, K.: Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 105, 73. 1929.
296 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
PuMPHREY, R. J.,and Rawpon-Smitu, A. F.: Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 121, 18. 1936.
Rawpon-SmitH, A. F.: Brit. J. Psych., 25, 77- 1934.
—— Brit. J. Psych., 26, 233. 1936.
SHERRINGTON, C. S.: ‘ The Integrative Action of the Nervous System.’ London,
A. Constable & Co. 1906.
StiLEs, W.S.: Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 104, 322. 1929.
VERNON, M. D.: Brit. J. Psych., 24, 23. 1934.
III. Statement by Mr. F. Guild.
ARE SENSATION INTENSITIES MEASURABLE ?
I have been invited to present the case of those members of this Com-
mittee whose answer to the question: Are sensation intensities measurable ?
is in the negative. ‘To write a report truly representative of the views and
outlook of those members would have involved an amount of collaboration
which for geographical and other reasons has been quite impracticable.
I have therefore made no attempt at such collaboration and this section of
the Report is simply an exposition of my own views. But though I am aware
that some of my colleagues would approach the problem from quite different
angles I am not aware of any significant respect in which their main con-
clusions would differ from mine. In respect of these main conclusions I
am confident that this section of the Report is representative of the con-
sidered opinions of the majority of the physicists on the Committee.
It is necessary in dealing with a subject of this kind to discuss not only
physical but psychological matters. I cannot claim that in dealing with the
latter the terminology is always employed in exactly the same sense as it
would be used in the literature of psychology. I must plead with psycho-
logists for the same tolerance in this respect that physicists have to extend
to them when perusing their writings on psycho-physical problems. I have
tried as far as possible to ensure that my meaning shall be clear from the
context despite probable inaccuracies in psychological terminology. I am
also dealing with broad principles, and to avoid confusion it has been
necessary to abstain from frequent digressions to mention and explain away
minor matters of detail which may not be in exact accord with some general
statement. There are practically no physical or psycho-physical phenomena
which are accurately described by any general statement. For example, I
describe a ‘ permanent object’ as a relation structure in which all the rela-
tions are found to be the same at all times. Of course there is not, strictly
speaking, any such thing : temperature variations and other causes produce
minor variations of relation-structure in any so-called permanent object.
Points of this kind have no relevance to our present discussion and it would
merely cloud the issue to bother about them. I trust this will be borne in
mind by anyone who may consider that any statement or definition made
hereafter is not quite right. I have also been confronted with the difficulty,
in writing for readers whose experience is mainly derived from two different
fields of study, of deciding what may be taken for granted. I trust this will
be sufficient justification if I appear to any reader, or section of readers, to
indulge in over-elaboration of obvious points. The same points may not
be familiar to all.
Measurement.
Before proceeding to consider the problem of measurement as applied to
psycho-physical problems it is desirable to consider some of the general
principles of measurement.
Measurement is primarily a device which enables us to use the laws of
arithmetic to solve problems relating to phenomenal events. The laws of
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 297
arithmetic pertain to numbers and to nothing else: there is nothing inherently
numerical in the structure of the phenomenal world. We are, however, so
familiar with the description of phenomena in numerical terms (or their
formal mathematical equivalents) that the association has become instinctive,
and we are apt to imagine that we directly perceive the metrical aspects of
nature as inherent constituents of phenomena, existing in their own right,
so to speak, and merely observed by us. This induces us to overlook the
essentially arbitrary and man-made nature of the association. When this
is of an unfamiliar character, as, for instance, when we associate the arith-
metical operation X 1/ — 1 with the physical events constituting a phase
change of x/2 in alternating current problems and others of a like nature,
we recognise it at once as a mere device of the mathematician. In principle
it is no more artificial than the more familiar associations of events with
arithmetical concepts which underlie all metrical processes.
The phenomenal world presents itself to us as a complex relation structure.
We need not here enter into metaphysical questions concerning the parts
played by our sense organs and by things external to us in determining the
kind of relations exhibited by phenomena. We will take the phenomenal
world as we find it: a structure of related events, which we find it con-
venient to describe and classify in terms of various concepts.
We have discovered—and this discovery is the foundation stone of
physical science—that by employing a simple but ingenious device some
aspects of phenomena can be classified so that certain phenomenal relations
existing between members of any such class are ‘ similar’ to the relations
‘between members of the class of numbers on which the laws of arithmetic
are based. In arithmetic, these relations are implicit in the meaning
assigned by two important symbols, namely =, the symbol of numerical
equality, and +, the symbol of the operation of adding one number to
another. All other arithmetical operations, subtraction, multiplication or
division, involution or evolution, etc., ultimately derive their significance
from the operation of addition.
In any class of phenomenal aspects of the kind we are considering we can
perceive various relations. Further, by performing experimental operations
on the things which exhibit the aspects in question we can change the actual
relations exhibited. But there is nothing inherently numerical in these
phenomenal relations : in order to establish a connection we must arbitrarily
associate some unique symmetrical transitive phenomenal relation from
among those which may have perceptual significance with the arithmetical
relation of equality ; and, further, we must associate some suitable experi-
mental operation with the arithmetical operation of addition. If, now, we
base our phenomenal classification entirely in terms of this symmetrical
relation and this experimental operation we obtain a phenomenal series
whose members are related to each other in a similar manner to the members
of the series of numbers. We must not confuse ‘ similarity’ as here used
with identity. Relations are themselves things which can be classified in
virtue of certain characteristics irrespective of the kind of things related by
them. A relation may be symmetrical or unsymmetrical, transitive or
intransitive, etc., and it is these properties of relations themselves, and not
any specific properties of the things related by them, which confer relational
similarity or dissimilarity on classes defined by relations. However, it is
not here necessary to discuss the theory of similar relations, or go into the
conditions which must be imposed on our selected criteria of ‘ equality’
and ‘ addition’ in order that phenomenal and numerical relations may be
similar. The important point to be noted is simply that there is no a priori
connection between phenomenal structure and number, and that to make
L2
298 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
a connection we must artificially associate a phenomenal criterion with
numerical equality and a phenomenal operation with numerical addition.
When we have done this, but not before, we can predict by arithmetical
calculation those phenomenal relations which involve only the stipulated
practical criteria of equality and addition. A phenomenal class defined by
two such practical criteria constitutes a measurable magnitude of the type
which Dr. Norman Campbell, in his well-known text-book on the principles
of measurement, has termed an A magnitude. Any such magnitude can
be measured by processes which do not imply the measurability of any other
magnitude. It is true that the practical criterion of equality for any A
magnitude will always involve the observation of some phenomenal state or
condition which may (and usually does) involve other magnitudes ; but the
observational criterion is always of the null type—no difference, or no
observable change, in the prescribed state or condition: no numerical
relations have to be determined or even be assumed to exist for these other
magnitudes. Familiar examples of A magnitudes are length, volume, mass,
electrical resistance, and many others which need not be detailed. The
practical criteria of equality and addition which define these magnitudes for
purposes of measurement are sufficiently familiar to require no description.
It is their significance which is not so widely recognised as it might be. It
is probably usual to regard the experimental processes of determining
equality and of adding as something which we have just found to be a con-
venient method of determining quantitative relations inherent in the nature
of the magnitudes, whereas these processes are the necessary connecting
links between phenomena and number without which there would be no.
basis of comparison between the laws of the former and those of the latter.
The experimental criteria do not merely enable us to measure a magnitude,
they create the magnitude by defining the fundamental relations which
are to be the basis of classification.
In Physics the general term measurement is not confined to A magnitudes.
By suitable experimental processes we affix numerals to many aspects of
phenomena to which no operation can be performed having any similarity
in relation structure to the operation of addition. Familiar examples are
density, specific heat, electrical resistivity, etc. All those things which we
ordinarily regard as properties of substances are magnitudes of this type.
They are the B magnitudes of Campbell’s classification. We can usually
formulate a practical criterion of equality for a B magnitude, but not of
addition. Nevertheless the numerals affixed to these magnitudes by our
experimental processes associate the members of the magnitude series with
the members of the series of numbers in such a way that predictions based
on arithmetic will always come out right. This does not, however, mean
that measurement without a practical criterion of addition is possible. It
results from the fact that B magnitudes aré evaluated simply as a function
of the measured quantities of two or more A magnitudes. The density
of a substance, for example, is nothing more nor less than the ratio of the
numbers which measure the two A magnitudes, volume and mass, associated
with any lump of the substance. Its importance is simply that this ratio
is found to be approximately constant for all lumps of what we call the
“same ’ substance and so is worth noting as a property of the substance.
But it would be impossible to do what, for brevity, we call measuring density
unless we were already able to measure volume and mass. ‘The associations
between phenomena and number required for the measurement of density
are supplied, not in practical criteria applicable to density as such, but in™
the practical criteria of equality and addition on which the scales of volume
and mass are based.
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 299
Strictly speaking, therefore, the only measurable magnitudes are A magni-
tudes. Density is only ‘ measurable ’ in the sense that we can arrive at an
evaluation of it by processes of measurement—measurement of the A magni-
tudes volume and mass ; and any relation involving density is primarily a
relation involving volume and mass. Similarly what we call the ‘ measure-
ment’ of any other B magnitude is really only the measurement of two or
more A magnitudes and the combination of the results by some appropriate
formula to give a single number which we term the ‘ value ’ of the B magni-
tude in question. Confusion is sometimes caused by the fact that in practice
we frequently evaluate A magnitudes by processes which are more appro-
priate to B magnitudes. After scales of measurement have been established
for many magnitudes, and instruments of various kinds developed
for their practical evaluation, it is often easier with the apparatus at one’s
disposal to evaluate an A magnitude indirectly from measured amounts of
other magnitudes than to measure it directly. For example, electrical
resistance, which is an A magnitude, can be measured as such with a
Wheatstone bridge system which does not involve measurement of any
other magnitude. It can also be determined indirectly from measurement
of the potential difference required to drive a measured current through it,
and this quite often is the most convenient method. Similarly length,
which is pre-eminently an A magnitude, is often measured indirectly by
methods involving measurements of the angles of a triangle. But these
indirect methods are only possible because we have previously established
the scales of measurement of the A magnitudes by direct methods involving
only the criteria of equality and addition appropriate to each, and have, then,
from measurements made possible by the existence of these scales, deter-
mined the various quantitative relations among phenomena which we must
know before we can deduce the value of an A magnitude from measurements
of other magnitudes.
We must clearly distinguish between indirect methods of measuring A
magnitudes which we may adopt as a matter of choice after we have accumu-
lated various experimental data involving previous direct measurement of
the magnitudes, and the indirect methods that are inevitable in the case of
B magnitudes, which, because there is no criterion of addition applicable
to them, cannot be measured except as the numerical constants in laws
relating the quantities of two or more A magnitudes which are found to be
associated together in some important class of circumstances. Density,
for example, is simply the constant in the experimental law that for any
lump of a given substance under specified conditions if we determine the
number which is the measure of its mass on the scale appropriate to mass
and the number which is the measure of its volume on the scale appropriate
to volume the ratio of the former number to the latter is constant.
The significance of all measurement is therefore derived from the principles
of measurement of A magnitudes. These, very briefly, are as follows :
We prepare a large number of samples of some physical entity which
exhibits the magnitude in question. In the case of length or mass, for ex-
ample, these samples will be material rods or lumps. In the case of a
magnitude like intensity of radiant energy the samples of the physical
entity exhibiting the magnitude may consist of lamps or other sources of
radiation operating under constant conditions.
By some method appropriate to the particular case we adjust these samples
until they fulfil our experimental criterion of equality. In this way we
obtain any required number of ‘ equal’ quantities of the magnitude. We
attach the same numeral to each of these quantities, thereby associating
them with one number. We then produce other quantities in increasing
300 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
order of magnitude by the successive performance of our practical operation
of addition on the equal quantities at our disposal. In this way we obtain
a series of discrete samples of the magnitude having a relation structure
similar to that of an arithmetical progression. ‘Though not essential, it is
convenient for identification purposes that the same numerals should be
used as names for the corresponding members of the phenomenal and
numerical series. ‘The particular arithmetical progression which fulfils
this condition is that in which the first term and constant difference is the
number which we have arbitrarily associated with each of the equal samples
used to build up the series of magnitudes. If for convenience we take unity
for this number, our series of magnitudes consists of members, associated
by virtue of our practical criteria of equality and addition, with the cardinal
numbers I, 2, 3, 4, . . . etc., the number associated with each member
being simply the number of our original equal samples of the magnitude
which have been added together to obtain it. ‘This series constitutes a
scale of measurement of the magnitude in terms of the original quantity
as the ‘ unit.’
A scale of measurement would, however, be of little use if its significance
were confined to the members of the initial series built up in this way. We
want to be able to use the scale to ‘ measure ’ any sample of the magnitude
which we chance to encounter. We do this by comparing the unknown
sample with the various members of our built-up series to find if it fulfils
our practical criterion of equality with any one of them. If we find it to
be equal to the member associated with the number 1, we say that 7 is the
measure of the unknown sample. There is an obvious difficulty if we
cannot find a member in our standard series to which the unknown magni-
tude is equal, for we have not defined a practical criterion for any numerical
relation other than equality. All we can say in such a case is that the
sample measures more than 7 and less than » + 1. In principle no scale
of measurement can be continuous because it involves an association with
number, which is essentially discontinuous. A scale of measurement can
only define and identify a discrete series of quantities. In practice of course
we can reduce the gap between successive members of the measurable
series by taking smaller samples of the magnitude for our initial collection
of equal quantities. If we take them so small that the gaps in our scale are
of the same order of magnitude as the uncertainty in determining whether
or not our practical test of equality is fulfilled we shall always be able to find
some member which seems to be equal to any given sample of the magnitude.
In other words we can measure any sample to within the accuracy of our
practical tests, though in principle any scale we can construct, however
fine-grained, has exactly the same kind of discontinuity as one constructed
with large steps. It would clearly be tedious to build up a complete scale
of any magnitude from very small samples of the magnitude, and in practice
various short cuts based on the numerical relations imposed by our initial
definitions of equality and addition are employed, but the fundamental
principle is not affected.
It is obvious that to state the number which measures any given sample
of a magnitude tells us nothing unless we know what quantity has been taken
as the ‘ unit.’ This is not necessarily the quantity of the members of the
initial collection of equal samples used to build up the scale: as already
mentioned we are free to associate any number we like with this quantity,
though in the absence of any reason to the contrary it would be natural to
associate it with the number 1. Usually, however, there are reasons to the
contrary, but these are extraneous to the principles of measurement and are
mere reasons of convenience which we need not go into here. ‘There is no
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 301
reason inherent in the nature of things why the number 1 should be associ-
ated with any particular quantity of any magnitude. What is essential to
measurement is that this number shall be uniquely associated with some
quantity, and that standard samples shall be available by means of which
we can reproduce this association at any time. These standard samples
need not be, though they often are, of the exact quantity constituting the
unit. They may have any value on the scale defined by the unit. Their
function is to make possible the co-ordination of the scales of the various
measuring instruments which have to be used in practice. Every measuring
instrument has a scale of its own. [If it is constructed on.correct principles
its scale will be similar to the standard scale but will not in general be
identical with it. By measurement on the scale of the instrument of a
standard sample whose value on the standard scale is specified we ‘ calibrate ’
the instrument so that values on the standard scale can be deduced from
its readings.
It is clear that standards are only necessary for A magnitudes. No
standards are required for B magnitudes, whose numerical values are
entirely determined by the scales used for measuring A magnitudes.
It is obvious that the practical criterion of equality and the practical
operation of addition which together define an A magnitude must be
applicable at all parts of the scale of the magnitude. In arithmetic it is
not only true that 1+ 1+ 1-+1-+1=5, but also that 1+ 4=5 and
that 2 + 3 = 5 and also that 5 + 5 = 10,5 + 8 = 13, andsoon. Once
we set up a scale of measurement for a magnitude, and begin to apply
arithmetic to the results of measurement, the laws of arithmetic will predict
that phenomenal relations ‘ similar’ to the numerical relations just quoted
will exist among the members of the magnitude series, and these predictions
are meaningless unless the practical criteria of equality and addition are
applicable irrespective of the ‘size’ of the samples to be compared or
combined. ‘Thus it is not enough to have a practical criterion of equality
for, say, length which can only be applied to samples of 1 mm., or a criterion
of addition of lengths which can only be applied to samples 1 mm. long.
From such limited criteria we could construct any number of equal samples
1 mm. long and could add them to form a series in ascending order of magni-
tude, but the process would be of no use whatever for measurement. The
laws of arithmetic would predict that one group of five of our equal samples,
added by our criterion of addition, should be equal to any other group of
five similarly added ; but this arithmetical prediction has no phenomenal
equivalent if the practical criterion of equality by which our 1 mm. samples
are selected is for some reason inapplicable to the comparison of 5 mm.
samples. Further, arithmetic predicts that one 5 mm. sample added to
another 5 mm. sample is equal to a sample obtained by adding ten of our
I mm. samples. This prediction is again meaningless if our process for
adding the 1 mm. samples is not also available for adding 5 mm. samples.
There is, in fact, an important principle of measurement, which as far as
I am aware has never been explicitly stated because it is so obviously ful-
filled in most of the measurements carried out by physicists that to state it
seems superfluous. This principle is that the phenomenal significance of
equality and addition as applied to any magnitude must remain the same to
whatever samples of the magnitude they are applied.
If this principle is violated by changing the significance either of addition
or equality as we ascend the series of magnitudes, we destroy the cross-
relation between the series of magnitudes and the series of numbers on
which their ‘ similarity ’ depends, and the result, whatever it may be, is not
measurement.
302 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
The foregoing considerations obviously apply to the majority of the
magnitudes measured by physicists. There are some cases in which the
application is less obvious, for example the measurement of intervals of
time and the measurement of temperature. To discuss satisfactorily the
measurement of time would, at the present stage in the development of
physical theory, involve a long excursion into Relativity problems ; so as no
one has tried to base sensory measurements on any analogy with time measure-
ments, there is no justification for devoting space to it here. Suffice it to
say that there is no method of measuring time which is not in accordance
with the general.principles already laid down. More consideration must
be given to the measurement of temperature, for attempts are frequently
made to justify the use of certain so-called scales of sensation intensity by
analogy with arbitrary scales of temperature. There is no real analogy ;
but before this can be demonstrated we must examine the case of temperature.
When we observe physical objects by the sense of touch the sensations
produced contain various constituents which we interpret as indicating
distinctive properties of the objects. Objects may be rough or smooth,
hard or soft, hot or cold, etc. ‘The condition of an object in virtue of which
it may feel hot or cold to the touch is called its temperature. Experiment
has shown many observable relations of a general kind between the tempera-
tures of bodies and their measuable properties. The length and electrical
resistance of a given rod, for example, are usually greater when the rod
feels hot than when it feels cold. In fact, nearly all the properties of a sample
of any substance are appreciably different in these two conditions, and in
particular, what is called the amount of heat in the sample, which has been
identified with the energy of the relative movements of the ultra-microscopic
particles of which bodies are known to be composed, is greater when the
body feels hot than when it feels cold. When two bodies, of which one is
hotter than the other, are brought into close contact, there is a transfer of
energy from the hotter body to the cooler, which goes on until the molecular
movements in each body are (on the average) equally energetic. We are
entitled to use the term ‘ equally energetic’ here, because kinetic energy is
measurable quite apart from this property of hotness or coldness of bodies,
so that equality, as applied to quantities of energy, has a definite significance.
When the transfer is complete, the hotter body has been cooled and the
cooler body warmed until neither is hotter than the other. The bodies are
then said to be in thermal equilibrium. ‘This is a symmetrical transitive
relation between bodies, and so provides a practical criterion of equality for
the condition called temperature. But there is no practical operation
similar to addition which can be applied to temperature. Obviously there
is no method of combining bodies of equal temperature which will provide
a series of different temperatures. In this respect temperature is analogous
to density : any combination of bodies of equal density results in no change
in the value of density. Similarly, any combination of bodies of equal
temperature results in no change of temperature. Temperature must
therefore be treated as a B magnitude. Our scale of temperature must
depend on the measurement of something else.for which a scale of measure-
ment is already established. Since the temperature of a body depends on
the energy of molecular movement, we may produce our arbitrary association
between a series of temperatures and the series of numbers by considering
the temperature of a body to increase by equal amounts for equal increments
of the energy of molecular movement. If we assume a scale of temperature
to be established on this basis it can be shown theoretically that certain
physical relations—called thermodynamical relations—are of a very simple
form. This is of great convenience to the mathematician, but is of no
wisest
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 303
special importance to anybody else. We must not make the mistake of
assuming that the simplicity of thermodynamic formule on this scale of
temperature indicates that we have hit upon a ‘ true’ measure of tempera-
ture. The thermodynamic relations will obviously be simple since nothing
but dynamical quantities are taken into account in establishing our scale of
temperature, which is purely conventional and made to give the simplest
possible relation between temperature and energy. Unfortunately this
scale is of little use to the practical physicist as there is no practicable method
of measuring molecular energies, which have to be deduced from measure-
ments of still other things, such, for example, as the properties which would
be exhibited by a so-called perfect gas or an ideally perfect heat engine.
But as there is no perfect gas and no ideally perfect heat engine practical
measurements can only be made with imperfect gases or imperfect heat
engines, and corrections which are difficult to determine and in some cases
involve assumptions of doubtful validity have to be made. The thermo-
dynamic basis does not, therefore, afford a practical means of measuring
temperature. It cannot be over-emphasised that measurement is a practical
process for obtaining experimental information, and it is not sufficient to
be able to formulate the necessary kind of association between a series of
magnitudes and numbers; it must also be possible to carry out all the
operations involved in defining the basis of the association. Otherwise we
have a theoretical scale of measurement with which we cannot measure
anything. The thermodynamic scale of temperature is in this category.
For the practical measurement of temperature we must seek some other
basis. We seek it in some measurable physical property of substances or
bodies which varies continuously with temperature. We have an em-
barrassing choice of such properties: the length of a rod, the volume of a
given mass of a gas or liquid, the electrical resistance of a wire, the e.m.f.
_ of a ‘thermocouple’ of two wires of dissimilar metals, the intensity of
radiation from a ‘black body,’ etc., etc. All these are measurable by
practical processes and all vary with temperature. We may choose any one
of them to provide a scale of temperature by deeming to be equal those steps
in temperature which accompany equal increments in the measurable pro-
perty, or by postulating any other convenient law relating the property with
temperature. The mercury thermometer scale is based on this principle,
the practically measurable property utilised being the apparent volume of
mercury in a glass container. It is as ‘ true’ a scale of temperature as any
other, that is to say, there is nothing either true or false about it. Physicists,
however, soon wanted to pursue their investigations of thermal phenomena
to temperatures both higher and lower than those for which mercury
thermometers can be used, and various forms of gas thermometer were
evolved. Each of these involves a new definition of a temperature scale
based on deeming to be equal the increments of temperature associated with
equal increments in the pressure, at constant volume, or the volume at
constant pressure, of a constant mass of whichever gas is used, usually
hydrogen or nitrogen. When the pressure is low, and the temperature
high, the properties of hydrogen approximate very closely to those of the
mathematician’s idea of a perfect gas. ‘The scale of the hydrogen thermo-
meter, except at low temperatures, therefore agrees closely with the thermo-
dynamic scale.
But there are disadvantages in using a gas thermometer for everyday
thermometry, and in practice other types of thermometer are used. Con-
spicuous among these are the platinum resistance thermometer and various
types of thermocouple. All of these provide scales of temperature which
are essentially independent of each other, though they may, of course, be
304 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
empirically related by intercomparison of thermometers of the various types.
There is not, however, any a priori formal relation between the scales, and
it is necessary to make an arbitrary choice of some one of them as a standard
scale for defining the magnitude temperature. Unfortunately, no single
type of thermometer can be used over the whole range of temperature in
which physicists are interested, and the international temperature scale,
adopted in 1927, is a patchwork arrangement involving three essentially
different scales. From — 190°C. to 660° c. the standard scale is defined by
the variation of resistance of pure platinum wire ; from 660° Cc. to 1063° c.
by the variation of the e.m.f. of a thermocouple of platinum and a specified
alloy of platinum and rhodium ; and above 1063° c. by the variation in
intensity of monochromatic radiation emitted by a ‘ black body ’ radiator.
In each of these ranges the temperature scale is defined by postulating a
formal law relating the measurable variable (resistance of platinum thermo-
meter ; e.m.f. of platinum, platinum-rhodium thermocouple, or intensity
of monochromatic radiation) with temperature. The constants in these
laws are determined by means of appropriate ‘ fixed points,’ e.g. the
temperatures of melting ice, boiling water, boiling sulphur, melting gold,
etc. In order to preserve the simplicity of thermodynamic equations and
the gas laws, the various scales are brought as closely into accordance with
the thermodynamic scale as possible by suitable choice of the values to be
assigned to the ‘ fixed point ’ temperatures and by suitable choice of the law
of variation postulated for the standard type of thermometer applicable to
each range. This does not mean that we succeed in setting up a thermo-
dynamic scale. The scale is still in fact made up of several independent
parts, each of which is completely defined by the law of variation postulated
for the prescribed type of thermometer together with the values assigned to
those of the fixed points utilised in determining the constants of the law.
All we can succeed in doing by suitable choice of laws and constants is to
get a scale which is sufficiently close to the theoretical thermodynamic
scale that the laws of thermodynamics based on the theoretical scale are
approximately true for measurements made on the real scale.
It is of great convenience to do this ; but it is not an essential require-
ment of measurement that it should be done, and the scale arrived at in this
way is not in any fundamental respect a ‘ truer’ scale of temperature than
one based on the postulation of simple proportionality of, say, the resistance
of a platinum thermometer and temperature.
The fact that there is no operation of addition applicable to temperature
qua temperature, prevents it from being measurable in the true sense of
the term. All we are able to do, however we may disguise it by theoretical
considerations, is to assign numerals to temperatures in accordance with
an arbitrary postulated relation to some measurable property of some
specified substance or piece of apparatus. When once we have defined
some such scale of temperature, temperature becomes ‘ measurable’ in the
broad sense in which this word is generally used ; and the laws relating
other physical variables with temperature as so defined become open to
empirical investigation.
It will be clear that the measurement of - temperature is only possible
because the relations between temperature and those properties of sub-
stances or bodies which we utilise in defining the scale are constant.
But how do we know they are constant? It may be thought that con-
firmation of the constancy of the relations defining our scale is to be sought
in the constancy of the various other relations between phenomena and
temperature which we determine by means of our scale once we have
established it. This is not so, for such a principle is based on an a priori
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 305
assumption of the constancy of natural laws. Any such assumption belongs
to metaphysics and has no place in physical science, in which no statement
about the behaviour of the universe can be made except on the basis of
experimentally determined facts ; and no facts about the relations between
phenomena and temperature can be determined until a metrologically
sound method of measuring temperature is available. We must therefore
be satisfied that our method of measurement is sound without reference to
any natural laws involving temperature. The point is that the constancy
of the law defining our scale does not require confirmation. It is not an
assumption, which may or may not be true, it is a postulate forming part of
the conventional framework of physical measurement. ‘The postulated law
is necessarily always true for the simple reason that it serves the purpose of
defining temperature as ‘ the thing for which this law is true.’ There is no
criterion of the magnitude of a temperature (nor of any B magnitude) other
than the law by which we choose to define it. It would therefore be
meaningless to ask whether the temperature to which our scale assigns the
numeral 7 is in fact the same temperature at all times and places.
_ Temperature only enters into the physicist’s experience indirectly, in
virtue of its effect on the measurable properties of bodies. He is therefore
never concerned with it as a thing having existence in its own right which
may on occasion assert that existence in ways which are inconsistent with
his arbitrary definitions. He is perfectly free to define it by any postulated
relation to some one physical property, and so long as he keeps to this
definition and makes his measurements in accordance with it no contra-
diction between the results of measurement and any other kind of experience
can ever arise.
Psycho-physical Measurements.
With the foregoing introduction in mind, the application of measurement
to psycho-physical problems may now be considered. The title of this
Committee is wide enough and vague enough to include many matters
which are not in dispute, and some misapprehension has been evident during
the deliberations of the Committee as to precisely what is in dispute. Those
who have contended that methods hitherto supposed by some to lead to
quantitative scales of sensation intensity are invalid have been supposed to
contend that no quantitative experiments bearing on ‘ sensory events’ are
possible. Such a contention would of course be absurd, and I will first
consider some important types of psycho-physical measurement which can
be, and have been, effected. These may briefly be classed as measurements
of relative stimulus efficiencies. An important and well-known example of
this kind of measurement is found in the so-called relative visibility function
of the eye, which tells us the relative visual efficiency of unit intensity of
monochromatic radiant energy of different wavelengths. Briefly, these
measurements consist in determining the relative amounts, measured in
physical units, of two samples of monochromatic radiation of different
wavelengths which are required to make the two sides of a photometric
field appear equal with respect to the attribute of brightness. By repeating
this for different pairs of stimuli we obtain measures of the relative physical
intensities of stimuli of various wavelengths throughout the spectrum which
are required to produce equal intensities of the sensation of brightness.
The relative efficiencies of radiation of different wavelengths for exciting
the sensation of brightness are inversely proportional to the amounts
required to produce the same brightness, and it is these relative efficiencies
which are usually tabulated or plotted as the ‘ relative visibility function ’ of
the eye.
306 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
Now what is meant by the physical intensity of a stimulus in these
experiments ? We should usually define it as the rate at which radiant
energy is incident on unit area of the photometer screen. This is what we
intend our physical intensities to mean, but there is a difficulty. Intensity
of radiation can be measured as an A magnitude for all samples of radiation
of the same spectral quality, because in comparing such samples the pro-
perties of the measuring instrument are completely eliminated and equality
in its response implies equality of radiation intensity. It is a different
matter when we wish to measure samples of radiation of different spectral
qualities ; for example, monochromatic samples of different wavelengths.
A physical detector of radiation operates in virtue of some interaction between
radiation and matter, and in general the efficiency of radiation in producing
the response characteristic of the detector varies with wavelength. In
other words the sensitivity of the detector is a function of wavelength. It
is evident that when we compare samples of radiation of different wave-
lengths 4, and A, for which our detecting apparatus gives equal response
we have not necessarily got equality in the rates of energy flow Fy, and Fo,
but in the products o,,F,, and 6,2#,2, where ca, and o,, are the sensi-
tivities of the detector for these wavelengths. Our experimental criterion
of equality is not equality of E, but equality of FE, o,, where oa is some
function of wavelength. ‘This is true whatever type of detector we use to
provide a practical criterion of equality in radiation measurements. In
principle we cannot get beyond it.
We cannot formulate a practical criterion of equality for FE, alone, but
only for the product of £, and another function of wavelength characteristic
of the particular instrument used to provide the criterion of equality. Now
we have seen that in the measurement of an A magnitude quantitative
knowledge of the properties of the instrument used to establish equality
must not be assumed. This requirement is fulfilled in the present case if
we regard as our measureable magnitude not the quantity HE, but the
quantity E, o,. This is, in fact, the quantity measured by any radiometric
operation, and it is evident that different types of detecting instrument for
which o, is not the same function of wavelength will measure different
magnitudes. It so happens that some types of detector can be constructed
for which oc, is nearly independent of wavelength. Thermopiles and other
instruments with lamp-black receiving surfaces or with nearly-closed radia-
tion traps are of this class. In a well-blackened thermopile, for example,
o, is so nearly constant over large ranges of wavelength that for practical
purposes it may be regarded as constant. With such an instrument the
magnitude E, c, may, to a close approximation, be written k E, and it is
usual to leave the constant out altogether and regard the magnitude as Fy).
For practical purposes this is quite legitimate. Our results are the same
to within the errors of observation as they would be if we really did measure
Ey; but for an understanding of the significance of a criterion of equality
in any metrical process, it is fatal to ignore the factor o, even when it is
constant. ‘This is the same kind of philosophical error as we make when
we regard the arithmetical ratio n/1 as identical with n, ignoring the division
by unity because it does not affect numerical results. The two zs are,
however, quite different things ; one may be the cardinal number 2, the
kind of number used for counting eggs, whereas the other denotes a relation
between two numbers, one of which just happens to be unity. In the same
way there is a fundamental difference in significance between the magnitude-
E, and a magnitude consisting of the product of Ey, with a function of
wavelength, and this difference in significance is not eliminated because in
some particular case the function of wavelength is a constant and may be
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 307
assigned the value unity. The essential point is that whatever apparatus
we use in an attempt to measure radiation intensity we in fact measure a
magnitude of which radiation intensity is only one factor, the other factor
being a property of the particular kind of physical system on which radiation
produces the detectable effect utilised in our measuring apparatus.
In the case of a thermopile or similar instrument this second factor is
practically independent of wavelength, and for practical purposes we treat
the magnitude as though it were Ey alone. With detectors of the photo-
electric or photo-chemical type, the instrumental factor varies considerably
withwavelength, but any such detectorfurnishes a practical criterion of equality
for a magnitude EF, o, where oj is its sensitivity factor at wavelength 4.
Now this is exactly what the human eye does in photometric measure-
ments involving differences in spectral composition. ‘The part of the eye
which interacts with radiation is, of course, a physical instrument which
converts some of the radiant energy into other forms, photo-chemical and
photo-electric effects being produced which in turn cause stimulation of
the optic nerve. We are not at this stage of events concerned with the
physics or physiology of the nerve system or with how the physical pheno-
mena occurring in the nerves ultimately produce the sensation of light.
The peripheral organ is simply a physical detector of radiation, and when
used in conjunction with a photometer provides a criterion of equality for
a magnitude FE) ca where oa has the same kind of significance as in the other
cases referred to above.
Now in the case of the eye o, is the efficiency of radiation of wavelength A
in stimulating the sensation of brightness, so the magnitude EH, o, has the
dimensions of sensation intensity, as of course it must have since it is
equality of sensation intensity which provides our criterion of equality for
Ex ox. If we could measure EL, 6, we should be measuring sensation
intensities ; but while we have a practical criterion of equality for this
magnitude we have no operation of addition. All the means employed to
vary the intensity of the light reaching the eye from the photometer are
applied solely to the beams of radiation and depend ultimately on the
operation of addition applicable to E, alone. There is no operation we
can perform which would correspond to the addition of quantities of the
product £&, o,. It is therefore impossible to deduce any quantitative
information about unequal intensities of sensation from photometric
measurements such as those embodied in the visibility curve. We can
predict that certain relative quantities of energy of different wavelengths
will produce equal sensation intensities under prescribed conditions, but
that is all, and the whole science of heterochromatic photometry is devoted
to establishing this kind of equivalence between stimuli of different physical
qualities. The variation of relative sensitivity with wavelength as exhibited
by the visibility curve is of course an important constituent of ‘ sensory
events ’ and can, as we have seen, be quantitatively described by the results
of measurements.
The kind of measurement denoted by the term ‘ Colorimetry ’ involves
only an extension of the same principle.
To discuss colorimetry would carry us beyond the limits of available
space. Suffice it to say that in all such measurements the only criterion
provided by the eye is one of equality, in this case not only equality in the
one attribute of brightness but simultaneous equality in colour and bright-
ness. As in ordinary photometry all quantitative operations performed in
the measurements are performed on beams of radiation, and do not provide
any experimental operation which can be identified with addition of sensa-
tions. The results of colorimetric measurements can therefore only be
308 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
used to predict equality of colour (under conditions of equality of bright-
ness) for various combinations of stimuli. They cannot be used to obtain
a quantitative measure of the difference between two different colour
sensations. The sets of numerals assigned to any stimulus as a measure of
its colour are in no sense a measure of the colour sensation evoked by that
stimulus: they are simply a measure of the relative quantities of three
standard stimuli which, if combined, would evoke the same colour
sensation.
The sensory properties which can be quantitatively described by the
results of photometric or colorimetric measurements are typical of all those
in which controllable stimuli are compared with respect to the relative
amounts of them which evoke the same intensity or quality of sensation, or
which, more generally, produce the same psychological effect. "The psycho-
logical criterion of equality which we impose defines, qualitatively, some
psycho-physical magnitude, a B magnitude, defined completely by the ratio
of two or more stimulus quantities which fulfil the psycho-physical criterion
of equality under prescribed conditions. Such magnitudes can be measured,
and their measurement gives important information about ‘ sensory events,’
but such measurements do not serve to place dissimilar sensations on a
quantitative scale either of intensity or quality.
This of course has always been recognised by leading psychologists.
Thus Fechner, as quoted by Titchener (Experimental Psychology, Vol. II,
1905, p. Xxili) says, “. . . the measure of sensitivity, as a measure of mere
capacity of sensation, is not to be confused with a measure of sensation
itself. Nor does it presuppose any such measure, but only the observation
of instances of equal sensations, under like or different conditions of
stimulation.’
A type of measurement which has been supposed to provide a measure
of sensation intensity is that based on the determination of just noticeable
differences of stimulus intensity, usually designated j.n.ds. for brevity.
The principle of such measurements is sufficiently familiar to anyone who
can be interested in this Report that it is needless to describe it here. The
relation between j.n.ds. and stimulus intensity has been determined for
various senses and in itself provides valuable information about the opera-
tion of the various sensory mechanisms. The ratio of the j.n.ds. at any
intensity to the intensity tells us the minimum fractional change in that
intensity which is perceptible. We may term it the fractional sensitivity,
and its determination under properly specified conditions is not only of
interest to the psycho-physicist, but is of great practical importance.
Fractional sensitivity is a B magnitude defined as the ratio of two stimulus
quantities associated in a specified manner—namely, that the smaller of
them is just noticeable when added to the larger. Its evaluation involves
only measurement of stimulus intensities, and the association between
phenomena and numbers if entirely provided by the scales of measurement
established for stimulus intensities.
Fechner, however, believed that a scale of sensation intensity could be
based on j.n.d. measurements. His contention has received much criticism
from the beginning, both from psychologists and physicists, and I find it im-
possible to say that psychologists on the whole have been more or less ready
to accept its implications than physicists. Despite the criticism which has
been lavished on it, however, Fechner’s general principle is still believed
by many to afford a basis for measurement of sensation intensities. This.
is probably due to the fact that much of the criticism has been on questions
of detail or on questions of principle which are not really relevant and the
real objections have been lost like a needle in a haystack of discussion. I
-
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 309
will endeavour to confine attention here to the essential principles of
Fechner’s theory and examine these in the light of the general principles
of measurement.
Let us assume a stimulus to be increased from zero intensity by steps
each of which is a j.n.d. Let us denote the j.n.d. at intensity J by AI.
The total stimulus intensity at any stage is, of course, the sum of all the
ATs which have been added up to that stage. From our experiments we
can express AJ as some function of J, say AJ = f(J).
When the j.n.d. AJ, is added to the stimulus J, there is an increase in
intensity of sensation which we denote by AS;. Similarly when the j.n.d.
AI, is added to the stimulus J, there is an increment of sensation AS,
and in general, the stimulus increment AJ when added to the stimulus /
produces an increment AS in the sensation intensity. Fechner’s first
principle is that the total sensation S corresponding to the stimulus J may
be regarded as the sum of all the A.\Ss corresponding to all the AJs which
have been added to produce the stimulus. If we know the relative magni-
tudes of the various As we then, by this principle, have a scale of magni-
tude for S. Of course we have no a priori knowledge of the relative
magnitudes of the sensation increments corresponding to j.n.ds. at different
intensity levels, and Fechner’s second principle is that we are free to
postulate an arbitrary quantitative relation between AS, the liminal
increment of sensation, and S, the total sensation, say AS = 9(S), where
(S) is some arbitrary function.
M4 We then have, by postulate, AS = 9(S), and from j.n.d. experiments
le Ti(1):
Whence eal
eS) FQ)
treating the small quantities AS and AJ as differentials we get the
differential equation
d Smeal)
eS) =f)
and by solving this equation we obtain the relation between S and J, that
is to say, the relation between sensation intensity and stimulus intensity.
I have put Fechner’s second principle in its most general form. Fechner
himself propounded it in the special form in which 9(.S) =k: that is to
say, he postulated that all the ASs are equal. Plateau and others have
suggested the form o(S) = kS, equivalent to the postulate that AS/S
is constant at all parts of the scale. Much discussion has centred round
which of these forms of 9(.S) is most in accordance with facts. It does
not appear to have been noticed that the very possibility of a factual criterion
being applied to discriminate between the two functions is inconsistent
with either of them forming a true basis of measurement, for, as we have
seen, a scale of measurement is independent of any facts other than those
created by the necessary and sufficient conventions postulated in defining
the required association between number and magnitude for the scale in
question. If Fechner’s second principle is to be accepted it is immaterial
what form is given to the arbitrary function 9(.S), and Fechner was quite
justified in adopting the simplest one.
Now we note that Fechner. aimed at measuring sensation intensity as
an A magnitude in terms of units of its own kind: his two principles imply
both a criterion of addition and a criterion of equality. In Fechner’s own
form of the second principle the criterion of equality is stated explicitly,
310 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
but in the general case it is implicitly defined by the form postulated for
@(S) taken in conjunction with the criterion of addition.
We see at once, without examining either of these criteria in detail, that
something must be wrong somewhere. ‘The scale purports to measure an
A magnitude, yet its defining relations involve measurable quantities of
another magnitude—stimulus intensity. We have already seen that the
relations defining the scale of an A magnitude must be independent of any
quantitative relation (other than equality) for other magnitudes. Fechner’s
principles do not lead to a scale of this kind for sensation, and so do not
measure sensation as an A magnitude. Nor do they measure it as a B
magnitude. ‘The only way to treat sensation as a B magnitude is to define
S by a postulated relation to J. We shall return to this later ; at present
we are only concerned to note that Fechner’s principles do not do this.
They introduce criteria of equality and of addition of sensation magnitudes,
forming the basis of some association of sensation with number independent
of the association established for stimulus magnitudes.
The S obtained by Fechner’s principles is therefore neither an A magni-
tude nor a B magnitude, but has some of the properties of both, which
means it has not the necessary and sufficient properties of either. Fechner’s
principles do not therefore enable us to measure any magnitude. It may
be useful to examine in more detail why this is so. First consider the
criterion of equality as applied to some pair of ASs, say AS, and AS,.
AS, is the sensation increment associated with a j.n.d. at intensity J,,
while A\S, is the sensation increment associated with a j.n.d. at some other
intensity J,. These two statements taken together form the only specified
relation between AS, and AS,. The relation is not symmetrical: it
ceases to be true if AS, and AS, are interchanged. It is therefore not a
relation of the kind necessary for providing the practical criterion of equality
in a system of measurement. This one consideration alone renders super-
fluous all the semi-metaphysical arguments which have centred round the
question whether or not equal, in the sense of equally noticeable, necessarily
means ‘ really’ equal. A symmetrical transitive relation is essential as a
practical criterion of equality in measurement.
Further, the proposed criterion of equality, being defined in terms of
j.n.ds., has no meaning when applied to quantities of sensation other than
those associated with j.n.ds. Thus it is quite meaningless to say that
S = AS, + AS, + ...ASy by Fechner’s criterion of equality. We
cannot apply the same practical criterion to the comparison of S with
AS, + AS, +... ASp as we use to establish the equality of the ASs.
Fechner’s definition of equality, in addition to its failure to fulfil the require-
ments of symmetry also fails to fulfil the requirement of applicability
throughout the scale of magnitude. It is a gross logical error to use ‘ equal ”
in one sense for liminal magnitudes and in some quite different sense for
supraliminal magnitudes. In regard to sensation intensities we have the
ordinary intuitive criterion of equality which we employ whenever we judge
that of two stimuli neither is greater than the other. This is the only kind
of equality which has any meaning at all sensation intensities, and as we
must accept this criterion of equality for sensation intensities in the general
field of sensory experience we cannot admit a different one in some special
part of the field. We see therefore that Fechner’s second principle, that we
may arbitrarily postulate equality (or any other relation which implies an
arbitrary definition of equality) for the ASs of aj.n.d. series is wrong. We
may not do this because there is already, in our psychological constitution,
a criterion of equality which we cannot ignore or modify. Fechner’s
postulate is not therefore a postulate but an assumption that the ASs are
a mes
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 311
equal by this general criterion of equality. We have no right to make this
assumption for there is no operation in the determination of a j.n.d. series
which corresponds to the operation of judging equality of sensations in the
ordinary way. In fact it is really meaningless to enquire if the ASs are
equal on any scale applicable to sensation intensities, for the criterion of
equality applicable to sensation intensities is not applicable to liminal incre-
ments at different intensities. Failure to realise this from the first is doubt-
less due to failure to realise that a practical operation for establishing
equality is part of the definition of any magnitude. Equality of sensation
intensities is established when we compare stimuli neither of which appears
greater than the other. But ASs at different parts of the j.n.d. series cannot,
from their nature, be experienced under the same degree of stimulation.
The operation of establishing equality of sensation intensities is inapplicable,
not merely in practice but in principle, to members of the AS series.
From the point of view of measurement it is therefore impossible to regard
the ASs as samples of the magnitude S. Thus Fechner’s first principle,
that we may regard S as the sum of a series of ASs, is invalid, and also, of
course, his identification of the ratio A,S/AI with the differential coefficient
of S with respect to J; for, of course, the small quantities constituting the
numerator and denominator of a differential coefficient must differ in size
only, and not in nature, from any other samples of the two variables. They
must be measurable on the same scales as other and larger samples, which
means that the phenomenal relation defining equality and the phenomenal
operation defined as addition must be the same for the differentials as for
all other samples of the variables. As this is not true of AS, it cannot be
regarded as a small quantity of the magnitude S and A S/AJ has no relation
to a differential coefficient.
This conclusion, derivable wholly from the principles of measurement,
confirms those psychologists who have argued, from quite different premises,
that we cannot regard a sensation S as analysable into a series of small
quantities added together like the millimetres in a metre stick. A milli-
metre and a metre are samples of the same magnitude and differ only in
size, but the AS of j.n.d. experiment and S are not: they differ in nature,
as they cannot be defined by the same kind of relations.
We could go on much longer examining Fechner’s principles in detail,
but any one of the objections we have already discussed is sufficient to show
that these principles cannot lead to the measurement of any magnitude at
all, either of the 4 or B class.
Another type of psycho-physical experiment we must consider is that in
which a series of three or more stimuli are graded by the method of ‘ mean
gradations.’ The principle may be illustrated by an example from vision.
The observer is presented with a series of patches of light, all of the same
colour, whose intensities are under his control, and is asked to adjust their
brightnesses until they form a series so that the ‘ seeming disparity ’ between
each one and the next in the series is the same. Brown (The Essentials of
Mental Measurement, 1911, 2) calls this ‘seeming disparity’ a ‘ sense-
distance.’ When this experiment is performed a relation can be established
between the grading so effected and the grading in terms of stimulus intensity
(photometric units). The results of experiments of this kind for vision
and other senses are usually interpreted as establishing a relation between a
psychological magnitude—sense-distance—and stimulus intensities. The
grading is supposed to consist of equal sense-distances, and the relation
found between these equal sense-distances and the corresponding stimulus
intervals is regarded by most psycho-physicists as providing a basis on
which a quantitative relation between sensation intensity and stimulus
312 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
intensity may be constructed. The underlying assumptions are that a
sense-distance is the difference between the sensation intensities corre-
sponding to its terminal stimuli, and that the difference between the sensa-
tion intensities corresponding to the lowest and highest of a series of unequal
stimuli is the sum of the sense-distances between the adjacent pairs of the
series. For this to be possible sense-distances must be samples of the same
magnitude as sensation intensity. Let us examine the proposed criterion
of equality. We define as equal the sense-distances between pairs of
unequal stimuli which satisfy a certain subjective criterion. It is un-
desirable to attempt to define this criterion at the moment because the words
we choose to define it tend to invest it with some one of a number of alterna-
tive interpretations. Suffice it to say that there is a condition which the
observer attempts to satisfy in experiments of this kind. For our present
purpose the nature of this condition is immaterial, the essential point is that
the practical operation of producing equal samples of sense-distance neces-
sarily involves at least three stimuli of different apparent intensities, whereas
the operation of producing equal samples of sensation intensity involves
only stimuli of the same apparent intensity. We see therefore that sense-
distance, whatever it may be, is not the same kind of magnitude for the
purposes of measurement as sensation intensity. The one cannot be
expressed on any scale applicable to the other, and it is meaningless to regard
them as quantities of the same measurable magnitude.
It may be objected that this applies with equal force to the difference of
two samples of any magnitude. We cannot produce an example of equal
differences of length, for instance, without at least three objects of unequal
length while the operation of producing equal lengths involves only objects
which appear equal by our criterion of equality for length. The analogy
is illusory. Difference of lengths as something expressible on a quantitative
scale derives its significance from the association of number and length
established by the practical criteria of equality and addition which define
length as a magnitude. It merely means the length which must be added
to. the smaller of two lengths in order to make a new length equal to the
larger of the original pair. We cannot define a process of subtraction
independently of a process of addition. We cannot construct a scale of
length from units of difference-of-length defined by operations other than
those involved in defining equality and addition for length. Similarly we
cannot give any quantitative significance to difference-of-sensation-intensity
unless we already have practical criteria both of equality and addition for
sensation intensity; for all that difference-of-sensation-intensity means,
if it means anything, is the sensation intensity which, when added to the
smaller of two given sensation intensities, will produce a new intensity
equal to the larger.
The mean-gradation series as a basis for determining a relation between
sensation intensity and stimulus intensity has therefore the same defect as
the j.n.d. series. ‘The proposed criterion of equality is not the one applicable
to sensation intensities. Thus if sense distance is a magnitude, it must be a
different magnitude from sensation intensity.
Further, as with the j.n.d. series, the proposed criterion of equality is not
a legitimate one for defining amy magnitude. Each sense distance in the
series is defined for practical purposes by a pair of dissimilar stimuli, a
different pair being applicable in each case. No symmetrical transitive
relation can be constructed from such material, therefore no criterion of
equality appropriate to measurement can be formulated for sense-distances.
So whatever sense-distance may be it is not a measurable magnitude !
Thus if we examine by what right the word equal is applied to the pheno-
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 313
menal relations observed in this type of experiment or by what right we
assumed that it is differences of sensation intensity which determine the
grading, we find that there is no justification whatever in either case.
We have here an example of the mental suggestion produced by the
repeated use of certain words in a loose and inaccurate manner. The
instructions given to observers invariably beg the question of the nature of
the operation to be performed. These instructions naturally vary, but they
ate certain to contain such phrases as ‘ bisect the interval,’ or ‘ adjust . . .
half-way between,’ or ‘ adjust C to be as much brighter than B as B is brighter
than A,’ and soon. In all descriptions of the experiment which I have seen,
the process is described in terms of this kind which have a definite significance
only when applied to magnitudes which we already know how to measure.
The observer is in fact instructed to perform a definite quantitative opera-
tion, but is not told how to doit. He does the only thing he can do ; that is,
adjust the stimuli until he detects some unique character in the relation
exhibited by each pair. There is nothing in the operations he actually
performs (adjustments of lamps or of sound-emitters, etc.) to tell us what
kind of relation it is which he arrives at, and there are no a priori grounds for
assuming that differences of sensation intensity, or equality, either of such
differences or of any other magnitude, enter directly into that relation.
Nevertheless the terms of the usual instructions, by their quantitative
implications, suggest the idea of equality and difference as if the operation
were exactly analogous to marking off a metre stick into a series of equal
parts. If we are instructed to bisect a metre stick, or to arrange three
points A, B and C, so that C is as much higher than B as B is higher than A,
the instructions have a definite meaning in virtue of the phenomenal rela-
tions and operations defining length as a measurable magnitude ; and we
can obey the instructions by performing operations in accordance with
these definitions ; but if we had not already defined practical criteria for
equality and addition of lengths there would be no operation corresponding
to ‘ bisection,’ or to the establishment of any other quantitative relation, for
lengths. This is the position in the present experiments. Though we
have a criterion of equality for sensation intensities we have no operation
of addition, and until we have there is no meaning in associating any quanti-
tative relation, equality or any other, with differences of sensation intensity.
It should be clear, therefore, that the description of this experiment
should be couched in language which makes no assumptions about the nature
of the relation which the observer is to establish, and that we should avoid
all terms like bisect, equal-appearing, sense-distance or others which suggest,
by their association with the properties of measurable magnitudes, an
unjustifiable interpretation of the operations performed in the experiment.
Let us attempt to describe the experiment in terms of the operations
performed.
We set up three ® similar objects of the type which are perceptible by the
sense—vision, hearing or whatever it may be—for which the experiment
is to be made. Object is here used in the most general sense to denote
anything external to ourselves which is perceptible in virtue of the fact
that it is the origin or apparent origin of a stimulus affecting one of our
senses. In the case of vision the objects may be lamps, or self-luminous
surfaces, or surfaces seen by reflected light. It is necessary to emphasise
the fact that the first requisite of the experiment is a set of perceptible
objects. If we keep discussing stimuli without reference to their origin we
may easily lose sight of the fact that all stimuli reach us from our environ-
3 Three or more, but three is enough to illustrate the principles involved.
314 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
ment and that the normal function of perception is to provide information
about that environment. So we set up three suitable objects to provide
stimuli.
We must be able to adjust at least one of the objects with respect to the
perceptible property in such a way that the stimulus we receive from it can
be varied in magnitude without change of quality. In the visual case, to
which I will confine the remainder of the description, we must be able to
alter the brightness of the object without changing its colour. There are
numerous practical methods of doing this. Let us denote the objects by
A, B and C, and suppose that C is brighter than A, and that B is brighter
than A but less bright than C. The pair of unequally bright objects A and B
present us with a directly perceived phenomenal relation. So also does the
pair B and C. We must not confuse these directly perceived phenomenal
relations with the quantitative relations between the measured intensities
of the stimuli. In order to know anything about the latter relations we have
to measure the stimulus values by appropriate methods, but in order to
perceive the phenomenal relations we have only to look at the objects. The
perceivable phenomenal relations would still be just what they are if we had
never formulated a scale of measurement for brightness as a photometric
magnitude, in which case there would be no quantitative relations between
the stimuli. So we cannot describe phenomenal relations, as intuitively
perceived, in terms of quantitative concepts. ‘They are simply those aspects
of the objective world, as directly perceived, in virtue of which we
differentiate objects and groupings of objects from each other. Returning
to our experiment, we perceive the phenomenal relations between objects
A and B and between B and C, which we will denote by A.B and B.C, the
notation conveying no implications about the nature of either relation.
We also notice a relation between these relations. We find that as we vary
the brightness of B between those of A and C not merely do the individual
relations A.B and B.C change but so also does this cross relation. We are
not required to describe (nor indeed are we able to describe) how it changes.
To say that the perceived interval AB is greater, equal to, or less than the
perceived interval BC is merely to use words before we know what they mean
in the particular application. The relation changes in some respect which
is directly apprehensible to us: that is all we can say. In general the rela-
tion is not one that we recognise as having any special significance, but as
we go on adjusting the brightness of B to various values we find that there
is one value, and only one, for which the relation we are now speaking of,
the relation ‘between the relations A.B and B.C, is such that we recognise
those relations as having sameness in some respect which has a unique
significance in perceptual experience.
This is the criterion we have been trying to satisfy: the experiment is
finished except for the measurement of the stimulus values, i.e. the actual
brightnesses of A, B and C, by the appropriate photometric methods. The
experimental psychologist may object that to look for a recognisable relation
between undefined relations A.B and B.C is not what the observer is asked
to do, and there is therefore no reason for supposing that this is what he
does. It is the only thing he can do. The instructions usually given him,
as already stated, are couched in terms of operations for which no meaning
has been defined. Whether or not he thinks he understands them and
believes himself to be carrying them out is of no consequence. He cannot
in fact carry them out. All he really gathers from the instructions is that.
there is some unique perceptual criterion by which the stimuli may be
arranged, and assumes when he has found such a criterion that it is the one
the instructor means. Thus, although in many psycho-physical experi-
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 315
ments the instructions are of vital importance because there are several
different things the observer may do depending on his interpretation of
them, in the present case the nature of the instructions has no influence
on the experiment because there is only one thing the observer can do if he
performs the experiment at all.
The foregoing is, in all essentials, an exact description of how experi-
ments of this kind are carried out. The extension of the process to build
up a series of stimulus intervals each of which is related to the next in order
in the same way as A.B is related to B.C clearly implies no new principle.
The application of equivalent processes to hearing or other senses only
involves differences in practical details.
We observe that the experiment may be described without introducing
the concepts of equality, difference, bisection, etc. ‘The only concept
required is that of ‘ recognisability ’ as something which confers on some
relations a unique significance not possessed by other relations of the same
general type. We also note that it has been unnecessary to make specific
mention of sensation intensities. In our description sensations remain in
the background, as they do in ordinary life, serving their normal purpose
of making us aware of phenomenal relations among the objects in the
perceptual field. Of course there must be psychological relations corre-
sponding in some way to the observed phenomenal relations, but we pay no
attention to these in performing the experiment ; we simply accept the
information they afford us about the external objects. ‘The mental attitude
of the observer during these observations is the normal one of perception,
not of apperception. He is observing the objects, not his own sensations :
his criterion of the accomplishment of his task is not the deliberate
identification of any unique relation among his sensations, but the recog-
nition of a unique relation exhibited by the objects.
Recognition appears to me to be the key-word for the interpretation of
this experiment. What does recognition mean? We may confine atten-
tion to the intuitive recognition of phenomena, the kind of thing that happens
when I know a friend as soon as I see him, or when I know my own house
as soon as [ come within sight of it, or know that a certain sound is the call
of the cuckoo as soon as I hear it, or know tea by its taste, or lavender by
its smell, and so on. What is my friend, what is my house, what is a
cuckoo, or tea, or lavender? Each of these is nothing more (at least as
far as I am concerned) than permanent, or quasi-permanent, relation-
structures perceivable against a background of ever-changing phenomenal
relations. We look out (and hear out, feel out, taste out, and smell out)
on a world consisting of a medley of directly perceivable phenomenal
relations of a great variety of different kinds. Some of these relations keep
changing and attract but fleeting attention. Others remain apparently
unchanged for a long time, and these we group into relation structures
which constitute enduring phenomena such as people, houses, cuckoos,
tea and so on, the ‘ objects’ or ‘ things’ which endure. Now any such
relation structure may contain many different types of relation. Not all
of these involve magnitudes, but many of them do, and of these some will
be extensive, like length, mass, brightness, etc. Of the relations involving
such magnitudes, some will involve absolute extension while others will
involve only relative extensions. Absolute is here used in the ordinary
everyday sense. There is, of course, no criterion for absolute extension of
any magnitude in the fundamental sense of absolute. Absolute extension
in the ordinary sense is itself relative—relative to some universally applicable
standard, such as the length of the standard metre, or the mass of the
standard gram, or the brightness of a surface emitting a lumen per sq. cm.,
316 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
and so on, which is not necessarily a member of the group of phenomena
We are perceiving at any given moment; whereas by relative extensions
we mean relative not to an external fixed standard but to the other extensions
of the same magnitude within the perceived group of phenomena. In a
relation structure composed of lengths, those relations involving absolute
extension determine what we vaguely call the size of the structure while
those involving only relative extensions, in this case the ratios of the various
lengths, determine what we call the shape of the structure. Of two such
structures it may happen that the relations involving absolute lengths are
different but that all the relations involving the ratios of lengths are identical.
The two structures are of the same shape but of different sizes. ‘The terms
size and shape are so convenient for discriminating between properties
depending on absolute extension and those depending on relative extension
that it will be useful for our present discussion to extend them to apply
to relation structures involving any extensive magnitude. We may use
the term relation-shape to signify the sum total of those properties of a
relation structure involving any extensive magnitude which depends only
on the relative extensions of the samples of the magnitude comprising the
structure, and relation-size to signify the sum total of those properties of
the structure which depend on the absolute extensions. For instance,
consider a‘simple relation structure involving two masses A and B of 20
and 30 gm. As this particular structure does not include the universal
standard gram, the relations of the masses A and B to this standard are not
part of the structure, so the masses of A and B are absolute extensions of
the magnitude mass. Of course the symbols 20 gm. and 30 gm. used to
denote these absolute masses are meaningless unless we determine the
relation between each mass and the standard gram, but this is determined
from the examination of other relation structures of which the standard
gram is a part. So long as attention is confined to our present structure
the masses are absolute. Relations exhibited by this structure include
(1) B—A=r10 gm.; (2) B+ A=50 gm.; (3) B/A =1°5. If we
have another structure involving masses C and D of, say, 40 and 60 gm.,
the corresponding relations are : (1) D— C= 20 gm.; (2) D+ C=
100 gm.; (3) D/C =1°5. Relations (1) and (2) involve absolute masses ;
relation (3) only relative masses. These two structures have the same
relation-shape but differ in relation-size. In the same way, two relation
structures involving, say, brightnesses, may have the same relation-shape
provided the ratios of the brightnesses comprising one structure are the
same as the corresponding ratios in the other structure, but will differ in
relation-size if the absolute brightnesses of the corresponding members of
each structure are not equal.
Of the physical relations constituting a relation structure of the kind we
call an object, the relation-sizes are properties of the body just as much as
the relation-shapes ; but they are not of equal importance for intuitive
recognition. The complete relation structure of an object can never be
perceived on any single occasion. It is a synthesis of many relations
observed in different ways at different times, and usually involves several
of our senses. We can never see a house; we can only see the visual
relations exhibited by the particular bit of the outside or inside of it which
comes within the field of view at one instant. In order to become
acquainted with all the visible properties of a house we have to perform
numerous acts of seeing at different times and in different conditions.
Even then we have not apprehended the whole house: we have to feel
all over it for such tactile relations as it may exhibit—hardness or softness
of its various parts, roughness or smoothness, etc.—and perform all sorts
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 317
of measurements on it to obtain the absolute extensions of the various
extensive magnitudes which are involved in its relation structure. A
relational construct built out of all this material is what we mean by ‘ the
house.’ From the moment when we first notice that some of these re-
lations are repeated on different occasions of observation, we get the idea
of a permanent physical entity firmly rooted in our minds ; and thereafter
every sense impression which presents relations that may, without evident
contradiction, be regarded as part of a self-consistent relation structure is
linked in our minds, by the psychological process known as association,
not merely with the other relations comprising the structure but also with
this co-ordinating idea of a permanent physical entity—an object. ‘Then,
when at any time we perceive any reasonably important group of the
relations for which such associative bonds have been established, it at once
calls up the idea of the whole object, and we recognise the object as a house,
or a cuckoo, or tea, or whatever it may happen to be.
Now the strength of an associative bond is reinforced by every repetition
of an experience of the relations involved. It is only after many repetitions
of similar experiences that the association becomes instantaneous and
automatic as is the case with those associations by which we recognise the
presence of a well-known object or well-known type of object. It is clear
therefore that of all the relations pertaining to a relation structure, those
will be most important for recognition which are most often observed, and
will be those phenomenal relations of which our sense-impressions are least
affected by the variable conditions in which our miscellaneous observations
are made. Now if we consider the visual sense, it is at once obvious that
those phenomenal relations involving absolute size will apparently vary
every time we change our distance from the object. It appears bigger in
the perceptual field from one distance than from another and those apparent
sizes vary continuously as the distance changes and do not cluster round
any norm. Any relation involving absolute size will be but rarely repeated
in our miscellaneous observations of the object, and the associative bond
will be too feeble for us to recognise the relation as part of the relation
structure of the object. On the other hand, those phenomenal relations
involving only the relative lengths of different parts of the object are
apparently unchanged by distance, and the same relations will be observed
every time we view the object from any given direction. Strong associative
bonds between these relations and the idea of the permanent objects are
established, and we regard the experiencing of any important group of
them as ‘ seeing the object.’
In so far, therefore, as its distribution in the dimensions of space is con-
cerned, an object is recognised by its apparent shape, not by its apparent
size. Apart from possible differences in the relation structure of other
magnitudes associated with the object, and which we are not considering
at the moment, objects of the same apparent shape observed separately
are absolutely indistinguishable from one another by direct perception
whatever may be their sizes. A series of objects of the same shape, but
in ascending order of size, seen in succession present merely a selection of
the appearances which any one of them would present as we approach it
from a distance. It is this which makes sameness of shape a uniquely
important phenomenal relation for perception. If we are shown a large
number of triangles of miscellaneous sizes and shapes, each is a relation
structure of the same general character, involving the same number of
samples of the same magnitude, length, arranged with respect to each other
in the same manner, i.e. end to end and completely enclosing a space. In
addition to perceiving the relation structure constituting each triangle we
318 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
perceive various relations between these individual structures. Between
any pair selected at random there will in general be an obvious difference
both in size and shape. If we have a really large and miscellaneous selection
to examine, we shall see between various pairs practically every possible
kind of phenomenal relation that can exist between triangles. In general
there will be nothing unique in any of these relations, nothing to which we
can attach more importance in the case of one pair chosen at random than
in the case of any other pair. There is only one relation which will strike
us as unique: if we find that there are two or more triangles of the same
shape we can pick them out at once as a group characterised by the unique
relation of having a recognisable property common to all its members.
Sameness of relation-shape is a symmetrical and transitive relation between
relations or relation structures, and it might seem that it is this property
which makes it uniquely important to perception. I don’t think there are
grounds for this view. We do not in perceiving phenomenal relations
analyse them into their logical classes. The unique significance we attach
to a pair of triangles of the same shape when we pick them out from a medley
of pairs exhibiting other relations between their shapes is instinctive. It
does not depend on a conscious realisation that if (triangle) A is of the same
shape as B, B is also of the same shape as A, and further that if B is the
same shape as C' then A is also of the same shape as C. It might be sug-
gested that we do realise these facts almost simultaneously with the
perception of the triangles, but even if this were so only a mathematician
would also realise that the facts were of any unique importance as properties
of a relation. I can see no reason why any phenomenal relation should
have a unique significance for intuitive perception apart from association ;
and if we find, as we actually do from experience, that some particular kind
of relation has a unique significance it must be because it has become
indelibly associated in our minds with some unique type of experience of
outstanding frequency of occurrence. Broadly speaking, practically the
whole of our perceptual experience consists of the observation of permanent
objects and the ever-changing relations which ,these permanent objects,
regarded as self-contained unchanging entities, may enter into with each
other. The changing relations between permanent objects are ephemeral ;
the relations between the moving motor-car and the mile posts are different
every time we look: but the relation structures constituting any given
aspect of the permanent objects, the motor-cars and mile posts themselves,
do not change, and are perceived every time we observe the same aspect
of the objects, whatever the circumstances of observation. Any particular
relation between different objects is therefore observed very rarely as com-
pared with the relations which characterise objects themselves, and which,
for a given object, are the same at all times. This is why ‘ sameness’ of
relation structure is perceived far more frequently than any other relation
between relations. Jt is the relation between the perceived relation structures
of any object on different occasions.
It may be objected that when we identify the same object on different
occasions we are not really concerned with a relation between separate
relation structures observed on these occasions, but are merely perceiving
the one identical structure every time. This, however, is to confuse the
relation structure which constitutes any phenomenon with the abstract
relations involved in it. A phenomenal relation structure is not a structure
of abstract relations, but of instances of relations. For example, suppose
we arrange three billiard balls so that each ball is distant ten feet from each
of the others and that we also arrange three other billiard balls in the same
way. We have here two phenomenal relation structures in which all the
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 319
relations, including those involving absolute length, are the same. But
the two relation structures are not identical ; they are separate instances of
the same relations. If we regard three balls arranged as above as a
phenomenal unit—a ‘ thing "—the two relation structures are not the same
thing but two different things, each with its own identity, even if there is
no possible test by!which we can distinguish one from the other, as there
will not be if all the relations in the two structures are identical. In
describing phenomena as relation structures we do not mean a con-
glomeration of abstract relations, but a grouping of actual instances of
relations. Some modern philosophers are apt to forget this and regard
the universe as built up of abstract mathematical material. But we cannot
build reality with abstractions: there must be ‘things’ to relate before
we can have an example of any relation. It is true that these ‘ things ’ are
themselves resolvable into relation structures involving relations between
more elementary ‘ things,’ and so on indefinitely, but we never reach a
stage at which we find relations without ‘things’ to relate. This is not
because methods of physical analysis do not go far enough. If our present
ultimate things—electrons, positrons, etc.—were split into a million other
things, and each of these into a million others, we should still be in the
same position. Any actual instance of a relation must have things in it to
be related. All the relations in the relation structures constituting two
billiard balls may be identical, but the relation structures are not identical ;
the ‘ things’ in them are different: it requires twice as many of them to
make two balls as to make one. Therefore when we say that two objects
have the same relation structure we do not imply identity. This is clear
enough when we are considering two or more objects like billiard balls
whose non-identity can be proved by their simultaneous existence in
different places. It is not so obvious in the case of the relation structures
of which the same object is composed at different times. Here the
elementary ‘ things ’ which enter into the various relations in the structure
are the same things on all occasions, or at any rate we have no way of
knowing that they are not. But we have no way of knowing that they
are. Our idea of a permanent object is based on the inter-consistency of
an enormous number of acts of perception involving different aspects of
the object and different relations to other objects. In any single act of
observation only a small part of this material is presented to us, and its
perception is a self-contained experience. We perceive a phenomenal
relation structure, that is all. On a subsequent occasion we also perceive
a phenomenal relation structure. How do we correlate these experiences ?
Neither of them in itself contains anything to indicate that it is a repetition
of the ‘same’ experience. As far as immediate perception is concerned
we must regard the relation structures perceived on separate occasions as
separate structures, and we can only correlate them by means of cross
relations between these structures. The correlation of successive appear-
ances of the same object therefore depends on the same principle as the
correlation of the appearances of two or more objects simultaneously
observed. In the latter case the relation structures are separated in the
dimension of space and in the former in the dimension of time, but for
the comparison of perceived relations this difference in the dimension of
separation is of no importance. Perceptions separated in time are com-
parable in consequence of memory which reproduces the relation structure
of a past observation for comparison with the relation structure of a present
one. The smaller the gap in time between the observations, the more
accurately is the memorised structure reproduced. As a matter of fact
the comparison of the relation structures of simultaneously existing objects
320 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
also depends, at least to a considerable extent, on memory. We cannot
simultaneously apprehend all the material in a complex perceptual field.
This is well known to workers in experimental psychology. Our attention
fluctuates rapidly to and fro over the field and the composite impression
of which we are conscious is really a blend of memories of features perceived
at slightly different instants. Thus the difference between what we
ordinarily regard as simultaneous perception of phenomenal relations and
successive perceptions is only one of degree. The recognition of the
successive appearances of an aspect of any permanent object does not
depend on any mysterious power of identifying one relation structure on
different occasions, but is simply an instance of the relation we call sameness
between relation structures which are separate in perception but are brought
together, by memory, for simultaneous comparison. We do not give the
relation this name because it implies mathematical similarity or for any
reason of that kind. It exists among phenomena as directly perceived,
and implies no knowledge of quantitative relations which may or may not
be establishable by the indirect processes of physical measurement. It is
only in relation structures comprised of measurable magnitudes that
mathematical relations have any meaning, and when our perceptual
criterion of sameness is applied to relation structures of this kind we have
to find empirically the mathematical relation to which it corresponds.
We call our relation sameness simply because its unique importance in
perception is derived from its continual presentation to us in association
with the idea of ‘same’ objects; but it will, for the reasons already
discussed, retain its unique significance whenever we encounter it, whether
in successive appearances of the same object or in the successive or
simultaneous appearances of different objects. The appearances of two
or more objects which happen to exhibit this unique relation between their
perceived relation structures will be recognised as the ‘ same’ appearances
just as if they were in fact successive appearances of some one object.
An important conclusion follows from these considerations which has
a bearing on many problems of sensory experience. This is that any
phenomenal relations that may be of special significance in cases of
simultaneous perception will also be of special significance when the
phenomena are separately observed, and vice versa.
We have already seen that in phenomenal relation structures involving
lengths, owing to the varied conditions in which our everyday experience
is obtained, the only relations in the structure which are significant for
recognition of the object are those which determine the relation-shape of
the perceived structure, while those which determine the relation-size play
no part in recognition ; and that for such structures the recognitive relation
of sameness involves only relation-shape.
It is easy to see that this must also be the case for structures involving
other perceptible extensions. The apparent brightnesses of the various
parts of recognisable permanent objects depend on circumstances of
observation just as much as their apparent sizes. The illumination by
which objects are seen varies over an enormous range, and their perceived
brightnesses vary accordingly. Obviously no relations involving absolute
brightness will be recognised as uniquely associated with any object.
Similarly with sound, any sound pattern, such as a musical chord or a piece
of music which we recognise as the ‘same thing’ when we hear it on
successive occasions may be heard on different occasions at different
distances from the source. Its apparent loudness will vary enormously
in our experience of it, and there will be no particular loudness in any way
uniquely identified with the pattern.
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 321
It is needless to discuss other senses ; in general the varying conditions
of perception, coupled also with the variations which take place in our
sensory sensitivities, make it impossible to form an associative bond between
any perceptible extensive property and the ‘thing’ which possesses it.
In all cases our perceptual criterion of sameness must involve only the
relation-shape of the perceived relation structure and not its relation-size.
This much is obvious; but the psycho-physicist is concerned with
establishing relations between our sensory criteria and the measurable
physical properties of the world, and we must enquire what sameness of
perceived relation structure implies with regard to the corresponding
physical relations established by processes of measurement. The arbitrary
criteria for associating phenomenal relations with numerial relations which,
as we have seen, are the basis of any metrical scale, establish a correlation
between phenomena and number of such a kind that whenever a given
numerical relation between measured magnitudes is repeated, the corre-
sponding phenomenal relation will also be repeated. It follows that if the
relation shape of the relation structure comprising the metrical relations is
repeated so also will the relation shape of the phenomenal relation structure,
and vice versa. Therefore, since the recognitive relation of sameness
involves only the relation shape of the phenomenal structure, the measur-
able property which is recognised must involve only the relation-shape of
the metrical structure, in other words the relative quantities of any measur-
able magnitudes associated with objects. When we observe a miscellaneous
collection of objects of the same type, those which appear to be characterised
by the same ratios of the measurable magnitudes will be instinctively classed
together in virtue of our perceptually unique relation of recognisability.
Returning now to our experiment on ‘ mean-gradation ’ we see that the
criterion is nothing more than the recognition of the sameness of the
relation structures consisting respectively of the bright objects A and B
and the bright objects B and G, and that owing to the way in which the
relation of sameness has come to acquire its unique importance (by asso-
ciation with appearances of ‘ same’ objects of constant physical properties
under varying conditions of perception) this perceptual criterion should
only be satisfied if the measured brightnesses of A and B and of B and C
are in the same ratio. Our example, and most of the discussion, has been
in terms of visible phenomena, but the conclusions are applicable to all
experiments of this kind. The grading of a series of stimuli in such
experiments should result in steps such that the ratio of each stimulus to
the next in order is constant. The measurement does not depend on
equality of any sensory magnitude describable either as difference in
sensation intensity, or as intensity difference regarded as a magnitude by
itself. The concept of sense distances, assumed to be equal for the steps
of such a series, is entirely illusory. Nothing is involved but the recog-
nition of a relation between the relations which relate the physical intensities
of adjacent pairs of stimuli, a relation which does not imply equality of any
magnitude, either objective or subjective, but owes its special significance
to association with the perceptible aspects of the various kinds of permanent
objects or things in terms of which we are accustomed to interpret our
experience. Our perceptions will always result in our assigning properties
to objective things, and, as we have seen, should result in our grading these
things, as far as extensions are concerned, in terms of relative magnitudes.
Magnitudes observed on separate occasions will be graded by perception
in the same way as when observed simultaneously, because the only basis
of comparison in such cases is memory, and the same relation determines
the comparison as in simultaneous observation. ‘The position we assign to
M
322 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
any stimulus, experienced by itself, against the background of memorised
experiences of other stimuli of the same kind will be the same as we would
assign to it in a series of stimuli experienced simultaneously. If we mis-
takenly estimate sensation intensities on the unjustifiable assumption that
the sense distances in a so-called mean-gradation series are equal, we are
led to the mistaken conclusion that sensation intensity tends on the whole
to increase by equal amounts for equal increments of the ratio of stimulus
intensity (or that S varies as log J) ; then when we experience some stimulus
by itself, as when we observe a single bright object or hear a single sound,
we tend to estimate the sensation intensity on the same false (or rather
meaningless) scale by comparison with memories of previous experiences
of the sensation intensities corresponding to known stimulus intensities.
Actually we are not comparing sensation intensities at all, but are attempting
to place the stimulus in a series of its memorised predecessors, graded in
terms of the recognitive relation of ‘ sameness ’ of relative intensity ratios.
It cannot be over-emphasised, because it is so consistently overlooked,
that when we perceive a light or a sound or any other perceptible thing our
resulting impression, and the judgment we base on it is not of our sensations
but of those features of the environment from which we receive the stimulus.
That is the normal function of perception: our judgment is about the
objective intensity of the stimulus, and if we say of the members of a group
of stimuli graded by the mean-gradation criterion that the intensities
“ appear ’ to differ by equal amounts, when in fact they do not differ by equal
amounts, we are merely asserting that our senses are misleading us and
providing wrong information about the phenomena observed. But our
senses do not grossly mislead us (except in unfamiliar circumstances). In
general they inform us reasonably correctly of the relations exhibited by the
phenomena: that is what they have been evolved for. It is only if we
misinterpret these relations that we are led to false conclusions.
So, when we are trying to estimate the loudness of a sound, for example,
it is not the subjective intensity of our sensation we are estimating on any
scale, true or false, but the objective intensity of the sound. Whatever the
actual relation may be between sound intensity and sensation intensity it
merely serves the purpose of leading to an intuitive judgment about the
objective sound, and if we so interpret this judgment as to grade the sound
on any scale of magnitude but the right one—the scale of stimulus intensi-
ties—we are not discovering any fact about sensation intensities, but are
simply making a mistake about the objective intensities. ‘Thus the pre-
valent idea that the sensations of brightness, loudness, etc., vary approxi-
mately as the logarithm of the stimulus intensity is devoid of any basis
and is neither proved by, nor even suggested by, mean-gradation
experiments.
All these experiments can tell us is whether, on the whole, the operation
of our sensory system is such as to provide us with reasonably accurate
information about the relation structure of the objective world. If any
single act of perception provided us with absolutely accurate information
about the relations perceived, all mean-gradation series would consist of
intensities each in the same ratio to the next for the reasons we have dis-
cussed. But we would scarcely expect any act of perception to provide
absolutely accurate information about objective relation structure. As we
have already remarked, what we mean by the true objective relation structure
is a synthesis of an enormous number of relations observed in different
ways at different times. For any individual act of perception to provide
information absolutely consistent with this synthetic whole would require
a uniqueness of relation between stimulus and response only obtainable
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 323
from a mechanism of absolutely constant properties, deliberately designed
and constructed for the purpose. We do not look for such machine-like
behaviour from sensory mechanisms, made of living material necessarily
influenced by changes in our bodily conditions, and not designed, in the
usual sense of the term, but simply developed by the gradual processes of
evolution to become more and more serviceable to us. Evolution is a
gradual process. Our sensory mechanisms are doubtless much better suited
for providing us with the kind of information we want from them than
were those of our early forefathers, but are just as surely less well suited
for that purpose than they might be, and presumably may be some day.
Although, as I have tried to emphasise, we do not consciously judge our
sensation intensities in an act of perception but judge the objective intensi-
ties, the sensation intensities are nevertheless the only basis of the judgment ;
and there must be a relation-structure in the psychological content of the
sense impression corresponding to the relation structure of the phenomena
perceived. We cannot expect from the nature of our sensory machinery
that exactly similar psychological relation structures will be produced by the
same phenomenal relation structure on every occasion and in all conditions
of observation. Repeated experience of the observation of any permanent
phenomenal relation structure will, however, establish a norm among the
various psychological structures produced by it at different times, and this
norm will be the psychological structure which produces in us the reaction
which we interpret as perceiving the objective structure. Now if on any
individual occasion this same objective structure produces a psychological
structure different from the norm we shall ‘ perceive ’ not the actual pheno-
menal structure, but another one for which the actual psychological structure
is itself the associated norm. In other words our judgment of the external
objects- will be in error. Our judgments would, in fact, very frequently
be in error from this cause if they depended entirely on the immediate sense
impression ; but in the ordinary observation of the world our mistaken
impressions are corrected by another effect of association, known to
psychologists as regression towards the phenomenon. When we receive a
sense impression from a familiar object (or from one which we assume,
correctly or otherwise, to be a familiar object) which is not quite consistent
with the phenomenal structure that we normally associate with the object,
associative reflexes originating in accumulated experience of the relation
structure which ought to be perceived, come into operation and correct our
impression either to what it ought to be or to something much nearer this
than it would be in the absence of such associative reflexes. We are not
concerned here with either the physiological or psychological machinery of
phenomenal regression, but merely have to note that it is one of the most
important agencies in preserving the correspondence between our judgments
of phenomenal relation structures and the structures themselves despite a
somewhat imperfect correspondence between our immediate sensory re-
actions and the objective conditions which evoke them.
Now it is evident that the effectiveness of this corrective agency—
phenomenal regression—since it depends on correlative associations, will be
most strongly developed for the observation of familiar phenomenal group-
ings encountered regularly in everyday life. Further, it cannot work
miracles. Even a familiar phenomenal grouping, if observed under con-
ditions for which the immediate sensory impression differs too much from
the norm associated with it, will be misjudged and will seem different from
what it really is.
From its nature, phenomenal regression will be inoperative in circum-
stances which do not call up the correlative associations on which it depends.
324 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
This is the case in the majority of experiments of the kind we are considering
in which artificial groupings of a few bright objects isolated against a dark
background, or a few isolated sounds produced in unfamiliar ways, are
perceived. There is nothing in such systems to evoke the correlative
associations involved in phenomenal regression, and judgment will depend
almost entirely on the immediate sensory reaction. The psychological
relation structure due to the direct effect of the stimuli on the sense organ,
if for any reason it does not happen to be the norm associated with the
particular phenomenal relation exhibited, will not be ‘ corrected’ towards
this norm : we shall simply judge, wrongly, that we perceive the phenomenal
relation for which the impression we receive is the associated norm. Con-
sequently if all the relevant properties of the sensory system are not constant
throughout the range of intensity covered by the series of stimuli we shall
not judge the stimulus relations correctly. Our criterion will still, however,
be the perception of sameness of relation shape in the phenomenal relation
structures consisting of adjacent pairs of stimuli, but our judgment when
this is achieved will be in error.
The extent, therefore, to which any experiments of this kind fail to grade
stimuli in a geometrical progression is simply an indication of the extent to
which the sense organ under investigation fails to tell us the truth. The
particular causes of this failure in any particular circumstances are the
business of the physiologist and possibly, also, the psychologist; but
neither compliance with the law of geometrical progression, nor the
departures from it which may be observed, can lead to the discovery of any
quantitative relation between sensation intensities and stimulus intensities.
The ‘ apparent ’ phenomenal structure will always be that for which the
immediate psychological structure of any instance of perception has been
related as a norm by the associative bond of integrated experience. In
particular, any two phenomenal structures will be * perceived ’ to have the
unique relation of sameness, whether they really have or not, if in a given
act of perception the psychological relation structures which they evoke
are related to each other by the psychological relation which is the norm
associated with sameness of objective relation structure. Thus, any
difference which may ever be manifested between the ‘ apparent ’ relations
of phenomena and the ‘ true’ relations, do not involve any law of variation
of sensation intensity with stimulus intensities, but only arise from the fact
that from some cause, either adventitious or systematic, the phenomenal
relation structure under observation is not producing the normal psycho-
logical relation structure which is associated with these phenomenal relations
by the totality of our experience. The reason for it not doing so in any
particular case may be physiological or psychological or both. We cannot
expect any physiological mechanisms, such as those involved in our receptor
organs and neural systems, to exhibit constant properties at all intensities
of stimulation. We do know, however, as an empirical fact, that over the
range of conditions typical of the bulk of our ordinary experience, our
individual perceptions give us a fairly faithful account of phenomenal
relations ; so within this range the differences between apparent and true
phenomenal relations cannot be great. We should, however, expect to
find more important departures at intensities lower or higher than those for
which the bulk of our associative experiences are obtained. We should
therefore expect in mean-gradation experiments to find stimuli to be graded
by perception in the ratio of their intensities, or nearly so, within the range
of ordinary comfortable perception, but to exhibit departures from this
relation at high and low intensities.
This is, in general, what is found when the experiments are carried out.
a
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 325
As the phenomenal relation involved in the grading is sameness of the
relation between adjacent members of the series, it is independent of the
size of the intervals, and the same criterion should be operative even if the
intervals are made so small that we are just able to distinguish between the
members of adjacent pairs. If the intervals are less than this, the perception
of pairs, and therefore of any relation at all between pairs, is impossible.
Thus so long as the members of a mean-gradation series are distinguishable
from each other they are related by our criterion of sameness of interval.
But we have now reached what is, in effect, a j.n.d. series, from which we
see that the successive stimuli in such a series must be graded in intensity
by the same law as the members of a mean-gradation series, i.e. in accord-
ance with the apparent ratio of their intensities. Apart from adventitious
causes due to difference in the experimental conditions in which the two
types of experiment are carried out, the departures from a true grading in
terms of objective stimulus ratios should depend on the same physiological
(or other) systematic causes, and should be of a similar character.
The results of actual experiments of these two types are, in general, as
predicted by the foregoing considerations. In the case of vision, both
equal-appearing-interval series and j.n.d. series grade stimuli very nearly
correctly in accordance with relative intensity over the very large range of
intensity associated with normally comfortable seeing, departures from the
true grading only becoming serious at low and excessive intensities. ‘The
results for sound are less definite, as a perusal of the section of this Report
prepared by Dr. Semeonoff will show. This is also to be expected. Owing
to the very indefinite clue to direction given by our auditory apparatus, we
do not hear a ‘ picture ’ of our environment in which the constituent sound
waves reaching us are definitely associated with the sources or reflecting
objects from which they come. Hearing is rather like seeing in a thick mist,
in which we may perceive the general direction from which light is coming
but see no objects. With sound therefore we are usually unaware of the
exact origin of the stimulus and feel that we are simply immersed in a
nebulous ‘ cloud’ of sound surrounding our heads. But this nebulous
cloud is not the sensation ; it is the objective environment which, in virtue
of the sensation it evokes, we ‘ hear,’ just as when immersed in a translucent
mist the nebulous cloud of luminescence we see is not our sensation, but
constitutes the objective environment of whose presence we are made aware
by our sensations. What we hear is outside us in exactly the same sense
that what we see is outside us, a point that seems to be entirely overlooked
by many writers on audition. However, owing to the nebulous nature of
the objective world, as perceivable by hearing, it is relatively rare for us to
make a definite association between any sound pattern and a unique source.
It is only on the occasions when we know, for other reasons, that some
object is the origin of the sound, as when we simultaneously see and hear a
person speaking or an orchestra playing, and so on, that we make such an
association at all. The associative bonds between any psychological relation
and a corresponding phenomenal relation are likely, on this account, to be
much less strongly developed for audition than for vision, where the bonds
are reinforced by almost every experience. Nevertheless, such uniqueness
for recognitive purposes as any auditory relation can have must be derived
from that fraction of our experience in which associations are established ;
and must, for the reasons we have discussed, correspond to sameness of
relation-shape depending in audition, as in vision, on the apparent relative
intensities of stimuli and not on their absolute magnitudes, and must tend,
as in vision, to approximate to a recognition of the true relative intensities
within a reasonably wide range of intensity.
326 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.’
The data on sound, despite wide differences in the results obtained by
different experimenters using different experimental devices, definitely
tend to show that stimulus gradings by the j.n.d. and mean-gradation
methods are very similar and that in both cases the grading places stimuli
approximately in a geometrical progression over a large range of intensity,
the two results which we have predicted.
The results depend solely on the unique recognitive significance of
sameness of relation-shape of apparent relation structures and provide no
information whatever about quantitative relations of sensation intensities.
All we are able to say about the correspondence which must exist between
psychological relation structures and the phenomenal relation structures to
which they are linked by association is that the psychological relation between
psychological relation structures in virtue of which we are aware that the
relation of sameness of relation-shape exists between phenomenal relation
structures must, like the phenomenal relation itself, be symmetrical and
transitive and so cannot involve absolute extensions of any psychological
magnitude : ‘also, that sensation intensities must increase with increase of
stimulus intensity. But we cannot deduce the law of variation. The
association of sensation intensity and stimulus intensity may be of an elastic
kind, as in fact we know it to be from the phenomena of adaptation.
Why do we assume that there must be a quantitative relation between
stimulus and sensation? Quantitative relations only hold for relation
structures composed of measureable magnitudes. Our familiarity with the
multitudinous quantitative relations established by the methods of physics,
and by the cruder but equivalent methods we employ in estimating measur-
able magnitudes in everyday life, induces the feeling that every relation
between things for which the relations greater or less are significant must
be a quantitative relation expressible by its numerical equivalent. ‘This
feeling has apparently led to the universal conviction that sensation intensity,
to which the terms greater or less are obviously relevant, has an inherent
association with number only awaiting discovery. It is assumed that
between two sensation intensities S, and S, there is a ‘ true’ relation,
S,/S_. =n, where m is some number, and that the problem we are up
against is to find some way of determining 7 in any given case, or of deducing
it indirectly from the result of some experiment which depends on it. As
I see it this is not the position. There is vo relation S,/S, =m until we
have defined S as a measurable magnitude by a practical criterion of equality
and a practical operation of addition. Unless this is done—and no one
argues that it can be done—there is no basis of association between members
of the class of sensation intensities and members of the class of numbers,
and no meaning in a numerical relation between sensation intensities.
Equality of these intensities presents no difficulty, but no operation analogous
to addition is possible. Every psychologist agrees that this is so ; but it is
not realised that without it we are not merely unable to discover quantitative
laws involving sensation intensity, but that there are not in fact any quanti-
tative laws to discover.
The theory here advanced to explain the significance of the unique
relation which determines the grading of stimuli by the mean-gradation
method as derived from associative experience, is put forward solely on
the grounds that when one is endeavouring to destroy the foundations of
any firmly rooted belief it is desirable, where possible, to lay the foundations
of a new one to take its place, and not to confine oneself to purely destructive
criticism. ‘The mistake must not, however, be made of regarding the
alternative explanation as an integral part of the case against the old one.
Whether the explanation here given proves to be acceptable or not, the
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 327
case against the prevalent interpretation of these experiments is complete.
It depends simply on the fact, demonstrated in the beginning, that they do
not provide any practical criteria for associating any sensory magnitude with
number in the particular manner which is essential for measurement, so
no relation between sensory magnitudes and stimulus magnitudes can
possibly be derived from them. If the explanation I have suggested should
prove wholly, or in any important aspect, unacceptable, we are simply left
for the time being with no explanation of the experiments. The old one
will not do; and the sooner writers on psycho-physical problems stop
describing and interpreting their experiments in terms of sense distances
and sensation scales the sooner will it be possible to seek a true interpretation
of their results freed from the tendentious influence of a falsely suggestive
terminology.
The foregoing general considerations cover all the other types of experi-
ment in which the observer associates numerals with perceived stimuli
composed in different ways, such for example as the well-known experiments
of Dr. L. F. Richardson and his colleagues.
This Report is already too long to permit discussion of such methods in
detail, but it can be said of all of them that whatever may be the criterion
by which the observer assigns a number to an observed stimulus relation,
or makes some equivalent decision in connection with it, such as marking
a point on a line to correspond to the ‘ position’ of a percept in a series
ranging between two extremes, it cannot consist of the intuitive perception
of some quantitative relation between psychological magnitudes, for there
are none to perceive. In all these experiments, as in those we have con-
sidered more fully, the guess, estimate, or judgment, whichever it is, relates
to stimulus magnitudes and not to sensations. It may be a guess or estimate
based on direct association with known cases of the same type of stimulus
relations. ‘This is a process we perform almost every day when we estimate
lengths, weights, temperatures, etc., without measuring them. It depends
merely on direct association, and in the case of those things with which
we are very familiar may often be effected with considerable accuracy.
Those experiments which are not explainable on the basis of direct associa-
tion must have for their criterion the perception of sameness of relation
shape between some elements of two or more relation structures.
The foregoing discussion centres round the possibility of measuring
sensation intensity as an A magnitude—that is, as something expressible in
terms of units of its own kind. A few words must now be devoted to the
possibility of treating sensation intensity as a B magnitude, defined by an
arbitrary relation to stimulus intensities. In the first place, assuming it
can be done, it would serve no purpose whatever. It would merely result
in our being able to say that the intensity of sensation corresponding to the
stimulus J is the intensity of sensation corresponding to the stimulus J,
which would not help us much in any psycho-physical problem. The
utility of a temperature scale, which, as we saw earlier, is defined by an
arbitrary relation to the properties of a standard thermometer, is that the
thermometer can be used to measure the temperatures of other bodies.
It would clearly be useless to define the temperature of a resistance
thermometer as a function of its resistance, as we do, if it could only be
used to measure its own temperature. All the definition would mean is
that the temperature of the thermometer when its resistance is R ohms is
the temperature corresponding to a resistance of R ohms. This would be
the position as regards sensation intensity. We could not use the sensation
scale established by the definition in one standard sensorium to measure
the sensations in other people’s sensoriums, because our criterion of equality
328 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
for sensations is private. We cannot establish sensory equilibrium between
people as we can establish thermal equilibrium between bodies. Each
person would be a sensationmeter only capable of measuring its own sensa-
tion, like a thermometer only capable of measuring its own temperature.
It could provide no information about anything.
However, we cannot even have whatever satisfaction there might be in
establishing this perfectly useless sensation scale. As we saw when con-
sidering temperature, in order that a magnitude may be defined in this way
it must be possible to postulate a one-one relation between the magnitude
to be defined and the measurable magnitude to which it is to be related by
the defining relation ; and that we are not free to make any such postulate
unless, from the nature of the case, it is certain on a priori grounds that the
defined magnitude can never enter experience except as ‘ the thing defined
by the adopted relation.’
There is no one-one correspondence between sensation intensity and
stimulus intensity. Sensation intensity enters experience directly, in its
own right so to speak, and we know that, owing to adaptation, fatigue, or
various other causes, the same stimulus may evoke sensations of markedly
different intensity on different occasions. So we cannot define a scale of
sensation intensity as a postulated function of stimulus intensity even were
it of the slightest use to do so. The analogy with temperature advanced
by some psychologists is entirely fallacious.
But what about the average sensation intensity corresponding to a
stimulus J? May not this be treated as a B magnitude? Over how long
a period are we to take this average ? Obviously if the whole of an observer’s
life is to be included there will be a one-one correspondence between mean
S and J, and we are free to postulate any law we like to define a relation
between them. But what have we achieved? We cannot use this scale
to measure the individual S corresponding to J on any particular occasion.
It gives us no information other than that with which we started, that the
mean sensation intensity corresponding to any intensity of stimulus is just
whatever we have chosen to say it is.
We must conclude therefore that sensation intensity is not measurable
either as an A magnitude or as a B magnitude. It is not measurable in any
sense of the term.
IV. Notes on Mr. Guild’s statement by members of the Committee.
A. By Dr. R. H. Thouless.
(1) This account of what is meant by ‘ measurement’ is excellently clear.
I think ‘ measurement’ is primarily the physicist’s term and I am willing
to accept what they say as to what the word means, and I do not think it
in any way restricts the possibility of quantitative experiment in psychology
if it is agreed that it is not ‘ measurement of sensation.’
(2) The account of Fechner seems to make his account of the matter
much more clear and rational than it really was. Thus with reference to
‘ Fechner’s second principle’ (p. 309), I cannot find that Fechner formulated
any such principle in the Elemente. He assumed it, according to my reading,
without realising what he assumed, by stating Weber’s Law in the form:
dy = K .d8/8.
(3) It is obvious that Fechner thought he could establish measurement
of sensation in a sense which is indefensible. I am not sure that Mr. Guild
disposes of a possible defence that what is really possible is a B measurement
of sensation (for a single individual, under specified conditions of stimulation,
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 329
with a single kind of stimulus) using equality of just noticeable differences
as a convention of measurement parallel to the use of equality of tempera-
ture differences causing equal volume changes of thermometry. Anyway
it is obvious that the restrictions are such that measurement in this sense
would be of little practical scientific value.
(4) I am not convinced by the argument of pp. 317 ff. Surely apparent
shapes change with different angles of vision as do apparent sizes at different
distances.
(5) I think Mr. Guild would agree that most of the quantitative experi-
ments psychologists do when they attempt to ‘ measure sensation ’ could
be done equally well and equally meaningfully if they gave up that assump-
tion. He does say this, but I should like to see it emphasised. It con-
siderably narrows the apparent difference between his view and the oppos-
ing. For example: ‘ Thus the prevalent idea . . .’ (p. 322) seems to me to
exaggerate this difference. I should like to see added that if Mr. Guild’s
view is accepted and the mean-gradation experiment is merely a report of
sameness of relations, it is nevertheless a real question whether if one arranged,
let us say, a series of electric lamps so that each successive pair had the same
brightness relation between them, whether this series would be a geometrical
or arithmetical series of physical intensities. The phrase ‘ is devoid of any
basis’ seems to suggest that there is no real problem, whereas I think
Mr. Guild would agree that there is a real problem but that it should be
stated in other terms. 23.6.38
B. By Dr. L. F.. Richardson.
Mr. Guild has made a logical analysis of the relation between sensation
and stimulus. ‘Those whose chief reliance is on logic, take risks of passing
over assumptions without noticing them. Mr. Guild’s analysis may be
summarised in three steps :—
Step I. Is sensation an A-magnitude? No!
Step II. Is sensation a B-magnitude? No!
Step III. Therefore sensation is not a magnitude of any sort.
The tacit assumption is that the A and B magnitudes are the only kinds
of magnitudes that can exist. But there is abundant experimental evidence
(vide Dr. Semeonoff’s report) from several independent investigators in
England and America that intuited magnitudes exist. Of course A-magni-
tudes are usually the most reliable ; and A and B magnitudes, taken together,
are the only sorts of magnitude which are respectable in practical physics,
except for the estimation of tenths of small divisions. It is also evident
that intuited magnitudes are subject to variations with the occasion and with
the observer ; variations so large that they would not be tolerated in practical
physics. But if, as Mr. Guild avers, A and B magnitudes are not available
for sensation, then intuited magnitudes are not to be despised. The
progress of psychology towards the status of a quantitative science is more
likely to be advanced by experimental exploration of the relations of intuited
magnitudes than by refusal to allow them to be considered.
Some people wish to see the word ‘ measurement ’ restricted to mean the
determination of A and B magnitudes only. If that were done it would
be necessary to point out that a mere terminological convention must not
be allowed to prejudice discussions about the existence of magnitudes other
than those called A and B.
There is a remark, independent of the foregoing considerations, to be
made about Mr. Guild’s Step I. He avers (on p. 310) that the method of
M 2
330 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
equal appearing intervals does not yield an A magnitude because the rela-
tion of ‘ appearing equal’ is not symmetrical ; because the sensations are
tied to stimuli which cannot be interchanged. But let us suppose that the
experiment is conducted, in the customary manner, by two persons one of
whom, called the experimenter, alone knows the stimulus values, while the
other person, called the observer, alone judges equality of appearance.
In these circumstances the relation of ‘ appearing equal’ is purely intro-
spective. Is it not symmetrical ? 25.6.38
C. By Mr. T. Smith.
If by measurement we mean the association of numbers and properties
by a rational systematic procedure such as the physicist employs (and—to
say the least—this restriction appears necessary to avoid misunderstanding),
I agree with Mr. Guild that sensations are not measurable. Apart from
measurement there may be personal associations of numbers as well as of
other concepts with sensations, but this in itself is not of great importance
since the associations are peculiar to a single individual, though the fact
of association may be of psychological interest. By training, the numbers
in these associations can often be modified and controlled so that they
correspond more or less to the numbers of some measurable property. In
the absence of special training the numbers assigned to the members of any
collection will vary notably from one observer to another. Ability to guess
fairly accurately what measurement will give is an accomplishment of
considerable utility, and this perhaps represents the nearest approach we
can get to measurement on a sensory basis.
Simple tests I have made on a number of subjects suggest that the ‘ scales,’
if the word is permitted, of untrained observers show marked differences
from one another. Consistency only began to show when four objects
were presented, and substantial agreement was reached on the magnitude
which corresponds to the cross-ratio of four points on a straight line. In
these experiments the individual scales were therefore projections of a
common scale. While this is consistent with Mr. Guild’s suggestion that
likeness in a relation is a recognisable quality, it also suggests that Mr.
Guild’s interpretation of this relation in stimulus terms may be too narrow.
A constant ratio of the stimuli from similar-appearing pairs is only one of a
number of possible cases, and this or any other choice must be justified
experimentally, and not by an a priori argument. 27.6.38
D. By Dr. Wm. Brown.
While appreciating the excellence of Mr. Guild’s discussion of the
question ‘ Are Sensation Intensities Measurable ? ’ and agreeing with most
of his arguments directed against Fechner’s position, I am not satisfied
that he has demolished the case for the direct measurement of contrastes
sensibles (Delboeuf), commonly translated as ‘sense distances.’ ‘ Sense
distances ’ can be bisected with some degree of accuracy provided that the
subject carries out the experiment a large’ number of times under ap-
preciably constant conditions. In other words, the result is a statistical
central tendency of statistical constancy as checked by its probable error.
I find nothing in Mr. Guild’s argument that would move me to withdraw
anything that I have written on this matter in Chapter I of The Essentials of
Mental Measurement. On the other hand, I do realise that a very much
fuller discussion of the problem is needed, in the light of recent experi-
mental work, and I am glad that the Committee is asking for a further year,
during which it can deal with the question more fully. 1.7.38
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 331
E. By Dr. }. H. Shaxby.
It seems clear that the members of the Committee as a whole come out
by that same door as in they went, and that no general complete agree-
ment can be reached. The question we have been asked to decide, if not mal
posé, at any rate turns to some extent on the definition of the term
“ quantitative.’
Mr. Guild’s article confirms this view. With its conclusions I concur
on the whole, but I do not feel that his demonstration that sensory magni-
tudes are neither of class A nor of class B, disposes of the possibility that
they may none the less be magnitudes (of class X say). That they are not
magnitudes of practical importance to physicists or physiologists I agree,
but this need not in itself consign them to limbo.
I suppose we should all agree that the conception of magnitude (like other
conceptions) has a sensory basis ; one thing is greater than another because
it looks larger or sounds louder or smells stronger. The measurement of
the stimuli producing these different sensory effects has been the task of
physics, and in the process it has been found that the introspective sensory
estimates, while in the main giving a correct grading, are rough and often
not even self-consistent; they have therefore been superseded by the
“objective ’ physical modes of measurement by: scales, balances and what
not. But this very fact indicates the nature of these intuitive estimates ;
no less than our balance, etc., they are methods of measuring stimuli.
We look at the sensory experience directly, so to speak, instead of looking
at the vernier or spot of light or stopwatch. In so doing we perform a
measurement of the stimulus and our result is such a measurement, more
or less accurate, and nothing more psychologically fundamental than that ;
certainly not a measure of the sensation itself. It is true that we use changes
of sensation as our indicators of changes of stimulus, and if we have inde-
pendent measures of stimuli we are entitled to use these to deduce the laws
which our sensory indicators follow, e.g. (if Weber’s Law holds) that our
series of just noticeable differences functions as a logarithmic scale of
stimulus-intensities. But this in no way justifies us in supposing that we
have measured the intensity of our sensations. ‘To do so is merely to lay
down a postulate. Postulates may be useful or necessary ; Euclid’s are
necessary if we are to cross the pons asinorum. But this sensory postulate
is mere lumber, for we make no further use of it. It does not help us to
compare stimuli because the intuitive method of doing this does not require
it, and it leads to no information about the physiological mechanisms of
sense. 2.7.38
(V) Statement by Prof. F. Drever.
THE QUANTITATIVE RELATION BETWEEN PHysICAL STIMULUS AND
SENSORY EVENT.
In my turn I have been invited to present the case for an affirmative
answer to the question whether sensation intensity is in any sense measur-
able, at the same time dealing with the main objections urged from the
opposite point of view. As the arguments on the other side are based on
general principles, so must also the answer to these arguments be similarly
based. The most fundamental principle of all is the principle that both
physicist and psychologist have a common starting-point in the world of
sense experience, and a common aim in the fuller and clearer understanding
of this world of sense experience. To that we shall return later; in the
meantime let us consider Mr. Guild’s arguments.
332 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
While Mr, Guild professes to eschew metaphysics his whole description
of the phenomenal world as composed of ‘ relation structures,’ and a large
part of his discussion of measurement is essentially metaphysical. It is
perhaps true that ‘there is nothing inherently numerical in the structure
of the phenomenal world,’ but it is true only because numeration is a con-
ceptual process involved in our cognition of the phenomenal world. It is
our knowledge of the phenomenal world that is really in question, not the
phenomenal world as such. At this point let me correct a piece of bad
psychology which crops up again and again in Mr. Guild’s statement,
especially in its later parts. He says ‘ we are so familiar with the description
of phenomena in numerical terms that the association has become instinctive.’
It is not a matter of association at all, except in so far as particular number
names are associated with the number concepts—‘ four ’ for the Englishman,
‘quatre’ for the Frenchman, ‘ char’ for the Hindu. This associationism runs
riot all through the later parts of the statement, and in so far as it affects the
argument the psychologist rejects it iz toto. The thinking of relations is
never explicable in terms of association.
The exposition of the principles of measurement is based on the distinc-
tion drawn by Dr. Norman Campbell between A magnitudes and B magni-
tudes, and only A magnitudes—that is magnitudes which can be measured
by processes which do not imply the measurability of other magnitudes—
are, strictly speaking, measurable. This would appear to mean that, strictly
speaking, measurement reduces itself to enumeration, and that spatial
magnitudes, or even lines only, are measurable. This is virtually a reduc-
tion of measurement to pre-history conditions. 'The important considera-
tion from our present point of view is that it leads to the view that in order
to establish a quantitative relation between two entities both entities must
be measured each in terms of some unit appropriate to itself. Hence in
order that we may be able to establish a quantitative relation between the
intensity of the physical stimulus and the intensity of the sensation, we must
be able to measure not only the physical stimulus in physical units but the
sensation in sensation units. This is, I believe, an error, but it is an error
which has been made by many psychologists as well as Mr. Guild, and the
physicists for whom he speaks.
The theoretical possibility of measuring sensation intensity as such
measurement was interpreted by Delboeuf, that is as distance on an imagi-
nary scale of sensation intensity, as, for example, a loudness scale, must be
admitted, even if we accept Mr. Guild’s contention. Greys differ in degree
of brightness, sounds differ in degree of loudness. Theoretically at least
an individual can construct for himself a scale of brightness of greys, in
which each grey appears a definite and equal distance away from the next
grey on either side, and any new grey can be assigned its place on the scale.
As regards an analogous loudness scale the position is somewhat compli-
cated by the fact that loudnesses are not co-presentable in time, as the greys
are, for reasons depending on the nature of the phenomena themselves,
and here neither the scale itself nor measurement by means of the scale
will be so accurate. The scale is an imaged:scale as it were. But the
theoretical position is not thereby affected. In the case of the loudness
scale the specification of the various points on the scale including the zero
will necessarily be in physical terms: to this point and to what it involves
return will be made presently. What must be emphasised here is the
theoretical possibility of the construction of such scales. The practical
consideration upon which the most serious criticism of such scales can be
based is that in strictness they are scales for the one individual only who
constructs them, and for the time at which and the conditions, subjective
a
ae
QUANTITATIVE ESTIMATES OF SENSORY EVENTS 333
and objective, under which they are constructed. It must, I think, be
admitted that the subjectivity of a scale of this sort damns it from a practical
point of view. But the subjectivity is a necessary consequence of the ille-
gitimate demand that there must be a sensation scale in sensation units as
well as a physical scale in physical units before sensation can be related to
physical stimuli by way of measurement. The fact is that the demand,
and indeed the greater part of Mr. Guild’s argument relevant to the demand,
implies a metaphysical theory even when it is not explicitly metaphysical.
We can only free ourselves from the incubus of this metaphysic by an
entirely new start. First with regard to the evolution of measurement.
The concepts of number and of magnitude are the two fundamental, and in
part independent, notions from which measurement springs.. Measurement
necessarily involves comparison. Nothing is measured in terms of itself,
except in the case of mere enumeration, and even that is not measurement,
where there is not some comparison explicit or implicit. It is true that we
can make the statement that there are twenty individuals in a group, when
the number 20 may be taken as a measurement of the group in terms of the
individual, but the notion of measurement in any such case only arises
when the comparison of one group with another is in question, which means
that ‘ greater,’ ‘ less,’ and ‘ equal’ are the basal ideas in all measurement.
The questions ‘ how much greater ?’ or ‘ how much less ? ’ are raised later.
The first answers to these questions are given in terms of the other, ‘ twice
as large,’ ‘ half as large,’ and so on—and the principle at once emerges that
everything is measured not in terms of itself, but in terms of something else.
The next step in the evolution of measurement is the measurement by
means of standards which may be applied to the various magnitudes to be
compared, and at this stage there is nothing incongruous in measuring
space in terms of time and time in terms of space. Actually, for practical
purposes all measurement is ultimately in terms of space. Our only means
of measuring time, in fact, would seem to be in terms of space. When
time units have been determined in this way, it becomes possible to measure
motion—both constant and variable—in terms of time and space.
It would appear, therefore, that there is no difficulty whatever in finding
analogies to the measurement of sensation intensity in terms of stimulus
intensity without the necessity of measuring each in the first instance in
terms of its own units. ‘There would rather seem to be difficulty in finding
analogies to the kind of measurement Mr. Guild contends for in the initial
measurement of any aspect of the phenomenal world. Moreover it would
also appear that if B is measurable in terms of A we only seek to devise a
scale in terms of B units provided we wish to use B to measure something
else. Measurement is not an end in itself. It is merely a means to the
more exact representation, and therefore clearer understanding of the
various connections and relations in the phenomenal world, which is of
course the world of our sense experience. The ‘ relation-structure ’ which
Mr. Guild mistakes for the phenomenal world is a conceptual construct,
arrived at as a result of, and by way of, measurement of the objects and
events in the experienced world of sense.
We may take it then that in order to relate quantitatively stimulus intensity
and sensation intensity, it is not necessary that we should be able to measure
each in units of the same kind, but merely to measure the one—the stimulus
intensity—and determine the manner in which the other—sensation
intensity—varies in dependence upon the former. That loudness is a
function of sound intensity does not admit of any doubt whatever, and a
similar statement can be made of brightness, sweetness, and so on, in
relation to their respective physical stimuli. The essential problem is the
334 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
determination of the functional relationship between the intensity of the
stimulus and the intensity of the sensation as an aspect of our experience of
the stimulating object. At this point another objection must be urged
against Mr. Guild’s argument. He appears to assume that it is our per-
ceptual experience of the object that we are attempting to correlate with the
intensity of the stimulus, whereas it is merely the sensation aspect of that
experience, abstracted from the experience as a whole.
CONCLUSION.
The Committee feels that the matter presented above is of great interest
and value to those whose task it is to make measurements, mental and
physical, and of importance sufficient to justify the Committee asking for
reappointment to consider whether the views put forward are, or are not,
irreconcilable.
The Committee therefore asks to be reappointed for one year without
grant.
PLYMOUTH LABORATORY.
Report of the Committee appointed to nominate competent naturalists to
perform definite pieces of work at the Marine Laboratory, Plymouth
(Dr. W. T. Catman, C.B., F.R.S., Chairman and Secretary; Prof. H.
GRAHAM CANNON, F.R.S., Prof. H. Munro Fox, F.R.S., Dr. J. S.
Hux.ey, F.R.S., Prof. H. G. Jackson, Prof. C. M. Yonce).
THE grant of £50 was paid over to the Marine Biological Association on
February 11, 1938.
Miss M. J. Dibb, King’s College, London, has been nominated to occupy
the Association’s table at the Laboratory from July 12 to 29 ; she proposes
to work on Protozoa parasitic on Polychetes.
Dr. Margaret W. Jepps, Glasgow, will occupy the table from October 1
to December 31, 1938, and will carry out research on the structure and life-
histories of Foraminifera.
The Committee asks for reappointment, with renewal of the grant of
£50.
ZOOLOGICAL RECORD.
Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with other Sections interested,
and with the Zoological Society, for the purpose of obtaining support
for the ‘ Zoological Record’ (Sir Stoney F. Harmer, K.B.E., F.R.S.,
Chairman; Dr. W. T. Caiman, C.B., F.R.S., Secretary; Prof.
E. S. Goopricu, F.R.S., Prof. D. M. S. Watson, F.R.S.).
THE grant of £50 was paid over to the Zoological Society on May 13,
1938, as a contribution towards the cost of preparing and publishing
Volume LXXIII of the Zoological Record for 1936.
The report of the Council of the Zoological Society for 1937 shows a
further depletion of the ‘ Record Reserve Fund ’ due to excess of expenditure .
over receipts. The need for help from the contributing societies therefore
continues, if the publication is to be carried on. The Committee accord-
ingly asks for reappointment, with the renewal of the grant of £50.
aN
ARTEMIA SALINA 335
ARTEMIA SALINA.
Report of the Committee appointed to investigate the progressive adaptation
to new conditions in Artemia salina (Prof. R. A. Fisuer, F.R.S.,
Chairman ; Dr. A. C. FaBErGE, Secretary ; Dr. F. Gross, Mr. A. G.
Lownpes, Dr. K. Matuer, Dr. E. S. Russett, O.B.E., Prof. D. M.S.
Watson, F.R.S.).
AN outline of the programme of these experiments for the year 1937-38
was given in the last report of this Committee, presented at the Nottingham
session of the British Association. This programme has been followed in
all essentials.
A total of 27,440 nauplii have been tested, representing an amount of
work considerably in excess of any one previous year. The testing and
breeding of the material has been carried out almost entirely by Miss S. B.
North.
The distribution of the tested nauplii among the six generations and the
seven lines used this year is shown in Table I. The data for lines C,, Cz,
C,, Cs, and C, are supplementary to those of the previous year. In
addition, two new lines have been started, the reciprocal crosses of C, and
C,, two lines which had been selected through five generations last year :
C, is a line which had shown a particularly strong and steady improvement
in resistance.
It has been pointed out in the two previous reports that the chief factor
vitiating the precision of the results is an excessive discrepancy between
different broods of the same mating and generation. ‘The first step taken
to overcome this difficulty was the system of testing nauplii in six different
grades of poison solution rather than in only one. This device proved
inadequate to overcome the trouble, and in the present year untreated
controls were used. Each brood is divided into eight approximately
equal parts. Six of these batches are tested in six strengths of sodium
arsenite, as previously, and the other two batches are placed in medium
without poison, but are otherwise treated alike. By this means variations
from brood to brood in the natural death-rate during the testing period can
be taken into account ; though at the expense of much more complicated
calculations.
It is clearly apparent from the results that the wide discrepancies between
parallel broods mentioned above is not due to differences in natural death
rate, but to variation in susceptibility to poison. An example of this, taken
from the third selected generation of line C, is given in Table II (for the
meaning of the letters designating sodium arsenite solutions strengths see
Table III).
Thus these controls are not sufficient to eliminate the excessive hetero-
geneity, and other means must be sought to improve the precision of the
experiment ; variation in temperature has been found to have no appreciable
effect.
In order to utilise the data made available on natural death an entirely
new method of statistical reduction has had to be developed, which
involves fitting three parameters to the data. The first is the slope of the
probit regression line, i.e. the variability of susceptibility within a brood.
This parameter is approximately constant for all broods of one line-
336 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
generation. Thesecond is the 50 per cent. point, i.e. the strength of poison at
which half the nauplii which have survived natural death, die by poison.
The value of this parameter varies from brood to brood, its variation being
the measure of heterogeneity among broods. The third parameter is the
natural death-rate, which varies only slightly from brood to brood. As
was said above, its evaluation does little to eliminate the heterogeneity
between broods of the same line-generation.
The introduction of this laborious method of statistical treatment has
resulted in a considerable time lag between the actual experiments and the
interpretation of results. ‘This makes it impossible, at the present time, to
give a fuller discussion of the extensive data accumulated during the year.
Efforts are being continued to discover the causes of heterogeneity,
and to devise other improvements in experimental technique which will
increase precision.
The data obtained during 1937-38 are given in Tables [V—X. In Table III
are given the strengths of sodium arsenite corresponding to the letters used
in the other Tables.
The Committee asks to be reappointed with a grant of £20.
TABLE I.
rae : |
~~ Line} C, | Cs er eee | OA ON ag UN Sab. oy
Generation. ~~<"~ | |
|
S - +. «| 99) — | — | — | — |. 269 773
Sy en: . .| 870} 147) — = | = 2,562 3488
Seat : - | 158 |1,314 | 165 | — | — | 2,822 761
Daas é - | — |2,9063 | 609 | 280 | 116 | 1,761 —_—
Ste z - | — | 2,402 | 1,741 | 28% hich 1,371 —
Ss: . ‘3 — | 307 | 530} 407 | 374 ca: oa
|
| | |
Totals. . raed (7,133 |3,045 | 968 490 | 8,785 | 5,022
| ! | |
TaBLe II.
Illustrating variation of susceptibility between broods of the same parents.
Strength of : Control | Control
Solution. H/} I J); K)L/M/N I 2,
Brood 1: Tested . | — | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 | 23 23 25
Surviving | — | 22 | 23 | 21 | 14/| 10 | 10 2I 23
Brood 2: Tested . | 14| 14 | 14| 14 | 14 | 14 | — 16 14
Surviving| 4| 2| 9] o| o| o/—/ 16 13
ARTEMIA SALINA 337
TasBLe III.
Strength of Solution of
Letter designating Sodium Arsenite, expressed
Poison Solution. as Normality.
E A 0*003715
F - 0*004102
G : 0*004529
H : 0*005000
I : ©*005520
J ; 0006095
K 3 0:006729
L i 0*007430
M 0-008203
N 0009057
O 0001000
TasB_eE I1V.—Line Co.
So Si S.
Tested. | Survived., Tested. | Survived.| Tested. | Survived.
I 124 96 37 34 18 14
J 124 87 119 87 18 8
K 126 55 106 72 20 9
L 126 55 134 74 26 5
M 125 43 104 47 II °
N 116 4 124 16 25 °
O a == 65 3 — —
Cont. 1 116 105 109 97 24. 20
Cont. 2 112 IoI 72 63 16 13
TaBLe V.—Line C3.
S, Se S3 S, S;
FE sc keadess,n Reale rs) T s Ab Ses elass
G ax}1r} — | — |} — | — J — ] -—- I] ord
H ar) ierah east) gor 6g): 33°| “3a: (Soi aes
I 21 | 12 | 165 | r19 | 252 | 150 | 367 | 126 | 11 4
J 21 | 9 | 165 | 82 | 399 | 174 | 287 | 122 | 39 | 31
K 18 | o |. 165 | 82] 243 | 89 | 287| 89 | 39 | 23
L 37 | 4| 169 78 | 430| 97 | 267| 57 | 39 | 19
M — |— | 169 | 61 | 393 |. 49 | 209 43 | 39 | 13
N ro | a 9 | 458 | 39 | 2909/| 32/| 39] 8
O Sa |e 46 2° 30),|Pao
Cont. 1 8 | 7 | 144 | 137 | 415 | 370 | 285 | 241 | 34 | 30
Cont. 2 — | — | 138 | 109 | 310 | 274 | 233 | 184 | 28 | 22
338 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
TaBLe VI.—Line Cy.
|
Sa Ss S, S;
|
r ASR Ne Se ae S; FT i rer
E —_ — | 23 22 —— _— _ —
F — — 23 22 — —_— — —
G 13 12 79 58 157 36 aay =
H 27 18 100 68 167 67 44° 31
I 27 23 108 87 223 74 59 34
J 27 17 98 80 223 48 67 41
K 28 10 86 43 223 25 74, 35
L 28 3 81 39 261 33 74, | 33
M 15 2 II ° 45 ° 66 19
N = a rr ik 45 fe) 15 3
Cont. 1 — — = == 225 216 74, 66
Cont. 2 = = = — 152 141 68 57
TaBLeE VII.—Line C;,.
Ss S, Ss
Tt. S Alcs Ss. TR S.
lr: 46 41 6 6 22 22
oe: 46 31 36 24 37 26
Kee 46 28 36 19 54 3I
Tei 47 27 49 30 61 34
M. 47 18 50 23 60 25
IN: 48 8 51 2 54 2
(6 aed — — 18 ° 22 2
Cont. 1 = ss 21 21 64 62
Cont. 2 i a 14 12 33 33
TasB_e VIII.—Line C,.
ar. S. ibe S.
H 13 10 37 23
I 13 I 48 41
J 13 3 68 29
K 13 ° 68 22
L 17 2 68 14
M 17 I 66 2
N == = 19 ONO.
Cont. 1 17 16 == —
Cont. 2 13 8 = —
ARTEMIA SALINA 339
TaB_e I[X.—Line Cy, x C.
So Si Se
ey |e Sue eel S ibe openianss hia koS
F ee ee) |e 20 7a ae ee
G ET AN |e 4 Lars) | POOR allt ase VIL
H | = 4 | 193 | 48 | 204 | 137 | 126] 94/ 119 | 97
I 25 | 24 | 265 | 40] 402 | 99 | 222 | 134 | 199 | 159
a] 25 | 20 | 346 | 71 | 340 | 63 | 222 | 117 | 199 | 132
K cha i 16 | 311 34. | 347 | 28 | 221 80 | 199 | 115
L Si tgyy Eze logan o'g2) 3397) G2) azn | 57 i TQQT Oo 47
M ne) gi5 19 | 182 Selhar7 Be e285 O77 5
N 31 5 | 145 9) 45 °o | 95 peng 2
oO 10 ° 41 ° II ons ate
Cont. 1 35 | 34 | 340 | 317 | 341 | 313 | 227 | 223 | 199 | 178
Cont. 2 34 | 32 | 284 | 268 | 343 | 306 | 192 | 174 | 178 | 149
TABLE X.—Line C, x C,.
So S; S.
Fe Ss: 1. S. EY Si
G. 26 2 127 a7 II 5
H. 55 10 302 135 94 61
\ eC 82 20 406 145 94 61
Ts 102 31 440 93 94 47
KGr; 102 29 440 83 IOI 30
L 102 29 440 25 IOI 24
M. 76 15 318 8 83 19
‘ele 47 9 143 ° ae =
O . 20 ° —_ — — —
Cont. 1 76 69 434 389 95 83
Cont. 2 85 82 438 375 88 77
340 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
FRESHWATER BIOLOGICAL STATION, WINDERMERE.
Report of the Committee appointed to aid competent investigators to carry
out definite pieces of work at the Freshwater Biological Station, Wray
Castle, Westmorland (Prof. F. E. Fritscu, F.R.S., Chairman ;
Dr. E. B. WortuinctTon, Secretary; Prof. P. A. Buxton, Miss
P. M. JENKIN, Dr. C. H. O’Donocuug, Dr. W. H. PEARSALL).
DurING part of the current year the British Association’s table at the
laboratory has been occupied by Mr. G. H. Wailes while working on the
planktonic Protozoa of Windermere. Mr. Wailes, formerly of Vancouver,
British Columbia, resided at Wray Castle in the autumn of 1937, and has
since received and examined samples of plankton collected each fortnight
by the Association’s staff. During the last part of the year Miss Pennington,
of the Botanical Department, Reading University, has been appointed to
occupy the table, in order to work on the succession of diatoms and pollen
in cores raised from the bottom deposits of Windermere and other lakes.
It is yet too early to report on Miss Pennington’s research, but Mr. Wailes
has drawn up the following short account of his study.
PLANKTON PROTOZOA OF WINDERMERE,
During a visit to Wray Castle in September, 1937, collecting was carried
out with the object of observing in a living state the planktonic species of
Protozoa occurring in Windermere, as a preliminary to tracing throughout
a complete year the seasonal changes that take place in the plankton in both
the north and south basins of the lake. Commencing on September 22,
fortnightly samples of preserved Windermere plankton have been received
and have been examined. ‘They were obtained by hauling vertically a fine
meshed net from a depth of 40 metres to the surface.
As a result of the collecting done in September, chiefly in the north basin,
the following species were observed which up to the present (June) have
not been recorded in the serial plankton gatherings, namely the Heliozoans
Acanthocystis spinifera and Raphidiophrys elegans, a small naked dinoflagellate
Gymnodinium pulvisculus, which, like others of that group, disintegrates
under the action of preservatives, and a small ciliate belonging to the
Tintinnioidae which proved to be an undescribed species and has since been
named Tintinnopsis wrayi (Ann. & Mag. Nat. Hist., May, 1938).
The Protozoa present in the plankton during the period observed
(September to June) comprise two groups; the first, consisting of the
Dinoflagellata and Dinobryon divergens, was absent from mid-November to
mid-February, whereas the other was persistent during the winter and
consisted of species of Rotifera, Vorticella, and an infusorian, Mallomonas
acarotdes.
Dinoflagellata comprised the species Ceratium hirundinella var. gracile,
Peridinium willet and Peridinium kincaidi (the last-named has previously
been recorded only from Alaska and British Columbia). Numerous cysts
of these species and individuals of P. kincaidi occurred until mid-November ;
thereafter no dinoflagellates were observed again until mid-February. By
March P. willei and P. kincaidi had become equally plentiful. Rotifera,
represented by some seven or eight species, were numerous throughout the
winter ; they have been submitted to a specialist for specific determination.
The most notable feature of Windermere plankton was its different
CYTOLOGY AND GENETICS 341
character at either end of the lake. In the north basin the quantity was
comparatively small, and consisted for the most part of crustacea (Cladocera
and Copepoda), whereas in the south basin the quantity was large, and
consisted for the most part of phytoplankton throughout the period observed.
This was due to the abundance of only a few species of Myxophyceae and
Diatomaceae.
This abnormally abundant production of phytoplankton in the south
basin continued without diminution all through the winter, and is apparently
due to drainage effluents from towns and villages discharging into this
portion of the lake. A similarly large production of marine winter phyto-
plankton occurs in the inlets on the west coast of Vancouver Island where
fish reduction factories discharge their waste. In Windermere the zoo-
plankton does not seem to be directly affected by this condition except in so
far as the phytoplankton may afford a more abundant food supply ; but
further study of the conditions obtaining on the two basins may have a
pertinent bearing on the problems of water supply and the practicability
of artificially increasing human food supplies.
CYTOLOGY AND GENETICS.
Report of Co-ordinating Committee for Cytology and Genetics (Prof. Dame
_ Heten Gwynne-Vaucuan, G.B.E., Chairman; Dr. D. G. CATCHE-
SIDE, Secretary; Prof. F. T. Brooks, F.R.S., Prof. F. A. E. Crew,
Dr. C. D. DarwincTon, Prof. R. A. FISHER, F.R.S., Mr. E. B. Forp,
Prof. R. R. Gates, F.R.S., Dr. C. Gorpon, Dr. J. Hammonp, Dr.
J. S. Huxiey, F.R.S., Dr. T. J. Jenxrn, Mr. W. J.-C. LAwReENcE,
Dr. F. W. Sansome, Dr. W. B. Turritt, Dr. C. H. WADDINGTON,
Dr. D. Wrincz).
THE Committee have continued to assist and advise Organising Committees
and Recorders in arranging for joint sessions and other means for promoting
closer co-operation between cytology and genetics and other fields of biology.
It was thought that the bearing of recent cytological and genetical dis-
coveries on other aspects of the old problem of the Mechanism of Evolution
was imperfectly understood by many biologists. The Organising Com-
mittees of Sections D and K were approached with the suggestion that a
joint symposium occupying a morning and afternoon session should be
devoted to this subject. The proposal was approved, and a number of
papers dealing with various phases of the problem have been arranged.
The Organising Committee of Section M were unable to find space in
their programme for a discussion of Genetics in Relation to Agriculture.
However, they sought the Committee’s advice in arranging for genetical
contributions to their symposia on Crop and Stock problems respectively.
The Committee have also felt that a useful service would be rendered to
workers in other biological fields by the presentation of demonstrations.
They have organised an exhibition illustrating the principles of the Genetics
of Colour in Animals and Plants, demonstrating wherever possible the
chemistry of the pigments and colour differences concerned. A descriptive
brochure is in course of preparation.
342 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
MINING SITES IN WALES.
Report of the Committee appointed to investigate early mining sites in Wales
(Mr. H. J. E. Peake, Chairman; Mr. OLtver Daviess, Secretary ;
Prof. V. GorDON CHILDE, Dr. C. H. Descn, F.R.S., Mr. E. Estyn
Evans, Prof. H. J. FLeure, F.R.S., Prof. C. DaryLL Forbes, Sir
Cyrit Fox, Dr. WILLOUGHBY GARDNER, Dr. F. J. Nort, Mr. V. E.
NasH WILLIAMS).
THIS spring a survey and excavation of the ancient mining-dumps at
Great Orme’s Head, Llandudno, was carried out on behalf of the Committee.
Stone hammers, of the type believed to be approximately Roman in date,
and cup-marked querns had previously been found there. ‘The examina-
tion, however, showed that they occurred in no orderly sequence, and some
were found on parts of the dumps which can hardly be more than a century
and a half old ; it is therefore probable that they have been thrown out of
ancient workings by recent miners. Patient search may yet reveal the
ancient dumps not too deeply buried by modern detritus. It will be
particularly unfortunate if more copious evidence of the ancient workings
is not discovered, as this must have been one of the most important ancient
mines in Wales.
A few hours were also spent testing a habitation site below Great Orme’s
Head, near the Gogarth Hotel, which it was believed might be a mining
settlement. The site yielded a considerable depth of stratification arid
some pottery, which has not yet been examined. No evidence was found
for its association with the mines, so it will not further interest this Com-
mittee.
Thanks are particularly due to Mr. G. A. Humphreys, on behalf of the
Mostyn Estates, for permission to excavate and for help in many small ways,
and to the Ecclesiastical Commissioners for permission to dig on their lands.
The following specimens have been examined :
By Dr. C. Desch, at the National Physical Laboratory: copper bun-
ingot, Penmaenmawr, sent by Mr. W. J. Hemp; contained 1:0 % lead,
traces of iron and nickel, but no other metals.
At Queen’s University, Belfast :
(a) Heavy compact slag with few gas-holes ; colour, black with reddish
stains; from Forden Camp, Montgomeryshire (Roman), supplied by
Welshpool Museum. Contains 52:21 % iron, no copper, lead or zinc.
An iron slag, probably derived from smelting and not from a smithy.
(6) Specimen of quartz, containing chalcopyrite and some galena, found
in the Roman fort at Caersws and supplied by Welshpool Museum. Con-
tains 25:45 % copper, 28:8 % iron, some sulphur, no lead, silver, anti-
mony, arsenic, bismuth, zinc, nickel or cobalt. Apparently there happened
to be no galena in the fragment analysed.
(c) Bornite, slightly magnetic and containing specks of native copper,
from the Roman fort at Caersws, and supplied by Welshpool Museum.
Contains 15:47 % copper, 11:69 % iron, 6:49 % sulphur, 0:02 % lead, no
silver, antimony, arsenic, zinc, cobalt or nickel.
These last two specimens had presumably been collected in ancient times
from one of the Montgomeryshire mines. ‘They indicate the working of.
some of these mines under the Romans, and show that the road through
central Wales, though primarily military, had also some economic signifi-
cance. ‘They afford confirmation of a fact pointed out in a previous report,
MINING SITES IN WALES 343
that though lead is the predominant metal in the mineralised area of
Plynlimon, the most ancient mines, marked by stone hammers, exist at
occurrences of copper-ore. i
(d) Fairly light and crumbly ferruginous slag, found with a small piece
of metallic lead, Newtown mine (Montgomeryshire). Contains 53°22 %
iron, 4°2 % zinc, no lead, arsenic, antimony or copper. ;
(e) Galena and pyrites disseminated in quartz, Newtown. Contains
12:08 % lead, 7°89 % iron, 2:3 % copper, no silver, bismuth or zinc.
This mine was examined in 1937, and it is hoped shortly to publish a report
in the Montgomeryshire Collections.
(f)-(k) Specimens from Dinorben hill-fort, supplied by Dr. Willoughby
Gardner. ;
_(f) 1134, copper bun-ingot, yellow and very malleable ; metallic, with a
little malachite on the surface. Contains 96:72 % copper, very slight
traces of lead and tin, no antimony, arsenic, silver, iron, zinc, bismuth, nickel
or cobalt.
(g) 1331, iron slag, black, friable and full of gas-holes, resembling a
smithy-slag. Contains 57-61% iron and no copper.
(A) 1316, black iron slag with some gas-holes. Contains 52:66 %
iron, traces of copper.
(z) 584, whitish-grey material of amorphous structure, containing 1:02 %
lead, 0-93 % tin, no silver, much insoluble material. Probably earth which
has been in contact with one of the numerous tin-lead alloys of Roman
date.
(j) 1157, ferruginous material, with almost no insoluble residue. Con-
tains 79°21 % iron and no copper. Probably rusted iron.
(k) Hard and well-fused slag, from the surface. Contains 52:9 % iron,
no lead or copper.
(1) Heavy black slag, Talargoch, a mine believed to be Roman. The
slag is crystalline in structure and without gas-holes, owing to slow cooling.
It contains 40-4 % iron, 0:24 % lead, 2:14 % zinc, no copper.
DERBYSHIRE CAVES.
Sixteenth Interim Report of the Committee appointed to co-operate with a
Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute in the exploration of
Caves in the Derbyshire District (Mr. M. C. Burkitt, Chairman ;
Mr. A. LesLiz ARMSTRONG, Secretary ; Prof. H. J. FLeure, F.R.S.,
Miss D. A. E. Garrop, Dr. J. WILFRED JACKSON, Prof. L. S. PALMER,
Mr. H. J. E. Peake).
Creswell Crags——Mr. Leslie Armstrong, F.S.A., reports as follows :
“The Yew Tree Shelter —Excavations were continued on this site during
the early autumn of 1937 and yielded further evidence of occupation
contemporary with that of the Lower Middle and Middle zones of Mother
Grundy’s Parlour and proved this to be the principal period of its occupa-
tion during late Palzolithic times.
“ A scatter of microlithic flakes and implements on the top of the deposit
indicates casual occupation, comparable with that of the final occupation
of Mother Grundy’s Parlour, of Azilio-Tardenoisian facies.
344 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
‘ Woolly Rhinoceros and Wolf were added to the list of fauna previously
recorded for this site.
‘ Half a perforated axe-hammer, of hard sandstone, was found in the
surface soil, but was unaccompanied by any evidence to establish its date.
‘ Boat House Cave.—Since submitting the 1937 report, little progress
has been made here, owing to a transference of activities to Whaley, due to
the location of a further rock shelter there and the opportunity which arose
for its immediate excavation.
‘Work is now proceeding on the removal of the concrete which covers
the cave earth in the Boat House Cave, and it is anticipated that this will
be completed by the end of July over an area sufficient to permit excavation
of the underlying cave deposits during the autumn and winter.
‘Whaley Rock Shelter, No. 2.—This was located by Dr. Arthur Court,
in August last, by trial sections which he dug on what appeared to be a
most unpromising site. ‘This consists of a talus of limestone rubble and
rocks which, on removal, proved to completely mask a cliff at the rear, and
appears to have resulted from the collapse of a former over-hang of the cliff
which had provided a rock shelter during Pleistocene times.
“Above the cliff is a small plateau of limestone, sheltered by a rocky
slope at the rear, which has apparently been favoured as a camping ground
from Neolithic to Roman times. The successive occupiers of the plateau
have thrown their camp debris over the adjoining cliff and this material is
now found stratified in the talus.
‘A systematic excavation was commenced here in September and is
still progressing. The talus has been removed over a length of 20 ft., in
successive layers, down to the Pleistocene horizon and the hidden face of
the cliff exposed to a height of 12 ft. Except for a trial section, the Pleisto-
cene deposit has not yet been excavated. The trial section has established
the presence of Upper Paleolithic artifacts, in association with remains of
Reindeer and Hyena in this level, and its excavation will now be proceeded
with.
‘'The talus has yielded Neolithic pottery of Peterborough type; also
pottery of Bronze Age; Bronze-Iron Age overlap period; Iron Age;
Roman and Romano-British wares ; also artifacts of flint and bone, pot-
boilers and animal bones in great abundance and a few human bones,
including portions of three mandibles.
‘ An exhibition of the whole of the artifacts and a selection of animal
remains, obtained in the Pin Hole Cave, was displayed in the Manchester
Museum from November 1937 to April 1938, and thanks are extended to
Mr. R. U. Sayce, M.A., Keeper of the Museum, for providing the facilities
and arranging this exhibition. These exhibits were also included in the
exhibition of recent archeological work at the Institute of Archzology,
Regent’s Park, London.
“A further grant of £25 is earnestly requested by the Committee for the
continuation of the work at Creswell Crags and Whaley.’
BLOOD GROUPS 345
BLOOD GROUPS.
Report of the Committee appointed to investigate blood groups among
primitive peoples (Prof. H. J. FLeure, F.R.S., Chairman ; Prof. R. R.
Gates, F.R.S., Secretary; Dr. F. W. Lams, Dr. G. M. Morant).
Durinc the past year blood group testing has been going forward in certain
areas, of which a preliminary report was made last year. Opportunity was
taken by Prof. R. R. Gates, F.R.S., after the meeting of the Indian Science
Congress Association in Calcutta, to visit various centres in Southern India,
and arrangements have now been made through the official channels for
blood grouping various native tribes, particularly in the States of Mysore
and Travancore, where numerous different types exist. Further work in
Assam has been in abeyance, but is now being taken up again, and results
are also expected from other parts of India.
A further development begun this year is the testing of local groups of
population more or less isolated in different parts of the British Isles, in
conjunction with anthropometric studies of the same people. Dr. M. A.
MacConaill visited Rachrai Island, on the north coast of Ireland, and blood
tests of those available were made. The population appears to show
peculiarities in blood groups as well as in other anthropological characters.
It is hoped to extend this work to various other population groups which
have remained more or less isolated. A survey of such groups will show
the effects of local isolation, and will also indicate whether, in such popula-
tions, any statistical correlation exists between blood groups and other
anthropological or racial characters.
SUMERIAN COPPER.
Eighth Report of the Committee appointed to report on the probable sources of
the supply of Copper used by the Sumerians (Mr. H. J. E. PEAKE, Chair-
man; Dr.C.H. Descu, F.R.S., Secretary ; Mr. H. Batrour, F.R.S.,
Mr. L. H. DupLey Buxton, Prof. V. Gorpon CuHILpE, Mr. O.
Davies, Prof. H. J. FLeure, F.R.S., Dr. A. Ratstrick, Dr. R. H.
RASTALL).
TuE last report was presented in 1936. Since then the work has been
continued without a grant, and this has occasioned some delay. Some
analyses were reported to the Committee at the Nottingham meeting in
1937, but were not published. The analytical work has been by no means
confined to objects of Sumerian age, but many archzologists have taken
advantage of the facilities provided to submit specimens of ancient metal.
There is undoubtedly a demand for a permanent centre, with a staff
accustomed to the analysis of such metals and familiar with the characteristics
of ores from various regions. By the use of microchemical methods it is
possible to make a complete analysis on 10 miligrammes of metal, so that
the natural objection of museum curators to allow drillings to be taken from
valuable objects is obviated, as a cavity left by drilling such a quantity is
almost imperceptible. Such analyses are comparable in accuracy with
those on larger quantities, owing to the special technique employed. The
346 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
work is at present carried out in the Metallurgical Department of the
National Physical Laboratory, under the direction of the Secretary. The
total amount paid to the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research
since the 1936 Report is £94 17s. 10d. ‘Towards this contributions were
received of £10 from the Copper Development Association and of {10
from Miss Winifred Lamb. A generous gift of £100 from Sir Robert
Mond has now enabled this cost to be covered.
The analyses made have included a series of fourteen copper specimens
from the Anatolian site of Kusura, submitted by Miss Lamb. The results
are published in Archeologia, 1937, (ii) 86, 1-64. ‘Two contained tin, in
quantities of 2°8 and 1°2% respectively, a few having much smaller
quantities. The specimens from period A, however, contained arsenic in
appreciable quantities, up to 0°59%, whilst the specimens from the
later periods contained no more than traces of that element. Lead was
present in only one specimen: that containing the larger quantity of tin.
Three iron objects were found in the highest levels.
Some copper objects found by Mr. Mackay at Chanha-Daro proved to
be free from tin, and to contain only minute quantities of arsenic and nickel,
but some of them contained sulphur.
Ancient slags, collected in Persia towards Baluchistan by Dr. J. V.
Harrison, were examined, but none of them could be identified as being
derived from copper-smelting operations.
An interesting series of Central Asian bronzes, including several of the
Minussinsk type, was submitted by Miss V. C. C. Collum. A preliminary
description of them has been published in the Fournal of the Royal Central
Asian Society, 1938, 25, 22-23. These were of varying composition,
several being notable for their high content of lead. Miss Collum also
supplied a series of bronze axes from Brittany, the analyses of which will
be published shortly. The excavations which she had carried out for
Sir Robert Mond in Guernsey have also led to an investigation of early iron
objects, and several iron hammers of known Roman age have been obtained
from museums and examined microscopically. A good deal of information
about the structure of bloomery iron has now been collected.
A very extensive series of copper and bronze fragments from Troy I-IX,
submitted by Prof. Blegen, is in course of examination. The series will be
most conveniently reported on when complete. It is, however, interesting
to note the marked differences between the chemical composition of objects
from the earlier and the later levels.
Several specimens of electrum found by Sir Flinders Petrie at Tell Ajjul
in Palestine were also analysed.
The Secretary has been in correspondence with a number of archeologists
in other countries, who are now carrying out analyses of copper and bronze
from a great variety of sites, so that an extensive mass of material is being
accumulated. There are, however, many sites from which objects have
been described as copper or bronze from their general appearance only, and
detailed analyses are very desirable. There is an advantage in keeping the
Committee in being, although with a more general title, as a centre for such
information.
KENT’S CAVERN, TORQUAY 347
KENT’S CAVERN, TORQUAY.
Report of Committee appointed to co-operate with the Torquay Natural
History Society in investigating Kent’s Cavern (Sir A. Keitu, F.R.S.,
Chairman; Prof. J. L. Myres, O.B.E., F.B.A., Secretary; Mr.
M. C. Burkitt, Miss D. A. E. Garrop, Mr. A. D. LacalILue).
Tue following report has been received from the excavators :—
Work was recommenced on October 25, 1937, and continued until
March 28, 1938, when, having excavated to a depth of 34 ft. below the
datum line (the lowest point ever yet reached in the exploration of the
Cavern), it appeared as though, through a distinct falling off in the number
of finds, it would not be sufficiently profitable to go deeper considering
the difficulty of working between rocks, and the time involved in getting
the material brought to the surface. It was decided to close for the
season, and next year to make a drive from the ‘ Vestibule ’ to the ‘ Sloping
Chamber.’
Flints have been very scarce, nothing worth recording having been
found, but fortunately several good bones and teeth were secured, in-
cluding an ante-penultimate milk molar of a mammoth in fine condition,
a large specimen of the base of a rhinoceros horn, two vertebre of a
salmon, which is quite new to Kent’s Cavern, the humerus and furculum
of a bird similar to a mallard ; but the most striking finds were a meta-
tarsal bone of a bison with two each of the first and second phalanges,
all of which articulate perfectly, which, so far as is known, is the first
instance of more than three bones being found together capable of arti-
culation ; teeth of horse, hyena, deer, rhinoceros, Irish deer, bear, and
bison were also fairly numerous ; coprolites were scarce.
ArtTHuR H. Ocitviz. B.N. TEsss.
The Committee applies for re-appointment, with a further grant of £5
toward the cost of unskilled labour to assist the voluntary excavators.
TRANSPLANT EXPERIMENTS.
Report of Committee on Transplant Experiments (Sir ARTHUR HILL,
K.C.M.G., F.R.S., Chairman; Dr. W. B. TurriLi, Secretary ;
Prof. F. W. Otiver, F.R.S., Prof. E. J. Satissury, F.R.S., Prof.
A. G. TANSLEY, F.R.S.).
. THE experiments are being continued at Potterne, Wiltshire, along the lines
suggested by the Committee. Meetings have been held at Kew and at
Potterne. A fifth biennial report has been accepted for publication in the
Yournal of Ecology, and a summary of results for the first ten years of the
experiments has also been prepared and is to be published in the same
periodical.
A grant of £5 was made at the Nottingham Meeting. Most of this has
348 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
been spent on the repairing of instruments and on labour. It is requested
that the remainder, if any by the time of the Cambridge Meeting, be allocated
for use in the latter part of this year (1938) and that the Committee be kept
in being. A full financial statement will be available by the time of the
Cambridge Meeting.
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION.
Report of the Committee appointed to consider and report on the gaps in the
informative content of education, with special reference to the curricula
of schools (Sir RicHarD GrecorY, F.R.S., Chairman; Mr. G. D.
DUNKERLEY, Vice-Chairman; Mr. A. E. HEnsHati, Secretary ;
Prof. C. W. ATTLEE, Miss L. Hicson, Mr. H. G. Wetts, Mr. A.
Gray JONES).
INTRODUCTION.
AT the Nottingham Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement
of Science, Mr. H. G. Wells, in his Presidential Address to Section L,
took as his subject ‘ The Informative Content of Education,’ and outlined
what he considered should be a minimum curriculum for all pupils.
Consequent upon what was then said, this Committee was appointed ‘ To
consider and report on the gaps in the informative content of education,
with special reference to the curricula of schools.’ The Committee had
therefore to investigate in what way the actual work of the schools con-
formed with the minimum curriculum proposed by Mr. Wells.
An Analysis of Mr. Wells’s Proposals.
The first step taken was to prepare an analysis of the curriculum suggested
by Mr. Wells. For this purpose both his address and its illustrative chart
Were examined and an attempt was made to relate the proposals to the actual
conditions of school organisation. It will be recalled that Mr. Wells
divided his curriculum into Grades, of which A, B and C gave what he
regarded as the absolute minimum for all pupils, although he added
Grades D,E and F. It was with the first three, therefore, that this Committee
was primarily concerned.
Fortunately Mr. Wells indicated the time which in his view should be
given each week to this aspect of school work and also the total number of
hours to be allocated to each grade. From these facts it became obvious
that the information included in Grade A was intended for pupils between
the ages of 5 and 7, that in Grade B for pupils of the ages 7 to 11, and
Grade C for those aged 11 to 14 plus. The grades thus corresponded
roughly to the divisions of the English elementary school system, viz.
Infants, Juniors and Seniors. :
The examination of the speech and chart, therefore, enabled the following
analysis to be prepared and the sections to be taken in infants’, junior and
senior schools to be indicated.
349
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION
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352
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
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INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 353
The Schools and Mr. Wells’s Suggested Curriculum.
The next step was to discover how far the work already taken in the
schools coincides with, or falls short of, that included in Mr. Wells’s
suggested minimum curriculum, and if possible, the reasons for any differ-
ences that might be revealed. Accordingly, the following questions were
prepared : ;
(1) What part (or parts) of the suggested Informative Content of Educa-
tion for children aged are now taken in your school ?
(2) Of the remainder, what part (or parts) do you think
(a) might be advantageously included in the curriculum ?
(b) should not be included ?
(3) What obstacles prevent the inclusion in your curriculum of the
sections given under (a) above ?
(4) Why would you exclude the sections given under (b) above ?
(5) What textbooks (if any) have you found of assistance in reference to
the sections you include ?
(Please give the textbook which has been found of assistance for
each section.)
Elementary and Preparatory Schools.
Copies of both the analysis and the questionnaire were then submitted
to a number of head teachers in elementary schools in various parts of the
country and they were asked to furnish replies to the questions based upon
the actual work taken in their own schools.
The following table gives the particulars as to the distribution of the
questionnaire and the schools from which replies were received.
Kind of Number to Number of replies Towns where schools are
School. whom sent. received. situated.
Infants’ . 6 3 Birmingham, Rhondda,
Sunderland.
3 head mistresses | London, Nottingham,
Junior ‘ 9 7 Ealing.
4 head masters Kesteven, Cambridge,
London, Cannock.
Santor ~ . iT gf 3 head mistresses | Hull, Stafford, Bristol.
| 5 head masters Oxfordshire, Darlington,
Torquay, Lowestoft.
In addition the questionnaire was submitted to the head masters of six
preparatory schools or preparatory departments of secondary schools, but
only three replies were received and of these one did not supply any
information.
Secondary Schools.
Later the inquiry was extended to secondary schools, and for this purpose
the following amended form of questionnaire was used :
(1) (a2) What part (or parts) of the suggested informative content of
education for children aged 11 to 14 years are taken in your school
for pupils between 11 and 14?
N
354 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
(6) What part (if any) not so included is taken with pupils between the
ages of 14 and 16?
(2) Of the parts not included, what part (or parts) do you think
(a) might be advantageously included in the curriculum for pupils
between 11 and 14?
(5) might be advantageously included in the curriculum for pupils
between 14 and 16?
(c) should not be included in the curriculum ?
(3) What obstacles prevent the inclusion in your curriculum of the
section or sections given under (2a) above ?
(4) What obstacles prevent the inclusion in your curriculum of the
section or sections given under (2b) above ?
(5) Why would you exclude the section, or sections, given under (2c)
above ?
(6) What textbooks, if any, have you found of assistance in reference to
the sections you include in your curriculum ?
(Please give the textbook which has been found of assistance for
each section.)
This revised form, together with the detailed analysis of the curriculum
proposed by Mr. Wells, was sent to twenty-one secondary schools, including
Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Liverpool Collegiate School; but replies were
received from only four boys’ schools and five girls’ schools. Of these one
supplied practically no information.
THE CURRICULUM IN THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS,
(1) Replies from Infants’ Schools to Questions on Grade A.
The replies revealed a fundamental difference between the method of
approach used in the schools and that upon which the inquiry was based.
The inquiry had reference to the factual information pupils were expected
to acquire ; but the approach commonly adopted in infants’ schools is not
by way of definite instruction ; the imparting of knowledge is not regarded
as of primary importance, and the division of what is taken into subjects is
no longer practised. ‘ Subjects,’ wrote the head mistress of a Sunderland
infants’ school, ‘ as set out under separate headings, have largely disappeared
from the modern infants’ school and given place to activities and experiences
in a prepared environment.’ ‘ There is a fundamental difference of opinion
in regard to the treatment of children aged five to seven’ was the reply of a
Birmingham head mistress. ‘I feel that children should be provided with
opportunities for actual experiences ; any knowledge in the form of facts
will be gained through their project work and will be incidental.’ This
fundamental difference in the way infants’ schools are regarded is of primary
importance in this inquiry and must be borne in mind when the replies
are under consideration.
Little attention is given to History as such in these schools. It is not
taken as a subject, though ‘ much incidental knowledge of people of other
lands and primitive people is gained from Bible stories, fairy stories,
fables and myths.’
Likewise the information included under the heading of Geography is
given only incidentally. In the Rhondda, the basis for information was said
to be such simple aspects as ‘ name of home, street, school and town.’ In
the Sunderland school the instruction in this subject is based upon the
teaching of local topography, following on school visits to such places as the
seaside and the farm, and conversations about the district.
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 355
The suggested Biology is not taken in the Birmingham school, though
the head mistress thinks that a little of it might be, ‘to remove the
“ nightmare ” reaction.’ Stories of wild animals are told in the Rhondda
school, and in Sunderland the head mistress reported that the information
is given in the stories of animals connected with such projects as the farm,
the circus and the Zoo.
In the same way the Descriptive Zoology and Botany are taught in the
last-named school, through the care and observation of animals and plants
kept at the school. Daily nature and seasonal news of animals, birds, etc.,
and the daily observations on plants in the various seasons, are a feature of
the Rhondda school, and reference was made in the reply to a Nature Table.
No reference was made in any of these replies to a school garden, which
is known to be a feature of some infants’ schools and which would enable
much of the informative content included in this section of Mr. Wells’s
proposed curriculum to be adequately taught.
There was an indirect reference to it, however, in answer to the question
relative to the obstacles in the way of teaching what is considered desirable.
‘School buildings,’ it was said, ‘need to be replanned to give more space
for free movement and experimental work for the children. Classrooms
should look out to gardens for nature study and care of animals.’
The replies to the question as to the part or parts of the scheme that
should be excluded were:
(1) From Birmingham : ‘ Any subject matter which is beyond the power
of the normal child to assimilate. Children under seven cannot appreciate
differences in time.’
(2) From Rhondda: ‘ Detailed study of Geography, Biology, Botany,
human cultures and development should be left to later stages of school
life. Plants, animals, weather conditions, are dealt with incidentally in
‘daily talks.’
(3) From Sunderland : ‘ History.’
The reasons given for these exclusions were :
(1) ‘ Fundamental difference of opinion in regard to treatment of children
aged five to seven. I feel that children should be provided with opportuni-
ties for actual experiences. Any knowledge in the form of facts will be
gained through their project work and will be very incidental. Definite
lessons on the animals would not be included. After seven the child is
ready for much of this formal teaching. Before seven some children gain
much factual knowledge through their reading and their experiences, but
there can be no uniformity if the children have progressed freely and
individually. I feel that here our great task is social training, and I am
putting formal teaching later and later.’
(2) ‘The children’s interest in the people and things in the world
immediately around them, with its attendant vocabulary, should first be
aroused and satisfied. Analysis of these conditions, and their origin and
development, are dealt with in later school life. The two-year course in
the infant school does not allow time for detailed study of Botany and
Biology, nor does the children’s ability permit it.’
(3) ‘ The children in this school, owing to the poverty of the conditions
in which they live and their squalid surroundings, are lacking in many of
the ordinary experiences of life when they enter school at five. They do
not, therefore, in this department, reach the stage when they are interested
in other lands and other times; at any rate, not to the extent of giving a
definite course of lessons in such subjects. I consider that the history
suggested by the chart belongs, for most children, to the age seven to eight,
as does the transition from nursery tales to the true stories of other ages.
356 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
The relative value of time particularly has no significance for children up
to seven. If their interest in children of other lands is aroused by any
incident, then that is followed up and information given, but for the most
part their stage of development is such that the “ here ” and the “‘ now ”
supply sufficient scope for their curiosity. With children from homes of
a wider culture perhaps this ground might be covered by the age of seven,
but I do not think so. I would certainly include it in the first year of the
junior stage.’
General Observations.
This section of the inquiry revealed the method of approach of teachers
in infants’ schools rather than the content of the syllabuses of the schools.
In modern infants’ schools the emphasis is placed upon the development of
the child rather than upon the information taught. The distribution of the
questionnaire was necessarily limited to a few representative schools: «a
wider distribution might have shown more clearly what information is
acquired by the pupils. This is considerable, notwithstanding the fact
that neither the time-tables nor the school syllabuses are based upon
subjects of instruction. Visits to a number of infants’ schools—if arrange-
ments could be made for a sympathetic and skilled teacher to ask questions
of the pupils—would enable a more accurate idea to be obtained as to the
amount of factual information gained. It might prove to be more
extensive than is generally thought, especially in relation to Science. ‘The
work in nature study, in the school garden, and with animal pets, quickens
observation and prompts innumerable questions ; the information pupils
thus acquire is probably greater than has hitherto been appreciated.
(2) Replies from Funior Elementary Schools to Questions on Grade B.
The replies to questions on Grade B were received from three head
mistresses and four head masters of junior schools. Unfortunately the
detailed answers desired were seldom given; but in every instance the
evidence afforded an illustration of the difference between the present
methods of approach and those in common use twenty-five years ago.
History.
This difference is shown plainly in the information relative to the curricu-
lum in History. Thus replies from a London head master and a Nottingham
head master stated that all the suggested curriculum is taken; and that
from an Ealing head mistress, “ Practically this scheme is taken simply and
pictorially, minus Races of Man, references to the Great Empires, and to
Islam and Semitic Races.’ Of the others, a London head mistress takes
the ‘ Story of Early Civilisation’ and the ‘ Growth of Christianity’; a
Cambridge head master includes the ‘ Coming of Aryan-speaking Peoples,’
the ‘ Rise and Growth of Christianity,’ and the ‘ Elementary History of
Great Britain’; and a Cannock head master includes the ‘ Story of Early
Civilisation,’ the ‘ Growth of Primary Civilisation,’ the ‘ Succession of
Stone, Copper, Iron,’ the ‘ Introduction of the Horse,’ the ‘ Construction
of Roads,’ the ‘ Development of Shipping,’ the ‘ Establishment of Persian,
Macedonian and Roman Empires,’ the ‘Coming of Aryan-speaking
Peoples,’ and the ‘ Rise and Growth of Christianity.’ E
The time suggested for History by Mr. Wells was approximately 2 hours
25 minutes per week. This was longer than was generally given to the
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 357
subject. One correspondent stated that only one-sixth of that amount
was given, while another allocated one hour. It appears obvious that if the
whole of the work indicated in Mr. Wells’s proposals is to be taken—
certainly if it is to be taken thoroughly—a longer time is necessary. ‘Thus
the reply from Kesteven stated that it is desirable that the whole suggested
scheme should be taken, but that only 2 hours 10 minutes are available for
both History and Geography. On the other hand, the Cannock head
master thought the following parts are superfluous for junior children:
“The Developing Réles of Priest, King, Farmer, Warrior’; the ‘ Rise of the
Semitic-speaking People’ ; and the ‘ Rise and Growth of Islam.’
Geography.
As will also be observed from the replies referring to the other grades,
the work actually taken in this subject most nearly approximates to that
suggested in Mr. Wells’s curriculum. In every case except one the replies
stated that all contained in Mr. Wells’s outline is taken ; and the exception
simply stated that no Geology is taken. Here, too, the time devoted to the
subject, when reference is made thereto, approximates to that allocated
by Mr. Wells.
Science.
(a) Botany.—In Science, however, the scope of the work attempted in the
schools falls far short of what Mr. Wells regards as necessary. Biology is
seldom taken, and even when taken it is not on the lines indicated. The
only two replies giving any information in relation to this subject stated,
one, that ‘ Succession of Living Things in Time’ is taken, and the other,
that Zoology and Botany are taught in reference only to creatures and
plants familiar to children.
(b) Science of Inanimate Matter likewise receives somewhat scant atten-
tion. ‘ Very simple principles’ are taught in one of the schools from
which information was received ; Physics and Chemistry are taught in
another, but not on the lines indicated ; and ‘Elementary History of Inven-
tion and Discovery’ is taken in a third. But in the other replies either no
mention was made or else it was stated that no part of the syllabus is
attempted.
(c) Physiology.—Slightly more attention is given to Physiology. ‘The
Working of our Bodies’ is taught at one school ; ‘ Some Reproduction of
Plant and Animal Life from Direct Observation’ in another. Elementary
Hygiene was mentioned in yet another reply, and this is possibly included
more commonly in the curriculum of junior schools in connection with
“Health Talks,’ a universal feature of school work.
The whole of the Science teaching was said in two replies to be given
in the form of ‘ Nature Study.’ How much of what is included in Mr.
Wells’s proposals is taken in this work was not indicated.
Observations on the Proposed Curriculum.
Few suggestions were made as to the inclusion of those parts of the
curriculum at present omitted Only two correspondents indicated that
they would like to include other sections of the work ; one wished to include
all the parts of the History and Geography, the ‘ Elementary History of
Invention and Discovery,’ and ‘The Working of our Bodies,’ but said
that inadequate time and the necessary grouping of classes made that im-
358 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
possible ; the other would add ‘ General Ideas of Evolution,’ but the size
of classes, 46-48, was said to prevent it.
The suggestions as to parts to be excluded were more numerous. They
were :
‘ Biology section, Reproduction, Diseases, Enfeeblements and Acci-
dents, Developing Réles of Priests, etc,. and Rise of Semitic People,’ ©
because ‘ subject matter is unsuitable and entirely outside the experience
of the child.’
De All the Science except ‘Elementary History of Invention and Dis-
covery’ and ‘ Working of our Bodies,’ for the reason that they are ‘ too
abstract and too deductive.’
3. Geology, Pure Physics and Chemistry, because, in the opinion of the
writer, ‘ The object in teaching Science in the Junior School should be
rather to lay the foundation for a method of approach and orderly thinking.
This can best be achieved with the teaching of Nature Study.’
4. Physiology and Anatomy as well as Physics and Chemistry. ‘The
reason given by this correspondent was, ‘The matter under the head
Physiology I consider contrary to a junior child’s natural development and
requirements, which should be of a constructive character.’ She also
considered that the work would be hampered by size of classes, lack of
specialist teachers and lack of accommodation and equipment.
5. Sections of History, Biology and Science of Inanimate Matter; the
reasons given for exclusion being :
‘(a) History—Too much time spent on early World History leaves
no time for modern inventions, great social reformers, and gradual changes
in social life. One hour is all that I could allow in the crowded curriculum
of a Junior School, with its need for the three R’s and numerous activities.
‘(b) Physics and Chemistry.—Too advanced ; besides, no facilities.
‘(c) Physiology.—Personal hygiene only necessary at this stage. Repro-
duction should be taught when quite ‘young by parent, or if at school, at
the adolescent stage.
‘(d) Biology—(Theory of Byoletioa’ in Human and Plant Life.) I think
these children are more interested in things as they are at present.’
Having regard to the position revealed in relation to the Science syllabus,
it would appear that this is a subject calling for detailed consideration by
the Research Committee.
General Observations.
The History and Geography taken in schools, especially the latter,
correspond somewhat closely to the recommendations in Mr. Wells’s
chart. So far as History is concerned, there are marked differences in the
scope of the work attempted in different junior schools. More or less
drastic changes are taking place in the method of approach to this subject,
and World History is receiving increasingly greater attention. ‘The replies
to the questionnaire show that the schools are at present passing through
a period of transition in respect to the teaching of History. Similar changes
relative to Geography have been taking place for the last thirty years at
least, and the syllabuses of. the majority of schools include most of what
Mr. Wells advocated.
In regard to Science there is much variation in the work taken in junior
schools themselves. But even if this is borne in mind, there is, speaking
generally, a great difference between what is actually taught and what Mr.
Wells advocated should be taken. Possibly in reference to junior schools the
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 359
same observation might be made as was offered when infants’ schools were
under consideration, viz., that much of what is suggested should be learned
by pupils is already taught, although not as part of a separate subject. Some
of the information included in Botany is taught in Geography, talks of other
lands, or Nature Study. The part played by the aquarium (a feature of
many schools) in this work was not indicated in the information received.
Health talks are included in the syllabus of all junior schools and experi-
mental work taken to illustrate them. Some Physiology and Anatomy are
doubtless taught in connection therewith. Possibly the modern methods of
education adopted in schools, and especially the new approach to the curri-
culum, have handicapped the inquiry in its efforts to discover what is the
actual information gained by pupils during the years they spend in the
junior schools. It is obvious, however, that more money will have to be
spent on equipment and books to enable the schools to do justice to the
expansion in the curriculum dictated by the needs of to-day.
(3) Replies received from Senior and Central Schools working under
Elementary School Regulations to Questions on Grade C.
The questionnaire on Grade C was submitted to teachers in various
types of school working under the Elementary School Regulations.
These included selective and non-selective central schools, and rural and
urban senior schools. Some were departmental schools either for boys
or girls, and others were mixed. ‘The schools to which the inquiry was
sent may thus be taken as representative of elementary schools providing
for children of the ages 11 to 14 plus. In the selective central schools the
majority of the pupils continue in attendance until the age of 15.
An examination of the replies indicated that the analysis of Mr. Wells’s
proposed curriculum did not convey to all those who received it an ade-
quate idea of what the address with its chart conveyed to those who heard
it delivered at Nottingham. The aim of Mr. Wells did not always appear
to be fully understood ; certainly his reasons for advocating this minimum
of informative content of education were not fully appreciated even if they
were comprehended. ‘This was unfortunate, since it may have led corre-
spondents to regard the inquiry from the wrong angle.
The replies revealed a wide divergence between present practice and
Mr. Wells’s proposals, and to summarise them briefly is a rather difficult
task. In these circumstances possibly the best course will be to indicate
the sections of the subjects included in the proposed curriculum which are
taken in each school.
History.
In the Lowestoft school, which is a selective central school, the sections
taken are:
‘ National and Imperial Boundaries.’
“Economic Changes in History.’
‘Rise and Fall of Empires and Powers.’
‘History of War.’
In regard to the remainder the head master wrote: ‘It is perhaps fair
to say that most of the remaining parts might be “‘ advantageously included.”
Some of the phrases are rather staggering for a school curriculum, but they
probably mean much less than they appear to mean.’
360 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
A Bristol girls’.school includes in its History syllabus :
‘ Development of Imperial and National Boundaries’ ;
‘The Rise and Fall of Countries and Empires’ taken generally ;
and no suggestion was made of desirable additions, though the opinion was
expressed that ‘ Leading Theories of Individualism, Communism, Corporate
State ’ should be excluded. ‘The reasons given for this opinion were that
girls in a non-selective central school ‘ are intellectually incapable and of
insufficient experience at their age, to benefit by study of these subjects,’
and that ‘the girls come from different homes, where political opinions
may be freely expressed at home, and they may be (and probably will be)
strongly biassed towards a political party supported by the home.’
A school in Oxfordshire takes :
“The Development of Existing National and Imperial Boundaries ’ ;
“The Increasing Importance of Economic Changes in History ’; and
“The Search for Competent Economic Direction.’
The head master would also like to include ‘Elements of Political
Theory’ for pupils during the 14-15 year, but he would exclude the
“History of War,’ the ‘ Rise of Russia,’ the ‘ History of the Baltic.’ His
reasons are lack of time, and the unsuitability of these subjects for rural
children who are more practical than bookish in type. ‘ Theories of
Individualism, Corporate State and Communism,’ he wrote, ‘ could not be
studied with profit by rural elementary children until 14-15, as they have
no background to which to attach such knowledge and are too young to
have opinions thereon of their own.’
A Staffordshire head mistress reported that ‘ practically all is taken in
one syllabus or another with the exception of ‘‘ Detailed Study of European
History ”’ as mentioned in Mr. Wells’s speech. . . . All of it is taken in so
far as the sections make contact with English or Imperial History.’ In this
school the ‘ special bias is given to (1) Social History and (2) Imperial
History.’
This head mistress thought that when 14-15 is established as the last year
of school life a fairly comprehensive study of Modern European History
might well form the basis of this year’s work in History and Economics.
At present the available time does not permit of this being included. It
also prevents the inclusion of the ‘ Rise of Russia,’ the ‘ Rise of Dutch
Power,’ the ‘ Unification of Germany and Italy,’ and the ‘ Leading Theories
of Individualism, Corporate State and Communism.’ Even if time did
permit, however, she would not include the ‘ History of War.’
Another head mistress who has charge of a school in Hull includes these
sections :
* Development of Existing National and Imperial Boundaries.’
“The study of such phenomena as: Rise and Fall of Ottoman Empire,
taken baldly as it impinges on the Crusading Era and the Renaissance.’
“History of the Baltic.’
‘Rise and Fall of Spanish Power.’
She reported that an approach to the ‘ Leading Theories of Individualism,
Corporate State and Communism ’” has emerged from the wireless talks on
“ History traced Backward ’ and ‘ Topical Talks.’
Of the remaining correspondents one reported that the History taught
is not on the lines of the suggested curriculum but more in accord with
the section under the heading of ‘ Social Mechanism’; and the other
gave the bald answer ‘ None’ to the questions, adding that the whole
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 361
of the Informative Content of Education ‘is wholly unsuitable for the
immature minds of children 14-15 years of age.’
Geography.
As was noted when reference was made to the replies to questions on
Grade B, the Geography taken in the school corresponds closely to that
contained in Mr. Wells’s syllabus in that subject. Thus of the Lowestoft
school it was reported : ‘ All parts are taken (using discretion about “ detailed
and explicit”’)’; of the school in Torquay, ‘ Broadly speaking, we cover
the suggested content, but the statement in the speech has an academic
flavour shunned by us, especially when dealing with B and C classes. We
probably teach as much as Mr. Wells wants us to teach, but in an easier
atmosphere than he creates’; of a girls’ school in Stafford, ‘ Taken almost
exactly as indicated, except that the Geology side is only simply touched
upon’; and of a Hull girls’ school, ‘ All except the Geology of the World.’
Of the others, it was said of one that Economic Geography, local Geology
and World Geography are taken ; and of the other, ‘ Economic Geography
and Geology of World are taught generally.’ A note was made in two instances
that World Geography is not taken in a detailed and explicit but in a general
manner.
Social Mechanism.
The information under this heading was not given so fully as that included
in Geography. Indeed, in one reply it was ignored and in the others only a
small part was included. Thus in the selective central school in Lowestoft,
‘Communications and Trade, Production and Manufacture, and Money’
are taught ; in a Bristol girls’ school, ‘ A Short History of Communications
and Trade, a History of Innovations in Production and Manufacture, and
the Réle of Property and Money in Economic Life’; a rural school in
Oxfordshire includes in its syllabus ‘ A Short History of Communications
and Trade’ taught as the opportunity offers in the History and Geography
lessons ; a girls’ school in Stafford takes ‘ Short History of Communications
and Trade, the History of Innovations in Production and Manufacture,’
but admits that they are very inadequately covered, and only deals with the
‘Réle of Property and Money in Economic Life’ as it affects the other
sections of the subject ; and a girls’ non-selective school in Hull includes
‘ Short History of Communications and Trade’ and ‘ A History of Innova-
tions in Production and Manufacture,’ not as a definite study but as ideas
thereon emerge more or less definitely.
The head master of the rural school, while wishing to include more
detailed study of what he already takes, would definitely exclude ‘ 'The
Réle of Property and Money in Economic Life.’ A head mistress said she
would never include in a girls’ curriculum any studied course on ‘ The
way in which fluctuations of money affect ‘‘ industrial windmills” and
Significance of Inflation and Deflation.’
Personal Sociology.
Less is taken of the work suggested in this section than of that suggested
in any of the other sections. Only very small fragments of it appear to be
attempted and the replies were sometimes rather vague. ‘Thus in reply to
questions on this part of the suggested curriculum, one stated ‘ General
Social Development is taken.’ In other cases the part taught was indicated,
e.g. ‘ Man’s relationship and duty to his neighbour, and nationally to other
N2
362 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
countries’ in one; ‘ General ideas of relation of self to universe,’ taught
incidentally in History and Geography, in another, of which the head
master wroté, ‘ but details too abstract for rural children of 11 to 14 years
of age’; ‘Taken, but on rather different lines. Comparative Religion is
dealt with only in Imperial History and Geography. No great emphasis
is given to direct attention to the choice of a métier’ in a third. In one
girls’ school Comparative Religion is taught, the oldest group taking a
short course of study in the main teaching of Buddha and Mohammed at
the end of the fourth year.
One head master thought that ‘ Incidental mention of other religions and
general study of types of civilised life’ might be taken, but regarded the
remainder as too abstract for elementary school children. A head mistress,
too, commented on this point, stating that she ‘ does not consider children of
this age-group are capable of comprehending the ideas contained in the
suggestions.’
General Observations.
An analysis of the replies reveals a number of interesting facts, the most
outstanding being the degree of freedom enjoyed by teachers in elementary
schools in arranging the curriculum of the schools for which they have
responsibility. As a consequence of this there is a great variety of
curricula in English schools catering for children of the same age, a
variety which characterises both the subjects taken and the sections of the
subjects included. Another noteworthy fact which emerges is that there
is a marked tendency to give greater attention to practical subjects, and the
time available for giving definite information is therefore more limited
than it was in the early days of this century.
More germane to the present inquiry is an opinion which in one form or
another finds frequent expression. It is, that the curriculum outlined by
Mr. Wells, though it may be desirable, is beyond the capacity of the pupils
of this age. ‘The opinion is expressed somewhat hesitatingly by these
correspondents in elementary schools; indeed, they more often indicate
it by the omission of any reference to sections; but it is none the less
obvious.
It may be that the suggested curriculum is too ambitious and com-
prehensive ; that the subjects are beyond the capacity of the pupils. But
since many of the sections are taken in the schools—though not all of them
in any one school—only actual experiment can afford conclusive evidence
of how much could be taught, if adequate conditions were obtained and
schools were appropriately staffed. Meanwhile the inquiry itself will
without doubt have a stimulating effect.
REPLIES FROM PREPARATORY SCHOOLS AND DEPARTMENTS TO QUESTIONS
ON GRADE C.
Since preparatory schools and preparatory departments of public schools
cater for children of the same age-group as those found in the senior schools
in the elementary education system, the same questionnaire was submitted
to six schools of this type. Only three replies were received. Of these
one was in the following terms :
‘I do not think it is possible to give a formal detailed reply to the
questionnaire on Mr. Wells’s views of History. It is useless to con-
sider Section C, ages 11-14, except on the assumption that the ground
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 363
suggested for the stages A and B has previously been covered ; the know-
ledge and capacity assumed for these ages as possibilities seem to me
absurd.’
History.
The other two indicated what sections are taken in History and Geography.
At Brentwood School, in History ‘ The Rise and Fall of Spanish and Dutch
Powers’ come in for 11-14. The rest of the syllabus more in the Sixth
Forms ; parts of the 7-11 are given to 11-12 boys.’
At Gadebridge Park the syllabus includes ‘ The Rise and Fall of Spanish
and Dutch Powers, Unification of Germany and Italy and the History of
War.’
Geography.
At Brentwood ‘ Most of this is covered,’ while at Gadebridge Park the
parts of the suggested syllabus taken are :
“World geography. Different types of population in the world.
Developed and undeveloped resources of the globe. Devastation of the
world’s forests, dongas and.the like ; natural resources.’
Social Mechanism.
At the first-named school this ‘ comes in Lower Sixth’; no mention was
made of it in the reply from the second school except that the head master
thought that the following might be advantageously included in the
curriculum : ‘ Short history of communications and trade’ and ‘ A History
of Innovations—perhaps.’
His colleague at Brentwood School observes in reply to the inquiry as
to what might be added :
“Most of syllabus is taught in different parts of the school ; I should
like to include Physiology but at present ‘‘ Reproduction ” is the chief
part dealt with ; accidents we deal with only in the Ambulance section
of the cadet corps.’
Sections Excluded.
The replies to the question on parts that should be excluded were of
interest. In one case they included all given under Personal Sociology,
which, said the writer, ‘should only be discussed with well-balanced
senior boys having other main interests in life; a boy may easily lose his
mental balance.’ This he gave as the reason for the exclusion of this
section of the curriculum, ‘ because,’ he added, ‘I have had personal experi-
ence of undergraduates breaking down mentally.’
In the other case the correspondent would not include :
‘ Geology of the World. Increasing importance of economic changes
in History, etc. The Réle of Property in economic life. A short history
of general ideas. Comparative Religion. Study of social types leading
to choice of réle.’
In explanation of this he stated :
“The preparatory schools, owing to the immense importance and time
given to Classics and Mathematics and the ignoring by Public Schools
of Geography, are only able to devote some 2 hours a week to
“Geography ” and Geology can well be left to the Public Schools.
Naturally some Geology is necessary to the understanding of even
elementary Geography. No Geographer is qualified to teach Geology ;
364 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
it is outside their province. Lack of space makes me dogmatic. The
other items are outside, or ought to be, the understanding of a normal,
healthy boy. Could such subjects be made interesting to the immature ?
I doubt it.’
When referring to the obstacles in the way of introducing a ‘ Short
History of Communications and Trade’ and possibly ‘A History of
Innovations,’ he wrote :
“'The fact that our present curriculum takes a normal boy all his time
to assimilate, whether he works for the Naval Entrance Examination, the
Common Entrance Examination or a Scholarship Examination. We
must leave the Public Schools something to teach their boys. Facts, not
ideas, come more easily to boys between the ages of 11 to 14, therefore
make hay . . . We hate teaching theories and politics to boys, unable
to refute what is told them successfully ; it’s unsporting and un-British.’
REPLIES FROM SECONDARY SCHOOLS TO QUESTIONS ON GRADE C.
An analysis of the replies presents some difficulty. This arises partly
from the variation of schemes and the distribution of the sections taken over
a wider age-range and partly from the method of approach to the subject,
a method which differs considerably from that indicated by Mr. Wells.
The questionnaire referred to the ‘ Informative Content’ of an education
which might be—Mr. Wells thinks should be—given to all pupils by the age
of 14. ‘ Our educational system is so different from that envisaged by
H. G. Wells that it is difficult to comment,’ said Mr. Lyon of Rugby.
‘Mr. Wells is an interesting theorist ; but if the children whose capacities
he estimates so glibly were before him in a class he would discover in a
very salutary way that their reactions to knowledge he prescribes were
rather different from what he imagines them to be,’ wrote Miss Clarke, of
Manchester High School for Girls.
These observations raise an important question which appears to have
been in the minds of many correspondents. This is: ‘ How far are the
pupils in schools able, at the ages stipulated, to receive the information
included in the outline syllabus of Mr. Wells?’ Possibly the teachers
underestimate the capacities of their pupils, as Mr. Wells suggests ;
but it is noteworthy that in these returns from secondary schools there
is unanimity regarding this point. What was indicated by Mr. Wells as
necessary is thought to be beyond the capacity of the pupils at the age at
which it is suggested that it should be taken ; but in some cases the informa-
tion is included for an older age-group
Thus Miss Gwatkin (Streatham Hill Girls’ School) wrote :
‘We keep most of our girls till 18 and nearly all of them until 17, and
prefer to deal with many of the matters in your schedule when they are
over the age of 16 and more mature.’
Mr. Barton, of the Grammar School, Bristol, expressed the opinion that
“Here and there, from the standpoint of a practical teacher, the scheme
suggests precociousness, and I dare say the air of an ambitious set-out is
partly accounted for by the difficulty of concise indications in other than
academic language. The word “ informative ’’ seems to me a little mis-
leading ; e.g. our “‘ ideas of the relation of oneself to the Universe ’’ come
largely into the realm of speculative opinion and feeling rather than of
information in the usual sense. Such doubts however are inevitable, and
broadly speaking I think the consideration of the scheme has value, if only
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 365
to encourage the taking of a wider and more fundamental view of the
schoolmaster’s objects.’
It is because the Committee of Section L desire, if possible, to encourage
the taking of a wider and more fundamental view that this inquiry was
instituted. But it is necessary to know how much is already attempted,
in which direction expansion is necessary and how far such alterations are
possible and desirable before any conclusions can be formulated.
Mr. Evans (Woodhouse Grammar School, Sheffield) indicated another
reason why the whole of the Informative Content of Education as contained
in Mr. Wells’s suggestions cannot be given :
‘ Our opinion is that the syllabus of work suggested by Mr. Wells is
far too ambitious to be tackled in any school with any degree of success
with pupils up to the age of 14 plus. . . . So far as History is concerned,
most of the work under Grade B is taken here in Grade C. I am sure
that any attempt by the average teacher to try to cover the ground suggested
by Mr. Wells would end in chaos and confusion in the poor child’s mind,
and he would derive very little benefit from the attempt to teach him all
that is suggested. It is possible, of course, that a teacher who is a real
genius at his work might make a success of this colossal task.’
The last sentence suggests that, given the right teacher, the pupils could
be given the information included in the scheme outlined by Mr. Wells.
If this were so, then the work of the Committee would include recommenda-
tions as to the ways and means of providing the right teachers.
History.
The opinion that even a teacher who is a genius could teach all that was
suggested is not shared, however, by all those who sent replies to the
questionnaire, some of whom would not include all sections of the work.
For example, the Head Master of Bristol Grammar School said of ‘ Elements
of Political Theory,’ ‘Development of Existing National and Imperial
Boundaries,’ ‘ Increasing Importance of Economic Changes in History
and the Search for Competent Economic Direction,’ that they should not
be included, as the problems require a riper mentality than is possessed by
the average boy of 16. In this school, consideration of these sections is
deferred to an advanced course, and even then the treatment is less formal
than incidental to the work in literature, art and general essays.
The Head Master of Rugby suggested that pupils should be given a thorough
knowledge of the History outlined in Grades A and B (i.e. the parts suggested
to be taken by pupils below 11 years of age), and 50 per cent. of Grade C,
substituting the further study of British and Imperial affairs for the other
half. This is suggested, however, for pupils aged 14 to 16.
The Head Mistress of Manchester High School for Girls stated :
‘In our history syllabus, the early civilisations, and much of the
attendant matter suggested by Mr. Wells, are taught at the age of fourteen.
This year’s course ends with the fall of the Roman Empire; and the
history of Great Britain, of her European neighbours, and their overseas
expansion, which Mr. Wells suggests should be completed before the
age of fourteen, occupy our girls for another four years of their school
course.’
Only Sheffield Woodhouse School gave an affirmative reply to the
questions on the following parts of the scheme of History: ‘ Development
of Existing National and Imperial Boundaries,’ ‘ Increasing Importance
366 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
of Economic Changes,’ though the Head Mistress of Clapham Secondary
School stated that practically all were included in the instruction for the
period ending 14 years of age, except such as are postponed for the ages
14to16. The Head Mistress of Manchester High School reported that such
parts are taken as fall within the History syllabus for School Certificate
(English History 1783-1914, and European History 1789-1914), while
Liverpool Collegiate School said they are taken not as a course but as they
arise from the study of Europe.
It is noticeable that while the Head Master of Bristol Grammar School
does not include the parts to which reference is made in the foregoing
paragraph and the Head of Sheffield Woodhouse School does, in relation
to ‘ Study of such phenomena as: Rise and Fall of Ottoman Empire; Rise
of Russia; History of Baltic; Rise and Fall of Spanish Power and of
Dutch Power; Unification of Germany and Italy,’ the former replied
‘Yes’ except in reference to ‘ History of Baltic’; and the latter replied
‘No’ but thought the ‘ Rise and Fall of Spanish and Dutch Powers ’
might be included. Both take the ‘ Unification of Germany and Italy ’ with
pupils 14 to 16. ‘These sections are also taken at Streatham High School
and were said to be included by Liverpool Collegiate School in the General
and World History Course which is given as a preliminary background for
English and European History.
There is greater unanimity regarding the remaining sections: ‘ Leading
Theories of Individualism, Corporate State, Communism,’ and the ‘ History
of War.’ Streatham High School reported that the first is taught incidentally,
but Bristol Grammar School and Sheffield Woodhouse School both stated
definitely that it should not be taught as the pupils have not sufficient
knowledge on which to base theories. Liverpool Collegiate School reply
expressed the opinion that it should only be taken in the Sixth Form ;
since if attempted before, the teaching can only be superficial and may
be misleading.
In no instance was the ‘ History of War’ taught. After stating that it
is unsuitable except with Sixth Form, the Head Mistress of Manchester
High School proceeded to suggest that it should not be included at all, its
place being taken preferably by the ‘Achievements of Peace.’
Subsequent to writing the above report a further reply was received
from Dudley Girls’ High School. This stated that ‘All the suggested
subjects are included in the curriculum, although it is not built round
these points but differently grouped, i.e. we do not work solely from this
angle and include much that is not mentioned. We lay more stress upon
British History.’ The periods studied at this school are: To the French
Revolution by pupils 11 to 14 years of age; and from the French Revolu-
tion to the present day by pupils between the ages of 14 to 16.
Geography. .
The instruction in Geography given in the schools appears to approximate
more nearly to Mr. Wells’s scheme than does that in any other subject.
In Bristol Grammar School it was said that Economic Geography and Geology
of the World is covered in an elementary and unpretentious way by the
pupils aged 11-14, and most of the other sections might be covered if time
allowed. Rugby reported that all of it is included in the syllabus ;_ Liver-
pool that ‘ all may be included but owing to lack of time some parts of it .
may not be reached until the 14-16 stage,’ and added, ‘ This is not on the
ground of its unsuitability but simply because time does not allow.’
Some of the correspondents indicated their method of approach. Thus
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 367
the Streatham Head Mistress recorded that ‘ World Geography is taken at
the age of 10 plus in the form of journeys and history of explorations. So
there should be knowledge of the (i) Continents; (ii) kinds of religion ;
(iii) occupations.’ This is for pupils 11-14. For those 14-16 she said:
*Then World Regions are taken as synthesis of previous building up of
knowledge of various parts.’
In Manchester High School for Girls this Geography is taught to pupils
11-14 incidentally as the study of the various world regions proceeds, but
is not isolated and taken in regard to the world as a whole. ‘Thus most
of the ground is covered by the age of 18. In her general remarks the
Head Mistress said: ‘'To propose covering the ground by the age of 14
is absurd. The limitations in general knowledge in children of 11 to 13
make the teaching of scattered items of general information purely dog-
matic.’
A similar caveat was entered by the Head Master of Sheffield Woodhouse
School. After stating that ‘General knowledge of natural resources and
their exploitation ’ is taken, he proceeded : ‘ To suggest that children of this
age should have detailed and explicit acquaintance with undeveloped
resources of the globe seems to me fantastic ; to begin with I find it difficult
to understand what is meant by “‘ detailed and explicit acquaintance with
world geography, with different types of population, and the developed and
undeveloped resources of the globe.” ’
Geology is not, apparently, given so much attention as the other sections.
In Sheffield Woodhouse School it was said to be least stressed. At Clapham
it is not ‘ taken as a separate study but references to Geology and geological
theory are not infrequent in the course of lessons in Geography.’ One
correspondent, the Head Mistress of Streatham, expressed the opinion that
‘ Geology as such should not be included. This is a science in itself, and
too difficult. Geomorphology would be a better word, but even that could
only be taken very generally. Geology should be left to University study.’
Social Mechanism.
The replies to questions on Social Mechanism were not helpful. The
first two sections :
‘ Short History of Communications and Trade,’
‘ History of Innovations in Production and Manufacture,’
were said to be taken in Bristol Grammar School and Liverpool Collegiate
School, but in each case by pupils 14 to 16 years of age. In relation to the
remaining sections :
‘ The Réle of Property and Money in Economic Life,’
‘ Knowledge of Conventions of Property and Money,’
‘ Way in which Money has changed Slavery and Serfdom into Wages
and Employment,’
Way in which Fluctuations of Money affect ‘“‘ Industrial Windmills,” ’
‘ Significance of Inflation and Deflation,’
four made no reference and a fifth replied that they should not be taken since
they require a riper mentality than is to be expected before the age of 16.
From Streatham High School the reply to this section was: “A regular
course of economics lasting two years is taken in the Sixth Form (16-18).
Usually economic history or a course of modern problems is also taken.’
The Head Mistress of Manchester High School stated: ‘A good deal
of what is described as Social Mechanism finds its way into history teaching.
368 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
Simple economics and economic history are absolutely essential to a just
appreciation of historical development as a whole.’
Again there is the suggestion that the information contained can only
be taken with a Sixth Form and that below that stage only very superficial
matters can be dealt with.
Personal Sociology.
The least satisfactory replies had reference to the section on Personal
Sociology. Three made no mention of it and with slight exceptions the
others were of the opinion that the various subjects should not be taken.
The exceptions were in the case of Streatham High School. There
“ Comparative Religion ’ was said to be taken in Divinity ; ‘ General Ideas of
the Relation of Oneself to the Universe ’ was said by Liverpool Collegiate
School to emerge from religious teaching and addresses at Prayers with the
whole school ; and ‘ General Study of Social Structure, etc.’ was given by
a Bradford head master as a part that might be taken.
The Head Mistress of Manchester High School is of the opinion that
“The material outlined under Personal Sociology is not suitable before the
last year in the Sixth Form (17-18) and can be approached only in the most
elementary way even then.’ ‘The Head Master of Bristol Grammar School
remarked that ‘ It is questionable whether the detailed consideration of much
of the matter under Personal Sociology is proper to the school stage at all.’
General Observations.
The replies received from secondary schools demonstrate the influence
of examinations upon the syllabuses of work. While the statement that
the First School Examination controls the work in secondary schools may
be an exaggeration, the fact that it does greatly influence both the scope
of the syllabus and the method of approach is obvious. The thorough and
sometimes detailed knowledge required to answer examination papers has a
limiting effect upon the scope of the work attempted.
The practice of taking thoroughly what is attempted may also account
for the opinion that some sections should not be taught. On the other hand,
the opinion that some parts of what Mr. Wells would include should not
be taught to school pupils was definitely expressed by head teachers of
experience and of known progressive views. ‘This was especially true of
two sections, Social Mechanism and Personal Sociology, and it is only
fair that the strong opposition to their inclusion should be noted.
SUMMARY OF REPLIES.
In summarising the results of the questionnaire, the two features which
call for comment are :
1. The consensus of opinion that the informative content of education
outlined by Mr. Wells is both too wide in scope to be covered during the
present school life of the great majority of children of this country, and
too advanced in its demands upon the capacity of the pupils for whom
the various sections of the subjects were suggested.
2. The differences of opinion in relation to what can be included in
the curriculum ; what some correspondents believe cannot be taken with
pupils of a given age-group and cannot be included within the scope of
a reasonable curriculum, is actually taken in other schools with pupils
of the same age.
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 369
In reference to the first it should perhaps be observed that the phraseology
used by Mr. Wells was that most suitable for the audience on the occasion
of the delivery ; but it was not always appropriate for use in schemes of
work for elementary or secondary schools. As one correspondent wrote :
‘Some of the phrases are rather staggering for a school curriculum, but
they probably mean less than they appear to mean.’
In illustration of this statement reference may be made to some sections
named in the outline given by Mr. Wells. ‘Elementary ideas about
human cultures and their development in time,’ when suggested for the
infants’ schools, sounds formidable. But when the actual stories told to
children of this age are recalled, including the Biblical stories, stories of
Hiawatha, etc., and when the outlines of History are examined from this
angle, the suggestions may not appear quite so alarming.
Similarly, ‘ States of Matter,’ for infants, has a terrifying sound. But
talks on ice, water and air in some form or other, and in association with
some experience or activity, are taken in every school. Biology, Zoology,
Botany and Physiology mentioned in any curriculum for very young children
would immediately arouse suspicion, if not antagonism ; yet it is doubtful
whether the whole of Mr. Wells’s suggestions are not included in Nature
talks, Observation Records, Gardening and such-like normal activities of
nearly every infants’ school in the country.
The differences between what is actually taken and what Mr. Wells
suggested in regard to other age-groups may be more marked ; but the
contradictory nature of some of the replies appears to emphasise the need
for further and fuller inquiry. With regard to some of the work suggested
for these groups it may be found that the terminology has been too readily
accepted as ambitious and pretentious ; and insufficient attention has been
paid to the actual content of the proposed curriculum and to the real scope
of the work already included in schemes of work. Such an approach may
account for the reply ‘ None’ given to the whole questionnaire, the corre-
spondent adding that the whole of the Informative Content of Education
“is wholly unsuitable for the immature minds of children of 14-15 years of
age.’ An ex cathedra pronouncement of this kind may denote a reluctance
to experiment, and a tendency to assume that all is well in our present
curriculum.
In further illustration reference may be made to the sections of History
for Grade C, ‘ The increasing importance of economic changes in History,’
and especially to ‘The search for competent economic direction.’ So
expressed, they are, in relation to an elementary school curriculum, almost
awe-inspiring ; yet judging by the information received there are some
senior schools in which both sections are taught and taught effectively.
The Committee are of the opinion, therefore, that further investigation
is desirable to discover how far the actual teaching in the schools, regardless
of the terminology employed, does cover the various sections of the subjects
to which reference is made in the outline of an Informative Content of
Education.
Possibly there are parts of the curriculum suggested by Mr. Wells which
cannot be taught either because they are beyond the capacity of the pupils
or because the time factor will not allow them to be included. In relation
to the first of these, the following observations of Sir Richard Livingstone,
speaking as President of Section L at Blackpool, may be recalled :
‘TI should like to suggest certain principles which we must observe if
our efforts are to be successful, and to which little attention has hitherto
been paid. . . . The first of these principles is that education must be
370 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
adjusted not only to the natural capacities of the pupil but also to the
stage of development which his brain has reached ; that certain forms
of study are appropriate to certain ages. That is a platitude. What
need then to stress a principle which everyone accepts? Yet, if accepted,
is it remembered by an age which has acquiesced in the idea that most of
the population should leave school at 14, and is now comforted by the
thought that in future they may not leave it till a year later? At the
ages of 14 or 15 the mind cannot cope with, if it can conceive, the subjects
which compose a liberal education and are vital to the citizen. A boy
reads literature—‘‘ Hamlet ” or ‘‘ King Lear ’’—and should read them.
But what can the profound scepticisms of Hamlet, the passion and agony ,
of Lear mean to him? He reads history. Can he form a true con-
ception of Charles and Cromwell, Bismarck and Napoleon III? At
18 we may scan the surface of history and literature, but we cannot
see below it. Still more does this apply to the political questions on
which an elector has to express an opinion. Unless you believe that
these subjects are not meant for the masses and that the voter needs no
further education for his duty than experience of life, the newspapers,
and the speeches of political candidates, you are admitting the absurdity
of an education which stops at 14 or 15.’
In relation to the second reason—the time factor—further inquiry into
the actual curricula of the schools is necessary before a final conclusion can
be reached ; such inquiry may even involve consideration of the relative
importance of various sections of the curriculum as instruments of learning
and as a means for the preparation of pupils for life. In the meanwhile
an inspection of the returns received shows, ashas already been indicated,
divergence of practice and many contradictions in the opinions expressed.
These were so marked that the following list has been prepared.
GRADE B.—REPLIES FROM JUNIOR SCHOOLS.
History.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
Chart. Speech. ‘
ne, | || oe
cluded. | cjuded | cluded. | T°P!Y:
Races of man . : : : , ‘ I 2 2 2
Early civilisa- | Story of early civilisation,
tions. growth of primary’
. civilisation ; 6 - - I
Developing réles of priest,
king, farmer, warrior . 3 I 2 I
Succession of stone,
copper, iron 3 I I I
Introduction of horse 3 I I 2
Construction of roads 4 I - 2
Development of shipping 4 I = 2
Rise of a ne
peoples I I 4 I
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION
371
Chart.
Speech.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
General signifi-
cance of :
Persia.
Greece
Carthage
Rome
China.
America
Islam .
Christianity .
General idea of
break-up of
Christendom
and
Appearance of
modern
sovereign
states
Elem. history
of Great
Britain
Elem. history of |
France
Types of
country
Floras and
faunas
General survey
of world as
human habi-
tat and
: |
Coming of Aryan- aa
ing peoples
Establishment of :
Persian Empire
Macedonian Empire .
Roman Empire .
Rise and growth of Islam
Rise and growth of
Christianity
Geography.
Precise ideas of type of
country
Distinctive floras and
faunas of main regions
Sort of human life lived
in each region ,
In. | Might | Should; yy,
cluded. | beim- | be ex- | 7)
‘| cluded. | cluded. | 7©P*Y
set a ae
4 I = 2
2, I 2 Ps
2 I 2, 2
I I 2 3
I I 4 2
2 I 2 z
I I 2 3
I I 2 3
I I Boys nae
Ruel y ek tt
I I eat lB
|
2 I I 3
3 I a 4
1 I - | 5
6 - - I
+ 4 7 3
= = I
4 = a 3
6 = - I
+ 7 3 3
372 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
Chart. Speech. Mee cee
In- 18: No
| cxided | HE; | BOSE | epty
| Knowledge of topography |
| to enable pupils to
| know the position, |
| reason for position, |
| and kind of places well- |
| known cities are— |
| London, Rio, New
| York, Rome, Suez 4 - - 3
| A little map-reading eee - - 3
Source of power |
and wealth . 6 - - I
Biology, Zoology and Botany.
Zoology and
Botany, in-
cluding ex- |
tinct forms |
and their
succession in | | |
time . a ae : : : P Id b=) ee
Succession of living
| things in time I | - 4 ao
Geological ages SS A aiiies
General ideas |
about ecology | |
and__ evolu- | |
tion :
| Processes in prosperity,
| decline, extinction and
replacement of species ed aa 4 2
Story of life from the
beginning : : ~ I 4 2
| Emergence of sub-man
' and gradual emergence |
of mankind - te Wee 2)
Science of Inanimate Matter (Physics and Chemistry).
Leading up |
to modern
concepts of | é
matter I - 5 I
Mechanism and
power re [Bac : : : wi eo - | 4 2
i as
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 373
Chart.
Speech.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
’
23,| Mt | a) xe
cluded. | cluded. | cluded | T°P*Y-
Elementary his- |
tory of in- |
vention and |
discovery Nemes : : ; 5 2 I a I
| Foundation of pure phy-
sics and chemistry on
modern lines I - 5 I
Physiology.
Physiology and |
Anatomy.
Clear, general
ideas of :
Animal _ re-
production | Reproduction - I 6 -
Plant repro-
duction. P : E : - I 6 -
Working of our bodies I I 5 -
Elementary
pathology :
Chief diseases =| "fal lenses
Enfeeblements - - 7 -
Accidents - - 7 -
GRADE C.—REPLIES FROM SENIOR SCHOOLS.
History.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
Chart. Speech.
fia ne || boca Nene
cludec. | cluded. | cluded. Dye
Elements in
political theory
Development
of existing
national and
imperial
boundaries
374
REPORTS ON THE STATE OF
SCIENCE, ETC.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
Chart. Speech. ees nee
In- 18 “a Nolan.
cluded.| cided, | cluded, | 7°PIY-
Study of such phenomena
as:
Rise and fall of Otto-
man Empire 5 I - 2
Rise of Russia 4 = I 2
History of Baltic : 4 - I 4
Rise and fall of Spanish
power 2 - - 5
Rise and fall of Dutch
power . 2 - - -
Unification of Germany
and Italy . : - 2 - 5
Leading theories of :
Individualism - I 2 4
Corporate state . - I 2 4
Communism - I 3 3
History of War I - 2 4
Increasing im-
portance of
economic
changes in
history 2 = = 5
Search for com-
petent econo-
mic direction I I - 5
Geography.
Detailed and explicit ac-
quaintance with world
geography Bod oe ri 3
Different types of popula |
tion . - As N= = 3
Developed resources of |
globe : A ly 2 = - 3
Undeveloped resources of
globe ; 4 - I 2
Devastation of forests 4 - - 3
Replacement of pasture
by sand deserts through
haphazard cultivation . 4 - - 3
Waste and exhaustion of
natural resources, coal,
petrol, water, etc. 4 - - 3
ST tA ei Fae es
—
I a
INFORMATIVE CONTENT
Chart.
Economic
Geography .
Geology :
Short history
of communi-
cations ‘and
trade .
History of in-
novations in
production
and manu-
facture
Réle of pro-
perty and
money in
economic life:
Short history of
general ideas :
Comparative
Religion
Speech.
OF EDUCATION
375
| No. of replies which gave in-
| formation allowing analysis
Social Mechanism.
Knowledge of conven-
tions of a and
money .
Way in which money has
changed slavery and
serfdom into wages and
employment
Way in which fluctuations
of money affect
dustrial windmills ’
Significance of inflation
and deflation
Personal Sociology.
General ideas of relation
of self to universe
|
Primary propositions of |
chief religious
philosophical interpre-
tations of the world
to be made :—
"| Might | Should
| ae be in- | be ex- NOs
clude’. | cluded. | cluded. EVN
|
4 az ai 3
3 7 I 3
6 I — I
6 I - I
2 I 3 I
2 I 3 I
‘in-
= = 3 5
= = 3 5
|
2 = I 5
|
and | |
I I 3 3
376 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
No. of replies which gave in-
formation allowing analysis
to be made :—
Chart. Speech.
THe | Might | Should
luded. | bie hee repl
© * | cluded. | cluded. ae
Study of social
types, . | General study of social
structure associated
with social types ‘ I I 3 3
to direct attention to |
choice of a métier : - | - 2 6
of réle.
|
|
leading to choice |
|
|
|
GRADE C.—REPLIES FROM PREPARATORY SCHOOLS.
As stated in preceding pages, only three replies were received from
preparatory schools and departments. One stated that the knowledge
and capacity assumed ‘ seem to me to be absurd,’ and gave no replies to
questions. ‘The other two gave answers as follows :
1. History.
One included ‘ Rise and Fall of Spanish and Dutch Powers.’ Rest
of syllabus taken mostly with over-14’s.
The other included the same two sections, but said that ‘ Increasing
Importance of Economic Changes in History ’ and ‘ Search for Competent
Economic Direction ’ should not be taken.
2. Geography.
The first said ‘Most is covered’; the second included all except
Geology, which, it was stated, should be excluded.
3. Social Mechanism.
The first stated that this was taken with the Lower Sixth Form. The
second considered that ‘ Short History of Communications and Trade,’
and possibly ‘ History of Innovations,’ might be included; but he
considered that the following should not be taken :
“ Réle of Property and Money ’ ;
“ Knowledge of Conventions of Property and Money ’ ;
“Way in which Money has changed Slavery and Serfdom into Wages
and Employment’ ;
“Way in which Fluctuations of Money affect
mills’ ’ ; and
‘ Significance of Inflation and Deflation.’
“ce
industrial wind-
4. Personal Sociology.
Both correspondents stated that the whole of this section should be
excluded, one adding that it should only be discussed with well-balanced’
senior boys having other main interests in life, as ‘ a boy may easily lose
his mental balance.’
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 377
GraDE C.—REPLIES FROM SECONDARY SCHOOLS.
History.
Including Might be Should be
section included excluded
Chart. Speech.
Up to] Over | Up to| Over | Up to | Over
14. 14. 14. 14. 14. 14.
Elements in Po-
litical Theory I = = = 2 I
Development of |
existing na- |
tional and im- |
perial boun-
daries : i ; ; I I - - By hl on
Study of such phe-
nomena as:
Rise and fall of
Ottoman Em-
pire F 2 I - - 2 -
Rise of Russia . 2 I - - 2 =
History of Baltic | — - - - 2 -
Rise and _ fall
of Spanish
power . ; 2 _ I - I =
Rise and fall of
Dutch power 2 - I - I -
Unification of Ger-
many and Italy. | —- 4 - = 3 =
Leading theories
of :
Individualism . - - _ - 3 2
Corporate state. - - - - 3 2
Communism - - — - a 2
History of War - - ~ ~ F pkee
Increasing im- |
portance of |
economic
changes in
history I I - - 2 I
Search for com-
petent eco-
nomic direc-
tion - I - _ 2 I
The other replies did not give
definite
points, but referred to general
schemes,
information
e.g.
* Demands
School Certificate Exam.’
on
the
of
378 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
Geography.
Including Might be Should be
section included excluded
Chart. Speech. Remarks,
Up to|{ Over | Up to| Over | Up to{ Over
14. 14. 14. 14. 14 14.
Detailed and 4 said :
explicit ac- “Practi-
quaintance cally all
with world taken
geography . I I - - - - with pu-
pils be-
low 14.’
Different 2 said:
types of “Not in
population I I - - - - this
form.’
Developed
resources of 1 said that
the globe - - — ~ - - these
were
Undeveloped taken in-
resources of cident-
the globe - 2 - - - - ally.
Devastation
of forests,
replacement
of pasture
by sand de- I stated:
serts through ‘Taken
haphazard with pu-
cultivation. | — 2 ~ - I - pils aged
Waste and ex- 16 plus.’
haustion of
natural re-
sources, coal,
petrol,water,
etc. - 2 - - I =
Economic I wrote :
Geogra- ‘Some
phy I I = — - - idea of
Econ.
Geogra-
phy.’
Geology . I I - I I -
(1 made no reference to this section.)
|
ee
ee i i het a ,
INFORMATIVE CONTENT OF EDUCATION 379
Social Mechanism.
Including Might be Should be
section included excluded
Chart. » Speech.
Up to| Over | Up to| Over | Up to| Over
14. 14. 14. 14. 14. 14.
| ‘
Short history of
communica-
“tions and trade| . ; 2 ; - 2 _ - I —
History of inno-
vations in pro-
duction and
manufacture .| . : : : ~ 2 — - I -
Réle of property ‘
and money in
economic life . - 2 - — 2 I
Knowledge of con-
ventions of pro-
perty and money. | — - ~ - I I
Way in which mo-
ney has changed
slavery and serf- |
dom into wages
and employment.| 2 - = - I -
Way in which fluc-
tuations of money
affect ‘ industrial
windmills ’. J lesd - - - I -
Significance of in-
flation and defla-
tion . : eleek - - - I -
|
4 replies made no reference to
| | this part of the curriculum.
| 1 stated that a good deal of this
section was included in the
History course.
Personal Sociology.
Including Might be Should be
section included excluded
Chart. Speech.
Up to; Over | Up to| Over | Up to| Over
14. 14. cay 14. 14. 14.
Short history of
general ideas . |. : 3 ae = = 7 3 3
General ideas of re- |
lation of self to the | |
Universe . «.| - I - - | 2 2
380 REPORTS ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE, ETC.
Including Might be Should be
section included excluded
Chart. Speech.
Up to; Over | Up to; Over | Up to; Over
I4. 14. TA... | Eqs I4.
Comparative Re-
ligion Primary proposi-
tions of chief re-
ligious and philo-
sophical interpre-
tations of the
world 0 : Td ~ - 3 3
Study of social
types, .| General study of
social structure
associated with
social types, = - - 2 2
leading to choice
of réle to direct attention
to choice of métier — — I 2 I
made no reference to this part
of the questionnaire.
The one stating that Compara-
tive Religion was taken added
that it emerged from religious
instruction. Another stated that
Comparative
Religion
could
only be taken with 17-18 group.
The various questions discussed in the foregoing pages require further
elucidation, for which more detailed investigation will be necessary. The
Research Committee therefore suggest that permission should be given
for the work to be continued during the coming year.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.
SECTION A.
MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES.
Thursday, August 18.
Symposium on Nuclear physics (10.0).
Prof. N. Bonr.—Introduction.
Due to the extreme facility of energy exchange between the closely
packed particles in atomic nuclei, nuclear reactions show certain typical
features which differ strikingly from those of ordinary atomic reactions.
In particular nuclear transmutations initiated by collisions with heavy
particles take place in two well-separated stages of which the first consists
in the formation of a semi-stable compound nucleus, where the excitation
energy is distributed among the nuclear particles in a similar way to that
in a heated body, and the second in the subsequent disintegration of this
system or its de-activation by emission of radiation, exhibiting instructive
analogies to evaporation or thermal radiation respectively. Similarly the
excitation of nuclei by radiation, resulting in the release of heavy particles,
suggests a comparison with the well-known phenomena of selective ab-
sorption of infra-red radiation by solid or liquid substances. It is shown how
these views combined with simple arguments of quantum theory account
in a comprehensive way for the experimental evidence regarding such
nuclear phenomena.
Prof. W. BorHe.—Some results concerning nuclear levels (10.45).
The general outlines of the spectroscopic investigation of atomic nuclei
are briefly given. Some new results are communicated and the following
cases of special interest are dealt with in detail :
(1) Resonance levels occurring with (n, «)-reactions.
(2) Connection between the resonance levels in a case of branched
reaction.
(3) The nuclear photoelectric effect.
(4) Nuclear levels occurring with the B-decay.
Dr. J. D. CocxcrorT, F.R.S.—The High-Voltage Laboratory and
Cyclotron of the Cavendish Laboratory and their application to
nuclear research (11.30).
The Cavendish Laboratory has recently extended its equipment for
nuclear research by the building of a High Voltage Laboratory and a
Cyclotron. The High Voltage Laboratory houses a 1:2 million volt D.c..
382 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.
generator, and a 2 million volt generator is being installed. ‘These genera-
tors speed up streams of charged particles for use in transmutation experi-
ments.
The Cyclotron accelerates particles by giving them a succession of im-
pulses as they move in the field of a powerful electromagnet. The magnet
of the Cavendish equipment has pole pieces 90 cm. in diameter and should
make possible the production of deuterons of energy up to 10 million volts.
The Cyclotron seems likely to find its most important application in
providing very strong sources of the new radioactive substances produced
by transmutation. It also makes possible a much wider range of trans-
mutations than can be produced by ions of only 2 million volts energy.
The pD.c. generator, on the other hand, provides much more homogeneous
beams of particles and is more suitable for precision work on the details of
nuclear processes.
Dr. P. I. Dee.—Excited states of light nuclei (11.45).
Recent experimental work which has been carried out in the Cavendish
High Voltage Laboratory has given evidence of the existence of many new
excited states of certain light nuclei. ‘The bombardment of fluorine with
artificially accelerated deuterons, for example, has been shown to result in
the production of five homogeneous groups of «-particles, four of which
may be associated with the formation of excited states of 17O nuclei.
Evidence in support of the existence of these excited states of 17O has also
been obtained by Dr. C. W. Gilbert from cloud track photographs of the
disintegration of neon by fast neutrons.
The energies of excitation of a number of other light nuclei have been
determined by the investigation of the excitation functions of the y-rays
which result from processes of proton capture. ‘The resonance character
of the excitation of the y-radiation which results from the capture of pro-
tons by carbon, for example, has been shown to be more complex than had
previously been supposed. An intense production of y-rays at a proton
energy of 560 K.V. has been proved to be due to the capture of protons by
18C, which results in the formation of excited 44N nuclei having an energy
of excitation of about 8:o M.V.
Dr. N. FEATHER. Some neutron-produced radioactivities (12.05).
The radioactivities of various substances irradiated by the neutrons pro-
duced by bombarding lithium by deuterons have been studied by a combina-
tion of the absorption and coincidence methods, using tube counters.
Information has been obtained regarding certain cases of nuclear isomerism
and also regarding the long-lived products formed by bombarding thorium.
The 6 and y radiations from a number of other radioelements have also
been investigated.
Dr. E. Bretscher and Mr. J. V. Dunworth have collaborated in the experi-
mental work, and members of the personnel of the Cavendish High Voltage
Laboratory have been responsible for carrying out the irradiations.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.25) (continued on Friday afternoon).
AFTERNOON.
Wists to (a) Cavendish and Mond Laboratories; (b) Mathematical:
Laboratory (for details see under Department A*). Film illustrating solar
prominences.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 383
Friday, August 19.
PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS by Dr. C. G. Darwin, F.R.S., on Logic and
probability in physics (10.0). (See p. 21.)
Prof. H. SHapLtey.—Metagalactic gradients and the expanding universe
hypothesis (11.20).
The evidence for important metagalactic density gradients, which are of
sufficient magnitude to invalidate the assumption of uniformity throughout
the regions of space now attainable, is derived from surveys of the popula-
tion and distribution of galaxies within a radius of over one hundred million
light-years. The surveys cover extensive areas of the sky and display
large-scale structural features of the metagalaxy.
The character of the inner metagalaxy is demonstrated by the distribution
of galaxies brighter than the thirteenth magnitude over the whole sky and
by preliminary results on the distribution down to the fifteenth magnitude
in the south galactic cap. The extension into southern declinations of the
great cluster of bright galaxies in Virgo adds information on large-scale
irregularity. Methods are shown of analysing distribution in both high
and low galactic latitudes. Regions near the Milky Way plane, in which
external galaxies are numerous, are studied for a determination of the extent
of absorption within our own galactic system. Surveys involving 200,000
galaxies in the equatorial and galactic polar caps are presented.
Density differences between the north and the south sides of the Milky
Way are found to be considerable. ‘The radial gradient discussed by
Hubble is compared with similar gradients across the sky, especially with
that which is found to extend over 125° across the south galactic cap. This
gradient presents such conspicuous density changes that it demonstrates the
impossibility of using the observed distribution of galaxies to derive a
coefficient of expansion of the universe. It is clear that such large-scale
irregularities are an important feature of the metagalaxy and must be
considered in cosmological theories.
Prof. R. W. Woop.—Diffraction gratings for astrophysical purposes (12.0).
Recent improvements in the technique of ruling gratings have made
possible the concentration of 85 per cent. of the incident light in the first
order spectrum, with a ruling of 15,000 lines to the inch. Two plane
gratings ruled on 8-inch aluminised pyrex discs, one concentrating in the
first, the other in the second order, are now in constant use in the spectro-
graph of the 100-inch telescope at Mount Wilson, and have proved superior
to prisms, especially in the ultra-violet.
Measurements have been made, with a photronic cell and monochromatic
light of various wave-lengths, showing the distribution of intensity for the
central image and various orders, at different angles of incidence. The
central image may contain as low as 1 per cent. of the total light.
Large replicas have been made giving equally high concentration and
these are being used at the Harvard Observatory for the determination of
star colours, the grating, covered by a purple filter, being mounted a few
inches in front of the photographic plate. A new attachment to the dividing
engine makes possible the ruling of large concave gratings of very short
focus with a groove of constant shape over the entire area, thus abolishing
what I have called the ‘ target pattern ’ (circular zones of low efficiency).
384 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.
Dr. H. E. Ives.—The rate of a moving atomic clock (12.30).
According to the theory of Larmor and Lorentz, a moving clock should
assume a slower rate than a stationary one. It was pointed out by Einstein
in 1907 that the newly discovered Doppler effect in canal-rays offered a
means of testing this prediction, but this test has been commonly considered
as beyond experimental practicability. This objection has recently been
removed, owing to the development by Dempster of a new design of canal-
ray tube.
The present investigation is an experimental test of the Larmor-Lorentz
prediction, using these tubes. The hydrogen line 4861 A.U. has been used,
observations being made by means of a plane grating of 15,000 lines to the
inch, made by Professor R. W. Wood. The method of observation gave
on one plate, the lines due to motion in opposite senses. ‘The experiment
gave a positive result, showing shifts which are independent of the orienta-
tion of the apparatus, and which agree, within the limits of experimental
error, with the theoretical values.
On the assumption of a stagnant ether, this experiment, with that of
Kennedy and Thorndyke, establishes the reality of the Larmor-Lorentz
variation of clock rate, and the Fitzgerald contraction.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE PAPERS.)
Symposium on Magnetic alloys and X-ray structure (11.20).
Prof. W. L. Brace, O.B.E., F.R.S.—Introduction.
The magnetic properties of materials used for technical purposes have
been improved in the most remarkable way in recent years. Better alloys
have been discovered with a high permeability for small magnetising forces,
or with low hysteresis loss when subjected to magnetic cycles, or with a
high coercive force when used for permanent magnets. At the same time,
the theory of magnetism has made rapid advances in the hands of the
theoretical physicists, and X-ray methods of determining the atomic arrange-
ment in these materials have been improved. The present position is very
interesting because it is to be hoped that theory may now begin to play a
part in technical achievement.
In this introduction to the discussion a brief survey is made of the mag-
netic properties of materials, and suggestions put forward as to the lines
along which improvement may be expected. ;
Dr. E. C. Stoner, F.R.S.—The general theory of ferromagnetism
(11.40).
In the Weiss treatment, which provides a qualitatively satisfactory formal
correlation of many properties of ferromagnetics, it is postulated that the
elementary magnets are acted on by a molecular field, equivalent in effect to
a magnetic field proportional to the intensity of magnetisation. Such a
field will give rise to spontaneous magnetisation below a critical tempera-
ture, the Curie temperature, and to paramagnetic behaviour above it.
The spontaneous magnetisation normally extends unidirectionally over only
small regions, domains, and the effect of an external field is to align the
directions of magnetisation of the domains.
The elementary magnets in ferromagnetic metals are electron spins, and
the molecular field has been satisfactorily interpreted as arising from
quantum mechanical interchange interaction. The fundamental problems
—
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 385
are those of accounting for the number of effective spins per atom, and the
magnitude of the interchange interaction in different materials, and of
developing a quantitatively satisfactory treatment of the temperature
variation of magnetisation and related effects.
Of most importance technologically is the behaviour of ferromagnetics
in relatively low fields. The determinative factors for the sequence of
reversible and irreversible processes occurring during magnetisation include
the natural crystal anisotropy, the magnetostrictive properties of the material,
and the distribution and magnitude of internal strains. Although a quali-
tative interpretation can be given of the main effects, the development of a
quantitative treatment for particular materials is as yet at an early stage.
Dr. A. J. BRADLEY.—X-ray structure and ferromagnetism (12.10).
Ferromagnetic alloys contain iron, cobalt or nickel (in the Heusler alloys,
manganese). ‘They have crystal structures of a simple type :—face-centred
cubic, body-centred cubic and (rarely) hexagonal close-packed. Of these
types the body-centred cubic is the most favourable for the development
of magnetic properties. Some non-magnetic alloys become magnetic
when the structure is changed to body-centred cubic from another form.
The materials used for permanent magnets (known as ‘ hard’ magnetic
materials) must be distinguished from ‘ soft’ magnetic materials such as
are used for transformer cores. ‘The latter have well-formed crystals, the
structures of which are in no way abnormal. The former, though
essentially of the same types (body-centred cubic and face-centred cubic),
never have perfectly formed crystals. Some kind of strain is essential for
the development of high coercive force. For example the alloy may be on
the point of breaking up into two phases of different compositions. ‘The
mechanism of this process may be such as to produce an intermediate
metastable state. The alloy remains a permanent magnet so long as this
state persists. Careful heat treatment is required to ensure that decom-
position proceeds only to the point where the alloy has the best magnetic
propetties.
(Continued below).
AFTERNOON.
Symposium on Nuclear physics (continued from Thursday) (2.15).
' Prof. R. PErERLS.—Resonance in high energy reactions.
Mr. S. Devons.—Resonance scattering of « particles.
Prof. C. D. ELis, F.R.S.—Resonance levels in slow neutron processes.
Dr. P. B. Moon.—A slow neutron velocity spectrometer.
Prof. E. J. Witi1ams.—Loss of energy by fast particles in nuclear
collisions.
Dr. W. E. BurcHam.—Disintegration of fluorine by protons and deu-
terons.
Dr. M. GoLpHABER.—Radioactivity produced by nuclear excitation.
1e)
386 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE.)
Symposium on Magnetic alloys and X-ray structure (continued) (2.15).
Dr. W. SucksmitH.—The variation of magnetic saturation intensities
with temperature in the iron-nickel-aluminium system.
In view of the necessity for making measurements on a large number of
alloys of widely varying physical properties, a new method of measuring the
saturation intensity (in fields up to 18,000 gauss) from liquid air temperatures
up to the Curie temperature, has been developed. The method requires
only about 5th gram of the alloy, and is not dependent upon the shape of
the specimen. The measurements are equally valid for materials ranging
from coarse powders to roughly cut cylinders.
Measurements have been made on alloys of which the X-ray structure
has been investigated by Bradley and Taylor, the same specimens having
been utilised through the collaboration of Dr. Bradley.
Some of the multiphase regions have been investigated, and the results
show that the phase boundaries as determined by magnetic methods con-
form closely to those given by the X-ray data. The different regions usually
have characteristic properties, and the effect of heat treatment upon struc-
ture changes can be followed quite closely by observation of the magnetic
saturation intensity at different temperatures.
Mr. D. A. OLiver.—Martensitic permanent magnet steels and dis-
persion-hardening alloys (2.45).
The structures of martensitic permanent magnet steels and dispersion-
hardening alloys are illustrated by a selection of photomicrographs. ‘The
necessity for X-ray examination is stressed. A summary of the important
magnetic properties is given with special reference to those alloys which are
of commercial importance. The effect of impurities on magnetic proper-
ties is discussed and recent data on the effect of carbon presented. Mention
is also made of the improved magnetic properties which can be obtained
when these magnetically hard alloys are cooled in a magnetic field. A few
experiments are carried out illustrating either the properties or the applica-
tions of the newer permanent magnet alloys.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (3.15).
Visit to works of Cambridge Instrument Company.
Saturday, August 20.
Symposium on High-altitude cosmic radiation (10.0).
Prof. P. M. S. BLACKETT, F.R.S.—Introduction.
Prof. W. H. Furry.—A discussion of some recent experiments on the
properties of cosmic ray particles (10.45).
It is now realised that most cosmic ray showers can be explained by the
assumption that electrons multiply by radiative collisions and pair produc-
tion as required by the present radiation theory. The most conclusive
evidence comes from cloud chamber photographs obtained by Fussell.
—— + o>
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 387
Three layers of lead in the chamber are spaced so that the successive stages
of the multiplication process can be seen. Of two thousand showers photo-
graphed, three were of a markedly different type, diverging from a point
at more or less random angles and containing heavy particles ; these cannot
be explained by the multiplication hypothesis.
It has been known since the experiments of Bothe and Kolhérster and
of Rossi that cosmic rays contain single corpuscles of much greater pene-
trating power than the radiation theory allows for electrons. More detailed
information about the penetrating power has been obtained by Street and
Stevenson. Two cloud chambers are used; in one the momentum is
measured by the curvature in a magnetic field, and in the second the pene-
tration through layers of lead is observed. A number of particles are found
which must be supposed to be neither electrons nor protons. Various
observers have obtained tracks from which the mass could be estimated by
the density of ionisation ; values obtained are about two hundred times the
electron’s mass.
Prof. W. BotHe.—New results in cosmic rays (11.30).
Dr. E. J. Witt1ams.—The heavy electron (11.45).
GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.0).
Dr. R. W. Woop.—Crystal growth (film) (12.30).
Dr. K. T. FiscHer.—The temperature coefficient of balances (12.45).
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the Observatory, Solar Physics eg aes Pendulum House,
and Cavendish Field Laboratory.
Monday, August 22.
Discussion on Low-temperature physics, with special reference to Helium II
(10.0).
Dr. H. B. G. Casimir.—Introduction : Low temperature properties of
matter.
The problems of low temperature physics can be divided into two groups :
those depending exclusively on the motion of atoms and molecules as a
whole and those connected with the inner degrees of freedom of the atom.
The study of electrons in metals and of paramagnetism are the two most
important examples of this second group. In the limit of very low tem-
peratures (T < 4° K) the properties of a non-conducting non-paramagnetic
solid are comparatively simple. The heat motion can be described as a
superposition of sound waves ; the specific heat is proportional to T* and
can be calculated from the elastic constants. Also the theory of heat
conduction becomes very simple.
It is to be expected that at this limit the interaction between the lattice
and the inner degrees of freedom will also be simplified. The theory of
electrons in metals leads to the result that the resistance due to interaction
with lattice vibrations decreases very rapidly (~'T®). In the case of para-
magnetism, the lattice vibrations come into play only in so far as they must
388 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.
establish the temperature equilibrium between spin and the surroundings ;
the mechanism of this process is not completely understood.
The case of HelII shows that in problems of the first group there are also
interesting difficulties.
Dr. J. F. ALLEN.—The properties of liquid Helium II (10.30).
Liquid helium is a substance which differs most remarkably from any
other liquid. The phase diagram of helium possesses no triple point for
equilibrium between gas, liquid, and solid. Instead, as far as one can
ascertain, the liquid phase persists down to the Absolute Zero, and the
liquidus and solidus curves become parallel at that temperature. The
liquid phase consists of two modifications, and the transformation between
them occurs at 2:19° K (the A-point). The modifications, called HeI and
Hell, are totally different phenomenologically. Hel is a normal liquid,
while HelII possesses properties completely different from those of any
other known substance. The most striking phenomena exhibited by Hell
are as follows :—A negative temperature coefficient of expansion; a very
high specific heat which suffers a discontinuity at the A-point ; a thermal
conductivity which is approximately five hundred times as great as that of
copper at room temperature ; and a mode of heat transport which appears
to involve a transfer of momentum. When one measures the viscosity of
Hell by means of a rotating disc, one obtains a value of 10-5 CGS units,
i.e. comparable to a gas. On the other hand, when measured by the flow
method the viscosity becomes immeasurably small and is certainly less than
101° CGS units. So far no comprehensive theory has been developed to
explain all of the properties of Hell.
Prof. J. H. VAN Vieck.—The molecular field and the determination
of very low temperatures (11.15).
In experiments on magnetic cooling, it is customary to determine the
temperature by assuming that the susceptibility obeys Curie’s law x = C/T.
Actually, this law cannot hold because of (a) the Stark splitting of energy
levels caused by the crystalline fields from the non-magnetic atoms surround-
ing the paramagnetic ion and (b) the dipole-dipole and perhaps exchange
forces coupling together paramagnetic ions. The effect (a) is wanting in
CsTi(SO,).12H,O, while (b) disappears at infinite magnetic dilution.
Before reliable determinations of the temperature can be made from sus-
ceptibility (in distinction from thermodynamic) measurements, it is necessary
to devise an adequate theory of (a) and (b). Difficulties in the way of doing
this, as well as the progress so far made, are summarised. In particular,
the usual Lorentz field H + 4xM/3 is only an approximate representation
of (b) valid only if the temperature is not too low. It is not even clear
whether dipole-dipole forces can ever make a body become ferromagnetic.
A discussion is included of the analogous electrical case, where possibly
the hypothesis of hindered rotation may not be necessary to prevent spon-
taneous polarisation in isotropic dielectrics. Ultimately, magnetic cooling
experiments should throw considerable light on inter-molecular forces in the
solid state.
Dr. F. Simon.—Experiments below 1° abs. (11.45).
The experiments carried out by Dr. Kurti, Dr. Lainé, Dr. Squire and
the author with the magnet at Bellevue (Paris) are described.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 389
The experiments were chiefly concerned with the study of the ‘ ferro-
magnetic’ properties of iron-ammonium alum at very low temperatures,
which were also extended to diluted salts and to an investigation in addi-
tional fields. The reasons which may be responsible for this ‘ ferro-
magnetism ’ are discussed. A new method for establishing temperatures
on the absolute scale is described.
DiscussION continued in afternoon (see below).
Sir J. J. THomson, O.M., F.R.S.— Some recent experiments on electronic
waves (12.15).
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE SESSION.)
Joint Discussion with Section G (Engineering) on Fundamental
magnetic measurements with special reference to incremental con-
ditions (10.0). (See under Section G.)
AFTERNOON.
Discussion on Low temperature physics (continued) (2.15).
Dr. K. MENDELSSOHN.—Recent developments in superconductivtty.
Dr. E. T. S. AppLeyarD.—The superconductivity of thin mercury
films.
Dr. H. Jones.—The superconductivity of alloys.
Dr. N. Kurti.—Experiments below 1° absolute.
Mr. E. S. Suire.—Paramagnetic relaxation below 1° absolute.
Dr. H. B. G. Castmir.—Spin-lattice interaction.
Mr. J. AsomEAD.—The production of intense magnetic fields for magnetic
cooling experiments.
Mr. J. G. Daunt.—New experiments on the transfer effect.
Dr. H. Lonpon.—ZJnvestigation of liquid helium II by a Knudsen
manometer.
Dr. E. Ganz.—The thermal conductivity of liquid helium II under
pressure.
Mr. A. H. Cooxe.—The attainment of low temperatures by pumping
off liquid helium.
Mr. PickarD.—The construction of a standard expansion liquefier.
Visit to works of British Tabulating Machine Co., Letchworth.
390 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A.
Tuesday, August 23.
SYMPosIUM on Seismology (10.0).
Dr. F. J. W. WuippLe.—Report of the Seismological Committee.
Mr. J. S. Hucues and Miss E. F. Bettamy.—The International
Seismological Summary (10.20).
Prof. O. T. Jones, F.R.S.—Introduction to discussion (10.40).
The purpose of the remarks is to emphasise the importance of seismo-
logical studies in their application to purely geological problems. ‘Two
such problems are of particular interest to Cambridge geologists, the depth
of the Palzozoic floor and the course and depth of certain deep-buried
channels, in particular that which runs through Chesterford and Newport,
and has not hitherto been traced further. The Palzozoic floor is known
directly only in borings, the nearest of which was about thirty miles from
Cambridge. Dr. Bullard took up the determination of its depth by seismic
methods, and an account of the results will be given by Mr. Gaskell. It
is suggested that explosions made in quarrying may be utilised for similar
purposes in many parts of the country.
The investigation of the elastic properties of rocks is also of interest
both to seismologists and geologists. The author suggested to Dr. Phillips
the study of those of Coal Measure strata, and in the course of some brilliant
work he obtained much more definite information about elastic after-
working than had previously been obtained. The results may have an
important bearing on the operation of stresses responsible for earthquakes
and their aftershocks. If this is so it gives another illustration of the
advantage of mutual co-operation between geologists and seismologists.
Miss I, LEHMANN.—Characteristic seismograms at different distances
(11.20).
Dr. D. W. PuILiies.—Imperfections of elasticity in rocks (11.40).
A study of the properties of Coal Measure rocks when subjected to different
kinds of forces revealed considerable departure from truly elastic behaviour.
Very many examples of sandstones, siltstones, mudstones, shales and coals
have been subjected to examination in compression, bending and torsion.
Both the longitudinal and lateral deformations were measured simul-
taneously on cylinders of these rocks when subjected to compression.
For the first two or three cycles of loading and unloading there was a
progressively decreasing set, then for each succeeding cycle there was complete
recovery of strain though the stress-strain curve always exhibited ‘ hyster-
esis loop.’ There was a pronounced increase in both the longitudinal and
lateral deformations when the load was maintained constant. At low loads
the lateral time strain was small in comparison with the longitudinal time
strain, but as the load increased the lateral time strain became equal to, and
sometimes exceeded, the longitudinal time strain. Similar time effects
were observed during unloading ; the strains removed immediately on the
reduction of load were followed by a further gradual recovery. The elastic
modulus and Poisson’s ratio usually increased with increase in the load
applied.
When subjected to bending these rocks required, as in compression, two
/
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A. 391
or three cycles of loading and unloading to remove a set on no load. Further
cycles resulted in complete recovery, with a hysteresis loop. Very pro-
nounced increase in deformation took place when the load on the rock beams
was maintained constant, and in some rocks these time strains increased
with an increase of load up to a certain load, the time strain for higher loads
progressively decreasing.
In a few cases the further deformation with time had been allowed to
progress until finally the beams fractured, some under loads which were
less than the loads, applied without allowing time effect, necessary to
fracture similar beams cut from the same rock samples.
When subjected to torsion these rocks exhibited a time effect as in the
case of compression and bending.
Mr. T. F. GaskELL.—Seismic exploration of eastern England (12.0).
The surface rocks of East England consist of Jurassic and Cretaceous
clays and chalk. It has long been known that these are underlain by a
planed-off surface of Palzozoic rocks, but the depth of this surface was only
known at a few isolated points. The refraction methed of seismic pro-
specting has been applied to map this surface. Charges of gelignite up to
15 lb. are used to make impulses in the ground, and six electrical seismo-
graphs record the arrival of the waves produced. The recording apparatus
is transported in a van, and depths of the Palzozoic have been determined
at stations distributed over a large area of Eastern England.
AFTERNOON.
Symposium on Seismology (continued) (2.20).
Dr. H. Jerrreys, F.R.S.—Deep foci and aftershocks.
The work done by Dr. Phillips throws light on some difficult seismological
questions. Two hypotheses concerning the mechanical properties of rocks
are that of a finite viscosity at small stresses, or zero strength, and that of
an infinite viscosity at small stresses, or finite strength; the former is
associated most prominently with the name of Wegener, the latter with
that of Barrell. The latter agrees better with the distribution of gravity
anomalies, and with the fact that stresses capable of producing major earth-
quakes can develop at depths down to about 700 km. It has not, however,
been easy to see how the idea of perfect elasticity up to a definite limiting
stress can be reconciled with the existence of aftershocks continuing for
months after the main shock. Dr. Phillips’s work shows how this can be
done, by the recognition of the distinction between the stress that leads to
immediate fracture and that which leads to fracture only if it is left on long
enough.
The intensive study of deep focus earthquakes is likely to lead to solutions
of some difficult seismological problems that are almost insoluble from the
data of normal shocks, namely the depth of the core, the nature of, the
20° discontinuity, and the times of the transverse wave up to distances of
about 25°.
Dr. R. STONELEY, F.R.S.—Times of travel of the L phase (2.50).
It was found by Prof. H. H. Turner that L readings given by stations
have travel times equivalent to 0-48 min./degree, but that sometimes onsets
corresponding to 0:41 min./degree predominate. The former correspond
392 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—A, A*.
to the arrival of long Rayleigh waves, the latter to long Love waves. An
analysis of a number of earthquakes listed in the J.S.S. shows a marked
separation of the L readings into two groups, with travel-times clustering
round the above values. The relative proportions of the two types suggest
intrinsic differences in the dislocations that initiate the waves. Differences
are shown for earthquakes in the same region, so that the effect cannot be
attributed entirely to the distribution of stations or of land and sea. To
ascertain the dependence on intensity of shock a reliable measure of in-
tensity would be needed.
Prof. J. D. Bernat, F.R.S.—Crystallographic relations of seismology
(3.10).
A possible explanation of the 20° discontinuity is to be found in the
hypothetical existence at lower levels of the earth’s crust of a denser and
more elastic crystal form of olivine (MgFe),SiO,. Such a form has never
been observed owing to the impossibility of producing sufficiently high
pressure, but it might be expected that the condition of silicates at high
pressure should be shown by germanates at ordinary pressures, owing to
the greater size of the germanium ion. Magnesium germanate has been
observed to exist both in olivine structure and in the cubic spinel type of
structure. A calculation based on this structure would seem to be able
to account in a rough quantitative way for the properties required for the
' substances at low levels.
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS (A*).
Thursday, August 18.
SyMposiuM on Newtonian root evaluations (10.0).
Chairman: Dr. J. WIsHaRT.
Prof. A. OstRowsk1.—On Newton’s method of approximation (10.0).
To compare the amount of work in Newton’s method of approximation
for a root € of the equation f(z) = o with the effect of the method, a unit of
the calculatory work is introduced—a Horner, that is the work of calculating
the value of f(z), this unit being assumed as sensibly independent of
vy and the number of digits in z.
On the other hand, the rate of the approximation of € by y is measured
by the order of | y — €], if the initial value x, tends to%, the order of |x, — C|
being assumed as 1.
Newton’s method gives with 6 Horners an approximation of the order 8.
A modification of Newton’s method is proposed allowing to obtain with’
6 Horners an approximation of the order 16. It consists in using alternately
the two formule :
I (xo) ‘4 ; F(xy)(%1 = Xo)
anita eee ye oe 2iCai= Leas
Prof. E. H. NevitLe—Computational labour in modifications of
Newton’s method of approximation (10.30).
The processes of interpolation have been developed on the assumption
that the arguments for which they are to be used may be anywhere in the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. 393
interval between consecutive tabular entries. Root-extraction, treated
otherwise than as inverse interpolation, is a step-by-step determination
of a sequence x), X2,%3,... To obtain xn+, from xj, Xs, ... ,Xnand
functional values at these points by inverse interpolation of the ordinary
kind is to ignore the possibility of profiting from the circumstance that
Xy+ , is much nearer to x, than to x;-,; on the other hand, in Newton’s
formula and in any slight modification of it, the labour of each step is apt
to be considerably greater than the labour of a linear interpolation, and since
we determine x» +, from x» only, we are continually abandoning information
which we have been at pains to acquire. We need not balance disadvan-
tages: Prof. Ostrowski’s method is one compromise which retains some
of the advantages of each extreme; another, simpler and in the long run
more efficient, is the recurrent use of the one formula
(mn, n— — Mn—1,n—2)VnYn—1
Kn. = Xn — Mn, n— 10 + ST TT PT NC
(Os pape td gee a |
where r,s = (xr — Xs)/(yr — ys).
Mr. D. H. SapLer.—The estimation of computational labour (10.40).
The difficulties of absolute estimation are summarised, and the care that
must be taken in forming relative estimates is stressed. Illustrations are
given in the simple case of computing a polynomial expression.
Symposium on Combinatorial mathematics in the design of experiments
REr10).
Chairman: Prof. R. A. FisHer, F.R.S.
Dr. C. C. Cratc.—Some remarks on randomisation (11.10).
The usefulness and validity from the point of view of fiducial probability
of significance tests based on the principle of randomisation is well recog-
nised. However, it seems of some interest to the author to illustrate how
the effectiveness of such a test may depend on the populations from which,
in fact, the samples were drawn. In particular, suppose two samples of N
are drawn, one from each of two normal populations with equal variances
but unequal means. By sampling methods, the probability that the test
based on randomisation will indicate that the population means differ is
studied.
Mr. H. W. Norton.—The 7 x 7 Latin squares (11.30).
A discussion of 7 Xx 7 Latin squares leading to Greco-Latin squares,
and of the enumeration of the 7 x 7 Latin squares.
Dr. W. J. YoupEN.—Complex square designs in plant physiology and
their connection with incomplete randomised blocks (11.50).
In recent years the use of experimental designs based on the combina-
torial properties of numbers has been developed in plant physiology and
pathology as in other fields. The natural structure of experimental plants
makes it desirable to eliminate causes of variation due both to the indi-
viduality of plants, and to leaf order, using a double elimination as in the
Latin Square. In addition the principle of balanced incomplete blocks is
02
394 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*.
needed owing to the limited number of leaves. A group of designs com-
bining the two qualities, and which have proved useful in practice, is
exhibited. ‘The remaining unsolved combinatorial problems are indicated.
Mr. F. Yates.—The use of lattice squares in plant improvement (12.10).
Efficient methods of comparing, under field conditions, large numbers
of new varieties produced by genetical segregation are a vital need in prac-
tical plant improvement. ‘The new quasi-factorial and allied designs give
methods of considerably increasing the accuracy of the field comparisons,
using the same amount of experimental material, and supersede the older
methods of arrangement, such as the use of ‘ control’ varieties. Many of
these designs depend on the existence of Greco-Latin and higher order
orthogonal squares, and the question of the existence of such squares, first
investigated by Euler, has therefore become of practical importance. In
particular the existence of complete sets of orthogonal squares is necessary
for the construction of designs in lattice squares (which enable p? varieties
to be arranged in squares of side p, eliminating fertility differences between
rows and between columns) and for the construction of certain types of
incomplete randomised blocks (i.e. randomised blocks each of which con-
tains only a proportion of all the varieties to be compared).
Mr. W. L. STEvENs.—Completely orthogonalised squares (12.30).
It is known that for certain values of p, (p — 1) Latin squares may be
formed such that any two of the squares are mutually orthogonal. Solutions
are now known for p = 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and any prime number. It is
believed that a solution exists when p is any power of a prime. The case
proved is for the square of any prime, and the theory has been applied to
develop a completely orthogonalised square of side 25.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the Mathematical Laboratory. Symposium and Demonstration
on Mechanical methods of computation (3.0).
Prof. J. E. LENNARD-JONES, F.R.S.—Bush differential analyser.
Mr. M. V. Witks.—Mallock machine (3.20).
Demonstration of Bush and Mallock machines (3.30).
Dr. J. WisHart and Mr. D. H. SapLer.—Description and demonstration
of Hollerith and National machines (4.45).
Friday, August 19.
Symposium on From function to printed table : some aspects of the work
of preparing a table of a mathematical function (11.30).
Chairman: Prof. E. H. NEVILLE.
Dr. W. G. BicKLEY.—Computation from series and by recurrence
formule.
Some elementary considerations concerning computation by power series,
especially with regard to labour saving and checking, are discussed.
For greater values of the argument, convergence of the power series is
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. 395
delayed, and asymptotic series must be used. In straightforward applica-
tion, the accuracy is definitely limited by the size of the smallest term.
Two means of increasing the accuracy, the Euler transformation and the
convergence factor, are described.
Recurrence formulz are very useful, but they usually lose accuracy when
used in one direction. This fact can upon occasion be turned to advantage.
Two outstanding difficulties, with some slowly convergent series, and
with asymptotic series whose terms are all of the same sign, remain.
Dr. J. C. P. MILLer.—Step-by-step integration of a differential
equation, with some remarks on interpolation (12.0).
Expansions in series, whether convergent or divergent, are often incon-
venient for the systematic tabulation of a solution of a differential equation
for some ranges of the argument, although they are indispensable as
checks. Hence, in order to compute pivotal values, i.e. values which form
a basis for subsequent subtabulation, we frequently use step-by-step pro-
cesses over some part of the range. Two such processes are briefly de-
scribed, namely the Double Summation and Taylor Series methods, as
applied to certain second order equations.
Methods of checking and ways of estimating and minimising cumulative
errors, as well as the application of the Taylor Series method to interpolation,
are also considered.
Dr. A. J. THompson.—The printing of mathematical tables (12.30).
The paper describes the several processes that come between the com-
pletion of the calculation of a mathematical table and its appearance as a
printed volume. Jnter alia, it deals with the preparation of the printer’s
copy, with typographic details (such as choice of type, spacing and rules)
and with the methods of ensuring accuracy. ‘The standpoint is that of the
computer of the table, and technical matter is reduced to a minimum.
The paper is illustrated by photographs of a number of tables.
Monday, August 22.
Prof. G. D. BirkHorr.—Analytic deformations (10.0).
Prof. S. LerscHetz.—Fixed points of transformations (11.15).
The author first points out by examples the réle of the problem in various
mathematical disciplines. If the elements transformed are points of
an abstract space R we are dealing with a problem in_ topology.
Suppose that we have a transformation T of R into itself. Under certain
very general conditions (C) if 'T is a transformation of R into itself there
may be given a topological character 9 (T) having the property that when
80 there is at least one fixed point. Conditions (C) embrace con-
tinuous single-valued transformations of a polyhedron into itself, and more
generally of a very broad class of locally connected spaces (absolute neigh-
bourhood retracts when R is compact metric). Special noteworthy case :
R is the Hilbert parallelotope. For all these cases an explicit expression of
@ may be given in terms of the transformations which T induces on the
cycles of the space.
396 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*,
Prof. W. V. D. Hopce, F.R.S.—Some applications of harmonic integrals
(12.0).
On an analytic variety which is an absolute orientable manifold a p-fold
integral which is exact has the property that its value taken over a bounding
p-cycle is zero, but it may have a non-zero value when taken over a p-cycle
which is not homologous to zero; this we call the period of the integral
on the cycle. It is known that if Ry» is the pth Betti number of the manifold
there exist exact integrals which have arbitrarily assigned periods on Rp
independent p-cycles. If the manifold carries a Riemannian metric
gigdx'dxi
we can associate with a p-fold integral
Al Pi... gd... dts (x)
an (n — p)-fold integral
TG Ci, oss ipfy ee «jap... giro Ph... kpdxhi ... dxivw (2)
If the integrals (1) and (2) are both exact we say that (1) is a harmonic
integral. It follows that (2) is also harmonic. It is known that there exists
exactly one p-fold harmonic integral having assigned periods on Rg in-
dependent p-cycles of the manifold.
In a mathematical theory in which an analytic manifold appears it is
often possible to assign a Riemannian metric to the manifold in such a way
that the harmonic integrals prove useful weapons in the development of
the theory.
Dr. B. KAuFMANN.—Topological methods in the theory of conformal repre-
sentation (12.45).
In the theory of conformal representation there are two main groups of
problems: the ‘inner’ problems concerning mappings of plane regions,
and the problems on boundary relations. The most important result in
the first group is Riemann’s fundamental theorem, and in the second
Fatou’s theorem. The development of the theory in these two directions
has led to two well-known topological conceptions : the Riemann surface,
and ideal elements (prime ends). Through Hilbert’s work at the beginning
of this century it became possible to extend the inner mapping theorems
to regions of arbitrary connectivity (Hilbert, Kébe). But the boundary
problems in the general case remained unsolved. However, the general
theory of ideal elements makes it possible to approach these problems.
The existence as well as the nature and the structure of the ideal elements
is revealed by a close study of a certain o-dimensional group of limit cycles
in an n-dimensional region by methods of an appropriate homology
theory. This group can be turned into a certain abstract space in which
the ideal elements can be seen and described. With the help of a method
of canonical dissections of regions of infinite connectivity (which might
be called Souslin dissections) some first results on boundary relations are
obtained. These ultimate results can be understood without any knowledge
of the theory of ideal elements.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to works of British Tabulating Machine Co., Letchworth.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*. 397
Tuesday, August 23.
Prof. A. SpEIseER.—Elliptic functions from an elementary standpoint (10.0).
It is a well-known theorem, that a simply connected Riemann surface
may be transformed conformally on the Euclidean plane or on the interior
of a circle. With the aid of this fact it is proved that the general theory of
elliptic integrals consists ultimately in the possibility of paving the plane
with congruent quadrilaterals of any shape.
Dr. B. H. NeumMaNN.—General decompositions of groups (10.30).
A group G is said to be the general product of its sub-groups A and B
whenever (i) A. B=G;; (ii) AQ B= {1}. Aand B are called general factors
or complementary sub-groups. In the special case, when both factors are
self-conjugate in G, we have the well-known direct product.
The following problems have been attacked, the first with a view to
applications in geometry :
(i) Given G and a sub-group A ; to decide whether A is a general factor
of G and to find complementary factors.
(ii) To characterise the groups in which certain types of sub-groups
(e.g. the Sylow sub-groups, or all sub-groups) are general factors (P. Hall).
(iii) Given A and B, to find their general products.
However, much,remains to be done, specially as regards the third problem.
Mr. P. Hatt.—The verbal classification of groups (11.15).
Let f(x,, . . ., Xn) be any word, G any group, V = V;(G) that sub-group
of G which is generated by. all elements of the form f(a,, . . ., an), where
the a’s are arbitrary elements of G. Let W = W;(G) be the (unique)
greatest self-conjugate sub-group of G with the property that
f(qhi, ns -» Anbn) = f(a, « « +5 an)
for every choice of a’s in G and b’s in W. ‘Then, if V’ and W’ are the
corresponding sub-groups of another group G’, the latter is said to
be isological with G (in respect of f) if there exists between G/W and
G’/W’ an isomorphism, aW-—>a’W’, such that the correspondence
f(a, .. +, Qn) >f(a’}, ... a’n) determines an isomorphism between
Vand V’. This relation of isologism between groups has the properties
of equivalence, and separates all groups into a number of mutually exclusive
families in respect of their behaviour as regards the given word f. By
choosing a different word in place of f, we obtain (in general) a different
classification. ‘The most interesting choice is to take f= x,-1x,.7-1x,x_. This
gives the commutatorial classification, which is especially appropriate for
the discussion of prime-power groups. In this case, V is the derived group,
W the central, and isological groups have many numerical invariants in
common.
Dr. Otca Taussky.—Dzifferential equations and hypercomplex systems
(11.45).
It is known that each of a pair of functions satisfying the Cauchy-Riemann
equations satisfies the Laplace equation. Similarly for each of a set of four
functions satisfying the Dirac equations. It can be shown that the same
398 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A*.
holds for each of a set of eight functions satisfying a certain set of eight
linear differential equations.
Let J; = cng ,(@=1,..., ”), bem linear differential forms with con-
a
stant coefficients such that
Su; 82; 5 :
Sat to it sa ai gory + ++. + ange ly tS ae
where the ajz are constants and the 7% any of the numbers 1,...,”. The
numbers n for which such relations exist can be completely determined by
properties of (not necessarily associative) hypercomplex systems over the
real numbers. The best known non-associative hypercomplex system—
the Cayley numbers—is closely connected with the set of eight linear
differential equations mentioned above.
Laplace’s operators in two and four variables are special cases of a class of
differential operators which are connected in the following way with hyper-
complex systems over the real numbers. Let S be a hypercomplex system
with 2 base elements @, . . ., én and let xje, + ... + Xnén be a general
element of SS, where the x; are any real numbers. The norm of x,e, +
. + xneén, if defined by means of the regular representation of S, is
a homogeneous function f(x,, . . ., Xn) of the mth degree in x1, . . ., Xn.
If the co-ordinates are replaced by the differential operators 5x? Sa 2
1 n
differential operator i(., hepa dtas s) is obtained. Let S be the system
8x, 8xn
of complex numbers or of quaternions. The operator which is so obtained
is Laplace’s operator.
Mr. GarrETT BIRKHOFF.—Laittice forms (12.15).
d Wednesday, August 24.
Mr. J. H. C. WuiTEHEAD.—A generalisation of groups (10.0).
The starting point is the equivalence of simplicial complexes under three
kinds of elementary transformations and their inverses. The first are
elementary sub-divisions, giving combinatorial equivalence. The second
are of the form K-— K + aA, where aA, but not aA or A, belongs to
K, A and aA being k- and (k + 1)- simplexes for an arbitrary value of k, and
A being the boundary of A. The third consists of these, together ‘with
transformations of the form K—> K + A, where A, but not A, belongs to
K, and the dimensionality of the simplex A exceeds some fixed m, which
may be arbitrarily chosen in the first place. Complexes which are equiva-
lent under the second and third kind are said to have the same nucleus and
the same m-group respectively. The justification for the term m-group lies
in the theorem that two complexes have the same fundamental group if, and
only if, they have the same 2-group. The m-group of a complex is seen to
be a topological invariant, for each value of m, and the nucleus is a topo-
logical invariant provided the fundamental group satisfies a certain condition,
which is stated in terms of the ‘integral group-ring.’ An immediaté
application is that certain invariants discovered by K. Reidemeister, and
shown by him to be combinatorial invariants, are actually topological
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—A%*, B. 399
invariants of a complex. This completes not only the combinatorial, but
also the topological classification of lens spaces.
Dr. S. EILENBERG.—On continuous mapping into spheres (11.15).
Let MM" be a finite or infinite simplicial, orientable, n-dimensional mani-
fold ; XcM" a closed and compact sub-set of M” and P*cM* — Xa closed
(finite or infinite) k-dimensional sub-polyhedron of M”. For each k-dimen-
sional simplex a? of P?, let s?~*~* be an (mn — k — 1)-dimensional spherical
manifold, contained in M* — X — P* and ‘ simply linked ’ with a’.
Given a continuous mapping f, of M” — P* into an m-dimensional
spherical manifold S”, the mapping f(st* cS determines a unique
element «(f) of the (n — k — 1)th homotopy group tn—p—-1(S”"), of S”.
We write
Y*(f) = Laalfaf,
summed for all the k-dimensional simplexes of P*.
(I) y*(f) is a k-dimensional (finite or infinite) cycle in P*, with coeffi-
cients from the group T——1 (S”).
(II) If y*(f) is homologous to zero in M”"— X, there exists a (k — 1)-
dimensional closed sub-polyhedron P*—?cM” — X, of M™, and a
continuous mapping f*(M” — P*—t)cS” such that f(x) = f*(x)
for each xeX.
An application: consider in S” two disjunct sets Sy’ and S?~”",
homeomorphic with S” and S"—”~—* respectively. S7' is called a retract
of S* — S?~”* if there exists a continuous mapping f(S” — S}~-” *)cST
such that f(x) = x for each xe ST’.
(III) S7 is a retract of S” — S}-”* if, and only if, the linking coefh-
cient of S?” and S?~”~* is + 1 (according to the orientations).
Prof. M. FrécHet.—Hilbert space (11.45).
SECTION B.—CHEMISTRY.
Thursday, August 18.
INTRODUCTION by Prof. Sir W1LL1aM J. Pore, K.B.E., F.R.S. (10.0).
PRESIDENTIAL ApprESss by Prof. C. S. Gipson, O.B.E., F.R.S., on Recent
advances in the chemistry of gold. (See p. 35.)
Discussion on Recent advances in the organic chemistry of the metals, with
special reference to the noble metals. (Exhibition) (11.15).
Dr. F. G. Mann.—/Introduction.
Prof. L. O. Brockway (12.0).
400 SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—B.
Prof. N. V. Sipewick, C.B.E., F.R.S. (12.20).
GENERAL DISCUSSION.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the works of the Cambridge Instrument Company.
Prof. C. S. Gipson, O.B.E., F.R.S.; assisted by Dr. F. G. Mann, Mr.
H. V. THompson and Dr. F. H. Bratn.—Demonstration in Section B
lecture room on the production of gold films by chemical methods (5.15).
During 1856, Faraday was occupied in determining the experimental
conditions for the production of thin metallic, chiefly gold, films with a view
to the investigation of their optical properties. ‘This work had important
consequences in other directions and Faraday refers to ‘ this long and as
yet nearly fruitless set of experiments on gold ’ probably because he was not
successful in producing gold films to his own satisfaction. It is interesting,
however, that Faraday appears to foreshadow the modern method of pro-
ducing films of gold and other metals by the ‘ sputtering ’ process.
The demonstration is concerned with some methods of the production
of gold films and their application in the arts. The application of gold
films to surfaces of glass and porcelain has long been known and the pro-
duction of gold mirrors—having magical properties and being the criteria
of excellence—whether of glass to which beaten gold was applied mechani-
cally or of polished alloy was known to the early Chinese, Egyptians, Greeks
and Romans. A recipe for the production of a golden mirror is given by
Geber. The application of gold films to ceramics is described and demon-
strated as far as possible by Mr. H. V. Thompson, M.A., with the collabora-
tion of Mr. Bernard Moore and Messrs. Colclough China, Ltd., of Stoke-
on-Trent. Dr. F. G. Mann shows the production of gold films on glass
by the action of heat on the trialkylphosphineaurous halides which he has
recently described. Prof. C. 8. Gibson, F.R.S., and Dr. F. H. Brain
demonstrate the production of gold films by the decomposition of organic
gold compounds at the ordinary temperature and indicate their application
in the arts especially as mirrors and for decorative purposes by a number
of specimens.
Friday, August 19.
SyMposiuM on Modern methods of chemical analysis (Exhibition) (10.0).
Dr. J. J. Fox, C.B., O.B.E.—Jntroduction.
The requirements of analytical chemistry are now so extensive, that the
older methods have had to be revised and extended in many directions.
Particularly the development of methods of micro- and semi-micro-methods
has attracted workers all over the world. It is not too much to state that
these methods, and their accuracy, have rendered possible investigations
which could not have been carried out without them. An important
advance in analytical methods arises from the extending utilisation of
physical processes. These have resulted in advance in two directions,
namely, accuracy and speed of analysis. For example, the use of spectro- -
graphic methods renders it possible to examine alloys of various kinds with
speed and sufficient accuracy for many industrial processes. Further, the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 401
spectrographic method is available especially for the determination of
minute quantities of various elements in biochemical, agricultural, and
general chemical analysis. More recently we have utilised infra-red
spectroscopy in such determinations as the proportions of o- and p-hydroxy-
diphenyl sometimes found present in traces in synthetic phenol.
For the purposes of demonstration two methods, now much used in our
laboratory, have been chosen. The first is the determination of moisture
by means of the variation in the dielectric constant. This method is
particularly suitable when large numbers of similar products, e.g., cereal
powders, have to be examined for moisture. The apparatus must be
calibrated for each kind of material and with suitably devised cells deter-
minations can be made readily in a few minutes, thus enabling products to
be sorted out rapidly.
Extension of the method to liquids is obvious and apparatus is on the
market for the purpose. It should be noted that the usual form of apparatus
fails when the moisture is high and electrolytes are present.
A second method is the polarographic method associated with the name
of Heyrovsky. An apparatus has been devised whereby the curves are
plotted by means of a recording pen, thus dispensing with the necessity for
visual or photographic recording. It must be stressed that in work of this
kind calibration of the apparatus is essential for the problem in hand. This
applies equally to many other physical methods, e.g. colorimetric. and
nephelometric determinations.
Prof. WALTHER GERLACH.—Spectrochemical analysis with special
reference to biological preparations (Demonstration) (10.30).
Prof. Fritz Fe1cL.—Inorganic and organic spot-analysis (Demonstra-
tion) (11.15).
The so-called spot-analysis is a microchemical technique of qualitative
analysis ; it consists in the application of highly sensitive reactions to the
detection of inorganic and organic compounds in one drop of solution or
with traces of the solid substance. Such spot tests are carried out by
mixing one drop of the solution and one drop of the reagent on filter paper
or in small crucibles or on the so-called spot plates. Filter papers which
are impregnated with the particular reagent are very useful. The special
apparatus required is very simple. By means of spot analysis it is possible
to carry out specific detections on minute amounts of material and to
recognise quantities down to fractions of a millionth of a gram. The
saving in material, time and work is the predominating characteristic of
spot analysis.
The right choice of suitable reactions is of importance. Only such
reactions as are sensitive and specific are used. Therefore the theory of
spot analysis is bound up with the chemistry of so-called specific reactions
and with all measures whereby sensitivity can be increased. Of great
importance are the application of organic reagents, the employment of
catalysis and the use of colloidal and capillary phenomena. The formation
of fluorescent compounds is also used.
Dr. JANET MatTHEws.—Microanalysis (11.35).
Inorganic micro-methods of quantitative analysis are now sufficiently
developed to warrant their adoption in both research and technical problems.
The filter stick technique has been successfully used already in problems
of plant nutrition in growth experiments with barley. Without the use of
402 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B.
micro-methods the research would have entailed the growth and drying
of so much plant material as to render it quite unfeasible; nitrate, potash,
phosphate, calcium, magnesium and approximate silica were determined
in about 200 samples, which on the macro scale would have involved
enormously increased labour. :
Another application of micro-methods actively in progress is in the
analysis of dust, especially in connection with work on silicosis and allied
diseases caused by the inhalation of dangerous dusts. Micro-methods
enable a quantitative gravimetric analysis to be carried out on a total of
about 50 mgm. of material, the analyses including silica, iron, alumina,
calcium, magnesium, sodium, potassium and loss on ignition.
The methods are also capable of application in the cement and glass
industries, the paper industry and many other industries, and preliminary
work on some of these applications is at present in progress. This shows
that a trained analyst can learn micro-methods extremely rapidly and in
the first week of work attain, for example, figures for silica in glass with
errors of less than + o-1 per cent. difference from the calculated value.
A brief description is given of methods for the determination of silica, iron,
sulphate, phosphate and nitrate which are found to give good results on the
micro-scale.
_Dr. H. Jackson.—Technique of hydrogenation (Demonstration) (11.55).
A short survey is given of various types of apparatus which have been
devised during the past few years for the accurate micro-estimation of the
degree of unsaturation of organic compounds, together with a more detailed
account and demonstration of the technique used in a particular form of
apparatus. This is followed by a description and demonstration of the
application of the technique to the construction of an all glass, quantitative
system functioning at atmospheric pressure, which is designed to cover all
ordinary laboratory requirements.
Dr. K. K. Nycaarp and Dr. Tu. GutHe.— Application of the photo-
electric principle to the determination of ascorbic acid (12.5).
By the use of an original, previously described apparatus termed the
Photelgraph, the authors have succeeded in automatically recording, by
the photo-electric principle, various processes in which a relative change
in trans-illumination of the specimen occurs during the process. (Coagula-
tion of blood ; The Wassermann reaction.)
This principle has been applied to a study of the well-known specific
reduction of a solution of methylene-blue under the influence of artificial
light in the presence of ascorbic acid. Under standardised conditions this
process is quantitative as concerns each of the three main factors participat-
ing in this photo-chemical process.
The present method records automatically and graphically on photo-
sensitive paper the degree of reduction taking place.
With constant, known values of the artificial light, exposing methylene-
blue solution of known, constant concentration, the geometric appearance
of the tracing obtained indicates indirectly the quantity of the third and
variable factor, the ascorbic acid. This quantity expressed in micro-
grams. per cm® of solution is obtained by comparison of the tracing with
that of a solution containing a known concentration of ascorbic acid.
By this method it has been possible to determine quantities less than
005 microgram of ascorbic acid per 100 cm? of solution.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.20).
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 403
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the University Departments of Chemistry and Metallurgy.
Monday, August 22.
Discussion on Clays (10.0).
Chairman : Prof. E. K. Rrpeat, M.B.E., F.R.S.
Prof. W. L. Brace, F.R.S.—General features of the atomic structure
of silicates : inferences to be drawn from them as to the structure of
clay minerals.
The minerals found in clay are often of very variable chemical constitu-
tion, and are imperfectly crystallised. ‘The evidence as to atomic pattern
given by X-ray diffraction is meagre and difficult to interpret. It is there-
fore necessary to supplement it by making use of all the knowledge we have
about the grouping of atoms in silicates in general, which has been obtained
by studying well-crystallised types.
The silicon-oxygen framework of a silicate, composed of tetrahedral
groups linked by their corners, is so rigid and strong that it determines
the form of the whole structure. In most, if not all, clay structures, the
framework takes the form of sheets of tetrahedra linked by their bases, with
free vertices. Such sheets are found in mica, which has been analysed
completely. Here they occur in pairs, with vertices opposite each other
and linked by aluminium or magnesium atoms, so as to form a strong
double sheet. In certain other minerals the sheets are single.
Such sheets may either be directly superimposed in the mineral, or be
separated by intermediate layers containing ions, or water molecules. The
physical chemistry of the clays is bound up with the attachment to the
sheets, or detachment from the sheets, of ions and molecules. In making
hypotheses about the behaviour of clay, one must bear in mind the general
principles concerning atomic situations and replacement which have
emerged from the study of silicates of all kinds. These will be briefly
summarised.
Dr. G. Nacetscumipt.—Structure and properties of imperfectly
crystallised clay minerals (10.20).
According to their power to diffract X-rays two groups of clay minerals
can be distinguished. 'The minerals of the first group show more perfect
crystallisation and give better developed powder diagrams than the minerals
of the second group. The first group includes kaolinite and pyrophyllite,
and the second group halloysite and montmorillonite. The atomic
arrangements in the second group are mainly derived by analogies and
require further confirmation.
Montmorillonite is taken as example of the second, imperfectly crystal-
lised group, and its chemical variations are described as isomorphous
substitutions within the lattice. These substitutions lead to negative
charges, which are compensated by excess cations. The bulk of the excess
cations is exchangeable. Montmorillonite shows reversible one-dimen-
sional lattice shrinkage and expansion upon variations in water content.
The amount of water held in equilibrium depends on the vapour pressure,
and, at a given vapour pressure, on the kind of excess cations present.
404 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B.
The study of the structure and properties of these minerals is important
for the understanding and control of many processes in the ceramic and
bleaching industries, and in soil management.
DISCUSSION (10.40).
Dr. R. K, ScHoFIELD.—Origin of the electric charges on clay particles
(11.10). ;
Clay particles are generally electrically charged and therefore retain an
equivalent quantity of ions which can only be removed by exchange with
other ions carrying the same charge. Exchange of ions is of great import-
ance in the industrial handling of clay and in land reclamation.
Some of the charge on clay particles is due to isomorphous substitutions
within the crystal lattice and is permanent in the sense that it is not in-
fluenced by the hydrogen ion concentration of the medium in which the
clay is suspended. ‘There are also ‘ spots’ on the particles which are
charged or uncharged according to the reaction of the medium. They are
of two kinds: acidic spots where negative charges can develop through the
dissociation of hydrogen ions, and basic spots where positive charges can
develop through the combination of hydrogen ions. The process in the
case of the acidity spots is probably
>Si—OH = >Si—O +Ht
the silicon atoms being those situated at the edges of the silicon oxygen
sheets. The chemical nature of the basic spots is uncertain. ‘They are
not found in the clay minerals so far identified but are frequent in the
common clays. The equilibrium is possibly
+
— Al—OH 2 —Al=O+Ht
and may be due to an over-crowding in the ‘ gibbsite ’ layer.
A study of the variation of the electric charge with pH enables the
amounts of permanent charge and of the acidic and basic groups to be
determined. Approximate values have also been obtained for the dissocia-
tion constants of the groups concerned. In certain clays the number
of basic groups exceeds that of the permanent (negative) charges. These
exhibit well-defined isoelectric points.
Prof. J. D. BERNAL, F.R.S.—The hydroxyl bond in clay minerals
(11.30).
The essential process that takes place in the formation of clays from
rock minerals such as felspar or mica is hydration. In the first stages,
however, water does not form part of the clay as such, but as hydroxyl
groups bound to magnesium, aluminium, or more rarely silicon ions. A
hydroxyl group bound to one of these ions is capable of attaching itself
to other hydroxyl or oxygen atoms in neighbouring layers owing to the
polarising power of the hydrogen it contains. The strength of the hydroxyl
bond thus formed depends on the charge of the ion to which the oxygen
atoms are attached. It is strongest for a silicon, weakest for a magnesium
ion, and this is also the order of the capacity to lose the hydrogen ion
altogether or the order of decreasing acidity of the clay particle.
In greater degrees of hydration water molecules are bound to the hydroxyl
group, but in a way which resembles the structure of ice more than it does
that of free water, owing to the directing effect of the hydroxyls.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (11.50).
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 405
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the Steel Works of Messrs. Stewarts and Lloyds Ltd., Corby,
Northamptonshire.
Tuesday, August 23.
Discussion on Repercussions of synthetic organic chemistry on biology and
medicine (9.45).
Prof. Sir F. GowLanp Hopkins, O.M., F.R.S.—Introduction.
Prof. E. C. Dopps, M.V.0.—Synthetic estrogenic compounds (10.0)..
The demonstration of the cestrogenic activity of simple molecules,
bearing little or no relationship to the structure of the natural cestrogenic
hormones, indicates that a complete change of view must be made on the
question of the specificity of biological action. 'The work described shows
that cestrogenic activity can be obtained by a whole series of different
molecules without any apparent common physical or chemical property.
The high degree of activity of 4 : 4’-dihydroxy-« : B-diethyl stilbene adds
considerably more interest to this subject since this substance is several
times more potent than the naturally occurring hormone. It would appear,
therefore, that biological activity may be imitated by a whole series of
substances, possibly quite foreign to the body. The bearing of this on
the whole question of hormones and vitamins is of the greatest importance.
Prof. L. Ruzicka.—Relationship between chemical constitution and
physiological activity of androstane derivatives (10.20).
The following androgens have been demonstrated in the human or
animal organism: (1) Androsterone and trans-Dehydro-androsterone in
human male urine; (2) Testosterone in bull’s testicles ; (3) Adrenosterone
in the suprarenal glands of bullocks and cows; (4) Androstadienone in the
urine of a man suffering from a tumor of the suprarenal gland. Of con-
siderable importance is the quantitative difference in the physiological
properties of androsterone and testosterone. Doses of androsterone and
testosterone which exert an equal action on the growth of the capon comb
show a quantitatively different influence on the growth of the seminal
vesicles and prostate in rats, the testosterone being about five times more
active in this last test. The difference in activity was the main reason for
the preparation of numerous androgenic substances whereby it was hoped
to ascertain the characteristic chemical constitution that was associated with
typical testosterone activity. Only derivatives of androstane have been
found to possess androgene activity ; it has not been possible to prepare
androgenic compounds that differ in their constitution from androstane
derivatives in the same degree as Dodds has succeeded in obtaining artificial
cestrogens having a structure completely different from cestrane derivatives.
More than fifty androstane derivatives have been prepared and their
growth-promoting action on the capon comb and on the auxiliary sex glands
of the castrated rat have been investigated. The majority of these andro-
stane derivatives can be classed together in one group, the members of
which differ from one another only in the details in positions 3, 5 or 17 of
the androstane nucleus. The physiological activity in both tests depends
upon the nature of the substituents in these three positions and on their
406 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—B.
steric configuration. One of the possible two steric configurations is in
each case more active physiologically and the physiological difference
between compounds possessing these two configurations is greatest in the
case of compounds differing in the 5-position, whereas position 17 has less
influence and position 3 the least influence. With reference to position 5,
that configuration is favoured physiologically which consists in a trans
configuration of the rings A and B. The corresponding cis isomers are
physiologically quite inactive. On carbon atom 17 the trans position of
the hydroxyl with respect to the neighbouring methyl group leads to
increased activity compared with the corresponding cis compounds, and on
carbon atom 3 the isomers showing cis configuration of the hydroxyl with
respect to the hydrogen in 5 are physiologically more active.
epee
OY
See,
The introduction of a double bond in position 5 leads only to a slight
alteration in physiological activity. Moreover the double bond does not
appear to be intimately concerned with testosterone-like activity when
compared with the corresponding saturated derivatives. Of importance,
however, is the presence of a keto group in position 3 which, in respect to
the action on the seminal vesicles and prostate, is greatly superior to the
corresponding hydroxyl derivative. A reversed relationship appears to
exist for carbon atom 17 where a hydroxy group is found to be more active
than a keto group.
An increased activity of testosterone when it is injected in oil solution
can be obtained by esterification, especially the propionate shows remarkably
enhanced activity.
It is established that a whole series of androstane derivatives show a
weak cestrogenic activity.‘ It is not possible to define the details of the
chemical structure characteristic for this activity in such an exact way as
it is possible to determine the structural details associated with andro-
genic activity. It seems, however, that the presence of a double bond in
position 5 is of essential importance for the cestrogenic activity of androgens.
For progesterone-like activity in androstane derivatives the double bond
also appears to be necessary.
Dr. A. S. Parxes.—Multiple biological activities of hormones and allied
substances (10.40).
The gonadal hormones and allied substances fall into three classes: the
cestrone group, the progesterone group, and the androsterone-testosterone
group. The substances of the first group, of which the better known are
cestrone, cestradiol and cestriol, have primarily the power to evoke in the
female reproductive tract the changes characteristic of the time of ovulation.
In the male, these substances have an effect on the accessory reproductive
organs, causing metaplasia of the epithelium or hypertrophy of the fibrous
tissue, or both, according to the species of animal and the duration of
treatment. No activity which can be called specifically androgenic is
shown by these compounds. In both sexes the estrogens depress pituitary.
activity, as may be seen by the effects on growth and on the gonads.
Progesterone has primarily the power to cause progestational changes in
the female reproductive tract. It has little direct effect on the reproductive
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—B. 407
organs of the male or on the atrophic or undeveloped organs of the female—
it has no androgenic or estrogenic power.
The androsterone-testosterone group comprise three compounds which
have been isolated from natural sources and a large number which have
been prepared artificially. Most of these are able to stimulate the atrophic
accessory organs and secondary sexual characters of castrated animals, i.e.
they are androgenic. Many of them are gynzcogenic in that they will
stimulate development of the reproductive tract in immature or ovariecto-
mised females, while at least one, trans-androstenediol, is cestrogenic in
the sense that it will cause cornification of the vagina in mice. ‘Testosterone
and several other androgens when methylated in position 17, have the
progesterone-like power to cause progestational changes in the uterus.
Several of the androgens are able to depress the activity of the pituitary
and cause atrophy of the gonads with consequent inhibition of the sexual
cycle of the female. A similar indirect effect is also responsible for the
depression of adrenal development seen in the male mouse, or in the female
or castrated male receiving androgen.
Both progesterone and the androgens are able to protect the organism
from certain effects of the estrogens, an action which may be partly respon-
sible for the effect of androgens on the intact female.
Prof. J. W. Coox, F.R.S.—Polycyclic hydrocarbons with cancer-
producing action (11.15).
There is now a considerable group of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
which have the power of causing cancer. The disease so produced is
indistinguishable in its characteristics from that which occursinman. The
chief classes of cancer-producing hydrocarbons are (a) those derived from
1:2-benzanthracene (I) and (6) 3:4-benzphenanthrene (II) and its
derivatives.
(I) (IT)
The former class has been extensively investigated and it is now possible
to state some of the factors of molecular structure which are associated with
cancer-producing activity. The twelve monomethyl derivatives of 1 : 2-
benzanthracene have been synthesised and tested, and the only ones which
have shown definite carcinogenic action are those with the substituent at
positions 10, 5, 9, 6 (this represents a decreasing order of efficiency).
Further, if simple alkyl substituents are present in two favourable positions
of substitution they reinforce one another so that more potent compounds
result. Such compounds are the 5 : 6-dimethyl and other 5 : 6-substituted
benzanthracenes (Cook), 5 : 9-dimethyl-1 : 2-benzanthracene (Newman)
and 5 : 10-dimethyl-1 : 2-benzanthracene (Fieser).
The most powerful carcinogenic agent so far known is g : 10-dimethyl-
408 - SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B.
1: 2-benzanthracene (Bachmann), which gives multiple tumours much
more rapidly than any other compound tested.
Apart from g : 10-dimethyl-1 : 2-benzanthracene two of the most active
cancer-producing compounds are 3: 4-benzpyrene, a constituent of coal
tar which is undoubtedly responsible for skin cancer among tar workers,
and methylcholanthrene, which may be prepared in the laboratory from
cholesterol and the bile acids. Both these hydrocarbons are benzanthracene
derivatives with substituents at positions 9 (in the case of 3 : 4-benzpyrene)
and 5, 6 and 10 (in the case of methylcholanthrene).
3 :4-Benzphenanthrene has weak cancer-producing activity; its 2-
methyl derivative is fairly potent, as is also 1 : 2 : 3 : 4-dibenzphenanthrene.
The influence of substituents in other positions is being investigated (Hewett).
Carcinogenic chemical compounds other than polycyclic hydrocarbons
are also known.
Dr. T. ReicHsTe1IN.—Partial synthesis of compounds related to the
adrenal cortical hormones (11.35).
The suprarenal glands are essential to life and the total removal of these
organs leads to death, Each gland consists of two separate parts, the
medulla and the cortex, the latter part of the organ being associated with the
life-maintaining function. During the years 1929-1930 it was shown that
extracts of adrenal tissue could be prepared which on injection into adrenal-
ectomised animals maintained life. It seemed therefore that the most
important function of the adrenal cortex was the production of one or more
hormones. Such extracts are now prepared in large quantities for clinical
use,
In several laboratories attempts have been made to isolate the ‘ cortical
hormone’ in pure form, and as a result of this work more than fifteen
different chemically pure substances have been separated all of which appear
to be sterol derivatives. Of these compounds only the four following sub-
stances possess biological activity in adrenalectomised animals.
OH
O
——CO-CH,OH N | CO-CH,OH
AS AS
I Corticosterone II Dehydro-corticosterone
OH OH a OH
| | CO-CH,0OH ey | CO-CH,OH
S
07\Z 07\4
III _17-Hydroxy-corticosterone IV 17-Hydroxy-dehydro-
corticosterone
Compounds I and II are more active than III and IV. These investiga-
tions are made difficult owing to the approximate nature of the biological
tests and the very large quantities of material they require. Furthermore
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B. 409
there is as yet no International Standard Unit of biological activity. It is
generally agreed that certain amorphous adrenal cortex concentrates show
greater biological activity than the pure corticosterone. It is possible
therefore that there is in the whole extract an unidentified substance of greater
activity. It is certain, however, that not a single life-maintaining hormone
is produced by the adrenal cortex but a group of related substances some
of which possess biological activity.
Since it is not yet possible to make a complete synthesis of the sterol
nucleus, only partial syntheses of compounds related to the adrenal cortical
hormones have been achieved. The following scheme shows (steps V to
XI) in outline a synthesis of deoxy-corticosterone (XI) from 3-hydroxy-
aetio-cholenic acid (V) which can be obtained by degradation of chol-
esterol or stigmasterol.
“coo ila tN NN eC tCl
| VO Ni: | OW eran.
0 WV.
HO A ACOA WANK
V V
I
/\|—_-co-cHN, |___co.CcHN;
AA) rn YS sae
ee v4 A ag
VII VIII
| CO-CH,OAc
CH,COOH |
Oar rae
—>=
CrO
HO’ NZ te
ic
( \—/-co-cH,0Ac a eer | CO-CH.OH
ig — |
i O7\4
xX XI Deoxy-corticosterone
Deoxy-corticosterone (XI) differs from natural corticosterone (I) in not
possessing a hydroxy-group in the 11-position. Biological tests have
mostly been carried out with the acetate (X) of deoxy-corticosterone and
the results indicate that the activity of this compound is greater than that
of natural corticosterone. The acetate eliminates the pathological symptoms
resulting from adrenalectomy in the same manner as the natural hormone.
It seems probable that deoxy-corticosterone is the simplest compound
showing full ‘ cortin-activity.’ Hydrogenation of the double bond prac-
tically eliminates the biological activity. Elimination of the hydroxy-group
410 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—B, C.
in the 21-position leads to a compound (XII) which occurs naturally, is
known as progesterone, and is the active principle of the corpus luteum.
OH
CO-CH, ee
oy
ONT %\4A\/
(XII) Progesterone (XITT)
This compound, however, shows no cortin-activity, which proves that the
hydroxy-group in the side chain is essential. Compound (XIII) has also
been synthesised, and this compound and also compound (IX) show no
noticeable activity. More exact knowledge as to the relation between
chemical constitution and biological activity must await the syntheses of
further closely related compounds and of more detailed biological studies.
yr
Prof. A. R. Topp.—Vitamin B, and its synthetic analogues (11.55).
The existence of an antineuritic factor (vitamin B,, aneurin) has been
known for almost forty years, but its isolation in a pure condition from rice
_ polishings was only achieved in 1926. The vitamin, usually isolated as
its crystalline chloride hydrochloride C,,H,,ON,SCI, has been the subject
of much chemical investigation leading to the elucidation of its structure
and its complete synthesis, the latter being realised independently by
German, American, and British workers. As a result of these syntheses
the vitamin is now prepared commercially and has become available for
clinical and nutritional purposes. With a view to determining the struc-
tural features necessary for vitamin activity a number of synthetic analogues
have been prepared. The results of this work indicate a remarkable struc-
tural specificity, for, apart from alteration in the nature and position of the
alkyl substituent on the pyrimidine nucleus, any change in the vitamin
molecule destroys the physiological action almost completely. Although
it is not yet possible to state with certainty the exact function of vitamin B,
in plants and animals, it is clear that it plays an important réle as part of an
enzyme system in carbohydrate metabolism.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.15).
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the University Departments of Biochemistry and Parasitology.
SECTION C.—GEOLOGY.
Thursday, August 18.
Prof. O. T. Jones, F.R.S.—The geology of the Cambridge district (10.0).
Joint Discussion with Section K (Botany) on The post-glacial history of
the Fenlands (11.15).
Dr. H. Gopwin.—Introduction.
The post-glacial deposits of the Fenland consist chiefly of peat beds on
the landward side and brackish water or marine silts and clays on the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 411
seaward side. These interdigitate as a result of former conditions of marine
transgression and regression. ‘The work of the Fenland Research Com-
mittee since its foundation in 1932 under the Presidency of Prof. Sir A. C.
Seward, F.R.S., has been the correlation of the history of formation of
these deposits with the evidence of geologists, archeologists, botanists and
other specialists with as many as possible other events of local post-glacial
history. For the outlines of the conclusions of this Committee see articles
in the Scientific Survey, by Godwin, Clark, Phillips and others.
Dr. W. A. MacrapyeN.—Foraminifera from the post-glacial Fenland
deposits.
The Foraminifera include an indigenous fauna, and derived specimens
from the Cretaceous and Jurassic. Derived Jurassic specimens are only
occasional, and seem to originate close to where they are now found. ‘The
Chalk forms are a constant feature of the silts, and are considered to have
been brought up the water channels from the sea coast, from outcrops of
Chalk or Chalky Boulder Clay. Inthe buttery clay they are correlated with
the subsidiary silt content.
The indigenous Foraminifera include no extinct forms, and indicate no
difference in climate from that of the present day. "They may be used as
a scale of the salinity, which varied from estuarine to practically fresh water.
The silts were characteristic of estuarine conditions, while the clays. were
apparently deposited in lagoons, into which estuarine water occasionally
overflowed.
Different species of a genus of Foraminifera exhibit varying tolerance of
admixed fresh water, and this is here most clearly exemplified in the genera
Quinqueloculina, Trochammina,, Bolivina, Laggna, Discorbis, Nonion and
Elphidium. Nonion depressulus and Rotalia beccarii can flourish in water
that is practically fresh, and the species of Trochammina appear definitely
to prefer a somewhat brackish habitat. \
Mr. H. L. P. Jotty.—Levels and bench marks.
The bench marks of the Ordnance Survey are habitually placed upon
structures which bid fair to be the most stable. Hence the great sub-
sidences in the fen levels due to drainage are not recorded by any of the
re-levellings which have been carried out. For much of the area there
exist records of three levellings dated approximately 60, 30 and Io years
ago. In general, these show no appreciable changes wherever the bench
marks are on buildings situated more than 20 ft. above mean sea level ;
situated, that is, on outcrops of Cretaceous or older rock and not on the
alluvium. Some bench marks have of necessity been placed in the drained
districts and these, being generally on houses or other brick structures
placed on or near an artificial bank, have shown subsidences of from nothing
to 1 ft. or even nearly 2 ft. Such measurements serve, however, only to
give precision to what is otherwise very patent to the eye, for the houses
bear much evidence of subsidence in the shape of cracks, tilting or even
collapse. This is especially the case where, as often, the house is built
as close to the bank as possible, so that one end of it rests on the bank and
the other on or near the fen. The Middle Fen Bank at Prickwillow has
a colony of houses, all of which show distortion of some kind. The
maximum subsidence shown there by Ordnance Survey bench marks is
0°74 ft. between the years 1870 and 1go1 and a further r:o ft. between
1go1 and 1925. Evidence of soil subsidence beyond that recorded by the
412 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
bench marks may occasionally be seen where an unused front door to a
cottage is now seen to be 24 ft. above ground level and yet unprovided with
any step.
A line of special levels has been completed quite recently in the vicinity
of the famous iron column at Holme Fen with a view to finding out what
subsidence has taken place since the year 1885. At that date there were
already spot (i.e. ground) heights on a drift in the vicinity a foot or two
below mean sea level, a not uncommon thing in the Fens. At the foot of
the column the ground level is now found to be 7 ft. below mean sea level.
Dr. J. G. D. CLarx.— Archeological correlation.
Archeological-geological correlations have been effected in the Cambridge-
shire Fens by sectioning post-glacial deposits formed in close proximity
to and contemporaneously with sites inhabited by prehistoric man. By
recording accurately in the section the ‘ scatters’ (bones, flints and sherds)
from successive settlements their stratigraphical relationships have been
established and their contexts in the natural sequence of events accurately
fixed. Correlations effected by this method are considered more reliable
than those obtained by means of chance finds of stray objects or hoards,
many of which have been inserted from higher levels. By utilising a
“scatter ’ of objects of varying weights the factor of sinkage is also brought
under control.
Sections cut on either side of the channel of the extinct course of the
Little Ouse on Peacock’s ! and Plantation Farms, Shippea Hill, near Ely,
gave three archzological levels in the post-glacial sequence, viz :
Early Bronze Age in the base of the Upper Peat. — 6 ft. O.D.
N.B.—Fen clay sterile.
Neolithic ‘ A’ near the top of the Lower Peat. — 15 ft. O.D.
Late Mesolithic in a black band at a ‘lower
depth in the Lower Peat. — 17 ft. O.D.
The subsidence revealed by the O.D. levels reached its climax during the
Early Iron Age, when the Fens were virtually evacuated. This is well
illustrated by comparing maps ? showing the distribution of finds dating
from the Bronze and Early Iron Ages respectively : areas densely settled
during the former period appear to have been abandoned completely during
the latter.
Mr. C. W. PHILLies.—Conditions in Roman times.
At the opening of the Roman period the Fens were deserted, but by
A.D. 100 an extensive agricultural occupation of native type had set in,
chiefly on the silt lands.
It is probable that the area was an Imperial domain. Work at Welney
has shown that by the end of the second century sea-floods began, but the
wealth and activity of the region continued with little abatement, so far as
we know, till late in the fourth century. In Anglo-Saxon times the region
was again a wilderness.
The particular interest of the occupation is its size, intensive character,
and the various types of native agriculture displayed. The suggestion is
that the population was drawn from more than one part of Britain and that
1 It is hoped to re-open this key section on the occasion of the Cambridge
Meeting of the Association.
2 See the Scientific Survey prepared for the present meeting of the Association.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 413
it was entirely peasant in character. No administrative centre is known,
but this may have been at Durobrive (Castor-Water Newton) on the
western fringe of the region. There is no positive evidence of Roman
drainage works on any scale, and the occupation and abandonment of the
region appears to have depended in the main on the operation of natural
causes.
Prof. H. H. SWINNERTON.—The marshland of east Lincolnshire.
The Lincolnshire marshland is the northerly continuation of the Fenland.
As its coastal margin is undergoing marine erosion many natural exposures
of the underlying deposits are available. These show that the general
history of the area is one of recurrent alteration in the relative level of land
and sea, accompanied by the laying down of alternating deposits of estuarine
clays and fen peats. The youngest deposits consist of silty clay containing
cockles, oysters and Scrobicularia, which show that it was laid down in the
low tide zone. This clay rests upon a surface well defined by a thin peat,
the presence of a Roman site and the debris of many early Iron Age salt-
workings. ‘These facts suggest a stationary condition for the area from the
close of the Bronze Age to the last century of the Roman occupation, fol-
lowed by a rapid subsidence of nearly 20 feet. Underlying this surface the
following deposits occur from above downwards: thin freshwater clay ;
8 feet of marine silts, crowded with the remains of salt marsh plants; and
2 feet of peats, enclosing the ruins of a forest. The last named have yielded
one implement of neolithic type, and the composition of the peat points
to the climatic conditions of the latter part of the Atlantic Period. The clays
with salt marsh plants thus represent a subsidence, during the Bronze Age,
which took place so slowly that the area was always situated within the limits
of the high tide zone.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Barnwell, Cherryhinton, and Barrington.
‘
Friday, August 19.
Discussion on The distribution and migration of certain animal groups in
the British Lower Paleozoic Fauna (10.0).
Dr. C. J. STUBBLEFIELD.—1. The Trilobites.
* Larval ’ trilobites were presumably planktonic, adults neritic or nektonic.
Some genera are more usually found in mudstones, others in calcareous or
sandy deposits, many are independent of facies; trilobites are notably
absent from truly planktonic deposits—radiolarian cherts, graptolite shales
(s.s.). The geographical affinities, changes and distribution of successive
faunas are discussed. The contrast between the faunas of the Scots-Irish
area and the Anglo-Welsh area persists from Lower Cambrian to Balclatchie
times with possible intermigration in the south about the time of Nema-
graptus gracilis. ‘These Scots-Irish faunas have affinities with the Appalachian
and Baltic regions. In Arenig times, in the Anglo-Welsh area the earlier
faunal affinity with Scandinavia is lost ; new genera appear in South Wales ;
the arenaceous Synhomalonotid fauna spreads to North Wales and Shrop-
shire but the Cyclopygid-Trinucleid fauna also reaches the Lake District.
Llanvirn faunas of South Wales and Shropshire have Bohemian relation-
ships ; Llandeilo, and early Caradoc of East Shropshire also show southern
414 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
elements. The Caradoc Homalonotid-Acaste fauna (in part of southern
origin) spreads from East Shropshire across North Wales and to north
and east fringes of Lake District ; it later receives Chasmopids (of Baltic
origin) probably from the west. A foreign fauna invades mudstones in
Scotland and Central Wales about the time of the Caradoc/Ashgillian
junction and the Welsh and Lake District limestones take on a Scots-Irish
faunal aspect. Later Ashgillian faunas discussed. Llandovery faunas less
differentiated geographically than Ordovician, some genera appear or re-
appear earlier in north than in south, ancestral Wenlock elements evident.
Wenlock faunas most luxuriantly developed in south-east. Ludlow
trilobites (in Anglo-Welsh area only) waning in importance.
Dr. G. L. ELLEs.—2. The Graptolites.
Graptolites (Graptoloidea) essentially planktonic, distribution intimately
connected with mode of life ; effected by currents, whether (a) attached to
host, (6) as free swimming germs or (c) as free swimming maturer in-
dividuals ; time taken in migration negligible compared with rate of deposit
of rocks in which they occur. Factors affecting completeness of succession :
(a) quietness of waters ; (b) facies ; (c) structural considerations. Complete
succession at any one time may be: (1) Condensed (perhaps planktonic) ;
(2) Spread out (drifted) ; (1) is richer fauna, (2) gives relative ages more
accurately. Remarkable continuity in faunas where succession complete
and fundamental world-wide assemblages at corresponding horizons, some
difference in detail in different regions possibly due to migration.
Analysis of successive Graptolite Faunas of the British Lower Palzozoic
Geosyncline in relation to those of extra British areas. Possible interpreta-
tion of certain features.
Dr. A. LamMont.—3. The Brachiopods.
Shallow water, sessile; brief drifting life; wide or deep seas, muddy
belts, climate, land, as barriers.
Coarse-ribbed Orthis carausii (Arenig) in sands. Large body-spaced
_Porambonites intercedens (Llianvirn) in limestone indicating clear water.
P. filosa (? horizon) in limestone indicating clear water. Small Leptelloidee
in muds of Tramore limestone ; higher beds reaching a Mesograptus foliaceus-
Nemagraptus gracilis horizon. Common source of Scots, Irish, Welsh
faunas about this time. American comparisons.
Dinorthis flabellulum, Nicolella actonie, Orthis calligramma, coarse-ribbed,
large volume, in sandy limestone or sand ; poor horizon-markers. Com-
pressed or diminutive individuals in shales. (?) H,S poisoning. Adaptation
to poverty of oxygen in water above mud. ~Sowerbyella, narrow body uses
minimum oxygen, extended margin collects from wide area. Individuality
of Anglo-Welsh Caradocian fauna, Wattsella, Kjzrina, not accounted for
by sea-floor. (?) Land barrier through Saltees.
Scots-Irish conquest (Ashgillian) of Anglo-Welsh area; Schizophorella
fallax in Dolhir beds Glyn Ceinog ; Fardenia cf. scotica in Cyrn-y-brain
beds, Llangollen. Percé (Quebec) comparisons.
Llandovery—cosmopolitan. Distribution of Pentamerus oblongus.
Maroon shales, Walsall boring, current-bedded, large Brachyprion, Schucher-
tella, Stricklandia lirata forma typica ; the last in length of apertural margin/ ~
body volume ratio exceeds S. lirata var. « from coastal sands. Considerable
oxygen available due to (1) small organic content of muds, (2) little volcanic
a
1
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 415
material, (3) large surface area of sea in relation to depth, (4) disturbance by
wind.
Other problems.
Dr. W. K. Spencer, F.R.S.—4. The Starfishes and Cystids.
These are not homogeneous faunas developing in their own areas, but
migratory faunas brought in at various times by various floodings. History
then can only be followed in relationship to larger considerations.
1. Cambrian.—Only fragmentary ‘ Cystid’ remains are recorded from
Britain. Stromatocystis is found in Newfoundland and Bohemia suggesting
a trough connecting these areas. The Carpoids (a stock near akin to
ancestral starfish) are confined to Bohemia and Languedoc.
2. Tremadoc—New cystids and first starfish in Languedoc fauna,
Macrocystella (cystid) in Shropshire.
3. Arenig.—Ramsay Island fauna.
4. Llanvirn—A rich and varied development from fauna (2) in Bohemia
(D,y) ; greater part of starfish fauna still archaic, also brittle stars with
true starfish; carpoids and cystids. Only British echinoderm belonging
to the Bohemian-Languedoc fauna is a species of Paleura found in the
zone of Didymograptus bifidus (Upper Hope Shales of Shropshire).
5. Caradoc-Bala Fauna.—Middle Ordovician of Chinese Turkestan has
the three species of Spy Wood Grit (early Caradoc) of West Shropshire
fauna and Stenaster also found in Wales. ‘The Bala Cystids are also related
to those found in Asia. The genus Siluraster found in the Bala beds in
Wales and Shropshire has distinct relationships with the Bohemian D,y and
D, faunas. The Bala fauna also has relationships with the Canadian and
Kentucky Trenton faunas.
6. Starfish Bed, Girvan—Rich Echinoderm fauna; (a) Starfish are
related to those of Richmondian of Ohio Basin (and some Trenton forms)
together with a new fauna. This combination later dominates the Silurian
and Devonian. The faunas are quite different from Welsh-Bohemian
fauna (5), the only Welsh-Bohemian-Central Asiatic elements are those
also found in the Trenton. (b) Cystid fauna has same two constituents, i.e.
American and a new fauna which is really an old fauna (2) as developed in
Languedoc. The number of peculiar genera common to both is very
remarkable. An explanation might be an Eastern reservoir sending migrants
by an Arctic route to Girvan. Starfish are not known from the con-
temporary Welsh, Irish or Baltic beds. Cystids in these three areas are as
a whole different from those of Girvan and have a common element,
apparently Baltic in origin.
7. Wenlock of Pentland Hills shows fauna of affinities with Girvan (6)
together with new species from the north-east. Wenlock of Central England
brings in new forms related to contemporaneous American faunas, differing
from Scottish fauna.
8. Ludlow of Leintwardine and Lake District has derivatives of Girvan (6),
suggesting that that fauna had moved southward, plus some elements related
to Languedoc (2).
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Upware and Warboys.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to Thrapston and Stamford.
416 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
Sunday, August 21.
Excursion to the Brecklands.
Monday, August 22.
PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS by Prof. H. H. SwINNERTON on Development and
evolution (10.0). (See p. 57.)
Discussion on The origin of carbonate rocks associated with alkali-rich
intrusions (11.15).
Dr. H. voN ECKERMANN.
Daly mentions the Alné alkaline area as clear evidence of carbonate-
syntexis. A new survey, however, has proved the existence of a confocal
stereometrical distribution both of the carbonatites and the alkaline rocks
in general. The emplacement of the rocks is similar to that of Julianehaab
and Umptek, as emphasised by Backlund. The carbonatites of Alné,
consequently, are not metamorphic limestone-xenoliths. Nor is such a
syntexis supported by mineralogical and chemical evidence or by our
present knowledge of the Fennoscandian rock-ground.
Surrounding the Alné-neck, carbonatitic (calcitic or dolomitic) cone-
sheets, converging towards the apex of a diatreme, are cut by vertical,
radiating alnditic dykes corresponding to the damkjernites of Fen and
representing iron-rich magma risen from below on the blowing out of the
diatreme. A gravitational magmatic differentiation accompanied by rising
CO,-concentration is suggested. The CO, seems to have greatly affected
the normal equilibria of the rock components.
The discovery of carbonate-bearing differentiates of alkaline character,
associated with basic Jotnian magmas, suggests a differential relationship
between the latter and the alkaline rocks of Fennoscandia. The incongruent
melting of orthoclase, previously emphasised by Bowen, may be reconsidered
from a new angle, involving the Jotnian tensional earthcrust-stresses and
the presence of CO .
The Fennoscandian alkaline intrusions—except the post-Caledonian
Seiland dykes—are all of the same pre-Cambrian and late- or post-Jotnian
age. Whether they are associated with carbonatites or not, they owe their
birth to the same fundamental principles. The accumulated evidence of
the last few years justifies the draft of a tentative common petrogenetic
scheme, which may serve as a basis of further discussion.
Lt.-Col. W. CAMPBELL Sm1TH.—Alkali-rocks associated with limestones
of apparently intrusive nature in southern Nyasaland.
In the neighbourhood of Lake Chilwa and elsewhere in southern Nyasa-
land some alkali-rocks occur in and about a number of vents of supposedly
volcanic origin filled with brecciated feldspar-rock intimately associated
with crystalline limestones. The field-occurrence of these rocks has been
fully described by Dr. F. Dixey of the Geological Survey of Nyasaland.
The crystalline limestones of the Basement Complex in the district are of
negligible bulk as compared with those of the volcanic vents and are different
in composition. The feldspathic breccias of many of the vents consist of
angular fragments of orthoclase-rock with unusually high potash content,
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 417
up to 13%. The gneisses and other rocks around the vents are intensely
altered, the end-product being a feldspar-pyroxene rock in which the
pyroxenes are egirine and egirine-augite. These rocks correspond to the
fenites and tveitasites of the Fen district in Norway. The fenitisation
seems here to be due to emanations accompanying the emplacement of the
limestones and feldspathic breccias rather than to the small intrusions of
alkali-rocks (foyaite, ijolite, and nephelinite) which cut the vents and are
clearly later.
It does not seem possible to explain the crystalline limestones in these
vents as due to carbonate replacement. They seem to be of magmatic
origin and to be comparable to the magmatic limestones or carbonatites of
Alné in Sweden and the Fen district. Their origin and their mode of
emplacement are problems which still await solution, and these problems
may be related to the problem of the origin of the associated alkali-rocks.
Mr. S. I. TomKererr.—The réle of carbon dioxide in igneous magma.
All igneous rocks are known to contain CO, in varying quantities, but it
is probable that the greater part of the CO, originally present in any magma
escaped during the consolidation. Certain rocks and rock-series are especi-
ally rich in COz, and given suitable conditions during the last magmatic
stages, not only did the carbonates crystallise out, but they formed an
independent carbonatite magma-fraction. Many occurrences of such
igneous carbonatite rocks are known, the one best studied being the Fen
district of Norway.
The circular outcrop of alkaline and carbonatite rocks of Fen probably
represents the stoped head of a pipe infilled with a basic alkaline differentiate
of essexitic magma (Oslo district type). One may postulate that the upper
zone in the pipe was originally composed of an alkali-pyroxenite magma
rich in CO,. Crystallisation-differentiation, combined with diffusion of
alkalies and volatiles, gave rise to three main rock-series :
(1) Urtite—Jacupirangite series.
(2) Iron-ore series (R6dberg—Hematite ore).
(3) Ca-Carbonate series (Kasenite—S6vite).
The magma of the principal series (Urtite—Jacupirangite) assimilating
the country rock (Granite) gave rise to a hybrid alkali-syenite magma
(Juvite-Tveitasite series). The bordering gneiss-granite transfused by
alkali-alumina emanations derived from the main magma was transformed
into a pulaskite rock (Fenite). The residual liquid of differentiating magma,
rich in CO, and iron oxides, gave rise to the late consolidated fractions of
iron ore and carbonatites. The evidence both of its field occurrence and
of its petrographical characters of Damkjernite suggests that this rock had
been derived from a lower zone of the pipe composed of alkali-peridotite
rich in CO,. The shattering of the consolidated portion of this magma by
the residual volatiles and its subsequent eruption through the rocks
belonging to the earlier stage, gave rise to the Damkjernite—Rauhaugite
series rich in Mg and K.
The réle of CO, in magma is not limited to the formation of magmatic
calcite and carbonatites. It is quite obvious that the presence of CO,
affects the equilibrium between other components in the magma and in
this way determines the formation of minerals. One may suppose that the
spilite-keratophyre series, and probably the lamprophyre series as well,
owe their peculiar character to the presence in them of a relatively large
amount of CO,. The spilite-keratophyre series in its chemical composition
P
418 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
does not differ much from a typical alkalic series, such as the rocks of Oslo
district or the British Carboniferous-Permian igneous rocks, except for its
considerable larger amount of CO,.
Prof. C. E. TiLuey, F.R.S.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Wood Ditton and Underwood Hall.
Tuesday, August 23.
Dr. S. BucHan.—Pollution and exhaustion of London’s underground water
supply (10.0).
A general progressive lowering of the level of water in the underground
reservoir of London has been taking place over a long period, but during
the past few years the fall has become more marked and it is now evident
that, unless the fall is checked, parts of the reservoir will be exhausted in
35 years or so. ‘The truly artesian conditions of a century ago are gone,
and in one area the surface of the water stands 300 ft. lower than it did
60 years ago.
Water is being extracted from the centre of the London Basin more
rapidly than it is replenished. Locally, the sands above the Chalk have
been drained and dry areas are spreading as the water-level falls, while, in
the Chalk, areas are developing from which only a poor supply is likely to
be obtained.
The importance of the geological structures in controlling the distribution
of water is becoming apparent now that it is possible to define the principal
areas from which the supply is flowing to London.
Owing to the geological structure the lowering of the water-level has
caused brackish water to flow from the tidal reaches of the river Thames
into the Chalk and to pollute the supply in an area of high-yielding wells.
As the fall in level continues, pollution will become more intense and will
affect a greater area of London as well as an increased depth of Chalk.
The large number of abandoned wells create another potential danger
to the water supply. Deterioration of their seal or lining tubes will allow
the entry of contaminated water from the superficial deposits to the Chalk.
Mr. S. I. TOMKEIEFF.—Zonal olivines and their petrogenetic significance
(10.35).
The measurement of the optic axial angle. of olivines from various igneous
rocks shows that nearly all olivines are zonal. The only exceptions are
olivines from ultra-basic rocks and olivines from alkaline acid and inter-
mediate rocks. As a rule the zoning is continuous and it shows a pro-
gressive enrichment of the mineral in iron towards the periphery. The
difference in composition between the centre and the outer rim can reach
40 % fayalite, but such cases are rare. In the British Carboniferous
dolerites, for example, olivine on the average shows 31 % fayalite in the
centre and 39 % in the outer zone, while the olivine from the British
Tertiary dolerites shows 18 % fayalite in the centre and 40 % in the
outer zone.
A progressive variation in the average composition of olivine occurring
in the different phases of a single intrusive mass is demonstrated by the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 419
study of the dolerite sill of Fair Head, Co. Antrim. In this sill olivine has
the following average composition: (1) from the glomeroporphyritic
aggregates (allivalite) representing an early phase of crystallisation—
24 % fayalite ; ; (2) from the dolerite—43 % fayalite ; (3) from the dolerite-
pegmatite schlieren, a late phase—71 % fayalite.
There seems also to be some relation between the variation in the
composition of olivine and that in the composition of the rock in which it
occurs, an increase in the iron content of the olivine being usually accom-
panied by a similar increase in the alkalies and silica content of the rock.
The parallelism between the zonality of olivine crystals, the variability
of the composition of olivine in the successive magmatic phases and the
relation between the composition of the olivine and the magma, has a
definite bearing on the question of petrogenesis. The recorded observa-
tions—which are in perfect agreement with the recently published study on
the forsterite-fayalite binary system by Bowen and Schairer—show the
possible control exercised by olivine on magma and the relation between
the composition of the olivine and that of the magma.
Dr. F. Watxer.—The differentiation of the Palisade diabase sill, New
Jersey (11.10).
A detailed quantitative examination of the best exposed sections through
the famous Palisade Diabase Sill leads to the following conclusions :
(i) It is doubtful whether the ‘ olivine layer’ in the lower part accum-
lated by gravitational settling of olivine.
(ii) There is a definite gradational concentration of pyroxene above the
“ olivine layer,’ indicating sinking of pyroxene.
(iii) Assimilation of arkose on a large scale is improbable.
(iv) The proportion of free silica in the sill as a whole is very small, but
there is a marked concentration just below the upper chilled phase.
(v) The magmatic history of the sill ended with pronounced hydro-
thermal activity.
Dr. A. Wave and Dr. R. T. Priper.—The geology and petrology of the
leucite rocks of the Kimberley district, Western Australia (11.45).
Nineteen occurrences of post-Permian volcanic rocks have been found
in the West Kimberley area. Plugs, partly eroded craters and fissure
intrusions have been recognised. ‘The structure and distribution of these
occurrences indicate that the intrusions have ascended along fault planes
which are connected with the structure of the underlying pre-Cambrian
rocks.
The rocks are made up of varying proportions of leucite, phlagopies
diopside, simpsonite (a new K-Mg. amphibole related to katophorite),
wadeite (a new K-Zr silicate), rutile, chlorite and indeterminable ground-
mass. Four new rock types (fitzroyite, cedricite, mamilite and wolgidite)
are described.
Although leucite is developed to the complete exclusion of sanidine, the
rocks contain more than sufficient silica to have formed orthoclase instead
of leucite. 2The magma, from which these rocks crystallised, was of
peculiar character—its main features being high potash dominant over
alumina, high magnesia and titania and very low soda content. The minor
constituents are comparatively abundant.
This magma was probably derived from a potassic mica-peridotite magma
420 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
by the early crystallisation and removal of olivine. The siliceous and
potassic residuum crystallised at temperatures above the leucite-orthoclase
reaction temperature and was extruded as a crystal mush which has effected
little change in the intruded sediments. Chilling of the acid residuum has
inhibited ‘the leucite to orthoclase reaction.
The only comparable rocks are the wyomingites and orendites of the
Leucite Hills, Wyoming.
Dr. F. Cotes Puitiies.—The fabric of some ‘Tarskavaig Moines’ (12.20).
The ‘ Tarskavaig Moines,’ a series of phyllites and schistose grits, occur
in the Sleat district, Skye, to the north-west of the Moine Thrust, above a
subsidiary dislocation, the Tarskavaig Thrust. On the Geological Map of
Scotland issued in 1892 they were coloured as Torridonian. They were
later regarded by C. T. Clough (mainly because of supposed similarities in
stratigraphical sequence) as less-altered representatives of the same great
formation as the Moine rocks on the other side of the Moine Thrust. This
view has recently been questioned by H. H. Read, who considers the
Tarskavaig rocks to be Torridonian affected by the post-Cambrian disloca-
tions, and regards apparent transitions from unaltered Torridonian to
true Moine rocks as a result of metamorphic convergence. The fabric
has therefore been examined in an attempt to determine the direction or
directions of movements to which these rocks have been subjected, and
comparisons are instituted between the grain-fabric of the Tarskavaig
rocks and of Torridonian and Moine rocks from adjacent districts. These
are believed to show that true Moine rocks have been affected by regional
movements along a south-west and north-east direction, no trace of which
can be found in the grain-fabric of the Tarskavaig rocks.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Barley and Barkway.
Dr. S. R. Nockotps and Dr. J. E. Ricuey, F.R.S.—Replacement veins in
the Mourne Mountains granites (2.15).
All the Tertiary granite masses of the Mourne Mountains are traversed.
here and there by narrow replacement veins which belong, in general, to
the greisen class ; the prevalent variety being dark-green in colour. ‘They
are either steeply inclined or vertical, are found in greatest number at places:
close to a granite margin, and can be shown in several instances to be
parallel to the plane of contact. Their position in the igneous history of
the granites is indicated by the fact that they cut the later aplite veins but
are themselves traversed by well-developed joint planes.
The dominant type of vein is composed of aggregates of topaz and a
peculiar blue-green mica together with quartz. Other constituents include
some independent topaz, fluorite, stilbite, chlorite and sometimes a little
biotite.
Subordinate types are represented by white mica-chlorite-quartz veins
with minor fluorite and stilbite, grey quartz-magnetite veins and black veins
rich in manganese ores.
There occur, in addition, certain fissure veins which follow, and are later
than, the joints. "The dominant variety is composed of iron rich chlorite,
associated with colourless granular fluorite, albite and very subordinate
orthite.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 421
Mr. S. O. AGRELL.—Adinoles of Dinas Head, Cornwall (2.45).
Adinoles associated with spilosites and spotted slates occur at the contact
of an albite-dolerite intrusion with black limestone-bearing slates of Upper
Devonian age.
They consist of albite and quartz with accessory leucoxene, and with or
without chlorite, dravite, ankerite and calcite.
Four main types are recognised :
1. Normal adinoles—structureless albite-quartz rocks showing sedi-
mentary banding and grading into rocks composed essentially of
dravite. i
2. Adinoles with pseudomorphs probably after andalusite.
3. Adinoles with globular masses of ankerite showing concentric
structures.
4. Polygonal and spherulitic adinoles.
Chemically, the adinoles resemble quartz-keratophyres and their tufts,
but the evidence at Dinas Head shows that they are due to the effect of the
intrusion on the sedimentary rocks. ‘The first change was purely thermal
and was followed by albitisation and then by carbonatisation, the meta-
somatising fluids coming from the dolerite.
The adinolisation is a volume for volume replacement and calculation on
analyses shows that soda, silica and sometimes boric oxide have been fixed
in the slates.
As a result of faulting and of the ramifications of the intrusion the adinoles
appear up to eighty feet thick, but actually, they form a veneer over the
headland and never extend more than thirty feet from an igneous contact.
Mr. G. ANDREW.—Some granitic intrusions in the Central Eastern Desert
of Egypt (3.15).
The intrusive granites may be divided into groups on the basis of the
nature of the contact.
1. Abu Ziran type.—Injection-gneiss, strongly banded, generally foliated,
protoclastic or cataclastic structures common. Xenoliths within mass
granoblastic, near margin foliated. Injection zone in pelitic rocks accom-
panied by kyanite, staurolite and almandine as contact minerals. Re-
crystallisation falls off away from granite-margin, but is still of regional
type. Intrusion of syntectonic type.
2. Belih type—Porphyritic, often foliated locally. Contact irregular,
either steeply plunging discordant, or approximately horizontal discordant
in bathyliths. Country-rock thoroughly recrystallised, normal hornfels-
structures and contact-minerals, veined. Assimilation considerable, with
. xenoliths common and remote from margin, traceable in granite in the form
of ‘ basic clots.’ Margin usually granite-porphyry.
3. Um Disi type—Even grained, often fine-grained, non-porphyritic,
unfoliated. Contact sharp, steeply plunging discordant. Country-rock
affected to a notably less degree in comparison with Belih type. Normal
hornfels-structure and minerals. Veining rare, assimilation negligible, and
xenoliths are rare, and sharply bounded. Margin often coarse, pegmatitic.
4. El Atrash type—Almost entirely a quartz-feldspar rock, in small
masses, frequently with a dyke form (W.N.W. to N.W. strike). Coarse
varieties granitic, finer grained type is spherulitic or micrographic. Contact
metamorphism very slight, confined to a few metres width, even in masses
of 4.sq. km. area. Rarely xenolithic.
Type 1 is only known in the regionally metamorphosed paraschists south
of G. Me‘atiq. The remainder intrude the Dokhan series and’ other
422 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
unmetamorphosed sediments, and are arranged in order of age. The
riebeckite granites are not included in this table and form a still younger
group than 4.
Mr. G. ANDREW.—On the upper pre-Cambrian of the Eastern Desert of
Egypt (3.30).
Between latitude 26° N. and 28° N. the stratified rocks forming the hill
region west of the Red Sea are largely unmetamorphosed. Three series
may be distinguished :
3. The Hammamat series, consisting of purple (lie-de-vin) and green
mudstones, greywackes and conglomerates.
2. The Dokhan series, consisting of similar sediments, with intercalated
pyroclastic rocks and lavas.
1. The Atalla-Rubshi series: grey mudstones, often phyllitic, some
greywackes, and rhyolites with tuffs.
The stratigraphical relations of the three series to one another are not
known, since all contacts seen are faults. Dips are high, strikes variable :
north-north-west in the Atalla-Rubshi series, north-west to north-north-
west in the Hammamat, and north-east to north in the Dokhan series.
The lithological types of the Hammamat series may be recognised over a
wide area in an unmetamorphosed state, e.g. Bir Kareim, Dungash, Wadi
Khashab, Wadi Hamata, and north of Um Garaiart. In the same way the
Dokhan type occurs in Wadi Hamish (Wadi Shait), Wadi Sheikh Shadli—
G. Abu Hammamid, Wadi Huluz, and in the Wadi Allagi region. The
Atalla-Rubshi series is less distinctive, and not recognisable elsewhere at
present. These series may be classed as Algonkian, and include the
Eparchzan and part of the Metarchzean of Hume (1934). ‘The rocks are
typically non-schistose, except in narrow zones of movement, and in the
contact-zone of some granites.
Dr. A. G. MacGrecor.—Characteristics of West Indian tridymite and
cristobalite (3.45).
Exhibit of microphotographs (lantern slides) illustrating the mode of
occurrence and diagnostic features of the tridymite and cristobalite of the
porphyritic bandaites (labradorite-phyric dacites) of Montserrat, B.W.lI.
Tridymite is an abundant primary groundmass-constituent ; cristobalite is
also very prevalent and can, in some cases, be shown to replace original
tridymite. The cristobalite exhibits certain features recalling those often
described as characteristic of tridymite.
Wednesday, August 24.
Dr. E. B. BatLey, F.R.S.—Caledonian tectonics and metamorphism in
Skye (10.0).
The geology of the Kishorn Nappe is reviewed from Loch Kishorn on
the mainland through the greater part of Sleat in Skye. The fundamental
facts are taken from Peach, Horne and Clough. The latter’s magnificent
work in Skye has been amended in certain details, and this has tended to
clarify the general situation.
The Kishorn Nappe consists mainly of Torridonian, with Lewisian
north of Loch Alsh (Sheets 81, 71), and Cambro-Ordovician west of Ord
on Loth Eishort (Sheet 71). The nappe is underlain through much of its
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C. 423
extent by a complex of moved Cambro-Ordovician, which is exposed at the
head of Loch Kishorn and again in the Suardal Anticlines of Skye and in a
window east of Ord. The top of the Kishorn Nappe is furnished by the
base of the Moine Nappe, except near the Point of Sleat, where the
Tarskavaig Nappes intervene (Sheets 71, 61).
A great inversion, called the Loch Alsh Inversion, is the main structural
feature within the Kishorn Nappe. It is part of a recumbent fold that runs
obliquely to the course of the Kishorn and Moine thrusts, that truncate it
from below and above. Thus at Loch Kishorn, only the upper inverted
limb of the recumbent fold is preserved ; at Loch Alsh, both limbs occur ;
while in most of Sleat, only the lower normal limb is found. The upper
limb shows a cleavage, or foliation, that scarcely penetrates at all into the
lower limb, and with this foliation there is in places mineral development
leading to a production of minute micas, including brown biotite.
The generally normal lower limb of the Loch Alsh Fold develops an
additional local recumbent fold exposed west of Ord, near the window
already mentioned. The inversion connected with this Ord Fold is un-
accompanied by cleavage or metamorphism. Moreover, it does not extend
up to the base of the overlying Tarskavaig Nappes.
The Tarskavaig Nappes emerge from under the Moine Thrust, and agree
in structural position with the Loch Alsh Inversion, except that they have
travelled forward by thrusting rather than inversion (cf., however, the
Balmacara Thrust of the Loch Alsh district). ‘Their metamorphic grade is
closely comparable with that of parts of the Loch Alsh Inversion. It is true
that in addition to a widespread development of minute biotite, in part
brown, Clough found 1 mm. garnets at one locality; but these latter, after
separation by A. F. Hallimond, have been analysed by C. O. Harvey; and
proved to contain sufficient manganese to be natural associates of biotite
in its early stages of formation. The writer feels that the correlation of the
Tarskavaig ‘ Moines ’ with the Torridonian, a view favoured by Peach, Read
and others, is distinctly strengthened. He welcomes the altogether new
evidence furnished by F. C. Phillips during the current session of the B.A.
It is hoped to expand this account in a forthcoming Geological Survey
Bulletin.
Dr. E. B. BatLey, F.R.S.—Tectonics, erosion and deposition (10.30).
(1) Antecedent Drainage.—In maturity antecedent drainage often looks
wellnigh unbelievable, for it seems like special pleading to speak of a
barrier of hard rock raised so slowly as not to divert a river of soft water.
One is apt to forget that during early stages of mountain elevation a river
may have to cope with nothing more resistant than sand and clay. By the
time it reaches hard core rocks it may already be entrenched in a valley
thousands of feet deep, and therefore able to defy intermittent attacks by
earth movement, however strong the material that is employed. This sort
of relation is illustrated in some of the anticlines associated with the
Caucasus.
(2) Cross-mountain Contrasts Sometimes the two sides of a mountain
chain, great as the Urals or small as the Malverns, show a wonderful con-
trast. On the one side the junction between the mountain-rocks and those
of the adjacent plain may be tectonic, and on the other side, erosional. As
a broad generalisation this is illustrated at the junction of the Urals, west-
wards with the Palzozoics of the Russian Platform and eastwards with the
Tertiaries and Quaternaries of Asia; or at the junction of the Malverns,
westwards with the Old Red of Hereford and eastwards with the New Red
424 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C.
of Worcestershire. In either case we are dealing with a mountain chain, or
ridge, that to begin with separated a high plateau from a low plain. Until
deposition overtook erosion the main tendency was for the low plain to
extend ever farther into the mountain territory. What remained of the
hard core rocks of the mountain functioned meanwhile as a bulwark, pro-
tecting the high plateau from encroachment of the plain. ‘Then came
deposition, building up the low plain in relation to the high plateau. Thus
the original contrast of level on the two sides of the mountain was eventually
replaced by a contrast of material.
Mr. J. F. Kirxatpy.—The constituents of the pebble beds of the Lower
Cretaceous rocks of England and the light they throw on the palao-
geography of the time (10.45).
This communication is an interim report of an investigation of the
constituents of the pebbly horizons in the Lower Cretaceous beds of South
England. More precise evidence than hitherto available, as to the nature
of the rocks then undergoing denudation and the directions of the supply
of detritus, is accumulating.
In the Wealden beds of Dorset there is a highly distinctive suite of pebbles
indicating the erosion of the metamorphic aureole of the Dartmoor Granite.
This suite, except for one or two doubtful pebbles, has not been found in the
Weald. ‘The resemblance between the pebbles from the north-west Weald,
which are being examined by Dr. Wells and Mr. Gossling, and those from
the Lower Cretaceous sands of Bedfordshire, Oxfordshire, Berkshire and
Wiltshire indicates in part, at least, a common derivation from the London
Platform. In this connection the distribution of the pebbles of silicified
oolitic and dolomitic limestone is particularly significant. In east Kent,
however, the pebble suite is of a somewhat different character.
The many interesting types of pebbles found are described and inferences
made as to their place of origin.
Dr. S. M. K. Henperson.—The Dalradian Succession of the Southern
Highlands (11.0).
A brief account of the results of the study of current and graded bedding
in the Leny Grits, Aberfoyle Slates and Ben Ledi Grits. ‘These three
groups have generally been adopted as the youngest members of the Perth-
shire Succession, and were included thus by Dr. Bailey in his Iltay Nappe.
From Loch Lubnaig in the north-east to Loch Lomond in the south-west
(Geological Survey, Sheet 38) current and graded bedding has always given
the same evidence. The generalised dip is 60° to the north-west.
The evidence shows that the Leny Grits to the south-east of the Aber-
foyle Slates are upside down, and are younger than the latter, which they
underlie. On the north-west side, the Ben Ledi Grits are also younger
than the Aberfoyle Slates which they superimpose.
On lithological grounds it seems reasonable to correlate the Leny and Ben
Ledi Grits as one formation younger than the Aberfoyle Slates, the former
being the under limb, and the latter the upper limb of a steeply overturned
anticline. This would then be a structure comparable to the Carrick
Castle Fold, an anticline closing to the south-east, in the Iltay Nappe of
Bailey. The series of dislocations between the Leny Grits and the Highland.
Border Rocks may, upon further investigation, prove to be the base of this
large overfold of Dalradian rocks.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—C, 425
Dr. T. S. WestoLL.—The distribution of certain specialised Carboniferous
bony fishes (11.15).
The small fishes Haplolepis (Eurylepis Newberry) and Pyritocephalus
Fritsch have been found to be closely related, and are probably descendants
of Canobius; Pyritocephalus is much more specialised. Newberry’s E£.
lineatus, from Linton, Ohio, is found to be almost identical with P. sculptus
Fritsch from Nyiany, Czecho-Slovakia. This suggested a correlation of
the two horizons, which was fully confirmed by palzobotanical evidence ;
but it was later found that Teleopterina Berg, from Mazon Creek, Ill., and
a fragmentary skull from Newsham, Northumberland, must also be referred
to Pyritocephalus. The two genera occur at several horizons in the West-
phalian and (?) basal Stephanian, namely :
Newsham, Northumberland Flora E.
Longton, Staffs Flora F.
Mazon Creek, Illinois Flora G or G-H.
Linton, Ohio \
Nyrany, Czecho-Slovakia | Flora H or H-I.
(Palzobotanical horizons after Dix’s scheme.)
These fishes are of great morphological interest as they approach Holo-
steans in certain characters. Pyritocephalus has very specialised fenestra-
tions in the skull-roof, perhaps due to the large eyeball, and both genera
have peculiarities in their dermal bones.
The distribution of these highly specialised small freshwater fishes
raises important palazogeographical issues, while their recurrence, with cer-
tain Amphibia, at different horizons indicates the existence of a well-marked
vertebrate facies-fauna.
Dr. J. B. Stmpson.—Fossil pollen in Scottish Furassic rocks (11.30).
In the Jurassic strata that outcrop on the east coast of Sutherland, Scot-
land, coal seams and carbonaceous layers are present at horizons in the
Lower Lias, Estuarine Series, and Kimeridge Clay. |
Examination of the microspore content of these coals has disclosed the
presence in them of pollen of gymnospermous and dicotyledonous types
as well as the spores of cryptogamic plants.
The gymnosperms are represented by winged pollen grains such as we
find in the Abietinez at the present day, and the variety of the forms already
indicates a considerable degree of differentiation.
The pollen of dicotyledonous types represent at least two living families—
Magnoliacee and Nymphzacez.- In both families, too, more than one
genus is present. The Magnoliacee are represented by one form similar
to Magnolia, and another closely akin to Drimys. ‘The forms placed in the
Nymphzacez show close affinities to the living genera Nelumbium and
Castalia. The Nelumbium types show the characteristic bisymmetry of
this class of pollen in polar view, and in other details also, resemble Tertiary
and modern forms of the genus. The types identified as Castalia resemble
the pollen of the tropical species of this genus.
The presence of pollen of dicotyledons in these rocks is of special interest
as being amongst the earliest fossil records of Angiosperms.
426 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
SECTION D.—ZOOLOGY.
Thursday, August 18.
PRESIDENTIAL ADpRESS by Dr. S. W. Kemp, F.R.S., on Oceanography and
the fluctuations in the abundance of marine animals (10.0). (See p. 85.)
Mr. C. F. Hicktinc.—Applications of our knowledge of the biology of
British food fishes (11.0).
The paper first describes the principles of the two most important types
of fishing gear—namely, the drift net and the trawl, and points out the
limitations of these gears when their results are used as samples of the
populations of fish in the sea. But bearing these limitations in mind,
the results of the fishing operations of the commercial fishing fleets may be
used to keep a watch upon the state of the fish stocks available for capture.
Moreover, these results, when interpreted in the light of the biology of the
fish, may be used to predict the future course of the fisheries. ‘These
points are illustrated by reference to the herring, haddock, cod, and hake.
Mr. M. GranaM.—The rational exploitation of the fisheries (11.40).
Statistics of trawl fisheries, such as those of haddock and plaice at Iceland,
tend to show eventually that the response to increased fishing effort is, if
anything, a decreased yield. :
This phenomenon can be easily explained in terms of age-composition
and growth-rate of stocks, which in many cases are available from investi-
gations.
The whole theory may be expressed by the ‘ logistic’ curve and its first
derivative, which can be derived from the two assumptions (1) that the
weight of stock that an area can support is limited, (2) that the rate of natural
increase of a stock—reproduction plus growth minus natural mortality—is
proportional to the difference of weight of the stock at a given moment and
the limiting weight that the area will support. ‘This theory has been
applied to the marketable species of the North Sea, taken together, in order
to estimate the present waste of fishing effort and the maximum yield.
Important implications are that unless the rate of fishing, including the
mesh and form of nets and power of vessels, be controlled, the profit of
undertakings is kept at a low value. Without control, gambler’s optimism
in this industry tends to keep the rate of fishing as high as possible and the
profit consequently at an extremely low level. Conversely, however, there
is a possibility of a large profit in concerted action to avoid the expenditure
entailed in keeping the rate of fishing high.
A start has been made, in that most of the European countries concerned
have signed a convention agreeing to use the minimum mesh allowed in
Great Britain. ‘The investigations which show the efficacy of this provision
are briefly described.
Dr. J. B. Tair.—Significance of the physico-chemical environment in
fisheries research (12.15).
, AFTERNOON.
Prof. 'T. W. M. CamMeron.—Some fish-carried Trematodes in Canada (2.15). -
The great number of fresh-water lakes in Canada, its varied fish fauna
and its variety of fish-eating mammals and birds, have made possible a large
SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—D. 427
variety of fish-carried parasites. Of these, the most varied are the Trema-
toda, of which three species are discussed in this paper. Apophallus venustus
(Heterophyidz) is a minute intestinal trematode parasitising numerous birds
and mammals (including man). It is found in the lower valley of the
river Ottawa, where its first host is the pulmonate snail, Goniobasis livescens,
and its second hosts are numerous species of fresh-water fish. Cryptocotyle
lingua (Heterophyidz), a sécond intestinal form, is confined to the eastern
seaboard from the Labrador to the United States and has almost certainly
been introduced from Europe. Its first host is Littorina littorea, and its
second, various species of salt-water fish ; the adults occur in both birds
and mammals and are serious parasites of foxes. Parametorchis nove-
boracensis (Opisthorchidz) occurs from northern Quebec to Saskatchewan
and is a serious liver-fluke of various mammals (including sledge dogs and
man). Its first host appears to be a species of snail of the genus Amnicola ;
its second is the fish called the Sucker, Catestomus commersoni.
Mr. Homer A. Jack.—The zoological field stations of the United States
(2.45).
A zoological field station is an institution of approximate unitersity
ranking which offers facilities for primarily field instruction and/or research
in one or more of the zoological sciences, and is a separate administrative
unit located in the field. The first zoological field station in the United
States was the Anderson School of Natural History, founded in 1873 by
Louis Agassiz. To-day there are almost sixty stations in the United States.
These vary considerably in ecological location, administration, equipment,
living conditions, type of students, investigators, and professors, and in
available opportunities for instruction and research.
This study was conducted to record and analyse material on field stations
to aid: (1) prospective and actual students and investigators in the bio-
logical sciences to select intelligently the stations most adapted to their
needs; and (2) directors of stations in showing them how their fellow
administrators are solving the problems attendant to the efficient organisa-
tion and conduct of a field station. A plan is given for the interchange of
students, investigators, and professors between field stations in the United
States and other countries. This could not only enrich the zoological
sciences, but also strengthen international understanding.
Miss G. E. PickForD.—The Vampyromorpha—a new order of Dibranchiate
Cephalopods (3.15).
Since their discovery by Chun the Vampyroteuthide have been regarded
as aberrant if rather primitive Octopoda. Recognised as Octopodan
characters were the eight conspicuous arms united by a deep web and the
apparently normal union of head with mantle. Outstanding as primitive
characters were the fins, the arrangement of suckers and cirri on the arms
and the lack of condensation of the central nervous system. Specialised
features, such as black pigmentation, phosphorescent organs and peculiar
tentacles lodged in pockets of the web, could be regarded as adaptations
to a bathypelagic life. Robson first recognised the Vampyromorpha as a
sub-order distinct from other cirrate armed Octopoda.
Two well-preserved, but unfortunately immature, female specimens in
the Bingham Oceanographic Collection of Yale University have provided
material for a detailed anatomical study. It is possible now to state definitely
that they exhibit no positive characters which would justify retention as a
sub-order of the Octopoda. Although similar to that of Octopoda, the
428 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
separate origin of the genital artery and the orientation of the heart must
be regarded as characters ancestral to Octopods and Decapods alike. The
spacious ccelom, gill structure, funnel valves, and other characters which
apparently relate the Vampyromorphs to living Decapods are also ancestral
rather than definitively Decapodan in nature. The retractile filaments
undoubtedly represent modified arms, but since it is the second rather than
the fourth arm pair which is thus modified one cannot postulate relations
with living Decapods. The structure of the shell with its broad pro-ostracum
resembles that of Liassic teuthoideans and the direct articulation of the fin
bases upon the shell is a primitive feature postulated by Naef but not found
in any adult living form.
It is evident that the Vampyromorpha represent a distinct and ancient
type of dibranchiate Cephalopod. ‘They should be treated as a group of
equivalent rank with Octopods and Decapods.
Mrs. M. D. BrInDLEY.—The succession of Hemiptera-Heteroptera in the
afforested areas of Breckland (3.45).
Breckland is the name given to a well-defined area in the western parts
of Norfolk and Suffolk. It is characterised by tracts of sandy heath with
a distinctive vegetation which is conditioned primarily by the soil and the
relatively dry climate. During the last sixteen years, about 50,000 acres
of this land have been afforested with conifers, and the planting has greatly
modified the flora and fauna. This communication, after a short general
description of the region, deals with the change as it has affected the insect
group Heteroptera in a selected area over a period of seven years, covering
the transition from a heath to a conifer-dwelling type of population.
At present three elements can be distinguished in the Heteroptera fauna,
viz. (i) widely distributed, usually polyphagous forms, (ii) species peculiar
to heathlands, and (iii) forms whose host-plants are conifers. By gradual
infiltration, as the trees grow up, the third group becomes dominant. The
adjustment of the different species to the changing environment, and the
influence of the age and size of the plantations on distribution are discussed.
Prof. J. STANLEY GARDINER, F.R.S.—Wicken Fen (4.15).
EXHIBITION illustrating the Genetics and chemistry of plant and animal
pigments.
One of the characters of plants and animals most frequently used in
genetical investigations is colour. Until recently separation of colour types
has depended solely on visual comparisons, which may sometimes be mis-
leading and are always inadequate since they represent only a first analysis.
Further understanding of the developmental processes involved requires an
analysis of the chemical nature and physical state of the pigments responsible.
This has become possible in some cases.
The exhibit was designed to illustrate various phases in the development
of this aspect of physiological genetics from purely descriptive genetics.
The analysis has gone farthest in the case of flower pigments, especially
the anthocyanins and anthoxanthins. With these gene action can be ex-
amined, for the first time, in its fundamental sense, namely as governing
simple chemical changes, such as oxidation, reduction, methylation or.
glycoside formation. In other cases, as in Drosophila, the budgerigar and
the clover chlorophyll deficients, we know something about which pigments
are affected but nothing of the nature of the changes.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 429
Mr. W. J. C. Lawrence and Mr. J. R. Price.—Flower pigments.
THe CHEMICAL BASIS OF FLOWER COLOUR.
The substances responsible for flower colour may be divided into two
classes, sap-soluble and non-sap-soluble. The sap-soluble pigments
comprise the anthocyanins, anthoxanthins and certain nitrogenous
substances.
The Anthocyanins are the most important flower colouring matters, and
are responsible for scarlet, red and blue colours. They occur as glycosides,
that is, they are compound molecules formed by the union of the true
colouring matter with one or more molecules of a sugar.
The colour-producing part of the anthocyanin molecule, known as the
anthocyanidin, may be derived from one of three main structures—pelar-
gonidin, cyanidin and delphinidin—which differ only in the number of
hydroxyl groups (—OH) in the phenyl ring :
Cl.
/OH aan OH
=O) 5 sHO!= -OH
‘OH
-OH
oH
Pelargonidin Cyanidin Delphinidin
As the formule show, cyanidin has one and delphinidin two more oxygen
atoms in the molecule than pelargonidin. These differences represent
one of the principal factors upon which variation in flower colour depends,
since an increase in the number of oxygen atoms (in the form of hydroxyl
groups) results in a marked increase in blueness of tone. This is illustrated
in the first part of the exhibit.
As mentioned above, the anthocyanins occur as compounds involving one
ormore moleculesofasugar. Of these sugar molecules one is always attached
at the 3 position ; if there is a second sugar molecule it may be attached
either directly to the first one or it may unite with the anthocyanidin in
a different position, at 5. Hence there are two classes of glycosides:
(a) those with one or two sugar molecules attached at position 3, and
(b) those with sugar molecules at both 3 and 5. ‘These two classes are
visibly different in colour and constitute another important factor in flower
colour variation, the 3 : 5-diglycosides being bluer than the corresponding
3-type.
A third variable involving structural difference in the anthocyanins is
the existence or otherwise of methylated hydroxyl groups, where the
hydrogen atom of a hydroxyl group has been replaced by a methyl (CH;)
radicle. This results in an increase in redness. As arule the only hydroxyl
groups methylated are those at positions 3’ and 5’; that at 4’ is never
methylated. Thus there is one methyl ether of cyanidin and there are two
of delphinidin (3’-mono- and 3’ : 5’-di-).
So far three factors influencing the colour of anthocyanins have been
dealt with, namely :
(a) The number of hydroxyl groups in the molecule.
(b) The position of attachment of the sugar molecules.
(c) The methylation of hydroxyl groups.
Combinations of these three give rise to twelve anthocyanins, differing
slightly in colour and covering a wide range from scarlet to purple.
430 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
These factors are all dependent upon structural changes in the antho-
cyanin molecule, that is, the differences are internal. However, conditions
external to the molecule may also affect the colour of the anthocyanins.
The most important of these is a phenomenon known as copigmentation,
which will be referred to in connection with the anthoxanthins. Secondly,
modification of the flower colour can be brought about by variation in the
pH of the cell sap, the colour becoming bluer as the pu is increased.
The Anthoxanthins—The substances included under this heading are
closely related chemically to the anthocyanins, but differ in colour, ranging
from pale ivory to deep yellow. Like the anthocyanins, they are sap soluble
and usually occur as glycosides. Structural variation is greater than in the
case of the anthocyanidins, but the majority are analogous and fall into two
classes, the flavones and flavonols, which differ in that the flavones have no
hydroxyl group at position 3.
/OH
HO- -OH HO- -OH
-OH
1 “ ' “
, | OHO OH O
Apigenin - a flavone. Quercetin - a flavonol.
Increase in the number of hydroxyl groups present in an anthocyanidin
molecule results in increased blueness. A similar effect is manifest in the
flavones and flavonols, which become more yellow.
There are four ways in which the anthoxanthins are concerned in flower
colour :
(a) In flowers which have no anthocyanin they may be directly responsible
for some or all of the colour.
(b) If a yellow anthoxanthin occurs together with an anthocyanin, the
resultant colour is a blend of the two.
(c) In the presence of anthocyanins, ivory anthoxanthins, as would be
expected, do not contribute directly to the colour ; nevertheless they may
be of great importance on account of their ‘ copigmenting ’ action. When
present in the same solution as an anthocyanin they combine loosely, in
some way as yet unknown, with the anthocyanin, to give a much bluer
colour. The effect is very marked, and flowers with a copigmented cyanidin
derivative may appear bluer than those containing an uncopigmented
delphinidin glycoside. It is probably not an exaggeration to say that
upwards of 70% of garden flowers are copigmented, to some. extent
at least. The degree of copigmentation varies with the nature of. the
anthocyanin, delphinidin being most readily copigmented and pelargonidin
derivatives least. It also varies with the nature of the flavone or flavonol.
There is no exact information on this point, but observations show tha
yellow anthoxanthins do not generally behave as copigments. _ ;
(d) It has been’ pointed out that there is a close relationship between
anthocyanins and anthoxanthins, as is shown by inspection of their respec-
tive formule. Therefore their syntheses in the plant might be expected
to follow similar lines. Evidence in favour of this suggests that the
anthocyanins and anthoxanthins are formed from the same starting material,
which may be limited in quantity. This results in competition between
the two, and if most of the source is utilised in the synthesis of one pigment,
then of necessity less of the other is produced. For example, the presence
of much anthoxanthin may lead to almost complete suppression of antho-
cyanin, resulting in delicately flushed flowers.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 431
Plastid Pigments—The plastid colouring matters comprise a number of
yellow or orange substances such as xanthophyll or carotin, which are
insoluble in the cell sap and are quite independent of the sap-soluble
colouring matters. In the absence of anthocyanins they are either solely
responsible for flower colour, or are supplementary to the yellow
anthoxanthins. In the presence of anthocyanins their effect is purely
that of a background ; thus in the tulip the introduction of yellow plastid
pigment changes the colour from pink, crimson or purple to orange, scarlet
or brown respectively.
The first part of the exhibit includes examples of the various types of
pigments and shows the effect on anthocyanin colour of variation in the
number of hydroxyl groups, glycosidal type, methylation of hydroxyl
groups and copigmentation. Mixture and background effects of antho-
cyanins with anthoxanthins and plastids are also shown. In addition there
are three of the rarer flower colouring matters. Gesnerin from Gesnera
species is unusual in that it has no hydroxyl group in the 3 position. Celosia
and Iresine contain nitrogenous pigments similar to that found in beetroot.
Flowers of Papaver nudicaule also contain a introgenous colouring matter,
but of a different type.
THE GENETICS OF FLOWER COLOUR.
Flower colour variation has been studied genetically for many years,
but until recently, as pointed out earlier, the only possible criterion of
colour types was the visual one. The result was a chaotic mass of informa-
tion about the inheritance of flower colour, which was only disentangled
when the means by which variation is brought about were recognised.
The position now is that nearly all of the factors listed in the table are known
to be controlled by single genes.
TABLE.
Variation in flower colour is brought about by one or more of the
following factors. Changes are shown in one direction only ; the reverse
may be inferred.
i. Increase in number of hydroxyl groups | Increased blueness.
il tas ii. Alteration from 3- to 3 : 5- sugar types 5 ee.
og eee °
S-3 iii. Methylation of one or more hydroxy] |
g 3 groups é ; ’ : “| bs redness.
3) iv. Increase in pH f d 3 a 5 blueness.
v. Copigmentation ; : : Sol : is
Increased yellowness.
Alteration of back-
vi. Increase in number of hydroxyl groups
viii.
Interaction of anthocyanins and antho-
xanthins ; ' F
re) & ground.
ee = Change in copigment
b:| g effect.
a vii.
Partial suppression of
one or both types.
Alteration in nature of plastid pigment
Yellow becomes
orange.
Alteration of back-
ground.
432 SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—D.
In addition there are genes which govern the presence or absence of antho-
cyanins, anthoxanthins or plastid pigments, and genes which produce a
general or local intensification or dilution of colour.
The biochemical value of this work lies in the fact that single genes have
been shown to control simple chemical reactions, such as oxidation resulting
in the introduction of a hydroxyl group, and glucoside formation. In sweet
peas two whites crossed together may give coloured progeny, each parent
introducing a different gene necessary for anthocyanin formation. Similarly
in maize, thirteen dominant genes are necessary for the production of
chlorophyll. It seems then that each stage in the synthesis of any plant
product is governed by a single gene, and the geneticist is therefore able to
separate the metabolic processes into their different stages. ‘This should
make it possible for the biochemist to find out what the reactions are and
how genes bring them about.
The second part of the exhibit is designed to show that the differences in
flower colour are controlled by single genes which conform to the Mendelian
laws of inheritance. Examples are given of the inheritance of alternative
pairs of gene-controlled characters :
(a) Anthocyanin—no anthocyanin.
3:1 ratio |(6) Anthoxanthin copigment—no copigment.
in F, |(c) Delphinidin (oxidation)—cyanidin (no oxidation).
(d) Higher pH—lower pu.
I :1 ratio.
idee (e) Diglycoside—monoglycoside.
cross
These five show complete dominance of the first character, that is, the
heterozygote is indistinguishable from the homozygous dominant—one
gene is doing the work of two. Incomplete dominance is shown in the cross
red X white Antirrhinum; the first generation is intermediate (pink),
and in the second generation a ratio 1 red : 2 pinks : 1 white is obtained.
The red and white breed true, but the pinks always throw red, pink and
white.
In the cross purple x scarlet Verbena independent segregation of two
pairs of characters is shown, with recombination in the second generation
resulting in the production of two new colour types. For example, pelar-
gonidin 3: 5-diglycoside is produced by bringing together the gene for
diglycoside carried by one plant with that for pelargonidin from the other
parent. :
In a similar manner it is possible to obtain an anthocyanin different from
that of either of the parents. The salmon Streptocarpus carries a gene for
methylation, but this gene has no effect when the anthocyanin is derived
from pelargonidin. On crossing with a variety containing cyanidin from
which the methylation gene is absent, the flowers of the progeny contain
a methylated cyanidin derivative.
The segregation of three pairs of factors is shown in the second generation
from the cross blue <x salmon Streptocarpus. Of the three genes involved
M produces malvidin.
P produces peonidin.
I produces copigmented flavone.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 433
The combinations are as follows :
27 MPI
364 9 Mpl
12!
(
| copigmented malvidin glycoside (bluish mauve).
Mpi j uncopigmented 3 im (reddish ,, ).
mPi uncopigmented ,, fs (reddish ,, ).
mpI copigmented pelargonidin glycoside (salmon pink).
9
3
9 mPI copigmented peonidin glycoside (bluish rose).
3
JP. :
I mpi uncopigmented a . (salmon).
Capt. R. D. Witt1ams.—Chilorophyll deficiencies and flower colour
in Red Clover (Trifolium pratense).
The plant is a diploid and is normally cross-fertilised ; inbreeding has
disclosed numerous recessives determining chlorophyll production and
flower colour. Nearly half the chlorophyll deficients are lethal in the early
seedling stages. Some of the viable mutants are exhibited. The light
green types (gb, 2c, 2d, Zi, gh) show a slightly lighter green colour than the
normal. Others (gi) are paler, while some (ga, ge) are yellow-green in
colour. The colour difference may be shown throughout the life of the
plant or, as in gx, the plant may become progressively greener with age.
In other cases, the gene determines a variegated (va, Vb), flecked (vc) or
speckled (va) light and dark green mosaic in the leaf.
The normal purplish red flower colour is determined by at least twelve
dominant complementary factors. Seven of the recessive types are shown,
viz. pure white (c), white (cy), very faint pink (ca), pale pink (ci), pink (cp),
pale mauve (ci), slaty blue (cp).
Miss U. Puitip.—Colours in Drosophila.
The normal or wild type eye-colour of Drosophila melanogaster is a bright
cherry red. Chemical investigation has shown it to be a combination of
three water-soluble pigments: a red one which is irreversibly turned into
a brown one, and a yellow one which becomes red by oxidation, a process
which is reversible. These pigments are deposited during two distinct
phases of the pupal stage in pigment cells surrounding the ommatidia
proper.
About fifty different recessive eye-colour characters are known. These
can be classed according to the way in which they affect the normal com-
position of the eye-colour. (1) The pigment granules may be present in
proportions similar to those in the wild type but fewer in number, as in the
series of eye-colours at the sex-linked locus of ‘ white.’ Of the continuous
range of types five are selected, namely ‘coral,’ which is not markedly
different from normal, only the transparency being affected ; ‘ apricot,’
‘eosin’ and ‘tinged,’ which are intermediates ; and finally ‘ white,’ in
which no pigment is deposited. (2) In eye-colours of the ‘ vermilion ’
type less brown pigment is present than in the wild type eye. By the
transplantation technique it has been established that several different
genes represent changes at different stages in eye-colour development.
(3) In the mutant ‘ brown ’ the red component is missing altogether, giving
the aberrant eye a darker and more dilute appearance. In the combination
‘scarlet-brown’ no pigment at all is formed, ‘ scarlet’ cutting out the brown
component and ‘ brown’ the red one. (4) Without affecting the density
of the pigmentation the red may be changed to a dark ‘sepia’ colour,
434 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
possibly by oxidation. (5) By dilution and different rate of pigment
deposition the bluer ‘ purple ’ eye-colours are obtained.
It is interesting to note that the eye-colours of other Drosophila species,
though the wild type may be different and may possibly correspond to a
mutant of D. melanogaster, show a similar range of variation. This point
is illustrated by genotypes obtained from inbreeding wild populations of
D. subobscura.
The wild type body colour of D. melanogaster is yellow with black stripes
on the abdomen and a certain amount of black pigment on the thorax and
bristles. In ‘ yellow’ the black pigment is reduced in amount, the stripes
on the abdomen are light brown, there is no diffuse black pigment on the
thorax, and the bristles are light. In ‘ black’ and ‘ ebony ’ the yellow colour
is covered by black. In the combination ‘ yellow-black’ the animal has
a yellow ground colour with a dusting of black.
Several forms of dilution have been found in the nearly completely black
D. subobscura. As a yellow mutant has been found, it is clear that this
species is capable of forming a yellow pigment, which is hidden under the
strong concentration of black colouring matter.
Dr. J. N. Pickarp.—Rabbit coat-colours.
The demonstration of rabbit pelts has been arranged to show how a know-
ledge of genetics can be used for practical purposes in animal husbandry.
In the centre of the top row of pelts is an ‘ agouti’ or wild rabbit fur, which
is the original colour. To the left and right of this are pelts showing colour
mutations. Combinations have been made between these mutations and
as a result the pelts of the lower row have been produced. For example,
it is expected that on crossing a ‘ black and tan’ rabbit (atB C) to a ‘ chin-
chilla ’’ (A B c‘4) and inbreeding the offspring, that one ‘ silver fox ’ (atB c°h)
would be produced amongst every sixteen youngsters bred. It, mated to
its like, would breed only ‘ silver foxes.’
There have been produced varieties of rabbits whose pelts when made up
closely resemble almost all of the rarer fur-bearing animals. ‘The demon-
stration shows, by means of coloured ribbons, the crosses which can be
made in a number of such cases, although, for lack of space, the shortest
method of producing a new variety is not shown in all instances. In addi-
tion to the normal coated pelts, ‘ Rexes ’ with plush-like furs, and ‘ Angoras ’
with coats measuring up to ten inches or more in length, can be ‘ made’
in any colour.
Mr. M. S. Pease.— Yellow fat in Rabbits.
The colour in rabbits with yellow fat is due to xanthophyll absorbed from
the green food. Rabbits with white fat have in their livers an enzyme which
breaks down the xanthophyll. The presence of this enzyme is determined
by a dominant gene; in its absence the enzyme is not formed and xanthophyll
is deposited in the fat.
Prof. R. C. PuNNeTT, F.R.S.—Colour in Budgerigars.
The principle colour varieties depend upon genes affecting amount of
melanin, production of a lipochrome and alteration of feather structure.
Of the three allelomorphs affecting melanin production, Rr produces the
normal intensity, Rg the reduced amount shown in ‘ grey-wing’ types;
and Rp the‘ pallid’ forms. The dominant L produces a yellow lipochrome ;
interaction with the R series gives various shades of green. When the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—D. 435
lipochrome is absent, as in | birds, there is a series of blue forms. The
various tones of green and blue depend upon S and s._ In birds with S the
feathers are modified in structure so that blue is less vividly reflected.
Heterozygotes are intermediate, being olive in the green series (L), and
cobalt in the blue series (1).
Prof. R. R. Gates, F.R.S.— Colour inheritance in Man.
(1) Eye-colour——Simplex blue eyes are due to the absence of brown
(melanin) pigment from the anterior surface of the iris, the blue appearance
resulting from the posterior purple pigment of the choroid being reflected
through the muscle fibres in the iris. In European populations and in
crosses with American Indians, Eskimos and other races blue is a simple
recessive to brown, with certain complications not fully understood (see
Gates, Heredity in Man). Dominantly inherited blue eyes have recently
been observed in natives of Ceylon believed to be of pure Singhalese
descent. It may be noted that the intense ‘ black ’ eyes of American Indians
and of most Singhalese as well as various other races is probably due to an
intensifying factor. Some Singhalese have pale brown eyes. The yellowish
sclerotic coat of the eye in negroes is due to dilute melanin pigment.
(2) Hair Colour—aA recent statistical study of the post-natal develop-
ment of hair and eye colour in 2,670 schoolboys of Sheffield (MacConaill
and Ralphs, Ann. Eugenics, 7, 218-225, 1936) classifies those with blond
hair and blue eyes as leucochromes. This type falls steadily in numbers
from five years of age to a steady ratio of 17 per 1,000 at puberty. The
leucochrome is regarded as a Mendelian recessive, the other types of pig-
mentation, allochromes (i.e. dark hair and/or eyes) showing delayed domin-
ance. This is true of European peoples in general ; but in more pigmented
races the babies have intense ‘ black’ eyes and hair from a very early age.
Blue eyes and blond hair probably arose through mutations from dark hair
and eyes. Red hair is due to a lipochrome pigment independently inherited.
(3) Skin colour—In a study of skin pigmentation in parents and offspring,
the Davenports (Amer. Nat. 44, 641 and 705, 1910) found that in Caucasian
families blond x blond have only blond children and two albino parents
only albino children. Brunet is epistatic to blond, and some intermediates
at least are heterozygous. From negro < white crosses, Davenport
(Carnegie Inst. Wash. Publ. No. 188, 1913) concluded that two factors for
skin colour were present in the negro. In Ojibway Indian x white crosses
Gates concluded that two or more factors for skin colour are present,
one of which also affects eye-colour or is closely linked to a factor for
eye-colour,
Friday, August 19.
Joint Discussion with Section K (Botany), on The mechanism of evolution
(10.0).
Chairman: Prof. D. M. S. Watson, F.R.S.
Dr. J. S. Huxtey, F.R.S.—Character gradients (10.0).
It has been found that many characters of organisms vary in a graded
way, apparently always in direct or indirect correlation with variations in
the external environment. Cline has been suggested as a technical term for
436 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
such regularities, to be employed as a subsidiary (not alternative) method
in taxonomy to that of naming areal groups. This latter method, applied
alone, attaches undue importance to named as against unnamed groups,
and suggests an unreal uniformity within named groups. The best known
cases of clines apply to warm-blooded animals and have been subsumed
under the so-called rules of Gloger, Allen, etc. ‘These rules apply only to
the means of subspecies or allied species ; but regularities within named areal
groups may also occur. ‘Thus clines may be inter- or intra-group. Clines
for different characters may run in different directions (shrikes, American
sparrows) or in different ways in the same direction (bees). In many cases
clines concern physiologically important properties such as temperature-
resistance (Drosophila), ecological preference (Plantago), reproductive
adaptations (Lymantria), etc. When intra-group clines occur, these may
be gradual, but joined by steep ‘ genoclines ’ where two subspecies meet.
It is probable that research will show many more examples of clines, even
in apparently uniform populations, though small isolated populations tend
to develop ‘ accidental ’ (non-adaptive) characters unrelated to any character-
gradient (see Sewall Wright for the theoretical basis of this well-known fact).
If so, we may envisage small-scale evolution as operating in some such
way as this:
(1) Selection adapts the characters of large populations locally to the
environmental conditions, thus producing clines. The slope of the
cline will depend on the intensity of selection, the degree of variance
available, and the freedom of gene-spread due to interbreeding.
The clines may be geographical over wide areas, or ecological over
small distances.
Barriers due to isolation, geographical or ecological (or in some cases
genetic), may interrupt the uniform clines. If the barriers are com-
plete, the slope of the new intra-group clines will be much reduced
due to interruption of gene-flow, though the clines will remain in
inter-group form. If the barriers are incomplete (contiguous sub-
species) the slope of the intra-group clines will be less reduced, and
they will be connected by steep genoclines.
In addition, the clines will be partially obscured by the fixation of
“ accidental ’ characters.
(3) Subsequent migration may still further obscure the original regu-
larities.
—
(2
Extremely interesting comparative studies could be made of the slope of
clines (inter- and intra-group) for the same character in related species.
Prof. R. A. FisHER, F.R.S.—Selective intensities in nature (10.25).
Polymorphic species provide an exceptional opportunity for estimating
the intensity of selective agencies in nature. Some results are presented,
based on the collections of grouse locusts organised by Dr. R. K. Nabours
and his associates.
Prof. A. E. TRUEMAN.—Orthogenests (11.50),
The term orthogenesis, proposed by Eimer in 1895, has been variously
used by later workers. To some it has implied no more than evolution
by definite and successive variations in a given direction, as contrasted with ©
indefinite variation; but many workers have used the term with some
implication of causation, the direction of evolution being supposed to be
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 437
dependent upon some internal factor, or at least to be independent of the
environment.
While some biologists have lately put forward evidence of orthogenetic
evolution, orthogenesis has received most sympathetic attention from some
palzontologists. It must be stressed, however, that while palzontologists
occasionally secure reasonably good evidence of lines of evolution, their
material is usually too incomplete to afford a basis for useful speculation
concerning the causes of evolution. The term ‘ orthogenesis’ is thus more
suitably used to indicate the nature of the phenomena observed than as
an explanation of the mechanism.
Owing partly to the ‘ mystical’ nature of the supposed internal factors
involved in some interpretations of orthogenesis, other terms have been
suggested by palzontologists for similar phenomena. Kitchin wrote of
‘ programme evolution’ while W. D. Lang formulated the ‘ Doctrine of
Definite Trends’: it is noteworthy that more recently the term ‘ trend ’
has been used with a similar meaning (apparently independently) by M. M.
Metcalfe in his work on Infusoria.
The following conclusions have been reached by paleontologists dealing
with many different groups :
(a) In many groups there appears to be definite variation confined to a
comparatively small number of trends.
(6) Similar forms (homceomorphs) are frequently produced in different
lines by ‘ parallel evolution.’ These are not always contemporaneous
and in many cases the changes have been thought to be unrelated to
any environmental conditions (e.g. certain Brachiopods and Am-
monites) ; in other cases the changes were probably adaptive (e.g.
the frequently developed ‘ oxycone ’ Ammonites).
(c) Similar stages in ‘ unit characters’ may be recognised in different
stocks when the whole skeleton is not homceomorphic.
(d) In some cases, especially in their later stages, the changes are clearly
out of harmony with the environment (e.g. Gryphea, some Cretaceous
Bryozoa) and may lead to extinction.
Mr. J. Z. Younc.—The evolution’ of the relationship of organisation
and environment (11.15).
Capt. C. Diver—Polymorphism (11.40).
Polymorphism is a well-marked expression of variability, but the term
polymorphic is often restricted to those cases in which several distinct
phases occur together within the same population. This restriction lays
some stress on discontinuity and suggests a dividing line which is neither
sound in theory nor easily drawn in practice. The variability of an organism
must be strictly confined within those limits of biochemical and structural
possibility which will still allow the organism to function as a co-ordinated
whole ; and species appear to vary in the amount of this potential variability
they express at any time. It is necessary first to determine the nature of
the factors which provoke and control any particular polymorphic display,
before it is possible to estimate its evolutionary significance.
The problem can be illustrated by numerous examples, but attention is
particularly directed to three cases :—Limneea peregra, a very plastic species
but not markedly polymorphic in the restricted sense; Helix (Cepea),
a species showing pronounced polymorphism ; and Plantago maritima, a
oe which displays polymorphism together with considerable ecological
plasticity.
438 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
Dr. P. D. F. Murray.—Consequential evolution (12.5).
The term ‘ Consequential Evolution ’ is used when some change occurs
as a necessary result of some environmental or genotypic change and is
exerted via a developmental process which is itself unaltered. ‘The con-
ception is discussed in the light of such instances as the effect of size
changes on proportions of parts (allometric growth in Titanotheres, horses,
etc.), the effects of variation in genes controlling the rates of biological
processes, and of alterations in gradient systems on developing patterns.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (12.20).
AFTERNOON.
Joint Discussion (with Section K) on Mechanism of evolution (continued)
(2.15).
Chairman : Prof. E. J. Satissury, F.R.S.
General theme of the papers.—Isolation and speciation.
Dr. E. B. WorTHINGTON.—Geographical isolation with special refer-
ence to fresh waters (2.15).
Evolution is controlled in part by external factors, and these can be
studied best where isolation, such as that afforded by islands or freshwaters,
limits the environment. In freshwaters the mixture of fauna and flora
is prevented by (a) physical barriers, such as watersheds and waterfalls,
(b) ecological barriers. The evolution of a habitat (e.g. a lake silting up or
undergoing chemical change) involves changes in fauna and flora. In a wet
climate such as England this is usually effected by the loss of some species
and the addition of others from outside, but in a dry climate where isolation
is more complete (e.g. parts of Africa) organic evolution may keep pace with
the evolution of habitats. This is demonstrated best in the tropics where
generations are passed through more quickly, and evolution is therefore
more rapid. In the presence of predators the intermediate stages in species
formation (when the organisms do not fit their environment) rarely survive ;
hence evolution is most rapid and most obvious where predators are rela-
tively unimportant. These principles are illustrated from British and
African waters.
Dr. W. B. TurriLL.—Ecological isolation (2.35).
The difficulty of limiting the phrase ‘ ecological isolation’ is discussed
and it is pointed out that ecological isolation is often exactly associated with
geographical and other kinds of isolation. The evolutionary and taxo-
nomic significance of this association is considered. Examples of isolation
caused by the action of climatic, edaphic, and biotic factors respectively are
given. ‘The importance of the complicated interaction of ecological factors
with one another is emphasised and it is shown that ‘habit’ is a plant
character (or group of characters) frequently sifted out by natural selection.
The taxonomic categories are primarily matters of scientific convenience
and the criteria used to delimit them need only be kept constant for any one
purpose. The species category is the most important for many purposes
and speciation is a concern of the taxonomist. Examples of speciation
correlated with ecological isolation (and sometimes probably initiated by
—_—yclU Sl ee
a
i>
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 439
it) are given, especially from the flora of the Balkan Peninsula. It is con-
cluded that ecological isolation is (and especially has been) one of the factors
involved in speciation in the wild, but that it is often broken down by man’s
interference. ‘The importance of the study of wild floras and faunas, from
all standpoints, thus becomes evident, if the processes not only of speciation
but of evolution in general are to be understood.
Dr. W. H. THorre.—Physiological isolation (2.55).
Dr. C. D. DarLincTon.—Genetic isolation (3.15).
John Ray described a species as a group breeding true within its own
limits. Modern genetics show that this is a definition valid in theory and
practice. It means that the origin of two species from one must depend on
a barrier which effectively prevents inter-breeding in nature. We now
know that such barrriers are broadly of two kinds, external and internal.
The internal barriers act physiologically or mechanically but are determined
genetically. Genetic isolation may act in plants by the pollen growing
more quickly on styles having certain similar genes than on styles having
those genes in a mutant form. It may act in an analogous way in animals
through the mating instincts or capabilities. The building up of such
differential systems cannot be achieved in one step by a gene mutation. In
nature it seems that its origin usually depends on the action of a group of
genes. Such a group can be held together only when associated with a
sudden change in the arrangement of genes. Changes in arrangement alone
can produce genetic isolation, without the differential action of genes, by
causing sterility of the hybrid. Since genetic isolation will frequently give
rise to geographical or ecological isolation in nature and they will regularly
give rise to genetic isolation, the order of events cannot always be inferred.
But where genetic isolation alone is concerned, the several steps establishing
it have been disentangled in particular instances by gene and chromosome
analysis, and placed in the chronological order indispensable to their evolu-
tionary development.
Dr. D. G. CatTcHEsIDE.—Chromosomal isolation (335).
Chromosomal isolation may operate by preventing the formation of a
hybrid or, more usually, by preventing in a hybrid the normal exchange of
genetic material between parts of chromosomes, whole chromosomes or sets
of chromosomes. ‘The former,frequently occurs in flowering plants where-
ever there is an upset in the normal one-to-two relation between the chromo-
some numbers of pollen and of style or an upset in the two-to-three relation
between embryo and endosperm. The latter method operates at meiosis
wherever there is a numerical or a structural difference, such as an in-
version or an interchange, between the chromosomes of the gametes pro-
ducing the individual. There is a reduction in fertility, which is particularly
at the expense of cross-over gametes in structural hybrids. Simple examples
illustrating these principles are described.
DISCUSSION (3.55). Opened by Dr. S. C. HARLAND.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to Wicken Fen and the Breck country.
440 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D.
Monday, August 22.
SYMPOSIUM on Sense perception and the evolution of colour and pattern
(10.0).
Dr. J. S. Huxtey, F.R.S.—The bearing of allesthetic characters on our
knowledge of sense perception in animals.
Allzsthetic characters are those adapted for exerting an effect via the
(distance) receptors of another organism of the same or different species.
Criteria of various degrees of validity can be established for the allzsthetic
nature of characters. The nature of allesthetic characters permits deduc-
tions as to the type of sense perception to be found in the organisms affected,
e.g. the commonness of bright colours in birds and entomophilous flowers
and their rarity in sub-primate mammals points to the existence of colour
vision in birds and insects, its absence in the mammals—a conclusion later
confirmed by experimental evidence. Similarly bird-pollinated flowers
tend to be of a different colour from insect-pollinated forms, owing to the
difference in the reception of red and ultra-violet in the two groups.
Visual allzsthetic characters are of various functional types. The first
division is into cryptic and sematic. Sematic characters fall into various
groups—warning, threat, recognitional, deflective, and display. Each has
its own features of pattern, etc. Consideration of the various types allows
us to draw interesting conclusions as to the receptor and perceptor faculties
of the organisms at which they are directed.
A marked general similarity of visual perception in different groups of
animals is indicated, with some limited but striking exceptions.
Dr. H. B. Corr.—Adaptive appearance and interspecific relationships
(10.30).
In the interrelationships between animals of the same, or of different
species, external appearance plays a considerable part. Broadly speaking,
the various phenomena of adaptive coloration fall into three main classes,
according to the visible results achieved—namely, concealment, advertise-
ment, and disguise; and their respective functions, in the interspecific
relationships of animals, are to elude, to attract, or to deceive the eyes of
potential enemies or prospective prey. These visual effects are related to
the two primary needs of the individual—food and safety : in other words,
they are correlated with offence and defence—they facilitate the capture of
prey, or escape from the predator. The appearance produced may be
extremely elaborate in artistry, and highly effective in action—depending
not merely upon profound modifications of structure, colour, and pattern,
but of attitude and instinctive behaviour.
The view that adaptive appearances have evolved in relation to the visual
perceptions of animals—that they appeal to the eye—is supported by a great
body of evidence, which is considered from various standpoints: (1) The
arrangements of colour and pattern which for optical reasons are best
adapted to produce special visual effects, are those actually employed in the
coloration of different cryptic, aposematic, and mimetic species. (2) Dis-
ruptive patterns, especially those of the coincident type (Cott, 1935, Rept.
Brit. Assn., p. 384), are independent of, and frequently cut right across,
underlying structural elements—anatomical features becoming subordinate
to the illusionary appearance superimposed upon them. (3) Particular
colour schemes are largely independent of affinity, and furnish a special
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D. 441
application of the principle of adaptive radiation and convergence. (4) The
general habits, the resting attitudes, and the special protective and aggressive
reactions of animals are closely correlated with their scheme of coloration,
and their surroundings, and are to be explained in terms of the psychology
of vision.
Mr. D. Lacx.—Bird courtship and aggressive behaviour (11.0).
The term ‘ courtship display ’ has been applied extremely loosely in bird
behaviour. Many displays really serve a threat function, and displays which
are directed at the female may occur in three different phases of the breeding
cycle: (1) by the unmated male before pairing up ; (2) by one or both sexes
after the pair have associated and leading up to copulation ; (3) by both sexes
during the post-nuptial period.
Sexual selection in Darwin’s sense typically has reference only to the
first phase. ‘The evidence for preferential matings in birds is summarised.
Recent experiments with stuffed specimens illustrate the influence of
threat and display characters in producing aggressive behaviour and court-
ship, and the part they play in sex recognition. Experiments with robins,
which will sometimes attack parts of stuffed specimens, show that the
problem is not simply one of ‘ recognition,’ but is very complex.
Mr. I. H. Burk1Lt.—lInsect vision and the perception of flowers (11.30).
That bees and butterflies see the flowers they visit is axiomatic. A feeding
hive-bee by differential stimuli in the upper and the lower parts of the eyes
is guided at a suitable distance from the vegetation : then a dot of colour,
say a buttercup flower, is seen at short range; at 6 in. it is seen to be
lobed, and by a reflex the feet are brought to a position for landing. Satiety,
like hibernation, asks for rest ; and the same front facets find a hole which
will admit the body—a hole with a contrasting rim is best realised. Colour
helps ; for bees see colours, though not quite as we see them. The homing
bee apparently sees the landscape in chiaroscuro: and the numbers which
fail to home indicate that recognition is difficult.
Insects’ eyes differ enormously in the number of visual units, and prob-
ably in receptivity : they are so unlike ours, that it is well to set up an insect
type. The best type is the hive bee’s. The prodigious diligence of that
insect in its simple errand makes it peculiarly useful for experiment. When
We pass to insects themselves more brightly coloured, the question of seeing
mates and flowers with the same colour-sense comes in.
Lastly, bilateral symmetry in flowers is in the same plane as bilateral
symmetry in a flying insect, and the two are connected.
DISCUSSION (12.0).
Dr. C. G. BuTLER.—Phases in locusts (12.30).
Uvarov (1921) and Faure (1932) have shown that whereas the species of
migratory locusts were formerly regarded as being more or less mono-
morphic, they are really polymorphic, and can occur in two extreme forms
or phases, i.e. the phase gregaria and the phase solitaria, with a large number
of intermediates (phase transiens) between them.
The phase gregaria differs from the phase solitaria especially in the
coloration of the nymphs or hoppers, and in such adult characters as the
shape of the pronotum and relative length of other parts of the body.
Strelnikov (1936) and Butler and Innes (1936) have shown that there are
fundamental physiological differences between the phases.
442 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—D.
Experimental data show that the formation of the gregarious phase from
the solitary occurs as a direct result of crowding hoppers into a limited
space. This transformation is brought about by the increased activity due
to mutual stimulation.
Attempts are made to analyse in the light of recent research the factors
involved in this crowding and thence to determine why the phases take on
their particular characters.
AFTERNOON.
SEMI-POPULAR LECTURE by Mr. H. C. Gitson on Lake Titicaca (2.15).
An expedition financed by the Percy Sladen Trust left England in March
1937 to spend six months from April to September studying the conditions
of life and the fauna and flora of Lake Titicaca and other bodies of water in
its neighbourhood. Lake Titicaca is a tectonic lake some 100 miles long
by 30 wide and about 1,000 ft. deep at the deepest. It lies in latitude 16°S.
at an altitude of 12,500 ft. above the sea, on the high central plateau of the
Andes, some two-thirds of its area being in Peru and the rest in Bolivia.
It is an area of inland drainage which has probably been isolated from other
water masses since the Eocene period, and it was already known from the
work of other expeditions to have a somewhat peculiar fauna. This proved
to be rich in individuals but poor in species, making it a very interesting
study for the ecologist.
An account illustrated by lantern slides and cinematograph film is given
of the life and work of the expedition and of the native ‘ Indians,’ who are
the descendants of the people of the Inca régime.
ExuIBITION of biological films (3.15).
Films produced by Strand Film Co., Ltd., under the direction of
Dr. J. S. Huxtey, F.R.S. :—
Fingers and thumbs.
Monkey into man.
Films produced by Gaumont-British Instructional Films Co., under
the direction of Mr. H. R. HEWER :—
The Liverfluke.
The Crayfish.
The development of the Trout.
Tuesday, August 23.
Symposium on The réle of the environment.in animal locomotion (10.0).
Prof. J. Gray, F.R.S.—Jntroduction.
Mr. J. E. Harris— Aquatic forms (10.15).
Prof. J. Gray, F.R.S., and Dr. Lissmann.— Terrestrial forms (10.45).
Dr. F. S. J. Hotticx.—Aerial forms—insect flight (11.15).
Dr. C. Horton-SmitH.—Aerial forms—bird flight (11.45).
DISCUSSION (12.15).
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—D. 443
AFTERNOON,
Mr. F. S. Russet, F.R.S.—Diversification of form in medus@ (2.15).
Medusz are animals with a very simple basic plan, living in a compara-
tively constant environment, yet they have evolved great diversity of form.
This paper is concerned only with the Anthomedusze and Leptomedusz.
An account is given of the different types of form to be found in each of the
chief organs throughout the group as a whole. Hydromeduse swim by
pulsations of the bell, whose aperture is partially closed by a velum. On
contraction of the bell the velar aperture decreases in size and the velum
thus exercises control over the jet of water expelled from the subumbrella
cavity. It is suggested that this method of swimming has limited the size to
which Hydromeduse have evolved. This is contrasted with the large
size of the Scyphomedusz, whose umbrella margin is lobed, and which
swim by an essentially different method. Some implications of the
varieties of form found in other organs are discussed and it is shown how in
every character the Anthomedusz show great variety while the Leptomedusz
appear to be very limited in the forms evolved.
Mr. E. R. GuNnTHER.—A fishery survey of the Patagonian continental shelf
(2.45).
The extensive area eastwards of South America known as the Patagonian
Continental Shelf has been the subject of recent survey. ‘The shelf, com-
prising some 185,000 square miles, includes a varied benthic fauna whose
distribution suggests the presence of distinct habitats. Salient ecological
characteristics are noted, and the distributions of various species are shown
to be correlated with such factors as temperature, depth, and texture of the
sea floor.
The fish inhabiting these grounds were sampled with a commercial
otter trawl at some 200 stations. The survey, while essentially a recon-
naissance, aimed also at collecting information which would lead to know-
ledge of the habits and movements of the fish. Their distributions are
considered and are shown to be divisible into regional groups of which
the species occupying the plain of the shelf were the most abundant. Fish
giving evidence of migration are compared with more stationary types, and
their habits are inferred from such features as their length, colour, body-
form and food.
The survey, which is under the direction of the Discovery Committee,
was spread over three seasons and was carried out by the Royal Research
Ship William Scoresby in her programme of research and Bets) ae in
the Dependencies of the Falkland Islands.
Dr, T. S. WesTtoLLt.—The origin of the Tetrapods and their relation to the
bony fishes (3.15).
The discovery of Upper Devonian Stegocephalia (Ichthyostegalia) from
East Greenland enabled Sive-Sdderbergh to discuss the relationship of
primitive Tetrapods to Crossopterygian fishes, and to revise the homology
of the dermal bones. The newly discovered Elpistostege, from the basal
Upper Devonian, is probably a Tetrapod ancestor, and shows that both the
classical homologies and Sive- Séderbergh’s revision are misleading. The
correlation is in most cases a simple bone-for-bone equivalence, but the
Crossopterygian ‘frontal’ is homologous with the Tetrapod parietal.
444 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—D, E.
The Tetrapods were certainly derived from Crossopterygii, and the process
involved extensive changes in proportions; the preorbital region was
drawn out while the otico-occipital region was much shortened.
The Actinopterygian ‘ parietal,’ ‘ frontal,’ etc., are not homologous with
the similarly named Tetrapod elements; the ‘frontal’ is approximately
equivalent to the Tetrapod parietal. The Actinopterygii evolved quite
independently.
Various considerations strongly suggest that the primitive Choanate and
Actinopterygian skulls had a large number of dermal bones, some of which
were closely related to latero-sensory organs. In primitive forms of all
groups these bones become more important at the expense of intervening
bones. The latero-sensory canals are therefore of great value in deter-
mining bone homologies, but in many later forms new factors modify or
invalidate this primitive key. ;
Dr. W. H. THorPE.—Respiration in parasitic insects (3.45).
SECTION E.—GEOGRAPHY.
Thursday, August 18.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Prof. GRIFFITH TAYLOR on Correlations and
culture ; a study in technique (10.0). (See p. 103.)
Symposium on The Scientific Delegation to India, 1937-8 : geographical
impressions (11.30).
Prof. A. G. Ocitviz, O.B.E.—The Chota Nagpur plateau.
The Chota Nagpur Highlands, almost bisected by the furrow used by
the Bengal Nagpur Railway, exhibit several distinct erosion surfaces, now
tentatively described. The river net, with its three dominant trends
(N.W.-S.E., E.N.E—W.S.W., and W.—-E.), suggests great captures by the
rivers Brahmani, Baitarani and Subarnarekha following the formation of the
Bengal Bay and Lowland. Westward recession of the plateau edges results
in abundant imselbergs on the eastern fringes. ‘The relation of forests
(chiefly second growth sal) and agricultural land to surface relief is dis-
cussed, the position of mines indicated, and the distribution of population
surveyed in outline.
Prof. -H. J. FLeure, F.R.S.—The aborigines of the Chota Nagpur
plateau (12.0).
Mr. J. McFarLtane.—famshedpur ; an Indian industrial centre
(12.30).
Prof. C. B. Fawcett.—South India (2.15).
Some typical landscapes—tank and village, paddy field, hill country,
coastal forest—and the people and occupations in them.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—E. 445
Friday, August 19.
Mr. G. C. L. Bertram.—King George VI Sound in the Antarctic (10.0).
King George VI Sound was discovered in the course of the British
Graham Land Expedition, 1934-37 (led by Mr. John Rymill). Previous
information about southern Graham Land was based mainly on the inter-
pretation of what was seen by Sir Hubert Wilkins in a flight down the east
coast in December 1928. After this flight, southern Graham Land was
considered to be an archipelago with channels at sea level connecting the
Weddell and Bellinghausen seas. The work of the British Graham Land
Expedition, 1934-37, showed that in fact the whole of Graham Land forms
a single narrow peninsula and that the ‘ Antarctic Archipelago’ as such is
non-existent. On the west side of Graham Land, separating it from
Alexander I Island, is a remarkable channel nearly 300 miles in length, to
which has been given the name of King George VI Sound. This sound
averages 15 miles in breadth, runs almost due north and south, and is
bounded on either side by mountainous country running up to over 6,000 ft.
The mountains of the Graham Land side are a continuation of the main
Andean chain and are made up of rocks of similar petrological facies. In
contrast the Alexander Island side for the most part is composed of a great
thickness of late Mesozoic sediments.' Apart from its geological interest,
the Sound is remarkable in containing the only known area of confined
shelf-ice ; this shelf-ice being some 3,000 ft. thick.
Prof. F. DEBENHAM.—The Geographical Laboratory (10.45).
Miss J. B. MircHEeLL.— Suffolk agriculture in the Middle Ages (11.30).
Suffolk agriculture in the Middle Ages presents a varied picture: there
are strong contrasts between the predominantly pastoral region of the
Breckland in the north-west and the agricultural economy of the clays and
loams of the east. ‘The west was at this period farmed in open fields while
the east, by the sixteenth century, was largely enclosed.
The 1327 and 1524 subsidy returns for Suffolk, when plotted, give an
indication of the distribution of regional prosperity throughout the area at
the beginning and towards the end of the period. The Jnquisitiones
Nonarum of 1341 are relatively detailed for most parts of Suffolk : sufficiently
so to give a strong indication of the land utilisation of the county. Much of
the data can be mapped and a close correlation is revealed between the soil
type and the economy practised : the poor sandy soils of the Breckland are
used for sheep farming; the central boulder clays are essentially corn-
growing lands ; and the fertile loams and silts of the eastern river valleys
appear to carry an important dairying industry.
Reyce’s Breviary of Suffolk, published in 1618, gives an excellent picture
of the county at the beginning of the seventeenth century. His account
shows the same agricultural pattern as was suggested by the fourteenth-
century figures.
Mr. F. WaLKer.—East Anglia and the Civil War (12.15).
One of the most striking features of the historical geography of eastern
England is the continuous regional distinctiveness which has characterised
East Anglia since the very earliest times, and it is an extremely interesting
fact that practical expression was given to this ‘ individuality ’ during the
Civil War of the middle of the seventeenth century.
446 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E.
In the later stages of the prehistoric period, and at intervals during the
early medieval period, East Anglia formed a definite political unit, but with
the disappearance of such territorial divisions its unity became gradually
less apparent, and in the period between the eleventh century and the
outbreak of the Civil War it was distinguished from the rest of England
largely because of the peculiar character of its social, economic, and religious
history.
During this period, however, the special features of East Anglian life
such as rapid economic progress, the development of trade with the con-
tinent, the growth of religious reform and the strength of the commercial
and industrial middle classes of society all served to produce a remarkable
unity of outlook which culminated in the unparalleled unanimity of this
region in its support of the Parliamentary party during the Civil War.
Thus we may see in the Eastern Counties Association the last example of
a definite political unit corresponding to the natural region of East Anglia
and we may regard its formation as an attempt by the Parliamentary party
to utilise to the full the strategic importance of a region whose attitude
towards the religious and economic problems of the time had become a
foregone conclusion.
AFTERNOON. :
Mr. R. H. Kinvic.—Film : Bombay to famshedpur (2.0).
Mr. J. A. SteERS.—The physiography of North-west Norfolk (2.30).
Dr. H. C. Darsy.—The draining of the Fens (3.15).
Mr. F. A. SINGLETON.—The MacDonnell Ranges of Central Australia
(with film) (5.30).
Attention is drawn to the remarkable notches or gaps cut by the streams
which ‘cross the parallel ridges of the MacDonnell Ranges, extending east
and west for about 250 miles in Central Australia. ‘The usual explanation of
antecedent courses for the rivers, though accepted in the case of the James
and Waterhouse Ranges, is questioned for the MacDonnell Ranges, for
which the possibility of superimposition from a cretaceous cover is tentatively
suggested.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to Hunstanton and district.
Sunday, August 21.
Excursion to Fenland.
Monday, August 22.
Mr. W. V. Lewis.—Cirque formation in Iceland (10.0).
The bergschrund hypothesis of Willard Johnson was almost universally
welcomed as an explanation of cirque erosion. It has recently met with .
much criticism and Johnson, himself, modified his views before his death.
According to this theory only the upper portions of the head-walls of
cirques should show plucking and shattering, the lower slopes, which were
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 447
buried deeply under the ice, showing glacial smoothing as a result of abrasive
action only. When some of the deeper Welsh and Scottish cirques are
examined they are found to reveal plucking and shattering on their head-
walls right down to the junction with the cirque floor, even when this face
exceeds 1,000 ft. in height. ‘The plucking action that Johnson so vividly
described at the foot of the bergschrund appears to have functioned over
the whole of the head-wall.
The evidence of Icelandic cirques suggests that an elaboration of the
bergschrund hypothesis might better account for the facts than the hypo-
thesis as first put forward by Johnson. During the height of summer
melting in Iceland the head-walls of the cirques frequently had a large
amount of melt-water pouring down them. This melt-water resulted from
direct precipitation, from the melting of winter snows clinging to the upper
portions of the head-wall, and in certain cases the supply was considerably
augmented by melt-water from a small ice-cap resting on the summit above.
The volume of water varied greatly from day to day. On reaching the névé
the water almost invariably melted its way under the ice, thus following
the rock face below the glacier. This melt-water was frequently noted
pouring down the head-wall where this was visible along the bergschrund,
when it was usually augmented by further melting in the névé above.
In a cave which followed the rock face under an ice-fall of considerable
thickness it was found that even on a warm day the moisture on the rock
face was frozen hard. ‘This and further evidence of a similar nature led
to the suggestion that much of the melt-water seen pouring down the head-
wall, when it gets a certain distance under the glacier, freezes, and that this
is particularly liable to happen at night and during cold spells.
The foregoing evidence suggests the following sequence of events in
cirque erosion. Large areas of the head-wall are covered with moisture
when melting is active and much of this moisture subsequently freezes.
The resulting frost action rots the head-wall and loosens large and small
rock fragments. ‘These are then removed by becoming incorporated in
the glacier as it moves slowly away from the head-wall. This action is
naturally most effective when the walls are steep, so that steep slopes, once
formed, tend to be self-propagating. The cirque therefore becomes
enlarged by the head-walls slowly eating back into the mountain mass.
Symposium on English ports and estuaries in their geographical setting
(10.45).
Mr. F. H. W. GrEEN.—Southampton—hydrographic factors.
In discussing the economic geography of a seaport such as Southampton,
it is very necessary that the facts of its physical hydrography be accurately
and systematically stated. This is comparable to the accurate description
of the geomorphology of a region on land, which is recognised as a necessary
prelude to any discussion concerning its economic development.
The tide is one of the more important aspects of port hydrography, and
in the case of Southampton it is of peculiar interest and significance. The
unusual complications, which make themselves manifest here, necessitate
more careful study than is demanded in assessing the significance of the tide
at most British ports. The existence of the complications is, on the other
hand, of great practical value in that it enables methods to be devised of
forecasting deviations from ‘ predicted ’ tidal times and heights ; some of
these have already proved themselves to be surprisingly accurate. An
analysis of the tides at Southampton also suggests more accurate methods,
448 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E.
applicable to other ports, of forecasting deviations from predicted tide due
to meteorological causes.
Mr. A. E. STEPHENS.—Plymouth in the sailing ship era (11.15).
The threefold harbour of Plymouth consists of the Hamoaze, Catwater
and the Sound. The value of the last named was minimised by its ex-
posure to the winds of greatest strength and frequency and longest ‘ fetch,’
with the direction of which its axis (N.E—S.W.) coincided. In strong
south-west gales there was shelter in Cawsand Bay under Rame Head, or
in emergency in the Sound north of Drake’s Island. Catwater, commodious
and land locked, was easily entered (except in south-west gales) by a channel
leading near the lee north side of the entry. Hamoaze, also deep, com-
modious and landlocked, had a narrow, sinuous entry, beset by shoals and
subject to strong tidal currents and eddies.
The relative frequency of winds from the western quarter made Catwater
a more important commercial harbour than Hamoaze. The Hamoaze
settlements were relatively unimportant, except for Saltash at the head,
commanding cross river traffic and traffic in minerals down the Tavy. To
its normal trade function, Plymouth added that of ‘ clearing house’ for
naval prizes. Its commercial development was hindered by its poor and
restricted hinterland, but it was a haven of refuge in time of storm, to
vessels wind bound at the Channel entrance, or short of water and pro-
visions after an ocean voyage. Sufficiently remote from the continent to
avoid surprise attacks, and with facilities for collecting a fleet and victualling
an army, its safe commodious harbour was an important rendezvous for
foreign military expeditions. The establishment in 1689 of a Royal Dock-
yard in Hamoaze remedied the long-standing weakness of an English fleet
centred only on the south-east coast. The absence of settlements was an
advantage and the difficult entry to Hamoaze was a natural protection against
foreign attack, although coupled with the exposure of the Sound it rendered
Plymouth inferior to Portsmouth as a main fleet rendezvous. The original
yard was designed to repair cruising vessels only, but, gradually enlarged, it
could build and repair all classes of vessels. Not until more than fifty years
after its foundation were land works for its protection begun, and until
steamships introduced the possibility of surprise attack, the protection
offered by the fleet was always considered more important.
Mr. G. Hayes and Miss M. Curiss.—The Mersey entrance (11.45).
Early history of the Mersey entrance and effects of subsidence of the
litoral. Origins and formation of the sand banks and coastal sand hills.
State of the harbour at end of the seventeenth century: the ‘ Formby’
channel. Eighteenth-century changes and the disappearance of some
neighbouring harbours. The ‘ New’ channel. Successive surveys from
early nineteenth century to 1914. Revetments and training walls. Further
surveys to 1938. Navigational aids. The Bar and its immediate future.
Mr. W. G. East.—The Humber and Humberside in historical times
(12.15).
This paper renews the inquiry into the former physical conditions of
the Humber, about which much has already been written, though several
problems remain obscure. Prehistoric forests were submerged, new land
was formed in recent centuries through ‘ warping,’ and medizval settle-
ments disappeared through inundation during a period of excessive storms
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E. 449
which is attested by history and indicated by Pettersson on the basis of
astronomical evidence. A slide of the reclaimed ‘ warplands’ of the
Holderness shore of the Humber is presented, together with others showing
the condition of the Humber as depicted in old charts from c. 1580 onwards.
These old charts, widely varying in their value as evidence, indicate stages
in the warping process and suggest that, below Hull, the deep-water channel
has not substantially changed since the time of Elizabeth.
Mr. O. Borer.—The Wash (2.15).
The river system of the North Sea after the Glacial period ; the source
of the silt in the Wash; the direction of the channels in 1829, 1873, 1924
and 1936.
Reclamation in the Wash since Roman times and now in hand.
Changes in the Outfalls of the Ouse, Nene and Witham and the effect on
reclamation.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to the River Great Ouse Catchment Board and the model of the
Great Ouse.
Tuesday, August 23.
Discussion on Some aspects of the regional concept (10.0).
(Dr. S. W. Wootpripcz, Dr. R. E. Dickinson, Dr. R. O. BUCHANAN,
Miss H. G. WANKLYN, Prof. C. DARYLL FORDE.)
AFTERNOON.
Dr. E. H. S—Lwoop.—The classification of communities by occupations
(2.15).
Using the Census Tables an estimate may be made of the occupational
mode of thought of a community. A number of communities are domi-
nated by outstanding occupations but the remaining categories are not
negligible in arriving at an appreciation of the character. The following
classes may well be recognised :—agricultural, mining, craft and service
(health) types of communities.
As in all biological subjects there are intermediate cases and sub-classes
must be recognised.
There has been little change in the occupational character of communities
in the decade 1921-31 ; a small increase in the percentage of transport
workers, a decided increase in the trading and personal-attendant groups
and a decrease in the manufacturing (craft) group (not so striking if the
class containing the undefined and unemployed be distributed).
After the definite types have been culled from the whole, there remain a
number of ‘ balanced ’ communities from which it is possible to define such
terms as ‘ fishing community,’ market town, port and ‘ residential town,’
but no definite concept can be given to the term ‘ county-town.’
Mr. E. W. Givpert.—The growth of inland and seaside health resorts
(3.0).
The inland and seaside health resorts now form an important feature of
English life, but they receive only a very brief mention in the standard
Q
450 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E.
geographical text-books. These towns have a well-marked individuality
and their functional peculiarities can be analysed from occupational stat-
istics. 'The growth of these urban settlements has been remarkable ; of the
105 towns in England whose population exceeded 50,000 persons in 1931,
ten can be described as inland or seaside health resorts. The movement of
population into these places is of two classes :—(1) The permanent settle-
ment of retired individuals and of persons who cater for visitors. (2) The
seasonal migration of holiday-makers which now assumes vast proportions.
This paper includes a summary account of the causes of the growth of
seaside resorts in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The original
development of these resorts may be ascribed to several causes :—(1) The
practice of drinking mineral waters at spas in the seventeenth century and
earlier. (2) The practice of bathing in the sea from about 1720, and of
drinking sea-water for health, which began in about 1750. The new sea
bathing resorts copied the manners of the older inland spas. It will be noticed
that the freedom from war after the Napoleonic struggles made the coast
safe, and that the building of the railways rapidly accentuated the movement
of population to the sea. The history of the communications, in the case
of each town, is of great significance, as is its relative proximity to the areas
of industrial population.
These towns can be divided into the following types :—(1) inland spas
such as Bath, Cheltenham, Leamington, Tunbridge Wells and Harrogate ;
(2) ancient ports or fishing harbours converted into seaside resorts such as
Brighton, Scarborough, Weymouth and Hastings. Brighton is the only
town of this type which developed at all rapidly before the railway age.
Southampton was for a short period a resort of this character; (3) new
towns, such as Bournemouth, Blackpool, Southport and Southend, whose
mushroom growth on virgin sites can be compared with the development
of American towns. Bournemouth and Southport are two of the few
English towns whose founders are known. The first house was built at
Bournemouth in 1812 and there was only one postman as late as 1860, when
the population had not yet reached 2,000. The population of Bournemouth
in 1931 was over 116,000, and Blackpool, which exceeded 101,000 in that
year, contained less than 4,000 in 1861.
Discussion on Some aspects of the regional concept (continued) (3.45).
Wednesday, August 24.
Dr. VaucHAaN CornisH.—The Sidmouth coast and the preservation of its
scenery (9.45).
In order to preserve the scenic beauty for which Sidmouth is celebrated
it is necessary that the cliff lands of Peak hill on the west, and Salcombe
hill on the east, should be completely protected from sophistication.
The following measures have been taken for the preservation of the cliff
lands of Salcombe hill from the summit (540 ft. in height) to the foot of
the hill in the secluded valley of Salcombe Regis. These come within the
author’s farm of South Combe. The perfection of their charm is due to
the union of an immense ocean prospect with the peace of a pastoral scene,
and the author has therefore decided not to make the cliff summit a public
playground but to preserve it as farm land, while giving the public a right
of way by all those footpaths to which access has hitherto been by courtesy.
On the lower fields of South Combe the draft Town Planning scheme
sanctioned the erection of sixteen houses, but as they would have marred
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—E, F. 451
the view of the sea from the village of Salcombe Regis the author decided to
dedicate these fields also as a private open space. An agreement having
been entered into giving the Sidmouth Urban District Council power to
enforce these restrictions in perpetuity, the Council have responded by
reserving their own adjacent lands as an open space.
The purpose of the present paper is to draw attention to the importance
of such co-operation between landowners and local authorities in the task
of preserving the amenities of England’s five hundred miles of cliff land.
Miss M. F. Davies.—Irrigation in the Canterbury Plains, New Zealand
(10.30).
The central portion of the Canterbury Plains suffers severely in most
years from drought in the summer months. The low rainfall and the
porosity of the soil result in general wilting of the vegetation, especially of
the new strains of imported grasses. Owing to these circumstances the
carrying capacity of the land is low, and farming is on an extensive rather
than an intensive basis. Recent experiments, however, have shown that
when the land is irrigated, production and carrying capacity can be increased
twelve-fold.
This same area lies between two great rivers, the Rangitata and the
Rakaia, which make their way across the plains in broad shingle beds at a
distance of some 35 miles from each other. The present Government
scheme includes the diversion of the waters of the Rangitata along the base
of the foot-hills to the Rakaia, the irrigation of the major part of Ashburton
County, and the establishment of a hydro-electric station at the junction
of the Main Diversion Race with the Rakaia river.
On account of the porosity of the soil and the gradient of the land, a
special method of irrigation has been adopted. The workings of this new
system are described by means of diagrams, slides and a cinematograph
film in natural colour.
SECTION F.—ECONOMIC SCIENCE AND
STATISTICS.
Thursday, August 18.
Mr. C. W. GuILLeBauD.—The economic recovery of Germany (10.0).
In 1932 Germany was in the depths of a most acute depression, She had
6,000,000 unemployed and industry, agriculture and banking were almost
paralysed. She attacked the problem partly by tax remissions, marriage
bonuses and many other measures designed to stimulate consumption and
promote private investment, and partly by public works on a vast scale
financed by short term bills drawn by private contractors and discounted
by the banks and the Reichsbank. The growth of investment increased
incomes and the larger incomes provided the necessary savings.
Unemployment was halved between 1932 and 1934 largely owing to the
deliberate creation of employment. From 1935 onwards re-armament has
played a predominant réle. With the adoption of the second Four-Year
Plan at the end of 1936 Germany is endeavouring to make herself inde-
pendent of foreign sources of supply of a number of important raw materials.
452 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F.
The resulting increase in investment has, on the one hand, not merely
abolished unemployment but caused an acute shortage of labour, and on the
- other hand, increased the difficulty of maintaining stability of wages and
prices. However there has been no inflation and prices are little higher
than in 1932. The national income increased from 45 milliard marks in
1932 to 68 milliards in 1937, and the standard of living of the workers as a
whole has risen largely, though not proportionately, owing to the scarcity
of some commodities and to deterioration in the quality of others.
The greatest economic problems with which Germany is to-day confronted
relate to the shortage of labour and raw materials; to the necessity for
neutralising much of the income created by full employment and the high
level of investment ; and to foreign trade.
Prof. J. 'TINBERGEN.—Statistical testing of the trade cycle mechanism
(11.0).
For the fluctuations in a given phenomenon (or variable) there are ‘ proxi-
mate’ and ‘deeper’ causes. A proximate cause to investment activity
may be profits; if a proximate cause of profits is consumers’ outlay, the
latter is one of the ‘ deeper’ causes of investment activity. There are
‘ deeper ’ causes of the second, third, etc., degree. "The whole network of all
these causal connections is the economic mechanism, or, if we confine
ourselves to short-run fluctuations, the trade cycle mechanism. Economic
theories tell us what are the proximate causes of a given variable’s fluctua-
tions. ‘They do not, in general, tell us about their relative importance.
Nevertheless this knowledge is vital for problems of trade cycle policy.
Statistical methods enable us, in a number of cases, to determine this relative
importance. Extending the methods used for the determining of demand
and supply curves to large complexes of markets instead of single markets
yields some of the information desired.
Some results of work in this field. The large elasticity of the supply of
labour, commodities and credit in the U.S. after the War. The remarkable
réle of the stock exchange. Some consequences of the policy of President
Roosevelt.
Mr. R. F. BRETHERTON.—Public investment and trade cycle policy (12.0).
Capital expenditure by the central government, local authorities, and
semi-public bodies in Great Britain has since the War formed a large, though
variable, proportion of the total gross investment of the community. The
idea of timing this expenditure in such a way as to counteract, rather than
to exaggerate, the fluctuations of private investment in the course of the
Trade Cycle is not new: it was suggested by the Poor Law Commission
of 1905, has been elaborated by Bowley and’some other economists, and has
been recently accepted as a regular instrument of trade cycle control in the
United States and Sweden. But in Great Britain it has not yet been given
any real trial.
This paper is specially concerned with investment by the local authorities.
Since the War, this had varied between £155 millions and £70 millions a
year ; but it has varied with the indices of private business, though with a
considerable time-lag. The reasons for this are investigated, and the effects
upon employment are estimated.
The case for attempting at least to stabilise public investment is stated’
and discussed, and some of the difficulties are then examined. ‘They may
be classified as (1) financial—the present arrangements of British local
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—F. 453
government finance are not well suited to encourage spending in periods
of depression ; (2) economic—the close interlocking of public and private
investment in many fields, especially the trading services; (3) technical
and administrative—the difficulty of commencing and discontinuing large
schemes of capital expenditure at short notice: it is suggested that control
over ordinary repairs and renewals expenditure might be useful here ; (4) the
relative narrowness of the field—the long-term trend of investment by
local authorities in the near future may well be sharply downward, unless
new fields of activity are rapidly developed.
Friday, August 19.
PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS by Mr. R. F. Harrop on Scope and method of
economics (10.0). (See p. 139.)
Mr. J. M. Keynes, C.B.—The policy of Government storage of foodstuffs
and raw materials (11.30). (Read by Mr. G. F. SHove.)
It is an outstanding fault of the competitive system that there is not
sufficient incentive for the storing of raw materials so as to average periods
of high and low demand, except by means of excessive price fluctuations.
There is, therefore, a prima facie case for government action to supplement
this deficiency, which is not easily supplied by the competitive system from
within. In present circumstances three considerations combine to rein-
force this prima facie case: (1) storage for war purposes ; (2) with the object
of mitigating the fluctuations of the trade cycle ; and (3) the stabilisation of
prices by holding some part of the Central banking reserves, not in gold, but
in a composite commodity.
AFTERNOON.
Prof. M. GinsBERG.—The present position of sociology (2.45).
Mr. T. H. MarsHaL_.—Professionalism (3.45).
All civilised societies—and possibly primitive societies as well—have
recognised a certain group of occupations as superior to all others. The
principle of selection varies, but the superior occupations have usually been
referred to as ‘ free’ or ‘ liberal’ in contrast to commercial and industrial
pursuits. Our first task is to see whether this distinction has any foundation
in the real character of the professions, or whether it is a rational cloak for
the self-interest of those who give a scarcity value to their services by creating
monopoly rights for themselves. Any conclusion reached for the professions
in England a century or more ago must be revised for the present day. The
lists of professions has lengthened and their character has changed.
The development can be related to three causes, the growth of science,
the evolution of capitalism, and the advance of democracy through equali-
tarianism towards the social service State. Contemporary changes in the
organisation of commerce and industry have further weakened the contrast
by which the professions used to be recognisable. Should we describe the
process by saying that the professions have been commercialised or that
commerce has been professionalised ? The answer should probably be
that both groups have shifted their position, but that the meeting-point
at which they tend to coalesce is somewhat nearer to professionalism than
to commercialism, in the old meaning of those words.
454 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—F.
The result is the emergence of a small, but influential, class which cannot
be identified either with the capitalists or with the proletariat. The vital
question, which it is important to ask but difficult to answer, is ‘ What
attitude is this new class inclined to take up towards the conflict between
capital and labour, and is it likely to evolve a system of its own which differs
from that advocated by either of these two contending parties ? ’
Monday, August 22.
Mr. G. WaLKeR.—The economics of road haulage since the Road and Rail
Traffic Act of 1933 (10.0).
The provisions of the Road and Rail Traffic Act, 1933, regulating the
grant of licences to carriers by road are recited. ‘ Suitable transport
facilities ’ in ‘ excess of requirements’ are held by the Tribunal to create
‘ wasteful’ competition which is against public interest and therefore
contrary to the intention of the Act. ‘The ‘ suitability’ or otherwise of
existing facilities is proved by the evidence of traders. But this evidence
is not always accepted as final. ‘The terms upon which newcomers are
allowed to enter the industry, and upon which established haulers are
permitted to expand, are described. Renewal of an existing licence is not
automatic. ‘ Need’ must be proved for the continuation of an existing
service just as much as for the provision of a new one, or the extension of
an old. That the rate to be charged by a proposed service is lower than
the charges asked by existing services is not evidence which will justify the
grant of a licence. This principle affects the provision of road service in
competition with the railway, for road charges are commonly lower than
railway rates. Summary of the results of the restriction practised by the
Act as interpreted by the Tribunal on the provision of transport in general,
and on the road haulage business in particular.
Dr. J. MarscHak.—Measurement of the mobility of labour (11.0).
(This paper, presented on behalf of the Migration Group of the
Institute of Statistics, Cambridge, is a production of a very close
co-operation between Miss H. Makower, Miss V. Lamb, Mr. H. W.
Robinson and Dr. J. Marschak.)
Before any attempt can be made to judge the relative importance of the
different factors which prevent a quick adjustment of the labour supply to
a changing demand, we must devise some measure of labour mobility.
Crude figures of migrants, relating to various counties, years or industries,
must be reduced to comparable indices. ‘The mobility index can be
defined as the number of people moving annually from one district to
another per 1,000 people in each district and per unit of ‘ incentive to
move.’ ‘The incentive to move may be measured by the absolute or relative
difference in prosperity (as indicated by employment rates, average earnings
or average purchasing power) as between two districts.
Figures of net migration gains and losses for various counties and in-
dustries can be compiled from data of the Ministry of Labour and the
Registrar-General. These figures have been used to compile the changes of
mobility for a given county (or industry) over time.
Net migration figures do not, however, give movements between one
county (or industry) and another ; yet in order to measure the influence of
distance (in the case of counties) or of affinities of skill (in the case of
industries) upon mobility, we need to know both the origin and the destina-
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 455
tion of the migrants. Using three different types of material available at
the Oxford Employment Exchange, the immigration into Oxford from
various counties of Great Britain was analysed. It was then possible to
calculate mobility indices, with respect to Oxford, for various counties (for
men and women separately).
These indices were found to be closely correlated with distance and to
vary more than proportionately with distance: the ‘ elasticity of migration
on distance’ was found, with various data, always to lie between 1°6 and
2:0. The residual variations in mobility, ie. those which could not be
accounted for by distance, were then examined in the light of the industrial
structure of the counties of origin. It was found, for instance, that the
Oxford motor industry seems to present little attraction to textile workers
but relatively strong attraction to insured persons working in agricultural
districts (this does not include agricultural workers, for whom no figures
were obtainable). Further, mobility varies according to the type of
unemployment in the district of origin: the chronically unemployed appear
to be less mobile than the short-period unemploved.
The working hypotheses underlying the mobility measures used should
be tried out with more general material. It might then be possible (1) to
explain the actual movements of labour between any two counties (or
industries), and (2) to measure changes in mobility due to causes other than
distance and industrial structure (e.g. administrative measures of training
and transfer).
Mr. R. C. Tress.—Local diversity of industry and the rate of unemployment
(12.0).
An area in which a large percentage of workers are occupied in a single
industry is liable to be faced at some time or other with a heavy unemploy-
ment problem. The occasion will depend upon the industry, but certain
factors involved in its concentration are likely to intensify the problem
whenever it should occur. An accurate policy of diversification would
need to consider the industrial structure of a locality as an organic whole,
as a series of relationships between different types of industry, viewed in
terms of employment prospects. Determination of the optimum size of
such an area would also consider the economies of localisation and of the
scales of plants.
For certain purposes a cruder method is permissible. That suggested
defines optimum diversity in terms of an even distribution of the occupied
population amongst a number of arbitrarily defined industries, the relation-
ships between which, as distinct from their size, are ignored. It is here
used to examine recent changes in the industrial structure of a number of
towns where there was heavy unemployment in 1931, and where a high
percentage of the population were occupied in one or two industries.
AFTERNOON.
Sir Witt1aM Beveripce, K.C.B.—Unemployment in relation to the trade
cycle (2.15).
The paper gives the results of an analysis of the Unemployment percentages
recorded for about 100 insured industries from 1927-37, with a view to
comparing the position of the different industries in respect of the pro-
portionate increase of unemployment in the depression and the times at
which downward and upward movements took place.
Broad comparisons are made between industries of different types
456 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F.
(extractive, instrumental, other capital goods, consumers’ necessaries and
services, other consumers’ goods).
So far as data are available, a similar study is made for the years 1906-13
covering the depression of 1908-9.
Prof. Dr. ERNsT GRUNFELD.—The r6le of Co-operative Societies in the
social movement. (Taken as read.)
By social movement we mean the organised endeavours of the working
classes to better their situation under industrial capitalism. It started from
actual evils that it was desired to remedy, if necessary, by means of revolu-
tion, so that the workmen might possess equal rights with the other classes
and have the chance of gaining controlling power. Its causes are every-
where the same, its means and ends vary, but include similarities.
The main impulse of the movement went out from the trade unions.
Together with Co-operative, Friendly and similar Societies, they were, and
still are, the means to progress through self-help. Besides these, attempts
were made to obtain political power and so force the State to carry out the
wishes of the working classes.
What was the réle of Co-operative Societies in this movement ? Co-opera-
tive production, the ideal of pre-Marxian Socialists, was tried in England
by Christian Socialists, in Germany by Lassalle, but acquired importance
in France and Italy only. The evolutionary type of Co-operative Societies
as founded in Germany by Schulze-Delitzsch consisted principally of
Co-operative Societies which were mutual loan societies for the working
classes and still more for the lower middle class. ‘The Rochdale consumers’
organisation ultimately became the standard and ideal for the whole world,
either in its original form or with variations.
Two points should be stressed : (1) The whole Co-operative Societies’
movement was strongly under the influence of intellectuals, who were not
of the working class. (2) Co-operative Societies were regarded by the
workmen either as of primary importance, as the only means of achieving
the aim of the social movement, or as of secondary importance, as one means
among several.
Tuesday, August 23.
Mr. G. F. SHove.—The interpretation and allocation of cost (10.0).
The subject investigated is the influence of cost upon the price of a
product which is one of several produced by the same concern. Particular
attention is given to the influence of ‘ overhead’ or ‘ common’ costs.
(1) Various interpretations of ‘ cost’ are considered and one is selected as
being suitable for this inquiry without departing too far from ordinary
usage. (2) It is shown that, on this interpretation, conclusions about the
relation between cost and price, familiar in connection with artificially
simplified cases, can be generalised so as to cover actual conditions en-
countered in the conduct of business. (3) It is argued that the influence of
‘overhead’ or ‘common’ costs on prices depends more on the planning
of businesses, their financial policy and mutual competition, than on their
practice in the matter of ‘ costing.’
Mr. R. L. Hatt.—The business view of the relation between price and cost
(11.0).
A group of economists in Oxford, who have been making a study of
Trade Cycle problems, have asked business men questions about the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F. 457
influences which affect their decisions on such matters as output and price
policy. The answers suggest that in many cases there is an attempt to
fix prices on the basis of average costs, using an estimate of turnover in
order to allocate overheads. The power to fix prices is due to market
imperfections: but though the demand is often thought to be inelastic,
little attempt is made to exploit this.
In works on economic theory it is usual to state that profit is maximised
when marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue. In the long period the
price must cover average cost, including normal profit, and when there is
free entry to the industry it is not likely to be much more than this. The
changes of price in the direction of full cost are explained by changes in the
number and size of sources of supply in the industry.
The paper discusses the relation between the economist’s view of profit-
able behaviour and the actions which appear to be characteristic of business
men who try to sell at full cost. ‘The conclusion is reached that there is
often an element of oligopoly which makes neither of the hypotheses, of
competition and of monopoly, applicable. There is a tendency for price
to remain at the point where it happens to be at any time, unless the costs
of all firms in the industry change together. A discussion is given of the
factors determining the price point, and the view is taken that it is most
likely to be at full cost. If this is so, the long period competitive price is
reached more directly than is sometimes supposed.
Mr. G. D. A. MacDoucaLL.—Overhead costs and economic welfare (12.0).
Schemes of output restriction and of compulsory scrapping of equipment
are often advocated as a means of maintaining the earning power of invested
capital. Such schemes are in general regarded by the economist as con-
flicting with the public interest ; but it is suggested in this paper that they
may in some cases be justified.
Current decisions to remain in business and to produce depend on long
term expectations. Even in perfectly competitive conditions (given full
employment) there may therefore be wasteful maintenance (in the widest
sense) and wasteful production, from the community’s point of view, if
long term expectations are over-optimistic. Over-optimism is probable in
declining industries, and there may therefore be a case for compulsory
restriction of output and scrapping of equipment.
In imperfectly competitive conditions there may be a case for compulsory
scrapping for a different reason, but not normally for output restriction.
When there is not full employment, policies that would otherwise be
‘ideal’ will still in general be desirable if they do not diminish national
employment. It is possible to devise a method of analysis that may be of
assistance in deciding under what conditions a so-called ‘ ideal’ policy of
reorganisation is likely to increase, and under what conditions it is likely to
decrease, national employment.
Wednesday, August 24.
Mr. P. Barnett WHALE.—International short term capital movements
(10.0).
The paper aims at making a classification of international short term
capital movements with a view to showing their effects on monetary
circulation, trade, prices and incomes in the countries concerned. The
Q2
458 SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—F.
classification offered is an empirical one rather than a formal logical division
of all the possibilities,
Four main classes are suggested :
(1) Those which most resemble normal long period capital movements,
i.e. that seek to take advantage of superior investment opportunities
abroad and result in additional real investment abroad.
(2) Those which provide gold to meet increasing monetary requirements
in the borrowing country.
(3) Equalising capital movements to meet balance of payments differ-
ences, motivated either by prospects of exchange profits or by interest
differences.
(4) Capital flights.
It is argued that (1) and (2) have no sort of deflationary effect in the
receiving country, but may have some such effect in the lending country ;
that (3) are deflationary or contribute to deflation in the receiving country
in a manner which may be considered appropriate, given adherence to an
international standard: that (4) tend to produce altogether undesirable
deflation in the receiving country. Some consideration will be given to
the possibilities of offsetting the effects of (4).
Finally two other types of short term capital movement are referred to,
namely the acquisition of foreign balances as reserves and speculative
investment abroad on security exchanges. It is suggested that the effects
of these are similar sometimes to those of one of the above classes and
sometimes to those of another.
Prof. E. RoLL.—The trend of Britain’s balance of payments (11.0).
This paper surveys the development of Britain’s balance of payments
between 1931 and 1937. It examines the relative weight of the different
items and endeavours to assess their influence, during the period in question,
on the trend of the whole of Britain’s international accounts. Special
attention is given to the striking fluctuations in the terms of trade; and
in this connection some well-known criticisms of protectionist policy are
further emphasised.
Mr. E. A. Rapice.—The measurement of the causes of variations in savings
in Great Britain (12.0).
Once the main determinants of different types of saving have been
analysed, the effects of each of them may be estimated by the method of
multiple correlation of the appropriate time series. The most important cause
of variation in all types of saving is variation in income. ‘The rate of
interest is also an important variable mainly because it has important effects
on shifts between different types of saving, and changes in the contributions
of various income groups to particular types of saving. If the effects of
these variations are eliminated, good estimatés can be made of ‘ income
elasticities ’ for the different types of saving. Figures are given showing
the proportions of any increase in total incomes which would flow into post
office savings banks, building societies, insurance companies, friendly
societies, etc. A linear relationship can similarly be estimated between the
incomes of all individuals and their savings, and also between business
savings and profits. Figures for investment in post-war years also lead to a°
linear relationship between net investment and profits. Clark’s quarterly
figures for 1929-36 lead to a linear relationship between investment and the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—F, G. 459
rate of increase in total income two years previously. The four equations,
when solved, involve cyclical fluctuations in income and investment with
an eight-year period.
SECTION G.—ENGINEERING.
Thursday, August 18.
PRESIDENTIAL AppDREsS by Prof. R. V. SOUTHWELL, F.R.S., on The
changing outlook of engineering science (10.0). (See p. 163.)
SHorT Papers by junior engineers (11.30).
Mr. D. G. CHRISTOPHERSON.—Relaxation method for the solution of
Poisson’s Equation.
Mr. J. R. GREEN.—Relaxation applied to calculate the flow of a com-
pressible fluid.
Mr. F. B. GRreaTREX.—Transients in transformers (Oscillograph
demonstration).
Mr. J. E. M. Coompes.—Suppression of radio interference caused by
trolley buses.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to works of Messrs. Kryn and Lahy, Letchworth (Steel castings).
Friday, August 19.
Mr. R. W. ALLEN, C.B.E.—Some experiences of the use of scale models in
general engineering (10.0).
The paper provides instances of the application of the well-known
technique of investigation by means of scale models to general engineering.
The purposes and scope of model testing are surveyed with particular
reference to the design of centrifugal pumps, fans and the fluid conveying
passages generally associated therewith. Three examples taken from
centrifugal pump design and one from the design of fans are mentioned in
some detail, as are three instances of fluid passage problems. Of these
latter, two instances are of channels for conveying water, while the third is
a reference to an extensive investigation into the supply of forced draught
air to ships’ boiler rooms. Attention is drawn to the close hydraulic
connection between the design of centrifugal and propeller water pumps
and the corresponding fans for displacing air. It is also pointed out that
the term scale model comprises the scaling of physical properties as well as
of linear dimensions. ‘These considerations are illustrated by an account of
a technique recently developed for the testing of water pumps by the use
of air as a working fluid. The paper concludes with references to applica-
tions of scale models in other branches of general engineering.
Discussion by Mr. E. F. Retr, Prof. C. M. Wuite, and Dr. J. P. Gort.
460 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G.
SHorT Papers by junior engineers (12.0).
Mr. G. C. EccLes.—A moving coil vibrometer.
AFTERNOON.
Visits to—
(a) Works of Messrs. Chivers & Sons, Histon.
(6) Model of Ouse Catchment Board.
Monday, August 22.
Major F. C. Coox.—Road development in Great Britain (10.0).
Prof. F. C. Lea.—A torque converter for motor cars (11.0).
SHORT Papers by junior engineers (12.0).
Mr. C. H. EpcecomBe.—The braking of railway trains and some tests
made to determine the coefficient of friction under various conditions.
Mr. D. M. Witcox.—The calculation of train running times.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH THE ABOVE SESSION.)
Joint Discussion with Section A (Mathematics and Physics) on Magnetic
measurements with special reference to incremental conditions (10.0).
Chairman: Prof. W. Cramp.
Prof. W. Cramp.—The position regarding incremental measurements.
Mr. C. E. Wess.—Recent improvements in soft magnetic materials.
Mr. D. C. Gati.—Instruments suitable for incremental magnetic
measurements.
The paper deals with the instruments and circuits suitable for the
measurement of incremental permeability upon rings and cores at low
degrees of alternating modulation.
Dr. L. G. A. Sms and Mr. J. Sprnxs.—The place of ballistic measure-
ments in incremental magnetism.
The paper draws attention to the possible adaptation of the classic
ballistic measurement to routine incremental magnetic testing. Itis proved
experimentally that very close agreement occurs between ballistic and
alternating current measurements so long as a low frequency sine wave of
current is used in the alternating current case. The paper shows further
that either for ring samples or for transformer core assemblies there is a
considerable range of superimposed inductions over which general agree-
ment between all methods of measurement, including the ballistic method,
can be relied upon, so long as the alternating current tests relate to silicon .
steels and to low frequencies. The ballistic measurement is convenient
for adjusting circuit conditions to give stated degrees of modulation of the
polarisations, and this has been used in the paper to establish values of
Soy
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G. 461
induction corresponding to full modulation of the polarising force for a
typical range of silicon steel samples. It is suggested that this condition
might form an acceptable means of limiting the range of incremental
measurements for industrial purposes and that with such limitation the
problems of measurement would be considerably simplified. Graphs and
tables of results are provided to support this view.
Mr. J. Greig and Mr. J. E. Parton.—Harmonic power in iron
testing.
Currents and voltages which are more or less non-sinusoidal are, in general,
obtained in circuits employed to produce alternating magnetisation in iron
cores. Certain methods of power measurement which are of great con-
venience and utility in iron loss testing depend for their accuracy on the
attainment of closely sinusoidal variation of either the voltage or the current
involved in the measurement, and as this sinusoidal variation is an ideal
which can only be approached, it may be necessary, where such methods are
employed, to determine the range within which power measurements may
be made with any required degree of accuracy.
The paper records the results of a number of tests in which an A.C.
potentiometer was employed to measure the iron loss in a ring specimen
under polarised conditions at a frequency of 50 cycles. The accuracy of the
potentiometer measurement was estimated from a comparison with the
indications of a quadrant electrometer used as a wattmeter. ‘Theoretical
considerations suggested that the required information might be obtained
by a simple practical method involving a measurement of the harmonic
content of the exciting current. It was confirmed that a useful estimate of
the accuracy of a loss measurement by the potentiometer could be made in
this way.
Mr. E. V. D. GLazier and Mr. J. E. PAaRton.— Relative measurements
on rings and cores in incremental testing.
The paper is concerned with certain important practical aspects of mag-
netic testing which are bound to arise in connection with the drafting of a
British Standard Specification. Thus the possibility of using a transformer
stamping assembly in place of the usual ring assembly for the measurement
of the incremental magnetic properties of iron is discussed with the aid of
characteristic experimental data. The differences found in incremental
permeability and iron loss values as measured on rings and on transformer
cores of the same material vary with the degree of polarisation. They
cannot be entirely attributed to the unavoidable air gap present in the
transformer assembly. If fundamental data upon the iron itself are re-
quired, ring specimens are still considered essential, but, on the other hand,
it is found that good repeat accuracy is obtainable on the assembled trans-
former core specimen, so that results taken upon a given specimen can be
regarded as a reliable guide to the behaviour of the size of core concerned.
The effects upon incremental permeability of tightening the core clamps,
of re-assembling the specimen, of employing different sized cores of a given
material and of assembling with butt or interleaved joints are shown by
experimental curves. Finally the paper deals with the practicability of
dispensing with a search winding during routine loss and permeability
measurements.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to works of Messrs. Pye Radio Ltd.
462 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G.
Tuesday, August 23.
Symposium on Vibration (10.0).
Prof. C. E. INcuis, O.B.E., F.R.S.—Resonance in relation to mechanical
vibrations (Demonstration).
Dr. F. H. Topp.—Vibration in ships.
A ship, being a steel structure, is particularly liable to vibration, and a
little may be felt in practically every vessel. ‘The exciting forces arise in
the propellers or from lack of balance in the main or auxiliary machinery.
The vibration which results may be either of a local nature, affecting only
a small part of the structure, or may be a general vibration of the whole
hull girder. When synchronism arises between the frequency of the
disturbing force and a natural frequency of the whole hull, serious resonant
vibration occurs, even though the magnitude of the disturbing force may
be quite small.
Vibration which is found to exist on a completed ship may be reduced in
amount by improving the balance of the machinery, ensuring accuracy of
manufacture in the propellers, perhaps by a change in design of the latter
with a consequent change in propeller revolutions per minute, by the use
of a vibration damper and, if it is of a local nature, by local stiffening of the
structure.
Resonant vibration of the whole hull could be avoided in the finished ship
if the natural hull frequencies could be calculated in the design stage, since
the frequencies of the disturbing forces would then still be capable of
adjustment. Methods for calculating these natural frequencies have been
developed, considering the hull girder as a simply supported beam immersed
in water, and the calculated values have been compared with those obtained
by observation on board ship. The first natural frequency for vertical
vibration, with two nodes in the length of the vessel, can now be predicted
with reasonable accuracy, but further data are required for different types of
ships, and, particularly, reliable figures for the first horizontal frequency.
When it is remembered that a ship is the home of a crew for months at a
time, and of passengers for perhaps several weeks, the importance of the
effects of vibration upon comfort cannot be overestimated.
Major B. C. Carter.—Vibration in aircraft.
The first part of the paper comprises descriptions of types of vibration
that occur in aircraft, and the second part deals with means of investigating
such vibration.
After brief reference to aircraft vibration due to aerodynamic forces, the
vibratory disturbances that may be produced by engines and airscrews are
considered. The manner in which torsional vibration of crankshaft-
airscrew systems comes about is then explained and tables of natural
frequencies are given in respect of representative direct-drive and geared
engines : methods of reducing torsional vibration are commented upon
and brief reference is made to lateral vibration of crankshafts. There
follows an examination of airscrew-blade vibration.
Mechanical and optical apparatus and instruments for investigating ~
vibration are next described and some typical records are given. Included
in this are the Cambridge and the R.A.E. vibrographs, the D.V.L. and the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—G, H. 463
R.A.E. torsiographs, apparatus for exciting vibration in airscrew blades,
and a moving-film camera for attachment to airscrew hubs whereby records
of airscrew-blade vibration have been obtained in flight by photographing
the filament of a small electric light bulb secured to a blade tip by adhesive
compound.
Finally, electronic aids to the measurement of vibration are reviewed and
some particular examples are described.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Ely and Newmarket.
Wednesday, August 24.
Mr. C. C. Mason, O.B.E.—Engineering instruments (with demonstration)
(10.0).
SHorT Papers by junior engineers (11.0).
Mr. A. W. SkempTon.—Settlement analysis of engineering structures.
Mr. S. J. PaLmeR.—Stresses in welded pipes with internal pressure and
end thrust.
SECTION H.—ANTHROPOLOGY.
A special exhibition of South Arabian antiquities, excavated by
Miss G. Caton Thompson in the Hadhramaut during the winter of
1937-8, was on view throughout the meeting in the Fitzwilliam Museum,
Department of Classical Antiquities.
Thursday, August 18.
Rey. E. W. Smitu.—A Congo pygmy language (10.0).
Discussion on Australia (10.30).
Dr. DonaLp F. THomson.—The Australian aborigine and the prob-
lems of administration.
The problems associated with the administration of native affairs in
Australia to-day are discussed briefly. This problem falls into three
sections :
1. The undetribalised native, who is still in possession of his culture and
social organisation.
2. The detribalised aborigine whose culture is wholly or partly broken
down...
3. The half-caste.
The discussion is concerned chiefly with the first question. The position
of native affairs in Australia, as well as depopulation and the principal factors
464 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
at work in this, are discussed. A summary is given of the recommendations
presented by the writer in a memorandum to the Commonwealth Govern-
ment following an investigation of native affairs in Arnhem Land, Northern
Territory.
The following proposals, which represent essential measures only, are
suggested, and aim chiefly at the removal of the major wrongs and injustices
confronting the aboriginal population in Australia and of endeavouring to
arrest immediately the increasing decline in population, pending the settled
policy and the establishment of a Department of Native Affairs :
That the remnant of native tribes in Federal Territory not yet
disorganised or detribalised be absolutely segregated, to preserve in-
tact their social and political institutions, their organisation and culture
in its entirety ; that the Native Reserve Arnhem Land be created an
inviolable reserve ; and that similar steps be taken to render inviolable
any other reserves in which the native population remains un-
detribalised. ‘That all the established watering depéts (within the
Reserve) be abolished, since the pearling vessels are manned chiefly by
Japanese whose presence is inimical to the welfare of the native popu-
lation. That the whole policy of administration of native justice be
revised ; the anomaly whereby Police Constables act as Protectors of
aboriginals be abolished, and that special courts, suitably constituted,
be established to deal with natives and native offences.
An important objection to the present system of justice is that the usual
deterrent effects of imprisonment—the sense of shame, the loss of prestige
in the eyes of his fellows, and the stigma that attaches to even a nominal
term of imprisonment, which make it a powerful deterrent to the white
man—are entirely lost on the aborigine, who suffers not at all in social
prestige by punishment under white man’s law.
While it is not suggested that the Government be committed to a
permanent and unprogressive policy of segregation, it is strongly urged that
since the previous contacts of the aborigines with western civilisation have
been wholly destructive, it should be the policy to maintain these reserves
inviolable for the natives who are still in possession of their culture until
and unless a sound working policy and one in the best interests of the
aboriginals is established, tested, and proved by experience over a long
period among the natives who are already detribalised.
The establishment of a separate Department of Native Affairs under a
trained director, staffed by men selected for their sympathies and quali-
fications for what must be regarded as a highly specialised work, is proposed,
with the objective of finally bringing the whole of the administration of
native affairs in Australia under one uniform control.
Prof. A. R. RaDcLIFFE-BRowN.—Anthropological research in Australia
(10.55).
On the basis of scanty available data it has been estimated that the
aborigines originally numbered 250,000 or 300,000. At the present time
there are less than 60,000 and probably less than 50,000. They have thus
been reduced in 150 years to one-fifth. There were originally several
hundred tribes, each with its own language and its own social system.
Many of these are now extinct. Others are reduced to a mere handful in
which only the old people of 50 or 60 years of age retain any knowledge ~
of their language and their former customs. There are hardly any tribes
in which the social system is not either broken down or beginning to break
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 465
down under the influence of the white man. The Australian aborigines
present a highly specialised form of society based on simple hunting and
collecting subsistence. Their great value for science is due to the fact that
they present for our study a large number of societies or social systems of a
single general type with many variations.
In Australia history has carried out an immense experiment for us upon
the results of which we ought to be able to draw important conclusions.
For during the many hundreds, or probably thousands, of years that the
Australian aborigines have lived in relative isolation from the rest of the
world they have been developing their languages, their forms of social
organisation, their ritual, their cosmological beliefs. We can never hope to
know how the process of development actually took place, but the results of
the process are there for our study if we can only study them before they
disappear for ever.
The study of Australian tribes began with the work of enthusiastic
amateurs, many of them missionaries. Financed by the Rockefeller Founda-
tion, a systematic survey of the still surviving tribes was begun in 1926, and
the scientific results fully justify the further expenditure of a good many
thousands of pounds. The work was planned at Sydney University and
carried out by Prof. Lloyd Warner, Prof. Elkin, Dr. D. F. Thomson and
others. We have now a good knowledge of the general features of social
organisation and totemism in a large proportion of the surviving tribes.
What is now needed is something more, namely a number of intensive
studies of carefully selected tribes in which a trained research-worker is
willing to stay at least two years, and preferably four, in the field, master
the native language in all its intricacies, record native texts and study the
whole system of ideas and beliefs of the people. Only by a sufficient
number of such investigations will it be possible to make full scientific use
of the opportunities that Australia offers to us and reach an adequate
understanding of a fascinating form of society doomed very soon to vanish.
GENERAL DISCUSSION (11.20).
Dr. DonaLp F. THomson.—Film of Australian life (12.0).
AFTERNOON.
Dr. J. G. D. CLark.—Recent excavations in the Fens (2.0).
Dr. G. E. DaniteL.—The portholed megaliths of the British Isles (2.35).
This paper consists of a description of the isolated portholed megaliths
and of those associated with prehistoric burial chambers which occur
in the British Isles, an analysis of their distribution and morphology, and
an attempt to explain their relationships to the portholes which occur
in other parts of Europe and to suggest various theories to account for their
origin and diffusion. Illustration by lantern slides.
Mr. C. W. Puitiies.—The Roman occupation of the Fenland (3.10).
At the opening of the Roman period the Fens were deserted, but by A.D. 100
an extensive agricultural occupation of native type had set in, chiefly on
the silt lands.
It is probable that the area was an Imperial domain.
Work at Welney has shown that by the end of the second century sea
floods began, but the wealth and activity of the region continued with little
466 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
abatement, so far as we know, till late in the fourth century. In Anglo-
Saxon times the region was again a wilderness.
The particular interest of the occupation is its size, intensive character,
and the various types of native agriculture displayed. The suggestion is
that the population was drawn from more than one part of Britain and that
it was entirely peasant in character. No administrative centre is known,
but this may have been at Durobrivae (Castor, Water Newton) on the
western fringe of the region. There is no positive evidence of Roman
drainage works on any scale and the occupation and abandonment of the
region appears to have depended in the main on the operation of natural
causes.
Mr. T. C. Lerupripce.—Weapons from Fenland waterways and their
relationship to ancient warfare (3.45).
Weapons of many periods are frequently dredged from Fenland rivers
or excavated from the beds of extinct watercourses (roddons) in the Fens.
These have usually been regarded as casual losses, but it will be shown
that, although they are seldom actually found in association, they frequently
fall into groups which can be correlated with recorded military actions in
historical times, or with invasions and other movements deduced from
archeological evidence in earlier periods. Thus a number of Late Bronze
Age spears and an early La Téne sword found at a certain point on the
river Wissey may be the result of fighting during one of the invasions
that broke up the Bronze Age civilisation of East Anglia; and later groups
may be correlated with Hereward’s defence of the Isle of Ely against William
the Conqueror, and with local incidents in the Barons’ Wars, the Peasants’
Revolt, etc.
Dr. Henry Fretp.—The physical characters of the modern peoples of Iran
and Irak (4.20).
Anthropometric data obtained in Iran (Persia) by the Field Museum
Anthropological Expedition to the Near East, 1934, reveal that the modern
Iranis belong for the most part to the Mediterranean race although Alpinoid,
Armenoid, Proto-Nordic, Mongoloid and Negroid elements are present in
the population, which numbers about twelve million individuals. The
Iranian Plateau dolichocephals can be divided into three groups, the most
important being the convex-nosed individuals. This type appears to have
developed on the Iranian Plateau. Among the brachycephals, who migrated
into Iran at an early date, there is a concave or straight-nosed, square-jawed
type, possibly Proto-Alpine, as well as a convex-nosed, high-vaulted head
of Armenoid type.
A brief comparison is made with the peoples of Iraq.
Friday, August 19,
Symposium on The Swanscombe find (10.0).
Mr. A. T. Marston.—The Swanscombe find.
The human remains consist of the complete occipital and left parietal
bones of a young adult which were found in June 1935 and March 1936
respectively, 24 ft. below the surface in the stratified Middle Gravels of
the Barnfield Pit, Swanscombe, Kent. Both bones lay in the same seam
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 467
of gravel although they were separated by a distance of 8 yds. The
associated animal bones, Elephas antiquus, Rhinoceros, etc., indicate inter-
glacial conditions, and the sequence of Acheulean implements recovered
brings to light the fact that the Barnfield deposits are earlier than those
gravels at a higher base level in Pearson’s Pit, Dartford Heath.
The Barnfield deposits are the infilling of a stranded river 1,400 ft. in
width, with a base level of about 73 ft. O.D., whose channel was cut prob-
ably in the pre-Boyn Hill Erosion Stage. In it is preserved an ascending
sequence of terraces. .
Lower Gravel Aggradation. Clactonian.
Older Middle Gravel Aggradation. Abbevillian (?) to
Middle Gravel Erosion Stage. Acheulean.
Later Middle Gravel Aggradation. Acheulean.
Upper Loam, and later still. » Acheulean.
New Craylands Pit Stage. Twisted ovate.
The precise position of the Swanscombe skull was at the commencement
of the Middle Gravel Erosion Stage, and it was found in the first oblique
bank left stranded as the waters became rejuvenated to cut a fresh channel
from the surface of the Older Middle Gravels (the habitation level of Swans-
combe Main) down through the Lower Loam and Lower Gravels to touch
the Thanet Sand at about 73 ft. O.D.
The depth of the subsequent aggradation from this level 73 ft. O.D.
to that of the surface of the deposits at Dartford Heath represents the
pre-Boyn Hill status of the Swanscombe skull horizon.
The still later excavation of the valleys of the Darent and Cray, and of
the formation of the descending terraces of the Lower Thames completes
the picture of the age of the Swanscombe skull.
A sub-plenal evolutionary stage of human development is evidenced by
the skull, perhaps best shown by the features of the endocranial cast. The
cranial capacity is estimated at less than 1,100 cc. (1,065 cc. from the
restored endocranial cast A.T.M.). It is considered by the writer that
the bone contacts at the antero-inferior and the postero-inferior angles
of the parietal bone indicate the sub-plenal stage of the flexion of the cranial
base; that the plane of the foramen magnum looked downwards and
backwards ; and that there was a certain amount of proclination of the head.
The shortness of the basilar process and the form of the pharyngeal tubercle
are distinctly human and non-anthropoid features.
Prof. W. B. R. Kinc.—The geological evidence (10.30).
The fact that the Swanscombe skull was found in a deposit which is
part of the Boyn Hill or 100-ft. Terrace of the Thames adds greatly to its
importance.
The fluviatile deposits of this terrace are divided into an upper and a
lower part, separated by a period of erosion, but both parts yield the same
general type of mammalian fauna, which is also found in the Clacton channel
at lower levels.
This is interpreted as showing that the river after depositing the lower
gravels cut down and formed the Clacton channel, but later aggraded its
bed again to lay down the higher (skull-bearing) gravel.
The fauna indicates a temperate climate. On the north of the Thames
in Essex the gravels of this terrace rest on a spread of boulder clay referred
to the Great Chalky or Chalky Jurassic Boulder Clay of the Great Eastern
glaciation of East Anglia. At a later date valleys were cut through the
468 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
fluviatile terrace gravels and solifluxion deposits of the definitely cold period
represented by Coombe Rock descended into the valleys lying across the
truncated gravels.
The skull-bearing gravels belong, therefore, to the temperate interglacial
between the Great Eastern glaciation of East Anglia and the cold period
represented by the Main Coombe Rock of the Thames Valley.
Mr. M. A. C. Hinton, F.R.S.—The faunal evidence (10.50).
Mr. C. F. C. Hawkes.—The archeological associations of the
Swanscombe skull (11.10).
Whereas the Lower Gravel and Lower Loam of the 100-ft. Thames
Terrace at Swanscombe yielded in Barnfield Pit industries of the Clactonian
series, the Middle Gravel was characterised mainly by an Early-Middle
Acheulean comparable to the Acheulean III of Breuil. This industry
extended through the Lower and Upper Middle Gravels including the
channel in which the two bones of the Swanscombe skull were found:
the comparatively rare occurrences of a Clactonian III (High Lodge)
industry being unrepresented in their vicinity, and typical Acheulean
implements being abundant both in close proximity to them and elsewhere,
it may safely be inferred that this Early-Middle Acheulean industry is that
to be associated with the individual represented by the skull ; furthermore,
the stratigraphy precludes any admixture of later material. Such an
association of a human fossil with a hand-axe industry does not appear to
have been recorded previously in Europe.
Sir ARTHUR Kertu, F.R.S.—The Swanscombe fossil (11.20).
The bones unearthed at Swanscombe are very important because they give
authentic information of the only mid-Pleistocene European known to us.
It has been calculated that the original length of the skull was 185 mm.
(quite as long as the skull of many living Englishmen) and the width 144 mm.
The roof of the skull was low, but no lower than in some modern skulls.
The capacity of the brain chamber has been estimated at 1,350 cc., which
places Swanscombe man in the upper limit of the smaller-brained races of
humanity.
The convolutions of the brain have left a sharp impression on the interior
of the skull bones, and from casts made from the bones it is clearly seen that
the convolutions form a complex pattern in which there are striking resem-
blances to that of the modern human brain. But there are points of difference
which indicate an evolving organ which has not yet reached the modern
level, particularly in those regions which are believed to sustain the higher
functions of the brain. In the occipital region, as in Piltdown man, there is
an extreme degree of asymmetry which is usually regarded as an indication
of specialisation.
Even the oldest of the Neanderthal skulls are marked and moulded in
quite a different way from the bones of the Swanscombe skull. The only
fossil skull which possesses comparable markings is that of Piltdown man—
a much older English skull. Prolonged investigation has convinced the
author that there is a relationship between the Piltdown and Swanscombe’
men, the Piltdown bones being by far the more primitive in their
characterisation.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 469
Prof. E. W. Le Gros Crark, F.R.S., and Dr. G. M. Morant.—The
Swanscombe fossil (11.40).
The Swanscombe fossil consists of complete occipital and left parietal
bones of an individual whose age is estimated to be 20 to 25. A comparison
of the measurements and contours of the bones shows that the great majority
of their characters, whether considered singly or in combination, fall well
within the range of variation exhibited by Homo sapiens. It can also be inferred
that the cranial capacity of the complete skull (estimated at about 1,325 cc.)
was quite unexceptional. There are certain peculiarities of the archaic
specimen suchas the breadth of the occipital bone, the thickness of both bones,
the extension backwards of the sphenoidal air sinus into the basi-occipital
bone, and the high degree of asymmetry of the markings on the endocranial
aspect of the occipital bone. These features, however, can be matched in
modern skulls. ‘The endocranial cast shows that the cerebral hemispheres
were well convoluted, and there is no certain evidence that the convolutional
pattern was in any way of a primitive type. Although the cast gives the
impression of a somewhat ‘ ill-filled’ skull (i.e. the contours are rather
angular instead of being well rounded), it indicates that the brain of this
Acheulian fossil had acquired a status comparable with that of modern man.
It is, of course, necessary to admit that the missing parts of the
Swanscombe skull may have been distinctly different from those of modern
man, but on the evidence of the fragments which are available it is suggested
that this fossil man was indistinguishable from Homo sapiens.
Dr. D. A. E. GARROD.
The observations of Sir A. Keith and Prof. Le Gros Clark on the Swans-
combe fossil prepare us for the possibility that we may have to recognise
the existence of man of modern type associated with the hand-axe cultures.
If this should prove to be the case, it will have a bearing on the Kanam and
Kanjera problem. However unsatisfactory the circumstances surrounding
the discovery of these fragments (and this must be recognised), the difficulties
raised, inherent in the specimens themselves, will be resolved if man of modern
type should prove to be associated with Acheulean tools at Swanscombe.
It is only just to recognise that Dr. Leakey has always maintained the
probability of this association, and it now seems likely that further dis-
coveries at Swanscombe will show that he is right.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE SESSION.)
Dr. E. J. Lrnpcren.—Winter life in Swedish Lapland (10.0).
In the Sirkas district of Norbottens lin there are both Karesuando Lapps,
recently emigrated from the north, and Jokkmokk Lapps, old inhabitants
of the area. At first there was much friction between the newcomers,
driven southwards by Norwegian boundary restrictions, and the Lapps
whose pastures they invaded, but mutual adjustments have now been made.
Every year the Lapps leave their summer encampments in the mountains
to spend the winter in the forested country further south, some of them
travelling over a hundred miles. The children then go away to boarding-
school, while most of the women, infants and a few old men stay in small
towns where they live in log huts usually rented by the month from Swedes
or Finns.
The rest of the men live in tents or huts out in the woods, inspecting
the reindeer at least every other day and often rounding them up so that
470 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
other owners can separate, identify, and drive off any of theirs which
have strayed. ‘The herders may ski over thirty-five miles, returning
long after dark, in carrying out their tasks. The question of pasture
is the most urgent preoccupation ; in bad years, when the deep snow is
overlaid by a thick frozen crust, whole herds may die of starvation.
‘Railway trains also kill reindeer which stray on to the track, but compensa-
tion is paid by the company.
In early February as many members of each family as can afford to go to
Jokkmokk by bus or train, which have superseded reindeer-drawn sleds,
gather for the annual market. ‘The Lapps sell their reindeer skins and buy
cloth and various supplies for the coming year. Special services are held
in the Lapp language in the Lutheran Church. A meeting with the officials
also takes place, at which administrative details and proposed legislation
affecting the Lapps’ welfare are freely discussed. "The Lapps show an
increasing tendency to formulate and express their own opinions. ‘These
do not always coincide with the official view, although several measures
have been adopted by a benevolent government to lessen the difficulties now
involved in living chiefly by reindeer-breeding, with much restricted pasture
lands.
Hlustrated by slides and a colour film taken by Mr. N. A. C. Croft.
Mr. B. R. S. Mecaw.—Manx house types (10.35).
Mr. J. HORNELL.—The polygenetic origins of plank-built boats (11.10).
In essays on the evolution of plank-built boats attention has never been
directed sufficiently to the technique of the constructional methods charac-
teristic of different regions and of the different types. The universal habit
has been to take the vessels in their completed state and then to apply
morphological methods to their study from this limited aspect.
The conclusions so reached may be correct but they remain controversial
hypotheses that cannot be proved conclusively ; neither can they indicate
definitely whether the divergent forms were reached by a combination of
diffusion with local variation or whether they arose through independent
invention.
Working on the principle now put forward that the only sound procedure
in this inquiry is to take into primary consideration the technique employed
by the builders of the various types, the conclusion is reached that there are
at least four types of planked boats which have had independent evolution.
These are :
(a) The clinker or clench-built type, characterised by inserted frames.
(6) The carvel-built type ; planked on a pre-formed framework.
(c) The frameless river craft of ancient Egypt and the present-day naggr
of Nubia.
(d) The junks of China, strengthened by transverse bulkheads in place of
frames.
The evidence offered substantiates the view that the two in present-day
use in Europe have evolved from dugout canoes. It is equally clear that
they developed by different paths into forms superficially remarkably similar
and with the capacity to perform like duties.
The other two types are just as clearly derived through two distinct lines
of evolution from raft forms of different material and construction; the
Egyptian from the papyrus raft-canoe pointed at each end; the Chinese
from one constructed of bamboos or of logs of timber.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 471
Dr. MarcareT Murray.—Some sociological aspects of Cambridge (11.50).
Anthropology should not be applied merely to recording ‘ ye beastly
customs of ye heathen,’ but should be used for studying our own people.
An English anthropologist studying England has one great advantage over
those who go among the heathen in being able to speak the language fluently ;
accurate information is therefore more easily obtained. ‘The peculiar con-
dition of Cambridge, with its sharp division into Town and University,
offers an interesting field for anthropological investigation.
Mr. Percy Leason.—A new view of Quaternary cave Art (12.30).
A review of the current and accepted ideas of the depiction of ‘ action’
in the art of the Quaternary period is undertaken, the subject being
approached from the viewpoint of the artist rather than the anthropologist.
The view of the extraordinarily life-like attitudes and the splendid ‘ action ’
exhibited by many of these famous examples is reviewed and discussed.
A criticism is given of the view that they reveal an almost ‘ photographic ’
accuracy of vision that was exercised by Quaternary man in order that his
models should be ‘ made at all hazards to look as if they were moving.’
It is suggested that the life-like postures exhibited by many of these
figures are apparent rather than real, and that on closer examination they show
faults that are evident even to the ‘ slowest’ eye. In particular there is a
striking contrast between the treatment of the bodies of the animals and
the feet.
This, however, is not to be attributed to any lack of capacity on the part
of the artist, for the general ‘ tip-toe’ appearance, and the often relaxed
_ appearance of the legs, when they should be tense if the beast were involved
in the action in which it appears to be depicted, is actually due to the fact
that the cave artists made painstaking studies of dead animals. This is
consistent, not only with the postures in which many fine examples are
depicted, but with the skill with which the body and other characteristics
are often delineated.
Furthermore it is demonstrated that if this theory is accepted another
difficulty of the artist in viewing the many examples of cave art is also
explained—i.e. that the sighting point is often lower than the centre of the
animal’s body and very often lower than the level of the feet.
A series of illustrations in support of the thesis was presented.
AFTERNOON.
Symposium on The Middle Paleolithic (2.0).
Mr. M. C. Burxitt.—Introduction.
In Lower Paleolithic times at least two distinct civilisations, each com-
prising a number of cultures, can be distinguished even in such a restricted
area as Europe. The use of well-known French culture names for these
allied cultures—even if they belong to the same culture cycle or civilisation—
creates difficulties. Prehistorians should determine the cultural sequence
for each geographical area, name them using local names, and only later
correlate them with cultures belonging to the same civilisation elsewhere.
One of the civilisations during Lower Palzolithic times in Europe includes
a large number of cultures whose industries were more particularly made on
flakes. Only in eastern France and Eastern England do we find these
industries associated with others made from cores (the coup de poing civilisa-
tion). The flake-tool industries are all allied, although slightly differing
472 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
between themselves. It is unsatisfactory to class them all together and to use
western European cultural names (Clactonian, Levalloisian, etc.) to describe
them. Each regional flake-tool culture should be considered separately.
Sir ARTHUR KeirH, F.R.S.—Men of the Middle Paleolithic.
Europe—Men of the Middle Stone Age in Europe are usually described
under the specific name Homo neanderthalensis, but as Neanderthal has
become widely used in a generic sense it makes for clarity if we speak of
those who lived in Spain, France, Belgium, Italy and south Germany as
Chapellians, as they are best represented by the man found at La Chapelle
aux Saints and described in 1910 by Marcelin Boule. Chapellians show a
considerable range in structural characterisation and there appear to have
been local races or varieties. In south and central Germany fossil remains
have been found near Weimar (Ehringsdorf) and in Wiirtemberg (Steinheim)
which belong to an earlier phase than Chapellians and, though Neanderthal
in type, are peculiar in several respects. "They may be called Ehrings-
dorfians. ‘The earliest and the most remarkable of those remains is the
skull of a woman, found at Steinheim in 1933, which bears resemblances to
mankind of modern type. At Krapina, in Croatia, yet another local
Neanderthal type has been found. Krapinians were of light build ; their
limb bones were moulded on slender lines ; they were not so big-brained
as some of the Chapellians and Ehringsdorfians. Nota single fossil bone of
the Neanderthal type has been found in England, though the type came as
near to us as Jersey.
Palestine —Though Palestinians of the Middle Stone Age are Neander-
thalian in many of their characters they have numerous features of modern
man. In many details of structure they resemble the earliest Caucasians
known to us—men of the Cromagnon type. They were tall, robust and
big-headed.
Java.—Eleven fragmentary skulls were found on a terrace of the Solo
river in 1931. Solo man was a low-browed type with superficial resemblances
to Neanderthal man, yet different in characterisation. ‘The type seems
descended from the earlier Pithecanthropus and there is evidence which leads
us to believe that Solo man represents a type ancestral to the aborigine of
Australia.
Africa —Much is known of Middle Stone Age man in Africa. Important
recent discoveries are (1) the Florisbad skull discovered in the Orange
Free State in 1934 by Dr. Dreyer. This skull, intermediate to the Rhodesia
specimen and the later Boskop type of South Africa, seems to represent a
type which is ancestral to Bushman and Hottentot. (2) The remains found
at Eyassi, East Africa, in 1935 by Kohl-Larsen. Eyassi man outwardly
resembles Solo man, but real affinities are likely to link him to Rhodesian
man.
There is no support, so far as anatomical evidence goes, for those who seek
to explain resemblances of the stone culture of one continent to that of
another continent by postulating intercontinental migration. ‘There may
have been diffusion of knowledge, but there is no evidence of diffusion of
race.
Dr. F. E. ZEUNER.—The geological evidence (2.25). ‘
The results of investigations by various workers (D. M. A. Bate, A. C.
Blanc, H. Breuil, D. Garrod, H. Kelley, O. Schmidtgen, W. Soergel, F. E.
Zeuner) on sections in which the stratigraphical position of Mousterian
and Aurignacian can be studied in detail, are summarised.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 473
It is evident that, in the area from Central and West Europe through the
Mediterranean to Palestine, the Mousterian, Levalloiso-Mousterian, and
the uppermost Levalloisian, probably representing Homo neanderthalensis,
lasted from the warm interglacial Riss/Wiirm until the end of the first phase
of the Wiirm glaciation. The Aurignacian (as representative of Homo
sapiens) everywhere appears before the maximum of the second phase of
Wiirm, in most places already during the interstadial Wiirm 1/Wirm 2.
As lower Aurignacian, however, has been found in a climatically datable
position only in Palestine whilst elsewhere deposits identifiable with the
interstadial Wiirm 1/Wiirm 2 contain developed Aurignacian, it seems that
Aurignacian Man did not spread generally in the area under consideration
before the middle of this interstadial. It is noteworthy that at least in
North France and possibly in parts of middle Italy also, the Middle Palzo-
lithic did not become extinct before the climax of the second phase of the
Wiirm glaciation when the Aurignacian had become well established in the
remainder of the area. In North France, the section of St. Pierre-les-
Elbeuf near Rouen suggests a recurrence of Levalloisian in early Wiirm 2
after Upper Palzolithic Man had visited the locality during the preceding
interstadial.
Dr. D. A. E. Garrop.—A note on the lithic industries of Ehringsdorf
and Wallertheim (2.40).
Mr. A. L. Armstronc.—The Middle Paleolithic in Rhodesia and
South Africa (3.0).
The Middle Palzolithic cultures of South Africa have a wide distribution
and in general facies resemble those of Europe, but there is evidence,
particularly in Rhodesia, that the earlier phases are linked in close associa-
tion with the South African Acheulean, and the later ones with the South
African Aurignacian.
Dr. K. P. Oaxtey.—The earlier Palaeolithic flake industries tn
relation to the Pleistocene sequence in the Thames valley (3.20).
Since it has been shown that the group of cultures to which the Mous-
terian belongs extends far back into the Lower Paleolithic the application
of the term ‘ Middle’ Palzolithic has become difficult. This is well
illustrated by the cultural sequence in the Thames Valley.
The earliest flake-industry recognised in the Thames Valley is the Early
Clactonian ; this is found in the deposits of the Lower Barnfield stage, from
which true bifaces are absent. It may be shown to pre-date the introduction
of Middle Acheulean culture into the area. Evolved Clactonian flake-
implements, formerly classed as ‘ Early Mousterian,’ are found associated
with a late Middle Acheulean industry in deposits which are earlier than the
Main Coombe Rock of the Thames Valley. Recent researches in East
Anglia by Mr. Reid Moir seem to confirm the identification of the ‘ Mous-
terian ’ industry associated with the Main Coombe Rock as Early Leval-
loisian. The industries occurring in the series of deposits which succeed
the Coombe Rock (i.e. the Crayford Brickearths, etc.) are of Middle Leval-
loisian facies. Discoveries in the valleys of the Lea and the Wey indicate
that the ‘ arctic’ peats of Ponders End, etc., are Late Levalloisian, and not
Magdalenian as originally supposed.
474. . SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
Mr. T. T. Paterson.—The Middle Palaeolithic industries in relation to
the Pleistocene sequence of S.E. England (3.40).
DISCUSSION (4.0).
Mrs. A. BOWLER-KELLEY.—Middle and Earlier Stone Age industries in
south-west Africa (4.15).
In south-west Africa the surface industry, occasionally imbedded in
limestone spring deposits, is an undifferentiated Middle Stone Age usually
of quartz, more rarely of quartzite or shale. It consists of smallish Levallois-
like cores, flakes, unretouched points and blades and some scrapers
reminiscent of Smithfield types.
In 1937, at a new site, Ameib Mine, the author identified in a thin gravel,
a typologically older complex of broad flakes and hand-axes of dolerite and
quartzite, called by the late Dr. Lebzelter the ‘ Ohombahe Kultur,’ as an
ensemble of strong Lower Fauresmith flavour with Victoria West elements. .
Further north, at the tin mine of Uis, was discovered a workshop of late
Victoria West facies the artifacts of which occur in immense numbers both
rolled and unrolled throughout a three metre thick gravel deposit in a now
completely dry valley. A study of the état physique shows a perfectly
chromatic series and with both long and ‘ horse-hoof ’ type cores and flakes,
cleavers and crude hand-axes in all degrees of rolling. This find extends
the known range of the Victoria West industry for approximately a thousand
miles in a north-westerly direction.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to Ely, Littleport, Welney, Mildenhall and Newmarket.
Sunday, August 21.
Excursion to Gog and Magog Hills, Ickleton, Saffron Walden and
Bartlow.
Monday, August 22.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Prof. V. GorDOoN CHILDE on The Orient and
Europe (10.0). (See p. 181.)
Prof. StanteEy A. Cooxk.—The re-discovery of the ancient Orient: its
bearing on modern thought (11.0).
The importance of this area is by no means confined to the part it has
played in giving birth to the three great monotheisms : Judaism, Christianity
and Islam. Besides the generally recognised significance of the area for the
growth of early culture, the fact that its actual history can be traced over
so many millennia makes it a unique field for the study of processes of
development. In tracing the outlines of pre-history, proto-history, the
period covered by the Bible, and the subsequent medieval and modern
ages we can throw light upon a variety of linguistic, social, political and
ideological changes. What is often called ‘ the unchanging East’ provides”
positive material for reconsidering our conceptions of the processes of
human development or evolution. Especially noteworthy are the gradual
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 475
rise of ethical, humanist, scientific and philosophical interests in the middle
centuries of the first millennium B.c., and the question of the changes now
taking place over a much wider area.
Miss E. W. GarDNER.—Pleistocene terraces and paleoliths in south Arabia
(11.30).
Miss G. CaTton-THompson.—Archeological work in the Hadhramaut,
south Arabia, 1937-8 (12.0).
The archeological objects of the recent expedition were :
(1) To bridge the gap in paleolithic distribution maps between East
Africa and Asia—in particular to test a possible channel of diffusion of
blade and burin industries into East Africa. The results may be
summarised : (a) The bifacial complex of the lower palzolithic appears
to be absent in south-west Arabia. Combining present results with
those of Dr. Huzayyin, one hand-axe only has been found in Yemen,
none in Hadhramaut. (b) The dominance of a crude flake industry of
Levallois type widely distributed from the sea-board to the Rub-el-
Khali. Miss Gardner shows its occurrence in her 10, 5 and 3 m.
gravel terraces, as well as in zxolian silt. The continuation of this
culture during a long geological period is postulated. (c) That blade
and burin industries did not reach South Arabia in Quaternary times,
which retained the flake tradition throughout. (d) That no evidence of
Stone Age contacts between South Arabia and East Africa was found.
In late historic times, however, a small obsidian industry, probably of
local Arabian material, was introduced, presumably from East Africa.
(2) To test the possible occurrence in South Arabia of chalcolithic painted
pottery, etc., indicating contacts with the Makrau coast, Mesopotamia
and India in the third or fourth millennia. No evidence was found in
the area visited for such contacts.
(3) To investigate the material culture of pre-Islamic periods of whatever
date, and by its help to introduce some dating, absolute or relative,
into the history.
The work took place in the Wadi ’Amd, near Hureidha. A temple,
domestic dwellings, and tombs were excavated.
Dating.—The earliest possible date is given by import seals, which may
be sixth to fourth century B.c. in their probably Achaemenid homeland. On
the other hand some beads are current in Egypto-Roman times, and a
glass bottle looks equally late. As the temple was reconstructed twice,
and the ossuary, from which datable objects were got, probably represents
a considerable length of time—z200 years at least is suggested—an inclusive
date of about 300 to 100 B.c. or later may be a fair estimate, subject, however,
to possible further evidence from inscriptions. It is suggested that the
temple architecture was influenced more by Persia than by the classical
world.
Miss W. Lams.—Prehistoric Anatolia: excavations at Kusura, near
Afyon (12.30).
Kusura, situated in the debatable country between the western cultural
zone of Anatolia (known to us from Troy, Yortan, etc.), and the central
provinces (represented by Alishar and Bogazkéy), provides important
evidence concerning the extent of the Hittite domination to the west and
the contacts of the more primitive peoples during the early age of metal.
476 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H.
The site consists of a town and an extra-mural cemetery. The town was
first occupied in the chalcolithic age (period A) by the makers of an excellent
monochrome ware whose affinities are somewhat obscure; but their
successors, in period B (covering part of the second millennium), definitely
belong to the western group. Their wares are marked by a wealth of plastic
decoration ; their houses, mainly of mud-brick, are often preserved to a
considerable height. A transitional period follows, when the potters’
wheel was introduced and red-cross bowls recalling those of Troy V were
made. In the second millennium (period C), Kusura came under Hittite
influence, and there is reason to believe that the citadel, like those of Alishar
and Bogazkéy, was fortified. 'The cemetery, which seems to belong to
period A, contained pithos-burials and cist-graves.
M. L’AsBE BREUIL.—The thirty metres terrace of the Somme. (Taken as
read.)
Altitude : 30 metres above the sunk bed (to the top, including the loess
and its loams). At Abbeville it is only a few metres above the marshes ;
at Menchecourt the Riss-Wiirm beach is above it.
In the coarse basal gravel, the result of solifluxion, it contains crushed
industries coming from the beds of the 40-metre terrace (above the sunk
valley) : Abbevillian, Clacton I, Acheul I; it has lost the Cromerian fauna
of this high terrace (Elephas meridionalis, Rhinocerus etruscus, Machairodus).
In favoured sites, such as Bourdon, it is perfectly preserved as far as the
edge of the marshes, and has no lower terrace superposed. Elsewhere,
the latter has swept it away, leaving only a hanging cornice, though it very
often covers lower lying scraps of it. The rocky base, visible at Bourdon,
drops at a rather acute angle.
Section from the base upwards :—
(1) Solifluxion at the base : Abbevillian, Clacton I, Acheul I, all crushed.
(2) Sand and fine fluviatile gravel ; Acheul II intact at its base. Warm
Fauna.
(3) Middle solifluxion, a great part swept away.
(4) Sand and fine fluviatile gravel ; Acheul II intact at the base and the
top ; some few small Levallois flakes.
(5) Marked solifluxion, intact. Evolved Clactonian on the surface.
(6) Sand with warm water shells, weathered into reddish sand above.
Acheul IV (? the oldest loess).
(7) Solifluxion of the base of the old loess. Acheul V superposed.
(8) Old loess. On top, signs of peat.
(9) A slight solifluxion destroying this.
(10) Red loam. (Acheul VI and VII.)
(11) Wiirm I solifluxion, Levallois V on top.
(12) Lower recent loess.
(13) Middle solifluxion, Levallois VI on top.
(14) Middle recent loess.
(15) Upper solifluxion, Levallois VII on top.
(16) Upper recent loess.
(17) Brick earth with gravel coming from a destroyed solifluxion. Upper
Paleolithic.
AFTERNOON.
Prof. C. DaryLi Forpe.—The stability of unilineal kin groups (2.15).
The fundamental importance of unilineal kin groups in primitive social
organisation has long been recognised. Unilineal reckoning permits the
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 477
maintenance of stable social relations within and between self-perpetuating
groups. But stability and persistence have, in schematic formulations,
been given too absolute a character. he number, constitution and
functions of kin groups in a given society are in fact subject to significant
changes as a result of processes of fission, accretion and combination.
Population trends are likely to affect the balance of these processes. Their
importance in modifying the social structure over relatively short periods
of time are demonstrated by field data from communities of declining and
of increasing population.
Dr. M. Fortes.—A religious ‘ racket’ in the Gold Coast (2.50).
The Tong Hills ‘ fetish ’ is widely known in the Gold Coast. It shows
a primitive, technically backward society exploiting the credulity of people
of superior culture already partly westernised. The ‘fetish’ is actually
one of several, each the cult centre of a group of clans. Esoterically, the
cult is a blend of ancestor and earth reverence, initiation ceremonies,
calendrical festivals, magic and oracle. Exoterically, it purports to confer
fertility and prosperity, and to be an omniscient oracle. The countrymen
of the cult custodians scoff at this. But more distant tribes reverence the
‘fetishes’ with fear and devotion, making pilgrimages to them with
valuable gifts. An elaborate organisation sustains this traffic. In recent
years, chiefly through the enterprise of one man, utilising his power as
Headman, one ‘ fetish’ has extended its influence widely through Ashanti
and the Coast. All classes of people, including literates and Christians,
flock thither, paying large sums to supplicate for children, health, wealth.
The Headman’s messengers, in the name of the ‘ fetish,’ keep the pilgrims
up to scratch by persuasion or threats. This traffic is so lucrative that
competition for it has split the Hill clans into hostile factions.
Mrs. A. HINcstoN QuiGGIN.—Primitive money: origin and evolution
(3.25).
The object of this paper is: (1) To draw attention to the collection of
about 300 examples of primitive currency in the Museum of Archeology
and Ethnology. (2) To show how a study of such a collection upsets
economic theories of the origin and evolution of money. The usual theory
is that money results from barter in one (or all) of three ways: (1) From
the inconvenience of barter—‘ hungry hatter theory.’ (2) From selection of
some article wanted by all—‘ coconut theory.’ (3) From substitution of a
token for the articles bartered—knives, hoes, etc. Investigation of the
present-day use of primitive currency suggests that it is not derived
primarily from barter, but from present-giving, ‘ bride-price’’ and wergeld.
These fix the standard of value and evolve a recognised medium of exchange
(two of the main functions of money) and endow certain objects with a
ceremonial value irrespective of their intrinsic worth. 'The whole process
is illustrated in backward societies at the present day.
Sir Ricuarp Pacet, Bt.—The influence of sign language on civilisation (4.0).
The linguistic sciences can have little or no relation to Anthropology
until they study the gestures rather than the sounds of human speech.
The born deaf mute naturally expresses only generalised ideas, viz. by a
general pantomime ; his mentality is pre-Aurignacian !
478 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
Helen Keller’s education only began when she realised that everything
had a ‘ name,’ which could be spelt in the hand alphabet.
Civilisation may have begun when man—in Aurignacian times—became
an Artist, and thus learnt to symbolise the isolated elements of his environ-
ment; characteristic hand gestures then produced corresponding mouth
gestures—i.e., words.
The poetic gift enabled man to develop signs for abstract ideas—by
analogy to their concrete counterparts.
A ‘ verbal ’ type of sign language would be of great value for the education
of deaf children. Their parents could learn it very easily—the child would
then think in terms of verbal symbols represented by hand signs. From
these, the transition to written words would be relatively easy.
Sign language gives also the clue to the development of grammatical
forms, inflexions, etc., in speech, and offers a new field for grammarians.
The writer pleads for the co-operation of anthropologists and linguists,
so that human speech may take its legitimate place among the sciences of
human behaviour.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE SESSION.)
Sir ArTHUR KEITH, F.R.S.—Re-examination of the Piltdown problem
(2.0).
A prolonged re-examination of the Piltdown fragments in the light
thrown on them by the intact bones of the Swanscombe skull has led the
speaker to alter his original reconstruction of the Piltdown head. Of all
the early forms of humanity known to us, that of Piltdown is the most strange
and most misunderstood.
The early types of humanity found in all other parts of the world frankly
proclaim their ape-like heritage. It is otherwise with Piltdown man. His
forehead is strongly made, but it is upright compared with that of his con-
temporaries in China, Japan and Africa. His head was high-vaulted and
his brain relatively large, but as regards some parts of his face, particularly
in the region of the chin and j jaw, Piltdown man was the most ape-like of all.
This early English representative of humanity blended characters of ancient
ape and evolved man and represents one of Nature’s vain attempts to produce
a new type of mankind, for we have every reason to suppose that Piltdown
progeny became extinct before the dawn of modern conditions.
Asymmetry of the brain is believed to be a mark of specialisation and a
feature confined to highly evolved modern races of mankind. Now there
is no doubt that the brain of Piltdown man was asymmetrical to a degree
rarely met with in modern human heads, and in Swanscombe man there is
also a high degree of asymmetry. We must alter our conception of the
antiquity and meaning of asymmetry of the brain. In the Piltdown breed
of humanity Nature was trying a bold experiment of concentrating the higher
functions in one hemisphere of the brain. It is only when we accept the
existence of cranial and cerebral asymmetry that the Piltdown fragments fit
into their appropriate anatomical position.
Modern man has shed many of his ape-like features, which have been
replaced by those proper to juvenile stages of growth, and this tendency is
called pedomorphism. Piltdown man has several pedomorphic characters
in his skull—an unexpected finding in so early a type of humanity but not so
surprising when we consider that one of the most primitive of living races,
the Bushmen of South Africa, manifests such characters abundantly.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 479
Dr. Harry CAMPBELL.—The immense range of natural selection (2.20).
No inherent drive operates in the evolution of species.
Organic evolution results from a discriminating selection of transmissible
variations (mutations), and has been in operation from the first dawn of
life. Without such selection at every stage of evolution neither advance
nor retrogression would occur.
The specific development of a member of any given species, including its
tendency to mutations, is determined by the heredity complex of that species.
This is represented by an average zygote of the species, the specific ‘ germ-
plasm’ of which is derived from the germinal epithelium and gametes of
the two parents, whereby its continuity is preserved.
The evolution of a species is the evolution of its heredity complex, which is
built up by natural selection. It follows that the mutations and mutation-
trends of a species are the products of natural selection, which therefore
should take precedence of mutations in the evolutional process.
All organic evolution, mental and bodily, takes place by the natural
selection of mutations. Progressive mental evolution results from the
selection of super-average mental endowment possessing survival value.
This is favoured by good prehensibility and adequate scope.
Sir ARTHUR KEITH, F.R.S.—Early Palestinians (2.55).
To-day we may claim to know more of the peoples who lived in Palestine
many tens of thousands of years ago than of their contemporaries in any other
land. For this knowledge we are indebted to the British School of Archz-
ology in Jerusalem and the American School of Prehistoric Research, whose
expedition, led by Dr. Dorothy Garrod, explored caves on Mount Carmel
which are unrivalled for the completeness and the length of time covered
by their records of human occupation. The earliest people revealed by the
excavations were living on Mount Carmel before the onset of the last Ice
Age.
Bones embedded in hard limestone were transported to the Museum of
the Royal College of Surgeons, where they were carefully chiselled out and
examined by Mr. T. D. McCown and the author. They were taken from
two caves, Tabun and Skhul, which, there is reason to believe, were inhabited
in the same climatic phase. From preliminary examination of the bones it
was at first thought that two distinct races had inhabited the caves—the
Tabun people resembling the Neanderthal type of ancient Europe and the
Skhul people being more akin to a primitive sort of Caucasian or white man.
Later, however, intermediate stages between the two extremes were found
and the idea of two races was abandoned. In no modern community could
one find such a wide range of individual variability. 'The evidence suggests
that the people of Mount Carmel were in a state of evolutionary instability.
The Palestine discoveries throw light on the possible origin of the Cro-
magnon type, which replaced the Neanderthal type in Europe. The Skhul
people were Cromagnon in many respects, tall with massive carinated thigh
bones, big-headed, with strong jaws and well-developed chins. They seem
to give a transition type between Neanderthal and Cromagnon.
Casts made of the interiors of Palestinian skulls reveal brains which in size,
shape and pattern are up to modern European standards ; and rearticulation
of hands and feet shows that these did not differ in any essential from the
hands and feet of modern Europeans.
Mr, R. F. Peet.—Local intermarriage and the stability of rural population
in the English Midlands (3.30).
480 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—H.
Mr. M. M. Rix.—Prehistoric skulls recently excavated in Cyprus (4.0).
With the help of a grant from the British Association, I was able to make
an expedition to Cyprus in November 1937 to January 1938. One purpose
of my visit was to help Mr. James Stuart of Trinity Hall, Cambridge, in
the excavation of an early Bronze Age cemetery at Vounous near Kyrenia
on the north coast of the island. Sixteen of the skulls have been brought
to England, and will be on exhibition at the meeting.
Secondly, my chief object was to study the skulls from Khirokitia, a
Neolithic settlement on the south of the island, which is in process of
excavation by M. Dikaios; he is the Curator of the Cyprus Museum,
Nicosia, where I spent much of my time reconstructing the Khirokitia
material. Although their poor state of preservation made the actual skulls
disappointing, the important fact emerged that they had been artificially
deformed by means of fronto-occipital flattening. I also spent some time
at Khirokitia itself where the skeletons are being preserved in situ. As the
Neolithic period in Cyprus dates back beyond 3000 B.c. the discovery of
artificially deformed skulls from that epoch involves a revision of ideas
about the earliest date, and the place of origin, of cranial deformation.
Tuesday, August 23.
Mr. K. Jackson.—Calendar Customs in the Eastern Counties (10.0).
In the Eastern Counties the calendar customs, the celebrations on certain
festivals and fixed events throughout the year, were as well preserved within
living memory as in any part of England. They have mostly died out since
the War, but descriptions are available from various sources which give a
fairly complete picture of their character. Plough Monday, May Day,
St. Valentine’s Day, Shrove Tuesday, Ash Wednesday, Mothering Sunday,
Good Friday, Oak Apple Day, Guy Fawkes Day, St. Cecilia’s Day, St.
Clement’s Day, St. Catherine’s Day, St. Thomas’ Day, were all kept up with
their appropriate festivities. Village Feasts and the Harvest Home Horkey
are also described.
Mr. I. C. PeatE.—Some Welsh light on the development of the chair (10.35).
It has generally been assumed that the earliest examples of movable
chairs in Britain were probably the ‘ joyned chairs’ of panelled character,
‘their structure suggesting that they were evolved from the chest.’ The
earliest surviving examples of such chairs in this island belong to the
beginning of the sixteenth century. But a Welsh manuscript written in the
twelfth century has contemporary illustrations of chairs of a very different
character. ‘These are discussed and attention drawn to the early literary
evidence in Welsh concerning the various forms of chairs and the seating
arrangements in the courts of the Welsh princes.
Miss B. NEwMan and Mr. L. F. NEwMan.—Birth customs in East Anglia
(11.10).
Theories of the couvade and other allied customs have been accepted
on somewhat incomplete evidence and the subject allowed to rest on the
assumptions made. Explanations of the couvade as practised by primitive
peoples were applied equally to Europe and Europeans. Some recent in-
vestigations on British customs in Eastern England have suggested that
present ideas and explanations do not cover all the observed facts.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 481
The Eastern Counties may be considered as a non-fairy district, and
stories of the human midwife called in to attend a fairy birth are rare, but
they do exist. This also applies to changeling lore and fairy interference
with birth and babies.
The use of the caul as a protection against dangers and to confer desirable
talents on the owner is essentially English. With disposal of the placenta
and inferences to be drawn from it, the caul and membranes provide a
considerable part of the birth customs and folk-lore in the Eastern Counties.
Beliefs that midwives have special powers to enable them to be in attend-
ance at the birth is widely spread. Christening customs and observances
during lying-in and for the first months of the child’s life are interesting and
are practised all over the Eastern Counties.
Rt. Hon. Lorp RacLan.—Survivals in dress (11.50).
European society has always contained groups which wore garments that
had gone out of fashion ; examples are judges’ wigs, military and ecclesias-
tical uniforms, and peasant costumes.
All these survivals were once the fashionable court costumes of the day,
and the reasons for their survival are unknown. It is clear, however, that
the widespread belief that peasants invent costumes is quite unfounded, as is
the belief that garments were invented to fulfil the functions which they now
serve. Wigs, now associated with the majesty of the law, were invented for
court dandies, and this and analogous facts show the absurdity of trying to
put speculation in the place which can only be occupied by history.
Mr. CHARLES FFOULKES, C.B., O.B.E—The equipment of the soldier
throughout the ages : its merits and disadvantages (12.20).
The Greeks and Romans were armed in a more or less practical manner,
and what weapons they had were well suited for their purpose.
With the decline of the Roman Empire Europe relapsed into semi-
barbarism, and the art of metal working was almost lost. The fighting man
was equipped mostly in leather or quilted fabrics, fairly adequate protection
against primitive weapons.
With the improvement in metal working, small plates were added to
leather and linen, but none of these were great hindrances to a convenient
and rapid movement.
The Norman troops were equipped with a pointed helmet, the first
attempt at a ‘ glancing’ surface, but were considerably hampered by the
skirts of the hauberk and long, unwieldy shields.
With the thirteenth century we find the soldier hopelessly encumbered
by his panoply, the useful pointed helmet gives place to the cumbrous flat
topped helm and the whole body is covered with chain armour under which
is a thick quilted gambeson. Swords are badly constructed, useless for the
point and badly balanced for the cut.
By degrees the skill of the metal worker progressed, and plate was added
to mail till in 1400 a full suit of plate appears. During the foregoing period
the horse was encased in long housings, very protective but entirely prevent-
ing any rapid movement.
The long-bow and the lance had become the decisive weapons in battle,
and as the shield could only be used for defence in close quarter fighting,
the mounted man had to be completely protected with plate which would
oppose glancing surfaces to all weapons. Many of these pieces were
fastened with straps, the cutting of which rendered the wearer hors-de-
combat, and the weight of the armour was so great that, when unhorsed, the
R
482 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H.
knight was at the mercy of the foot-soldier. Although the horse was pro-
tected entirely with armour on head and body, his legs were uncovered,
and therefore a cut with knife or sword brought down man and horse.
With the advent of firearms armour was made bullet-proof and became so
heavy that it was eventually discarded.
The formation of the Standing Army brought new trials to officers and
men; wide hats, full skirted coats, stocks, heavy boots, a multitude of
leather belts, pouches and powder horns, heavy muskets, bayonets, swords
and often hand grenades prevented rapid mobility.
In the nineteenth century the great shako of the infantry, the busby of
the Guards, Hussars and Artillery, the slung pelisse of the Light Cavalry,
and the useless sabretache, all militated greatly against the efficiency of the
soldier.
Though some attempt in practical equipment was introduced in India in
the middle of the nineteenth century, it was only in the Boer War that
convenient uniform, head-gear and weapons were adopted. j
We may therefore say that for nearly 700 years the efficiency of the fight-
ing man was seriously hampered by those responsible for his equipment.
AFTERNOON.
Dr. R. Broom, F.R.S.—The Pleistocene anthropoid apes of South
Africa. (Read by Prof. J. T. Witson, F.R.S.) (2.0).
The fossil anthropoid, nearly related to Australopithecus africanus (Dart),
and formerly described under the specific name A. transvaalensis, is now
placed in a distinct genus as Plesianthropus transvaalensis, largely on account
of differences from the Taungs ape in the form of the symphysial region of
the jaw.
The author further records the discovery of the fossil skull of another
large anthropoid which he proposes to place in a new genus and species as
Paranthropus robustus, and refers to as the Kromdraai [pronounced Kromdry]
skull.
The palate (practically complete) is relatively short and broad, and, owing
to the small size of the canines and incisors, its anterior part is narrowed
and the teeth are arranged more as in man than in any living anthropoid.
The upper dentary arcade is slightly horse-shoe-shaped: the premolars
have rounded crowns without any high well-developed cusps as in living
forms, and are thus rather like human premolars but about twice as large.
The relation of the tympanic to the glenoid cavity resembles the hominid,
and not the typical anthropoid, condition.
An estimate of the brain volume is given as 600 c.c.
The skull is provisionally regarded as of Middle Pleistocene age and was
associated with remains of about a dozen mammals, all extinct except one,
the living porcupine.
Symposium on Ritual (2.0).
Mr. A. M. Hocart.—Ritual and emotion.
Ritual is associated by most students with emotion. This association does
not correspond to the facts. If we analyse these we see that ritual has got
a logical structure which is the result of working out a problem. Incidentally
the solution satisfies the emotions, but if emotion gets the upper hand it
destroys that structure. In extreme cases, in hysterical cults, the structure
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H. 483
vanishes altogether, and nothing is left but ejaculations and simple move-
ments repeated over and over again.
Ritual is not peculiar in this breakdown. The logical structure of science
can be broken up by the emotionalists, as we can see happening in the social
sciences. ‘The same can be observed in architecture and even in music.
It is a general law that logical constructions lose their structure under the
stress of strong emotion.
Mrs. N. K. Cuapwick.—Ritual and tradition (2.35).
Ritual and tradition belong properly to oral phases of culture. Where
the order of a ritual is committed to writing, this is only for mnemonic
purposes, or purposes of reference. Records of ritual and of tradition
from the past have generally been committed to writing in the first instance
by the intellectual classes, which are largely sacerdotal. Hence such records
tend to assume a religious colouring, which conveys a disproportionate idea
of the part played by religion in the cultures to which they belong. The
study of the traditions and ritual of modern peoples shows that secular
traditions and social ritual are quite as important, and that secular learning
and education are generally held in high esteem, even among peoples who
have no writing. Educational methods among unlettered peoples, e.g.
the Polynesians and the Bantu peoples, are deserving of careful study.
Prof. S. H. Hooxe.—Ritual and myth (3.10).
The paper is based on the examination of some of the early documentary
material from Sumerian, Babylonian, Egyptian, Hittite and Canaanite
sources. It attempts to establish the following points for the culture area
which the texts in question cover.
(i) In these texts a number of very early myths have been preserved.
Some of these myths, which might be called basic myths, in slightly varying
forms, are common to the culture area referred to above. In them the
actions of certain persons are described. These persons are gods, divine
kings, or semi-divine heroes.
(ii) By comparison of these myths with early ritual texts, and especially
with the class of texts called ritual commentaries, it becomes clear that the
basic myths are actually the description of ritual situations which spring
from, and are characteristic of, the social and religious organisation of our
culture area at the earliest stage of which we have documentary knowledge.
(iii) By examination of certain changes which this myth and ritual material
undergoes as it passes from one part of this culture area to another, it is
possible to trace the emergence of history from the ritual situation.
Prof. H. J. Rose.—Ritual and magic (3.45).
Definitions of the words ‘ ritual’ and ‘ magic.’ The former is a series
of actions, generally of religious import (in the wide sense of ‘ religious ’)
forming a pattern. The latter is used in a modification of the Frazerian
sense, without implying any priority in time to worship. Ritual is of three
main kinds; one is dramatic, setting forth some kind of myth; another a
series of acts of worship, designed to win the favour or avert the anger of a
superhuman being. The third is magical, a process or series of connected
actions, supposed efficacious in themselves, to secure some desirable end,
positive or negative. This may be illustrated by the ritual of the Lupercalia
in classical and pre-classical Rome. Description and interpretation of this
rite: it was not addressed to any deity, but intended of itself to draw a
484 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—H, I, J.
magic circle about the earliest settlement, putting and keeping in fertility and
warding off the quasi-supernatural harm feared from wolves. A few
methodological conclusions.
SECTION I.—PHYSIOLOGY.
Owing to the coincidence of the International Physiological Congress
(Zurich, August 14-19, 1938), no separate meetings were arranged for
Section I (Physiology).
SECTION J.—PSYCHOLOGY.
Thursday, August 18.
Dr. L. 5. Penrose.—Heredity and mental hygiene (10.0).
A knowledge of the hereditary factors which are partly or wholly
responsible for mental diseases can be of preventive value in two ways:
firstly, by making it possible to avoid the births of mentally abnormal
people and, secondly, by facilitating early and accurate diagnosis so that
effective treatment can be applied. Both these methods for controlling
‘mental disease are at present in their infancy because of the lack of precise
knowledge in the field of human genetics. The only relevant certainties
are the modes of inheritance of some rare mental diseases and defects. Of
the more common mental abnormalities, only genetic outlines are known.
Some mental defects are recessively determined and also some psychoses
with onset early in life: the less severe types of defect and some psychoses
with later onset are dominant. A few severe conditions are nearly always
sporadic and in some the age of the mother is a determining factor. ‘The
biological viewpoint helps in the understanding of nature’s own methods
of mental hygiene. Though natural selection helps to control the incidence
of mental diseases with onset early in life, it has little effect upon the
incidence of abnormalities which are not manifested until the end of the
period of reproduction.
Prof. G. HumpHrey.—The problem of the direction of thought (10.45).
Prof. C. W. VALENTINE.—Facts and fallacies in the social psychology of
early childhood (11.30).
I. It is much harder to ensure exact knowledge about the social develop-
ment of children, than about their intellectual abilities. Generalisations
are often based on inadequate evidence—sometimes on _ occasional
coincidences. 1
Highly speculative interpretations of the behaviour of a few abnormal
children are apt to be accepted partly because they are so original and
interesting.
Examples of such fallacies, in reference to: (a) early sex developments
and interests ; (6) thumb-sucking ; (c) early signs of later neuroses ; (d) in-
terpretation of some kinds of play in infancy.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 485
II. Fallacies in some theories as to problem children.
Sound and fallacious arguments in favour of Nursery Schools and Child
Guidance Clinics.
The supposition that a child’s character is determined by its early environ-
ment and especially by its treatment by parents.
Failure to allow for great innate individual differences in elements of
disposition and character.
Many delinquent children come from ‘ broken homes,’ but so do many
normal children.
Unjustified assertions as to ‘ the only child,’ etc.
III. Some facts as to early social development.
Social play and active sympathy in the first three or four years. Some
experiments on the social training of infants by one another.
A critical consideration of the prognostic value of observations on early
social development.
Dr. W. Brown.—Psychological problems of the mature personality (12.15).
The age of maturity may be regarded as having begun when the individual
has finally chosen his mate and is satisfactorily and happily married. (The
problems of the unmarried and the homosexual are somewhat different,
but have analogous solutions.) Marriage itself involves some deep psycho-
logical problems. The necessity for the individual to shoulder his responsi-
bilities, to think for another as well as for himself, to develop the ‘ binocular ’
view of life, both masculine and feminine, might give rise to disturbances,
if not affecting conduct, at least affecting feeling and outlook. ‘The great
danger at every stage of mature life is regression, a retreat to a previously
occupied position. It is because of this that deep mental analysis is so
helpful, enabling the individual to gain an insight into the persistent effects
of his earlier experiences. With the birth of children come new problems
of adaptation. The parent must be encouraged to live for his children in
an objective way, not in a narcissistic way, as though the children were his
possession.
Another problem of maturity is settlement in a profession. Here, in the
most favourable circumstances, it is not the man who chooses the profession
but the profession which chooses the man. In this respect also there is
always the possibility of regression. ‘The occupation not chosen may
have had a glamour of its own. It may have attracted him at one time,
and have been dismissed for one reason or another, but not completely
excluded, and when difficulties are encountered, or other special circum-
stances arise, such earlier ambitions may reassert themselves, sometimes
with very disturbing, even disastrous, effects for the individual.
The fundamental problem before the mature personality is sublimation,
the opposite of regression, a movement forward to a fuller development of
the personality instead of a stepping back. Sublimation means the direction
of the primitive instinctive energy towards ever higher social and spiritual
ends. As a rule it is the late forties or early fifties that the greatest ethical
demands are made upon the individual. He must consent finally to the
surrender of some personal ambitions for himself, he must abandon the
last vestiges of narcissism, he must find a philosophy to meet the needs of
his advancing years. He is at the parting of the ways, one way being a
process of continued sublimation, the other of regression, lost courage, and
futile depression. Here again much help can be given by some form of
analysis, taking him back into his past, enabling him to talk out his life and
to know himself; and then, through the emotional rapport which springs
486 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J.
up between himself and the psychotherapist, he is enabled to get a clearer
view of his difficulties and courage and incentive to overcome them.
Difficulty of adaptation to the approach of declining bodily vigour, with
failure.of satisfactory sublimation, may result in injudicious enthusiasm for
some special theory or cult in place of a real philosophy of life.
A sound philosophy of life, practical as well as theoretical, harmonising
biological and psychological needs and leading up to a supra-temporal and
duly co-ordinated system of values and a serene and courageous spiritual
outlook, gives the highest degree of unity, vigour, and permanence of the
personality, and leads to true happiness.
AFTERNOON.
Mr. R. Knicut.—The background of the problem child (2.0).
There have been several attempts to classify the various psychological
problems to which children are liable. Such classifications are of some
importance to psychological theory, but for three reasons their practical
value is limited : (i) in remedial work we are concerned, not with isolable
problems, but with problem children; (ii) different problems, such as
stammering, enuresis and pilfering, do not necessarily spring from entirely
different causes ; (iii) in practice the nature of the disorder is usually obvious,
and it is the cause that it is important to lay bare.
On the other hand, classification of the main causes of children’s difficulties
is of considerable value in helping parents, teachers, doctors and others, in
dealing with difficult children, to know what lines of inquiry are likely to
be most profitable.
The records of problem children show that the three main causes of
psychological difficulties are : subnormal intelligence ; defective physique ;
and an unsatisfactory home environment. ‘The third of these accounts for
the greatest number of cases. Within the home environment, or back-
ground, of the child, the conditions that the author’s clinical work has
shown to be most productive of difficulties are: (i) parental discord ;
(ii) family jealousy; (iii) illegitimacy; (iv) conflict with step-parents ;
(v) emotional fixation ; (vi) desire on the part of the parents to satisfy their
own thwarted ambitions through their children ; (vii) excessive, inadequate,
or capricious discipline.
Prof. R. B. CatTELL.—The inheritance of temperament (2.45).
Mr. E. FarMER.—Social implications of vocational guidance (3.30).
The experimental work that has been done in vocational psychology all
tends to show that there is a closer relation between psychological tests and
occupational success than between scholastic examinations and occupational
success. It is, however, clear from the size of the correlations that factors
not yet measured by scholastic or psychological tests also play an important
part in occupational success.
Certain workers at Cambridge have endeavoured to explore the field of
some of the unmeasured factors entering into occupational fitness.
It has been found that fundamental psychological drives play an important
part in determining choice of occupation and that satisfaction with work is
more dependent on the general conditions of employment and type of work
than on immediate financial gain. ;
The data so far obtained in this investigation all tend to show the import-
ance of social factors and social co-operation in obtaining and retaining good
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 487
types of employment and indicate the importance, from the point of view of
industry, of social development as well as intellectual.
Mr. J. G. W. Davies.—The place of interests in vocational adjustment (4.15).
Friday, August 19.
PRESIDENTIAL Appress by Dr. R. H. THOuLEss on Eye and brain as factors
in visual perception (10.0). (See p. 197.)
Prof. A. Micuotte.—Motor learning and morphology of the responses
(11.0).
Mr. F.- B. Kirxkman.—Recent field experiments on birds (1937-38) (12.0).
Subject of experiments: the black-headed gull (Larus ridibundus) in its
breeding place.
1. Recapitulation of previous experiments: what a gull will incubate
as functional equivalents of its eggs; the range of equivalence ; the re-
sponse-determining factor common to the equivalents.
2. What a gull will retrieve (i.e. get back into the nest from outside) as
functional equivalents of its eggs ; the range of equivalence ; the response-
determining factor common to the equivalents.
3. The gull’s response when presented with an object that serves two
conflicting needs, e.g., hunger, broodiness.
4. The relative strength of two selected opposing needs or drives:
broodiness and the territorial impulse.
5. Conclusions.
Illustrated by lantern slides.
AFTERNOON.
Dr. F. W. Epripce-GreEn, C.B.E.— Acquired colour-blindness (2.0).
Acquired colour-blindness, which may be temporary or permanent,
may be in every respect similar to congenital colour-blindness. A person
suffering from a septicemic condition may become partially colour-blind.
When examined a year afterwards he may have recovered or become much
worse and become a very bad dichromic. Acquired colour-blindness
throws light on the nature of the colour sensations in congenital colour-
blindness. Red and violet are the two sensations of the dichromic, they
are the last to go and the first to reappear on recovery from total colour-
blindness.
Mr. K. J. W. Cratx.—Sensory adaptation in vision (2.45).
It is well known that dark adaptation lowers, and that bright adaptation
raises, the absolute brightness threshold of the eye. ‘The present paper
describes some investigations into the effect of such adaptation upon bright-
ness discrimination, visual acuity, and the subjective brightness of a uniform
field. The eye was adapted by prolonged exposures to fields ranging from
darkness to 5,000 or 10,000 equivalent foot candles in brightness, and its
acuity and brightness discrimination tested by brief exposures to equal or
different illuminations. It was found that brightness discrimination was
keenest, and acuity highest, when the eye was adapted to the same illumina-
tion at which it was tested ; testing at illuminations far above or below
488 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J.
the adapting illumination caused a marked deterioration of these visual
functions. ‘The apparent brightness of fields presented to dark and bright
adapted eyes has also been investigated by successive comparison between
fields presented to the two eyes separately. Some theoretical implications
and practical applications of these results are also discussed.
Mr. R. S. Sturpy.—Sensory adaptation in hearing (3.30).
The effect of previous stimulation of the ear by pure tones of adequate
intensity is to induce a condition of temporary deafness, the extent of
which is extremely variable in different individuals and m the same
individual on different occasions. This deafness is chiefly to tones of the
same pitch, but the octaves above and below are affected to a less degree.
That this effect is largely a central nervous manifestation is indicated by
the fact that stimulation in one ear induces deafness in the other, and that
it is a cortical manifestation is indicated by the fact that the deafness can be
abolished by a sudden ‘ disinhibitory ’ stimulus, such as sudden darkness
in the observation cabinet.
The effect of previous stimulation on intensity discrimination has recently
been investigated, and it has been shown that the finest discrimination of
intensity is, in general, made when the ear has previously been adapted to
the intensity level at which the intensity discrimination is to be tested.
The inconstancy of the experimental results suggests that this adaptation
is, at least in part, due to central mediation rather than to fatigue of the
peripheral organ.
Monday, August 22.
Prof. C. SPEARMAN, F.R.S.—A curious pitfall in factor psychology (10.0).
Two or three years ago the theory of mental factors entered into a new
era with what has been called multiple factor analysis. And a few months
ago the leader of this new movement, Prof. Thurstone, produced its
first great application to actual research. Here, 240 students have been
submitted to an elaborate system of 57 tests. The result has been more
than revolutionary. In place of the very heavily weighted single general
- factor which has hitherto always revealed itself in some form or other,
there are now disclosed no less than twelve primary factors whose weights
are all almost exactly equal. But such a result would appear to be un-
reasonable. Moreover, the principle here adopted for the reduction to
factors can be shown to break down altogether under certain defective
conditions of procedure, which happen to have prevailed in the present
case. On the other hand, Thurstone’s results do prove to be quite amen-
able to treatment by the older procedure known as that of ‘ T'wo Factors.’
And in this fashion the fruits of his valuable work are saved from the
threatened irrationality and brought instead into perfect accord with the
general results of accredited investigation elsewhere.
Prof. H. S. LANGFIELD.—Present trends in American psychology (10.45).
Dr. L. F. RrcHarpson, F.R.S.—Generalised foreign politics (11.30).
Love and hate are alike in this: that the chief stimulus to either is any
sign of the same feeling in the opposite person, or nation. The simplest
mathematical expression of this mutual instinctive stimulation is
dx/dt = ky, dy/dt = kx (1)
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 489
where k is a positive constant, t is time and x and y, when positive, are the
intensities of hate in the two persons and, when negative, the intensities of
love. The solution of (1) is
x = Ae* + Be*, y = Ae*— Be* (2)
where A and B are constants; so that, as t becomes large, x and y both
increase with the same sign, The point x = 0, y = 0 is a point of balance ;
but the balance is unstable. ‘The instinctive drift may lead in one or other
of two opposite directions.
The expression can be made more lifelike by the introduction of positive
fatigue-and-expense coefficients « and of positive or negative grievances g
so that
dxdt =Ryy —%x+ 8, ady/dt = Rex — wy + ge (3)
The terms in « have a stabilising effect ; so that instability only occurs if
Ry « Roy > Hy he (4)
There are still two opposite kinds of drift. For nations, the positive infinity
may be called ‘ war’; and we have to find a name for the negative infinity,
which is obviously not tranquil exclusiveness, but may be called ‘ united
organisation,’ or ‘ close co-operation.’
Foreign trade is the commonest form of co-operation between nations.
Alfred Marshall in his discussion of foreign trade, when near to zero, gave
an argument closely related to equations (3). Accordingly, on looking for
something objectively measureable which might serve to represent x and
y, the author has formed two statistics of ‘ threats minus co-operation.’
One is
$e== Gropuladon\ lows (warlike expenditure) }
(foreign trade) . (constant)
the constant being adjusted to make zero for an average nation in the year
1926.
So far it appears that assumptions of type (3) are a credible approximation
to actuality. Accordingly they have been generalised for m nations thus
S=gt = hij 2; (@j=1,2,3... 2)
and the criterion of stability has been deduced. In many cases there is
an instinctive barrier separating two regions of opposite drift ; the barrier
goes through a point of balance, the position of which depends on the
grievances g.
The relation between g and objective facts is very peculiar. A halting
apology may be received as though it were a fresh insult.
The practical conclusion is that the traditional policy of the balance of
power is now futile, because the balance is unstable. To bring the point
(x, yy) into the region where the instinctive drift goes towards more co-
operation, two actions can be taken: (i) the barrier can be heaved to the
positive side by abolishing grievances g, and (ii) the point (x, y) can be
heaved to the negative side by decreasing threats. Neither of these actions
is instinctive ; both would require national efforts of will.
Miss D. GANDINE-STANTON.—An examination of behaviour in attempting
difficult tasks (12.15).
Difficult tests, problems and puzzles have been presented to several
groups of children. About six hundred individuals have been examined,
R2
490 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J.
all of them twice and most of them three times over a period of three years.
‘The groups can be differentiated as
Christian Mentally superior
Jewish Neurotic
Mentally subnormal Physically defective
There are observable differences in the behaviour manifested by the
members of some of the different groups, and it seems that further study of
this kind should result in the development of a useful diagnostic test.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Royal Eastern Counties Institution, Colchester.
Visit to works of the Cambridge Instrument Co., Ltd.
Tuesday, August 23.
Prof. J. C. FLUGEL.—The Hormic Theory (10.0).
If, with most modern psychologists, we distinguish between feeling and
conation as separable aspects of orectic experience, it behoves us to determine
the relation between them. The doctrine of psychological hedonism, widely
held in the nineteenth century, maintains that conation is determined by
feeling, while the hormic theory, which is most in favour to-day, reverses
this relationship. Many contemporary psychologists, however, do not
hold the hormic theory consistently, and indeed it is pretty generally
admitted that, in particular, the pleasures and unpleasures connected with
sensory experience are at first sight difficult to reconcile with this theory.
McDougall has endeavoured to champion the hormic theory even in this
sphere, but there is a dearth of experimental evidence directly bearing on
the problem. A great many researches, however, have indirectly pro-
duced strong evidence in favour of the theory, including those on will,
choice, involuntary movement, zsthetic attitude, as well as those more
specifically dealing with feeling experience. Washburn and Grose, in a
limited field, attacked the problem more directly with the same result,
and recently Yuan Pan, though in general confirming the hormic theory,
has shown that the nature of sensory feeling and its relation to conation are
more complicated than might at first appear.
Jomnt Discussion with Section L (Education) on The educational signifi-
cance of the cinema and wireless (11.0). See under Section L.
Mr. R. C. STEELE.
Dr. P. B. BALLARD.
Dr. S. J. F. PuiLpott.
Miss L. M. Hott.
AFTERNOON.
Dr. Tom A. WiLL1amMs.—Assisting mental hygiene by literature (2.0).
The case method to convey principles is used through inner situations
of characters chiefly fictional, e.g.:
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—J. 491
Conditioning : Henri Brulard, Linda.
Reconditioning and social adjustment : Old Man’s Birthday, Clay-
hanger, Visiting Moon, Kim in New Wine.
Acute conflict in women: Mary Lavelle, The Bridge, Tops and
Bottoms.
Acute conflict in men: Long Tunnel, Quatrain, The Fountain.
Scruples are transcended by D’Eath in Processional, The Rector’s Daughter.
Shame is got rid of by Enid in Old Man’s Birthday. Props fail the inade-
quate Forrest in Full House, Lola in Invisible Event. The harm of
domineering is shown in Galaxy, and by Tillinglast, who blamed others,
in Never Go Back.
That self-deception is unwise we see in The Wildings, Laughter in Heaven.
The futile see themselves in Dusty Answer, The Hotel.
There are many examples also of spite, envy, jealousy in all disguises.
Hopeless misfits may take courage from The Odd Job Man, Peter
Homunculus, Jacob Stahl, Mary Lee.
Amateur meddling is shown up in Chip of the Block, Progress to the Lake,
The Balliols, A Room with a View.
Skilful guidance is found in Green Light, New Wine, Antony, Dr. Sam.
A psychological pharmacopeeia on these lines proved valuable to teachers
and college professors in a course at Duke University.
Mr. R. C. OLDFIELD.— Some verbal problems connected with the definition of
personal qualities (2.45).
Miss S. M. Harvey.—Some factors affecting the reliability of the interview
as a method of obtaining personal information (3.30).
In an investigation at the Cambridge Psychological Laboratory, each of
8 interviewers saw in turn each of 11 candidates. The interviews were
directed towards the reasons why the latter had taken up the study of
psychology. A report was written by each interviewer upon the reasons
for each candidate’s choice. Conversation during the interviews was
recorded. Quantitative treatment of the results shows : (a) variation both
in amount and in content of the statements obtained by different interviewers
from the same candidates ; (b) a closer correspondence between the state-
ments obtained by some interviewers than between those obtained by others ;
(c) variation between the length and content of reports made by different
_ interviewers. ‘To some extent this follows the same trends as the informa-
tion obtained from candidates, but (d) the proportion of candidates’ state-
ments ‘ accepted’ and reported varies more between interviewers than it
does between candidates ; (e) the interviewers’ inferences and the structure
of the reports also tend to differ. These differences suggest the operation
of selective factors, different as between interviewers, (1) during the inter-
view, and (2) before or during the writing of the reports. Qualitative
analysis reveals that these were related : the first, to the general approach ’”
of the interviewer, type of question and items emphasised during conver-
sation ; the second, to the ‘ attitude ’ of the interviewer to the information
to be obtained; these two had some determinants in common. Such
factors depend not only upon preconceived interpretative hypotheses about
such interest determination, but also upon less formulated attitudes, founded
in the interviewers’ experience, but operative at a less conscious level.
492 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
SECTION K.—BOTANY.
Thursday, August 18.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS by Prof. W. STILEs, F.R.S., on The general physio-
logy of the plant cell and its importance for pure and applied botany
(10.0). (See p. 213.)
Joint Discussion with Section C (Geology) on The postglacial history of
Fenland (11.15). See under Section C.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Roman Road and Gog Magog Hills.
Friday, August 19.
Joint Discussion with Section D (Zoology) on The mechanism of evolu-
tion (10.0). See under Section D.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE SESSION.)
Prof. F. J. Lewis.—The physical nature of the outer surface of the cell walls
of the mesophyll of the leaf (10.0).
The outer surface of the mesophyll cell walls is unwettable by water
but wettable by hydrocarbons. Infiltration of the leaf with dye solutions
shows that dyes with an acid chromophore pass in with the water and fill
the interspaces. Infiltration with dyes having a basic chromophore results
in the adsorption of the dye on the surface of the walls at the point of entry
while the water alone passes on and fills the interspaces. On exposure of
the mesophyll the dye adsorbed on the wall is found to be insoluble in water.
The effect of a fatty acid such as sodium taurocholate is to render the
surface of the walls wettable, but this action only takes place within certain
pH limits.
Dr. W. R. G. Arxins.—The measurement of light in relation to plant
growth and distribution (10.30).
Attention is drawn to the necessity of a thorough study of the instruments
used in measuring light, so that the relation between current and intensity
is known. ‘The optical properties of diffusing surfaces and colour filters
must also be considered, as well as the angular distribution of the light.
The daily and seasonal changes in vertical illumination have been measured,
and the variations from year to year noted for eight years. Shaded habitats
are best rated by the ‘ daylight factor,’ though the ‘ colour factor’ also
deserves consideration. Penetration of light into the sea results in an
alteration both in intensity and colour. ‘The effect on diatom cultures has
been studied and reveals an optimum depth for photosynthesis. The.
explanation of the disappearance of Zostera marina which attributes this to
lack of sunshine resulting in attack by parasites is disproved by an adequate
study of the meteorological records.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—K. 493
Prof. T. A. BENNET-CLarK and Miss D. Bexon.—The réles of osmotic and
electrosmotic pressures in the regulation of cell turgor (11.0).
The view that cell turgor is maintained solely by the osmotic pressure
difference between the vacuole and outside solution is shown to be untenable.
For example (a) it is shown that when a protoplast is plasmolysed in potassium
chloride of 28 atmospheres and is suddenly transferred to sucrose 28 atmo-
spheres, rapid entry of water into the vacuole occurs. Further, when a
protoplast plasmolysed in 28 atmospheres is transferred suddenly into
53 atmospheres sucrose there is still a rapid passage of water from the stronger
external to the weaker internal solution during a period of approximately
10 to 20 minutes, followed by a passage of water out of the cell again in the
“normal ’ or expected direction. (b) The data obtained enable us to calcu-
late that in addition to the ordinary osmotic flow of water expected on the
classical theory water movement at pressures of over 50 atmospheres may
be encountered under certain circumstances. (c) In general when a tissue
is transferred from an electrolyte solution to one of a non-electrolyte there
is a flow of water into the vacuoles which is not due to and may act in the
opposite direction to osmotic pressure differences. Similarly if the transfer
is from a non-electrolyte to an electrolyte, a non-osmotic flow of water out
of the vacuoles is brought about. (d) Study of the behaviour members of
the lyotropic series Na—K—Ca—La suggested that these water movements
are due to electrostatic forces set up by the ions of the electrolyte. (e) The
fact that considerable pressures (possibly electrosmotic) can be generated
by a cell of which the osmotic pressure is only about 15 atmospheres
suggests that these “ electrosmotic ’ pressures may be of great importance
in the many turgor reactions of plant tissues.
Dr. T. G. Mason and Dr. E. PHILLis.—Observations on the effects of
pressure on the properties of protoplasm (11.30).
Exposure of cotton leaves to direct pressures of 14,000 lb. per sq. in. in a
hydraulic press leads to the expression of a clear sap which is believed to
come from the vacuole through fissures in the protoplaam. Only about
one-third of the total water of the leaf can be expressed in this way. The
rest of the water can be expressed by relatively low pressures provided that
the residue is gently rubbed between the fingers and the thumb. It is
suggested that protoplasm possesses a gross structure that is destroyed by
small shearing forces but which can withstand relatively large direct pres-
sures. The residue from the hydraulic press shows approximately normal
rates of respiration and can imbibe water till turgor is fully restored. The
tenacity with which protoplasm retains its water under direct pressures is
contrasted with the ease with which water can be separated from gelatin gels
under pressure and it is suggested that the continuous medium of protoplasm
cannot be aqueous.
Dr. WrintFreD E. BRENCHLEY.—The comparative toxicity of inorganic plant
poisons (12.0).
The majority of elements may exert a harmful action on the growth of
higher plants, but the relative proportions necessary vary considerably.
Boron and manganese, for instance, may be harmless in quantities at which
copper and zinc are intensely poisonous.
The toxicity of any element may depend upon the compound in which it
is presented—e.g. arsenious acid and arsenite proved fatal to barley at
concentrations at which arsenic acid and arsenates were innocuous. With
494 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
copper, cobalt and nickel the sulphates and chlorides have shown relatively
slight differences in action, though these were sometimes significant with
regard to the concentration at which marked toxicity occurred.
Individual species respond according to the poison used. With barley,
copper was more poisonous than either nickel or cobalt, but the differences
were relatively small. With broad beans, however, cobalt was much more
toxic than nickel or copper, particularly as sulphate. Earlier experiments
had shown that peas were more sensitive than barley to copper and arsenic,
whereas barley was less able to withstand zinc, boron and manganese. ‘The
morphological response to poisoning depends on the element concerned,
root and shoot growth being variously affected. Individuality of plant
response is frequently shown by great variation in growth in borderline
concentrations just below those causing marked depression of growth.
AFTERNOON.
Jomnr Discussion on The mechanism of evolution (continued) (2.15). See
under Section D.
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE.)
Dr. J. BARKER.—Temperature and the starch| sugar balance in potatoes (2.15).
Since the researches of Muller-Thurgau (1882 and 1885) it has been
generally recognised that sugar accumulates in potatoes which are stored at
low temperatures and that the accumulated sugar disappears when the potatoes
are returned to higher temperatures. These changes in the sugar content
were attributed by Muller-Thurgau to differences in the temperature-
coefficients of the three reactions ; (a) hydrolysis of starch to sugar, (b) con-
densation of sugar to starch, (c) consumption of sugar in respiration. Recent
experiments suggest, however, that the influence of temperature on the
balance between these three reactions cannot be interpreted as due solely to
differences in their temperature-coefficients.
Evidence has been obtained showing that the accumulation of sugar at low
temperatures is associated with a change in the metabolic state which persists
for a short time when the temperature is increased again ; this change is
provisionally conceived as an activation of the hydrolytic system.
The changes in sugar content are shown to be dependent not only on the
actual temperature of storage (a characteristic already well recognised) but
to be markedly influenced by the previous temperature-history.
Mr. R. S. pE Ropp and Prof. F. G. Grecory.—The hormone system of
the rye grain (2.45).
The embryo of the rye grain receives from the endosperm, during the
first few hours of soaking, hormones which influence growth of roots and
coleoptile and the rate of response of these organs to gravity and light. A
factor influencing the response of the embryo to added hetero-auxin has
been noted.
The aleurone layer of the grain appears to be the source from which the
scutellum receives the stimulus for diastase production.
The aleurone and endosperm form with the embryo a complex inter-
acting system. Removal of the aleurone layer after the grain has been
soaked for an hour causes growth of the embryo to be inhibited. Subse-
quent growth of such embryos is abnormal.
A similar effect is produced by removing the endosperm from grain
soaked for one hour leaving the aleurone in contact with the embryo.
—
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 495
Breaking the connection between aleurone layer and the endosperm
before the grain is soaked has the effect of reducing the growth rate of
embryo, while breaking the connection after the grain has been soaked has
no effect on the embryo.
Mr. E. K. Wooprorp and Prof. F. G. Grecory.—The relation of oxygen
supply and respiration rate to anion and cation absorption by barley
plants at varying nutrient levels (3.15).
An apparatus is described for measuring simultaneously nutrient absorp-
tion and root respiration rate, at varying oxygen tensions and under aseptic
conditions.
The results of an experiment are presented in which sixteen combinations
of oxygen tensions and nutrient concentrations were studied. Special
care was taken in the design of the experiment so that the interaction of the
factors could be statistically estimated.
A considerable absorption under completely anzrobic conditions was
found for nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. With phosphorus,
absorption in pure nitrogen was considerably greater than in 20 %
oxygen. Nutrient concentration’ was the chief factor in absorption, irre-
spective of oxygen concentration. Respiration was scarcely affected by
nutrient concentration but was greatly increased by increasing the oxygen
tension. Oxygen supply scarcely affected absorption at low nutrient levels
but had a large effect at high concentrations. ‘This is the chief interaction
noted.
Respiration has no direct relation to nutrient absorption in experiments of
short duration, where root growth plays no part.
In excised root systems the rapid fall in absorption precedes the fall in
respiration rate.
The relation between absorption and nutrient concentration is different
for anions and cations, and specific effects of ions were observed also in the
relation to oxygen tension.
Mr. G. J. BosweLt and Mr. G. C. Wuitinc.—The catechol oxidase
system (3.45).
By the use of an oxidation product of catechol as an inhibitor of cell
respiration it has been possible to show that the catechol oxidase system
controls not less than 65 % of the total oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide
output of thin slices of the potato tuber. The amount of the residual
respiration is at a maximum, 33 %, in potatoes collected and used during
September and October and decreases to a minimum value of about 10 %
in potatoes stored in the autumn and used experimentally in the following
April and May.
SEMI-POPULAR LECTURE by Prof. A. H. R. Buiter, F.R.S., on The
sexual process in the rust fungi (5.0).
During the past twelve years J. H. Craigie, A. M. Brown, and other
workers in the Dominion Rust Research Laboratory at Winnipeg have
investigated the sexual process in the rust fungi by means of experiment.
As a result of their labours we now know that, in long-cycled heterothallic
rust species, there are two ways in which the sexual process is normally
initiated : (1) by the fusion of a (+) mycelium with a (—) mycelium, as
first observed by Craigie (1927) in compound pustules of Puccinia helianthi
496 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
and of P. graminis and as confirmed by A. M. Brown (1935) in compound
pustules of P. helianthi in which a mixing of the pycnidial nectar was pre-
vented ; and (2) by the union of (+) pycnidiospore with a (—) flexuous
hypha, or of a (—) pycnidiospore with a (++) flexuous hypha, as observed
by Craigie (1927 and 1933) in P. helianthi and by Buller (1938) in P. graminis.
Flexuous hyphz in pycnidia have been observed: by Craigie in Puccinia
helianthi and P. graminis; by Pierson in Cronartium ribicola; by Miss
Hunter in species of Melampsora, Milesia, Pucciniastrum, and Cronartium ;
and by Buller in twenty rust species belonging to the following genera:
Puccinia, Uromyces, Gymnoconia, Phragmidium and Gymnosporangium.
It seems likely that flexuous hyphz are present in the pycnidia of the rust
fungi in general.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to Wicken Fen.
Sunday, August 21.
Excursion to Forestry Commission Plantations in Thetford Forest.
Monday, August 22.
Joint Discussion with Department K* (Forestry) on The ecological
aspects of afforestation. (10.0). (See under Department K*.)
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE SESSION.)
Sir ALBERT SEWARD, F.R.S., Mr. W. N. Epwarps and Dr. J. B. Srmp-
SsON.—The vegetation of the Inner Hebrides in the early Tertiary
period (10.0).
More than fifty years ago John Starkie Gardner obtained a large collection
of fossil plants from sedimentary beds near the base of the basaltic lava
flows at Ardtun Head in the island of Mull. He described several of the
plants but did not publish a complete account of the flora as a whole. In
the present communication the authors contribute a preliminary survey
both of the Mull flora, as represented by the Starkie Gardner collection in
the British Museum supplemented by specimens kindly lent by other
institutions, and of material from the island of Skye and a few other localities.
The results are expected to be published in the near future as an official
British Museum Catalogue.
The present contribution includes: (i) an account of the flora based on
impressions, almost exclusively leaves; and (ii) an account of pollen
investigations by Dr. J. B. Simpson. Special attention is drawn to con-
trasts in geographical distribution illustrated by comparison of recent and
extinct species of some of the genera represented in the Mull leaf-beds, e.g.,
Onoclea, Amentotaxus, Sequoia, Cephalotaxus, Ginkgo, Cercidiphyllum,
Platanus, and several others. ‘The examination of the pollen which is
abundant in the lignites of Mull and Ardnamurchan confirms the pre-
dominance of forms whose habitat is now Eastern Asia. This is evidenced
not only by the presence of genera such as Ginkgo and Bucklandia
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 497
(Hamamelidacez) now exclusively Asiatic, but also by certain fossil pollen
forms belonging to widely distributed genera such as Alnus, Corylus and
Acer, which are most nearly related to the Asiatic species of these genera.
Similarly leaf-impressions referred to Vitis, Celtis and Quercus can be most
closely matched with the leaves of living Far Eastern forms. Reference is
also made to the climatic implications of the flora and its relations to other
early Tertiary floras in Europe, North America, the Arctic regions, and the
Far East.
Dr. R. FLorin.—The morphology of the female cone in paleozoic conifers
(10.45).
The old and important problem of the morphology of the female cone in
the Conifers may profitably be considered in the light of the oldest known
remains.
Instead of ovuliferous scales the cones of Walchia piniformis had radially
built short shoots bearing spirally arranged scale-like appendages and
placed in the axils of bifurcated bract scales. One of the appendages on
the inner side of the short shoot bore one single erect and somewhat flattened
ovule in a terminal position. The ovules had two archegonia and a single
integument, which probably originated from a division of the scale-like
appendage just below the ovule.
In other species of the same group (Stephanian—Lower Permian) the
fertile short shoots were more or less flattened, and showed various stages
of transition towards the ovuliferous scales of Ernestiodendron (Lower
Permian), Pseudovoltzia (Upper Permian), and Voltzia (Triassic).
The female cone of Walchia piniformis was built essentially on the same
plan as that of Cordaites. In this genus, however, a still more primitive
structure has now been found, characterised by the short shoots having
fertile appendages with a repeatedly divided apex, and one or two seeds each.
The structure of the female cones in Cordaites and in the conifers is most
readily interpreted in the light of the telome theory.
Dr. H. S. Hotpen.—The structure of the rachis in Rachiopteris cylindrica
(11.15).
Prof. W. T. Gorpon.—On Tetrastichia bupatides, a primitive Pteridosperm
of Lower Carboniferous Age (11.45).
Theoretical considerations indicated that surfaces of minor unconformity
in bedded volcanic ashes might prove useful levels along which to search
for examples of the flora, and perhaps the fauna, coeval with the periods of
eruption of the volcano. Plant remains in particular might be expected to
occur occasionally in a petrified state. In rocks of Lower Carboniferous age
at Oxroad Bay, North Berwick, the theory was borne out, and, among the
plants, a new pteridosperm, to which the name Tetrastichia bupatides has
been given, was fairly common.
The internal structure of this form is simpler than in any other of its
class. The stele of the axis is cruciform in section, and entirely composed
of xylem elements. The inner cortex contains sclerotic nests, and the outer
cortex many secretory cells and a marked hypodermal meshwork of groups
of elongated fibrous elements. The mesh is long and narrow, but becomes
dilated when secondary thickening of the stem takes place. A smooth
epidermis, containing stomata in which the guard-cells are flush with the
surface, encloses the other tissues.
498 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
Petioles of Lyginorachis type are inserted in the stem almost opposite one
another ; and each pair is set at right angles to the preceding and the suc-
ceeding pairs. A pulvinus occurs at the base of the petiole ; and the petiole
bifurcates at a distance of some 54 in. from its insertion into the stem.
Primary pinnz are developed, in an alternating series, in each branch of the
petiole. No laminar structure has been found so far.
No fructifications have yet been discovered in actual continuity with the
petioles, though synangia that may possibly belong to the plant occur in
association.
Correlation is suggested with Telangium affine, L. & H.sp., mainly on
the ground of the characters of the cortex, but such correlation is not
stressed meanwhile.
An interesting mineralogical feature is the presence of analcime as a
petrifying medium. Analcime has been recorded as a sedimentary deposit
in what were ancient saline lakes, but never before as the petrifying material
of fossil plants. Another point of mineralogical import is that the un-
weathered character of the adventitious felspar grains in the ashes, as com-
pared with the weathered condition of the felspars of the ash fragments,
appears to indicate that the climate in the neighbourhood of the volcanoes
was semi-arid and this is confirmed by the plant types in the ashes.
The geological horizon is low down in the Calciferous Sandstone Series,
perhaps in the Cementstone Group, but certainly low in the Oil Shale
Group.
A full account will be found in the Transactions of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh.
Mr. N. W. RaprortH.—An analysis and comparison of the structural
features of Dactylotheca plumosa Artis and Senftenbergia ophiodermatica
Gépp sp. (12.15).
Of these two carboniferous fern-like compressions, the former has been
regarded as a true fern with annulate sporangia, while the latter was believed
to be a Pteridosperm from the nature of its apparently exannulate sporangia.
However, this analysis has shown that the fructifications of Dactylotheca
plumosa are definitely annulate and identical with those of Senftenbergia.
Moreover, it is clear that these two fossils are merely different parts of the
same plant, and can no longer be regarded as belonging to separate genera.
Since the name Senftenbergia has priority, this genus must now embrace
the forms previously described as Dactylotheca plumosa. 'The spores,
which hitherto had not been revealed, have been isolated from the sporangia
in their various developmental stages. Both the sporangia and the mature
spores resemble so closely those of the living fern Aneimia that the view of
a possible relationship between Senftenbergia and the living schizzaceous
ferns to which Aneimia belongs, is now greatly strengthened.
AFTERNOON.
Dr. RaLpH Emerson.—Life cycles in the Blastocladiales (2.15).
The phycomycetous order Blastocladiales embraces three genera of
aquatic fungi, Allomyces, Blastocladia, and Blastiocladiella. The types of
sexual reproduction and the life cycles which have been discovered in
certain members of this group are unique in the filamentous Phycomycetes.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 499
They are of particular interest because they have an important bearing on
general problems of sexuality, alternation of generations, fungus phylo-
geny, etc.
The following life histories are described :
I. Allomyces.
(a) Euallomyces—alternation of equal sporophyte and gametophyte
generations ; discovered in A. javanicus by Kniep (1929, 1930) and con-
firmed in A. arbuscula by Hatch (1933), Sérgel (1937) and others.
(b) Brachyallomyces—without alternation of generations, the sexual stage
apparently entirely lacking ; found by the writer to be the regular life cycle
in certain isolates and noted by Sérgel (1937) as a departure from the usual
cycle in A. arbuscula.
(c) Gystogenes—without obvious alternation of generations but differing
clearly from (5) in the regular encystment of swarmers from resistant
sporangia; discovered in four of his isolates and in A. moniliformis by
Emerson (1938).
II. Blastocladia.
Complete life cycle not yet demonstrated in any of the species ; import-
ance of recent work on germination of resistant sporangia (Blackwell (1937),
and growth of Blastocladia in pure culture (the writer, Sérgel 1938) is
emphasized.
Ill. Blastocladiella.
(a) Short cycle, corresponding with Brachyallomyces, discovered by
Matthews (1937) in B. simplex.
(b) Long cycle, corresponding with Euallomyces, discovered by Harder
and Sérgel (1938) in Rhopalomyces variabilis (probably a species of
Blastocladiella).
The similarities and probable relationships between members of the
three genera are briefly discussed.
Dr. W. R. Ivimey Coox.—The phycomycete flora of Glamorgan ; general
scheme (2.45).
A study of the Phycomycete Flora of the British Isles is a matter which
has not so far received much attention at the hands of mycologists. Isolated
accounts of individual members of certain groups exist, but with certain
exceptions, no complete monographical account, such as has been made in
Europe and America, has been attempted. With a view to improving this
situation, a start was made in 1932 to compile a Phycomycete Flora of the
county of Glamorgan. During the subsequent six years, with the aid of
various research students, the work has been continued, and although much
still needs to be completed, sufficient information is available to justify a
report on the progress of the work.
In 1936 the first volume, ‘ Natural History,’ of the Glamorgan County
History appeared and in it the author published the first list of the Phyco-
mycetes known to occur in the county. Since then the number has been
increased and at the present time 176 species have been recorded. In the
course of the work 42 species new to the country have been found, while
9 species new to Science have been discovered.
500 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
The following table gives a summary of the distribution of the species
so far studied :
Grae No. of species No. of new No. of new
: found. British records. | species.
*Acrasiales . s teil I I °
Mycetozoa . é sa 58 ° °
Plasmodiophorales 5 ° °
*Chytridiales . : a 18 5 2
Ancylistales . p a 2 I ro)
Pythiales ; ' tl 12 4 I
Saprolegniales : 9 38 | 22 2
*Peronosporales. Hy 10 ° °
*Blastocladiales 3 aw I ° °
Monoblepharidales a 7 4 fr)
Mucorales . 3 a 23 5 4
*Entomophthorales : I ° °
176 42 9
The Mycetozoa have not been personally studied and the records are
taken from the list published by Miss G. Lister in the Glamorgan County
History. ‘Those groups marked with an asterisk have not yet been critically
studied and the numbers given represent only incidental records.
Miss E. Morcan.—The phycomycete flora of Glamorgan ; the Sapro-
legniales, especially the terrestrial forms (3.0).
During 1934-1936, members of the Saprolegniacez were isolated from
soil samples taken from stations in wet pasture, dry pasture and gardens,
in two districts of Glamorganshire.
Nine species of Saprolegnia were identified, and four species of Isoachlya.
These species were on the whole more frequent in wet pasture than in dry
pasture or garden soils.
Nine species of Achlya were found. These were more frequently isolated
from soils of dry pasture than the species of Saprolegnia.
Certain species with monoplanetic spores, e.g., Pythiopsis Humphreyana,
Thraustotheca clavata, were more common in dry than in wet pasture.
These results suggest a connection between spore behaviour and the
distribution of species.
Temperature also seems to be a contributing factor in distribution.
Some species are characteristic of spring months, others of summer and
others of autumn or winter months.
There are indications that water and soil may be alternative media for
certain species, e.g. Saprolegnia lapponica was abundant in water in July,
but reached its highest frequency in soil in April and May.
Neither humus content nor acidity is apparently as important in deter-
mining species distribution as the two factors, temperature and water
content.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 501
Miss P. E. THomas.—The phycomycete flora of Glamorgan ; the Mono-
blepharidales (3.20).
In 1935 an investigation of the species occurring in the vicinity of Cardiff,
Glamorgan, was begun and all the six species of which the full life history
has been described were found growing together in one locality. Subse-
quent collections from this and other localities in the same area have also
yielded these six species.
The six species described are : M. spherica, M.macranda, M. polymorpha,
M. brachyandra, M. fasciculata and M. insignis. Particular attention has
been paid to M. fasciculata and M. insignis since these two species have not
been recorded since they were originally described by Thaxter in 1895.
M. polymorpha and M. brachyandra, although new British records, have
previously been described from other European countries and from America.
Investigations have shown that the type of substratum on which the
organisms grow is of comparatively little importance, for although it had
previously been suggested that they occur most commonly on ash and
birch twigs, this has not been found to be true and species have grown on a
variety of woods, the consistency of the wood being apparently of greater
importance than the species. Temperature is an important factor in the
cultivation of the fungus and a period of cold immediately following collec-
tion appears to be essential for the production of active growth. Under
suitable control of temperature it had been possible to grow the species
under laboratory conditions and investigate their life-histories.
Dr. J. CaLDWELL and Mr. A. L. James.—Investigations into stripe disease
of the Narcissus (3.50).
In the spring of 1936 a study of the “‘ Stripe ”’ disease of Narcissus was
begun at Exeter. Diseased plants of different varieties were collected and
examination revealed the fact that our main types of symptoms can be
recognised in different varieties. Briefly, the main symptoms are either
a mosaic or an hypertrophy of the plant tissues leading to the formation of
proliferations on the surfaces of leaves and of flower stalks. A study of the
diseased tissues has shown that the two types of symptoms are probably
closely related histologically.
In the spring of 1937 preliminary inoculations were made and this year
symptoms of the disease were well developed on the inoculated plants.
This spring, further inoculations were made which indicate that the causa-
tive agent is a virus and that the different symptom-pictures are conditioned
by the variety rather than by the virus.
Experiments are being carried out on the identity of the virus and on the
method of spread in the field.
Tuesday, August 23.
Discussion on Present aspects of plant virus research (10.0).
Dr. K. M. Smiry and Mr. W. D. MacCLement.—On the natural
modes of dissemination of certain plant viruses.
Until recently it has been generally assumed that most, if not all, plant
viruses are dependent upon one or more insect vectors for their dissemina-
tion in the field. ‘The fact that the mode of spread of a number of viruses
was unknown was explained by the suggestion that the particular insect
502 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—K.
vector concerned was rare, difficult to find, or nocturnal in habit. This
theory seems insufficient, however, to account for the fact that there are
no fewer than fifty-two plant viruses which spread without insect agency or
by unknown means. For some of these viruses, no doubt, insect vectors
will be found in due course. Nevertheless, it is now known that other means
of natural spread exist and some of these are discussed. In the case of
Nicotiana Virus XI (tobacco necrosis virus) it has already been stated that
this virus is both water- and air-borne and further experiments on these
lines are outlined. MMurphy and Loughnane have recently expressed the
opinion that Solanum Virus I (potato virus X) spreads by mechanical
contact alone and this statement is examined in the light of field experiments
on the spread of this virus carried out at Cambridge during the past five
years.
Dr. R. N. SaLaman, F*R.S.—Protection against virus diseases of the
potato (10.30).
The solution will vary with the character of the district. ‘The factors to
be considered are: (a) The virus content of our seed potatoes; (5) the
conditions favouring the insect vectors ; (c) the existence of infective foci.
METHODS OF ATTACK.
(1) The breeding of virus-resistant varieties—The only success so far is
the production of variety No. 41956, immune to the X virus, in U.S.A.
It is hoped to breed immune varieties from wild species but no virus-
resistant species have so far been determined ; to convey the immunity
when found to an economically valuable potato is a long and difficult task.
(2) The maintenance of stocks tolerant to virus diseases—Unconsciously
we have been following this course for the last hundred years. The results
are not impressive. We have no varieties completely tolerant to either
Leaf Roll or the Y virus, though Great Scot is semi-tolerant to both. A few
show some degree of tolerance to Y. All our popular stocks are highly
susceptible to both. Progress along these lines with our existing material
is unlikely.
(3) Protection by means of vaccination.—In America all varieties are
infected with some mild strain and in consequence are protected against
the virulent strains of X. In England such is not so general, hence our
varieties are liable to acute X infection. We have isolated a non-virulent
strain of the X virus which, used as a vaccine, protects against other forms
of the X virus. With the Y virus, weak forms protect against the severer,
but the former are not yet weak enough to be of practical use.
(4) The raising and growing of virus-free stocks—The Potato Virus Re-
search Station at Cambridge has isolated and maintained stocks of our
chief varieties in a state of freedom from virus disease or, where that is
impossible, such as are infected by only a virus of low virulence. These
return the highest yields. If isolated from infected stocks, they will con-
tinue to do so indefinitely.
Their multiplication is intended to follow a rotation beginning in the
Hebrides and/or coastal districts of West Scotland; thence to the large
seed-growing areas of East Scotland and, finally, to the potato-raising
districts of England. Each year virus-free seed would leave Cambridge
for the ‘ islands,’ and seed from these would pass to the mainland. The
cycle of rotation would be five or six years from the liberation of virus-free
Cambridge seed to its growth in England. Combined with this scheme
should go a nation-wide eradication of bad and infected stocks.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 503
Mr. F. C. Bawpen.—The isolation and properties of some plant
viruses (11.0).
Tobacco mosaic virus, cucumber virus 3, potato virus X and Bushy
stunt virus have been isolated and found to be nucleoproteins. The
analytical figures are all similar except that Bushy stunt virus contains twice
as much nucleic acid as the others, and the apparent absence of water and
any constituents other than nucleic acid and protein sharply separates
these viruses from bacteria and other organisms. ‘Tobacco mosaic virus,
cucumber virus 3 and potato virus X have rod-shaped particles ; they form
birefringent gels, dilute solutions show anisotropy of flow and concentrated
solutions are liquid crystalline. Precipitates of the first two with acid or
ammonium sulphate are paracrystalline, but those of potato virus X are
amorphous. The particles of Bushy stunt virus are spherical and all
preparations of this virus are isotropic; when precipitated with ammonium
sulphate at o°c. it forms true cubic system crystals. The proteins are
infective at dilutions of from 10% to 107° and give serological titres of
from 10° to 10-7. The type of specific precipitate with antiserum varies
with the shape of the virus particles. 'The rod-shaped viruses give floccu-
lent precipitates similar to those of bacterial flagellar antigens, whereas
Bushy stunt virus gives a dense precipitate similar to those given by bacterial
somatic antigens.
Dr. R. W. G. Dennis.—The virus content of some Peruvian potatoes
(11.30).
In December 1937 a consignment of fifty-nine Peruvian potato varieties,
collected at Pufio by the Percy Sladen Expedition to Lake Titicaca, was
received at the Potato Virus Research Station Cambridge. During the
present season their virus content has been under investigation by the
writer. The virus most frequently isolated is X, which is present in thirty-
four varieties ; several strains occur, some of which are carried without
symptoms by tobacco whilst others induce an interveinal mottle with
yellow rings. A necrotic or ringspot type capable of inducing local lesions
on tobacco or Datura has never been isolated. One variety has yielded an
X the symptoms of which on European potatoes recall those of Foliar
Necrosis, virus D. Associated with X in at least nine varieties is a “ streak’
virus probably identical with Up To Date Streak, virus B.
Nine other varieties contain viruses of the Aucuba Mosaic type. It is
probable that these mostly resemble the virus of Tuber Blotch (F) rather
than true Aucuba(G). In twelve varieties no virus has been detected whilst
in four there is evidence of the presence of viruses differing from any known
in this country. Infection of some of the twelve healthy varieties with
European viruses has shown that they react to them as do varieties of the
domestic potato ; thus two react to X by top necrosis whilst others exhibit
leaf-drop-streak with Y.
DISCUSSION (11.50).
(CONCURRENTLY WITH ABOVE SESSION.)
Miss E. R. SaunpERS.—The neglect of anatomical evidence in the current
solutions of problems in systematic botany (10.0).
The neglect of anatomical evidence in the analysis of the angiosperm
flower has led to the acceptance of many erroneous interpretations. Some
504. SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
justification for this neglect existed at a time when little knowledge of floral
anatomy was available and when reliance had to be placed upon the general
rule of the alternation of successive whorls as the sole guide to the solution
of the problems of floral morphology.
The inadequacy of the basis of many of the solutions adopted is revealed
increasingly by a study of floral anatomy. It has become evident that the
traditional interpretation of that complex organ, the syncarpous gyneceum,
does not accord with the evidence, and that, even respecting the perianth and
andreecium, accepted views must be revised, as in Cistaceze, Amarantacez,
Hypericum, Soldanella, Saraca, Cucurbita and many other types.
Descriptions of the flower in the more detailed accounts have mostly been
written before the advent of this new knowledge. Hence they depict, but
they rarely analyse. They describe the visible, but seldom indicate how the
variations observed have been effected. In order that accounts which may
appear in the future should present a more complete picture of the flower
and of its history, it is now greatly to be desired that the workers in the two
fields of systematic botany and anatomy should co-operate in framing and
adopting a terminology which embraces the known facts.
Prof. F. E. Wetss, F.R.S.—Apparent reversions in variegated hollies (10.40).
White and green margined holly leaves are the foliage of periclinal
chimeras in which the core or centre of the leaf is surrounded usually by
two layers of cells of different colouring. Thus in the white margined
leaves the two peripheral layers of cells are devoid of chlorophyll, while
central portions of the mesophyll contain abundant green colour. From the
general laws of leaf development we may assume that three layers of cells of
the stem apex are concerned in the development of the holly leaf, and that
in the white margined leaves the bulk of the leaf tissue arises from the
innermost of these three layers which is potentially green, while in the
thinner margins of the leaf the tissues have arisen entirely from the two
outermost colourless layers of the stem apex.
On holly-trees with white margined leaves certain branches may be pro-
duced at the base of the plant which bear completely green leaves. Such
branches or suckers arise from the normally green stock upon which the
variegated holly has been grafted. More commonly twigs bearing com-
pletely white leaves are observed on the branches. These have been con-
sidered to be reversions to the colourless component of the chimera.
A microscopic examination of such white branches has, however, shown
that they are not colourless throughout, but that they have a central green
core, as can be seen from the inner cortical cells which contain abundant
chlorophyll. The colourless mantle by which the green core is surrounded
may be six to ten layers in thickness in the mature twig, and we may assume
that these have arisen by division of the second layer of colourless cells.
We are dealing therefore with a periclinal chimera in which the mantle
consists of more than two layers of cells. It may be trichlamydeous or, as
indicated, have an even greater number of peripheral cells. There is indeed
often a considerable irregularity in the number of layers of colourless cells, and
in some cases white margined and completely white leaves are found on the
same twig, the former arising from dichlamydeous, the latter from trichla-
mydeous portions of the stem apex. 'The arrangement of the number of
colourless cells in the stem may tend to become somewhat sectorial.
What has been said of the white margined hollies is true mutatis
mutandis of the green margined forms. It is also true of other plants with
periclinally variegated leaves such as Euonymus, Eleagnus, etc.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 505
Probably some of the apparent reversions in periclinal graft hybrids may
be merely modifications of the periclinal arrangement with an increased
development of the superficial component. Some investigations seem to
point to this being the case.
Mr. G. O. SEARLE.—The Sandringham flax experiment (11.10).
The linen industry of the British Isles depends largely on foreign supplies
of flax fibre, although flax may be grown in most parts of this country.
The main drawbacks have been the difficulty of ensuring high yielding
crops, and the excessive labour required for fibre processing.
The Linen Research Association has concentrated on the production of
improved varieties of fibre flax, and on the mechanising of flax fibre pro-
duction.
Largely owing to the interest shown by the late King George V in a
linen research exhibition, a small crop of flax was grown at Sandringham in
1931, followed by a much larger crop in 1933.
In 1934-35 this led to the erection of a small flax factory for the experi-
mental processing of the crop from 250 acres each year.
The experiment -has already demonstrated that excellent pedigree flax
seed, and fibre of the standard of the best machine scutched continental
flax, can be produced in Norfolk. It is hoped that further work will demon-
strate the possibility of reducing processing costs to such a level as to
encourage the cultivation of this crop on a large scale.
Miss D. Joan HEPPELL.—Some contributions to the cytology of the genus
Narcissus (11.40).
An attempt has been made to ascertain the chromosome numbers of
members of the genus Narcissus not hitherto investigated. Indication of
the parentage of certain garden forms is apparent from their chromosome
behaviour. Meiosis and mitosis have been followed in a number of types.
A study of pollen grain germination has been made and a record compiled
both of the per cent. germination and of the duration of time between the
commencement of growth and the various stages in nuclear division. The
dates on which meiosis and mitosis take place in the pollen have been ascer-
tained in all the types investigated.
Mrs. E. R. SANsomME and Dr. F. W. Sansome.—Genetical experiments
with garden peas (12.0).
Since Mendel’s work on peas forty new genes have been discovered.
Nevertheless the arrangement of these genes into the expected linkage
groups has not been satisfactorily accomplished. One important reason
is that different races of peas have different arrangements of chromosome
segments. When these races are crossed, structural hybridity and ac-
companying semi-sterility are found. The relationship between genes and
translocations in peas is described.
AFTERNOON.
EXHIBITS (2.15—5.0).
Prof. F. T. Brooks, F.R.S., and Dr. Y. A. S. EL ALAtLy.—Die-back
and canker of roses caused by Griphospheria corticola.
506
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K.
Dr. M. R. BRown.—Physiologic races of Puccinia coronata-avene.
Dr. A. Burces.—Sporotrichium infection by rats.
Dr. D. G. CatcHestpeE.—Genetics of Oenothera.
Dr. V. J. CoapmMan.—Marine algz.
Dr. C. G. C. CuestTers.—A simple method of producing photo-
micrographs.
Dr. W. R. Ivimey Coox.—Species of Plasmodiophorales.
Dr. C. G. Doss and Mr. A. M. Acocx.—Plants of Spitzbergen.
Dr. W. J. Dowson.—1. Some bacterial diseases of plants. 2.
Cultures of bacterial plant pathogens arranged in group-genera.
Dr. R. Emerson.—Methods of reproduction in the Blastocladiales.
Dr. R. Ftorin.—Female fructifications in Cordaites and conifers of
Palzozoic Age.
Dr. H. Gopwin.—Bog peat.
Prof. W. T. Gorpon.—Tetrastichia bupatides.
Dr. B. J. Grieve.—Investigations of stimulation phenomena in plants
induced by parasitic infection.
Miss E. M. Hattey.—Myxomycetes.
Miss D. JoAN HEPPELL.—The cytology of Narcissus.
HERBARIUM, CAMBRIDGE.—1I. Local floras. 2. Collections of special
interest. 3. Plants from localities to be visited on the excur-
sions.
Prof. B. J. Luyer.—Vitrification of colloids and of protoplasm.
Mr. G. MetcaLre.—Watermarked willow wood.
Miss E. Morcan.—Saprolegniacez.
Miss HELEN M. Muccocu.—Dispersal of spermatocytes in Mnium
hornum.
Prof. W. NEILSON Jones and Mr. A. G. Morton.—Material illus-
trating some features of soil and growth on Wareham heaths.
Dr. M. C. Rayner and Dr. I, Levisonn.—Pure cultures of fungi
associated with roots of Pinus; Mycorrhizal relations in Sitka
Spruce and Chamecyparis Lawsoniana.
Dr. P. W. RicHarps.—Mosses with ‘ dwarf males.’
Miss E. R. SAUNDERS.—A century’s challenge to orthodoxy.
Mr. J. K. Scott.—A modification of the katharometer.
Mr. G. O. SzearRLE.—The Sandringham flax experiment.
Sir ALBERT SewaRp, F.R.S., Mr. W. N. Epwarps and Dr. J. B.
SIMPsON.—Interbasaltic plant beds of Mull.
ee, a oe
2
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K. 507
Dr. J. B, Stmpson.—Fossil pollen of dicotyledons of Jurassic age.
Mr. K. V. Srinatu.—Nutrition of embryo sac in Calceolaria.
SuB-DEPARTMENT OF PLANT PuysioLocy, Botany ScHOoL, CaM-
BRIDGE.—Apparatus.
Dr. H. Hamsuaw Tuomas, F.R.S.—The works of Richard Bradley,
the first professor of botany in Cambridge, 1724-1732.
Dr. H. HamsHaw Tuomas, F.R.S., and Mr. H. ANDREWS.—
Pachyderphyllum and Sarcostrobus, Jurassic plant remains of
problematical affinities.
Miss P. E. THomas.—Monoblepharidales.
Mr. T. G. Tutin.—(a) The flora of Lake Titicaca; (b) Species of
Hydrodictyon from Peru.
Dr. E. F. Warsurc.—British forms of Sorbus.
Mr. P. Warnock.—Parasitic fungi on Rosa.
Dr. A. S. Watt.—The morphology of the bracken.
Dr. D. H. VaLentine. Forms of Viola silvestris and Viola Riviniana
and of the hybrid between them.
Material illustrating virus diseases of plants exhibited throughout
the meeting by :-—
Dr. R. N. Sataman, F.R.S., in the Potato Virus Research
Station.
Dr. KENNETH M. SmiTu, in the Potato Virus Research Station.
Mr. N. W. Prete and Mr. F. C. Bawnen, in the Sir William
Dunn Institute, School of Biochemistry.
Wednesday, August 24.
Dr. E. F. Warsurc.—The origin and distribution of the British forms of
Sorbus (10.0).
Three diploid species (n = 17) occur in Britain, S. Aucuparia widespread
over the whole, S. torminalis in England only where it is widespread but
local, and S. Aria ranging from Kent to the Wye Valley and the Mendips.
Hybrids of S. Aria with each of the other species occur. ‘The remaining
British forms are triploid or tetraploid. They may be divided into three
groups as follows: A—species allied to S. Aria, B—species intermediate
between A and S. Aucuparia, C—species intermediate between A and S.
torminalis. 'These species are mostly confined to small areas on the lime-
stone in the West and North, where they entirely replace S. Aria, with
which they grow only in the Wye Valley and in Somerset. They are all
apparently endemic except for S. rupicola, the most widespread in Britain
which also occurs in Scandinavia, and possibly for S. porrigens. Some of
these forms are almost certainly apomictic. Groups B and C are presumed
508 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—K.
to have originated by hybridisation between Group A and S. Aucuparia
and S. torminalis respectively. Group A is represented by about half a
dozen forms of which some may be pre- or inter-glacial derivatives of
S. Aria or allied species, the others being perhaps derived from them by
hybridisation.
Dr. C. G. Dosss.—The vegetation of Cape Napier, Spitsbergen (10.30).
Cape Napier is a shingle promontory situated in latitude 78° 39’ N., on
an innermost branch of Ice Fjord, which penetrates the west coast of West
Spitsbergen to a depth of over fifty miles. Behind the main shingle beach
lies a small salt marsh and a larger area of pools and bogs, crossed by shingle
laterals. ‘The area was described by J. Walton in 1921.
The object of this investigation has been to record the vegetation in
greater detail, and to establish any changes which have occurred during
the intervening fifteen years. For this purpose a vegetation map was made,
and the frequencies of plants along certain lines were expressed by means
of graphs based upon ring sampling.
_ Three main associations were found on the small area studied: on the
shingle—Dryas fjaeldmark with lichens; on the tidal mudflats—Cyano-
phycee, the grass Puccinellia phryganodes, the moss Swartzia inclinata, and
Carex subspathacea; in the bog—mosses, Carex subspathacea and Salix
polaris. ‘The succession from bare shingle to fjaeldmark, and bare mudflat
to bog, was traced.
Changes since 1921 were slight, indicating a slow rate of development.
Puccinellia, however, had spread some distance by means of broken shoots
washed along the tidal channels. Swartzia and Carex subspathacea had
spread much more slowly on the mudflats, and a pool in the boggy area had
become filled with vegetation.
Mr. A. M. Acocx.—Observations on vegetation and associated soil pheno-
mena in Spitsbergen (10.50).
The severity of environmental conditions in Arctic regions is such that
any mitigating influence has a profound effect on vegetation. Small varia-
tions in soil characters and micro-relief are reflected in changes in floristic
composition and density.
Apparently associated with the frozen sub-soil and seasonal thawing and
freezing of the surface is the peculiar organisation of the soil into the
structures known as ‘ polygons.’ A variety of types was observed near
Bruce City, Spitsbergen :
(i) Fissure polygons in silt or clay.
(ii) Stone circles with clay centres.
(iii) Polygons in stony material.
(iv) Elongated forms on slopes.
A number of mechanisms of formation has been suggested by various
workers. ‘The botanical interest centres in the rearrangement of the
mechanical contituents of the soil and in local differences in exposure,
duration of snow lie, and moisture, as a result of doming of the polygon
centres. There is generally a concentration of vegetation on the margins:
of polygons, either rooted between stones or in humus - filled fissures
between polygons.
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K, K*. 509
Mr. K. V. SrinatH.—WNutrition of the embryo sac in Calceolaria (11.30).
The disintegration of the scanty nucellus in the ovules of the Sympetale
is now well known. As a result the innermost layer of the massive single
integument comes to lie in immediate contact with the outer wall of the
embryo sac. In the genera Calceolaria and Herpestris of the Scrophu-
lariacez, this layer of the integument becomes very prominent and the
cells become elongated and palisade-like. The process of differentiation
starts early, even when the megaspore mother cell is in the meiotic prophase.
At this stage the nucellus is a single layer of cells forming a loose envelope
around the embryo sac. As development proceeds the nucellus completely
breaks down, its cell outlines are lost and it finally disappears. ‘This break-
down of the nucellus is nearly coincident with the formation of the eight
nucleate sac.
During the changes in the megaspore, the integumentary cells become
very conspicuous with prominent nuclei and densely staining cytoplasm.
After fertilisation these cells become less conspicuous. Their behaviour
strongly suggests that they function as a nutritive ‘ tapetum ’ investing the
embryo sac and perhaps operative during the changes in the megaspore
leading up to the formation of the mature embryo sac.
DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY (K*).
Thursday, August 18.
Symposium on The cultivation of British hardwoods (11.15).
Mr. D. W. Younc.—The position of hardwoods in British forestry.
Mr. A. P. Lonc.—The Oak (11.45).
Mr. A. L. Fetton.—The Beech (12.15).
AFTERNOON.
Sir Roy L. Rosinson, O.B.E.—The home-grown timber supply (2.30).
Symposium on British hardwoods, continued (3.0).
Mr. J. MacponaLp.—Ash and Sycamore.
Mr. A. H. Porpert.—Alder and Birch (3.20).
Mr. W. H. GuiLLesauD.—Progress of experimental work on hardwoods
(3-40).
(Continued on Friday)
Friday, August 19.
Symposium on The cultivation of British hardwoods (continued from
Thursday) (10.0).
Mr. W. A. RoBertson.—Some remarks on the utilisation of home-
grown hardwoods.
The paper lays stress on the relation of silvicultural treatment of the
crop to the money value of the final yield, and indicates how the defects
510 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K¥*.
in home-grown hardwoods are largely due to silvicultural mistakes or
neglect. Reference is made to particular defects in oak, beech, ash, birch,
etc. Attention is drawn to the importance of plywood as an outlet for
home grown timber and the need for careful silviculture. Charcoal as a
means of disposing of cordwood is touched on.
DISCUSSION (10.20).
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Cambridge Experimental Area and Conington Hall.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to’ Mr. W. J. Burton’s Chip Basket Factory at Wisbech ;
Ryston Estate ; and Forestry Commission’s Nursery, Mundford.
Sunday, August 21.
Excursion to Forestry Commissions Plantations in Thetford Forest.
Monday, August 22.
Joint Discussion with Section K (Botany) on The ecological aspects of
afforestation (10.0).
Dr. A. S. Watt.—The significance of Breckland in British forestry.
The climate, soil and vegetation are considered in formulation of general
principles governing the practice of forestry in Breckland.
Dr. H. M. Steven.—The ecological aspects of afforestation in hill
country (10.45).
Mr. R. Ross.—The colonisation of abandoned agricultural land in
south-west Cambridgeshire (11.15).
The Chalky Boulder Clay of south-west Cambridgeshire gives rise to
very heavy clay soils, the natural vegetation of which is ash-oak woodland.
On this formation considerable areas of agricultural land have gone out of
cultivation during the last hundred years. These have become covered
by a scrub dominated by Crategus in the early stages of which a few
seedlings of Quercus and Fraxinus develop under the bushes and survive.
Animal, probably rabbit, attack severely limits the numbers. Ulmus
minor becomes established freely by suckers at this time close to hedges
containing the species. At a later stage, when the scrub becomes denser,
further establishment of trees becomes impossible and almost all the
ground vegetation is killed. The Crategus is not regenerating, apparently
owing to caterpillar attack of the seedlings, and will therefore die out in
time. By then the soil will have been considerably altered, having acquired
much humus and an open crumb structure. It appears ‘likely that trees,
particularly Ulmus minor, will then be able to establish themselves, and it
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—K*%*, L. 511
is suggested that certain copses in the area, consisting almost entirely of
Ulmus and lacking the characteristic woodland undergrowth of the neigh-
bourhood, are a further stage in the succession.
DISCUSSION (11.30).
AFTERNOON.
Prof. W. NEILsoN JoNEs and Mr. A. G. Morton.—Some features of soil
and growth on the Wareham heaths (2.30).
Mr. C. H. THompson.—The present position of forestry at Cambridge
University (3.15).
Mr. G. MetcaLre.—The morbid histology of watermarked willows (3.40).
From stained wood four bacterial species can be isolated—Bacterium
salicis, a white organism resembling B. erogenes, a yellow organism and a
member of the fluorescens group. ‘These form a mixed population in the
vessels. In recently diseased wood (brown stain) B. salicis predominates,
in later stages (black stain) the secondary organisms predominate. Bacteria
form occluding masses in the vessels ; tyloses appear and form a pseudo-
parenchymatous tissue. Small diagonal cracks, joining infected elements,
are formed by the solution of the pectic middle lamellze by the fluorescent
organism. ‘T'annins are abundant in the degenerating ray cells ; the brown
stain is due to the oxidation of their breakdown products. The bacterial
oxidase systems may bring this about as the brown stain is correlated with
the presence of occluded vessels. ‘The black stain sometimes present is due
to the formation of melanin in the ray cells. Bacteria colonise ray cells
after degeneration of protoplasm ; the bacteria spread radially in this way.
Longitudinal spread is along vessel lumina. 'The bacteria become actively
motile following spring hydrolysis of starch and spread rapidly about the
tree. The bacteria are non-motile during the summer and autumn. There
is a slow radial and longitudinal spread during winter, resulting in the
formation of thin layers of bacteria around the walls of vessels in the current
year’s wood.
Tuesday, August 23.
Excursion to Weasenham Wood.
SECTION L.—EDUCATIONAL SCIENCE.
Thursday, August 18.
Sir RicHarD Grecory, Bart., F.R.S., and Mr. H. G. WeELLs.—Report of
Committee on the content of school curricula (10.0).
Discussion on Tendencies in the design of schools (10.30).
Mr. S. E. URWIN.
The School.—A place of learning and training of culture and appreciation.
The Building—Temporary or permanent—Construction—should be of
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good taste in design—attractive—carefully considered planning—located in
pleasant surroundings—no longer the institution of old.
Accommodation.—To provide for the child from the cradle to old age—
a community and health centre—aspect—rooms for teaching and practical
instruction and special subjects—for physical fitness and entertainment—
maximum light and air.
Internal Finishings —Colour and furniture.
Mr. W. G. NEWTON (11.0).
Educational theory reflected in plans: theories fluctuate, buildings
remain. ‘To-day an emphasis on decentralisation, light and air, sunshine,
gardens, practical work, play: both here and abroad. Also school as a
cultural centre for neighbourhood. Consequent plan-types. Research.
The News-Chronicle competition. Concentration and dispersion. Expansion
vertical and horizontal. Facades: encampments. ‘Theory fluctuates :
materials, obsolescence.
Mr. Dents CLARKE-HALL (11.30).
Theoretical approach to the designing of a school building rather than a
description of existing practice.
Analysis of Problem in designing a Modern Building.
A building must include to a varying degree of importance according to
its type:
1. Function (fulfil in a satisfactory manner the purpose for which it is
built).
2. Human Association (the physical and mental contact of the individual
with scale surface texture and detail).
3. Aisthetic Value (the refinement of 1 and 2 by the science of pro-
portions, perspective and logic, giving intellectual satisfaction over
emotional).
Buildings whose functions are of major importance and dictate the whole
conception and bear no human association :
1. Large industrial work. 2. Hospitals. 3. Engineering work.
Buildings whose human associations are of major importance :
1. Domestic work. 2. Small hotels, etc.
Buildings in which it is essential to have incorporated to an approximate
equal degree both Function and Human Association :
1. Schools. 2. Flats. 3. Larger hotels and any other buildings where
large numbers of people gather and have direct contact with the building
itself.
On the esthetic value of a building depends its architectural importance.
Architectural criticism can be based on a muddled conception of these
points :
1. Function distorted by the forced application of Human Association
and Sentiment.
2. Human Association destroyed by an excessive degree of function.
3. Aesthetic value destroyed by misuse of 1 and 2.
Approach to the problem of designing schools based on these points :
1. General. f
(a) What is the school for. (6) The best method of achieving this
purpose. (c) Division into specialised sections.
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2. Function.
(a) Weatherproof. (b) Purpose of units. (c) Size of units. (d) Ven-
tilation and air-space. (e) Heating. (f) Lighting. (g) Circulation.
(h) Detail (furniture, etc.).
3. Human Association.
(a) Reaction of the mind to environment. (6) Scale. (c) Surface
texture of materials. (d) Detail. (e) Colour. (f) General atmo-
sphere.
4. Zisthetic Value.
(a) General massing of proportion. (b) Perspective. (c) Proportion
of detail. (d) Relationship of 2 and 3. (e) Final adjustments.
In no way must esthetic value distort function, but must be a direct
expression of this and also of Human Association. All must grow naturally
from one to the other.
Description of a school designed in this way.
Mr. W. D. Seymour (11.55).
The change in attitude towards problems of heating and ventilation,
which dates from the beginning of the present century, has resulted in a
great deal of research in applying the new principles.
During the past ten years many experiments have been carried out on
the heating and ventilation of schools, first by the Industrial Health Research
Board, and more recently by the National Institute of Industrial Psychology.
In studies undertaken by investigators of the latter body, an attempt has
been made to determine the most suitable conditions for school children
at work and, in a school equipped specially for the purpose, experiments
have been made to compare the suitability of different types of heating
equipment.
The paper deals with these experiments, and with corresponding ones on
the natural and artificial lighting of schools. In addition, some account is
given of subsidiary experiments on the design of equipment.
Friday, August 19.
PRESIDENTIAL AppREsS by Mr. JOHN SarGENT on The proper function of
administration in public education (10.0). (See p. 235.)
Discussion on Education for a changing society (11.0).
(a) Senior Schools.
Mr. W. H. RosInson (11.0).
The Senior School is the school of the people—the football crowd, the
cheap cinema audience, the factory ‘ hands,’ the shop assistants, the trades-
unionists, the vast majority of the voters; in short, ‘ democracy.’ ‘The
majority of the Senior School pupils will receive no further organised
education as long as they live but will be ‘ educated’ by their environment
—physical and mental.
There is no lack of guidance for the teacher as to what they should be
taught, how they should be taught and what should be expected as the result
of this schooling.
The growing tendency is to insist that the educational environment in
which these pupils grow and the experiences through which the daily school
S
514 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS .—L.
routine will lead them, are more important even than the knowledge which
they gain, and educational technique is being devised to fit in with this
tendency. In the revolt from attempts at training the powers of abstract
thinking in bookish ways divorced from the actual practice of the art of
living in a modern community, there has developed an over-emphasis on
“ practical ’ work which is often not a ‘ realistic’ and ‘ practical’ approach
to education, but is merely a substitute for education.
Only as the pupil understands what it is all about and is led consciously
(not merely indirectly) to co-operate in a process of real education for
life, will the system succeed. And this cannot be left to chance, or merely
be expected to develop in the right atmosphere, but must become the
dominant note in the new technique of the Senior School, especially in the
additional year which is soon to be added to that life.
Miss RutH Dawson (11.20).
I. The Modern Child and his Environment.
(a) The standard of living is higher.
(b) There is less home life.
(c) The influence of wireless and the cinema is considerable.
(d) There are greater facilities for travel.
(e) The age is one of speed and noise.
(f) The age is one of mass production.
(g) International relationships are strained.
II. The Aims of the Senior Schools—as stated in the Hadow Repost.
(a) To form and strengthen character—individual and national.
(6) To train tastes which will fill and dignify leisure.
(c) To awaken and guide intelligence—especially on its practical side.
III. The Senior School.
(a) Its constitution.
(6) Its atmosphere.
(c) Its curriculum.
(d) The value—or otherwise—of specialisation.
(6) Secondary Schools.
Dr. P. T. FREEMAN (11.40).
Has society changed in fundamentals to an extent which would justify
abandonment of ‘ training’ subjects? Need to cultivate willingness to
make mental effort, and respect for knowledge and truth. Some changes
in society call for changes in content and method in such subjects as Divinity,
Biology (including matters concerning sex, heredity, etc.), Civics, Physical
Training. Education in the use of leisure. Longer school life.
Miss MurteL Davigs (12.0).
Our educational system and political bias. Need for unification in ranks
of teachers and taught. Education for social progress rather than for
individual advancement. ‘The development of self-discipline through
freedom. Co-operation to replace competition : activity and initiative of
pupils further to be encouraged. Group system. Manual work. Distinc-
tions between home work and school work should be abolished. School as
club for past and present pupils.
(Discussion continued on Monday)
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Monday, August 22.
Discussion on Education for a changing society. (Continued from Friday)
(10.0.)
(a) Technical.
Mr. J. PALEY YORKE (10.25).
Dr. W. A. RICHARDSON (10.50).
The modern world has awakened to its responsibility to youth, and
unfortunately many countries exploit it. There is increased thought and
expenditure for the recreation, physical culture and education, both general
and vocational, of young people. In work of this kind, technical colleges
have been pioneers and take still an active part not only in making actual
provision, but in supplying ideas and inspiration. There are two ideals,
not necessarily antagonistic, which functioned in the founding of technical
institutions. One is exemplified fully in the movement which led to the
growth of the London Polytechnics, and is essentially social. They started
as clubs for young people, and their educational provision was in a measure
supplementary to their main social purpose. The other conception, namely,
vocational or further education, inspired the development of provincial
colleges, which in many instances arose out of the Mechanics Institutes.
Colleges to-day do not normally receive students until the age of sixteen,
and since their accommodation is limited, have to decide upon their policy.
The social ideal means admitting all youths to their activities, whether they
engage in education or not. On the whole the idea of the local college is
gaining ground. Such a college is a community of students, whose main
purpose in attending is educational, but for whom the authorities must
provide facilities for social and physical development in the fullest sense.
For education to be effective it must be continued until the age of mental
maturity—at least until eighteen. The full benefit of educational effort and
expenditure will only be secured if continued education is compulsory, at
least until this age. And in this continuation technical colleges have a
great function in providing young people with wide educational opportunities
for all phases of life, although such institutions have, and must ever have,
a vocational and industrial bias.
Mr. F. Pick (11.20).
Education has been conservative. It has not given to the newer subjects
bred of an industrial civilisation the breadth and quality which was given
to the older subjects bred in the classic ages.
A liberal education usually means education in and through classic
literature. There is a liberal education to be got through the discipline
of tool and material, differing in kind but the same in substance. There
should be a liberal education to be secured from trade and industry conceived
as elements in an ideal life.
Art and technology have been largely divorced and the liberal education
of the master craftsman destroyed. This must be restored. The sickness
of industrial production may be attributed to this lack. A fresh conception
of a school embracing both art and technology is needed.
The practical and pragmatical classes in subjects related to trade and
industry must be infused with a philosophic content. The trained and
broadened mind must be applied to the building up out of the mass of
516 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L.
knowledge which they embody, human sciences to rank alongside ethics,
politics, economics, sociology and so forth. In fact these human sciences
need reconstituting to take cognisance of the revolutions in affairs that have
occurred since the opening of the nineteenth century.
The English common law suggests an approach and a method for this
purpose. It has survived change and is still growing.
- The enormous scale of modern business can only be supported if an
education can be devised which will give quickly the understanding requisite
for its conduct.
Modern business absorbs at least two-thirds of the energy and time of
the people, it must therefore be developed to constitute a satisfying life.
For this purpose it must have a creative interpretation. There can be little
hope for current civilisation until its major occupation is liberalised. ‘The
task confronts education.
.
(6) University.
Prof. WINIFRED CULLIS, C.B.E. (11.50).
Much attention is being given to-day to the study of ways in which two
aspects of University education, the training for livelihood and the training
for living, can be combined. It is generally agreed that specifically voca-
tional training is given very efficiently. The discussion is mainly concerned,
therefore, with ways of helping the Universities to provide leaders in conduct
of social, commercial and political administration.
AFTERNOON.
Excursion to Bottisham and Linton Village Colleges.
Tuesday, August 23.
Discussion on the Presidential Address by Mr. JOHN SaRGENT (10.0).
Joint Discussion with Section J (Psychology) on The educational signifi-
cance of the cinema and wireless (11.0).
Mr. R. C. STEELE.
Some of the chief problems discussed are :—The educational value of
broadcasts—Broadcasts as compared with other mechanical aids to
education—Learning to listen—Broadcasts and further education—
Listening powers of different types of children—Such problems as ‘ How
much can children visualise from mere words ? —The effect of personality
in a broadcast—The contrasted effects of novelty and familiarity of subject
matter—Education by means of entertainment—Broadcast as compared
with classroom technique.
Dr. P. B. BALLARD.
The educational film as part of the school programme is still in the early
experimental stage. There is, however, clear indication that it should be
brief, should be repeated, and should be full of action and human interest.
The ordinary cinema often has a bad influence on children. ‘The broadcast
lesson, having had a run of ten years, is more developed and more firmly
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—L, M. 517
established. Neither the film nor the radio talk is a complete educational
unit ; it has to be supplemented by other teaching devices.
Dr. S. J. F. PHiLpotr.
Film teaching is sometimes said to reduce gap between dull and bright
children, the gain to the dull being seen in increased vividness or liveliness
in descriptions (verbal or written). The argument is probably fallacious on
the statistical side, being due to reasoning from a regression instead of from
corresponding correlation. There are also difficulties on the qualitative side.
Vividness can be measured in terms of the percentage of particular (as
distinct from general) statements in the essay or verbal description. It can
be shown experimentally that (a) the more ‘ particular ’ the child, the more
he tends to put in descriptions of films relative to what he does in more
ordinary circumstances, and that (b) the bright child is naturally less * par-
ticular’ than the dull. There is consequent danger of confusion in the
results, and figures quoted show that no decision can yet be made on the
data.
Miss L. M. Hott.
An account is given of the comparison of a series of lessons in which
the wireless was used with another series in which it was not, for the purpose
of obtaining some indication as to the specific contributions and functions
of this new teaching aid as distinct from others available.
The top class of an elementary school was divided into two approximately
equal groups by means of the Simplex Group Test. Each group had both
normal and wireless lessons in cyclic order over a period of eight weeks.
The same main facts on Empire Geography were taught in each corre-
sponding pair of lessons. After each lesson the children both wrote free
essays and answered a Questionnaire. The results of these were evaluated,
but it was necessary to use a method of evaluation that was in no way
dependent upon individual judgment. The essays were marked for facts
which were classified under various categories. "This is discussed, together
with the distinctive differences apparent when material is presented visually
(as in the cinema), orally (as on the wireless) and when it is presented by the
teacher without either of these two aids.
At the end of the series it was felt desirable to obtain some indication as
to the children’s attitude towards these periods. A scaled series of state-
ments was presented to them and they indicated their acceptance or rejection
of each of the items and their position has been assessed.
SECTION M.—AGRICULTURE.
Thursday, August 18.
Discussion on Agriculture in relation to national employment (10.0).
Mr. C. S. ORwin.—The demands for labour in agriculture.
This paper treats the subject historically, covering approximately the last
hundred years. It shows how the demand for labour for the land, as
reflected in wages, has always been exceeded by the supply, right up to the
present day. ‘There have been times when temporarily there was a shortage
518 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M.
of workers in agriculture, but they have not lasted long. The present time
is one of them, and the question is whether the more attractive alterna-
tives offered by the labour market, combined with the mitigation of the
consequences of unemployment provided by the social legislation of the
times, are going to alter the experience of a century and drive farmers to find
ways by which to meet a more permanent withdrawal of labour.
These might take the forms of (1) an acceptance of the situation and a
further extensification of farm practice; (2) an attempt to carry on with a
reduced staff and a further resort to labour-saving machinery, or (3) an
intensification of farming, combined with high wages, in an attempt to
reproduce industrial conditions.
Prof. J. A. Scorr Watson.—Systems of farming (10.30).
Mr. S. J. Wricut.—Men and machines (including transport on the
farm) (11.0).
Mechanisation is neither a serious menace to our rural amenities nor a
royal road to prosperity. It has two phases which, in principle, are quite
independent of one another: the elimination of hand labour by such
machines as the reaper-binder or the combine harvester ; and the replace-
ment of animal by mechanical power. The first of these phases came into
being once and for all during the last century, when the forerunners of all
modern machines were invented, and a discussion of its desirability to-day
can have only an academic interest. The second phase—the introduction
of mechanical power—can be discussed from either of two points of view :
as a factor which makes it possible to reconcile two general features of modern
life, cheaper food and higher wages; or quite independently of either of
these features as a common-sense matter of using the most efficient source of
power. Whatever the levels of prices and wages, the farmer who grows
food for his own horses could, in theory at any rate, use the same products
as fuel for a mechanical heat-engine and get something like three times as
much energy from it. Most of the changes for which mechanisation has
been blamed are due to purely economic causes, and in the long run, agricul-
ture can absorb mechanisation without prejudice to its own interests.
Moreover, under present conditions, only the machine can give the agricul-
tural worker the leisure and amenities which he is entitled to demand.
Dr. F. Kipp.—Preservation, storage and transport of farm produce
(11.30).
GENERAL Discussion opened by Prof. R. G. WHITE (12.0).
AFTERNOON.
Visit to University Farm Plant Breeding Institute, Potato Virus Re-
search Station.
Friday, August 19.
PRESIDENTIAL AppRESS by Prof. R. G. STAPLEDON, C.B.E., on Ley farming
and a long term agricultural policy (10.0). (See p. 245.)
Dr. W. G. Occ.—Problems of marginal and waste land (11.0).
A great deal of land which was at one time under cultivation has been
allowed to revert to semi-waste, and every agricultural depression sees
SECTIONAL 'TRANSACTIONS.—M. 519
additional areas of marginal land go into this condition. In order to check
the shrinkage of our agricultural land it is desirable that we should examine
the possibilities of re-conditioning the marginal farms and of reclaiming land
which has gone out of cultivation.
In many cases the deterioration is chiefly due to lack of lime and of
manures, particularly phosphates, but re-conditioning would involve
cultivation and usually some draining and renovation of buildings and
fencing.
Special equipment and workers with some experience are necessary if
this work is to be done in the most economical manner. But even if the
equipment could be hired many of the owners of this class of land are
unable or unwilling to invest the necessary capital in re-conditioning it.
In some ways the problem of our marginal land resembles that of afforesta-
tion, but if the State were to purchase the land and undertake the re-con-
ditioning the farms could then be rented, with suitable safeguards, to
private individuals. Unless something of this kind is done, or unless special
facilities and inducements are offered to private owners, it seems likely that
still more of our agricultural land will revert to its original condition.
Experiments on the re-conditioning of land have been carried out in
recent years at various centres and experiments on the reclamation of moor-
land are in progress in Lewis and in Lanarkshire.
Dr. E. M. Crowtuer.—The maintenance of soil fertility (11.30).
The old view that the maintenance of fertility in arable land requires
merely the return of the plant foods removed in the crops is now known to
be totally inadequate. Among other things it neglects the losses of calcium
and nitrate in drainage, and of nitrogen as gas, the conversion of added
phosphates and potassium into unavailable forms, and the steady loss of soil
organic matter. It fails to direct attention to the deterioration of physical
properties under continued cultivation through the destruction of root
channels and soil crumbs. Under extreme conditions of torrential rain or
prolonged drought, this may lead to soil erosion on a devastating scale.
The most effective measure of soil conservation is an active cover of vegeta-
tion, the living and decaying roots of which granulate the soil and make it
permeable to air and water. Most stable systems of arable cultivation have
involved either an alternation with grass, scrub, or forest or the production
of large quantities of bulky rotted manure.
The possible chemical, physical and biological effects of farmyard manure
are so manifold that their precise analysis has rarely been attempted. The
traditional methods often prove unduly expensive under modern conditions
and attempts to dispense with them provide severe tests of technical skill.
On the other hand uncritical advocacy of old ways may merely retard pro-
gress. It is known that lime, the major plant foods, and some of the minor
plant foods can be supplied far more economically in inorganic forms,
where the principal soil deficiencies are known. Modern methods of soil
survey, field experiment and soil analysis can do much to reveal the require-
ments and potentialities of individual soils, but far more active co-operation
between official bodies, farmers and technical workers is needed to develop
these methods and extend their use. There is an especial need for field
trials over a term of years on the residual effects on soil fertility of different
systems of land management.
GENERAL Discussion opened by Sir Dante Hatt, K.C.B., F.R.S. (12.0).
520 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M.
AFTERNOON.
Visit to Department of Animal Pathology, National Institute of Agri-
cultural Botany and Animal Research Station.
Saturday, August 20.
Excursion to Cressing Temple, Braintree; Lord Rayleigh’s Farms,
Hatfield Peveril; Henry Ford Institute of Agricultural Engineering ;
Little Hallingbury Park, Bishop’s Stortford.
Monday, August 22.
Discussion on The practical problems of crop production (10.0).
Mr. J. A. McMiL_an.—Crop husbandry.
At heart the farmer is a scientist. Many of the broad principles in crop
husbandry have been established through the cumulative experience of
successive generations of tillers of the soil. The scientist has discovered
the reasons underlying many of these principles, often after long and
patient investigation, and in doing so has demonstrated improved methods
of crop production. It is only comparatively recently that he has turned
his attention to problems that appear beyond the solution of the farmer or
that have arisen with changing economic conditions.
More recent tendencies are towards a system of sound rotational farming.
The value of animal manure has been rediscovered and the place and balance
of artificial fertilisers in the rotation, rather than for the individual crop,
are the subjects of new investigations. ‘The older accepted methods of
cultivation are being called into question ; the much wider use of mechanical
power holds out new possibilities.
Many important problems await solution, for example, in the fields of
drainage, cultivation and weed control. It has become increasingly evident
of late, however, that the translation into practice of the many contributions
of science in the above and other directions is dependent largely on the
economic condition of the farming industry.
Prof. F. L. ENcLEpow.—The place of plant physiology and of plant
breeding in the advancement of British agriculture (10.30).
In growing any crop the two main biological considerations are which
variety to use and how to grow it. ‘These respectively link agriculture with
plant breeding and with physiology. Of the controllable factors in crop
growing, crop rotations and soil cultivations are the chief. Our knowledge
of these is traditional and no longer adequate to modern circumstances.
The secret of the whole matter is to discover not merely the extent to which
treatment affects yield, but how in terms of plant growth treatment influences
yield. Thus the great task of physiology in agriculture is to equip the
experimenter in husbandry with tests or indices of plant growth in relation
to yield.
. The objective of breeding (in Britain) is to produce new varieties which
bring the farmer a greater net cash return than existing ones. Breeding is
still pre-eminently an art and the grand problem of applied genetics is to
elevate this art into a systematic science. This involves the interpretation
SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M. 521
of the economic characteristics of plants in genic terms and the solution of
such problems as hybrid vigour ; and as self-sterility and cross-compatibility,
with their implications in productivity.
Farmers have an important part to play in a greater discrimination of
varietal merit and a firmer insistence upon proofs of it. General policy in
plant breeding must inevitably be of very long range and its nature and
soundness are completely dominated by the national policy adopted by the
country for its agriculture as a whole.
Mr. C. T. GrmincuamM.—Crop pests and diseases (11.0).
The fact that insect pests and fungus diseases are important factors in
crop production is generally accepted, but the continuous toll taken by them,
and the extent of the losses sustained, are perhaps less commonly realised.
In recent years, practical and economic means of dealing with several
important pests and diseases, previously very difficult to control, have been
found, but, on the other hand, there are many unsolved or only partially
solved problems requiring investigation. Some examples are given.
Control measures need to be considered strictly in relation to the value of
the crop, and the problems are thus often most difficult where the less
valuable agricultural crops are concerned. Some of the factors affecting
the natural limitation and artificial control of plant pests and diseases are
shortly discussed, particularly in relation to cultural conditions.
GENERAL Discussion opened by Sir JOHN RussELL, F.R.S. (11.30).
AFTERNOON.
Visit to farms of Messrs. Chivers & Sons, Ltd., Histon.
Tuesday, August 23.
Discussion on The practical problems of animal production (10.0).
Prof. R. Rar.—Animal husbandry.
Prof. F. A. E. Crew.—Animal breeding (10.30).
Dr. E. L. Taytor.—Parasitic diseases of animals (11.0).
Parasitic worms are responsible for the most economically important
diseases of grazing animals throughout the world. There is little doubt,
however, that in the original primitive state they were relatively harmless,
forming part of a well-balanced ecological unit in which the parasites and
parasitised animals lived harmoniously together. To a very considerable
extent the diseases which parasitic worms now cause are man made, having
been brought about by the enclosure of grazing land and the improvement
of pasture. The particular types of parasitic worm which are of the greatest
concern are ubiquitous in their distribution, a light infestation being regarded
as normal and causing no disturbance of health. A heavy infestation is,
however, harmful, and as the number of parasites tends to increase with the
square of the concentration of grazing animals the effect of the unnatural
crowding of the animals increases progressively as pasture land is improved
and severe losses from worm disease frequently occur.
The successful development of the individual worms depends, however,
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522 SECTIONAL TRANSACTIONS.—M.
upon the suitability of a variety of conditions concerning the environment
of their parasitic life in the grazing animal and that of their free life in the
pastures. ‘Their control will continue to be an urgent problem in animal
nutrition until we understand the detail of their development so well that
we are able to make suitable readjustments in the environments that will
compensate for the departure from the original scattered condition of
grazing which our grassland improvement has brought about.
GENERAL DiscussION opened by Dr. J. Hammonn, F.R.S. (11.30)
CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES OF
Tue Conference was held in the Department of Mineralogy on Friday,
August 19, and Monday, August 22, 1938. Sixty-eight Corresponding
Societies were represented, the Rt. Hon. the Earl of Onslow presiding.
Friday, August 19.
Dr. TrerNey, Secretary of the Conference, reported that since the last
meeting the Midland Naturalists’ Union had been inaugurated, with head-
quarters at Birmingham, ‘ to further the advancement of natural history in
the Midland Counties by every practicable means and for the purpose of
affording facilities for co-operation and co-ordination between local natural
history societies, field clubs and individual workers in the counties of
Monmouth, Hereford, Worcester, Warwick, Leicester, Northampton, ~
Rutland, Nottingham and Lincoln.’ The Hon. Secretary of the Union is
G. Brian Hindle, B.Sc., Avebury House, 55 Newhall Street, Birmingham, 3,
from whom full information can be obtained.
The delegates nominated the following to fill vacancies on the Cor-
responding Societies’ Committee for the ensuing year: The Earl of Onslow,
Mr.N. B. Kinnear.
THE IMPORTANCE OF NATIONAL PARKS IN THE
PRESERVATION OF THE FAUNA OF GREAT BRITAIN
ADDRESS BY
Tue Rr. Hon. THE EarL ofr ONsLow, G.B.E., P.C.,
President of the Conference.
I navE been asked to say a word or two on the subject of the use of National
Parks in Great Britain for the preservation of our fauna—or what is left of it.
In the first place I think it is necessary to distinguish carefully between
what is meant by a National Park in this country and in other countries.
I believe that the term ‘ National Park’ occurs in only one public instru-
ment and that is in the documents connected with the Convention for
the Protection of the Fauna and Flora of Africa which was concluded in
London in 1934. So perhaps for the sake of clarity I may be allowed to
quote Article 2 of the Convention which defines what is meant by a National
Park considered internationally, if I may so describe it.
ARTICLE 2.
1. The expression ‘ national park’ shall denote an area (a) placed
under public control, the boundaries of which shall not be altered or any
portion be capable of alienation except by the competent legislative
524 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
authority, (b) set aside for the propagation, protection and preservation of
wild animal life and wild vegetation, and for the preservation of objects
of zsthetic, geological, prehistoric, historical, archzological, or other
scientific interest for the benefit, advantage, and enjoyment of the general
public, (c) in which the hunting, killing or capturing of fauna and the
destruction or collection of flora is prohibited except by or under the
direction or control of the park authorities.
In accordance with the above provisions facilities shall, so far as possible,
be given to the general public for observing the fauna and flora in national
parks.
2. The term ‘ strict natural reserve ° shall denote an area placed under
public control, throughout which any form of hunting or fishing, any
undertakings connected with forestry, agriculture, or mining, any ex-
cavations or prospecting, drilling, levelling of the ground, or construction,
any work involving the alteration of the configuration of the soil or the
character of the vegetation, any act likely to harm or disturb the fauna
or flora, and the introduction of any species of fauna and flora, whether
indigenous or imported, wild or domesticated, shall be strictly forbidden ;
which it shall be forbidden to enter, traverse, or camp in without a special
written permit from the competent authorities ; and in which scientific
investigations may only be undertaken by permission of those authorities.
3. The expression ‘ animal’ or ‘ species’ shall denote all vertebrates
and invertebrates (including non-edible fish, but not including edible
fish except in a national park or strict natural reserve), their nests, eggs,
egg-shells, skins, and plumage.
You will see that not only do the African Powers contemplate the creation
of National Parks but also of another type of reserve which they denominate
a strict natural reserve. This was put in at the instance of the French
Government, who were anxious to provide for the creation of areas for the
preservation of fauna and flora to which the public should not have access
except under very definite restrictions, that is to say, they were to be created
for purely scientific purposes, while the National Parks are to afford as much
access to the general public as is possible compatible with their reasons for
existence. Now in England we are apt to be rather more loose in our
terminology and National Parks cover a very wide field—in fact, they cover
any natural reserve or open space to which the public have access regardless
as to whether they are to be devoted to the species of fauna and flora or not,
and to-day I propose to devote myself to the methods of utilising the National
Parks of this country on the lines contemplated in the African Convention.
I may say that there are a number of National Parks throughout the world
devoted to fauna preservation. In Africa, for example, there are the Parc
National Albert in the Belgian Congo and the Kruger National Park in
South Africa. The success that has attended the creation of these parks
might, I think, tempt us to try and do something of the kind in this country.
We have not the rich fauna of South Africa or of the Congo, but we have
a very interesting native fauna which, if it is not protected, must in time
gradually disappear, and I feel that now that there is this strong movement
in favour of creating national parks in this country we should take the
opportunity of creating one at least which is mainly devoted to the pre-
servation of fauna and flora.
It will be within the knowledge of this meeting that a Standing Com-
mittee on National Parks, of the Council for the Preservation of Rural England.
and Wales, under the Chairmanship of Mr. Norman Birkett, is in existence,
and a preliminary Group is being formed of members of both Houses of
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 525
Parliament with the same object in view. ‘The policy of this Committee
is that the Government should :
(a) Declare that the establishment of National Parks is an essential
national service.
(b) Set up, as chief and central agents, two National Parks Commissions
(one for England and Wales and one for Scotland, with a joint com-
mittee co-ordinating the two).
(c) Provide funds.
But if, as seems to me to be the case, the only suitable place for a Park
such as I am dealing with to-day is in Scotland the consideration of its
establishment would be for a Scottish committee. ‘The Association for the
Preservation of Rural Scotland agrees with the proposal for the establish-
ment of National Parks, but is making a separate study of the case for
National Parks in Scotland and their special requirements. Scottish
National Parks policy presents a different problem and calls for different
treatment as compared with that required in England and Wales, so that
it is to the Scottish organisations that we look for the realisation of any
scheme for the establishment of a National Park devoted mainly to the
preservation of our fauna.
I may say that the principle has been adopted by a number of authori-
tative societies. Recently a meeting took place of all those societies
who were interested in the matter for the preservation of fauna and flora
and for the preservation of open spaces, and general agreement was
reached as to the desirability of action such as I have described. If
therefore we agree that a National Park of this description should be
created in Great Britain the first consideration is where to put it. I do
not myself think that there is anywhere in England or Wales which
would prove suitable. I do not think that it would be easy to get a
sufficiently extensive area and I also fear that even if such were available
the cost would be prohibitive. But the West Coast of Scotland seems to be
an ideal spot for such a venture. In those counties there exist thousands
of acres of deer forest, and I believe that deer forest land lends itself most
readily to the creation of a National Park. In the first place a forest already
contains a considerable number of the animals which it is sought to preserve
and it may be hoped that others could be acclimatised there. Of course
the ideal spot would be an island such as I remember many years ago in the
Gulf of Hauraki in New Zealand, which was acquired and stocked by Sir
George Grey. But an island would not be a convenient place for the public
to visit and obviously it is desirable to have land as accessible to the public
as possible even though there are other disadvantages. A National Park
must be in forest country not contiguous to grouse ground, for a number of
the animals which it is sought to preserve are detrimental to the preservation
of grouse and would be very unwelcome neighbours to the owners of grouse
moors. On the other hand, if the Park were surrounded by deer forests
vermin would be welcome since nothing is so detrimental to stalking as
the presence of grouse An old cock grouse getting up just in front of the
stalker will scare the deer just as he is approaching his shot. Probably
the most attractive animals in a park will be the deer. We have in this
country three species of deer—red deer, roe deer, fallow deer. Whether
the latter is actually indigenous or was imported at some remote period has
not been decided, but if they are not really wild animals they exist all over
the country in a feral state. It has been said that red deer are such mis-
chievous animals that you would have to fence your park in order to keep
them away from cultivation to keep them from doing damage to crops.
526 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
But I think this is hardly necessary. "The deer would cross the march into
the park and out again as they do now between forests. Moreover, it would
not be necessary to keep anything like such a stock of deer in a National Park
as proprietors of forests like to see on their ground. Naturally people who
take a forest for stalking want to get as much sport as possible and like to
see a good head of deer, but for the purpose of preservation this is not neces-
sary nor indeed does it seem particularly desirable. All you want is sufficient
deer to be visible to the public in their native haunts and it would be neces-
sary to shoot them fairly hard in order to keep their numbers within limits
and prevent them from becoming a nuisance. But they would be shot on
rather different lines from those pursued by owners of forests. Naturally a
stalker wants to get a big beast with a good head. The heavier the beast
and the finer the head the better—but in a Park one would spare the big stags
with the good heads and confine shooting to the poorer animals and older
stags with going-back heads. ‘The hinds would probably have to be shot
a good deal harder than is done on forests at present and in the winter a
considerable number of yeld hinds, old beasts and poor animals would
want shooting, possibly also the calves would have to be kept down to a
certain extent. Another reason for fairly hard shooting would be that other-
wise the deer, finding themselves unmolested, might crowd into the Park
from the neighbouring forest and not only would you get your ground over-
stocked but there would be complaints from your neighbours. The same
remarks apply also of course to fallow deer who frequent rather lower ground
than red deer. As regards the roe deer it would be necessary that there
should be a certain amount of woodland on the ground and a careful eye
kept upon the bucks. Old roe bucks are ferocious beasts and are liable to
drive the other bucks away unless they are strictly controlled.
Other beasts which I think might well be added to the stock of a National
Park are the so-called park cattle. These, as is well known, exist in a
wild state at Lord Tankerville’s place at Chillingham. I feel certain that
a herd of these cattle allowed to exist in a wild state would prove a
valuable addition to a National Park. I do not know whether they have
been actually tried in Scotland, but I do not see why they should not do
there since they resemble fairly closely the native Scottish cattle.
Then in Scotland we also have a few wild goats. ‘These are probably
the descendants of ordinary goats run wild and they are therefore feral
animals and not true wild ones, but they are well known in Scotland and like
the cattle might well be preserved in a National Park. Perhaps the most
interesting animals would be the carnivorous animals. Foxes, badgers,
stoats and weasels are common enough and exist in Scotland as well as
in England and Wales. There would be no difficulty about them nor
would there be about otters, provided, of course, that the Park had streams,
rivers and burns to provide fish. But there are three species which are
becoming very scarce indeed and deserve every effort being made to retain
them. ‘These are the wild cat, the pine marten and the pole cat. - Wild
cats only exist now in the North and West of Scotland and unfortunately
they cross with the common tame cat, but they are beautiful beasts, very
fierce and, it is said, quite untamable. We had some at Whipsnade,
but unfortunately they died of cat distemper. ‘They are not easily pre-
served in captivity. There are some in the forests in the North where
they are preserved because they kill grouse and other hindrances to
stalking and they do well and increase. Much the same may be said
of the pole cat, which is also becoming rare. But with preservation there ©
is no reason why these species should not also increase, if preserved.
Perhaps the rarest of all our fauna is the pine marten, which as its name
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 527
implies, does best in places where pine trees exist, so that the woodland
country which is necessary for roe deer would be equally valuable for the
pine marten. Unfortunately they are great travellers and might wander
off the ground and disappear. But if they could be induced to remain
in an area which is favourable to them they would be an interesting and
valuable addition to the fauna of a National Park. Perhaps the most
difficult beasts to acclimatise in Scotland would be the rarer bats, most
of which have only been found in the South of England. Possibly they
might do on the West coast, but I should imagine that their acclimatisation
would present considerable difficulties. Rodents are common enough
and in some places too common, so their preservation would present no
difficulties. Plenty of rabbits would be necessary.
Turning from mammals to the birds one may say that if birds are un-
molested generally speaking they will be present, at least those which are
suitable to the district. All that can really be said is that the National Park
should contain a strict bird sanctuary such as exists in so many parts of the
country at present, and if possible part of the Park should be near the sea
so that sea birds could be encouraged to breed there.
The question as to whether it would be desirable in a National
Park to attempt to acclimatise animals which have become extinct in this
country is one which will occur to everybody. Of course they would
be few, for most of those which have died out and are extant in other
countries are dangerous and, I think, undesirable, but perhaps would
form an attraction to a National Park. The elk which is found in a good
many parts of Europe died out here very many years ago in prehistoric
times, and I doubt whether an attempt to re-introduce it would be
worth while, since it does not seem to do very well in this country. But
the reindeer, wild pig and beaver have become extinct in England only
within recent times, comparatively speaking—that is to say, within the last
few centuries, and there seems no reason at all why they should not be
re-introduced. ‘There is a record that reindeer were hunted by the Norse
Jarls of the Orkneys in the twelfth (?) century. They seem to have been
pushed out by the red deer.
Of course the question of feeding them is difficult and we might not be
able to get the right food for them in Scotland and that would make them
difficult to acclimatise. Wild pigs in Surrey existed up to the end of the
seventeenth century, and they seem to have become extinct less owing to
their having been killed than from their having been domesticated. Charles I
introduced wild boars into the New Forest, and the half-wild pigs which
used to roam in the forest until recently probably had this blood in them,
as they are very hairy. Wild boars exist in Northern France. There is
a story that the Commander-in-Chief went out one day and suddenly
saw a wild pig and immediately snatched the lance which his escort was
carrying and proceeded to ride him. I have seen them near Hesdin, near
Crecy and several other places, so there would be no difficulty in intro-
ducing them into England and they would form a very interesting addition.
Some people think they might be dangerous, but I do not think so. A pig
will fight if he is attacked, but otherwise he is harmless.
As regards beavers, they were common in England until a few hundred
years ago and still exist on the Rhone and the Rhine in small numbers.
On the eastern rivers of Europe they are fairly plentiful and they would
do well on the West Coast of Scotland. A beaver dam and a number of
beavers on a river in a National Park would be a great attraction for the
public, but of course the whole question of introduction of species which
have become extinct would require careful consideration.
528 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
There is one animal which is a denizen of the British Isles, but only
occurs in Ireland, namely the Irish stoat. I think it should be introduced
into a National Park if one is provided in Scotland, as it is really a British
animal. Other rodents such as lemmings might be introduced. But we
have to be very careful of the introduction of foreign animals into England
or they may become a terrible nuisance, such as the musk rat and the grey
squirrel. So much then for the inhabitants of a National Park in this
country.
We now come to the very difficult questions of finance and management.
As regards finance, forest country in Scotland is now, I believe, a good deal
cheaper than it used to be and land may be acquired at a reasonable figure.
People are apt to be frightened at the cost of buying a large area of land and
maintaining it, but in the first place private individuals acquire deer forests
and what is possible for a private individual should not be impossible for
the public generally either under the Government or by means of public
subscription. \ It would be costly but not necessarily ruinous.
Then as regards maintenance. Probably a deer forest is the most ex-
pensive luxury in which a rich man can indulge himself. But a National
Park would not be so expensive as a deer forest. In the first place there
would be money coming in as in the case of the National Kruger Park,
which makes quite a handsome income. There would have to be, of course,
an hotel or rest house or something of that kind, and roads and footpaths
would have to be made so that people could get about and see the animals.
I do not think that so many people would require to be employed on a
National Park as there are on a deer forest. A number of keepers would be
needed corresponding with the stalkers on a forest, probably rather less
than on a forest. But there would not have to be nearly as many ghillies,
pony men, dog men, and so forth. A few to act as watchers and keep off
poachers and a few to keep sightseers from disturbing the sanctuary would
be all that is necessary. Indeed, I do not believe that the number of people
employed would be as great as in a forest, so that I do not think we need
be unduly terrified either by the cost of acquisition or of management.
And now I come to the last point, namely the method of management,
and here I would like to refer you to the ideas which have been put forward
by Sir Peter Chalmers Mitchell. Sir Peter is a Scot and can speak with
authority. Not being a Scot I do not dare to offer hints as to the manage-
ment of property in Scotland.
He advocates a scheme whereby the arrangements for the popular func-
tions of a National Park would be entrusted to delegates appointed by
Edinburgh, Glasgow, Dundee and Aberdeen, working with delegates
appointed by the Council or Councils of the County or Counties in
which the Park was situated. He would add to the Governing Body of
the National Park a panel of persons selected for their special knowledge
of wild nature in all its aspects. At least one botanist, one zoologist, one
geologist, and two ‘ field naturalists,’ one with special knowledge of plants,
the other an ornithologist. He thinks these might be selected by the Prin-
cipals of the four Universities, the President of the Royal Society of Edin-
burgh, and of the Highland and Agricultural Society. Moreover, apart
from the staff concerned with the general regulation of the Park, there
should be one warden or ranger selected by the Naturalist panel, whose
sole duty should be the constant study of wild life in the Park and all its
fluctuations.
If I were to be asked whether such a system of control would be desirable
in England I should hesitate perhaps toagree. I rather think that in England
control by a number of delegates responsible to different Local Authorities
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 529
would be difficult and I would rather prefer a Trust, a Society under
Royal Charter or a Public Utility Society. However, as I do not think
that a National Park devoted to the preservation of indigenous animals is
a practical possibility in England the matter is of no importance.
As regards facilities for the public to see the Park and the animals, one
would of course wish that these should be as comprehensive as possible,
but naturally certain restrictions would be necessary. As in a deer forest
there must be a considerable area well in the middle of the Park preserved
as a strict sanctuary to which no one must be allowed access. Once a year
probably it would be necessary to ‘ move’ the sanctuary or it would tend
to get over-stocked with deer, but the ‘moving’ should be done very
quietly, just a few men walking in line through the sanctuary with the
wind, so as to move the deer over the march—no more than this or the
deer would be unduly disturbed and the other beasts as well.
There should be rough paths about the Park and it should be possible to
overlook the sanctuary and study the place with a glass. For a short time
in the year it would be necessary to close the Park to the public in order
that the surplus stock can be kept down. It would be impossible to allow
people to wander about if rifles were being used. But this would not need
to be long—perhaps a fortnight in October to destroy superfluous stags.
As hinds are not shot till late in December, there would be no difficulty
about closing the Park then.
There should be convenient camping places, but near the roads and on
no account in the middle of the Park—a hotel would be needed and good
roads leading to various points in the Park, as it would be impossible to see
it all from one base.
As the object of the Park would be to interest the public in fauna pre-
servation, I should like to see a small zoo attached to the hotel containing
paddocks where the beasts preserved wild in the park could be seen close
at hand. People are much more likely to see things at a distance and
through a glass if they know what they look like. Lastly, it should be
remembered that the Park is for the animals as well as for the public, and
all behaviour likely to disturb the beasts must be vigorously suppressed.
The views I have ventured to express are my own and I take all responsi-
bility for them. My objects in advocating this scheme are the presentation
of such of our fauna as still exists in comfort and in a natural and wild
state: perhaps the re-introduction of certain harmless extinct species and
their preservation in a feral state, and lastly the education and amusement
of the public.
Mr. N. B. KInngEar and Dr. D. H. VALENTINE.— Wicken Fen, and what the
National Trust has done for East Anglia.
Mr. N. B. K1nnNEar.
Few parts of England have so many places of historical interest, beautiful
old houses and such varied country as East Anglia. Unfortunately the
National Trust owns very little property in either Norfolk or Suffolk,
indeed in the latter county it can only claim one small place, namely,
Kyson Hill, a haunt of Edward Fitzgerald’s near Woodbridge, presented by
Mr. R. O. Norcott in 1934.
In Norfolk the position is better, and there, four properties are held by
the Trust. Between Fakenham and Holt is Bulfer Grove, a woodland area
of about eight acres. At West Runton there is a valuable stretch of some
530 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
hundred acres of wood and hill land on one of the highest points of the
county. On the crest of the hill are some earthworks, which have given
rise to the local name ‘the Roman Camp,’ though there is no reason to
suppose that the Romans had anything to do with their construction. It is
a great resort for picnic parties on account of the very fine view of the
coast-line. In addition they hold two coastal sandhill properties of excep-
tional interest, namely Blakeney Point and Scolt Head. Of these two places
Professor Oliver wrote—over 14 years ago— With the whole world to choose
from it would be difficult to find two better examples of the encumbered
coast-line type than those provided by Scolt Head and Blakeney Point
respectively, two reservations held under the National Trust. As they lie
within easy reach of one another on the coast of Norfolk they can be visited
conveniently on successive days, and their features compared before the
details have faded from the mind.’ Not only are these shingle beaches,
sand dunes and salt marshes of very great interest from the view of plant
ecology, but they are breeding grounds of several species of terns, and
also a landing place for migrants arriving in this country from overseas.
Besides the National Trust the Norfolk Naturalists’ Trust own certain
properties in the county, namely, Cley Marshes, a hill on the foreshore at
Salthouse, and Alderfen Broad at Irstead.
But there is another type of country in East Anglia of which neither of
these Trusts own any part, I refer to the Breck area, which botanically and
zoologically is of the very greatest interest. Some of this area has already
been taken up and planted by the Forestry Commission, but good tracks
are still to be secured if the necessary money is forthcoming. ‘There are
many wealthy people in the British Isles; can they not be induced to help
in securing a portion of this unique type of country confined in the British
Isles to the Breck area? ‘There are many interesting historical country
houses in East Anglia and probably owners have a difficulty in keeping them
up owing to the present-day taxation. The National Trust has a scheme
for saving some of these historical homes which, briefly, is as follows :
An owner transfers his house and grounds to the Trust and is relieved
of the accumulative burden of death duties and income tax upon himself
and his heirs. In return for this exemption the nation will benefit in two
ways : by the permanent and proper maintenance and repair of the property
transferred, and by facilities for visiting at certain times of the year.
Dr. D. H. VALENTINE.
At Wicken is a small area of the English Fenland which has never been
under cultivation, and which bears a rich and characteristic flora and fauna.
Its main features are its peaty, alkaline soil and its high water-table.
Studies have been made on the variation throughout the year of such
physical features of the fen as height of water-table, soil temperature and
soil aeration. An important task of the future is to study the life-history
of the fen plants and animals in relation to these physical features. This
has been begun for Cladium Mariscus.
Cladium (known as sedge) is one of the most important plants on the fen
and has been, in the past, regularly cut asa crop. If all cutting is stopped,
bushes, particularly two species of Rhamnus, cover the ground and eventually
form a scrub to the exclusion of the ‘ litter’ and sedge communities. As
these disappear, most of the rare and characteristic species of the fen, both
plant and animal, disappear too. Regular cutting of sedge and ‘ litter’ ~
and uprooting of bushes has therefore to be maintained.
Of the two species of Rhamnus, R. Frangula is much the more important
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 531
in the early stages of succession, but it dies out and is replaced in mature
scrub by R. cathartica. The causes underlying this replacement are as
yet unknown. This problem is typical of the fen, which has been and will
remain a storehouse of problems for every kind of naturalist.
Monday, August 22.
Dr. H. W. Parxer.—The co-operation of Corresponding Societies in the
study of systematics in relation to general biology.
The existence of the then newly formed Association for the Study of
Systematics in Relation to General Biology was brought to the notice of the
Corresponding Societies a year ago, and the delegates on that occasion
showed their interest in its aims by recommending the Council of the
British Association to co-operate. That co-operation has been fruitful of
results ; but the work is only just beginning and the experience of the last
twelve months makes it evident that some modifications in the original
plans are desirable.
Specialisation is leading to an increasing isolation of the various branches
of biology from one another with deplorable results. Systematists are so
overburdened that they are often unable to devote the time necessary to
experiment with new methods, and faulty or inadequate identification of the
raw material is ruining much otherwise valuable work in other branches. It
is this which has led to the formation of the Systematics Association with
its two complementary ideals—encouragement of the use of genetical,
cytological, ecological and other data in taxonomy and the provision of
better systematic information for workers in these other fields. The
realisation of these ideals is a matter which affects the Corresponding
Societies profoundly and it is hoped that they will continue to take part in
the various projects which the Systematics Association has in hand.
As a first step towards the provision of that reliable systematic information
which has already been mentioned, it is proposed to try to issue a series of
handbooks on the British fauna and flora. The information necessary for
the compilation of such a series of hand-books is practically non-existent
for many groups and surprisingly incomplete in many others which are
usually regarded as well known. The obvious first step is, therefore, to
discover what information is lacking and then try to fill the deficiencies.
With this end in view a questionnaire has been submitted to experts in
various groups to discover the extent of the existing literature and its
suitability for modern requirements. 'The answers to these questions are
now almost complete and a summary is being prepared for publication.
This list should be of considerable value to the amateur naturalist, enabling
him to discover the literature necessary for the determination of his material
in any group. But its greatest value will be in indicating those fields which
are fallow. The growth of systematic knowledge has been dispropor-
tionate ; inevitably those groups of direct economic importance and those
whose study does not require special technical equipment have received the
most attention. But other branches of biology cannot reasonably be
expected to restrict themselves to those fields which are taxonomically well
covered, and in such sciences as ecology and biogeography a uniform
knowledge of the whole fauna and flora is absolutely essential.
It was at first thought that the lacunz could be filled to some extent by
the organisation of national panels of referees and recorders for the whole
animal and plant kingdoms, who could identify material collected by the
532 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
Natural History Societies and thus gather together the requisite information.
But it has become apparent that there are not sufficient competent workers
to provide the personnel for such a comprehensive scheme, and modifications
have become necessary. Inthe more‘ popular’ groups, with many amateur
workers, there are already local panels of referees and recorders appointed
by the individual societies or unions working in restricted areas. The
Systematics Association is anxious to act as the clearing house for the
information obtained by these local bodies, and, at the same time, would
like to see them extend their range of activity so that the whole country
is covered. Unfortunately, at the moment, it is only the areas of greatest
population-density which are being adequately surveyed by the societies,
and this in itself is liable to lead us to wholly fictitious conclusions as to
distribution and so forth. In the other groups the solution appears to lie
in individuals specialising in biological groups of limited size and under-
taking a distributional survey for the whole country. The Systematics
Association can undertake to assist such workers with technical advice in
taxonomic difficulties and by acting as the clearing-house through which
information collected by other societies can be transmitted to the right
person. Already a certain number of volunteers are engaged along these
lines, but many more are urgently wanted.
The subject of distributional surveys has been mentioned, and con-
siderable importance is attached to these. We are still far from an under-
standing of the factors which may limit the distribution of animals and
plants and a comparision of the distribution of allied species and subspecies
may be expected to yield some valuable information. It is apparent that
it would be a.matter of great convenience if all distributional records were
presented in such a way that they are directly comparable, and to this end
it is suggested that for terrestrial animals the vice-county system be used (see
Journ. Conchology, 16, 1921, pp. 168-169, and Entom. Mon. Mag., 67, 1931,
pp. 183-193). Any attempt to use geological or ecological subdivisions
would appear to be impracticable, except in special circumstances, and the
wholly arbitrary vice-county units have already been widely used with
success, so that new recordings will be directly comparable with the old.
There are some minor discrepancies between the different published
accounts of the vice-county limits and the Association has prepared a new
list which tries to harmonise these ; maps will be obtainable from the
Association. For marine organisms it is recommended that the Fishery
divisions as used by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries (see ‘ Chart
for locating Fishing Grounds,’ No. A.208/F.G., published by the Ministry)
would form convenient geographical units. Brackish water, intertidal and
estuarine organisms which may enter into the ecological chains of both
land and sea would necessarily have to be recorded on both systems.
What has been said above is concerned chiefly with the accumulation of
the data necessary for the provision of better systematic information for
the use of biologists in general. There remains to be considered the
question of utilising ecological and other data in the solution of systematic
problems. In this work, too, the Corresponding Societies are already
giving valued help. The Systematics Association maintains a large and
constantly changing list of taxonomic problems for whose solution ecological,
genetical, physiological, geographical or experimental research is needed.
Some of these problems, such as those which require simultaneous observa-
tions in different districts or observations in a limited area over a lengthy
period of time, are eminently suitable for the combined attack of all the
Natural History Societies of the country. A number of these problems
have already been circulated to the Corresponding Societies and a generous
CORRESPONDING SOCIETIES 533
response has been forthcoming ; more than a hundred workers have offered
their help in the attack on some twenty-one problems. But this does not
exhaust the possibilities. "The Systematics Association will be glad to offer
what help it can to any individual or society with a systematic problem.
Wherever it seems probable that additional material or information from
other districts may help towards a solution, steps will be taken to obtain
the necessary assistance. Thanks to the resolution passed at this Con-
ference a year ago the British Association will inform all its Corresponding
Societies of what is needed and for this co-operation we of the Systematics
Association wish to express our gratitude.
Dr. VauGHAN CorNISH.—The preservation of Crown lands adjacent to
Camberley, Bracknell and Ascot as an open space.
Between Camberley, Bracknell and Ascot is an area of wild heaths and
woods about nine square miles in extent, which Norden’s map of A.D 1607
shows to be part of the Forest of Windsor, as it was in Stuart times.1_ The
area now comes under the category of Crown Lands, the term applied to
properties of which the revenues were surrendered by King George III in
exchange for payments out of the Civil List, while the title to the freehold,
if that expression may be applied, remains with the Sovereign. Subject
to this ultimate right it appears to be for the nation to decide what use shall
be made of this land during their tenancy, which has already lasted for more
than a hundred years.
Throughout the lifetime of the present generation these heaths and woods
have been open as a pleasant place for walking, riding and driving to the
residents of the towns and villages in the neighbouring parts of Berkshire
and Surrey. Since the introduction of the motor this great fresh-air space
has also come within reach of Londoners, for London is less than thirty
miles away. At the annual meeting of the South-Eastern Union of Scientific
Societies 2? in 1935 I urged that this great area of wild country should be
preserved as an open space for the benefit of the nation. But now the
Commissioners of Crown Lands have enclosed the area with barbed wire
and blocked the rough roads or drives with locked gates. Smaller gates,
usable only by foot passengers, are left open, but here notices are put up
saying ‘ No footpath.’ The Commissioners state that they are within
their rights in so acting, and in the policy of building development ; that
nearly the whole of this area was bought by the Commissioners for develop-
ment ; that Parliament has always been told firmly that the Commissioners
must retain the right to develop at their discretion land bought for the
purpose ; and that any land beyond one acre required by local authorities
as a public open space must be paid for.
In the provisional planning scheme of the Frimley and Camberley Urban
District Council it was proposed that some five acres (more or less) of this
area should be purchased out of the rates as a public recreation ground.
Ratepayers being invited to send in objections to the planning scheme,
I suggested that the better way would be to apply for the reservation of
the whole area, several square miles in extent, for the benefit of the nation
without further payment, and I also submitted my memorandum on the
subject to the Surrey County Council, Berkshire County Council, the Council
1 Norden was surveyor of the Crown Woods and Forests.
2 Presidential Address, Regional Survey Section, since embodied in the author’s
book on The Preservation of our Scenery (Cambridge University Press).
534 CONFERENCE OF DELEGATES
for the Preservation of Rural England and other authorities and societies
interested in such matters. My purpose was not to question the legal rights
of the Commissioners of Crown Lands under the existing Act of Parliament,
but to contend that their policy is socially out of date, and to urge that this
great area of wild land within thirty miles of London is of national importance
and should be maintained as an open space for the preservation of its natural
beauty, for the protection of its ancient monuments, for the encouragement
of outdoor life, and for the promotion of physical fitness. When I proposed
this matter for discussion at the Conference of Delegates of Corresponding
Societies it was my intention to move a resolution to be sent to the Council
of the British Association, but I am happy to report that sufficient progress
has been made in the interval to make this unnecessary.
The Council for the Preservation of Rural England have appointed a
sub-Committee to enquire into the question of the general position of the
Crown Land Commissioners in regard to their administration of Crown
Lands from the point of view of rural preservation and what action if any
can be taken in regard to the Crown Lands round Camberley.
At a conference of representatives of the Berkshire and Surrey County
Councils and the District Councils concerned, at which I submitted my
proposals, it was decided that the Berkshire County Council should appoint
a small delegation to interview the Commissioners of Crown Lands to
ascertain their proposals in connection with this land and their views on the
proposal which I had put to the meeting.
You will see therefore that action is being taken by important and in-
fluential bodies, and I am clear that it is best to leave matters in their hands
for the present. ‘The subject is extremely complicated and there are some
aspects of the matter which need tactful handling. I am therefore content
to report progress to the Delegates without moving a resolution, which it
would be difficult to frame in words which might not in one way or other
hamper the procedure of the C.P.R.E. and the Berkshire County Council.
I feel sure, however, that this Conference will wish all success to the
C.P.R.E. and the Berkshire County Council in their efforts for the preserva-
tion of the natural scenery of the Crown Lands adjacent to Camberley,
Bracknell and Ascot.
At the conclusion of the proceedings the delegates attended a garden
party at the Botanic Garden as the guests of Prof. F. T. Brooks, F.R.S.
EVENING DISCOURSES.
FIRST EVENING DISCOURSE
Fripay, AUGUST 19, 1938.
HISTORY OF THE FENLAND
BY
DR. H. GODWIN.
Tue Discourse illustrated the great advantages which follow from co-
operation between workers in different sciences converging on some common
problem. The Fenland Research Committee, which was founded in 1932
under the presidency of Sir Albert Seward, F.R.S., includes in its members
botanists, geologists, archeologists, geographers and professional experts
in fen drainage. With the help of small grants from the British Association,
the Percy Sladen Trust and the Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, they have established the rough outline of fenland history in the
period since the last Ice Age.
This history was begun when the North Sea had not yet been formed
and peat fens covered the flat country between the east coast of England
and the continental coast. By the recently developed technique of pollen
analysis it has been possible to recover from the submerged peats of the
Dogger Bank the pollen grains of trees growing in that former period.
These grains are still recognisable by their size, shape, pores and surface
markings as readily as grains dispersed to-day. From extensive counts of
these sub-fossil tree pollens, it has proved possible to reconstruct the
post-glacial forest history of Europe.
The Dogger Bank peats belong to a period of sparse birch-pine forests,
which is known on the continent to be at least as old as 8000 B.c. As the
North Sea formed during the following centuries more recent peats were
restricted to the shallower coastal areas. ‘The considerable age of the
deeper peats was confirmed by the discovery of a bone fish spear of Meso-
lithic type from a lump of peat dredged by fishing boats from the Leman
and Ower Banks off the Norfolk coast.
The deposits of the fenland itself are mostly younger than this. The
lecturer showed illustrations of sections established by lines of borings
from the fen margin towards the sea. The typical section showed continu-
ous peat formation at the landward margin, but towards the sea this was
split by a bed of soft fen clay, which its content of microscopic plants and
animals (diatoms and foraminifera) showed to have been formed in brackish
lagoon conditions. On the seaward side of the fens the uppermost deposit
is a thick silt which was laid down under semi-marine conditions: it is
the fertile potato-, fruit- and bulb-growing land of the Wisbech-Spalding-
Holbeach district.
The excavations and enquiries of the Fenland Research Committee have
always sought to determine both the date and the conditions under which
these major types of deposit were laid down, and they have met with a
good deal of success. Of particular interest was the excavation of an ancient
536 EVENING DISCOURSES
river channel at Shippea Hill between Ely and Mildenhall. Here no
fewer than three archzological horizons were discovered stratified into the
fen deposits.
Broadly speaking the fenland history has shown alternating phases of
marine invasion and of fresh-water conditions. The first fresh-water
phase in the present fens extended through the Mesolithic and Neolithic
periods, and for much of this time the fens were covered with alder-birch
fen woods. It was probably about the end of the Neolithic period that
marine invasion caused formation of the fen clay. In the Bronze Age
which followed, fen woods grew extensively, but these must have been
dry enough for occupation by prehistoric man, since Bronze Age remains are
found abundantly in the fen peats. It is probable that the fens became
too wet for occupation in the Iron Age.
In the Roman period marine invasion once again dominated the fenland
history. All the silt of the Wisbech-Spalding area was laid down and its
surface intensively cultivated. Along the tidal rivers silt banks were built
up, and stood above the surrounding peat land as habitable areas.
After the Romans left Britain the fens were not exploited until the drain-
age which began seriously in the seventeenth century. As it became
effective the shallower lakes such as Whittlesea Mere, Soham Mere and
Benwick Mere disappeared. The ground level sank by shrinkage and
wastage of the peat, often by as much as one inch per year, and the silt
banks of the Romano-British watercourses began to appear as raised banks,
or ‘ roddons ’ crossing the peatland.
Dr. Godwin suggested that there was no reason to suppose that the land
and sea movement which had played so much part in former fenland history
should now have ceased entirely, and said that there was some evidence
that recent drainage troubles in the fens were due in part to sinking of the
coast. He suggested that the subsidisation of work like that of the Fenland
Research Committee would be of value not only to science, but to such
scientific applications as the drainage of our fenlands.
REFERENCES.
1935 Journ. Ecology, 28 (with M. E. Godwin and M. H. Clifford). ‘ Controlling
factors in the formation of fen deposits as shown by peat investigations at
Wood Fen, near Ely.’
1938 B.A. Ann. Rept., Appdx. 17. ‘ The post-glacial deposits of Fenland.’
Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. B, 229, 562, pp. 323-406 (with M. H. Clifford).
“ Studies of the post-glacial history of British Vegetation.”’
SECOND EVENING DISCOURSE
Monpay, AUGUST 22, 1938.
THE CONTRIBUTION OF THE ELEC-
TRICAL ENGINEER TO MODERN
PHYSICS
PROF. M. L. OLIPHANT, F.R:S.
The Discourse was reported in Engineering, 319-20, Sept. 16, 1938, and ~
in Nature, 142, 3592, 444-5, Sept. 3, 1938.
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATION OF
COMMUNICATIONS TO THE SECTIONS
AND OTHER REFERENCES SUPPLIED BY AUTHORS.
The titles of discussions, or the names of readers of papers in the Sections
(pp. 381-522), as to which publication notes have been supplied, are given
below in alphabetical order under each Section.
References indicated by ‘ cf.’ are to appropriate works quoted by the
authors of papers, not to the papers themselves.
General reference may be made to the issues of Nature (weekly) during
and subsequent to the meeting.
SECTION A.
Symposium on Low-temperature physics. Nature, 142, 3594, 522-523,
Sept. 17, 1938.
Discussion on Magnetic alloys and X-ray structure. Nature, 142, 3594,
518, Sept. 17, 1938.
Symposium on Nuclear physics. Nature, 142, 3594, 520-522, Sept. 17,
1938.
Discussion on Seismology briefly reported in Nature, 142, 3598, 710-711,
Oct. 15, 1938.
Blackett, Prof. P. M.S. Nature, 142, No. 3598, 692, Oct. 15, 1938.
Bothe, Prof. Dr. W. To appear in Zeitschrift fiir technische Physik and
Physikalische Zeitschrift.
Dee, Dr. P. I. Expected to appear in Proc. Roy. Soc., A.
Feather, Dr. N. Cf. 1938 Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 165, 530; Proc. Roy.
Soc., A (in preparation).
Ganz, Dr. E. To appear in Proc. Roy. Soc., A.
Ives, Dr. H. 1938 ourn. Optical Soc. Amer., 28, 215-226.
Jeffreys, Dr. H. Cf. 1935 ‘ Earthquakes and Mountains,’ Methuen ;
1938 Gerlands Beitrdge z. Geophys. 58, 111-139; 1938 rgetnisse
2. Kosmische Phystk, 4, 75-104.
Jones, Dr. H. Cf. Nature, 142, 611, Oct. 1, 1938.
London, Dr. H. Nature, 142, 612, Oct. 1, 1938.
Shire, E.S. Expected to appear in Proc. Cambridge Phil. Soc.
Stoneley, Dr. R. Cf.1931 M.N., R.A.S., Geoph. Suppt. 2, 430.
Stoner, Dr. E. C. Cf. 1934 ‘ Magnetism and Matter’ (cap. 4, 11, 14),
Methuen, London. 1938 ‘ Magnetism,’ Inst. P., London. 1938
Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 165, 372.
Sucksmith, Dr. W. Expected to appear in Proc. Roy. Soc., A, early in
1939.
538 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC.
Van Vleck, Prof. J. H. Cf. 1937 Journ. Chem. Phys., 5, 320, ‘ Influence
of dipole-dipole coupling on the specific heat and susceptibility of a
paramagnetic salt; Fourn. Chem. Phys., 5, 556, ‘ The role of dipole-
dipole coupling in dielectric media.’
DEPARTMENT A*,
Symposium on Mathematics of experimentation. Nature, 142, 3592,
442-443, Sept. 3, 1938. :
Birkhoff, Garrett. To appear in Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.
Fisher, Prof. R. A. Nature, 142, 442-443, Sept. 3, 1938.
Fréchet, Prof. M. Cf. 1934 Revista Matematica Hispano-Americana, 9,
193-201.
Miller, J. C. P. Cf. Intro. to ‘Airy Integral Tables,’ B.A. Maths. Tables
(in preparation).
Taussky, Dr. O. Expected to appear in Oxford Quart. Journ.
SECTION B.
Discussion on Chemical analysis expected to appear before end of 1938 in
Chemistry and Industry.
Discussion on Clays. Nature, 142, 3594, 526-527, Sept. 17, 1938.
Discussion on Organic chemistry in biology and medicine. Nature, 142,
3594, 524-526, Sept. 17, 1938. Lancet, ii, 591, 1938.
Discussion on Organic chemistry of metals reported in Nature, 142, 3598,
709-710, Oct. 15, 1938.
Bragg, Prof. W. L. Cf. ‘Atomic Structure of Minerals,’ O.U.P.
Cook, Prof. J. W. Cf. 1937 ‘ Les facteurs chimiques dans |’étiologie du
cancer, Bull. Soc. Chim., p. 792; 1938 ‘ Chemical compounds as
carcinogenic agents,’ Amer. Journ. Cancer, 38, 50.
Dodds, Prof. E. C. 1938 Lancet, ii, 591. Ergebnisse der Vitamin- und
Hormonforschung, 2 (in the press): cf. 1934 Proc. Roy. Soc., B,
114, 286: 1936 Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 121, 133: 1937 Nature, 189,
627 and 1068: 1938 Nature, 141, 78; Nature, 141, 247; Proc.
Roy. Soc., B, 125, 222 ; Lancet, i, 1389; B.M.f., ii, 351.
Fox, Dr. J.J. 1938 The Chemical Age, 39, 138-139.
Matthews, Dr. J. Paint Manufacturer, p. 292. Sept. 1938.
Reichstein, Prof. T. Cf. 1937 Helv. Chim. Acta, 20, 1164; 1938 Helv.
Chim. Acta, 21, 1197; 1938 ‘Chemie des Cortins und seiner
Begleitstoffe ’ in Ergebnisse der Hormon- und Vitaminforschung, Ed. L.
Ruzicka and W. Stepp, Leipzig.
Todd, Prof. A. R. Cf. 1935 Aneurin Parts I-IX, Ber., 68, 2257: 1936
Ber., 69, 217; Journ. Chem. Soc., 1555, 1557, 1559, 1601: 1937
Journ. Chem. Soc., 364, 1504: 1938 fourn. Chem. Soc., 26.
SECTION C.
Discussion on Carbonate rocks associated with alkali-rich intrusions
reported in Nature, 142, 3598, 704-705, Oct. 15, 1938.
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 539
Joint discussion on Fenland history. Nature, 142, 3594, 517-518, Sept. 17,
1938.
Bailey, Dr. E. B. ‘ Caledonian tectonics and metamorphism in Skye,’
expected to appear in Bull. Geol. Surv. of Gt. Britain ; ‘ 'Tectonics,
erosion and deposition,’ expected to appear in Journ. Geomorph.
Buchan, Dr. S. Cf. 1938 ‘The water supply of the County of London
from underground sources,’ Mem. Geol. Surv.
Lamont, Dr. A. Expected to appear in Irish Naturalists’ Fourn. Cf. 1934
‘ Brachiopod morphology in relation to environment,’ Cement, Lime and
Gravel, 8, 216-219, figs. 1-23; ‘ Lower Palaeozoic Brachiopoda of
Girvan district: suggestions on morphology in relation to environ-
ment,’ Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 10,14, 161-184, figs. 1-5.
Macfadyen, Dr. W. A. 1938 Geol. Mag.,'75, No. 891, 409-417.
Smith, Lt. W. Campbell. Cf. 1937 Nyasaland Protectorate Geol. Surv.
Dept., Bull. 5. (‘The Chilwa series of S. Nyasaland: a group of
alkaline and other intrusive and extrusive rocks and associated lime-
stones’); 1936 Abstr. Proc. Geol. Soc. Lond., No. 1316, 8-10.
Swinnerton, Prof. H. H. Cf. ‘ Post-glacial deposits of the Lincs. Coast,’
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 360-375, 1931 ; ‘ Prehistoric pottery sites of
the Lincs. Coast,’ Antiquaries’ Fourn., 239-253, 19323; ‘ Physical
history of East Lincs.,’ Trans. Lincs. Naturalists’ Union, 91-100, 1936.
Tomkeieff, S. Paper on zonal olivines expected to appear in Mineralogical
Mag., 25, Mar. 1939.
SEcTION D.
ee on Animal locomotion. Nature, 142, 3594, 513-514, Sept. 17,
1938.
Joint discussion on Mechanism of evolution. Nature, 142, 3594, 514-515,
Sept. 17, 1938.
Atkins, Dr. W.R. G. Cf. 1937 Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 121, 427-450; Proc.
Roy. Soc., B, 128, 151-165 ; Proc. Roy. Soc., A, 160, 526-539 ; Proc.
Roy. Soc., A, 165, 453-465 : 1938 Journ. Marine Biol. Assoc., 28, No. 1.
Cott, Dr. H. B. Cf. 1938 Photographic Journ., 78, 563-578; Nature,
142, 3599, 741.
Darlington, Dr.C.D. 1939 ‘The New Systematics.’ Ed. J. S. Huxley,
O.U.P. Chapt. by C. D. D. on ‘Taxonomic species and genetic
systems.’
Gardiner, Prof. J. S. Cf. ‘ Natural History of Wicken Fen,’ edited by
J. Stanley Gardiner, Pts. I-V, Bowes and Bowes, Cambridge.
Gilson, H. C. Cf. 1937 Nature, 140, 877; Geog. Fourn., 91, 533-542.
Further reports expected to appear in Trans. Linn. Soc.
Gunther, E. R. Expected to appear in Discovery Reports.
Huxley, Dr. J. S. Cf. Nature, 142, 219. 1938 Expected to appear in
another form in centenary number of Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde,
Koninklijk Zool. Genootschap ‘ Natura Artis Magistra,’ Amsterdam.
Kirkman, Dr. F. B. Cf. 1938 Summary Repts. of Research of Inst. for
the Study of Animal Behaviour, Feb., pp. 6-8.
Tait, Dr. J. B. To be published in 1939 as ‘ Hydrography in relation to
fisheries,’ Buckland Lectures, 1938.
540 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC.
Thorpe, Dr. W.H._ 1. Physiological isolation. Cf.1937 Proc. Roy. Soc.,
B, 124, 56-81: 1939 Chapter in ‘The New Systematics, Ed.
J. S. Huxley, O.U.P. 2. Respiration in parasitic insects. Cf. 1932
Proc. Roy. Soc., B, 109, 450-471 ; Proc. V. Int. Congr. Entom., Paris,
345-351: 1934 O.F.M.S., 77, 273-304: 1936 Parasitology, 28,
517-540.
Worthington, Dr. E. B. Cf. 1937 Int. Rev. Hydrobiol. u. Hydrogr., 35,
304-317.
SECTION E.
Bertram, G. C. L. Cf. Report of British Graham Land Expedition 1934-7
in Geog. fourn., Dec. 1937 onwards.
Chriss, Miss M., and Hayes, G. Expected to appear in Dock and Harbour
Authority.
Cornish, Dr. Vaughan. Cf. ‘The Farm upon the Cliff.’ Publication
No. 43 by C.P.R.E., Lond.
Darby, Dr. H. C. See Scientific Survey, Chap. 13 in this volume.
Dickinson, Dr. R. E. Expected to appear as ‘ Landscape and Society ’ in
Scot. Geog. Mag.
Gilbert, E. W. Expected to appear in Scot. Geog. Mag.
Green, F. H. W. 1938 (Oct.) Dock and Harbour Authority.
Lewis, W. V. Expected to appear in Geog. Journ. and Geog. Rev. (Amer.
Geog. Soc.) ; cf. Geol. Mag. '75, June 1938.
Steers, J. A. Cf. 1934 ‘ Scolt Head Island,’ Heffer. 1935 Proc. Geol.
Assoc., 46, 65-69. 1936 (Jan.) Geog. Fourn.
SECTION F.
Beveridge, Sir W. H. 1938 (Dec.) Economic fourn. 1939 Expected to
appear in greater detail as publication by Oxford Institute of Statistics.
Guillebaud, C. W. Expected to appear early in 1939 as a small book
entitled ‘The economic recovery of Germany: from 1933 to the
incorporation of Austria in March 1938 ’ (probably Macmillan).
Hall, R.L. Paper may be used as basis for a publication in Oxford Economic
Papers (O.U.P.).
Keynes, J. M. 1938 (Sept.) Economic Fourn.
Marschak, Dr. J. To appear in Oxford Economic Papers (O.U.P.).
Marshall, T.H. Nature, 142, 3598, 712, Oct. 15, 1938.
Tinbergen, Prof. J. Expected to appear in publications of Economic
Intelligence Service of the League of Nations under titles : I. Method
of statistical testing of Business Cycle Theories. II. Business Cycles
in U.S.A., 1919-32.
SECTION G.
For reports of discussions see issues of Engineering for Aug. 26, Sept. 2, 9
and 16.
Discussion on Incremental magnetic measurements reported in Nature,
142, 3598, 707-708, Oct. 15, 1938.
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 541
Discussion on Vibration reported in Nature, 142, 3598, 704-705, Oct. 15,
1938.
Allen, R. W. 1938 Engineering, Aug. 26, p. 243, Sept. 9, Pp. 3133
Engineer, Sept. 2.
Carter, Major B.C. 1938 Engineering, Aug. 26, p. 257; Sept. 2, p. 285.
Cf. 1937 (Sept.) Yourn. Roy. Aeronaut. Soc. ; 1936 (July) ‘ Vibrations
of Airscrew Blades with reference to Harmonic Torque Impulses in
the Drive, R. G@ M.M., 1758.
Cook, Major F.C. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 23, p. 349; Oct. 7, P. 435;
Engineer, Sept. 23.
Eccles, G. C. 1938 Engineering, Aug. 26, p. 263.
Gall, D.C. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 16, p. 349.
Glazier, E. V. D., and Parton, J. E. 1938 Engineering, 146, No. 3797.
Greatrex, F. B. Expected to appear in Metro-Vickers Gazette.
Greig, J., and Parton, J. E. 1938 Engineering, Oct. 7, p. 431. Cf. 1937
Engineering, 144, 439.
Lea, Prof. F.C. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 2, p. 268; Nature, Sept. 10.
Mason, C. C. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 9, p. 317. Cf. Dictionary of
Applied Physics, Ed. Glazebrook, 8, p. 445.
Palmer, S.J. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 2, p. 289.
Sims, Dr. L. G. A., and Spinks, J. 1938 Engineering, 146, No. 3794,
p. 406. Cf. papers by Sims: ‘ Incremental permeability and in-
ductance,’ Wireless Engineer,12, Nos. 136, 137 ; ‘ Incremental magneti-
sation,’ Wireless Engineer, May 1935, with D. Clay ; ‘ Specification of
magnetic quantities,’ Engineering, 140, p. 290.
Skempton, A. W. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 30, pp. 403-406.
Todd, Dr. F.H. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 16, p. 345; Sept. 23, p. 375.
Cf. 1931-2 ‘ Some measurements of ship vibration,’ N.E. Coast Inst.
of Engineers and Shipbuilders; 1932-3 ‘Ship vibration—a com-
parison of measured with calculated frequencies,’ N.E. Coast Inst. of
Engineers and Shipbuilders ; 1935 ‘ Vibration in Ships,’ Gothenburg
Soc. of Engineers.
Webb, C.E. Engineering, 146, 488, Oct. 21, 1938. Cf. Fourn. Inst. Electr.
Engineers, 82, 303, March 1938.
Wilcox, D. M. 1938 Engineering, Sept. 2 ; Engineer, Sept. 9.
SECTION H.
Symposium on Middle Paleolithic. Nature, 142, 3594, 512-513, Sept. 17,
1938.
Symposium on Ritual. Nature, 142, 3594, 511-512, Sept. 17, 1938.
Symposium on the Swanscombe fossil. For report of the Swanscombe
Committee of the Royal Anthropological Institute see Journ. Roy.
Anthrop. Inst., 68, 1938. Discussion reported in Nature, 142, 3594,
509-510, Sept. 17, 1938.
Breuil, M. ?Abbé. 1938 Annuaire College de France.
Broom, Dr. R. Cf. Nature, 142, 3591, Aug. 27, 377-379, 1938.
542 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC.
Burkitt, M.C. Nature, 142, 512, Sept. 17, 1938.
Caton-Thompson, Miss G. Expected to appear in Geog. Journ. and
Journ. Roy. Central Asian Soc.: cf. 1938 Nature, 142, 139.
Clark, Prof. W. E. Le Gros. 1938 Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 68, p. 58 ;
cf. Nature, Sept. 7.
Cook, Prof. S. A. Cf. 1938 ‘The “ Truth” of the Bible,’ by S. A.
Cook.
Daniel, Dr. G. E. Expected to appear in Archaeolog. Journ.
Field, Dr. Henry. To appear as ‘ Contributions to the Anthropology of
Iran’ to be published in 1939 by the Field Museum of Natural
History, Chicago.
Gardner, Miss E. W. Expected to appear in Geog. fourn. and Journ. Roy.
Central Asian Soc.
Fou aa C. F. C. 1938 Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 68, 30-47 and
46-54.
Hocart, A. M. Expected to appear in Character and Personality.
Hooke, Prof. S. H. Expected to appear in Folk Lore; cf. ‘Myth and
Ritual,” O.U.P.; ‘The Labyrinth, S.P.C.K.; ‘The Origins of
Early Semitic Ritual,’ Schweich Lecture, O.U.P., 1935.
Hornell, J. To appear in Antiquity, Dec. 1938.
King, Prof. W. B. R. Cf. 1936 Proc. Prehist. Soc., pp. 52-76. 1938
Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst., 68, 17-08.
Lamb, Miss W. ‘To appear in Archaeologia, 87 ; cf. Archaeologia, 86, p. 1.
Oakley, K. P. Cf. Proc. Prehist. Soc., N.S. 2, pt. 1, pp. 52-76. ‘ Survey
of the Prehistory of the Farnham District, Surrey, part 1,’ to appear
in Surrey Arch. Soc.
Paget, Sir R. Cf. Nature, 141, 882, May 14, 1938.
Peate, I. C. Expected to appear in Apollo ; cf. 1936 Apollo, pp. 217-224.
Peel, R. F. 1938 Northampton Chronicle and Echo, Aug. 24. May
appear in Journ. Roy. Anthrop. Inst.
Smith, Rev. E.W. 1938 (Oct.) Journ. African Soc,
Thomson, Dr. D. F. 1938 Sun News-Pictorial, Melbourne, Aug. 109.
Cf. 1938 (June) ‘ Recommendations of Policy in Native Affairs,’
published by Govt. Printer, Canberra, F.C.T., Australia; Sydney
Morning Herald, May 14 and 16.
Zeuner, Dr. F. E. To be published early in 1939 in Geochronological
Tables, Univ. of Lond. Inst. Archaeol. ; cf. Geol. Mag., '72, 350-376,
1935: Verh. z. Ingus-Kongress, Wein, Sept. 2, 1936: Bull. Serb.
Acad. Sct., No. 4, 79, Belgrade, 1938 : Geol. Rundschau., 29, 514-517,
Bonn, 1938.
SECTION J.
Brown, Dr.W. Cf.‘ Psychological Methods of Healing.’ Univ. of London
Press Ltd. (in the press).
Craik, K.J.W. Cf. 1938 Journ. Physiol., 92, 406, ‘ The effect of adapta-
tion on differential brightness discrimination.’ Brit. Journ. Psych.
(in the press). * The effect of adaptation on visual acuity’ and ‘ The .
threshold of a small figure inside the contour of a closed figure.’ B.A.
Ann. Rept., 1938, p. 292.
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 543
Davies, J] G. W. Expected to appear in Occupational Psychology, winter
1939.
Edridge-Green, Dr. F. W. Cf. 1920 ‘ Physiology of Vision,’ G. Bell &
Sons, London; 1933 ‘ Pseudo-Science,’ John Bell & Son, London ;
1938 ‘ Fundamental facts of vision and colour vision ’ in The Medical
World.
Flugel, Prof. J. C. To appear in Character and Personality.
Penrose, Dr. L. S. Expected to appear in Mental Hygiene. Cf. 1938
Sp. Rep. Med. Res. Coun., No. 229. (H.M.S.O.), ‘A clinical and
genetic study of 1280 cases of mental defect’; 1936 Ann. Eugen.,
Camb., 7, 1-16, ‘Autosomal mutations and modification in man with
reference to mental defect.’
Richardson, Dr. L. F. Expected to appear as Monograph Suppt. to Brit.
Fourn. of Psych. Cf. letters to Nature, May 18 and Dec. 25, 1935,
and Oct. 29, 1938.
Spearman, Prof. C.. Cf. 1935 ‘ Psychology down the Ages,’ Macmillan.
Valentine, Prof.C. W. Expected to appear as a book on ‘ Social Psychology
of Childhood’; cf. The New Schoolmaster, 1937.
SECTION K,
Discussion on Plant virus research. Nature, 142, 3594, 529-530, Sept. 17,
1938.
Brenchley, Dr. W. E. Expected to appear in Ann. Appl. Biol. as ‘ Com-
parative effects of cobalt, nickel and copper on plant growth.’
Buller, Prof. A. H. R. Cf. Nature, 141, 33, Jan. 1, 1938. The subject
is fully treated in Vol. VII of the author’s ‘ Researches on Fungi,’
Longmans, Green & Co., London (in the press).
Caldwell, Dr. J. Cf. Atanasoff, ‘ Mosaic disease of flower bulb plants,’
Bull. Soc. Bot. Bulgarie., 2, 51-60, 1928 ; Hodson, W. E. H., ‘ Nar-
cissus pests,’ Bull. Min. Agric. London, No. 51 ; McWhorter, F. B.,
‘ Diseases of Narcissus,’ Bull. Ore. Agric. Coll., No. 304 ; Caldwell, J.,
and James, A. L., ‘ Stripe disease of Narcissus : The nature and sig-
nificance of the histological modification following infection,’ Ann.
App. Biol., 25, 244-253, 1938.
Emerson, R. Cf. 1938 Mycologia, 80, No. 2, 120-132.
Gordon, Prof. W.'T. 1937-8 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 59, Pt. 2, No. 12.
Radforth, N. W. 1938 Trans. Roy. Soc. Edin., 59, Pt. 2, No. 14, 385-
396.
de Ropp, R. S., and Gregory, Prof. F. G. To be published in Ann. Bot.
as Pt. IV of a series of ‘ Studies in vernalisation of cereals’: others
in this series (by Gregory, F. G., and Purvis, O. N.) are: 1. ‘ Study
of vernalisation of winter rye by low temperature and by short days,’
Ann. Bot., N.S. I, 569, 1937. 2. ‘ Vernalisation of excised mature
embryos and of developing ears,’ Ann. Bot., N.S. II, 237, 1938.
3. ‘ Use of anaerobic conditions in analysis-of the vernalising effect
of low temperature during germination,’ Ann. Bot., N.S. II, 753,
1938.
544 REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC.
x
Salaman, Dr. R. N. Cf. ‘ Potato variety production: a new departure,
Gardeners’ Chronicle, Oct. 30, 1937; ‘'The present state and future
development of potato breeding,’ Ind. fourn. Agric. Science, 8, pt. 2,
Apr. 1938; ‘ Potatoes: a retrospect, 1918-1938, Journ. Nat. Inst.
Agric. Bot. (in the press); ‘ The fight against potato disease,’ Fourn.
Min. Agric. & Fisheries, Dec. 1938.
Sansome, Mrs. E. R., and Dr. F. W. Cf. Nature, 189, 113, 1937; ex-
pected to appear in Yourn. Genetics.
Saunders, Miss E.R. To appear in New Phytologist.
Turrill, Dr. W. B. To appear in The Kew Bulletin. Cf. Biol. Rev.,
Oct. 1938.
Watt, Dr. A. S. Expected to appear in Journ. Ecology, 1939.
Woodford, E. K., and Gregory, Prof. F.G. To be published in Ann. Bot.
DEPARTMENT K*.
Discussions on Hardwoods and Afforestation reported in righ 142,
3598, 703-704, Oct. 15, 1938.
Felton, A. L. Expected to appear in a Forestry Commission Bulletin.
Guillebaud, W. H. Expected to appear in a Forestry Commission Bulletin.
Macdonald, J. 1938 Timber Trades fourn., Aug. 20. Expected to appear
in a Forestry Commission Bulletin.
Robertson, W. A. 1938 Timber Trades Fourn., 146, 554; The Cabinet
Maker, Sept. 3.
Ross, R. May appear in another form in Journ. Ecology.
Steven, Dr. H. M. To appear in Forestry, 12, (2) as ‘ Ecological aspects
of afforestation in hill country ; criteria in the choice of species.’
Thompson, C.H. 1938 (Oct.) Quart. Journ. Forestry, 32, No. 4, 251-256.
Young, D. W. Expected to appear in a Forestry Commission Bulletin on
‘ Hardwood Planting.’
SECTION L.
Discussion on Cinema and wireless reported in Nature, 142, 3598, 711-712,
Oct. 15, 1938.
Discussion on Education for a changing society, reported in The School-
master, Aug. 25, 1938 ; Education, Sept. 9, 1938 ; and Nature, Oct. 15,
1938.
Cullis, Prof. W. 1938 Education, Sept. 16.
Davies, Miss M. 1938 Education, Sept. 9, p. 270.
Dawson, Miss R. 1938 Education, Sept. 2.
Freeman, Dr. P. T. 1938 Education, Sept. 9 ; Hants Chronicle & Hants
Observer, Sept. 17.
Holt, Miss M. Manchester Guardian, Aug. 24, 1938.
Newton, W. G. Education, Oct. 28, 1938.
Pick. F. 1938 Education, Sept. 16.
REFERENCES TO PUBLICATIONS, ETC. 545
Richardson, Dr. W. A. Cf. ‘The Technical College,’ O.U.P. (in the
press).
Robinson, W. H. 1938 Teachers’ World, Aug. 24; The Schoolmaster,
Aug. 25 ; Education, Sept. 2. Cf.‘ Our island community ’ in Experi-
mental Pedagogy, Dec. 1920.
Seymour, W. D. 1938 Education, Sept. 30. Book in preparation on
‘Heating, Ventilation and Lighting of School Buildings.’
Steele, R. C. Cf. ‘ School Broadcasting in Gt. Britain,’ Pamphlet No. 6.
Reprinted from Year Book of Education, 1937, Evans Bros., London.
Section M.
Discussion on Animal production, Nature, 142, 3594, 530-532, Sept. 17,
1938.
Discussion on Crop production. Nature, 142, 3594, 527-529, Sept. 17,
1938.
Discussion on Soil fertility and agricultural policy reported in Nature, 142,
3598, 701, Oct. 15, 1938.
Gimingham, C.T. To be published in Science Progress, April 1939.
Kidd, Dr. F. 1938 Scot. fourn. Agric., Oct.
Orwin, C.S. 1938 Scot. Journ. Agric., Oct.
Rae, Prof. R. 1938 (Aug. 25) Times, (Aug. 30) Farmer & Stockbreeder.
Taylor, E. L. 1938 Empire Journ. Exptl. Agric., 6, No. 24, 377-384.
Cf. 1938 Proc. 13th Internat. Vet. Congr., Zurich-Interlaken.
Watson, Prof. J. A.S. 1938 Scot. fourn. Agric., Oct.
Wright, S.J. 1938 Scot. Journ. Agric., Oct.
THE EIGHTH
ALEXANDER PEDLER LECTURE.*
HUMANITY IN GEOLOGICAL
PERSPECTIVE.
BY
Prof. HERBERT L. HAWKINS, D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.
It is a curious corollary to our system of education that a large part of the
population should be almost completely ignorant of geological science.
_This ignorance is common to all classes, not least among those who have
suffered intensive mental cultivation. Without unduly stressing the
sentimental consideration that ordinary people might be expected to take
an interest in the nature and history of their mother, we must marvel at
the lack of curiosity of those who use and enjoy the material amenities
of civilisation. In an age of petrol engines and ferro-concrete, an intel-
ligent interest in the nature and origin of essential raw materials would
be expected to extend beyond the few whose business it is to locate and
exploit them.
A bare catalogue of the necessities of life to-day or at any time in the
past, under any form of civilisation or none, is but a list of materials
that are directly or indirectly the concern of geological research. For
Geology is the science of the Earth and all that it contains, inanimate or
animate, past and present. Fuel, metal, stone, water and soil are neces-
sary to our various activities and for our very lives ; so that the practising
geologist (whether called by that name or not) is and must always be at
the back of every enterprise.
No intelligent person can fail to realise the immense importance of
Applied Geology in such matters as Mining or Civil Engineering ; but the
uninitiated may be forgiven for doubting the utility of some branches of
geological research. The character and evolution of extinct micro-
organisms seems a topic that can serve little useful purpose save to keep
some crank out of worse mischief; while the molecular and atomic
readjustments of minerals subjected to violent treatment far underground
appear suitable to be dismissed as ‘ academic,’ a word often considered
synonymous with ‘ useless.’ Nevertheless, petroleum companies find it
advantageous to employ experts on the evolution of the Foraminifera ;
and the discovery and exploitation of mineral wealth depends on know-
ledge of the processes involved in its production. There is, indeed,
no such thing as ‘useless knowledge’; for knowledge is a tool ready
to the craftsman’s hand, always effective if skilfully used.
In addition to, and transcending, the material contribution of geological
* Delivered under the auspices of the South-Eastern Union of Scientific
Societies at Worthing, June 24, 1938.
HUMANITY IN GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 547
science to civilisation, is the aesthetic influence of the study; for Geology
is a stimulant to the imagination. Without intelligence man is but an
unsatisfactory animal; intelligent but unimaginative he is a dangerous
nuisance ; imaginative and unintelligent he is futile ; but with imagina-
tion controlled by intelligence he is truly human. The glories of Nature,
whether expressed in a landscape or a sand-grain, are wasted on a mind
that fails to respond with intelligent curiosity. ‘There is better and more
inspiring entertainment to be derived from the works of Nature than was
ever provided by the art of man. Boredom and disillusionment, those
ravaging diseases that kill body and mind, can never approach a man
trained to appreciate his environment. No very profound geological
knowledge is needed to transform a country walk from mere exercise of
the legs into an adventure of the mind. Everywhere in this world is a
happy hunting-ground for a geologist. ‘The average expectation of life
among geologists is such that it has fostered the superstition that Geology,
like bowls, is a pastime of senility ; it is due to the perpetual interest that
keeps life worth living.
My purpose to-night, however, is neither to extol the study of Geology
as a gateway to long and happy life, nor as the basic factor in the material
aspect of modern civilisation. I wish to direct your thoughts rather to
the reaction on our philosophy of life of such geological facts as can be
claimed to be established. Man’s place in Nature, his whereabouts in
time and space, is, and has always been, his fundamental problem. Early
and medizval attempts to solve that problem were foredoomed to failure,
for next to nothing was known of Nature, and philosophical speculation
savoured of vacuous bombination. We still know very little about the
material Universe, but we do know something; and our few established
data afford a solid basis for theoretical deductions that are as worthy of
serious consideration as some of the older speculations are of ridicule.
Most psychologists, and all parents, will agree that a young child, as
soon as he acquires independent consciousness, is in his own estimation
the centre of the Universe. All phenomena that he experiences are aimed,
benevolently or maliciously, at him and at him only. He is, in his own
conceit, the only pebble on the beach. Experience and training will in
time tend to modify this attitude ; and indeed, if and when wisdom comes,
egotism will be banished. But knowledge is usually in advance of wisdom,
and there is often a regrettable stage in childish development when
budding knowledge is mistaken for omniscience. This phase can also
be modified by experience. After the disappointment and humiliation
have subsided, the adolescent is in a position to find his place in the scheme
of things, and to adapt himself to it. The clever animal may become
transmuted into a man. His success in that sphere may be measured in
direct proportion to the reversal of his childish instincts.
It is not surprising that the earliest philosophers, the first thinkers
in the childhood of the race, should have fallen into childish errors.
Scarcely removed from the supreme egotism of animals, but capable of
correlation and imagination, they saw themselves as the ultimate climax
of creation, for whose especial accommodation the whole Universe was
designed. ‘They could not conceive of any reason for the existence of
the world apart from themselves ; so that, for them, the world and the
548 ALEXANDER PEDLER LECTURE
Universe were made expressly for their habitation, scarcely antedating
their arrival. By precisely similar reasoning, the only habitable part of
the world, perhaps all the world there was, centred around their homes
and extended not many days’ journey beyond their horizon. Early
voyagers must have experienced exceptional thrills from excursions into
regions that did not even exist ; doubtless their tales were given no more
credence than the reports of geologists who described terrestrial events
that preceded the creation of the world.
It is surprising to realise that less than two thousand years ago our
predecessors had scarcely any reliable knowledge of world-geography,
and less of the configuration of the globe. An interesting study could be
made of the influence on philosophical ideas of the vast increase in the
conception of space that resulted from medieval exploration. Our
modern ideas of cosmic space, whether curved or infinite, are in some
sense but a sequel to the revolutionary discovery that there was anything
of the sort to discover.
Realisation of the immensity of geological time is relatively recent,
and it is far from universal even to-day. Whereas a conception of the
size, and even of the cosmic relations, of the world is subject to daily
experience and confirmation, that of past time is more subtle to obtain.
Modern transport and other inventions enable us to span in a day distances
greater than early conceptions of the size of the Universe; but we are still
time-bound by the threescore years and ten of our earthly experience.
It may be doubted if anyone, even a geologist or a historian, can form a
clear idea of the significance of a thousand years of time; while it is
probable that the four or five thousand years canonically ascribed to the
earth’s existence seemed an almost infinite period to those who decided
upon it. And yet to-day we know that an interval of, say, 100,000 years
represents an infinitesimal part of world history, and does not cover even
the duration of mankind. We know, thanks to archzological research,
of complex human civilisations antedating the official creation of the world ;
and we know, through geological research, of animals and plants that
populated the earth in eras a thousand times more remote. We know,
but we cannot truly comprehend.
Although we must stand bewildered before the actual figures of geo-
logical time, more hopelessly than before those of cosmic space, there is
no serious difficulty in appraising relative time values. A million years
may be inconceivable, but they are obviously fewer than ten million or
a hundred million. We can mentally dispense with the cyphers, and
reduce the totals within the limits of our understanding. So that if we
estimate the duration of mankind at one million years, and that of the
Cainozoic era (the ‘age of Mammals’) up to the present at sixty million
years, the ratio of one to sixty is a true and intelligible expression of the
data. Whether we give credence to the estimates of the length of pre-
ceding eras or not, we can readily understand that they were collectively
vastly longer than the Cainozoic. And who shall say what vistas of time
are behind and beyond the mists of the pre-Cambrian ? Without pre-
tending to ascribe to geologists an abnormal share of the attributes of
Deity, it is within the truth to say that they think in terms of time where
“a thousand ages’ are lost in the total.
HUMANITY IN GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 549
The calculations of astronomers and physicists have, of course, a pro-
found interest for geologists, and we may be gratified if their results accord
with ours. But we must be forgiven if we regard them as giving but
uncertain confirmation, or negligible denial, of our own deductions. ‘Too
often in the past century did the physicists attempt to limit the duration
of the world, and of the solar system, within impossibly small scope,
basing their conclusions on the elusive and superficially convincing
principles of mathematics. Doubtless their arithmetic was beyond cavil ;
but the premisses were inevitably incomplete and even inaccurate.
The hoary imposture of the accuracy of the ‘ exact’ sciences still deludes
mankind, through the wildly illogical belief that a rigidly logical argument
must reach a correct result whatever errors may have existed in the
premisses on which it is based. Nevertheless, however askance we may
look at the current theories of Astrophysics, we can recognise with satis-
faction, that their bearing on time is consistent with the conception of
the world’s duration deduced from geological facts.
Three considerations that are inspired by our present knowledge of
geological history may be emphasised here. In the first place, the human
race, though of far greater antiquity than our forbears taught, has existed
for a minute fraction of the time during which the world has been essenti-
ally like it is to-day. Indeed, the ‘ human period’ requires the myopic
vision of an archeologist ; it is too near and too small to focus clearly
on a geologist’s retina. Secondly, the world was a ‘ going concern,’ with
successive waves of prolific population, for vast periods of time before
the appearance of mankind. ‘Thirdly, and perhaps most significantly,
throughout the whole sequence of these incalculable ages, physical,
chemical and biological laws have remained the same. A rhythmic
orderliness pervades the trivial and ephemeral details of the earth’s
history—without it all scientific endeavour would be in vain.
This is a very different view from that prevalent but a few generations
ago; and since it is, as far as it goes, demonstrably true, the old ideas
must be wrong. ‘They served their purpose in the childhood of mankind ;
but now that we are growing into intelligent adolescents, with a glorious
prospect of new truths to be learned, they are out of date and must be
put away. It is grievously hard to discard a disproved theory, but
much more difficult to get free from the philosophical deductions that
sprang from it. When the theory is based on self-esteem, and the
philosophy designed to justify conceit, conversion becomes painful
in the extreme. Some, blinded by prejudice, employ the childish ruse
of denying the truth offhand, in the pathetic hope that truth is destructible.
Others, more circumspect but even less respectable, ignore the facts
even when they see them, or pretend that they have no bearing on their
philosophy of life. Others again, intellectually convinced but emotion-
ally hide-bound, strive to force the old beliefs into the new container.
Most of us believe, and almost all pretend, that the world, and indeed
the Universe, was devised expressly for our convenience. Perhaps a
thief may consider that the trinkets he purloins were made for him to
steal; but was that the jeweller’s original intention? One can but
gasp at the effrontery of a person who considers, for example, that the
Coal Measures were laid down in far-seeing preparation for human needs.
Sia
550 ALEXANDER PEDLER LECTURE
If for a moment one grants that preposterously egotistic assumption,
what is to be said of the millions of tons of coal that were destroyed by
denudation long before their rightful owner was ready to use them?
Indeed, when arguments of this sort are employed (and they are usually
the stock-in-trade of those most seriously anxious to give reverence
where it is due) the result is a dilemma from which blasphemy affords
the sole escape. Philosophy is the clothing of truth: a baby’s vest is
inadequate, and indecent, on an adolescent.
We must reconcile ourselves, and our philosophies, to the fact that
from the world’s standpoint we have only just arrived. Although
during our brief career we have made an unconscionable: mess of parts
of its surface, the globe continues to revolve unperturbed, and we cannot
imagine that our disappearance would cause it a passing tremor. To
those who have grown up in the belief that the world was made solely
for their occupation and benefit, this conclusion seems humiliating ;
but only the conceited can experience humiliation. Moreover, the third
scriptural criterion for a satisfactory and moral life involves humility.
There can be no incentive to progress for those who think that they have
already arrived, and there is no prospect but a fall for the arrogant. But
to those who are not blinded by conceit there is stimulation in the thought
that they are playing a part, however humble, in a vast drama; and
elation in the knowledge that they, alone of the actors, can be more
than puppets in the show.
If the first two of our considerations tend to induce humility, the
third surely inspires confidence. The constancy of natural laws, the
reiteration of cause and effect, the simplicity of the outline of history,
show that there are some principles at least in which we can trust. There
is an orderliness in Nature that we can appreciate without knowing its
origin or aim. One has but to read some of the cosmogonies of the last
few centuries, when the catastrophic school was trying to compress
the gallon of geological facts into the pint pot of canonical time, to realise
how profoundly our views are altered. These earnest attempts to
reconcile fiction with truth led to a conception of the world staggering
from one supernatural cataclysm to another, and make ludicrous reading
to-day. ‘They evoke a picture of a Creator learning by trial and error,
with no set plan and very little patience—surely the butt of ribaldry
rather than the inspirer of reverence. There could be no security under
so fickle a tyrant, and no point in trying to understand a policy that
might be reversed at any time.
Just laws must bind the legislator no less than his subjects; and it
is a heartening thought to realise that even in Cambrian times the sun
shone and the rain fell with the same sort of effects as they produce
to-day. It gives confidence to know that, come what may, effect follows
cause as day follows night, and that in a world of seeming change and
decay there are principles and processes that are eternal. In the material
world at least we can know where we are, and what to expect. There are
laws that neither time nor circumstance can alter. We can discover
their gist, learn to obey them, and so acquire power beyond imagination ; .
and on the other hand we can ignore them or defy them, and perish.
The geological record shows that we have but a small, perhaps transient,
HUMANITY IN GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 551
part to play in the world-drama ; but it also reveals the grandeur of the
theatre and the impartiality of the management. It induces humility,
‘but gives security. The establishment we have so recently entered is
soundly constructed and consistently managed ; with reasonable observa-
tion we can learn the way to our own rooms and the sure results of our
actions. But valuable and salutary as this knowledge may be, it leaves
us completely at the mercy of our environment, like passengers in a
train going they know not whither with almost ominous smoothness.
Our surroundings are impersonal, insensitive and inevitable; it is for
us to make the best we can of them. And here another aspect of geological
history, Palzontology, is available to give warning and advice. The
story of life through the ages of the earth’s history touches us more
nearly than does that of the inanimate fabric ; for we are living creatures,
and our bodily lives are held on the same terms as those of the rest of
the animate world.
Before attempting to discuss the influence of the paleontological
record on our own case, it is necessary to meet certain objections that
may be raised. ‘The same childish conceit that supposes the Universe
to be a playground made for mankind alone automatically believes that
man is so far superior to all other creatures that the episodes of their
obscure lives have no bearing on the problems of his exalted existence.
It is of course true that man has certain attributes and capacities that are
scarcely developed among other animals; but so have all other types,
else how could we distinguish and classify them ?
For convenience we may admit that a man consists of two parts,
commonly called body and soul, and that these two parts are largely
antithetic. All respectable religions have always stressed the conflict
between the carnal and the spiritual; and yet many most earnest en-
thusiasts insist that their enemy the body must be as peculiar and sacred
as their friend the soul. Confusion of thought such as this is not only
strange, but disastrous, for it is the beginning and end of materialism.
The human body, in its anatomical and physiological characters, is an
animal’s body ; as such it is strictly comparable with that of any other
animal, and subject to the same laws. Anyone who believes otherwise,
and lives in accordance with his beliefs, will be dead within an hour.
Such evidence as is available to show the history of living creatures
during the course of geological time will, therefore, have at least a partial
bearing on the problems of our own lives. It will be apt for comparison
with our bodily and racial lives, and our reactions to our physical
environment, whatever complications may be introduced by our special
human attributes.
A comprehensive survey of the paleontological record shows con-
clusively that there, as in the physical history of the earth, inviolable
laws are in continuous operation. Paramount among these laws is that
of cause and effect ; which, in its biological aspect, is called the law of
Evolution.
In many cases, and for various reasons, our apprehension of the causes
of evolutionary change is far less complete than in the case of physical
processes ; but the constant repetition of similar effects gives presumptive
evidence of oft-recurring cause. The chief difficulty in appraising the
552 ALEXANDER PEDLER LECTURE
determinants of evolution lies in the dual nature of life, expressed in the
legacy of heredity and the impact of environment. Opinions differ
widely as to the relative importance of these twin influences, but there
is no room for doubt that both exist, and that they may often prove
incompatible.
An unfortunate but inevitable weakness of palzontological evidence
enables it to show very little of the early history of groups of organisms,
although its record of their decline and fall is often clearly displayed.
We are far from knowing how or why new types appear; but on the
other hand we have plentiful illustration of how they disappear, and
convincing indication as to the way in which Nemesis overtakes them.
The record of Evolution is, in essentials, the same for all groups of
organisms. Indeed, it is the same when expressed in the changes that
befall the several organs of which organisms are built. Phylogeny and
morphogeny are mutually dependent, for the whole, though greater than
the parts, consists of them and is directly affected by their condition.
Hyperbolic though it may sound, it is a bare fact of experience that the
life-story of an individual, or of a single cell in its body, is a précis of that
of a phylum, or of any taxonomic grade. Families and orders, like species
and individuals, may possess the contrasted qualities of ‘ perennials’ or
‘annuals’; but the general trend of their lives is the same. They have
their youth, a stage of growth and adaptation; their maturity, when
equilibrium has been attained ; and their senility, when persistent de-
velopment beyond perfection leads to decline and death.
In the youthful stage groups or individuals are plastic, producing much
diversity by the reaction of their intrinsic vitality with the moulding
influence of environment. In the senile stage their characters have become
stereotyped, and their reaction to an ever-changing environment is
extinction. ‘The same inexorable range of variation in physical surround-
ings acts as a tonic to the young and a poison to the old. For life is a
competition between the mysterious quality called ‘ vitality’ and the
insensitive environment that encompasses it. ‘The struggle is exhilarating,
creative, and usually successful, in youth; but old age fights a losing
battle. The secret of perpetual youth is no mystery, for all that is needed
is perpetual plasticity, giving ready adaptation to environment. But in
the nature of things this is impossible. It is true that simple forms of life
can adjust themselves and their needs to varying conditions more readily
than more complex forms ; they have a greater expectation of racial life ;
but there is a term to their duration. Life itself, transmitted from one
generation to another, may be everlasting ; but all living things are mortal.
This sounds like a somewhat morbid summary of the course of an
ordinary human life ; but actually it is a description of the evolution of
every large or small group of organisms of which we have adequate
palzontological knowledge.
There are two harmonies essential for successful living, one internal
and the other external ; both must be kept consonant. The several organs
of an organism must maintain their proper proportions, and the organism
as a whole must conform to its surroundings. Internal discord, due to
the modulation of one ingredient independently of the rest, cannot fail
to produce inefficiency and final collapse ; while external discord brings
HUMANITY IN GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 553
the individual into mortal conflict with an invincible opponent. One or
the other of these disasters is in store for every living thing, be it a cell,
a body, a race or a species. ‘To be alive is to be changing, and there is a
limit to the range of possible harmonies.
Recognition of the orderliness of animate nature, and of the inevitable
sequence, of change, decay and replacement, does not engender optimism
when we think of ourselves, our institutions, and our species. A com-
plicated mammalian mechanism with an over-developed nervous system
seems like a diagnosis of a very short-lived race.
If we despairingly claim that our wits have enabled us to reduce the
risks of environment, the records of our history are open to show that the
internal dangers develop none the less. Diseases of disproportionate
development, such as cancer, attack individuals ; and civilisations crumble
through over-complexity and dissension. Our cleverness may make our
success spectacular, but it speeds on the ensuing collapse.
By virtue of our over-developed intelligence we accelerate the processes
of evolution, especially in our social relations ; and whatever hope evolu-
tion may hold for the unborn, a tomb is all that it can offer to the living.
The history of the decline and fall of empires makes familiar reading for a
palzontologist ; it illustrates in a condensed and diagrammatic form the
late phases of evolution in other creatures that are the normal subjects of
his study. Regrettable though it may be, the human animal seems to a
palzontologist superior to a Dinosaur or an Ammonite merely in the speed
with which it rushes towards extinction.
This is a tragic outlook; but there is nothing unfamiliar about it.
All individuals realise, when they choose to think, that they are not
immortal ; every philosophy and religion lays emphasis on the transient
nature of ‘ man’s earthly hopes.’ It is not only the palzontologist who
knows that the prize awaiting the winners in the struggle for existence
is death. Nor need we be morbid in our outlook ; a man who has made
his will can still enjoy life. ‘The play’s the thing,’ not to be spoilt by
regrets that the actors will not hold the stage for ever. But whether or
not we can derive comfort from such considerations, the fact remains that
all available evidence, palzontological and historical, racial and personal,
indicates the inevitable doom of man the animal, and of all his works.
Must we then reconcile ourselves to the belief that we are such stuff
as palzontological collections are made of, and that in the geologically
near future a few fossil relics will be all that remains of our species ?
A creed so desperate would demand extinction as an escape from a
farcically hopeless existence. Before finally abandoning ourselves to
utter pessimism, we may try to review our position from another angle.
Once, very long ago even as a geologist reckons time, a strange thing
happened. We do not know why or how; but a certain combination of
substances acquired the quality that we call life. In many ways the first
organisms, doubtless unicellular and microscopic, defied the ordinary laws
of physical nature. Especially was this the case in their capacity for
sexual reproduction and its consequent succession of ever-changing
individuality ; in other words, in their quality of evolution. The organic
world, surrounded, influenced and in no small measure controlled, by the
inorganic, started on an adventure that led it ever further from the
554 ALEXANDER PEDLER LECTURE
mechanical principles of insensate forces. ‘To-day that same ‘life,’
spread among a myriad of individuals, is still flourishing, and shows no
signs of decline. It is an important, though superficial, part of the
economy of the globe. Its more progressive exponents, elaborating their
structural and mechanical diversities, have acquired an enhanced sensitive-
ness that has become concentrated into a definite nervous system, and has
gradually attained the faculty of intelligence. Being mammals ourselves,
we can recognise in our fellow mammals mental capacity and consequent
behaviour that appeal to us as comparable with our own ; it is not possible
to appreciate the mentality of creatures utterly unlike ourselves, even if
such mentality exists. Nevertheless, it seems evident that reception of
sensations and response to them become more acute and intelligent with
improving brain-structure. Increasing faculties of locomotion stimulate
perception, and life becomes less automatic and more emotional. The
brain comes to dominate the organism.
The earliest forms of life must have striven against their physical
surroundings, for life is an irritating alien in the inorganic world. But
when, by virtue of the faculty of multiplication, living things came to
exist in great quantity and congestion, internecine competition was added
to environmental problems, and the complicated anarchy of the ‘ struggle
for existence’ began. Structural advantages, or (in later stages) mental
superiority, help to bring success to their possessors ; but the struggle is
ultimately unavailing. For although the winners may crush, and perhaps
even exterminate, the losers in any particular rivalry, the factors that gave
them victory ensure their collapse. Unobtrusive types endure, but
aggressive and domineering types achieve success and disaster in direct
proportion. We can liken the course of evolution to the use of a cylinder
of gas. If the gas is allowed to escape slowly under control, it may burn
steadily, giving a feeble light, for a long time; if it all ignites at once,
there is a brilliant flash, a crash, and then darkness. Such were the
records of Lingula and Productus; or of the Turtles and Dinosaurs.
Mental acumen is a better means to success than mere structural
advantage. ‘The rapid rise and fall of hosts of mammalian types, con-
trasting as it does with the considerable stability of the invertebrate fauna
during the Cainozoic era, seems a clear illustration of the paradox of the
struggle for existence, where the prize is death.
And so once more we reach the depressing view of the human species,
surely the most spectacular and record-breaking winners yet evolved,
hastening towards the reward of victory. In so far as it has entered the
lists, matching its capacity for selfish greed against the individualism of
other animals or of its fellows, the human race is bound by the rules of
the competition, and the prize is within its grasp. Man is a supremely
successful animal ; such success, whether involving murder or not, is the
precursor of suicide.
There can be no doubt that the introduction of life marked a crisis in
the earth’s history. Perhaps its significance can be best expressed by
the suggestion that to the eternal changelessness of physical laws there
was added the eternal changefulness of organic evolution. Bound by thé
insensitive chains of material environment, living organisms possessed a
sort of individuality of which they became increasingly conscious with the
HUMANITY IN GEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE 555
improvement of their nervous mechanism. Sensation and reaction were
limited to physical and material phenomena, and so were ultimately
subject to the inexorable rules that propelled their possessors from birth
to death.
But the nervous mechanism of mankind can transcend the sensuality
of the animal brain. It is perhaps not too extravagant to claim that the
faculty of imagination is an acquisition as far advanced beyond that of
sensitiveness as life is beyond non-life. When an abstract conception
was formulated for the first time, a man was born, and a marvellous
new quality introduced into the world. For imagination, though
expressed through the medium of material and ephemeral apparatus, can
break the bonds of physical restraint, finding freedom and immortality
among the eternal verities. Imagination is the gateway to wisdom, and
an antidote to cleverness.
The growth of the imaginative faculty has produced, or perhaps can
produce, a remarkable revolution ; for its most obvious result has been
a complete inversion of the technique of life. ‘The quality of a man is
measured by his recognition and exposition of such qualities as honesty,
sympathy and unselfishness, rather than by his skill in ruthless self-
aggrandisement. ‘Truth, chivalry and kindness are inconsistent with
the struggle for existence ; but they are recognised as desirable attributes
even by those under-developed minds that class them as impracticable
ideals. A ‘ realist,’ who boasts that he ‘ faces facts,’ denies his humanity
and takes pride in beastliness ; an ‘ idealist,’ who faces noble thoughts,
is a man.
The human race is very young, and few of its members have as yet
shown enough precocity to visualise, let alone to attain, the ideal that is
humanity. ‘To mankind in the mass a real man is a sort of ‘ foreign
devil,’ to be treated as animals treat aliens in their preserves. Prophets
are stoned by their generation, even though they are sentimentally
canonised by the next. Philosophers are ‘ such stuff as dreams are made
on,’ and therefore unintelligible and irritating to animals, however clever.
But men can learn; their capacity for appreciating wisdom shows that
its acquisition is not beyond their powers. And wisdom, which makes
men human, is better than the rubies of material success that may leave
him bestial.
The contrast between the attitude of imaginative insight and that of
animal instinct is nowhere more clearly seen than in the realm of ethics
and morality. Every action that savours of the struggle for existence
is a sin, and every effort in the reverse direction is a virtue. There
could be no clearer illustration of the power of the imagination to see
beyond knowledge than the pronouncement that ‘ the wages of sin is
death,’ made centuries before the laws of evolution were suspected.
The exponents of religion, in spite of the Laodicean spirit of com-
promise that lessens their effectiveness, give more than lip-service to
the creed that man should be different from the other animals. A
multitude of organisations directly or indirectly sponsored by the
Churches attempt to translate this pious belief into practical service.
Science, especially in its medical branches, caters for all sorts and condi-
tions of men with selfless devotion. Some enactments of legislation
556 ALEXANDER PEDLER LECTURE
definitely encourage humanity as an alternative to brutality, and extol
principles above, opportunism. Perhaps some day even financiers and
statesmen may discover that their choice is between the Mammon of
deceit and animal avarice and the God of truth and human sympathy,
and that there is no middle course. Until then they will continue to
lead their dependents and subjects along the well-worn track that opens
before all the ‘ beasts that perish.’ ,
The alternative is a great adventure, whose end none can foresee,
along the trail blazed by martyred pioneers who have had the courage
to be men.
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE
PLANETS.
BY
Dr. H. SPENCER JONES, F.R.S.
Being the FourTrENTH ANNUAL Norman Lockyer Lecture, delivered
on December 6, 1938, in the Hall of the Goldsmiths’ Company,
London.
Durinc the last few decades the main interests of astronomical research
have shifted rapidly from the solar system outwards. The application of
the spectroscope to the study of the stars and nebulz, the use of photo-
graphy, facilitating the study of faint objects, shortening the time of
observation at the telescope, and providing permanent records, and the
construction of larger and larger telescopes have made it possible for the
astronomer to study objects at greater and greater distances. Whole new
fields of research have been opened up, and the exploration of these has
proved so attractive and has been so productive of results that the planets
of the solar system have received much less attention than was formerly
given tothem. Nevertheless, the planets have not been entirely neglected
in recent research. The great light-gathering power of large modern
telescopes has enabled spectrographs of very high dispersion to be used
for the more detailed study of the spectra of the planets, and the great
advances in the manufacture of plates sensitive to the infra-red region of
the spectrum have made possible the investigation of a region of the spec-
trum whose importance arises from the fact that the selective absorptions
by planetary atmospheres lie mainly in this region. It is my purpose
this afternoon to summarise some of the conclusions about the physical
conditions on the planets derived from the investigations of recent years.
From theoretical considerations it is possible to decide whether or not
any planet may be expected to possess an atmosphere. The natural
tendency of an atmosphere is to diffuse away into space. The molecules
of the atmosphere are flying about in all directions at high speeds, con-
tinually colliding with one another and rebounding. In the upper layers
of the atmosphere, the preponderant tendency is for them to be pushed
outwards. They are prevented from escaping only by the gravitational
pull of the planet.
In order to overcome this pull and to fly away into space, any particle,
whether large or small, must acquire a velocity greater than a certain
minimum value, determined by the mass and radius of the planet. If
the radial component of the outward velocity is greater than this minimum
value, the particle will escape from the planet, provided its motion is not
impeded by collision with another particle.
558 NORMAN LOCKYER LECTURE
In a simple gas, at a uniform temperature, the velocities of the mole-
cules are distributed according to a law, discovered by Maxwell, which he
first announced at the meeting of the British Association in 1859. The
mean velocity of the molecules increases with the temperature, being
proportional to 1/'T ; the number of fast-moving molecules with velocities
much in excess of the mean velocity falls off very rapidly with increase of
velocity. In a mixture of gases, the average energy of each type of mole-
cule is the same ; the lighter the molecules the faster they move in the mean.
There are definite proportions of molecules with speeds of 10, 20 or
100 times the mean speed, so that there must be a progressive loss of fast
moving molecules from the upper layers of the atmosphere of any planet.
The rate at which this loss takes place depends upon the relative magni-
tudes of the velocity of escape and of the mean velocity of the molecules.
The rates of escape were calculated by Jeans. He found that if the
velocity of escape is four times the mean molecular velocity, the atmosphere
would be practically completely lost in fifty thousand years ; if the velocity
of escape is four and a half times the mean molecular velocity, the atmo-
sphere would be lost in thirty million years ; whilst if the velocity of escape
is five times the mean molecular velocity, twenty-five thousand million
years would be required for the loss to be almost complete. The age of
the planets is believed to be of the order of three or four thousand million
years, so that if the velocity of escape is as great as five times the mean
molecular velocity of hydrogen the atmosphere will be practically immune
from loss.
The mean molecular velocity of hydrogen at o° c. is 1-84 km./sec.
At the observed maximum temperature of the Moon, 120° ¢., it is
2°21 km./sec. The escape velocity from the Moon is only 2-4 km./sec.,
so that an atmosphere of hydrogen would be lost from the Moon almost
instantly. Similarly for Mercury ; the temperature of the sunlit face is
found by measurement to be about 400° c. and at this temperature the
mean molecular velocity of hydrogen is 2:9 km./sec., whilst the escape
velocity from Mercury is 3:6 km./sec.; a hydrogen atmosphere would
again be lost almost instantly. It appears that the Moon, if it had never
been hotter than at present, would have lost water-vapour, nitrogen, and
oxygen completely, but would have retained carbon dioxide and heavier
gases ; Mercury, under the same supposition, would have lost almost all
its water-vapour and nitrogen and most of its oxygen, but would have
retained heavier gases to a large extent. The rates of loss are likely to be
underestimated because, as we shall see later, it is probable that when
these bodies were young and had temperatures much higher than they
now have, the loss of atmosphere during the period of rapid cooling must
have been considerable. It is certain that the Moon has no atmosphere
now and this is fully in accordance with expectations. The evidence of
an atmosphere on Mercury is not fully conclusive, but faint and transient
shadings on the planet have been interpreted by Antoniadi as indications
of an atmosphere. The observations are naturally difficult, but the con-
clusion of Antoniadi that Mercury may possess a very tenuous atmosphere
is not in conflict with the theoretical evidence. It is certain, however,
that most of the original atmosphere must have been lost.
Coming to the Earth, the escape velocity is 11-2 km./sec., which is
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE PLANETS 559
almost exactly six times the mean molecular velocity of hydrogen at 0° c.
Hence the atmosphere of the Earth should be immune from loss of
hydrogen and all other gases.
At the present time the amounts of hydrogen and of helium in the
Earth’s atmosphere are very small. The spectrum of the aurora does not
contain the lines of helium, an indication that the high regions of the
atmosphere cannot contain very much helium. ‘The total helium content
of the atmosphere has been estimated to be about five parts in a million.
The supply is being gradually replenished by the weathering of the
igneous rocks of the earth’s crust, which contain uranium and thorium
and also, consequently, helium. Yet the atmosphere does not now
contain more than a fraction of the amount of helium that it has gained in
geological times in the process of the formation of sedimentary rocks as
a result of the weathering of the igneous rocks. We may therefore say
that there is direct observational evidence that helium is being lost from
the atmosphere at the present time. It is believed that there may be a
state of equilibrium between the rate of supply and the rate of loss.
Even if the Earth had remained hot, in the early stages of its existence,
for a sufficient time for the hydrogen and helium then present in its
atmosphere to escape entirely, it still remains to explain how helium
continues to be lost when, according to the theoretical results, which are
based on the accepted principles of the kinetic theory of gases, it should
be immune from loss. There is one process by which the escape of
helium can be brought about. It is well known that the night sky is
faintly luminous. In addition to the light from the stars there is a faint
luminescence from the upper atmosphere, whose brightness seems to
vary with the sun-spot cycle, being greater at sun-spot maximum than at
sun-spot minimum. Lord Rayleigh has termed this the non-polar
aurora. In the spectrum of the night sky the characteristic green auroral
line, as well as the two red lines, are always present. These lines are
emitted by oxygen atoms that are in what the physicists term a metastable
state. An atom, when excited or loaded up with energy, usually unloads
its energy, with the emission of radiation, within a short interval of time
of the order of one hundred-millionth of a second. But a metastable
state is characterised by the peculiarity that the atoms in that state have a
very slight tendency to unload their energy. They may remain for an
average time of a second or longer in that state before emitting their
energy in the form of radiation. There is a high probability that before
this occurs the atom will have collided with another atom. When a
collision of a metastable oxygen atom with another atom occurs, the energy
of the oxygen atom will be unloaded and converted into kinetic energy.
The two atoms will rebound with a greatly increased speed. By such a
collision an atom of helium could acquire a speed of more than 12 km./sec.,
which is greater than the velocity of escape from the Earth. Hydrogen
atoms would acquire a still higher speed, but heavier atoms, such as those
of nitrogen or oxygen, would not by this process acquire sufficient speed
to escape. They would receive an equal amount of energy but, being
heavier, they would not move so fast. The loss of hydrogen and helium
from the atmosphere of the Earth is thus made possible by the fact that
free oxygen is present in the atmosphere.
560 NORMAN LOCKYER LECTURE
It appears probable that the primitive Earth must have remained hot
sufficiently long for most of its initial atmosphere to have been lost. It
was pointed out by Russell and Menzel that in the stars and the nebulz
neon is as abundant as argon, whereas in the Earth’s atmosphere argon is
five hundred times more abundant than neon. Nitrogen is far less
abundant on the Earth than in the stars; it is ten thousand times more
abundant in the Sun than on the Earth. These large. differences in
relative terrestrial and solar abundance demand explanation, because in
general the relative abundance of elements on the Earth is in close agree-
ment with their relative abundance in the Sun and other stars. These
facts can be accounted for on the supposition that the rate of loss of
atmosphere was very rapid when the Earth was hot. When the cooling
had proceeded sufficiently far for the escape of the atmosphere to cease,
neon had been depleted to a mitch greater extent than the heavier argon.
If this supposition is correct, much of the original oxygen, nitrogen, and
water-vapour and all the original helium and free hydrogen must have
been lost. As the molten Earth cooled, great quantities of water-vapour,
carbon dioxide and other gases must have been evolved from the solidi-
fying magma ; these, with the residual gases from the initial atmosphere,
formed the new atmosphere which, as the Earth was then relatively cool,
could not escape.
It has been recognised for more than a century that the presence of
free oxygen in the atmosphere of the Earth, which we are apt to take for
granted without a thought, needs explanation. Oxygen is an element
that is chemically active and processes are in continual operation that are
depleting the store of oxygen in the atmosphere. One of the principal
sources of depletion arises from the weathering of the igneous rocks to
form sedimentary deposits—sand, clay and mud. The iron contained
in the igneous rocks is not completely oxidised. The greyish hue of these
rocks results from the iron being present mainly in the form of ferrous
oxide. During the process of weathering, much of the ferrous oxide is
oxidised into ferric oxide, which gives the red or brown tints to the
weathered deposits. The amount of oxygen that is withdrawn from the
atmosphere by this process is very considerable and it has been estimated
that during geological times the amount of oxygen thus depleted from the
atmosphere is about twice the quantity now present. It is clear that some
process must be in operation which replenishes the oxygen in the atmo-
sphere. The vegetation over the Earth’s surface provides the means for
this replenishment. ‘The green plant absorbs carbon dioxide from the
air and uses energy from sunlight to decompose it, the energy-transformer
being the green colouring matter, called chlorophyll, contained in the
plant cells. ‘The carbon is used to build up the complex organic sub-
stances found in living plants, the oxygen being returned to the atmosphere
as a by-product.
The supply of carbon dioxide is in turn renewed by the decay of
vegetable matter and other organic materials. During the decay of such
matter, oxygen is absorbed and carbon dioxide is liberated. This
carbon dioxide is again available for building up new plant cells. When--
ever organic matter is buried, as in coal measures and oil deposits, so
that it cannot become oxidised and decay, there is a net gain of oxygen
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE PLANETS 561
to the atmosphere. It seems probable that the present abundance of
oxygen in the atmosphere has been provided in this way and that if the
coal, oil and other organic deposits could be unburied and completely
burned, the whole of the oxygen in the atmosphere would be used up.
The atmosphere of Venus is in marked contrast to that of the Earth.
Venus is the planet which, of all the planets, most closely resembles
the Earth in size, in mass, and in mean density. It is a little smaller
than the Earth, a little less massive and has a slightly lower mean density.
The velocity of escape from Venus is 10:2 km./sec., a little smaller
than the corresponding velocity from the Earth. This velocity is about
five times the mean molecular velocity of hydrogen, and it may therefore
be expected that Venus will have an atmosphere comparable with that
of the Earth in extent and density. The presence of an extensive at-
mosphere is confirmed by observation. Her disk shows faint ill-defined
transient markings, which are evidently cloud phenomena. No surface
details are shown, even on photographs with infra-red sensitive plates.
Photographs in ultra-violet light record cloudy markings which rapidly
change their form and are of short duration.
The permanent cloud layer over Venus makes the determination of
the period of rotation difficult ; the cloud formations are not sufficiently
long-lived to give any more definite information than that the rotation
is not rapid. The spectroscopic determination of the period is difficult,
but the evidence is in favour of a period of not less than 20 or 30 days.
On the other hand, it is likely that the period is considerably shorter
than 225 days, the period of revolution of Venus round the Sun, because
it has been found by measurement that considerable heat is radiated
from the dark side of the planet. Although the measurements show
that the bright side sends us more heat than the dark side, the difference
can be to a large extent explained by the reflection of sunlight from the
. cloud layer over the bright side. The small difference in temperature
between the bright and dark sides is to be expected on a planet that is
densely cloud-covered, the clouds acting as a blanket at night, provided
that the length of the day is not too great. If the planet turned always
the same face to the Sun, the difference in temperature between the
bright and dark faces would be greater than is found by observation.
Hence a rotation-period of several weeks seems probable.
The method used for the determination of the temperatures of the
planets may be briefly described. The radiation received from the
planet, or from a portion of its surface, is measured with a sensitive
thermocouple or bolometer. This radiation consists of two portions :
reflected sunlight and long wave-length infra-red radiation from the
planet. By placing a small transparent vessel containing water in the
path of the rays the true planetary radiation of long wave-length is
absorbed and the amount of the radiation that is merely reflected sunlight
can be determined. Knowing, in this way, the amount of the true
planetary radiation, the temperature of the planet may be estimated
approximately ; this temperature refers to the radiating surface, and if
the planet has much atmosphere the actual surface temperature may be
considerably higher.
The measured mean temperatures of the planets are in close general
562 NORMAN LOCKYER LECTURE
agreement with the temperatures calculated on the assumption that for
each planet there is a balance between the radiation received from the
Sun and the radiation re-emitted into space. ‘The temperature differences
from one part of the surface to another depend very much, however, upon
the extent and nature of the atmosphere. A dense atmosphere greatly
reduces the variations of temperature across the surface and the range
of temperature between day and night. ‘The Moon provides an extreme
example of rapid variations. At the lunar eclipse of January 14, 1927,
Pettit and Nicholson found that the temperature of the surface dropped
from + 70° c. to — 80° c. in a little more than an hour, as the result
of the radiation from the Sun being cut off by the interposition of the
Earth. During 24 hours of totality, the temperature dropped a further
40° c. But after totality had ended, the temperature rose to almost its
initial value in about an hour. Venus, on the other hand, despite its
long day, shows only a moderate range of temperature.
To determine the composition of the atmosphere of Venus, or of any
other planet, recourse must be had to the spectroscope. Absorption
in the atmosphere of the Earth is a complicating and troublesome factor.
Ozone, though present in the Earth’s atmosphere in very small amount,
with an equivalent thickness of but a few millimetres, completely cuts
off the whole spectrum below 4 2900, so that the extreme ultra-violet
region is completely inaccessible to observation. Oxygen reveals itself
by some strong absorptions in the near infra-red and red regions, in-
cluding the A and B bands of Fraunhofer and some weaker absorptions
in the visible spectrum. Water-vapour has some extremely strong
‘absorptions in the infra-red. The terrestrial origin of these various
absorptions can be established in two ways. First, by observing the
spectrum of the Sun at different altitudes, the terrestrial absorptions
become stronger the lower the altitude, because the air-path is cor-
respondingly increased. Secondly, if the spectra of light from the
east and west limbs of the Sun are compared, the absorptions of solar
origin show a slight relative displacement caused by the solar rotation,
whilst the absorptions of terrestrial origin are undisplaced.
The absorptions of terrestrial origin in the spectrum of the Sun
having been identified, the absorptions produced in the atmosphere
of a planet can be investigated by photographing the spectra of the planet
and the Moon on the same night and at the same altitude. An absorp-
tion present in the spectrum of the planet and not in that of the Moon,
or much stronger in the spectrum of the planet than in that of the Moon,
must originate in the atmosphere of the planet. Another, and more
delicate, method of investigation is to photograph the spectrum of the
planet at a time when it is approaching or receding from us most rapidly.
The motion will displace the absorptions due to the planet’s atmosphere
with respect to those due to our own atmosphere, and in this way the
planetary absorptions may be revealed.
Complete information about the constitution of any planetary atmo-
sphere is not obtainable, however, because many possible constituents
of the atmosphere show no absorptions in the region accessible to study. .
Amongst such undetectable constituents are hydrogen, nitrogen, helium,
neon and argon.
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE PLANETS 563
The investigation of the atmosphere of Venus has given no certain
evidence of the presence of oxygen. Observations with the 100-inch
telescope, in conjunction with the high-dispersion coudé spectrograph,
have led to the conclusion that the amount of oxygen must be less than
one-thousandth part of that above an equal area of the Earth. It must
be remembered, however, that the observations refer only to the portion
of the atmosphere above the permanent layer of cloud and this layer
may be at a considerable height above the surface of Venus. More
surprising, perhaps, than the failure to detect oxygen is the failure to
detect the presence of water-vapour, even though the tests for water-
vapour are less sensitive than those for oxygen. It would seem that the
clouds on Venus must be clouds of water droplets, similar to the clouds
in the Earth’s atmosphere ; the explanation of the apparent absence of
water-vapour may be that the atmosphere above the clouds is extremely
dry.
“The most interesting fact about the atmosphere of Venus is the great
abundance of carbon dioxide. In 1932 Adams and Dunham discovered
three well-defined bands in the infra-red region of the spectrum of Venus
which are not found in the spectrum of the Sun, even when setting.
They were evidently produced by absorption in the atmosphere of Venus.
These bands had not at that time been observed in any terrestrial spectrum.
Theoretical investigations indicated that they might be due to carbon
dioxide ; this was confirmed when Dunham succeeded in obtaining a
faint absorption, corresponding with the strongest of the bands, by
passing light through 40 metres of carbon dioxide at a pressure of
10 atmospheres. Later, Adel and Slipher reproduced the three bands
by passing light through 45 metres of carbon dioxide at a pressure of
47 atmospheres ; the absorptions so produced were less intense than the
corresponding absorptions in the spectrum of Venus. Adel and Slipher
concluded that the amount of carbon dioxide above the surface of Venus
is equivalent to a layer two miles in thickness at standard atmospheric
pressure and temperature. For comparison, it may be mentioned that
the whole atmosphere of the Earth is equivalent to a thickness of five
miles at standard pressure and temperature and that the amount of
carbon dioxide present in the path of sunlight, when the Sun is setting, is
equivalent to a thickness of only about thirty feet. Further confirmation
is thus obtained of an abundant atmosphere on Venus.
The carbon dioxide will have a powerful blanketing effect, the escape
of the long wave-length radiations being greatly impeded by the absorp-
tion by the carbon dioxide. It is not improbable that the temperature
at the surface of Venus may be as high as, or higher than, that of boiling
water. The high temperature, the lack of oxygen and the abundance of
carbon dioxide can be interpreted as indications that there cannot be
any great amount of vegetation on Venus and suggest that the planet
is not the abode of life.
Mars occupies a position between Mercury on the one hand and
Venus and the Earth on the other, as regards size, mass and velocity of
escape. The velocity of escape is 5:0 km./sec., about one-half of the
velocity of escape from ‘Venus. It may be expected that Mars will
have a much thinner atmosphere than Venus or the Earth. The presence
564 NORMAN LOCKYER LECTURE
of an atmosphere on Mars can be proved by photographing the planet
in light of different colours. Photographs in the infra-red show permanent
markings, which are evidently surface features, whereas photographs
in the ultra-violet show none of these. By photographing through
filters which pass a narrow spectral region, it is found that the surface
details become more and more distinct as the wave-length of the light
increases. ‘The atmosphere is extensive enough to scatter ultra-violet
light to such an extent that the light cannot penetrate to the surface
and out again.
The images obtained with ultra-violet light are larger than those
obtained with infra-red light and the difference in size indicates that the
atmosphere extends to a height of fully fifty miles above the surface.
The polar caps provide additional evidence of an atmosphere on Mars.
As the summer advances over one hemisphere the polar cap gradually
shrinks and disappears whilst the opposite cap, with the advance of winter,
forms and grows. ‘These changes are to be explained by the melting
or deposition of ice, snow or hoar-frost, for the temperature is not low
enough for the caps to consist of solid carbon dioxide. From the rate
at which the caps decrease as summer advances it can be calculated that
they are not more than a few inches thick, so that the whole quantity of
water contained in them would be sufficient to make a lake of only moderate
size. The caps are more prominent in ultra-violet than in infra-red
photographs and are therefore partially atmospheric ; in winter, there is
a permanent cloud layer above the pole.
Photographs by Wright, at the Lick Observatory, in light of different
colours have given further confirmation of an atmosphere in the occurrence
of clouds. The clouds are of two different types. One type of cloud is
most prominent in the ultra-violet photographs. Such clouds must
occur fairly high up in the atmosphere and must be sufficiently thin to
allow the infra-red light to pass through ; these clouds have a tendency
to begin to form at about Martian noon and to grow during the afternoon.
It is probable that they are produced by the condensation of water-vapour,
with the fall of temperature that begins at noon. The second type of
cloud is seen on the infra-red, but not on the ultra-violet photographs.
Such clouds appear yellowish to the eye. ‘They must be at a fairly low
level in the atmosphere and the yellowish hue is no doubt caused by
atmospheric absorption.
All attempts to detect oxygen in the atmosphere of Mars have been
unsuccessful. It can be concluded that the amount of oxygen is not
more than one-thousandth part of the amount in the Earth’s atmosphere.
The red colour of Mars, which is unique among the heavenly bodies,
provides indirect evidence of oxygen, suggesting rocks that have been
completely oxidised. We may contrast the colour of Mars with the grey
or brownish rocks of the Moon, which have not been oxidised. It appears
probable that Mars may be a planet where the weathering of the rocks,
followed by their oxidation, has resulted in the almost complete depletion
of oxygen from the atmosphere.
The amount of water-vapour in the atmosphere of Mars is so small
that it can be detected only under the most favourable conditions. At the
Lowell Observatory, which is at an altitude of 7,250 feet, Slipher, in
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE PLANETS 565
1908, by comparing the spectra of Mars and the Moon when at the same
altitude under conditions of exceptional atmospheric dryness in the
winter, found that the water-vapour absorptions were slightly stronger
in the spectrum of Mars than in that of the Moon.
Carbon dioxide has not been detected in the Martian atmosphere,
which is not surprising since carbon dioxide must be present in large
quantity before the absorptions in the region of the infra-red available
for investigation can be detected. There is some evidence of the existence
of vegetation on Mars. Seasonal changes in form and coloration of the
dark areas, light green changing to a darker green, and then to yellow and
brown, seem to be reasonably well established. ‘The interpretation of
these changes as due to the seasonal growth of vegetation is plausible.
The presence of some carbon dioxide in the atmosphere may therefore
be inferred. Mars appears to be a world in the state that the Earth will
ultimately reach when the oxygen in the atmosphere will have been almost
entirely exhausted by the progressive weathering and oxidation of the
rocks.
The major planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, may be con-
sidered together. ‘They are large massive planets, of low mean density,
whose visible disks are considerably oblate. Their masses range from
317 times the mass of the Earth, in the case of Jupiter, to 15 times the
mass of the Earth, in the case of Uranus. The mean densities of Jupiter,
Uranus and Neptune are not greatly different from that of the Sun,
which is 1-4 times the density of water; Saturn has the lowest mean
density of any of the planets, only seven-tenths that of water. The
velocities of escape from all the major planets are so high, from 21 km./sec.
to 60 km./sec., that extensive atmospheres are to be expected containing
an abundance of the light constituents, hydrogen and helium, which have
been lost from the atmospheres of the medium-sized planets.
The telescopic appearance of Jupiter and Saturn confirms the existence
of dense atmospheres. Markings in the form of belts parallel to the
equator may be seen; these are of complex structure and their details
are continually changing. Photographs in the infra-red show many
differences from those in the ultra-violet, due to the greater penetration
of the long-wave radiations into the atmosphere, but again the recorded
features are continually changing, so that the infra-red light does not
penetrate to the surface. Uranus and Neptune are too distant for detailed
study of their surfaces, though faint belts parallel to the equator may be
seen on Uranus.
Some theoretical results of interest have been obtained from the
oblateness of these planets and the changes in the orbits of their satellites
produced by the equatorial bulges of the parent planet. From investi-
gations of this nature, Jeffreys concluded that these planets consist of a
core of rock, generally similar to the inner planets in its constitution and
of about the same mean density, surrounded by ice-coatings of great
depth, above which are very extensive atmospheres. If these conclusions
are accepted, some inferences may be derived about the thickness of the
ice-coating and the depth of the atmosphere.
According to the calculations by Wildt, the rocky core of Jupiter has
a radius of about 22,000 miles, so that it occupies only one-eighth of the
566 NORMAN LOCKYER LECTURE
whole volume corresponding to the visible disk; the ice-coating is
16,000 miles in thickness and the depth of the atmosphere is about
6,000 miles. The rocky core of Saturn is about 14,000 miles in radius ;
it is covered with a layer of ice some 6,000 miles thick, over which is an
atmosphere extending to a height of 16,000 miles. The total weight of
the atmosphere of Saturn is about equal to that of the rocky core. Saturn
has the most extensive atmosphere of any of the planets, which explains
why it has the lowest mean density and the most flattened disk of any
planet.
The pressures of these extensive atmospheres are very great; at the
bottom of Jupiter’s atmosphere, for instance, the pressure is fully a
million times the pressure at the bottom of the Earth’s atmosphere. At
a relatively small depth in the atmosphere, the pressure is great enough
to compress the gas to a density nearly equal to that of the corresponding
liquid. It is stated by Wildt that at the bottom of the atmospheres the
pressure is great enough to solidify even the permanent gases.
The densities of the atmospheres are low; according to Wildt’s cal-
culations they are 0-78 for Jupiter and 0-41 for Saturn. This enables
most of the possible constituents to be excluded, for all known gases, in
the liquid or solid state, have densities exceeding 0-3, with the exceptions
of hydrogen and helium. Frozen oxygen, for instance, has a density of
1°45}; nitrogen, 1:02; ammonia, 0-82. In addition to helium and
hydrogen, the only gases whose densities in the liquid or solid state are
less than the density of the greater portion of the atmosphere of
Jupiter are the hydrocarbons, methane and ethane. There seems to
be no escape from the conclusion that the atmospheres of the major
planets must contain large quantities of free hydrogen and helium. This
conclusion is in accordance with expectation. The planets are believed
to have been formed in some way or other from the Sun, which is known
to contain a large amount of hydrogen, to the extent of about one-third
part by weight. Helium, oxygen, carbon and nitrogen are abundant in
its outer layers. Massive planets, like the four major planets, would
retain their light constituents ; hydrogen and helium are therefore to be
expected to be present in large amount in their atmospheres.
The spectra of the major planets are of great interest. In the early
days of spectroscopy Huggins discovered visually a strong absorption
band in the orange and several weaker bands in the green in the spectrum
of Jupiter. These bands appear more strongly in the spectrum of
Saturn, but are not found in the spectrum of the rings—a conclusive
proof that they originate in the atmosphere of Saturn. Uranus and
Neptune show for the most part the same bands with still greater intensity,
together with some additional ones. The great increase in the selective
absorption from the yellow into the red and infra-red from Jupiter to
Neptune accounts for the green colour of Uranus and Neptune; most
of the red and yellow regions of their spectra are lost by absorption.
The investigations of Slipher during recent years have extended the
spectra far into the infra-red to beyond A 10,500 and have revealed several
intense bands in that region. ;
The origin of these bands remained unknown until a few years ago.
They had never been observed in the laboratory. Then Wildt succeeded
|
’
i
THE ATMOSPHERES OF THE PLANETS 567
in proving from theoretical investigations that certain of the bands agreed
in position with bands of ammonia and that others agreed in position
with bands of methane or marsh-gas. ‘These theoretical conclusions
were confirmed by Dunham, who, with the 100-inch telescope using much
higher dispersion than had been available to Slipher, was able to obtain
a more complete resolution of the bands into their component lines and
found a complete coincidence. Dunham estimated that the quantity of
ammonia gas producing the absorptions in the spectrum of Jupiter is
equivalent to a layer 30 feet thick under standard conditions. ‘The amount
is less in Saturn. The ammonia absorptions are not detected in the
spectra of Uranus and Neptune.
Methane is present in much larger amount. Adel and Slipher, in
1935, found that a 45-metre path of methane, at a pressure of 40 atmo-
spheres, gave bands intermediate in intensity between those of Jupiter
and Saturn. The much greater strength of the methane absorptions in
Uranus and Neptune is probably accounted for by the lower temperatures
of these planets. The ammonia must be frozen out of their atmospheres,
making it possible to see through them to a greater depth. Adel and
Slipher estimated that 25 miles of methane at atmospheric pressure would
be required to give absorptions as strong as those of Neptune.
The higher gaseous hydrocarbons, ethane, ethylene and acetylene, have
been looked for in vain in the spectra of the outer planets. All the
absorption bands appear to be accounted for by ammonia and methane.
It is a grand slam.
The presence of ammonia and methane in the atmospheres of the
large planets is not surprising. It is to be expected as a consequence of
the large amount of hydrogen in the atmospheres. The picture, as
painted by Russell, of the successive developments is as follows. When
the major planets were hot, the hydrogen and helium was mixed with
water-vapour, nitrogen and carbon dioxide. When the temperature fell
below about 300° c., the carbon dioxide reacted with some of the hydro-
gen to produce methane and water-vapour, the partially reduced oxides
of iron on the rocky surface exposed to hot hydrogen acting as a catalytic
agent. With further cooling, at about the temperature at which the
moisture began to condense, the free nitrogen would react with hydrogen
to produce ammonia. There would then be an atmosphere of hydrogen,
helium and other inert gases, mixed with methane, ammonia and water-
vapour, but with little or no carbon dioxide or free nitrogen. Below this
there would be a deep ocean, strongly alkaline from the ammonia in
solution. As the temperature fell still further, the ocean would freeze.
It may be mentioned that an ocean consisting of one part of ammonia
to two parts of water would freeze at — 100° c. ; all the four major planets
are colder than this. The only constituents in the atmospheres that are
capable of detection are ammonia and methane.
It used to be thought that the rapid changes shown by the markings
on Jupiter were indications that the planet was hot. It was believed that
it still retained a great amount of its original heat. The theoretical
considerations of Jeffreys and the direct measurement of the temperature
of Jupiter—which give a value of about — 135° c.—have shown that
Jupiter must be intensely cold. The presence of ammonia and methane
568 NORMAN LOCKYER LECTURE
in its atmosphere provides further confirmation, if any lingering doubt
remains, for, if Jupiter were hot, these gases would be dissociated. The
ultra-violet radiation from the Sun gradually breaks up the molecules
both of ammonia and of methane even at low temperatures. In the
absence of oxygen, the break-up is followed by a natural recombination.
From the quantity of ammonia observed to be present in the atmosphere
of Jupiter, Dunham has concluded that the temperature cannot be lower
than about — 120° c., if there is a large excess of hydrogen in the atmo-
sphere. This is in close agreement with the directly observed value.
The ammonia in the atmospheres of Jupiter and Saturn must be nearly
on the point of condensation and the clouds over these planets may consist
of droplets of liquid ammonia or even small crystals of frozen ammonia.
The mean temperatures of Uranus and Neptune due to solar radiation
alone are about — 200° c. and — 220° c. respectively. At the temperature
of Neptune the methane must be nearly ready to condense.
The nature of the planetary atmospheres, about which so little was
known until recently, seems now to have been solved in its broad outlines.
There are many details still not understood, such as the nature of the
disturbances that continually occur in the atmosphere of Jupiter, and the
cause of the colorations; and it still remains a puzzle whether there is
water or water-vapour on Venus. As a brief summary we find that we
can divide the planets and their satellites into three groups: the small
ones, entirely devoid of atmospheres ;_ the middle-sized ones, with atmo-
spheres of moderate extent, devoid of hydrogen or hydrogen compounds
but containing oxygen or compounds of oxygen ; and the large ones, with
very extensive atmospheres, devoid of oxygen or compounds of oxygen
but containing hydrogen and compounds of hydrogen.
APPENDIX
A
SCIENTIFIG SURVEY
OF
CAMBRIDGE
AND DISTRICT
PREPARED FOR
THE CAMBRIDGE MEETING
1938
BY VARIOUS AUTHORS
EDITED BY
HC] DARBY, M.A., Px.D.
=
CONTENTS
Chapter I. THE GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF THE
CAMBRIDGE DISTRICT page I
Edited by O. T. Jones, F.R.s. (with contributions by W. G. V. Batcuin,
A. G, Bricuton, E. C. Burtarp, H. Gopw, O. T. Jones, W. V. Lewis,
and T. T. PATERson)
Chapter II. THE Sorts OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 25
By H. H. NicHotson, M.A., and F. HANLEY, M.A.
Chapter II]. THz CLIMATE OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 31
By A. S. Watt, PH.D.
Chapter IV. THE BOTANY OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 44
By H. Gopwin, M.A., PH.D.
Chapter V. THE ZOOLOGY OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 60
Edited by A. D. Imms, F.R.s. (with contributions by M. D. Brinotey,
W. S. Bristow, J. E. Cotun, H. St J. K. DonistHoreg, J. C. F, Fryer,
A. D. Ions, G. J. Kerricu, A. G. Lownpes, W. H. THorrz, H. Watson,
and H. E. Wuitinc)
Chapter VI. THE ARCHAEOLOGY OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 80
Edited by J. G. D. CLark, M.A., PH.D. (with contributions by J. G. D. Crarx,
T. C. Lerosrmes, and C. W. Pures)
Chapter VII. THE PLrace-NAMES OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 99
By P. H. REANEY, LITT.D., PH.D.
Chapter VII]. THE VILLAGES OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 106
By JOHN JoNngEs
Chapter IX. CAMBRIDGESHIRE IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY 116
By H. C. Darsy, M.A., PH.D.
Chapter X. THE AGRICULTURE OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE 135
By R. McG. CarsLaw, M.A., PH.D., and J. A. McMIrLan, B.SC.
iv Contents
Chapter XI. THE INDUSTRIES OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE page 154
By F. M. Pacg, M.A., PH.D.
Chapter XII. THE GROWTH OF CAMBRIDGE 162
By J. B. MrrcueEtt, M.A.
Chapter XI. THe DRAINING OF THE FENS: A.D. I600—
1850 181
By H. C. Darsy, M.A., PH.D.
Chapter XIV. MODERN DRAINAGE PROBLEMS: A.D. 1850-
1938 194
By Oscar Borer, B.E. (N.Z.), M.INST.C.E., A.M.I.MECH.E.
Chapter XV. THE BRECKLAND 208
By R. R. CLARKE, B.A., J. MACDONALD, B.SC., and A. S. WATT, PH.D.
ye obo
MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
The Relief of Cambridgeshire and the surrounding country page 3
. Depth of the Palaeozoic Floor in feet below o.D.
. The River System of southern Cambridgeshire
The Solid Geology of southern Cambridgeshire
Diagrammatic Composite Section of the Terraces around
Cambridge
Post-Glacial Deposits of the Fenland
Fenland Waterways (Existing and Extinct)
Relief Map of south-east Cambridgeshire showing Water Table
contours subsequent to the drought of 1934-35
Water Table: Section along a line running north-west from
Balsham
Fluctuations of water level at Great Abington in relation to the
rainfall of the County, 1935-38
. Mean monthly temperatures at Valentia, Cambridge, Berlin
and Orenburg
Mean monthly extremes of temperature at Valentia, Cam-
bridge and Berlin
. Mean monthly rainfall at Valentia, Cambridge, Berlin and
Orenburg
. Mean monthly relative humidity at Valentia, Cambridge and
Berlin
. Average number of hours of bright sunshine per day at
Valentia, Cambridge and Berlin
. Vegetation Successions at Wicken Fen
. Cambridgeshire: Domesday Woodland
Cambridgeshire: Bronze Age Settlement
Cambridgeshire: Early Iron Age Settlement
Cambridgeshire: Romano-British Settlement
. Cambridgeshire: Dark Ages Settlement
. Cambridgeshire: Domesday Settlements
. Cambridgeshire: Modern Settlements
Villages to the east of Cambridge
. Villages to the west of Cambridge
Cambridgeshire: Parish Boundaries
Cambridgeshire: Building materials used in churches
Land Utilisation in Cambridgeshire about A.D. 1800
5
vi
29.
30.
a5.
22:
33-
34.
35-
36.
37:
38.
39.
40.
4l.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
$I.
52.
53-
$4.
55-
56.
57-
58.
Maps and Diagrams
Cambridgeshire: Surface Geology page 119
Population Changes in three rural hundreds of Cambridgeshire,
I80I-1931 128
Population Changes in Cambridgeshire (including the Isle of
Ely), 1801-1931 130
Cambridgeshire: Railways 133
Acreages of Main Crops, 1913-37 139
Cambridgeshire: Potatoes I4I
Cambridgeshire: Sugar Beet 141
Main Live Stock, 1913-37 144
The Cambridge Area: Relief 163
The Cambridge Area: Drift Geology 165
The Growth of Cambridge 167
Matriculations in the University of Cambridge, 1550-1935 170
The Population of Cambridge, 1801-1931 171
The Population of two central Cambridge parishes, 1801-1931 -172
The Population of the parish of St Andrew the Less, 1801-1931 173
The Population of Cherryhinton, Chesterton, Trumpington,
1801-1931 174
Cambridge: Density of Population, 1911-1931 175
Cambridge: Extensions of the Borough 179
The Fenland: to show the extent of the Bedford Level 183
The southern Fenland: to show the main Drains 184
Seven Holes Sluice and Hermitage Sluice 185
Tidal Curves for the Great Ouse Outfall: Spring Tides,
June 21st, 1935 190
Tidal Curves for the Great Ouse Outfall: Neap Tides,
July oth, 1935 190
The Sluices near Denver 192
Reclamation around the Wash 202
The Approaches to King’s Lynn, 1871 204
The Approaches to King’s Lynn, 1936 205
The Location of the Breckland 209
Breckland: 1934 211
Field System at West Wretham (Norfolk), 1741 213
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are indebted for the following permissions:
For Figs. 1, 2, 3, 8, 23, 24, 25, 26, 34, 35, 37, 39, 49 and 52 to the
Controller of H.M. Stationery Office and the Director General of the
Ordnance Survey.
For Figs. 4, 29 and 38 and portions of Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, 47, 48 and 56
to the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office and the Director of the
Geological Survey.
For Figs. 54 and 55 (reproduced from British Admiralty Charts, nos.
1177 and 108) to the Controller of H.M. Stationery Office and the
Hydrographer of the Navy.
For the information on Figs. 33 and 36 to the Ministry of Agriculture
and Fisheries.
For Fig. 7 to Major Gordon Fowler and the Editor of the Geographical
Journal.
For Fig. 16 to the Editor of the Journal of Ecology.
For Figs. 17 and 22 to the Editor of the Proceedings of the Cambridge
Antiquarian Society.
For access to the information on Figs. 30 and 31 to the Editor of the
Victoria County Histories.
For Fig. 32 to Mr J. H. Wardley
For Fig. 40 to Dr J. A. Venn.
For Fig. 46 to Mr W. P. Spalding.
For Figs. 50 and 51 to the Chief Engineer of the River Great Ouse
Catchment Board.
For Fig. 57 to the Land Utilisation Survey.
For Fig 58 to the Editor of Economic History.
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CHAPTER ONE
THE GEOLOGY AND PHYSIOGRAPHY OF
THE CAMBRIDGE DISTRICT
Edited by O. T. Jones, F.R.s.
(With contributions by W. G. V. Balchin, A. G. Brighton, E. C. Bullard,
H. Godwin, O. T. Jones, W. V. Lewis, and T. T. Paterson)
three broadly contrasted areas can be readily distinguished: (i). the
Chalk escarpment to the east and south-east; (ii) the western plateau;
and (iii) the Fenland occupying the northern part of the district. The area
is drained mainly by the Cam and the Ouse, which flow from the upland,
through the Fenland to the outfall at King’s Lynn. In the Fens they are
joined from the east by the Lark, the Little Ouse, and the Waveney, which
drain the Chalk region east of Mildenhall, Brandon, and Stoke Ferry.
|: CAMBRIDGESHIRE AND THE SURROUNDING COUNTRY (FIG. 1),
(i) The Chalk Escarpment, in the south and east, reaches its greatest height
(549 ft. above o.p.) near Therfield, south-west of Royston; it declines
north-eastward (to 400 ft. and below) towards Bury St Edmunds, and
descends to still lower levels farther north-east. This watershed is crossed
by three main depressions. One of these is followed by the Cambridge-
Liverpool Street branch of the L.N.E.R. from Chesterford to Newport;
the other by the Cambridge-King’s Cross branch between Hitchin and
Stevenage; while the third lies some miles to the east, and joins the valley
of the Little Ouse with that of the Waveney.
The escarpment is determined largely by the Chalk Rock which outcrops
near its brow; the overlying Upper Chalk leads down to Eocene beds on
the fringe of the London Basin and is almost wholly covered by glacial
drift.
From the low ground occupied by the Gault around Cambridge, the
Chalk rises in gentle undulations to the brow of the escarpment (Fig. 4).
Among these undulations the effect of certain hard bands in the Chalk,
such as the Totternhoe Stone (or Burwell Rock) and the Melbourn Rock,
can be distinguished by minor escarpments and dip slopes. The general
character of this area is that of rounded ridges with intervening hollows
carrying, at the present time, little surface drainage. It is traversed by
shallow coombes (mainly dry valleys) which trend in a general north-
west-south-east direction. The Gogmagog ridge (rising to 222 ft.) is a
prominent feature near Cambridge (see Fig. 8).
DBA I
2 Geology and Physiography
Around Mildenhall, Brandon, Thetford and Lakenheath, the character-
istic features of the Chalk upland are modified by a covering of gravels and
sands that occupy the area known as Breckland. In places, deep circular
depressions formed by solution reveal the presence of the underlying
Chalk. Some of these depressions are very large and contain water more
or less permanently, e.g. the Devil’s Punch Bowl, 4 miles north of
Thetford. Other depressions, which are probably also solution hollows,
hold the well-known meres of the Thetford district, remarkable for the
fluctuations of their water levels, and even for their complete desiccation
at certain periods.
(ii) The Western Plateau lies south of Madingley along the Cambridge-
Bedford road. From Eltisley, the plateau extends southwards for about
7 miles and occupies a considerable area; the surface stands between
200 and 250 ft., and, when viewed from a distance, looks remarkably even.
Originally, it had a much wider extent both eastwards towards the lower
part of the Chalk scarp, and westwards: its present limits are the result of
dissection by the streams of the Ouse and Cam drainage systems. Large
areas have, however, escaped dissection. The plateau is due in the main to
a covering of Chalky Boulder Clay which overlies rocks ranging from
_ Oxford Clay to Chalk. These rocks are exposed only on the dissected
slopes of the plateau.
(iii) The Fenland occupies the northern part of the district. At one time
the Chalk uplands of Norfolk were continuous with those of Lincolnshire,
stretching across what is now the Wash. This ridge of Chalk was worn
away by the action of rivers and the sea, and behind the ridge the Fenland
was carved out of soft Jurassic clays—the Oxford, Ampthill and Kimeridge
Clays. The surface of this Jurassic plain was uneven, and its higher portions
projected above the general level to become the “‘islands”’ of the historical
period. The whole region emerged from the various phases of the Ice Age
with its islands capped with Boulder Clay, but with its basin nature
unchanged. Subsequent time has witnessed the filling up of this basin.
The modern surface, therefore, is composed of post-glacial deposits
consisting of alternating layers of peat and silt or clay (Buttery Clay),
which rest on a foundation of formations ranging from Oxford Clay to
glacial or post-glacial sands and gravels (March Gravels, etc.).
RIVER SYSTEM
Broadly, the Cambridge district may be regarded as an immature pene-
plain, in which the influence of the varying resistance to erosion of the
formations has not yet been obliterated. The area was invaded more than
Geology and Physiography 3
once by ice which has left behind a cover of Chalky Boulder Clay. The
removal of this drift cover has re-exposed the rock formations and led
to renewed differential erosion. During the retreat of the ice, deposits of
4 8
Scale of miles
[J 50 ft. contour [=] 100-200ft. :
300-400 ft. EBBB400-500f. Mover 500 ft.
Fig. 1.
The relief of Cambridgeshire and the surrounding country.
LJ O-100ft.
coarse gravels and sands were laid down probably in glacial lakes. These
now occur as ridges, which were formerly attributed to a system of river
valleys older than the present Cam drainage. Gravels and sands near the
eastern end of the Gogmagog ridge have been explained as outwash
I-2
4 Geology and Physiography
products from an ice sheet with an ice-contact slope along the south-west
margin (Linton and Hildersham).
In the south of the area, the drainage consists of the tributaries of the River
Cam which join to form the main river above Cambridge (Fig. 3). The
Rhee, also known as Cam or Rhee, rises in the group of powerful springs
which issue below the road at Ashwell (Herts), and flows as a strike stream
mainly on the Gault to Trumpington, where it is joined by the Cam (also
known as Cam or Granta), which rises about 4 miles south of Newport,
and flows northward along the Chesterford-Newport depression.! This
depression is underlain by a deep, narrow channel eroded into the Chalk
to a depth of at least 20 ft., and possibly even to 100 ft., below o.D. It is
filled largely by loams and sands, apparently laid down in water. A third
tributary, known as the Granta, descends across the face of the Chalk
escarpment from the neighbourhood of Bartlow and Linton. Of these,
the Rhee and the Granta are related to the dip and strike of the rocks,
whereas the Cam has been determined by the events that formed the
above-named. depression. The Bourn brook, which drains the western
plateau, rises near Eltisley and enters the Cam above Cambridge, just
below its junction with the Rhee (see Fig. 3).
It is not improbable that the three major depressions which traverse the
Chalk escarpment were eroded by streams flowing from the north and
west as consequent streams down the general dip slope of the Chalk, and
that the headwaters of these streams were captured by the development of
consequent or strike streams (e.g. the Rhee), leaving these depressions as
wind gaps. The Chesterford-Newport deep channel was probably eroded
further by an overflow from a glacial lake occupying the ground near
Cambridge which was hemmed in between the ice on the north and the
Chalk escarpment on the south. The Little Ouse-Waveney gap may also
have been an overflow channel. In various parts of the district borings
have revealed the existence of channels or holes eroded to considerable
depths below o.p., but the origin of these is as yet unexplained. The valleys
of the main rivers Cam and Ouse are occupied by river gravels in which
certain well-defined terraces can be observed.
UNDERGROUND STRUCTURE?
Although no rock older than part of the Great Oolite Series immediately
beneath the Cornbrash outcrops within the area, older rocks are known
from borings, particularly near Methwold where Middle and Lower Lias
* The Upper Cam has apparently brought about the capture of streams which
formerly flowed southwards to the London Basin.
2 By E. C. Bullard, Ph.D.
Geology and Physiography 5
were proved; the latter to a depth of 660 ft. below o.p. Eastward, how-
ever, at Culford and near Harwich, Cretaceous rocks rest directly upon
much older strata assumed to be Lower Palaeozoic; the Jurassic system has
disappeared. It would be of considerable interest to know the depth and
nature of this Palaeozoic floor. To this end, Bullard, Kerr-Grant, and
Gaskell have applied the refraction seismic method with some success,
and have obtained the results which are summarised briefly in Fig. 2.
540 ©@530
0
*CAMBRIDGE
510
Fig. 2.
Depth of the Palaeozoic Floor in feet below 0.D. Observations at further stations
show that the valley to the west is less deep than is shown by the contouring above.
The stations shown above are as follows:
Cambridge and to the west East of Cambridge
Benefield 900 ~—D-— Bridgeham 710
Bourn (Cambs) 510 Culford (bore) 527
Cambridge $40 Feltwell 830
Fenstanton 340 Fulbourn $10
Houghton Conquest 330 Kentford 710
Leighton 880 Lakenheath 800
Tempsford 1000 ~©0s-s Swaffham Prior $30
(Figures in feet below 0.D.)
These results are provisional and may be slightly different from the values
finally published. The experimental error, due to inaccuracies of measure-
ment and difficulties of interpretation, is of the order of so-100 ft. The
form of the contours round the margins of the map is based to some extent
on a number of seismic stations and bores which lie outside the area.
6 Geology and Physiography
THE MESOZOIC ROCKS OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE*
The Mesozoic rocks of Cambridge strike roughly north-east and south-
west, with a very gentle dip to the south-east.” The older beds (Jurassic)
thus occupy the north and west of the County,} the younger beds (Cre-
taceous) the south-east. A few outliers of Cretaceous beds interrupt the
Jurassic outcrops, as at Haddenham and Ely; and an anticlinal fold produces
a Jurassic inlier surrounded by Cretaceous at Upware. The Cretaceous-
Jurassic boundary is an unconformity; the base of the Cretaceous rests on
the Kimeridge Clay at Ely, but, when traced to the south-west, this base
oversteps the Kimeridge and Corallian in turn on to the Oxford Clay.
These Jurassic rocks form the northern limb of an anticline with its
axis (in the region of Sandy, Beds) pitching south-east.
The formations in the County may be summarised as follows:
Chalk
Cambridge Greensand
Gault
Lower Greensand
Kimeridge Clay ica cult re ‘
: : Ampthill Clay, Coral Rag, Coralline Oolite
JESS Corallian ee Rock Series :
Oxford Clay
Cretaceous
The Jurassic rocks are covered by drift in the Fens, except when they
protrude to form the “islands” of Haddenham and Ely. The Cretaceous
beds are largely covered by glacial deposits, both in the south-west and
in the south-east (see Figs. 4 and 29).
OXFORD CLAY
Oxford Clay is found in the west of the County and beyond, but it is
badly exposed. A little beyond the County boundary at Forty Feet Bridge,
north-east of Ramsey (Hunts), the Geological Survey have recently
collected ammonites identified by Dr Spath as Scarburgiceras scarburgense
(Young and Bird); but the best exposure is to the south-east of Ramsey
at Warboys, where the same ammonite is plentiful. The Oxford Clay is
dark blue or grey, with a few thin argillaceous limestones, bands of
septarian nodules, selenite and pyrites (the fossils are often pyritised).
Dr Arkell has suggested that the Warboys exposure is of the mariae-zone;
* By A. G. Brighton, M.A.
* To the north, in Norfolk, the strike changes to approximately north and south.
3 I am indebted to the Director of the Geological Survey for permission to include
some unpublished information about the Jurassic Clays in the Fenland. Part of the
‘area is now undergoing revision by the Geological Survey.
Geology and Physiography 7
lower zones of the Oxford Clay are, however, worked in the well-known
brick pits around Peterborough.
The relation of the Oxford Clay to the Corallian requires further
research. Dr Morley Davies has recognised a non-sequence just over the
boundary at Sandy (Beds), where Corallian Exogyra nana beds rest on
the renggeri-zone. The Elsworth Rock Series at Upware rest on the mariae-
zone, as does the Corallian Limestone at Warboys.
CORALLIAN
The correlation table given below is based on the work of Dr Arkell.
Zone
Main outcrop Upware inlier
Upper Ampthill Clay
pseudocordata (Long Stanton)
Middle Ampthill Clay with Box-
“‘ variocostatus”’ OR or oS ? Coral Rag
licatili Lower Ampthill Clay (Gamlingay) Coral Rag and Coral-
(gt da Upper Elsworth Rock Series line Oolite
cordatum Lower Elsworth Rock Series | Elsworth Rock Series
|
The Elsworth Rock is a hard ferruginous calcareous mudstone, blue in
colour when fresh, and brown when weathered. It is associated with clays
and sandy beds, and all the rock-types contain limonite ooliths. It is
diachronic. At Upware, it is 16 ft. thick, rests on Oxford Clay (mariae-
zone), and belongs to the cordatum-zone, corresponding in age to the
iron-shot clays which form the lower part of the series at Elsworth. The
upper part of the series at Elsworth is about 12 ft. thick; from the abundance
of ammonites, the masses of Serpulae and encrusting oysters, and the
ironshot lithology, it is usually regarded as a condensed deposit. To the
north, at Warboys, the base of the Corallian is represented by 3 ft. of hard
shelly limestone with Exogyra nana, and a few, as yet undescribed ammo-
nites; this is probably equivalent to part of the Elsworth Rock Series. To
the south, at Sandy, the series is replaced by clays with limestone bands.
The Ampthill Clay is not well exposed. The pits at Gamlingay are
overgrown; the excavation at Long Stanton, described by Dr Arkell, was
temporary. New pits have been opened near Manea and Mepal (where
the clay includes a limestone band, possibly the Boxworth Rock). Ampthill
Clay fossils have been collected by the Geological Survey at Horseway on
the Forty-Foot Drain, and at Honey Bridge on the Sixteen-Foot Drain.
The Ampthill Clay is darker than the Oxford Clay, and contains phosphatic
Geology and Physiography
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Geology and Physiography 7
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10 Geology and Physiography
nodules but little or no pyrites; limestone bands occur, some made up
almost entirely of Serpula intestinalis. The fauna is muddy-water molluscan
in character, with very rare echinoids in the limestone bands. To the east,
in borings near Southery in West Norfolk, the Ampthill Clay is about
70-80 ft. thick.
Coral Rag and Coralline Oolite are known only at Upware, where Corallian
limestone protrudes through the Cretaceous and extends over an area of about
3 miles by 1 mile. The Coralline Oolite is a cream-coloured limestone,
full of small cavities, with large, irregularly shaped ooliths. Lamellibranchs
and gastropods are common, usually as casts; the echinoids are all irregular.
The Coral Rag is in places a hard compact limestone, with many lenticular
colonies of reef-building corals. The characteristic fossils include thick-
shelled forms, both of regular echinoids and lamellibranchs. The coral
colonies are usually a few inches thick, and from 2 to 3 ft. in diameter;
they are often separated and surrounded by oolitic limestones in which
thin-shelled lamellibranchs, gastropods, and brachiopods occur. Attempts
have been made to explain the position of the various exposures of the
Rag and Oolite by hypotheses involving folding and faulting, but it is at
least equally likely that these facies interdigitate.
KIMERIDGE CLAY
The Kimeridge Clay was described in detail by Roberts in 1892; Kitchen
and Pringle have since classified some of the horizons in terms of a more
modern zoning, and their results, summarised by Dr Arkell, are given in
the right-hand column of the following correlation table:
Zones (Roberts, 1892) Lithology
Discina latissima
7 ft. papery shale
[Orbiculoidea]
Exogyra virgula
3 ft. grey-black shale Aulacostephanus
Ammonites alternans 24 ft. clays with sandy and
papery shales
Astarte supracorallina 9 in. fissile sandy clay mutabilis
[extensa]
This succession is seen in the Roslyn (Roswell) Pit at Ely, where a band
of large septarian nodules separates the two upper zones. Roberts con-
sidered beds exposed at Littleport to be older, and proposed a zone of
Ostrea deltoidea [delta] to include the base of the Kimeridge as exposed
a As
Geology and Physiography II
around Haddenham. The upper part of the Kimeridge Clay is absent, the
Lower Greensand resting unconformably on it. At Upware, a few feet
of Kimeridge Clay (exact age unknown) wedges out under the Lower
Greensand against the Corallian ridge. Lithologically, the Kimeridge
Clay is distinguished from the other Jurassic Clays by the presence of
paper shales. Near Southery in West Norfolk, Dr Arkell records, from
borings, thicknesses of about 145 ft. of Kimeridge Clay, but the faunal
succession is incomplete.
THE LOWER GREENSAND
The Lower Greensand, largely covered by drift, extends from Gamlingay
in a north-easterly direction to the Fenland, where it caps the ridges at
Haddenham and Ely; outcrops are also found upon the flank of the
Upware-Wicken ridge. It isan important water-bearing formation. The
best exposure is to the south-west of the County boundary at Sandy
(Beds), where strongly false-bedded, yellow sands occur; and, about
100 ft. above the base, a pebble bed has been recorded containing derived
ammonites (Pavlovia spp.) characteristic of the Hartwell Clay. At Upware,
the Lower Greensand is represented by about 12 ft. of yellow sand, with
a basal conglomerate with layers of phosphatic nodules; this oversteps the
Kimeridge Clay on to the Corallian. The rare Aptian ammonites at Upware
include phosphatised fine-grained internal casts, which Keeping suggested
were derived; they are identified by Dr Spath as species of Deshayesites,
characteristic of the upper Lower Aptian. There are also a few forms, with
the shell preserved round asandstone matrix, which are possibly indigenous.
Unfortunately these cannot be determined with certainty, but Dr Spath
compares them with Columbiceras which is said to occur elsewhere in the
lower Upper Aptian. A badly preserved internal cast of ? Tropaeum sp.,
identified by Keeping as Ancyloceras hillsi, contains a similar matrix.
Keeping attempted to identify the various derived fossils found in the
Lower Greensand of Upware, Potton and Sandy, and he claimed that
Wealden, Neocomian, Portlandian, Kimeridgian, Corallian and Ox-
fordian forms are to be found. His identifications, especially those of the
ammonites, are, however, in need of revision. Since the Lower Greensand
rests in different places on Oxford Clay, Ampthill Clay, the Upware
Corallian and Kimeridge Clay, fossils derived from these formations
are to be expected. A Carboniferous trilobite has been found at Sandy,
and fossils identified as of Lower Palaeozoic age at Potton (Beds).
The indigenous fossils at Upware included abundant porifera, polyzoa,
lamellibranchs, and especially brachiopods. The brachiopods of Brickhill
12 Geology and Physiography
at Upware were the subject of a detailed study by Keeping, who in 1883,
from examination of over 15,000 specimens, arranged the species in three
morphological series, which are preserved in the Sedgwick Museum.
GAULT
The Gault is summarised in the table below, based on the work (some
unpublished) of Dr Spath, whose identifications of the ammonoid faunas
of Cambridgeshire have established their horizons with greater precision
than was hitherto possible.
: | Beds at Exposures in
ate is pele Cambridgeshire
dispar
Pleurohoplitan
substuderi XI ;
[Cambridge
aequatorialis XII Greensand]
. auritus XI Burwell, Barnwell
Pervinquierian
varicosum x Wicken, Barnwell
orbignyi IX Wicken
: istatum t
Dipoloceratan Seseaaaitiia. a I-VIII_ | Not known
dentatus I Upware, Oakington
Hoplitan benettianus to _ Not known
mammillatus
The Lower Gault is exposed, although very badly, at Upware, where a
fairly large ammonite fauna typical of the dentatus-zone has been found;
the beds are a dull tenaceous clay, but the lowest layers are glauconitic and
sandy. A boring at Chapel Lane, Wicken passed through 59 ft. of Gault
Clay; the top 18 ft. were calcareous clay, below which was a bed 5 ft.
thick with ammonites characteristic of the orbignyi-varicosum zones. Ammo-
nites were not recorded in the lower 36 ft., the base of which was sandy
with a few pebbles. This section illustrates a point which must be borne in
mind when reading the above table. These records are based entirely on
ammonites, which are rarely found throughout the whole of a section.
Further, the Gault is badly exposed. Lack of records from the upper
Lower Gault, forinstance, may possibly be due to non-exposure. Ammonites
typical of the base of the Upper Gault have been found at Landbeach;
Geology and Physiography 13
those of the lower part of the Upper Gault in an ice-transported boulder
at Ely; and those of the auritus-zone in a pit one mile west of Burwell.
The section at Barnwell revealed over 50 ft. of grey and blue calcareous
clays, with an inconstant limestone band near the bottom. The thickness
of the Gault varies between roo ft. and 200 ft.; to the north-east it is
reduced to 60 ft. at Methwold, Norfolk. Here, the rock passes laterally
into a white calcareous clay, and finally into Red Chalk at Hunstanton
on the Norfolk coast.
CAMBRIDGE GREENSAND
The Cambridge Greensand is a thin bed of calcareous clay with glauconite
grains and phosphatic nodules, resting on a well-defined surface of Gault
Clay, but passing gradually into the Chalk Marl above. The glauconitic
grains may be foraminiferal casts; they are commonest at the base, and
disappear as they are traced upwards into the Chalk Marl. The phosphatic
nodules occur usually within a layer about one foot thick. They are
sometimes very rare, and are commonest in the deeper depressions in the
Gault surface. They, too, become fewer and smaller when traced upwards,
and usually disappear earlier than the glauconitic grains. The nodules are
often black or dark brown, but there are light brown examples, and all
intermediate stages are to be found. Many include fossils or are internal
casts of fossils; often they have adherent lamellibranchs (such as Dimyodon
nilssoni). More rare, are pebbles of igneous and sedimentary rocks;
similar pebbles have been recorded throughout the English Chalk, but are
sporadic. The sudden change of lithology between the Gault and Cam-
bridge Greensand makes the junction quite distinct. The upper surface of
the Gault is irregular, and is obviously an erosion surface; small irregular
tubes filled with a matrix of the Cambridge Greensand penetrate down-
wards into it. The passage from Cambridge Greensand into Chalk Marl
is gradual, so that the thickness of the Cambridge Greensand cannot be
given accurately; it is, however, approximately one foot thick, but may
be more in the deeper hollows of the Gault. Lithologically, the Cambridge
Greensand is the basal pebble-bed of the Chalk Marl.
The fauna recorded from the Cambridge Greensand is very large, partly
because it was once extensively worked for its phosphatic nodules and
therefore offered abundant opportunities to collectors, partly because the
phosphatisation of its fossils increased their chances of survival. Some of
the species, such as Terebratulina triangularis, are always unphosphatised;
but the majority are internal phosphatised casts. Dr Spath considers that
all the ammonites may have come from the aequatorialis- to substuderi-
zones of the Upper Gault.
14 Geology and Physiography
THE CHALK
The Chalk Marl, about 80 ft. thick, is a compact bluish argillaceous
limestone, weathering brown. Gasteropod and ammonoid casts are
characteristic. It is exposed at the Norman Cement Works, just south-east
of Cambridge, and near Barrington.
The Burwell Rock (15 ft-20 ft.), seen at Burwell, is well jointed,
brownish in colour, and contains small brown phosphatic nodules, and
an abnormal proportion of small shell-fragments. It passes upwards into
the Grey Chalk (70 ft.), which is distinguished by curvilinear jointing,
often almost horizontal and simulating bedding. Holaster subglobosus is
common in the lower part, but is replaced by H. gregoryi in the upper
(seen in the pit on the Golf Course on the Gogs). At the top is a variable
series with yellowish laminated marl seams in which Actinocamax plenus
reaches its greatest size: this is the attenuated representative of the Belem-
nite Marls.
The subdivisions of the Chalk are summarised in the following table:
Zone Rock-bands and Lithology
Micraster coranguinum White Ghul one
Micraster cortestudinarium a
Top Rock
Upper Chalk -————
Chalk with flints
Sternotaxis planus
Chalk Rock
Terebratulina lata Chalk with flints
Middle Chalk White Chalk
Inoceramus labiatus
Melbourn Rock
Belemnite Marls
Holaster subglobosus Gey
Totternhoe Stone or
Lower Chalk Burwell Rock
Schloenbachia varians Chalk Marl (passing
down into Cambridge
i Greensand)
The Melbourn Rock (about to ft. thick) is a hard limestone; on weathered
surfaces it is seen to be nodular. Greenish marl seams occur, and sometimes
the marl wraps round isolated nodules. Inoceramus labiatus, Rhynchonella
cuvieri and Discoidea dixoni are characteristic. Above the Melbourn Rock
Geology and Physiography 15
is white chalk with some nodular bands. The junction between the
labiatus- and Terebratulina-zones is difficult to define, partly owing to lack
of exposures; the total thickness of the Middle Chalk, however, is about
200 ft., the upper part consisting of white chalk with marl seams and flints."
Characteristic fossils of the Terebratulina-zone are Terebratulina lata, Sterno-
taxis planus, Micraster corbovis and a variety of Echinocorys scutatus, a species
elsewhere diagnostic of the Upper Chalk. There are exposures near
Dullingham Station, at the Linton Whiting Works, and east of Great
Chesterford.
As in the Thetford district, the Chalk Rock of the Cambridge district
occurs above the base of the Upper Chalk. At the best exposure (Under-
wood Hall) about 6 ft. of white blocky chalk with tabular flints underlies
the Chalk Rock, which consists of hard patches of chalk embedded in soft
white chalk, often with no clear-cut demarcation. Green-coated nodules
are absent. Ammonoids and gasteropods are common (they are almost
absent between the Chalk Rock and the Chalk Marl), and a typical
Hyphantoceras reussianum fauna occurs. The lithology of the Chalk Rock
reappears towards the top of the planus-zone in the Top Rock. This is
distinguished from the Chalk Rock by the occurrence at its upper surface
of a hard limestone with pinkish brown nodules, about one foot thick,
with a definite top crowded with green-coated nodules, some of which
are internal casts of Micraster cortestudinarium. The best exposure of the
Top Rock is near Westley Waterless; it can also be seen south of Higham
in West Suffolk.
The Micraster-zones of the Chalk are largely concealed under Boulder
Clay; the cortestudinarium-zone is seen north-west of West Wratting, and
the coranguinum-zone near Shudy Camps and Saffron Walden. The Chalk
is white and flints are plentiful.
THE PLEISTOCENE \DEPOSIES OF THE
CAMBRIDGE DISTRICT?
In Cambridgeshire no exposures have been found of beds comparable in
age with the Crag and Early Pleistocene deposits of the eastern parts of
Norfolk and Suffolk. Coarse gravels and sands, fan-wash fingering out
from the Lower Chalky Boulder Clay ice sheet, can be seen underlying that
Boulder Clay on the high ground south-east of Cambridge—on the
Gogmagog Hills and at Haverhill in Suffolk. The ice sheet advanced over
a fairly deeply dissected landscape as far south as the London Basin.
* H. Dixon Hewitt has shown that part at least of the famous Brandon Flint
Series (Suffolk) belongs to the Terebratulina-zone.
? By T. T. Paterson, M.A.
16 Geology and Physiography
Rubbling and thrusting of the Chalk took place where the ice met the
Chalk escarpment, and the consequent structures are well exposed south
of Royston and on Chalk Hill, north-east of Newmarket. The Boulder
Clay is generally confined to the high ground and upper slopes. It is
characterised by a blue colour, and by erratics of chalk, Lincolnshire flint,
Yorkshire sandstones and coals, and Scottish quartz dolerites, quartzites
and granites, as well as by rocks of Scandinavian origin.
Upon the retreat of the ice, the land, several hundred feet higher than
to-day, was strongly eroded. Deep, steep-walled valleys were formed, and
these were subsequently filled up either by glacial drift or during a period
TRAVELLERS’ REST
Fig. 5.
Diagrammatic Composite Section of the Terraces around Cambridge.
Gault with surface rucked by sludging.
2. Lower even-bedded series of Travellers’ Rest Pit, with erratics derived from
Lower Chalky Boulder Clay.
Uneven-bedded series of Travellers’ Rest Pit, with rolled Lower Palaeolithic
tools and cold fauna.
Loess-loam.
Upper Chalky Boulder Clay in lenses.
, Solifluxion band with frost cracks and polygonal soil forms of Upper Chalky
Boulder Clay age.
Succeeding interglacial aggradation gravels.
Middle Terrace gravels with warm fauna and Late Clacton-Levallois-Acheul
industry.
. Loams and gravels with cold fauna and associated solifluxion band (S.).
. Lower Terrace; fine gravel and silt with poorly marked solifluxion band (Ss).
Ww Lal
yy
© WO
of rapid aggradation and change of base level. Conglomerates and coarse
gravels were deposited on the north of the main Chalk escarpment between
bosses of Chalk (Barnham), Boulder Clay and outwash fans; and the
finer facies were laid down as a flattened spread in the Fen region, deter-
mining the essential features of the present-day landscape (Shrubhill,
near Feltwell). A warm fauna has been found in a gravel of a late stage
of aggradation (Fakenham), and it is probable that the Barrington gravels
are of this age. During a subsequent wet period the surface of the gravels
carrying the warm fauna was sludged, and, on this sludged surface, during
a drier time, brown loess-like loams accumulated (Brandon; Travellers’
Rest Pit, Cambridge). :
Geology and Physiography 17
A few rolled Early and Middle Acheulean bifaces and Early Clactonian
flakes have been found in the warm gravels; while in situ at the top and
on the surface, there is a series of Middle Clactonian industries. In the
brown loams, a Middle to Upper Acheulean industry occurs in many
localities.
The brown loam is capped with outwash gravels heralding the onset of
the Upper Chalky Boulder Clay ice sheet which advanced along the valleys,
partially enveloping the hill slopes and penetrating almost to the London
Basin at Hertford. This Boulder Clay is distinct from the earlier deposit
in its brown colour, due to the included brown interglacial loam and to
the large quantity of Bunter erratics. The earlier glacial and interglacial
deposits are folded and overthrust. There were two advances of the ice
and, during the intra-glacial period, some sands and loess-loams were
deposited in isolated pools on the surface of the Boulder Clay of the first
advance; there is an exposure at West Stow (Suffolk). It is probable that
the High Lodge Late Clactonian industry belongs to this period, because,
along with earlier forms, tools of that age appear in the gravels of Warren
Hill which is an outwash deposit formed during a halt in the retreat of the
ice sheet. Decalcification of Chalky Boulder Clay has given rise to a great
part of the sands of the Breckland.
The three terraces of the river gravels are composite, and are cut out of
the earliest interglacial gravels and Upper Chalky Boulder Clay. After
the deposition of the latter, rapid erosion cut channels over 30 ft. deep.
Subsequent aggradation filled these, and this gravel filling caps the Upper
Terrace. During the succeeding interglacial phase, 20 to 30 ft. channels
were cut and the Middle Terrace was formed of fine gravel carrying a
warm fauna and an industry with the very latest Clactonian technique
conjoined with Levallois and Acheulean (St Neots; Milton Road, Cam-
bridge).. A solifluxion layer on these gravels of the Upper and Middle
Terraces, and a deposit with a cold flora, indicate a third cold period
(Barnwell and Chesterton). The Lower Terrace is cut out of all the
preceding deposits and is composed of fine gravel and silt with a poorly
marked solifluxion level in the gravel.
THE POST-GLACIAL DEPOSITS OF FENLAND'
The post-glacial deposits of the Fenland occupy a shallow basin centring
upon the Wash. They are of two types. On the landward side, they are
composed largely or wholly of peat, which has formed as a result of an
accumulation of fresh water augmented by the numerous large river
« By H. Godwin, M.A., Ph.D.
DBA 2
18 Geology and Physiography
systems that enter the fens from the surrounding upland, and been ,
maintained by poor drainage gradients towards the sea. On the seaward
side, the fenland deposits are silts and clays laid down under conditions of
greater or less salinity (see Fig. 47). Alterations in the former relative levels
of land and sea have left their trace in the disposition of the two types of
deposit. During a phase of marine transgression the silts and clays extended
inland above the peat beds, and in the ensuing phase of regression, peat
extended seawards over the silts and clays. In this way, the silts and clays
from the seaward side, and the peats from the landward side, interdigitate
with one another.
A much simplified scheme showing the relations of the chief fen-beds
to one another is shown in Fig. 6. The history of formation of the fen
deposits can be very briefly outlined as follows:
The Pre-Boreal Period. Say before 7500 B.c., a period of sparse birch-pine.
Peat was forming on the present floor of the North Sea, the coast of which
is now about 200 ft. below its former level. No deposits of this age are yet
known from the Fenland.
The Boreal Period. From about 7500 to $500 B.c., a period of birch-pine
woods, but with oak and elm and hazel in increasing importance. In the
deep river valleys of the Fenland peat-formation began during this period
(e.g. in Little Ouse Valley), and at a few sites with local water supply.
During this time the North Sea reached most of its present extent, but it
did not directly affect the Fenland.
The Atlantic Period. From about 5500 to 2000 B.c., a warm wet climatic
period marked by the sudden onset and subsequent importance of the
alder and, to a smaller extent, of the lime.
At the beginning of this period, Mesolithic (Tardenois) man occupied
local sand hills in the fens, but, very soon, peat-formation became wide-
spread throughout the fen basin, and thick beds of fen sedge-peat and fen
brushwood-peat were formed. Towards the end of this time the peat
surface dried and became increasingly wood-covered, partly due, no
doubt, to marine recession and partly to climatic dryness. There is some
trace of Neolithic man at this time.
The Sub-Boreal Period. About 2000 to 500 B.c. At the end of the Neolithic
or in the early part of the Bronze Age, an extensive but shallow marine
invasion caused silt and clay to spread far inland over peat. Foraminifera
and diatom analyses suggest shallow brackish lagoon conditions; this was
the stage of formation of the Fen Clay.
19
Geology and Physiography
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20 Geology and Physiography
In the middle and later phases of the Sub-Boreal period, semi-marine
conditions were replaced by those of peat-formation. Locally, pine and
birch woods developed (e.g. Wood Fenat Ely, and Woodwalton), and the
fen surfaces became dry enough to have encouraged dense occupation by
Bronze Age man. Along the fen margins, freedom from flooding allowed
sphagnum peat to form incipient raised bogs.
The Sub-Atlantic Period. From 500 B.c. This period is generally recognised
as colder and wetter than the Sub-Boreal. At this time the Fenland became
very inhospitable, and was, apparently, shunned by Iron Age man. The
period is marked by two stratigraphical events. In the peat fens were
formed the shallow lakes which persisted into the last century (e.g.
Whittlesey Mere, Ugg Mere). Their sites are still recognisable by the
deposits of lake marl that formed on their beds. The seaward side of the
fens was built up during the Roman times by the deposition of fine silt
above the upper peat. These silts formed a broad belt round the Wash
and they extended to high-tide level. They were densely occupied in
Romano-British times,’ especially in the last stages of their formation, and
this is true also of the raised banks of the tidal rivers which form landward
extensions of the silt country. These levées are now recognisable as
“roddons”’, raised banks standing above the peat fens. They become
increasingly evident as drainage causes the wasting of peat which formed
over their flanks after the Roman period. The courses of the extinct
waterways of the Fenland have been mapped by Major Gordon Fowler,
and Fig. 7 summarises the available information about their extent and
distribution. They are mostly of Romano-British age.
THE CHALK WATER TABLE SOUTH-EAST
OF CAMBRIDGE?’
The Fenland and much of Cambridgeshire which lies below the 50 ft.
contour line are not well adapted for a water-table survey. On the Chalk
uplands in the south-east of the County, however, a considerable amount
of work has been done since 1935 by undergraduates of the University
Department of Geography. The water levels in about 120 wells, within the
region covered by Fig. 8, have been measured three times a year; and
fortnightly observations have been taken (during term) at about fifteen
reliable and widely distributed wells. Previous to 1929, similar measure-
ments had been made by Prof. W. B. R. King and also by officers of the
Royal Engineers.3
t See p. 92 below. 2 By W.G. V. Balchin, B.A., and W. V. Lewis, M.A.
3 See H. J. O. White, “The Geology of the Country near Saffron Walden”
(Mem. Geol. Surv. 1932), p. 109.
y
if
Geology and Physiography 21
Fi Kings Lynn Ye
ooeee
*
?
FENLAND WATERWAYS
Upland and Islands
mA Extinct Waterways
wut: Existing Watecways
Fig. 7.
Based upon (1) Gordon Fowler, ‘‘The Extinct Waterways of the Fens’’, Geog. Jour.
Ixxxiii, 32 (1934); (2) additional information supplied ‘personally by Major Fowler.
22 Geology and Physiography
WATER TABLE CONTOURS.
1935-36
—~—— Water Table Oct. 25 1935
------ Water Table Mar. 5 1936
: Sites of Wells
#
CAMBRIDGE_
ec
Fig. 8.
Relief Map of south-east Cambridgeshire showing Water Table contours subsequent
to the drought of 1934-35. The autumn minimum and spring maximum levels are
shown.
EE ——————— ee ree
——_— =
Geology and Physiography 23
The post-1935 work has enabled water-table contours to be constructed
for three different dates in each year (October, March and June), and
Fig. 8 is an example of the results obtained. The October level of 1935 was
selected as it came after the drought of 1934-35 and represents, therefore,
an exceptionally low level. The March level of 1936 represents the spring
maximum of that year, and although this was lower than the maxima for
1937 and 1938, the two readings chosen represent the greatest range within
any of the three years. Although the best wells have been levelled from
bench-marks, too great reliance should not be placed on the details of the
contours. The errors inevitable with a party of nearly eighty students are
partly counterbalanced by the large number of observations taken; but
Feet
400
Scale
4 % 0 1 Mile Upper Chath
300 ee nue or
Vertical Exaggeration 26 times
200 Middle Chatk
Melbourn
100 Rock ¢
Totternhoe Stone
* Chalk MatlSS BALSHA
100
Fig. 9.
Water Table: Section along a line running north-west from Balsham (see Fig. 8).
on the other hand, the wells are irregularly distributed, and pumping,
together with the recent closing of many wells, prevent great accuracy.
This applies particularly to the neighbourhood of the town of Cambridge.
A feature of note is the fall of the water table below the level of the
Granta near Abington and Linton during October 1935; an impervious
bed of alluvium presumably enabled the river to flow perched above
the neighbouring Chalk water table.
The section (Fig. 9) covers the same period as the map and shows the
geological formations that influence the water table. The relation between
surface relief and the water table is clear, particularly in the sudden rise in
level north-west of Balsham. The seasonal range is also seen to increase
with the depth of the water table. The section is terminated on the west at
the outcrop of the Totternhoe Stone near Cambridge, and on the east at
the occurrence of several perched water tables in the Boulder Clay near
Balsham. In this latter area, wells, within 40 yards of each other, differ
by more than a hundred feet in their water levels.
24 Geology and Physiography
Fig. ro shows (1) representative rainfall figures for the county, and (2) the
fluctuations in a shallow well at Great Abington. The low rainfall for the
spring and summer of 1935 is reflected in the exceptionally low autumn
water table. Further, a strong seasonal rhythm can be seen in the water
table which is not evident in the rainfall. It is clear, particularly in 1936,
that summer rainfall has little or no influence on the water table. On the
Spcing Summer Autumn Winter Spring Summer Autumn Wintee Spring Summer Autumn Winter Spring
Surface of Ground
FLUCTUATIONS OF THE WATER TABLE q
1935 - 1938
'
i]
H
FROM OBSERVATIONS AT ABINGTON
'
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Feet above O.D.
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MONTHLY RAINFALL AT LITTLEPORT
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Fig. Io.
Fluctuations of water level at Great Abington in relation to the rainfall of the
County, 1935-38. The rainfall for the period 1935-38 was abnormal in amount and
distribution through the year. Fig. 13 below gives more representative figures for the
County.
other hand, the heavy autumn and winter rainfall of 193 5 probably accounts
for the rapid rise in level after the drought, while the heavy winter and
spring rainfall of 1936-37 explains the high and extended 1937 maximum.
The drought at the beginning of 1938 is also reflected in an unusually
early lowering of the water table.
— a
———<—
teenie
CHAPTER TWO
THE SOILS, ‘OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE
By H. H. Nicholson, m.a., and F. Hanley, M.a.
ITHIN THE COMPARATIVELY LIMITED AREA OF
\ X / Cambridgeshire, circumstances have combined to produce a
large variety of soil conditions.’ To begin with, the Cretaceous
and Upper Jurassic outcrops from the Upper Chalk down to the Oxford
Clay provide a goodly range of parent materials, and superimposed upon
these are large areas of drift deposits of all sorts, from recent Alluvium to
Glacial Gravel (see Figs. 4 and 29). Some of these drift deposits are so thin
and diffuse as to escape notice in the Drift Maps but they are of consider-
able importance from the soil point of view. Furthermore, the topography
of the area varies from the comparatively high hills of the Chalk escarp-
ment to the flat expanses of Fenland, so that every type of drainage con-
dition is encountered. The types of soil parent material and the varying
drainage conditions are summarised in the adjoining table.
While this table summarises drainage conditions from the point of view
of soil formation and leaching, it does not fully depict land-drainage
conditions. The greater part of the Fenland is dependent on artificial
drainage and the use of pumps to keep the water table at a reasonable
level. Outside the fen area, the upper rivers, Cam, Granta, and Rhee, are
bordered by belts of gravel and alluvium which, because of the higher
and more permeable areas flanking them, are characterised by high water
tables and liability to flooding. The area of Gault and Chalk Marl in the
Rhee Valley is peculiarly circumstanced for drainage. An outlying ridge
of chalk, north of Barrington, makes this almost a land-locked basin
which, although of an altitude 70 ft. or more, is afflicted with drainage
conditions not unlike those of the Fenland itself. With the exception of the
Boulder Clay areas, all the clay lands of the County are both impermeable
and low lying, though some of them are favoured with enough fall to
make field drainage moderately simple. In the Boulder Clay country, the
heavy land has the advantage of fair altitude and for the most part useful
* Fuller descriptions, together with analytical details and profile descriptions,
are contained in Bulletin No. 98 of the Ministry of Agriculture, The Soils of
Cambridgeshire (1936), by H. H. Nicholson and F. Hanley. Detailed information
concerning the soils of fruit-growing areas in West Cambridgeshire, and in the Isle of
Ely, is available in Bulletin No. 61 of the Ministry of Agriculture, West Cambridgeshire
Fruit-Growing Area (1933), by J. F. Ward; and in Research Monograph No. 6 of the
Ministry of Agriculture, A Survey of the Soils and Fruit of the Wisbech Area (1929), by
C. Wright and J. F. Ward.
26 Soils
slope. The ditches are often natural watercourses, and impermeability of
the formation is the only obstacle to its satisfactory drainage.
PARENT MATERIALS AND SOIL-DRAINAGE CONDITIONS
(t) WitH Free DRAINAGE. (Parent material permeable, excess water
draining to depth)
A. Drainage Excessive. (Considerable leaching; moisture-holding
capacity poor)
LIMESTONES GRAVELS AND SANDS ON CHALK SANDS
Upper Chalk Plateau Gravels Lower Greensand
Middle Chalk Glacial Gravels Breckland
Taele Gravels
B. Drainage Free. (Moisture-holding power satisfactory for plant growth)
LIMESTONES SANDS
Lower Chalk Lower Greensand (Mid-Cambs)
Coral Rag
(2) Wir ImpzDED DRAINAGE. (Subject to continuous or seasonal
water-logging)
A. Drainage Imperfect. (Subsoil and parent material impermeable)
CLAYS
Boulder Clay
Gault Ampthill Clay
Kimeridge Clay Oxford Clay
B. Drainage Impeded. (High water table due to topography; underlying
stratum impermeable, or low permeability)
LIMESTONES GRAVELS ALLUVIUM
Chalk Marl Valley Gravels Peat
Lower Chalk (base) Old River Gravels Silt
Middle Chalk (base)
Most of the soils reflect to a marked degree the characteristics of their
parent materials or the geological outcrop on which they lic, but this is
not invariably the case. Textures vary from the loose sands of Breckland
to the heaviest Gault, Boulder Clay or Oxford Clay soils. In general, the
lime status of the soils is satisfactory or good, the only serious exception
being the soils derived from the Lower Greensand (especially those in the
west of the County), and some of the Gravels. This is to be expected of
soils formed from cretaceous rocks, or drifts originating in the neighbour-
hood of cretaceous exposures, or associated with rivers of calcareous waters.
Boulder Clay soils occupy two substantial areas, one in the south-east
along the Essex border, and one in western Cambridgeshire on the
Huntingdonshire border. They are buff-coloured clays or clay loams,
Id
Fs
ihren,
™
ur pee cae et -
eS ee =e
———S
Soils 27
lying on clay subsoils, containing from 1 to ro per cent calcium carbonate,
much of it as rounded chalk pebbles. The depth to the grey Chalky Boulder
Clay varies considerably. In some places, it can be reached within 2 ft. of
the surface, but, on the lower slopes and in the smaller valley bottoms,
there is often almost this depth of colluvial heavy loam material before a
buff clay subsoil is reached, and this in its turn gives place to grey un-
weathered clay. The drainage of these soils is naturally poor, although the
two areas are in the highest parts of the County. The western area is the
most impermeable. On high ground, where land is flat or only gently
sloping, run-off is hindered, and water-logging or surface pools are of
common occurrence in a wet winter. Smaller areas of Boulder Clay soils
are also found in the “‘islands’’ of the Fens.
The Upper Chalk formation in Cambridgeshire is covered, for the most
part, by Boulder Clay. The soils on the limited exposed areas vary from
thin white or grey chalky soils to brownish grey loams, depending on the
proximity of the Boulder Clay and the extent of downwash from it.
The exposure of the Middle Chalk occupies a big proportion of Cam-
bridgeshire, and is covered by two main classes of soil. One is a thin grey
or brownish grey chalky loam, consisting mostly of fragments of chalk,
and lying directly on raw chalk. This chalky, or “whiteland”, type
occupies the higher slopes and summits especially along the flanks of the
exposure. The other is a warm brown or reddish brown loamy sand, up
to 20 in. deep, lying on the chalk. This “‘redland”’ type consists chiefly of
coarse sand with only a small percentage of calcium carbonate. It fills the
lower slopes and flatter areas, especially around the numerous patches of
Gravel scattered along the outcrop. The soils on these Gravels are dis-
similar only in respect of their greater content of flint pebbles. All the
soils on the Middle Chalk are, with the exception of hollows and limited
areas on the north-west edge of the outcrop, characterised by very free
drainage. This constitutes their chief drawback, and the farmer’s great
difficulty is to conserve sufficient moisture in the soil to carry the crops
through the growing season.
The Lower Chalk soils differ from those of the Middle Chalk, chiefly
in that they are less deep but heavier in texture and have a narrower
range of colour. They are free draining but the water table, in general,
comes nearer the surface, and, in places, field drainage is necessary. Both
in the Lower Chalk soils and in a few of the low-lying parts of the Middle
Chalk, yellow mottling, the characteristic sign of impeded drainage, is to
be found in the subsoil chalk within 18 in. of the surface.
The Chalk Marl soils occupy low-lying ground, much of it bordering
on the Fens. Both colour and texture vary as a result of surface admixture
28 Soils
with drift materials. The soils are generally brownish grey, marly,
medium to heavy, loams lying on yellowish grey marly subsoils, often
with yellow or orange mottling due to high water tables. Coprolites are
plentiful in the surface soil,’ especially in those parts of the outcrop
bordering that of the Gault.
The Gault soils are dark brownish grey in colour, and form the heaviest
of the clay soils. They lie on a buff-coloured clay subsoil, which merges
into blue-grey clay with orange mottlings. The formation is impermeable,
as are the soils which lie on its surface, except in so far as they are opened
up by tillage or by admixture with sand and gravel from neighbouring
formations. Consequently, the land tends to lie wet or water-logged in its
natural condition, except during dry seasons. The soils, however, have the
advantage of being calcareous (2 to 10 per cent of calcium carbonate,
increasing to 30 per cent or more within 3 ft. of the surface). This calcium
carbonate is not present as lumps or pebbles, but is finely disseminated
through the soil and so assists the formation of good tilths.
There is not a very big outcrop of Lower Greensand but it is important,
being associated with intensive market gardening in the western part of the
County, and with fruit and flower culture in the centre of the County.
The soils are rich brown, loamy sands in the west, with more mellow
sandy loams to the centre. The parent material is a coarse quartz sand,
highly permeable, so that the chief features of the soils are their coarse
open character, very free drainage, low content of organic matter and
bases, frequently acidic reaction with signs of leaching and the formation
of iron-pan in the subsoils. This pan in some cases, and the proximity of
underlying clay in others, gives rise to localised patches where drainage
is impeded and the subsoil is mottled.
The Kimeridge Clay gives rise to dark grey-brown clays and heavy
loams, often with a poor reserve of lime. They occupy low-lying flat
areas, and their chief handicaps are their poor tilth potentialities due partly
to difficulties of draining and partly to their low content of calcium
carbonate.
The incidence of thin washes of drift materials gives to the other
Jurassic clay soils (Oxford Clay and Ampthill Clay) a character of their
own. The surface textures are varied and there are wide variations in the
soil profile. They are all on the heavy side, but the top soil is frequently
much lighter than the subsoil. Their poor reserve of calcium carbonate,
however, is a factor against the easy production of good tilths. Low
lying and adjacent to the Fenland, their lack of fall and lack of internal
structure make them difficult to drain.
t See p. 13 above, and p. 126 below.
o
Soils 29
Scattered along the existing rivers and around the southern edge of the
Fens, and constituting some of the “islands”, are considerable areas of
Valley and River Gravels, of varying constitution. They give rise to soils
that are gravelly, brownish grey to grey-black in colour, and loamy sands
to medium loams in texture. The soils are free draining, but many of them,
through their position, have high water tables except in so far as these are
lowered by field drainage. Much of the material of the Gravel deposits is
calcareous, but leaching has reduced the percentage of calcium carbonate
in the top soils to very low values. The ground water is calcareous,
however, and seriously acid soils are rare.
The Fen Alluvial deposits cover about half the area of Cambridgeshire.
The soils which are characteristic of Fenland are of four main kinds—peat,
silt, shell marl and skirt. All these soils have been formed from materials
laid down in association with a river system containing calcareous waters,
a fact which has had an important result on the fertility of the soils; they
are almost all rich in calcium in one form or another. The surface material,
of varying constitution, is the result of the deposition of inorganic particles
by the rivers and estuaries in their meanderings and frequent floodings,
and of inorganic material by the growth of vegetation in swamp and
marginal conditions. The variation of these main factors from time to
time, and from point to point, has resulted (a) in a “profile” of great
complexity at any point, and (b) in considerable variations in existing soil
conditions from place to place.
The Peat soils are composed mostly of organic matter derived from
swamp vegetation. They are black or nearly so, light, spongy, and
crumbly. The organic matter contains considerable amounts of exchange-
able calcium and is frequently associated with a small amount of free
calcium carbonate. The depth of the peat deposit varies considerably from
place to place, from a few inches to 10-15 ft.; but it is not always
in an uninterrupted layer. Occasionally, as many as five separate
bands have been proved, interlayered with “buttery clay”’, silt, or sandy
deposits. Much of the peat does not lie directly on the older formations
but on the characteristic clay, a dark blue-grey greasy material, entirely
unlike the older clay formations. The depth of the peat’ and the nature of
the underlying material are points of major importance in determining
the agricultural value of the land.”
The Silt soils are associated chiefly with areas of marine deposits of fine
rounded quartz grains with small flakes of muscovite, occurring at the
seaward or northern end of the County. They show a big range of texture
* For the shrinkage and wastage of the peat, see p. 186 below.
* For the practice of “claying” the peat, see pp. 120-1 and 152 below.
30 Soils
from place to place but are deep and uniform. The physical make-up of all
these soils is peculiar, and unlike anything commonly encountered else-
where. Coarse sand particles are generally absent, but fine sand is present
in quantity, especially in the lighter silts. The silt fraction is more pro-
minent in the heavier silts. The Shell Marl soils, derived from material
formed in the clear water of shallow meres, occur farther south as patches
among the true black peats. They are white or grey in colour, highly
calcareous, with numerous small freshwater shells or shell fragments
present. The chief shell marl areas are on the sites of Stretham Mere and
Soham Mere. Skirt soils, from their location and constitution, appear to
be the result of conditions where both the accumulation of peat and the
deposition of silt or drift have alternately held sway. They might be
described as mineral soils with a rather higher content of organic matter
than usual and a darker or black colour.
Representative data of these typical soils are summarised in the following
table:
CONSTITUTION OF MAIN TYPES OF TOP SOILS
The figures show the percentages of carbonates and of each of the four usual
mineral-particle size-groups in the air-dry soil after passing through a 2 mm. sieve
Coarse | Fine
Type sand sand
South-west Boulder Clay 8-8 18-0
South-east Boulder Clay 18-4 26:0
Middle Chalk (Redland) 46°6 23°3
Middle Chalk (Whiteland) 223 13°4
Lower Chalk 32°2 I4'l
Chalk Marl 21°4 17°7
Gault 3°9 74
Lower Greensand (West Cambs) 74°5 7:6
Lower Greensand (Mid-Cambs) 46:2 20:2
Kimeridge Clay 20:0 24°4
Ampthill Clay 22°1 149
Old River Gravel 54:0 19:0
Valley Gravel 45°8 25°5
Fen Peat 1-6 10°5
Fen Silt (Light)
Fen Silt (Heavy)
CHAPTER THREE
THE CLIMATE OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE
By A. S. Watt, PH.D.
HE MAIN FEATURE OF THE CLIMATE OF THE NEIGHBOUR-
00D of Cambridge lies in the definite approach it makes to the
continental type.’ Its latitude and position on the western side of a
continent enable it, of course, to share with other parts of the British Isles
in the equable climate associated with oceanic conditions. But its position
in relation to the continental mainland also allows it to share in continental
characteristics. The climate of Cambridge, in fact, may be described as
transitional. Just how far it departs from oceanity and how near it
approaches continentality is the main theme of this chapter.
To throw into relief the essential features of the Cambridge climate
comparison is made, in the account that follows, between meteorological
data from selected stations lying approximately in the same latitude across
Europe from west to east. Valentia, Cambridge, Berlin, and Orenburg
represent a transition from the oceanic to the continental type of climate.
TEMPERATURE
The data given in Table 1, and graphically presented in Fig. 11, show a
slightly decreasing mean annual temperature from west to east.
At Valentia, the maximum falls in August, but the value is only slightly
above that for July when the maximum occurs at the other three places:
the minimum, on the other hand, falls in February at Valentia, but in
January at the other three stations. The range of the monthly means
increases from 148° F. at Valentia, through 22-4° F. at Cambridge, and
33°7° F. at Berlin, to 67°3° F. at Orenburg, an increase partly due to higher
summer temperatures but mainly to lower winter temperatures.
The departure from oceanity, seen in the increasing range of monthly
means, is emphasised by the monthly extremes of normal maxima and
minima for Valentia, Cambridge, and Berlin (Table 2; Fig. 12), which
show (a) an increasing annual range of monthly extremes (Table 2, last
t Tt is a pleasure to acknowledge my indebtedness to Dr G. C. Simpson, Director
of the Meteorological Office, for placing the services of his department at my disposal.
Mr E. G. Bilham of that department has been particularly kind in elucidating points
of detail. His book on The Climate of the British Isles (1938) appeared during the pre-
paration of this chapter and fuller information will be found there. For the use made
of the data I must accept responsibility.
Climate
32
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10} ——-»—— Orenburg . /
a k—-—— Berlin Lf 2
abe + Cambridge ee
Sess e----- Valentia
Aor May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Fig. 11.
Mean monthly temperatures at Valentia, Cambridge, Berlin and Orenburg.
DBA 3
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Cambridge
sped bes ~------ Valentia
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Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr -
Fig. 12.
Mean monthly extremes of temperature at Valentia, Cambridge and Berlin,
Climate 35
column); (b) an increasing range of temperature in any month; and
(c) increasing differences between the summer maxima and between the
winter minima. The values for the winter maxima and summer minima
approximate. But Cambridge is peculiar in having the highest winter
maxima and the lowest summer minima of all three stations.
These low summer minima around Cambridge are particularly im-
portant, for they indicate the frequency of frosts (Table 3). Extreme minima
below 32°F. are recorded for Valentia from December to March; for
Berlin from October to April; but for Cambridge from October to May.
Indeed, at Cambridge serious frosts quite often occur in the beginning of
June and the only month really free from frost is July. Winter frosts
also are severe, and the damage they do is likely to be increased because
snow affords an efficient protection only on a few days of the year: in an
average year snow lies in the morning for 12 days only. Skating is enjoyed
every other year, and the last occasion when the Cam was converted into
a highway was February 1929.
RAINFALL
Both in the amount of rainfall and in its distribution throughout the year,
Cambridge again shows a distinct approach to the continental type of
climate (Tables 4 and 5; Fig. 13).
Like the continental stations, Cambridge has a low yearly total: Valentia
has over twice as much rain as Cambridge, and its lowest monthly value
is much greater than the highest at Cambridge.
The total for Cambridge itself is a fair sample of the annual rainfall of
the County: the average for twenty-eight stations within the County, at
altitudes varying from 6 ft. 0.D. to 286 ft. 0.D., is 22-28 in. The range is
narrow—from 20:6 in. at Upwell to 24:7 in. at Conington. To the
west, in Huntingdon and Bedford, and to the east, in Suffolk, the rainfall
is slightly higher.
The distribution of the rainfall throughout the year is particularly
interesting. The typical oceanic climate shows a summer minimum and a
winter maximum, the typical continental the reverse. Throughout the
greater part of the British Isles, the rainfall of the winter half of the year is
greater than that of the summer half, a feature which the country shares
with a strip of Atlantic seaboard of the continent. But a relatively small
area in east-central England, including Cambridge, shows the reverse,
namely, a greater fall during the summer half than during the winter half
year. This is a continental feature that is further emphasised by a con-
sideration of the details. A glance at the graph for Orenburg shows the
typical feature of a continental climate, namely, the high peak in late
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Climate 37
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Cambridge
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Fig. 13.
Mean monthly rainfall at Valentia, Cambridge, Berlin and Orenburg.
38 Climate
spring or early summer. Like the curves for the continental stations, the
curve for Cambridge shows a rapid rise from April to June, but the rate
of increase is not maintained, and a further slow rise leads to a maximum
in August (or July-August at some other stations in the County). There-
after, there is a fall in September followed by the assertion of a stronger
oceanic influence giving a second maximum in October. This oceanic
influence extends as far east as Berlin where it causes a subsidiary maximum
in December which does not appear in the station farther east. After
October, in Cambridge, there is a general fall to a minimum in February,
the month with least rainfall in all the stations except Valentia.
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
Cambridge is situated in one of the lowest rainfall areas in this country
and the combination of a high summer temperature with a rainfall that is
low must be critical for many species of plants unless there are com-
7
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70
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Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr:
Fig. 14.
Mean monthly relative humidity at Valentia, Cambridge and Berlin.
pensating advantages. One of these is the relatively high humidity. The
data are not strictly comparable; the Valentia data are for the period
1886-1910, the Cambridge data for 1924-34 (see Table 6; Fig. 14). The
sustained high monthly values for Valentia are in keeping with its oceanic
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climate, but the average annual value for Cambridge is much the same,
and the range of monthly means, although double that for Valentia, shows
both a higher maximum and a lower minimum: but even this minimum
is high. Berlin, on the other hand, shows a much wider range, with a
maximum in December and a minimum in May-June. The depressing,
enervating effect of the Cambridge climate is doubtless due to its high
humidity, and even Indians complain of the heat during a hot spell in the
summer. It seems likely, however, that the high humidity is due in part
to local causes, but chiefly to the “continentality”’ of the neighbourhood.
This arises from the large diurnal range of temperature with values at
night and early morning falling to dew point. The result is that the readings
at 9 h. and 21 h. tend to be high, particularly in later autumn and winter.
SUNSHINE AND CLOUDINESS
The variations for bright sunshine (Table 7; Fig. 15) show relatively small
differences from October to April for Valentia, Cambridge, and Berlin.
From May to September, however, the differences are appreciable;
Cambridge then occupies an intermediate position. Although the total
number of hours of sunshine is less than that enjoyed by parts of the south
coast, yet the Cambridge neighbourhood is sunny compared with the
west.
The data for cloudiness (Table 8) show the nearer approach of Cambridge
to Berlin during April to September: from September to April, Cambridge
has the least cloudiness of all these places and also the lowest average for
the year.
The preceding data show that while the climate of Cambridge is not
continental, it has a number of continental features, the fuller expression
of which is checked by a high humidity.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The weather varies much from year to year and from place to place.
Even minor differences in topography are significant to plant life and to
man: a few feet may raise them above an accumulation of cold air or of
fog. But the major variations are determined by major causes—namely,
the position of Cambridge in relation to the centres of low- and high-
pressure systems in north-western Europe. In general, the air moves from
south-west to north-east, due to the frequency of cyclones centred (1) to
the north-west of the country, or (2) directly over the British Isles or over
the Channel; the former bring “‘orographic”’ rain to the west, the latter
“cyclonic” rain to all parts of the country. The rainfall of Cambridge is
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Climate
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42 Climate
essentially cycionic. At certain times of the year, particularly in spring
and early summer, bitterly cold weather may be experienced: the centres
of high-pressure systems are situated to the north-west and north, and
cold north and north-east winds blow over East Anglia as, for example,
during the destructive frost of May 1935. These winds may bring rain to
our eastern shores when the west is dry. Occasionally, too, cold winds
Hours
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Fig. 15.
Average number of hours of bright sunshine per day at Valentia,
Cambridge and Berlin.
blow from the south-east. Since, in general, these cold winds prevail
during the spring, and the westerlies during the autumn, spring is colder
than the autumn. At different times of the year Cambridge may experi-
ence anticyclonic conditions, but whether the weather is warm or cold
depends on the origin of the anticyclone and on its position. If it is an
extension of the high-pressure belt of latitude 30-35° N., then the air is
warm, and long spells of dry warm weather may be enjoyed; if it is an
Climate 43
offshoot of a winter continental anticyclone, the weather may be very
cold.
These data, or the conditions they represent, are significant for plant life
and agricultural practice. The rainfall, as we have seen, is low. The results
of deficiency and drought would be more apparent than they are, but for
the high water table of much of the neighbourhood and for the prevalence
of soils with a high capacity to hold water. Where, as in Breckland, the
soil is porous and non-retentive the rainfall deficiency is accentuated.* Thus
because of the dry conditions, plants of the oceanic west may fail or grow
poorly. Among the planted conifers in and around Cambridge only the
xerophytic pines do at all well: spruces, hemlocks, silver firs do badly.
On the other hand, flooding may occur, and the floods of the early
months of 1937 are still fresh in the memory. They were due to an excep-
tional run of five very wet months, January to May, when the water
draining into the low Fenland depression found its normal flow to the sea
checked by a combination of wind and tide.?
Again, although the neighbourhood of Cambridge is an area of inten-
sive cultivation, the low temperatures of winter preclude competition
with the milder south-west in the production of spring flowers. The
extension into spring of cold wintry conditions and the frequency of cold
winds and recurrent spring frosts until the beginning of June mean the
crippling of frost-sensitive species of plants and in agricultural practice
inability to grow early potatoes. Fruit-tree blossom, too, is often severely
damaged. On the other hand, the greater number of hours of sunshine
allows a proper maturation of wheat, and the relatively high number of
hours of sunshine during September doubtless contributes to the percentage
of sugar in sugar beet. For native plants, in particular for the “continental”
element in our flora, sunshine is critical for the ripening of seed.
® See p. 208 below. 2 See p. 193 below.
3 See A. S. Watt, “Studies in the Ecology of Breckland. I. Climate, Soil and
Vegetation”, Jour. Ecol. xxiv, 117 (1936).
CHAPTER FOUR
THE BOTANY OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE
By H. Godwin, M.A., PH.D.
HE FOLLOWING ACCOUNT OF THE BOTANY OF CAMBRIDGE-
SHIRE is written primarily from the standpoint of the ecologist,
showing the vegetation of the area in relation to geology, topo-
graphy, and climate.’ The chief vegetation types are considered in turn
according to the geological formations on which they occur. As this part
of England is particularly heavily cultivated, stress is specially laid on
those fragmentary communities still present in a fairly natural state, such
as the woodlands on Boulder Clay, the Chalk grassland, and the sedge or
scrub in the undrained parts of the Fenland. Since, moreover, no other
county contains so much of the old peat fens, the account deals at length
with what remains of fen vegetation upon their surface. Although a
portion of the Breckland, with its typical soil and vegetation, comes just
within the County boundary west of the River Kennett, it will not be
considered here as it has been dealt with separately by Dr Watt.3
THE FENLAND
The English Fenland within historic times stretched over the greater part
of the area to the west and south of the Wash, extending as far north as
Lincoln and as far south as Huntingdon and Cambridge (see Fig. 47). On
the seaward side, the surface deposits are semi-marine silt, laid down, and
afterwards occupied, during the Romano-British period.4 On the land-
ward side, the upper layers are peat. This peat was produced by discharge
of the hoodwaters of the Rivers Witham, Welland, Nene, and Ouse into the
extensive shallow basin of the fens. This water entering the fens has a high
mineral content, particularly that from the tributaries of the Ouse, which
drain the chalk escarpment to the east. The fen peats are therefore alkaline
in reaction, and support a vegetation of true “fen” type—the “‘Nieder-
moor” of German botanists. Such fens are dominated by grass-like
monocotyledons of the Gramineae, Cyperaceae, and Juncaceae, and, in
their drier stages, by shrubs and trees such as willow, alder, and birch.
* Tam indebted to the Editor of the Victoria County History (Mr L. F. Salzman)
for permission to use material prepared for a more extensive account of the vegeta-
tion of the County.
* See also p. 17 above for a summary of the vegetational history revealed by
investigation of the successive layers of peat deposit in the Fenland.
3 See p. 221 below. 4 See p. 20 above, and p. 92 below.
Botany 45
Extremely little trace remains to-day of the original vegetation of the
peat fen. Almost the whole area has been drained and brought under
cultivation: its character can be recognised only by the black peaty soil,
the uniform flatness, and by the deep ditches full of reeds (Phragmites
communis) that separate fields of potatoes, cereals, and sugar beet. The
continuous hawthorn hedges of the neighbouring land thin out abruptly
at the fen border. Rows of planted willows, and scattered clumps of
shelter trees, or small coverts, remain the only woody plants on the
cultivated fen. .
I. WICKEN FEN
One of the largest and best known areas of fen still uncultivated is
Wicken Fen, covering about one square mile, now in the hands of the
National Trust, and lying about 10 miles to the north-east of Cambridge
on the very margin of the Fenland.
The lodes, or main drainage channels traversing the area, converge at
Upware, and there they communicate through sluicegates with the River
Cam. The surrounding cultivated land has an entirely separate drainage
system at a much lower level. The water in Wicken Fen itself is conserved
in summer by the Upware sluices, and, in winter, excess water is run off
whenever possible. Thus the water level in the fen changes comparatively
little through the year, although the fen surface is about +7 ft. o.D. and
the surrounding land has become much lower through peat wastage
following draining.’
Not only are the soil and water-level relations in the fens thus altered
from natural conditions, but peat-cutting has removed much of the fen
surface, and the fen vegetation has suffered a traditional system of crop-
taking maintained to some extent at the present day. Other human activities
also in less degree affect the vegetational cover: these include the cutting
and clearing of steep-sided lodes and drains, the consolidation and mowing
of “droves” and walks, the felling of old fen scrub, and, to a small extent,
propagation of rare species of plants.
1. The Primary Succession. In accordance with the accepted laws of the
succession of plant communities, shallow open water should progress by
natural accumulation of peat to shallower conditions, to a soil surface first
at water level and then above it, steadily moving towards a final stable
community, the climax. This succession is known as the primary hydro-
sere, and the climax in East Anglia may be supposed to be deciduous
woodland. Human activities have obscured the original simple hydrosere
relations at Wicken, but it seems clear that it probably differed little from
See p. 186 below.
46 Botany
that of parts of the Norfolk Broads. This primary succession may be
summarised as follows:
(a) Aquatics. There are no large open areas of water in the fen, and
nowhere can we see zonations indicating all the carly stages of the hydro-
sere, like those described by Miss Pallis on the Norfolk Broads. We may
indeed judge the lode and ditch flora in the light of the work of Miss
Pallis, and find, in appropriate depths of water, various aquatic plants, which
are more or less widespread in the rest of England. The abundant forms
include: Chara, Elodea canadensis, Myriophyllum spicatum, Hippuris vulgaris,
Potamogeton lucens, P. pectinatus, P. perfoliatus, P. crispus, P. densus, Scirpus
acicularis, Sparganium simplex, Oenanthe phellandrium, Hottonia palustris,
Castalia alba, Nymphaea lutea, Sparganium natans, Sagittaria sagittifolia,
Butomus umbellatus, Alisma plantago, A. ranunculoides, Ranunculus lingua,
Polygonum amphibium, etc.
Mi,
Fig. 16.
Vegetation Successions at Wicken Fen.
From H. Godwin and F. R. Bharucha, “Studies in the Ecology of Wicken Fen”,
Journ. Ecology, xx, 185 (1932). :
(b) Reed-Swamp (Phragmitetum). The borders of lodes and ponds and
the shallower drains throughout the fen show a reed-swamp of Phragmites
communis well developed, but only at the eastern end, where the fen peat
abuts on the gault clay, do Scirpus lacustris, Typha angustifolia, Glyceria
aquatica or Phalaris arundinacea occupy similar marginal positions by the
water side.
a
Botany 47
(c) Pure Sedge (Cladietum). Throughout the hydrarch succession we may
reckon that development follows the gradual raising of the peat level up
to and above the water level, so that we can utilise the difference between
the two levels as a criterion of successional phase. It then becomes apparent
that the artificially steepened banks of lodes and drains, and their artificially
raised edges, give no opportunity for the successional stage next following
reed-swamp to become easily evident as a zonal community. Drains and
trenches, made by removing peat, are now often choked up to form
habitats only little drier than those of the reed-swamp: such places
support the community we have called “pure sedge”. This is a closed
community dominated very completely by the prickly sedge, Cladium
mariscus. The sedge leaves grow up to 3 m. long, bending over horizontally
at about 1-5 m. The luxuriance, the evergreen habit, and the thick
“mattress” of dead leaves deposited between the growing shoots of
Cladium, prevent the growth of all other plants save infrequent individuals
of Phragmites, Lysimachia vulgaris, and Salix repens var. fusca.
Recent studies on the autecology of Cladium mariscus at Wicken have
shown many features of great interest in the plant itself and the conditions
under which it grows. The meristem of the plant lies below ground at the
apex of a vertical stock: it is very frost-sensitive, but the wet fen peat has
such a small temperature diffusivity constant, that frost seldom or never
penetrates deep enough to be harmful. The meristems also offer a barrier to
gas diffusion from the growing leaves to the stock and roots, but aeration
of these organs takes place through the bases of dead or mature leaves.
The drained upper layers of peat show strong seasonal drift in composition
of the soil atmosphere determined by changing soil temperature. Values of
5 to 6 per cent of carbon dioxide at only 20 cm. depth are reached in
summer with correspondingly lowered. oxygen values. The soil water
below the water table is apparently devoid of dissolved oxygen.
(d) Bush Colonisation. As the peat level is gradually raised, the pure
sedge is invaded by bushes, which are dispersed with great rapidity by
seeds. The most abundant species is Rhamnus frangula (Frangula alnus) ;
next come Rhamnus catharticus, Salix cinerea and Viburnum opulus, and
lastly there is a very small percentage of Crataegus monogyna, Prunus
spinosa, Ligustrum vulgare and Myrica gale. Both dissemination and estab-
lishment are irregular, and early stages of bush colonisation have a very
heterogeneous structure, which disappears, however, as the sedge patches
are invaded marginally or over their whole extent, and the bushes come
to form a complete and uniform cover over the whole area. Birds are
probably the most important agents of dispersal of the Rhamnus bushes,
especially the large flocks of migratory fieldfares which visit the fen in
48 Botany
autumn as the drupes ripen. On the other hand, a very large part of the
fruit crop falls to the ground, and, as the stones are exposed by the drying
of the fruit, they are taken by fieldmice, which often gather them into
stores, where, if forgotten or abandoned, they may germinate.
(e) Carr (Franguletum). As the canopy of the young buckthorn becomes
closer there follows, especially where colonisation has been dense, a well-
marked phase in which Cladium and associated species of the previous
stage are killed out; their dead leaves still hang in the crotches of the
branches when no living plants persist. The ground becomes almost bare
beneath the bushes and a characteristic shade-tolerant flora enters. This
usually includes the marsh ferns, Dryopteris thelypteris, Agrostis stolonifera,
Urtica dioica, and non-flowering shoots of Lysimachia vulgaris, Symphytum
officinale and. Iris pseudacorus. Convolvulus sepium is often a conspicuous
feature of early phases of scrub formation, twining round the “drawn-up”’
reed stems, and the sallow, Salix cinerea, is a typical pioneer shrub,
succumbing early to the competition of other bushes.
As the carr ages, the bush density diminishes and it seems certain that
dominance passes from Rhamnus frangula to R. catharticus. The mechanism
of this displacement is uncertain, but it probably involves an extensive
“die-back”’ disease caused by the fungi Nectria cinnabarina and Fusarium sp.
To this, the older R. frangula bushes seem very susceptible; the fungi gain
entrance by snags and rapidly kill the bushes. R. catharticus, which is not
so attacked, increases greatly in the later stages of carr development. At
this stage, also, the bushes take on a tree form with central trunk and
branches limited to a close crown—a strong contrast to the earlier scrub
in which each bush stool has many trunks, and branching is extremely
diffuse and extensive. In later stages of development, Viburnum opulus
may be of importance: it straggles extensively under the shade of the other
bushes, rooting at the places where shoots touch the soil, to form quite
impenetrable tangles.
There is no deciduous fen woodland on Wicken Fen, but in many places
birch (Betula alba) is spreading from seed; there are also a few good-sized
oaks (Quercus robur), a colony of grey poplar (Populus canescens), and
many scattered ashes. It is a remarkable fact that, although the fen peat
contains pollen and wood of alder (Alnus glutinosa) in great quantity, the
few planted trees now growing on the fen are not able to spread, although
they produce abundant viable seed.
2. Deflected Successions. Over the greater part of the fen the natural
succession already described does not take place, for the fen vegetation is
cut at intervals, as a rule, of either one year or four years, and the crop is
used for litter (cattle-bedding) or for thatching. On these lines, cutting
NN E—EeE——E—EEE—E——==—EE ee
Botany 49
has probably gone on for centuries. It is evident that although bush
colonisation will be prevented by this practice, yet the peat level will
continue to rise, and new successions, still subject to the cutting factor, will
take place. These will, however, differ from the primary succession and
give rise to communities not found therein. Such are the “mixed sedge”’
and “‘litter” which cover almost 50 per cent of the fen. These two com-
munities occur on peat often much higher above water level than even
mature carr, andas soon as the “deflecting factor” of cutting is removed,
they very rapidly become colonised by bushes and give rise to carr. It is
quite likely that the carr development stages we have already mentioned
as part of the prisere may more properly be referred to these shortened
successions.
(f) Mixed sedge (Cladio-Molinietum). Vegetation in which Cladium
mariscusand Molinia cerulea are more or less co-dominant has long been cut
by fenmen for thatch or for fuel. In it, the sedge (Cladium) is rather less
vigorous than in the pure sedge, a reflection of the influence of the
drier habitat upon its summer growth rates. It is scattered through
with Phragmites; while flowering plants such as Eupatorium cannabinum,
Angelica sylvestris, Peucedanum palustre, Lysimachia vulgaris, Hydrocotyle
vulgaris and Salix repens var. fusca, occur sparsely throughout, though they
are much more conspicuous in the season following a sedge crop than
afterwards.
It is clear that this vegetation has arisen by persistent cropping of the
vegetation, which serves to exclude bushes, but which allows continued
peat growth and the ingress of plants characteristic of drier habitats but
not susceptible to cutting. Molinia is, of course, the most important of
these, for it produces annual photosynthetic shoots, and its tuberised stem
bases are unharmed by winter scything: in this, it contrasts greatly with
Cladium, the leaves of which are evergreen, and the loss of which seriously
damages the plant. Bush invasion, especially by Rhamnus frangula, is very
rapid when cutting is discontinued.
(g) Litter (Molinietum). When fen owners have cut the vegetation at
short intervals, such as one year, the sedge has been rapidly killed out.
The Molinietum, thus formed, like the Cladio-Molinietum, contains much
Phragmites. In it, however, Carex panicea and Juncus obtusiflorus are sub-
dominant, and several smaller plants, encouraged by the removal of taller
dominants, also appear. These include Succisa pratensis, Thalictrum flavum,
Cirsium anglicum, Valeriana dioica, and Orchis incarnata. The yearly crops
of litter are used for cattle-bedding or for coarse chaff; the straight
boundaries of the litter communities coincide with the limits of different
owners’ plots, and betray their origin.
DBA 4
50 Botany
It has been demonstrated experimentally that a mixed sedge community
can be altered, in ten years by annual cutting, to something that fairly
closely resembles litter. Conversely, cessation of cutting will cause the
disappearance of such species as Carex panicea from late stages of Cladio-
Molinietum.
There are, in fact, any number of inter-grades between the communities
we now describe, and they lie upon a series of deflected successions
suffering cutting of different intensities; when left uncut, they rapidly
form carr.
The droves in the fen, which are cut twice or thrice a year, might be
considered to show successions still further deflected from the prisere.
Certainly, the main drove, which has been in existence for at least two
centuries, has a most characteristic flora, very rich in species.
From time to time, areas of mature carr are cleared of bushes, and very
striking vegetational changes follow. Innumerable seedlings of a great
number of species rapidly establish themselves, and among them are
shoots of Iris, Rubus caesius, Dryopteris thelypteris and other relicts of the
previous shade phase. The very rich herbaceous vegetation, if undisturbed,
quickly reverts to carr.
Il. OTHER REMNANTS OF FEN VEGETATION
Around the fen margins there still exist a few much-modified areas of
fen vegetation. After Wicken, the largest of these is Chippenham Fen,
which lies 4 to 5 miles north of Newmarket, where the Breckland sands
come down to the fens. Over most of this fen, peat-cutting has left deep
trenches, now filled densely with Cladium mariscus. Associated with it,
but especially on the ridges, Molinia is abundant, while the following
species are more or less frequent : Schoenus nigricans, Juncus obtusiflorus,
Angelica silvestris, Eupatorium cannabinum, Lythrum salicaria, Urtica dioica
Valeriana officinalis, Serratula tinctoria, and Scrophularia nodosa. Phragmites
is abundant throughout, and there is close general resemblance to the
Cladio-Molinietum at Wicken, though bush colonisation is much sparser.
Finally, Chippenham Fen is still the home of Pinguicula vulgaris, Aquilegia
vulgaris, Selinum carvifolium and Carex pulicaris.
Other remnants of fen vegetation occur in the Cam Valley at Dernford
Fen, now rapidly drying up, at Quy Waters and Quy Fen. The peat is
generally very shallow, and the fen species persist precariously in ditches
and pools.
The County flora also includes species such as Stratiotes aloides, Teucrium
scordium, Villarsia nymphaeoides hanging on in these sites: while at
Wicken still persist Liparis loeselii, Ranunculus lingua, Peucedanum palustre,
Botany SI
Lathyrus palustris and. Myrica gale. Viola stagnina has not been seen for some
years, and it has probably followed Senecio paludosus, S. palustris, Sonchus
palustris and Cicuta virosa into the list of species now extinct. It is possible
that Typha minima grew quite recently at Wicken. Throughout the
County the fen lodes and their margins naturally still carry an abundant
selection of the old fen species, although few of these are rare.
Somewhat different in character from these true relics of the fens, are a
few sites on the Gault or Chalk, where local conditions formerly led to the
growth of small fens or even of acidic bogs. These sites have now been
drained, but from Hinton, Teversham, and Sawston Moors, the following
have been recorded: Drosera rotundifolia, D. anglica, D. intermedia, Pingui-
cula vulgaris, Malaxis paludosa, Scirpus caespitosus, Eriophorum angustifolium,
Carex dioica, Molinia cerulea, Sphagnum cymbifolium and Splachnum ampul-
laceum. Triplow Holes is a site on the chalk where fen species still survive,
and where Cladium has a local dominance.
Il. Tue Sirt Fens
The silt which forms the fen soil in the northern part of the County
round Wisbech (see Fig. 29) has probably been cultivated, apart perhaps
from the Saxon period, ever since its deposition in Romano-British times.'
Though ‘‘natural” vegetation is absent from it, it would be of great
interest to work out the progress of invasion and establishment of
species in the area during the quite definite period since its origin in
brackish water. So far this has not been done.
At Foulanchor, near Wisbech, an area of reclaimed salt marsh falling
within the County boundary brings a number of maritime species into
the County flora. The tidal influence which formerly extended far inland
up the fen rivers has no doubt been responsible for inland records of the
more tolerant maritime species, such as Scirpus maritimus at Littleport,
Sutton and Upware, and S. tabernaemontani at Littleport.
THE LOWER GREENSAND AREA
The outcrop of Lower Greensand in the County is not extensive. Some of
it supports much of the market gardening and orchard area near Cam-
bridge, and the fields show typical psammophilous weeds. Only at Gam-
lingay, in the extreme south-west, does heath develop on it, and even here
extensive tree-planting, felling and pig-keeping have greatly altered the
natural vegetation. Of the former heath dominants Calluna vulgaris and
Deschampsia flexuosa are still abundant. The following also occur: Teesdalia
nudicaulis, Galium saxatile, Ulex europaeus, Cytisus scoparius, Luzula multi-
T See p. 92 below.
4-2
§2 Botany
flora, Nardus stricta, Aira praecox, Anthoxanthum odoratum. Equally typical
of heath conditions are the mosses, Polytrichum piliferum, P. juniperinum,
Bryum roseum, Dicranum scoparium var. orthophyllum, Hypnum. schreberi,
Brachythecium albicans and B. purum. Until recently Tilia cordata and Quercus
sessiliflora apparently grew naturally here."
The Greensand outcrop at Gamlingay is also noteworthy because until
1855 it carried a large acidic peat bog yielding species quite characteristic
of the surfaces of raised bogs. The moors at Hinton, Teversham, and
Sawston, already mentioned, may have been more or less similar, but on a
large scale they are rare in the east of England. Peat investigations in the
Woodwalton and Yaxley areas of fen, south of Peterborough, show that
the peat fens locally passed into the condition of raised bogs, and that
limited marginal areas of fen surface retained this character and typical flora
until quite recent times. Most of the raised bog species from Gamlingay
are now extinct, but the records and herbarium specimens are sufficiently
convincing. They include the following:
Hypericum elodes Lycopodium clavatum
Drosera rotundifolia L. inundatum
Oxycoccus quadripetalus Sphagnum angustifolium
Littorella lacustris S. cuspidatum
Malaxis paludosa Archidium alternifolium
Narthecium ossifragum Splachnum ampullaceum
Potamogeton polygonifolius Aulacomnium palustre
Scirpus pauciflorus Odontoschisma sphagni
Eriophorum angustifolium Aneura pinguis
Rynchospora alba Hypnum revolvens
Carex dioica H. stellatum
C. stellulata Philonotis fontana
Polytrichum commune
THE BOULDER CLAY
I. WOODLAND
The Boulder Clay in Cambridgeshire lies in two large patches, on the
eastern and western sides of the County (see Fig. 29). Place-name evidence
shows that these were the wooded districts of the County in the Anglo-
Saxon period.? In Domesday times also, the distribution of woodland
varied sympathetically with that of the clay (see Fig. 17). To-day, by far
the greater part of the sparse woodland of the County is to be found in these
two areas. These woods are indeed almost the only semi-natural vegetation
™ Boulder Clay overlying Greensand in some places, and Gault in others, also occurs
at Gamlingay, and supports woodland. See p. 54 below.
7 See p. 103 below.
Botany 55
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
DOMESDAY
WOODLAND
e under 50 pigs
aa 50 — 99 ue
@® 100 — 249
@ 250 —449
|| over 450
x Miscellaneous entries
(Fences, houses, etc.)
© A park
The Fenland
Land over 200 ft.
6 Miles
Fig. 17.
From H. C. Darby, ““The Domesday Geography of Cambridgeshire”’,
Proc. Camb. Antiq. Soc. xxxvi, 49 (1936).
54 Botany
on the Boulder Clay, and merit special consideration. They are almost all
of the type known as “coppice with standards”, in which standard oak
trees (Quercus robur) project from a dense shrub layer consisting mainly of
hazel (Corylus avellana), which is coppiced at rather irregular intervals.
They were classified by Adamson many years ago as of the (ash)-oak-
hazel type, derived by exploitation from the natural woods by suppression
of the ash, which, however, by its strong regenerative powers still gives
clear evidence of its natural status. Affinities with the ash woods of
calcareous soils are shown by the frequency of calcicole shrubs such as the
spindle tree, Evonymus europaeus and the wayfaring tree, Viburnum lantana,
and by herbs in the undergrowth such as Mercurialis perennis, Viola silvestris,
and Hypericum hirsutum. The bush species are numerous and include Acer
campestre, the maple, which is often coppiced with the hazel; both species
of hawthorn; the Crataegus monogyna, much less frequent as shrub under-
growth than C. oxyacanthoides; privet (Ligustrum vulgare) ; dogwood (Cornus
sanguinea); and blackthorn (Prunus spinosa). The maple, privet and dog-
wood are more frequent than in pure Quercetum roburis. Some woods also
contain Viburnum opulus, Salix caprea, S. cinerea, Prunus cerasifera and Daphne
laureola.
The early work of Adamson on Gamlingay Wood shows most clearly
the dependence of woodland characters upon soil. Most of the wood has
a calcareous marl soil where the Boulder Clay overlies Gault, but there is a
smaller inland area with a loam soil where the Boulder Clay is above Green-
sand. The two regions differed strikingly from one another. Abundant
coppiced species on the calcareous clay were the ash, maple and hazel, but
these were infrequent on the non-calcareous loam. Conversely, the two
birches (Betula alba and B. pubescens) were frequent on the loam but absent
from the clay. Similar wide divergences were recognisable between the
undergrowth communities. Adamson recognised on the clay soil the four
following societies:
(1) Filipendula ulmaria society—high summer water content and low
light intensity.
(2) Filipendula-ulmaria-~Deschampsia caespitosa society—with high water
content but lighter than (r).
(3) Mercurialis perennis society—on drier soils and wicliawide light range.
(4) Fragaria vesca society—in conditions intermediate between those of
(2) and (3).
On the loam soil, he recognised two societies, a Pteridium aquilinum-Holcus
mollis society on the heavier loam, and a Holcus mollis society on the sandier
loam.
Botany 55
Through the Boulder Clay woods of the rest of the County, Adamson
recognised the same communities, the drier, such as the Mercurialis society,
especially in soils over the Chalk, and the wetter, such as the Filipendula
society, in soils over the Gault. In general, however, the impermeability
of all the Boulder Clay soils leads to winter water-logging which has a
marked local influence on the ground flora.
A generalised idea of the ground flora can be gathered from the follow-
ing lists of species in Hardwick Wood:
Dense old coppice:
Primula elatior Mercurialis perennis
Viola riviniana Scilla non-scripta
V. silvestris Arum maculatum
Circaea lutetiana Listera ovata
Sanicula europaea Orchis maculata
Geum urbanum Neottia nidus-avis
Hedera helix Habenaria bifolia
Ajuga reptans
Recently coppiced areas show in addition:
Anemone nemorosa Primula vulgaris
Ranunculus ficaria Solanum dulcamara
Viola hirta Scrophularia nodosa
Hypericum hirsutum Prunella vulgaris
Lathyrus silvestris Lamium galeobdolon
Filipendula ulmaria Stachys silvatica
Rubus caesius et spp. Rumex viridis
Epilobium angustifolium Tamus communis
E. hirsutum Juncus effusus
E, montanum Carex: silvatica
Angelica silvestris C. glauca
Galium aparine Deschampsia caespitosa
Arctium minus Brachypodium silvaticum
Cirsium palustre
Further interesting species present in other woods of the same type are
Paris quadrifolia, Helleborus viridis, H. foetidus, Conopodium denudatum,
Geum intermedium, and Melampyrum cristatum. On the other hand, it is
remarkable that Oxalis acetosella, Adoxa moschatellina, and Allium ursinum,
should be extraordinarily infrequent: the foxglove (Digitalis purpurea) is
quite absent. The true oxlip, Primula elatior, was shown by Miller Christie
to be confined in this country to the Boulder Clay areas of East Anglia;
and in Cambridgeshire this restriction is very clear,’ but the status of the
t Just as the oxlip and other woodland species like Paris quadrifolia and Daphne
laureola are confined to this formation, so in pastures are Genista tinctoria and Trifolium
ochroleucum; in wood-margins and hedgerows, Melampyrum cristatum; and in cultivated
fields Linaria elatine, L. spuria, and the very rare Bupleurum rotundifolium and Euphorbia
platyphyllos.
56 _ Botany
plant in our woods and its relation to the primrose (Primula vulgaris) are
still extremely uncertain, though the hybrids are both abundant and
fertile.
The moss flora is not extensive, the commonest species being Thuidium
tamariscinum, Brachythecium rutabulum, Catharinea undulata, Hylocomium
triquetrum, H. squarrosum, Fissidens taxifolius, Eurhynchium praelongum, and
Porotrichum alopecurum. Elm woods on the Boulder Clay, mostly Ulmus
minor, can probably be taken as plantations, such as that at Knapwell in
which a field system is still recognisable.
Il. Scrus
In the south-west of the County, the Boulder Clay cover over Gault has
proved so intractable, on account of its very high clay content and deficiency
in phosphate, that large areas were allowed to go out of cultivation.’ Exten-
sive areas of hawthorn scrub of different ages, in consequence, now occupy
the ground, and it is possible to make out the main stages of a secondary
succession towards woodland. Besides the dominant Crataegus monogyna,
the young scrub shows frequent Rosa canina and Prunus spinosa; while the
following are either occasional or rare: Rosa arvensis, Rubus fruticosus,
Ligustrum vulgare, Rosa micrantha, Rubus caesius, Acer campestre, Rhamnus
catharticus and Viburnum lantana. Along with these, scattered trees of oak
or ash are found, and Ulmus minor often extends by suckering from nearby
hedges. The early stages of bush growth show a remarkable flora of
ruderal and pasture species, strongly influenced by very heavy rabbit-
grazing and by the local water-logging that follows clogging of the field
drains. As the bush canopy closes, this ground flora becomes sparser, and
internal competition between the bushes grows, until there is produced a
dense scrub of pure Crataegus monogyna bushes 5 to 6 m. high, and well
spaced apart. The ground is practically bare, but there may be present a
very few weakly plants of Viola hirta, Mercurialis perennis, Urtica dioica,
Brachythecium purum, Eurhynchium praelongum, Fissidens taxifolius, Hyloco-
mium triquetrum and Mnium undulatum. It has recently been demonstrated
that this scrub shows stages in the development of a new natural soil
profile from the old puddled clay surface, and, with further thinning of the
old hawthorns, further entry of trees might be expected.
Throughout the succession, animal factors seem to be of great importance:
rabbits, mice, woodpigeons, and magpies are present in very great
density, while caterpillars wreak great havoc at times below the hawthorn
canopy.
* See pp. 131 and 150 below.
Botany 57
THE CHALK FORMATIONS
I. GRASSLAND
The wide stretches of Chalk grassland on the North and South Downs and
on Salisbury Plain are such a uniform and well-characterised community
‘that the Chalk grassland of Cambridgeshire cannot fail to have special
interest. Comparatively little of it remains untouched by cultivation, but
parts of Newmarket Heath, the Gogmagog Hills, and Royston Heath
(just outside the County) are still more or less natural. The old Roman
road (the Via Devana), the Devil’s Dyke, and the Fleam Dyke (see Figs. 20
and 21), are now also clothed with grass communities and bear most of
the typical and some of the rare species of chalk grassland.
A rough indication of the composition of the plant community can be
gained from the following group of species collected in an area of a few
hundred square yards on Royston Heath. It was obtained by a student
class, and represents the results of twenty-nine random throws of a quadrat
of one decimetre square. The species are listed in order of the frequency with
which they occur in the twenty-nine samples; the figure after each species
shows the number of quadrats in which it appeared; the letter before it
shows its life-form in Raunkiaer’s terms (H= Hemicryptophytes—buds in
surface layers of soil; Ch=Chamaephytes—buds close above ground;
G=Geophytes—buds below soil; Th=Therophytes—annuals).
H Festuca ovina 28 H Asperula cynanchica 6
Ch Helianthemum chamaecistus 24 H_ Ranunculus bulbosus 6
H_ Poterium sanguisorba = 20 Ch Thymus serpyllum 5
G = Carex glauca 19 Th Linum catharticum 3
H_— Filipendula hexapetala 18 H = Campanula rotundifolia 2
H_ Keeleria gracilis 17 H_ = Achillea millefolium I
H_— Plantago lanceolata 16 Th Gentiana amarella I
H Avena pratensis 12 H = Hieracium pilosella I
H_~ Bromus erectus 12 H Lotus corniculatus I
H __ Briza media 10 H_ Pimpinella saxifraga I
H_— Plantago media 10 H_ — Scabiosa columbaria I
H_ = _Hippocrepis comosa 9 H Taraxacum officinale I
H = Cnicus acaulis 8
In view of the very small area examined, it is extraordinary how closely
this corresponds to Chalk grassland examined by Tansley and Adamson on
the South Downs: of the fifteen most constant species given by these
authors, fourteen are represented above. Many other highly characteristic
species are to be found in other parts of the grassland on Royston Heath;
among them are the following: Leontodon hispidus, Avena flavescens,
Galium verum, Primula veris, Carlina vulgaris, Polygala vulgaris, Daucus
58 Botany
carota, Anthyllis vulneraria, Campanula glomerata, Euphrasia officinalis,
Thesium humifusum, and Astragalus danicus. Two species of special interest
are the Pasque flower (Anemone pulsatilla) and the bee orchis (Orchis
apifera).
In the above list, the preponderance of hemicryptophytes is particularly
striking; it may perhaps reflect on the one hand grazing, on the other,
summer drought to which the porous chalk soil is very liable. At Royston,
there is much local differentiation of grassland types from short rabbit-
grazed turf on the hill crests, with Festuca ovina dominant, to dense thick
turf dominated by Bromus erectus, on the deeper soils of the slopes and
valley bottoms. On disturbed soils, Arrhenatherum avenaceum becomes —
prominent.
The general uniformity of the Chalk grassland can be illustrated by
comparing with the Royston list those for two separate one-metre
quadrats, one on the old Roman road and the other on the Fleam Dyke.
Frequencies of the species are given by the conventional symbols.
Northern end of the Via Devana
Fleam Dyke"
Festuca ovina co-d Festuca ovina a
Koeleria gracilis x Poterium sanguisorba co-d
Avena pratensis os Hieracium pilosella va
Scabiosa columbaria a Carex glauca sd
Thymus serpyllum ftoa (In descending order of frequency)
Lotus corniculatus ;, Helianthemum chamaecistus
Helianthemum chamaecistus = Briza media
Asperula cynanchica be Koeleria gracilis
Poterium sanguisorba a Avena pratensis
Galium verum sj * Thymus serpyllum
Carex glauca = Hippocrepis comosa
Centaurea nigra Lotus corniculatus
Euphrasia officinalis f Leontodon hispidus
Daucus carota oto f Asperula cynanchica
Plantago media
P. lanceolata
Cirsium acaule
Anthyllis vulneraria
Linum alpinum var. anglicum
Filipendula hexapetala
Onobrychis sativa
Phleum pratense
Galium verum
Cirsium acaule
Plantago media
P. lanceolata
Scabiosa columbaria
Pimpinella saxifraga
Centaurea nigra
Linum cartharticum
Campanula rotundifolia
Euphrasia officinalis
Anthyllis vulneraria
Carlina vulgaris
Pinus silvestris (one seedling)
* This list is taken from A. G. Tansley, Types of British Vegetation (1911), p. 178.
Botany 59
The moss flora of the Chalk grassland is equally characteristic; the follow-
ing representative list is given by Dr P. W. Richards:
Camptothecium Iutescens Seligeria pauciflora
Brachythecium purum Ma ae Phascum curvicolle
Hypnum molluscum | Er ee globosum
H. chrysophyllum Fissidens decipiens
Trichostomum flavo-virens Hypnum cupressiforme
T. tortuosum var. fectorum
Cylindrothecium concinnum var. elatum
Ditrichum flexicaule Pottia lanceolata
Weisia crispa P. recta
W. microstoma Tortula pusilla
Encalypta vulgaris '— Thuidium abietinum
Il. WooDLAND
There are many indications that, where grazing allows, scrub will in-
vade the Chalk grassland, and that the incoming bushes and trees will
often form dense thickets. Hawthorn, blackthorn, dogwood, and Rhamnus
catharticus, are usually the commonest shrub species: the evergreen yew
and juniper occur but sparsely.
There is little evidence about the natural woodland vegetation of the
Chalk. Though several beech woods exist, they are either plantations or
have been much altered by planting, and the beech regenerates feebly in
them. In the upper peats by the fen margin, however (e.g. Wicken),
quite high percentages of beech pollen are to be found, which suggests
that natural beech woods were recently growing nearby.
The beech woods are small and the floor is often wind-swept, so that
the undergrowth is sparse. It commonly includes in the shrub layer
Ligustrum vulgare, Rubus fruticosus, Tlex aquifolium, Sambucus nigra, and
sometimes Taxus baccata. In the herb layer, there are commonly Poa
nemoralis, Festuca rubra, Brachypodium silvaticum, Nepeta glechoma, Fragaria
vesca, Myosotis silvatica, Listera ovata: less common are Cephalanthera
grandiflora, Orchis maculata and Monotropa hypopithys.
CHAPTER FIVE
THE ZOOLOGY OF GAMBRIDGESHEIRE
Edited by A. D. Imma, F.R.s.
(With contributions by M. D. Brindley, W. S. Bristowe, J. E. Collin, H. St J. K.
Donisthorpe, J. C. F. Fryer, A. D. Imms, G. J. Kerrich, A. G. Lowndes,
W. H. Thorpe, H. Watson, and H. E. Whiting)
MONG WRITINGS ON THE ZOOLOGY OF THE COUNTY, THE
Amsco catalogue of insects, and related animals, which was
compiled by the Rev. L. Jenyns (afterwards Blomefield), deserves
first mention. Its author lived at Bottisham in the early part of the last
century and his observations were made prior to 1849. His list makes it
possible to ascertain, in a general way, what species have declined or
become extinct during the last century or so. The catalogue is kept in the
University Museum of Zoology. When the British Association visited
Cambridge in 1904, there was produced the Handbook to the Natural History
of Cambridgeshire (edited by J. E. Marr and A. E. Shipley). This has re-
mained the only general account of the zoology of Cambridgeshire.
Between 1923 and 1932 there appeared The Natural History of Wicken
Fen, edited by Prof. J. Stanley Gardiner. This work makes a notable
advance on previous knowledge of the zoology of the County. In 1934,
there came The Birds of Cambridgeshire, by D. Lack. Finally, the present
year will see the publication of the first volume of the Victoria County
History of Cambridgeshire which will contain the most up-to-date and
detailed account of the local fauna.
MAMMALIA
The mammals are rather poorly represented in the County. The absence
of any large wooded areas is regarded as being one of the contributing
causes, while the reclaimed Fenland seems to be unsuitable for supporting
any considerable mammal population. Among the bats is included the
scarcest mammal of the County, viz. the mouse-ear bat (Myotis myotis).
A living specimen of this creature was recorded from Girton in 1888,
and was doubtless a wanderer from the continent. The whiskered bat
(M. mystacinus) and Natterer’s bat (M. nattereri) are scarce, but apparently
resident, species. Among other species, Daubenton’s bat (M. daubentoni),
* I would like to acknowledge a general indebtedness to the Editor (Mr L. F.
Salzman) for allowing us to use material prepared for the Victoria County History of.
Cambridgeshire.
f
7
Zoology 61
the long-eared bat (Plecotus auritus), and the barbastelle (Barbastella
barbastellus) also occur, but the last-named appears to be comparatively
rare. The fox is general except in the Fenland, where it is a straggler. The
badger has been noted occasionally in different parts of the County, and
the otter occurs in the river near to, and above, Cambridge, but is rather
infrequent. The stoat and weasel are plentiful, but the pine marten and
true polecat are extinct. Some of the later records of the last-named
species probably refer to polecat-ferrets and not to genuine wild specimens.
The common shrew, the pigmy shrew, and the water shrew all occur, the
first-named being the commonest. The dormouse appears to be very rare,
and, of the voles, the water vole and the short-tailed vole are prevalent,
while the bank vole is uncommon. The long-tailed fieldmouse appears
to be local, and the harvest mouse has not often been recorded. The red
squirrel occurs in various localities, while the American grey squirrel has
only been occasionally reported.
AVES’
In general, a county is a most unsatisfactory unit for ecological and natural
history studies. This is even more obvious when dealing with birds than
it is with more sedentary animals. Indeed, the only reason for choosing
counties as a basis for studies of bird distribution is that they provide
accurately demarcated areas of convenient size. Accordingly, the object
of this brief sketch is to call attention to the main bird habitats of the
Cambridge district without deference to county boundaries.”
To the west of Cambridge lies a countryside of heavy clay soils (see
Fig. 29), mostly under cultivation, with some small mixed deciduous
woods and copses in which oak predominates. Here the birds are typical,
in general, of the Midlands, although the absence of larger woods with
old trees restricts the fauna considerably. Indeed, as D. Lack has pointed
- out, Cambridge itself is almost the only part of the district where old
deciduous trees are numerous, and where tree-climbing and hole-nesting
species are common.} Five species of tits, three woodpeckers, and the
- stockdove, are all associated with old trees and may be observed on the
Backs. Here, too, the nuthatch is common, and the presence of the
somewhat elusive tree creeper is shown‘ by the numerous roosting holes
scratched out of the bark of almost every specimen of Sequoia gigantia.
* By W.H. Thorpe, M.A., Ph.D.
2 A more detailed account is the excellent study by D. Lack, The Birds of Cambridge-
shire (1934). I am indebted to this, and to the reports of the Cambridge Bird Club.
3 D. Lack, op. cit. p. 13.
4 W. H. Thorpe, “The Roosting Habits of the Tree Creeper”’, British Birds, xviii,
20 (1924).
62 Zoology
This roosting habit is of interest in that there is no native European tree
that has a bark sufficiently soft to allow of it, yet, since the introduction
of the Sequoia in 1853, the habit has become established throughout the
British Isles. Where undergrowth is found, bullfinch, goldfinch and
hawfinch breed, and the nightingale, lesser redpoll, and spotted fly-
catcher also occur; while, most notable of all, is the recently established
nesting of the black redstart in the centre of the town.
The trees of Cambridge also provide nesting sites for the rook, which
is so common that the town may be described as one large rookery.
While at Madingley Hall, a few miles to the west, is a rook roost which
accommodates 15,000 or more birds in winter: here come the birds which
feed within a radius of six to eight miles or more.
There are also starling roosts in the district, some accommodating as
many as 120,000 birds, but these shift very considerably and the Annual
Reports of the Cambridge Bird Club should be consulted for details.
The natural vegetation of the chalk upland with its occasional beech
woods is found at Royston Heath, Newmarket Heath, and in very
restricted portions of the Gogmagog Hills." The characteristic birds here
are the woodpigeon, skylark, meadow pipit, and corn bunting. Stone
curlews nest regularly in small numbers, and quails breed in some years—
mere remnants of their former vast hordes. In winter, bramblings frequent
the beech woods in considerable numbers. Elsewhere, the chalk country
is under crops, and birds are sparse, though large flocks of lapwing, golden
plover, redwings, and fieldfares are a feature of the winter landscape.
East of Newmarket Heath, lies that great area of sands, gravels and boulder
clay, the Breck country, occupying 400 square miles of Norfolk and
Suffolk, and bordering Cambridgeshire.? Its barren sandy heaths and
pine woods are characterised by stockdove, woodlark, nightjar, wheatear,
stone curlew, and crossbill. There is also that curious inland breeding
“race” of ringed plover which perhaps represents a relic of the littoral
fauna of the old Fen Estuary. The Forestry Commission is however
rapidly altering the aspect of much of this country,3 and this close planting
has had considerable effect upon the distribution of certain species.4
The last and the most characteristic type of country in the Cambridge
district is, of course, the Fenland. By far the greater part of this area is now
under cultivation, and the corn bunting, sedge warbler, reed bunting, and,
more rarely, the corn crake, are among the characteristic species. The
tree sparrow and magpie are also abundant—in unexplained contrast to
their comparative scarceness south of the Cambridge-Newmarket road.
See p. §7 above. * See p. 208 below. 3 See p. 217 below.
4 D. Lack, ‘‘Habitat Selection in Birds”, Journ. Animal Ecology, ii, 239 (1933).-
Zoology 63
In winter, besides great flocks of lapwing and golden plover, the
black-headed and common gulls are numerous, while pink-footed geese
are not infrequently found, particularly near Wisbech. Although there
are patches of open uncultivated fen country at Fulbourn, Chippenham,
Reach, Quy, and Burwell, almost the only remnant of undrained fen is
at Wicken.! But, particularly because of the lack of reed beds and open
water, the avifauna of Wicken Fen is only a fraction of what it once was.
Gone beyond recall are pelican, crane, and spoonbill, chat once inhabited
the fens. Gone too, as breeding species, are Savi’s warbler, bearded tit,
black-tailed godwit, ruff, black tern, and the bittern. But the last three
or four of these are still visitors to the district, and there is a possibility
that some of them might be induced to return if conditions were made
suitable. However, the Montagu’s harrier and the short-eared owl still
breed at Wicken in most years, and the grasshopper warbler is perhaps the
most abundant and the most characteristic small bird of the Fen, while, ac
other seasons, marsh and hen harrier, peregrine falcon, merlin and common
buzzard are occasionally seen. The existing open water attracts mallard,
shoveller, teal, garganey, tufted duck, wigeon and the pochard, the first
four as breeding species. But there is no doubt that the greatest need of
Wicken as a bird reserve is the digging of a large mere and the encourage-
ment of reed. beds.
Finally, no summary of the ornithology of the district, however brief,
would be complete without mention of the Cambridge Sewage Farm,
two miles north of the town. Regular watching, mainly by members of
the Cambridge Bird Club, has revealed an astonishing variety of passage
birds, particularly of waders. Of special interest are the records of yellow-
shank, turnstone, curlew, sandpiper, Temmincks’ stint, grey phalarope, and
dotterel. Indeed, more wading birds have been recorded at the Cambridge
Sewage Farm than at any other inland locality in Britain, and the observa-
tions carried on there have done much to discredit the theory that birds on
inland migration follow definite routes such as the courses of rivers. All
the observations in this district go to show that waders, when migrating,
habitually fly at a considerable height and move on a broad front across
country.
REPTILIA
These include the common lizard (Lacerta vivipara), which seems to be
local in distribution, but which is plentiful in Wicken Fen. The sand lizard
(L. agilis) occurs about the Devil’s Ditch near Newmarket, while the slow
* See pp. 45 and 50 above.
64 Zoology
worm (Anguis fragilis) has been recorded by Prof. Stanley Gardiner from
Wicken Fen. The grass snake (Tropidonotus natrix) occurs in suitable
places, but it is very doubtful whether the viper (Vipera berus) can still be
found in the County.
AMPHIBIA
Apart from the common frog and common toad, which are prevalent
throughout the County, the natterjack (Bufo calamita) occurs chiefly at
Gamlingay, where its spawn is to be found in the shallow water of some
of the clay pits. The edible frog (Rana esculenta), though once common,
is now seldom found. The crested or warty newt (Molge cristata) is common
in ponds and ditches, while the common newt (M. vulgaris) is very general
in its occurrence. The palmated or webbed newt (M. palmata) seems to be
confined to Quy Fen; at least, there are no records from other parts of the
County.
PESCES*
The sea lamprey (Petromyzon marinus) occurs in the River Nene and is
sometimes caught above Earith. The river lamprey or lampern (Lampetra
fluviatilis) is common in the Hundred Foot River, in the Ouse above
Earith, in the Little Ouse, and in the Nene; and a number of lamperns
was found in the Cam near Grantchester about the year 1927. The
salmon (Salmo salar) is now only an occasional visitor. Trout (S. trutta)
occur in the more rapid streams but are not very common. Pike, roach,
dace, eels, minnow, rudd, tench, gudgeon, bleak, loach, perch, and miller’s
thumb, are all common. The grayling (Thymallus thymallus) is not in-
digenous but has been introduced into the River Lark. The chub (Squalius
cephalus) is rather local and occurs near Cambridge in Byron’s Pool. The
silver bream (Blicca bjoerkna) and the bream (Abramis brama) occur
commonly in the Fenland, while the Crucian carp (Carassius carassius) is
apparently rare, and the common carp (Caprinus carpio), too, is not
abundant. The spined loach (Cobitis taenia) occurs locally near Cambridge,
and the burbot (Lota lota) is common in parts of the Fenland waters. The
three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and the ten-spined stickle-
back (Pungitius pungitius) are both common: the latter occurs in fen ditches
and lodes up to Lingay Fen above Cambridge. The flounder (Platichthys
flesus) is frequently taken in the fenland rivers. Various marine fishes have
been caught near Wisbech but, excepting the grey mullet, greater weever,
and the dory, they have only been represented by single records
* From data supplied by H. E. Whiting, B.A.
Zoology 165
MOLLUSCA'"
The neighbourhood of Cambridge is very favourable for Mollusca. The
Fenland and the quiet waters of the Cam and its tributaries form a suitable
habitat for many freshwater species; thus, among the Gastropods, in addi-
tion to five species of Lymnea, no fewer than eleven members of the
Planorbidae have been found within about a mile of Cambridge. Theodoxus
fluviatilis (Lin.) and various other operculate forms also live in the Cam
near the college bridges, while from Wicken as many as ten species of the
Pelecypod genus Pisidium have been recorded. Vertigo moulinsiana (Dupuy),
a scarce land snail restricted to marshy places, may also be found in Wicken
Fen, and Laciniaria biplicata (Mont.) lives close to the river not far from
Cambridge itself, although it is found in very few other places in the
British Isles.
Upon the chalk hills to the south of Cambridge, on the other hand,
xerophilous species are common; Helicella virgata (da Costa), H. gigaxii
(Pfr.), and Monacha cantiana (Mont.) being especially abundant, the two
former showing much variation; while about 5 miles south of Cambridge
is found one of the very few British habitats of the large Helix pomatia
(Lin.). Helicigona lapicida (Risso) occurs at Fen Ditton, but it is rare in
Cambridgeshire, whereas its ally Arianta arbustorum (Lin.) is common and
has even been known to find its way into the roof of King’s College
Chapel.
Slugs are not exceptionally abundant in the neighbourhood of Cam-
bridge, but about eleven species have been found, and Agriolimax reti-
culatus (Miill.) and Arion hortensis (Fér.) are both very common, the former
varying greatly in colour. Moreover, all the eleven British species of the
Zonitidae, a family of snails related to some of the slugs, have been
recorded from the district.
In gardens around Cambridge, Trichia striolata (Pft.), Helix aspersa
Miill., and other forms are abundant, and in the University Botanic
Gardens six or seven exotic species have become established in the hot-
houses. Excluding these foreign introductions, about 110 species of land
and freshwater Mollusca are known to live in Cambridgeshire, as well as
two or three brackish-water forms that occur in the north of the County,
e.g. Hydrobia ventrosa (Mont.).
Most of these 110 species are also present in the local Pleistocene and
Holocene gravels, but some of them have not been found in these deposits,
including certain species that are now among the commonest in the
neighbourhood, such as Trichia striolata (Pfr.) and Monacha cantiana
* By Hugh Watson, M.A.
DBA : 5
66 Zoology
(Mont.). On the other hand, the gravels contain several species that have
not yet been reported alive in Cambridgeshire. Some of these, such as
Ena montana (Drap.) and Helicodonta obvoluta (Miill.), still live in other
parts of England; others, such as Clausilia pumila (Pft.) and Corbicula
fluminalis (Miill.), are now found alive only on the Continent; and one
or two, such as Helicella crayfordensis Jackson, seem to be wholly extinct.
In fact, the extensive river-gravel system of Cambridgeshire throws
valuable light on the gradual modification of its molluscan fauna from
middle Pleistocene times to the present day. It is possible, however, that
further search will show more living species than are at present known; for
although Cambridgeshire is rich in Mollusca, it numbers very few collectors
who are interested in these animals.
ARACHNIDA’
Records from the County comprise 245 spiders, 10 harvest spiders, and
7 pseudo-scorpions. The Acarina are not described. In collecting, the
Fenland has deservedly received the greatest attention and Wicken Fen in
particular. Neon valentulus Falc. (a small dark Salticid), Maro sublestus
Falc. and Centromerus incultus Falc. (small black Linyphiids), are unknown
elsewhere; Zora armillata Sim. has not been found elsewhere in Britain
(this is a pale speckly Clubionid) ; Maso gallica Sim. has also been recorded
only from Kent, Entelecera omissa Camb. doubtfully from Northumber-
land, and Singa herii Hahn. doubtfully from Berkshire.
May and June are the best months for collecting spiders at Wicken, and
on a sunny day careful search will reveal several of the so-called rarities
in abundance. Enclosed in silken cells in the fluffy heads of Phragmites
will be found the handsome Salticid, Marpessa pomatia Walck. Running
in the open, alongside the large velvety Pirata piscatoria Clerck and other
Lycosids, will be seen the lighter coloured Pardosa rubrofasciata Ohl.
Amongst clumps of hay-coloured grass will be found both the pale
elongate Tibelli and another less common and also pale Thomisid, Thanatus
striatus C.L.K. Most of the rarities must be sought for by grubbing at the
roots of herbage or by turning over bundles of cut reeds: the black Zelotes
latetianus L.K., the small rather pinkish Clubiona neglecta Camb., the large
thick-set Lycosids Trochosa spinipalpis F. Camb. and T. leopardus Sund.,
the speckly Salticid Sitticus caricis Westr. and such small uncommon
Theridiids and Linyphiids as Crustulina sticta Camb., Theridion blackwallii
Camb., T. instabile Camb., Taranucnus setosus Camb., Mengea warburtonii
Camb., Gongylidiellum murcidum Sim. and Wideria melanocephala Camb.
* By W. S. Bristowe, Sc.D.
Zoology 67
Some of the College cellars provide a number of species. Rather damp
cellars provide the largest fauna, but the long-legged and small bluish
humpy-bodied Pholcid, Physocyclus simoni Berl., is exceptional in liking
dry wine cellars such as those of King’s and Trinity Hall. Since first adding
this species to the British list in 1932, the present writer has discovered it in
no less than nine counties, but, apparently, it has not been found elsewhere
in Britain. Abroad, it is known in France only. The Pholcid, Pholcus
phalangioides Fuess. is also present in Cambridge cellars, but its much
larger size, different coloration and somewhat elongate body, easily
distinguish ic.
The only British Mygalomorph spider in the County, Atypus affinis
Eich., has been recorded from Devil’s Dyke, where its closed silken tube,
like the finger of a glove, should be sought amongst vegetation on the
sloping bank.
The recorded harvest spiders and pseudo-scorpions do not include any
special rarities.
INSECTA
Accounts of five of the major groups in this class are given below. These
will serve to give an idea of some of the more noteworthy species that are
to be found in the County. Good reference collections of all the major,
and most of the smaller, orders of insects are contained in the University
Museum of Zoology.
HEMIPTERA (HETEROPTERA)." Cambridgeshire contains four
main types of country, each of which possesses a distinctive Heteroptera
fauna correlated with the associated flora and soil conditions. To the south
lies the chalk; westwards are heavy clays; to the north is the drained
alluvium of the fen basin; and in the east the boundary includes a small tract
of the Breckland (see Fig. 56). The County list contains 256 species, out
of 492 recorded for Britain. Drainage and agriculture have changed
conditions, and in the Fenland at least the dominant species to-day are
more typical of cultivated land than of marsh.
Although the fen basin was formerly an estuarine sea, no coast-loving
species seem to have survived there, with the exception possibly of
Rhyparochromus praetextatus, Teretocoris antennatus and T. saundersi, Salda
pallipes, and a doubtful record of Piesma quadrata. On the other hand, the
freshwater fauna may not have changed greatly; for although since
the draining, standing water has diminished in extent, conditions in the
habitat itself have probably remained fairly constant. Of the seventy-five
species of water-bugs recorded for Britain, forty-seven have been found
in Cambridgeshire. Most of them are widely distributed forms, charac-
™ By Mrs M. D. Brindley.
5-2
68 Zoology
teristic of the Northern Palaearctic region. An interesting species found
at Wicken is Glaenocorisa cavifrons, which, apart from a larger darker
form long known from the Scottish Highlands, has a restricted range in
Britain. Four forms of Notonecta occur, while Naucoris cimicoides and
Ranatra linearis are frequent in ponds. Cambridgeshire is not well provided
with running water, but where it is found, as in the River Cam, Velia
currens (Veliidae) and Hygrotrechus najas (Gerridae) are common. The five
other Gerrids found in Cambridgeshire are inhabitants principally of
standing water.
Turning to the land bugs, Chartoscirta elegantula, which in Britain is
restricted to four counties only, is found at Wicken. Other species,
recorded there and not elsewhere in the County, are Hebrus ruficeps,
Myrmedobia tenella, Pamera fracticollis, Teratocoris antennatus and. T. saundersi,
Adelphocoris ticinensis, Eurygaster maurus, Cyrtorrhinus geminus and. C.
pygmaeus. Chilacis typhae occurs at Wicken and elsewhere where the reed-
mace grows. Doliconabis lineatus is frequent on reeds, and Oncotylus
viridinervus is found on Centaurea in fen pastures.
Characteristic species of the chalklands are Calocoris roseomaculatus,
Poeciloscytus unifasciatus, and Myrmus miriformis. Amblytylus affinis, Ony-
chunemus decolor, Hoplomachus thunbergi, and Halticus apterus, often occur in
some numbers. Eremocoris podagricus has been recorded from near Royston,
and two species of Berytus with Metacanthus punctipes are frequent, especially
where the chalk bears hawthorn scrub. Where the fields are bounded by
screens of Pinus, there appears an intrusive population of conifer-dwellers,
such as Gastrodes ferrugineus and Acompocoris pygmaeus.
The claylands sometimes bear deciduous woodland. As the Heterop-
tera here have been little studied, it is possible that additional species await
discovery. Various Pentatomidae occur, such as Eusarcoris melanocephalus,
Palomena prasina and. Gnathoconus albomarginatus ; while other characteristic
species are Macrotylus solitarius, Macrolophus nubilus, and Calocoris ochromelas.
In the fruit-growing districts, the Capsids Plesiocoris rugicollis and Lygus
pabulinus are pests of apple and currant. Other species of interest in the
neighbourhood are Reduvius personatus, which is sometimes taken at dawn
in the town; and the bird and bat parasites, Cimex columbarius, Oeciacus
hirundinis and Cimex pipistrelli, which were first described by Jenyns from
Cambridgeshire.’
LEPIDOPTERA. For at least two centuries Cambridge and its
neighbourhood have been celebrated for their butterflies and moths, and
although some of the more interesting species have now become extinct,
* See p. 52 above. 7 See p. 60 above.
3 By J. C. F. Fryer, O.B.E., M.A.
Zoology 69
the fauna is still a remarkable one. Perhaps the best way to give the reader
a brief introduction to it is to consider rather the different types of
habitat exhibited by the country near Cambridge than to attempt any
description of the different species.
First, Cambridge itself deserves mention, since its old walls are the haunt
of a special race of a moth (Bryophila muralis), of which the typical form is
largely confined to the southern and western coasts. The species has never
established itself in the adjacent villages (even when introduced) but, in
Cambridge town, it seems able to survive the changes of modern times.
The moth appears in August and the larvae feed on the algal growth on
old walls, like those of its common relative, B. perla.
Leaving Cambridge, the most important habitat is that of the Fenland.
Most of this area is intensively cultivated, but fen species persist in the
dykes and clay pits; instances are the local “‘ Wainscot” moths, Leucania
obsoleta, Senta maritima and Nonagria arundinata, found where the common
reed is left uncut, and the marsh carpet (Cidaria sagittata), a rare and local
species occurring in dykes (also fens) where its food plant—meadow rue—
grows. A few areas remain in a more primitive condition, the fens of
Wicken and Chippenham in Cambridgeshire being the most famous.
Wicken, best known for the swallow-tail butterfly, is also the haunt of
many interesting species, such as the reed leopard (Macrogaster castaneae)
and the marsh moth (Hydrilla palustris), the latter a very rare insect with
the habit of flying chiefly between midnight and dawn. The Dutch large
copper butterfly, very closely resembling the extinct English large copper'
is being re-established at Wicken.* Chippenham somewhat resembles
Wicken in its Lepidoptera, but the swallow-tail is not found there,
although some other species occur more abundantly—as, for instance, the
Noctuid Bankia argentula, elsewhere in the British Isles almost confined to
Killarney.
The higher land immediately bordering the Fenland, and also the higher
parts of the Isle of Ely, support three characteristic Tortricid moths
(Phtheochroa schreibersiana, Pammene trauniana, Laspeyresia leguminana) and,
inaddition, one of the scarcest of British “dagger” moths (Acronycta strigosa),
which elsewhere has only been found near Tewkesbury, a remarkable dis-
tribution in view of the universal occurrence of hawthorn, its food plant.
Next to the Fenland, the most important area is that of the Chalk in the
See p. 188 below.
2 Woodwalton Fen, not far from the site of the former Whittlesea Mere, in
Huntingdonshire, contains some of the fen species found at Wicken, and also
another local Noctuid Tapinostola extrema, at one time thought to be extinct. This fen
is best known for the successful re-establishment of the Dutch large copper butterfly
a race very closely resembling the extinct English large copper.
70 Zoology
south of the County. Here, most of the typical chalk Lepidoptera are
found, e.g. the chalk hill blue, which occurs in an interesting race at
Royston. The best localities for seeing the chalk Lepidoptera are the
Devil’s Dyke, the Fleam Dyke and the Roman Road.
Two other areas, each with a different fauna, are also accessible from
Cambridge. Extending to the County borders in the south-east is the
Breckland of Norfolk and Suffolk, which has a very characteristic fauna.
Such species as the Noctuids Dianthoecia irregularis, Agrophila trabealis and
the Geometrid Lithostege griseata are found nowhere else in the British
Isles, while some species otherwise largely confined to the seashore occur
there also.
At the opposite side of the County, just across the border into Hunting-
donshire, another distinct fauna is found, that characteristic of oak woods
growing on clay, the most characteristic species being the black hairstreak,
which in Britain has a very restricted distribution. Monks and Warboys
Woods are typical of this type of country and are those best known to
lepidopterists.
COLEOPTERA. The following account of beetles deals only with the
rarer species. Many species thought, in 1904, to occur only in Cambridge-
shire have since been taken elsewhere.
Aleochara fumata Gr. (Fowler—A. brevipennis Gr. var. curta Sahlb.):
taken by the late G. C. Champion at Soham; since been taken by the
writer in the New Forest and Windsor Forest. Rhantus adspersus J.: taken
in profusion by Charles Darwin, but is now apparently extinct in Cam-
bridgeshire. Trichopteryx championis Matt., Ptilium caesum Er. and P. in-
cognitum Matt.: all from Wicken Fen, where they have not been taken
again, nor have they been recorded from any other locality. Cryptophagus
schmidti Strm.: two specimens taken by G. C. Champion in Wicken Fen,
and one by the late E. W. Janson at Whittlesea, remained unique, until
it was rediscovered by the late Miss F. J. Kirk and the writer in Burwell
Fen. Cryptocephalus primarius Har.: a single specimen was taken by the
late Dr Power on the Gogmagog Hills; not since taken, until discovered
by R. O. Richards, and also taken by J. Collins, near Oxford. Tychius
polylineatus Ger.: introduced by Crotch on a specimen taken by himself
at Cambridge, about 1863; was retaken in fair numbers by the late
Hereward Dollman on the downs at Ditchling, Sussex.
The following species have not been found in Cambridgeshire for
many years: Pterostichus aterrimus Pk.: formerly common in the Fens;
some years ago now Sir T. Hudson Beare took a single specimen in Norfolk,
but Mr Bullock has taken it in numbers at Killarney in recent a
* By H. St J. K. Donisthorpe, F.R.E.S.
Zoology 71
Graphoderes cinereus L.: has not been taken in the Cambridgeshire fens for
very many years; F. Balfour-Browne took a fair number in Norfolk, over
twenty years ago.
Of the species Fowler considers to have disappeared before the
draining, one may mention: Trechus rivularis Gyll.: thought to be extinct.
The late A. J. Chitty and the writer took it sparingly in cut sedge bundles
at Wicken Fen in 1900. Since then, however, it has been taken again in
some numbers by several collectors. Dytiscus dimidiatus Berg. : considered
to have become exceedingly rare; in 1899 and 1900 the writer took it not
uncommonly in Wicken Fen. Oberea oculata L.: also considered to have
disappeared; was plentiful in 1898 and 1900, and was also taken on other
occasions by Beare, Bouskell and the writer. I believe, however, it has
got more scarce again. Lixus paraplecticus L., also supposed to have dis-
appeared, was found by Mr F. Bouskell and the writer in fair numbers,
in 1894, and appeared to be spreading. This also I believe is getting scarce
again.
Space allows only brief notes on a few species from the different
sections of Coleoptera.
In the Geodephaga or ground beetles, Ophonus obscurus F., which occurs
at the foot of the Devil’s Dyke near Swaffham, appears to be almost
confined to Cambridgeshire, though the writer has taken it at Abbotsbury
in Dorsetshire. Chlaenius holosericeus (tristis Schal.) was formerly recorded
at Fen Ditton in 1827, and by Charles Darwin near Cambridge. Dr Power
took it in Burwell Fen, but it has not since been taken in Cambridgeshire.
The beautiful Panageus crux-major L. occurs sparingly under horse-cut
sedge; it used to be more plentiful formerly.
The water beetles are well represented and we have already dealt with
the most interesting species. The most noteworthy of the Hydrophilidae is
the large Hydrophilus piceus L., which used to be common under water
lilies in the Wicken Poor’s Fen; it is scarcer now. The very rare Spercheus
emarginatus was taken by Prof. Babington in Burwell Fen; it has not
occurred in Cambridgeshire since.
It is hard to choose which species to mention out of the very large
number of Staphylinidae recorded. Microglossa marginalis Gr., once
recorded as British by Crotch (a single example near Cambridge), has
since been taken in birds’ nests in many other counties. The very rare
Schistoglossa viduata Er. has recently been retaken in Cambridgeshire by
E. C. Bedwell in Wicken Fen. Passing on to the Clavicornia, Silpha
tristis Ill. is found on paths and at roots of grass at Wicken Fen, and the
much rarer S. nigrita Creutz. was taken by Dr Power on the Gogmagog
Hills.
72 Zoology
Copris lunaris L., in the Lamellicornia, was recorded by the Rev. L. Jenyns
as plentiful in 1828 ina field near Melbourn; but it has not been taken in
Cambridgeshire since. Of the Serricornia, the last specimen recorded for
the very rare Ludius ferrugineus L. was taken on a poplar by the Cam about
100 years ago. It has since been taken and bred in Windsor Forest by the
late Miss Kirk and the writer in some numbers in recent years. Platycis
minutus J. was discovered by the late G. H. Verrall in Chippenham Fen in
1898, and has been taken there by the writer and other collectors.
Of the longicorns, Oberea oculata L. has already been dealt with. The
large Saperda carcharias L. used to be abundant both in Wicken village
and the Fen some thirty years ago. I understand it is much scarcer now.
Agapanthia lineaticollis Donov. may still be swept off thistles in the fens.
In the Chrysomelidae, Chrysomela graminis L., which used to be
abundant on water mint in various parts of the fens, is much scarcer now
Tam told, and restricted to small local patches. A number of the Donaciae
are found, and the rare D. dentata Hoff. used to be common on various
water plants. Adimonia oelandica Boh., a very rare species, was found by
the late Mr Blatch in number in Wicken Fen in 1878; it has not occurred
since.
Among the Heteromera, the most interesting species are Cteniopus
sulphureus L., a coast species, not uncommon by sweeping in Wicken Fen.
Lytta vesicatoria L., the “blister beetle”, was originally recorded from the
Gogmagog Hills, where it was found again by the writer in 1901. It is
sometimes abundant at Newmarket, etc., on privet hedges. Anthicus
bifasciatus Rossi (new to Britain) was discovered by the Fryers in manure
heaps round Chatteris; subsequently taken by Williams in a manure heap
at Wicken; and by the late Miss Kirk and the writer in Burwell Fen; all in
numbers. It has since been found in Oxfordshire (J. J. Walker), etc. The
Rhynchophora, or weevils, are abundant. Ceuthorrhynchus angulosus Boh.,
a local and rare species, was taken by J. C. F. and J. H. Fryer on Stachys
and Galeopsis at Chatteris and Somersham (they also took the rare Halticid
Dibolia cynoglossi Koch. on Galeopsis at Somersham). The curious Lixus
paraplecticus L., which occurs on Sium latifolium in Wicken Fen, has already
been mentioned. It is covered with a yellow dust, which is renewed in
life. The local Dorytomus salacinus Gyll. can be beaten off sallow bushes in
Wicken Fen, etc.
DIPTERA." Our knowledge of the distribution of species of Diptera
is still very incomplete. Intensive collecting, even in a county such as
Cambridgeshire, could not fail to produce a number of species previously
unrecorded (or even undescribed). We know still less of the changes that
* By J. E. Collin, F.R.E.S.
Zoology 73
may have taken place in the fauna but it is interesting to note that
Jenyns* recorded the occurrence of three of the larger species of Diptera,
the Tabanids, Tabanus bovinus L. at Ely and Bottisham and Atylotus
rusticus F. at Cambridge, and the large Tachinid Peleteria nigricornis Mg.
on the Devil’s Dyke. The identity of the last two can be proved by an
examination of Jenyns’ specimens, but none of these three has been since
taken in the County. An interesting case of the reverse condition is that of
the handsome Trypetid Anomaea permunda Harr. (antica Wlk.). Formerly
regarded as a rarity it is now abundant, at least locally, and is freely
bred from hawthorn berries gathered near Cambridge. Recently it was
found in such numbers on the windows of a house on the outskirts of
that town as to be considered a “pest”’.
The physical features of a county are always of primary importance in
connection with insect life. The Fenland in the north of Cambridgeshire
harbours many species not found in the drier strip of the Chalk to the
south. This, and the clay strip of south-eastern Cambridge, the river
valleys, and the fringe of Breckland on the east, all provide characteristic
species (see Figs. 29 and 56).
Of particular interest is Wicken Fen, where intensive collecting might
well produce species unknown elsewhere in the whole country. It was here
that the author found the Chloropid Lipara similis Schin. which attacks
the growing point of the reed (Phragmites communis) without doing much
apparent damage, while its close relative Lipara Iucens Mg. causes a large
gall-like swelling. Here also was found in 1935 and 1936 the tiny midge
Pterobosca paludis Mcfie. sucking the juices from the wing-veins of dragon-
flies. An unexpected capture in 1936 was that of the rare Syrphid Myiolepta
Iuteola Gmel.; but some hollow tree on the outskirts of the fen must have
been harbouring this species for many years, in the same way that the
pollard willow trees at Upware probably accounted for the capture years
previously of Xylomyia marginata Mg. The occurrence of the rare
Odontomyia angulata Pnz.—a marshland species—is not surprising.
Chippenham Fen, not very far from Wicken, is almost surrounded by
woods and plantations and therefore possesses a somewhat different fauna.
This is the home of the uncommon Syrphids Chilosia nebulosa Verr., and
Sphegina kimakowiczi Strbl., and here a specimen of the giant Pipunculid
Nephrocerus flavicornis Ztt., and the interesting Conopid wasp parasite Brachy-
glossum (or Leopoldius) signatum W. have been taken. Here are also to be
found a few rare Trypetids such as Spilographa abrotani Mg., Rhacochlaena
toxoneura Lw., and Oxyphora corniculata Fn., and other Acalyptrates
such as Ochthiphila coronata Lw., spectabilis Lw., and elegans Pnz., and
* See p. 60 above.
74 Zoology
Chymomyza costata Ztt. Chippenham Fen is also at present the only locality
(in addition to Spain) where the very tiny Dolichopodid described by
Strobl as Micromorphus albosetosus is known to occur.
On the chalkland of the south, the Devil’s Dyke and Fleam Dyke are
excellent localities for the downland species associated with chalk. Here,
rare Tachinids may be obtained such as Lydella angelicae Mg., Demoticus
plebeius Fln., Zophomyia temula Scop., Neaera albicollis Mg., and Ocyptera
interrupta Mg., as well as many species of Sarcophaga. It was here that the
new Trypetid Trypeta (Ceriocera) microcera, recently described by Dr Hering
of Berlin, was found by Mr G. C. Varley living in the stems of Centaurea
scabiosa, while many other interesting Acalyptrates occur.
The clayland woods (see Fig. 29) begin at Woodditton, and their asso-
ciated insects are naturally different from those of the rest of the County.
Among the Syrphids, Chilosia maculata Fln. is common on the wild onion;
Platychirus tarsalis Schum. is common on the flowers of Geum rivale, while
the rare Chilosia pubera Ztt. and fasciata Egg. have also been taken. The
peculiar plant Paris quadrifolia is the host plant of the Cordylurid Parallelomma
paridis Her. Interesting Tachinids such as Camplyochaeta praecox Mg., Actia
nigrohalterata Vill., and Blepharomyia amplicornis Ztt. have occurred; while
the rare Xysta cana Mg. has been taken at Kirtling not far away. Among
the Acalyptrates, the rare Acartophthalmus bicolor Old. was once found in
Woodditton Wood sitting on dead twigs at the bottom of a dense thicket.
An account of the Diptera of Cambridgeshire would not be complete
without mention of some of the captures of the late Francis Jenkinson of
Cambridge. Particularly interesting was the occurrence of two very little
known Tachinids (Stenoparia monstrosicornis Schin., and Helocera delecta
Mg.) in his garden, but he also found at Cambridge the large Pipunculid
already mentioned—Nephrocerus flavicornis Ztt—and the Drosophilid
Acletoxenus formosus Lw., together with many other good species too
numerous to mention including (in 1901) the rare Tachinid Stomatorrhina
lunata F., which is probably only an occasional visitor to this country.
Finally, Jenkinson and other Cambridge entomologists have proved that
many of the rare species associated with rotting wood are to be found in
and about the very old trees of the College Gardens and along the Backs.
These include such species as the Syrphids Mallota cimbiciformis Fln., and
Pocota apiformis Schrnk., the four species of the Dolichopid genus Systenus,
as well as many Ancheungitis and Acalyptrates which frequent sappy
exudations.
HYMENOPTERA." Although our knowledge of the Hymenoptera
of Cambridgeshire is in advance of that of most counties, it is considerably
* By G. J. Kerrich, M.A. :
Zoology 7a
behind our knowledge of, say, the Coleoptera; and an attempt to assess the
hymenopterous fauna of the County must, in the main, be regarded as
preliminary.
The sawfly fauna" should be very rich, considering the abundance and
variety of willows, grasses, and horse-tails, the most characteristic food
plants of these insects; and sawflies certainly are numerous in individual
species, particularly in the fen country. Mr Benson collected them energeti-
cally during his student days, but they have since received very little
attention; and, probably, the known total of 172 species could be nearly
doubled. Three Pamphiliidae, five Cephidae, and five Cimbicidae are
known: a Cimbicid larva sometimes rewards a search on willows.
Xiphidria prolongata Geoffr. has several times been taken; and three
Siricidae are known, as are both their parasites, Rhyssa persuasoria L.
(Ichneumonidae) and Ibalia leucospoides Hochenw. (Cynipoidea). Of the
Tenthredinidae, the occurrence of the rare Ametastegia albipes Thoms. is
especially interesting.
For Aculeata, the County is much less favourable. On account of the
absence of sandy ground, except along two parts of the County boundary,
the numerous sand-living species are absentees or strays. The bees are the
group least affected; Adrenidae, in particular, are well represented, and
many of them visit willow flowers in the spring. Bumble-bees are con-
spicuous both in and around the fens and in College gardens. An interesting
fen bee is the little Hylaeus pectoralis Forst., which nests in old reed galls
of the fly Lipara lucens Mg. Its parasite is Gasteruption rugulosum Ab. The
best distributed ant is Acanthomyops flavus Fabr. The hornet, Vespa crabro L.,
nests in old willows and old cottages. Cleptes semiauratus L., a sawfly
parasite, is fairly common; and the Chrysididae are well represented.
Several of these latter belong to the interesting fauna which frequents old
posts, including species nesting therein, and their parasites. There are
many such posts along the approaches to Wicken Fen, and these have
frequently been studied. The commonest species is Trypoxylon figulus L.;
Sapyga clavicornis L., and the rare Cuphopterus confusus Schulz, recently
discovered there by the late H. P. Jones, may also be mentioned. The
species total of Aculeata for the County, excluding the Gamlingay
district, is 236.
Of the gall-wasps, only those living on Centaurea and Rosa have been
seriously studied. Isocolus scabiosae Giraud and fitchi Kieff., Rhodites
spinosissima Giraud and mayri Schlechtd. have not been found; but the
other known British species occur in the County, as do the two Periclistus
* | wish to thank Mr R. B. Benson for giving me access to the manuscript of his
section on sawflies for the account in the Victoria County History of Cambridgeshire.
76 Zoology
spp., inquilines in Rhodites galls. Diastrophus rubi Bouché and Xestophanes
potentillae Vill. are known; but the oak fauna is almost untouched. The
commonest Figitidae are known, but not much can be said of the other
parasitic forms.
Of Ichneumonidae, 452 species are known, a number of which were first
British records. Many species are attracted to the flowers of Umbelliferae,
which are conspicuous along roadsides and in meadows. Aritranis carnifex
Grav., Epiurus melanopygus Grav., and Diblastomorpha bicornis Boie., are
characteristic fen species; also Hemiteles balteatus Thoms., known in Britain
only from Wicken Fen and the Norfolk Broads. Tufts of Deschampsia
caespitosa, in fens and poor wasteland, provide winter quarters for the
females of numerous species. 180 Braconidae have been identified, the
majority by the late G. T. Lyle. Only 28 Serphoidea are known; and the
list of 60 Chalcidoidea is almost entirely composed of species bred in the
course of general biological work.
OTHER ORDERS. Among the smaller orders a beginning has been
made by Dr C. H. N. Jackson with the Collembola. From among a total of
over 150 British species of this order, some 55 have been found in the County,
where they have been mostly collected in Wicken Fen and near Cambridge.
Among the Orthoptera, several of the rarer species have not been found for
many years. The most notable recent record is that of the great green
grasshopper (Tettigonia viridissima), which has been found at Madingley
by G. C. Varley. The Ephemeroptera have been but little collected, and
records of only 13 species are apparently known. Out of a total of 44
British species of Odonata, 27 kinds have been found in Cambridgeshire;
most of the recent records are due to the late W. J. Lucas and J. Cowley.
About half the recorded British species of Psocoptera (booklice) have been
found in Cambridgeshire by R. M. Gambles and others. Although a few
rare species occur in Wicken Fen, there are none that are peculiar to the
County. Knowledge of the Hemiptera-Homoptera is still scanty, and much
work needs to be done on this suborder before an adequate idea of its
representatives can be ascertained. In the Neuroptera, some 34 species out
of a total of 57 British forms have been recorded. The snake flies Raphidia
xanthostigma and R. maculicollis occur in woods, while Sisyra fuscata may
be found around Cambridge and at Wicken Fen, and probably elsewhere,
along with the freshwater sponges with which it is associated. The
most notable member of the order is the very rare Psectra diptera, an
example of which was taken in Wicken Fen in 1934 by H. Donisthorpe.
Of the Mecoptera, all three British species of Panorpa occur, P. cognata being
recorded from Fleam Dyke. The Trichoptera or caddis flies are well
represented, especially in Wicken Fen. The most interesting records are -
Zoology 77
perhaps those of the very local Limnophilus decipiens and of Agraylea
pallidula, which were found in the Fen by M. E. Mosely in 1926: the
last-named had only been taken once previously in Britain. Some 63
species representing 11 families have so far been found, but there is much
scope for futher work on this order.
MYRIAPODA
According to E. B. Worthington, 28 species have been found in Cam-
bridgeshire, and those requiring special mention include Glomeris marginata
and Polyxenus lagurus. The last-named has been found in damp timbers
around Cambridgeshire and Wicken. The difficulties attending their
identification and the paucity of reference collections probably account
for the scanty attention given to the “‘myriapods”’ in Britain.
CRUSTACEA"
Considering that Cambridgeshire is so essentially an inland county, its
crustacean fauna is truly remarkable. This is represented by no less than
76 genera and 166 species. Quite recently, the fauna of Wicken Fen has
been investigated fairly thoroughly, but previously to that a great deal of
work had been done by Brady and Robertson as.early as 1870. Wicken of
course represents a part of the original Fenland and possesses its own
interesting fauna. There is also the remains of an interesting salt marsh
with brackish water fauna to be found at Wisbech.
Among the higher Crustacea are records of Carcinus maenas (Pennant)
and Palaeomonetes varians (Leach). Chirocephalus diaphanus Baird is also
recorded from Bottisham Park, while there are several records of Niphargus
or the blind well-shrimp, though it is quite certain that several of Gilbert
White’s records of the spring keeper refer to Niphargus and not to Gam-
marus. The higher Crustacea, with the addition of Chirocephalus and
Argulus, are represented by 18 genera and 24 species.
The Cladocera are represented by 21 genera and 40 species. Most of
them come from Wicken Fen, and a few of these are rare or of exceptional
interest. Macrothrix hirsuticornis Brady and Norman, recorded by W. A.
Cunnington, is a rare species, and so are Acroperus angustatus Sars and
Alona tenuicaudis Sars, both recorded from Wicken Fen by P. M. Jenkin.
Anchistropus emarginatus Sars, recorded by A. G. Lowndes from Wicken
Fen, was at one time considered the rarest species of Cladocera in the
British Isles, but it is really fairly common. Polyphemus pediculus L. is
very abundant on Wicken Fen, but it does not occur in many of the
midland counties.
* By A. G. Lowndes, M.A.
78 Zoology
The Copepods are represented by 5 genera and 37 species, but it is safe
to say that with the possible exception of Wicken Fen the group has
hardly been touched. It is certain that a careful investigation of Whittlesea
would greatly add to the number of species. Of the recorded species, that
of Cyclops gigas Claus is the most important, since it is the only authentic
record in the British Isles.
The Ostracods are or were till quite recently a sadly neglected group of
Crustacea and yet they should be of considerable interest. In Cambridge-
shire, the ostracod fauna is remarkable, no less than 32 genera and 65
species being recorded. Siphlocandona similis Baird is a rare species, but
occurs fairly abundantly on Wicken Fen. The genus is not recorded
outside the British Isles. Prionocypris olivacea (Brady and Norman) is a
rare species, but it was found in large quantities quite recently at Ashwell
(in Hertfordshire just outside the County) by P. F. Holmes. The genus
Pseudocandona is also recorded from Wicken. This is an important record,
for there has probably been more confusion over the species P. pubescens
(Koch) than over any other species of freshwater ostracod.
The sperms of ostracods are the largest among the whole animal
kingdom, and moreover they are highly mobile. In many species, and
even in many genera, males are unknown and yet in those cases where
males do occur the male genital organs are of a highly complicated type.
There is on record one species, Herpetocypris reptans Baird, which was
known to breed entirely by parthenogenesis for eleven years. The males
of this genus are unknown while the females still retain spermatheca with
ducts of relatively enormous length, presumably for the reception of these
giant sperms, and yet it is pretty certain that the sperms ceased to exist
long before the Tertiary period. Holmes has recorded a second species of
Pseudocandona from Lake Windermere which promises to throw a con-
siderable amount of light on this obscure subject.
There is yet another record which should be of great interest. Hemicy-
there villosa Sars is recorded from the River Cam, where it is quite abun-
dant on occasions. It can be traced right out to sea and is recorded by Sars
from some of the deepest fiords of Norway. The same species is also
recorded in the fossilised state from the Pre-tertiary period.
HIRUDINEA
W. Ambrose Harding records nine out of the eleven species of British
freshwater leeches in the County. The medicinal leech (Hirudo medicinalis)
has apparently disappeared from Cambridgeshire many years ago. Among
the more local species, Theromyzon tesselata and Hemiclepsis marginata
Zoology 79
sometimes occur in numbers: the first-mentioned is stated to live upon
water-fowl and the latter is at least partially a fish parasite. Very little
definite information exists, however, with regard to their hosts.
TURBELLARIA
Five species of flatworms occur in ponds and ditches, and two species are
to be found in running water. These latter, viz. Planaria alpina and
Polycelis cornuta, occur in springs where the temperature is low and varies
little throughout the year. They are regarded as relics of a former glacial
fauna which once populated the County.
PORIFERA
The two freshwater sponges, Ephydatia fluviatilis and Spongilla lacustris, are
prevalent. According to G. P. Bidder, the common species, E. fluviatilis,
is to be found on wooden piles, lock gates, or under floating wood, in the
waters around Wicken. Spongilla prefers deeper and moving waters, and
may be found growing up from the bottom of the River Cam along the
Backs at Cambridge.
CHAPTER SIX
THE ARCHA BOVOG OF
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
Edited by J. G. D. Clark, M.a., PH.D.
(With contributions by J. G. D. Clark, T. C. Lethbridge, and C. W. Phillips)
the distribution studies of Sir Cyril Fox. His book, The Archaeology
of the Cambridge Region, has had a widespread influence, and it
covers the extensive material housed in the University Museum of
Archaeology and Ethnology, up to the time of its publication in 1923.
Since 1923, the most important work on the upland has been the
dyke and cemetery excavations carried out by the Cambridge Anti-
quarian Society, which have served to place Cambridgeshire in the fore-
front of Anglo-Saxon studies. In the Fenland, the excavations sponsored
by the Fenland Research Committee, with the assistance of the Percy
Sladen Memorial Fund, have thrown a flood of light on the relation of
successive phases of human settlement to the geographical evolution of
the Fenland basin. A fuller survey of the prehistoric archaeology of
the County, complete with references, will be found in the forthcoming
Victoria County History of Cambridgeshire."
The close connection between human settlement and land movement is
brought out by Figs. 18-21. The most striking feature of these is the density
of settlement in the southern fens during the Bronze Age, and the sparse-
ness of settlement during the Early Iron Age. This change is certainly to be
connected with the post-glacial subsidence of the area. In Romano-British
times, the distribution of settlement was similar in broad outline to what it
had been during the Early Iron Age, with the important exception that
the silt fens in the north of the County and in south-eastern Lincolnshire
were then intensively cultivated (see Fig. 47). This may have been due to
a minor phase of re-elevation, but it may have been facilitated by the
superior technical ability of the Romans. Finally, in Anglo-Saxon times
the silt fens ceased to be cultivated. This change was due partly, perhaps,
to the breakdown of drainage or defensive works, but also to a further
slight subsidence. The emptiness of the peat fens at the close of this
period is emphasised by the map of Domesday villages (Fig. 22).
* I am indebted to the Editor (Mr L. F. Salzman) for permission to use this material
in the preparation of this chapter.
(i carton IS FAMOUS AMONG ARCHAEOLOGISTS FOR
Archaeology 81
THE PALAEOLITHIC AGE
The earliest certain traces of man in Cambridgeshire consist of flint
implements incorporated in deposits dating from the late Prof. J. E. Mart’s
“Period of Ageradation”, when gravel accumulated on the flood-plains
of rivers in the southern part of the County while the northern portions
were submerged beneath the sea.t The implements include hand axes of
Acheulian type as well as Clactonian and Levalloisian flake tools. The only
site in the County at which Lower Palaeolithic implements have been
obtained from a well-studied geological section is the famous Travellers’
Rest Pit? at Cambridge itself; unfortunately the pit has récently gone out
of use and the section is no longer visible. Within the borough of Cam-
bridge, also, the Lower Barnwell Village beds have produced implements
at Chesterton and Barnwell. Large numbers of unabraded flake and
core implements have been obtained at different times from the gravel
ridge at Upper Hare Park, Swaffham Bulbeck. A few stray implements
have come from the Granta Valley near Hildersham and Linton, while
others from Girton, Oakington, and Willingham, mark the course of an
extinct river that once flowed from the neighbourhood of Trumpington
towards Earith. The gravel spread in the Kennet-Kentford area is known
to have yielded many palacoliths (many of them from over the Suffolk
border), but precise information is lacking. The same applies to many
finds from the fen islands (e.g. from “Shippea Hill” near Ely). A few
flake implements of somewhat doubtful affinities have been obtained from
the March gravels, which at this time were situated on the coastline.
No Upper Palaeolithic sites have so far been located in the County, but
a few stray flints may point to their existence in the neighbourhood—
notably an angle burin from Wicken which exhibits a remarkable dark
green-and-white mottled patina. According to Marr, these Upper
Palaeolithic flints should be contemporary with a “Period of Erosion’,
when the sea coast lay far out beyond the Dogger Bank, and when the
rivers of Cambridgeshire were eroding their banks.
THE MESOLITHIC AGE
During Mesolithic times Cambridgeshire, in common with southern
Britain as a whole, began to undergo a progressive, though not uninter-
‘ Although closely bordering areas of intensive Palaeolithic research, Cambridge-
shire does not occupy a prominent place in this field. The best documented finds can
be seen in the Sedgwick Museum of Geology, where the admirable index catalogue
compiled by the late Prof. J. E. Marr can be consulted. See also the papers by J. E.
Marr in Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. lxxv, 210 (1920), and ibid. lxxxii, 1or (1926).
* See p. 16 above.
DBA 6
82 Archaeology
rupted, subsidence, which was not fully accomplished until the Early Iron
Age. The initial stage in this process was marked by the submergence of
the North Sea “moorlog”’, from which the prong of a Maglemosian fish
spear has been obtained, some 25 miles from the Norfolk coast. Part of a
very similar specimen was found many years ago in the Royston district,
probably from a low-lying site in the Cam Valley. Microlithic industries
of Tardenoisian aspect have been found at Fen Ditton, at Chippenham,
and on several sandy hillocks in the Ely fens. Excavations on the flanks
of one of these hillocks at Peacock’s Farm, near Shippea Hill station, re-
vealed evolved Tardenoisian flints stratified in the lowermost peat bed
underlying the fen clay and at a depth of some 17 ft. below mean sea-level
(Newlyn). These flints were of an industry previously well known from
the sand dunes between Wangford and Lakenheath, Suffolk. It is thus
established that Cambridgeshire, by the close of Mesolithic times, was
still at least 30 ft. higher in relation to the sea than it is to-day. Pollen
analysis shows that the Late Tardenoisian industry immediately antedates
the change-over from pine to alder dominated woods, which marks the
Boreal-Atlantic transition in this area.?
THE NEOLITHIC AGE
If stray finds of flint implements be excepted (and it is no longer possible
in this country to assign any single type exclusively to this phase), there
is very little material evidence for a Neolithic settlement of Cambridge-
shire. The pottery obtained from the Peacock’s Farm excavations, over-
lying the Late Tardenoisian level, shows, however, that the area was
affected by the Neolithic “A” (Windmill Hill) culture, while the level
at which it was found (minus 15 ft. 0.D.) indicates that the subsidence was
still at this period far from complete. It is likely that the Neolithic “A”’
culture spread to the Essex coast and the fen basin by direct overseas
movements; but the long barrow at Therfield Heath, Royston, on the
line of the Icknield Way, suggests that influences did move up the chalk
bele from Wessex, although the absence (with one possible exception in
Norfolk) of long barrows from the rest of East Anglia seems to indicate
that such influences were unimportant.
No pots decorated in the “Az” style have yet been found in the
County, but the recent discovery of a complete bowl in Mildenhall Fen,
only a short distance over the Suffolk border, suggests that such finds are
not unlikely in the future.
Nor, despite its proximity to the type site (Peterborough), can Cam-
bridgeshire yet show any certain traces of the Neolithic “B”’ culture.
* See p. 18 above.
Archaeology 83
THE BRONZE AGE
Although but little is yet known of the economy and dwelling sites of the
Bronze Age inhabitants of Cambridgeshire, sufficient stray finds (mainly
metal objects, but also a few pots) have been made to give some idea of
the areas settled at this time (see Fig. 18). The densest zone of settlement
was the fen margin between Cambridge and Isleham. Fen islands, such as
March, Manea, Chatteris, Littleport, Ely, and Stuntney, have also yielded
many finds; so have flat fens like Burnt Fen, Wilburton Fen, Grunty Fen,
and the Chatteris-Mepal fens. On the upland, in the south of the County,
Bronze Age finds are more or less limited to the chalk belt, the neighbour-
ing areas of Boulder Clay, Gault, and Kimeridge Clay being virtually empty.
One explanation for the relative density of settlement in the Fenland
during the Bronze Age is to be found in the natural conditions prevailing
at this time. It is known, from excavations at Shippea Hill, that during
the Early Bronze Age the fen basin was still several feet (at least 15 ft.)
higher in relation to the sea than it is to-day. This was a height quite
sufficient to affect profoundly the possibilities for settlement in such a
low-lying area by prehistoric man. Conversely, as subsidence set in again,
settlement tended more and more to move out of the fen basin. Already
by the Late Bronze Age, half the hoards, and more than a third of the
loose finds, come from the higher land in the southern part of the County:
and by the Early Iron Age the evacuation was almost complete. The
eradualness in the drift of population seems to discount the explanation
that it was due to sudden economic change, and, in particular, to the
introduction of a more intensive type of agriculture, which in this area can
hardly have occurred before the Early Iron Age.
According to Sir Cyril Fox, the following stages can be recognised in
the local Bronze Age:
Transitional 2000— 1700 B.C.
Early Bronze Age 1700— 1400 B.C.
Middle Bronze Age 1400— 1000 B.C.
Late Bronze Age 1000—5—400 B.C.
Transitional and Early Bronze Age. The earliest metal forms are rare in
Cambridgeshire, comprising only four flat axes without expansion of the
cutting-edge, and one round-heeled flat riveted dagger. Objects of the
full Early Bronze Age, on the other hand, are plentiful, and include 17 flat
axes with expanded cutting-edges, 23 flanged axes, two spearheads of
class I, one of class II, and one halberd. In addition, there is the recently
discovered grooved dagger, found with a perforated stone axe-hammer of
6-2
84 Archaeology
Snowshill type accompanying a contracted skeleton under a round barrow
at Chippenham—the only metal object of this period in the County with
any associations. This find is an outlier from the recently distinguished
Early Bronze Age culture of Wessex.
The scarcity of the earliest metal objects is doubtless due to the over-
running of the County by the Beaker people, who first reached here in a
more or less “neolithic”? stage of culture. Of the two main groups
distinguished in south-eastern Britain, Cambridgeshire was affected
mainly by the “A” beakers, the “B” group being represented only by
a solitary example from Isleham Fen. The ““A”’ beakers are found dis-
tributed round the entire margin of the Fenland, and evidently the Wash
formed a main avenue of entry for these people. In Cambridgeshire, they
settled upon the larger fen islands (March, Doddington, Ely), and on
the low-lying Burnt, Burwell, Isleham, Lode, and Quy Fens. They also
pushed up the valleys of the Snail, the Cam, and the Granta; and finds
from Therfield Heath and Hitchin suggest that some of them pressed
down the Icknield Way to Wessex. The Beaker pottery from the County
is outstandingly rich, and special mention should be made of the three
handled beakers; two of them are of the rare straight-sided type.
The open settlement sites, found on sandy hillocks at Shippea Hill
(Plantation and Peacock’s Farms) and Isleham, have produced quantities
of sherds from beakers with rusticated surface; and, in addition, they have
yielded cord-impressed sherds of ““food-vessel”’ affinities with internally
bevelled rims. The latter are highly significant, for they show that the
“native” element was not submerged by the Beaker invaders. It was
among a mixed population that the metal types of the full Early Bronze
Age circulated. The flint work from the fen sites is of a high standard;
shallow pressure flaking is seen to great advantage on the scrapers, the
barbed and tanged arrowheads, and the plano-convex knives.
The County is rich in contracted inhumation burials accompanied by
beakers, the graves in every case being flat. Generally, the graves occur
singly, but an undoubted cemetery was destroyed over a period of years
in a sand-pit off Springhead Lane, Ely, where the discoveries included at
least 14 human jaws, an “A” beaker found together with a perforated
stone axe-hammer near the head of a skeleton, and a ““C”’ beaker in
company with another skeleton. Among the objects associated with
isolated beaker burials may be mentioned “‘a bull’s horn”, found with the
Wilburton Fen beaker in 1847; while a grave group, recently discovered
at Little Downham, yielded an “‘A”’ beaker, a flint dagger,’ a flint knife, a
V-perforated button, and a pulley ring of shale.
Seventeen similar ones have been found loose in the County.
Archaeology
iss)
=
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=
oe
ca
2
Ss)
BRONZE AGE
SETTLEMENT
Fenland
86 Archaeology
Middle Bronze Age. The Middle Bronze Age in Cambridgeshire was
a period of prosperity undisturbed by invasion. Bronze implements
came more widely into use; no fewer than 122 palstaves, two daggers and
dirks, 20 rapiers, and 27 looped spearheads, have been recorded from the
County. Irish gold also found its way into the area in some profusion; and
there have been two famous finds from Grunty Fen, Wilburton, one in
1844 comprising a splendid multiple-ribbon twisted gold torc with solid
terminals and three looped palstaves, and another in 1850, which included
a similar torc, a part of a bronze rapier, and a gold bracelet with attached
ring money. .
The pottery in use locally at this time was the overhanging-rim ware,
known from a single open settlement in Isleham Fen, and from many
burials. Cremation was the dominant rite, the ashes being contained
either in an urn or in some kind of bag. It is to this period that many of the
Bronze Age round barrows in the County belong; although some had
already been erected in the Early Bronze Age, the cremations being
inserted secondarily. The barrows on the chalk belt are strung out along
the line of the Icknield Way in five main groups; at Chippenham, on
Newmarket Heath, at Upper Hare Park, near the junction of the Fleam
Dyke and the Icknield Way, and on the downs east of Royston in the
parish of Melbourn. The group of fen barrows, found mainly within the
triangle Mepal-Manea-Chatteris, is significant from its occurrence at heights
barely above mean sea-level; this emphasises the geographical conditions
prevailing in the earlier stages of the Bronze Age in this region.
Late Bronze Age. The Late Bronze Age saw a further substantial .
increase in the use of metal. Finds are nearly three times as numerous as in
the preceding period and they embrace a much wider range of types. A
high proportion of the bronzes (some 374 out of a total of 495) comes
from 19 hoards. Some of these, like the pair of shields from Coveney Fen,
are probably “votive”’; others, e.g. the leaf-shaped swords from Chippen-
ham, mark a local metallurgical industry; but most of them belong to the
classes known as merchants’ hoards (e.g. the Wilburton hoard of 163
pieces—mostly spearheads), and founders’ hoards (e.g. the hoard at Green
End Road, Cambridge, containing many broken objects and over 17 lb. of
metal cakes). Together, these reflect the extensive trade responsible for the
introduction of a flood of exotic types, mainly of Central European origin,
to Cambridgeshire. It is evident, from the fact that all the leaf-shaped
swords belong to the “V”’ type, that the ““U”’ sword complex did not
affect Cambridgeshire in its earliest stage. Further, although marginal to
an area strongly affected by the “‘Carp’s tongue’ sword complex,
Cambridgeshire was hardly influenced; none of the characteristic swords
Archaeology 87
has been found in the County, and only one fragmentary winged
axe.
Although exotic influences resulted in a revolution of the metallurgical
industry at this time, it is likely that the change was mainly brought about
by trade rather than by ethnic invasion, since the County is strictly
marginal to the area of the so-called Deverel-Rimbury pottery. Finds of
pottery of this class consist only (1) of a few sherds from a circular trench
(2-3 ft. deep with a diameter of 68 ft.) at Swaffham Bulbeck, (2) the lower
part of a:finger-printed barrel urn from Chesterton, and (3) the upper
part of a small pot with slashed rim and applied bosses from the Little
Thetford—Fordham causeway. Evidence that the Middle Bronze Age
overhanging-rim urn pottery in this part of the country continued into
the succeeding period is supplied by the material from a settlement site
in Mildenhall Fen, only just over the Suffolk boundary, where a fusion
between the two wares can be detected. It is thus probable that some of
the “Middle Bronze Age’’ burials from the County really belong to
this period.
THE EARLY IRON AGE
The material available for the study of the Early Iron Age in Cambridge-
shire is scanty, and only an insignificant proportion has been obtained from
scientific excavation. This is largely due to the scarcity of “‘hill-forts”’, or
other prominent sites, that might have invited excavation. There are no
certainly established Early Iron Age defended sites in the County, apart
from (1) Wandlebury, a circular triple-banked site with a diameter of
about 1000 ft. crowning the crest of the Gogmagog Hills, and (2) the War
Ditches, a smaller single-ramparted site on a spur of the same hills. The
slight excavations carried out at the War Ditches, prior to the partial
destruction of the site, prove that the ditch was quarried by people of Early
Iron Age “A” culture, although the surviving material is meagre. The
key to the interrelations of the Early Iron Age cultures of Cambridgeshire
must be sought in further digging in the surviving portions of the War
Ditches and in Wandlebury, a site that encloses a private house, and
which has yet to be excavated.
The normal settlement was open and undefended, generally without
surface indication, but sometimes delimited by a low bank as at Bellus
Hill, Abington Pigotts. It is perhaps for this reason that little systematic
work has been done, and that the discovery of settlement sites of this
period has invariably been accidental. From the meagre information
available it would appear (Fig. 19) that settlement was concentrated in the
valleys of the Cam above Cambridge, the sites commonly being placed
88 Archaeology
in pairs either side of a ford, e.g. Grantchester and Trumpington, Barring-
ton and Foxton. The clay areas remain completely blank apart from stray
finds of Belgic coins, many of which doubtless continued to circulate at a
later date, and, in any case, can hardly be regarded as indicative of settle-
ment. The evacuation of the Fenland, already begun in the later stages of
the Bronze Age, was virtually complete by the Early Iron Age, with the
exception of certain of the larger islands. Coin finds in the north of the
County may well relate to the Romano-British settlement of that region.
The only finds from the fens between Cambridge and Isleham consist of
a stray brooch and a discarded chariot-wheel boss of Belgic type. Yet, in
the Bronze Age, this area was the most populous districtin Cambridgeshire.
The County was affected mainly by two successive spreads: the so-
called “A” culture, and the “C” (or Belgic) culture. If the number of
brooches and pins of early La Téne type is any criterion, it would appear
that the “A” culture spread into the County not later than the latter half
of the fifth century B.c. The distribution of the finger-impressed pottery,
in Cambridgeshire and neighbouring counties, certainly suggests the
Wash as the main entrance, although certain elements, such as the
“plugged-in”’ handle, may well have come here from Wessex by way of
the Icknield Way and kindred routes.
The “B” culture is represented by the famous Newnham Croft burial,
at Cambridge, accompanied by outstandingly rich grave goods; but
settlement material is entirely lacking.
Although the “C” culture was essentially intrusive, penetrating from
the south about the middle of the first century B.c., it seems unlikely that
there was any complete break in the continuity of the Early Iron Age
settlement of the County. Many sites, such as Abington Pigotts and
Hauxton, have yielded pottery from both cultures. Among the numerous
cremation cemeteries of the County, only one—that at Guilden Morden—
has been scientifically excavated, and comparatively few graves in this
were of pre-Roman age. An iron fire-dog, with ox-head terminals, from
Lord’s Bridge may have come from the vault of some importantindividual,
but little is known of the circumstances of the find.
There is ample evidence for trade at this time. Pottery from the kilns of
Arezzo in Italy was imported through Gaul, while several finds ofamphorae
of Mediterranean type probably indicate trade in wine or oil. Such
imports were doubtless paid for in part by the export of slaves; a fine
slave chain with six collars from Lord’s Bridge may be a reminder.
_ The native coins, in which Cambridgeshire is rich, show that most of
the County fell within the territory of the Catuvellauni, whose princes"
* Tasciovanus (20/15 B.c.—A.D. 10) and Cunobelinus (A.D. 10-40/3).
89
Archaeology
EARLY IRON AGE
SETTLEMENT
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90 Archaeology.
minted their coinage at Verulam and Colchester during the sixty years
prior to the Roman Conquest. But the northern part of the County, and
a fringe to the east of the Devil’s Ditch, formed part of the tribal area of
the Iceni, hoards of whose coins are known from March and Wimblington.
ROMANO-BRITISH TIMES*
In Roman, as in prehistoric times, the human settlement of Cambridge-
shire was dominated by its physical features and its superficial geology.
With the exception of the silt-land farms, the distribution of Romano-
British population was not fundamentally different from what it had been
in the Early Iron Age, and it is clear, despite the existence of some finds
on the Boulder Clay in the south-west of the County, that no serious
attack was made on the considerable areas of scrub which must have
covered much of the district (see Fig. 20).
One of the dominating features of life in all the Roman provinces was
the presence of a developed road system and, in greater or lesser measure,
of organised town life. The dominant feature of the Roman road system
in this district is the Ermine Street, entering the County at Royston,
passing out of it towards Huntingdon at Papworth Everard, and taking
its name from the Cambridgeshire hundred of Armingford.
Secondary roads converged on Cambridge. From the south-east, came
the Via Devana from Colchester,? which is probably the earliest Roman
road in the region. Entering Cambridge from the south-west, was the
Akeman Street which branched from Ermine Street, north of the Cam
crossing, to continue its course north-east to Ely, and possibly to Littleport.
There was also a local road from Braughing, through Great Chesterford,
to join the Icknield Way at or near Worstead Lodge on the line of the
so-called Via Devana. In the west of the County there was also the
secondary road from Sandy to Godmanchester which now forms the
County boundary for a short way. Last comes the Icknield Way, which
must have continued in use in Roman times, though there is no evidence
that it was metalled or otherwise regulated by Roman standards.
During earlier times, the clay areas of the upland had been almost
without population, which seems to have been concentrated partly along
the chalk belt and partly in the valley of the Cam. It might be supposed
that the Roman road system, cutting through these clay areas both in the
' By C. W. Phillips, M.A.
* According to Fox, this originally may have missed Cambridge to join the Ermine
Street at or near Caxton, but was later re-aligned to pass through the town and lead
north-west to Godmanchester. This view, however, seems less likely now than in
1923. y
—
Archaeology 91
CAMBRIDGESHIRE Een te es
ROMANO-BRITISH ;
Roman age
/
Ld + Settlement sit
SETTLEMENT GY steal ce
& Hoards & numerous objects
) Pottery kilns
A Hoard of coins
e Casual finds
S @& Barrow of Roman age
VRQ, | = Cemetery
— Single grave
Roads (---conjectural)
a Canal (Car Dyke)
fA7Fen silt
Clay
SS Fenland agricultural area
Fig. 20.
The Car Dyke joined the Old West River (not marked here) at
Lockspit Hall. See Fig. 7.
92 Archaeology
south-east and south-west, would have induced settlement, but there is
little evidence of this. Penetration of settlement into the uplands was still
by way of river valleys; those of the Linton Granta, the Newport Cam,
and the Bourn Brook, show this very clearly, while the courses of the
roads are almost without settlement. In thrusting their way into the clay
lands by the river valleys the Romano-Britons were carrying on, in larger
numbers and with better equipment, a movement that had begun in the
Early Iron Age, but they do not appear to have made any serious effort to
occupy the wooded country as a whole. This task was reserved for the
Anglo-Saxons.
The general style of rural life seems to have been humble. No country
house of any importance has yet been found anywhere in the County.
There are no indications of any industrial activity except for a pottery for
coarse wares at Horningsea which enjoyed a fairly wide local market.
Few individual finds of much importance have been made in the County,
but the Fenland has yielded a number of good pieces of Roman pewter,
and there is also the remarkable group of cult objects associated with the
worship of the Emperor Commodus as Romanus Hercules found in
Willingham Fen. The County, too, has some notable examples of the high
conical type of barrow of Roman age. The Bartlow group, though badly
damaged, remains the finest of its kind in Britain.
In the Fenland, an extensive Romano-British occupation has been
recently demonstrated, more particularly on the silt areas and on certain
islands. This settlement was agricultural, and the region of maximum
farming activity seems to have been to the north upon the siltlands of
south-eastern Lincolnshire.* Before this discovery, the frequency of stray
Romano-British finds in the fens had been a puzzling fact.
The exploitation of the silt areas began at once after the Roman conquest,
and a large population of relatively well-to-do peasant cultivators spread
over a region which, it has been suggested, was administered as a domain
of the Roman people, though this fact can only be inferred from the general
conditions, and does not rest on any confirmatory discoveries. In the less
favourable parts of the Fenland, there was a fair sprinkling of folk living
in small groups. Many of their sites had close relation to watercourses,
but both their house sites, and the adjacent small fields, were carefully
protected against tidal floods, for it must be understood that, at this time,
tides came far up the wide fen estuaries. Towards the close of the third
century, conditions seem to have deteriorated. Whereas it may normally
have been unnecessary to organise any drainage works, a slight subsidence
of the whole fenland basin may have made the last one and a half centuries
See p. 20 above.
Archaeology 93
a time of increasing difficulty for the fenland cultivators. Alternatively, it
is possible that the disaster may have been due to a combination of tide
and wind causing a general breach in the natural silt defences which the
sea built against itself around the southern margins of the Wash. In any
case, matters had reached such a condition by the fifth century, that the
general abandonment of the region was due to take place whether the
Anglo-Saxons had come or not. It is significant that the latter made no
attempt to settle anywhere in the fenland basin, and that they confined
themselves to the country round the edge. In view of their farming
habits it is unlikely that they would have failed to occupy a region that
had been intensively and successfully cultivated, if it still remained in any
physical condition favourable to their enterprise. The Saxons, for the first
time, subdued and occupied the scrub-clad uplands of the County, but they
had only been able to make a sparse settlement in favourable parts of the
Fenland by the time of the Domesday Survey, half a millennium after
their first settlement.
There are no large urban sites in Cambridgeshire. Roman Cambridge
was a subrectangular area about 26 acres in extent defended by a bank and
ditch of late date. It was a road junction of local importance, but no
architectural remains of any kind have ever been found in its area. We are
compelled to envisage little more than a village built of wood, clay, and
thatch.
Conditions have not been favourable for finding out much about
Roman Cambridge because at various times a great thickness of top soil
has been removed from one of the most hopeful areas, but, as a result of
the finds made recently during the building of the new Shire Hall, it can
now be said that there was some occupation of the site in the middle of
the first century a.D. and that the former existence of a military camp
belonging to the period of the Claudian conquest is probable. No trace
of a wall has ever been found round Roman Cambridge, though Bowtell,
in the early nineteenth century, reported that some traces were then
visible in his judgment close to the Huntingdon Road’s exit from the
enceinte.*
The only other Roman town in the district was just over the Essex
border, at Great Chesterford. This was a more important centre with a
strong wall, much of which was still visible in Stukeley’s time, though all
above ground has now vanished. The numerous and important finds
made here at different times suggest that it was an active local centre of
the smaller kind.
* T. Bowtell, MSS. in Downing College Library, Cambridge.
94 Archaeology
THE ANGLO-SAXON PERIOD*
The Anglo-Saxon Age in eastern England can be divided into three
periods:
(t) The period of the Pagan Cemeteries which may be thought to
include the fifth, sixth and part of the seventh centuries. This was the age
of early settlement, and may perhaps be compared with the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries in North America.
(2) The Early Christian Period, which of course overlaps the Pagan
Period to some extent. It included part of the seventh, the eighth and
part of the ninth centuries.
(3) The Viking Age, which closed with the final extinction of Anglo-
Danish culture towards the end of the eleventh century.
These periods are by no means watertight compartments, and, com-
pared with the Early Iron Age, the Anglo-Saxon period is very imperfectly
understood. It is seldom realised that the Anglo-Saxon period lasted for
nearly seven hundred years, and that, except for the Pagan Cemeteries, it
is extremely difficult to locate sites whose excavation would throw any
light on conditions of those times.
In the Cambridge area, recent years have seen a great advance in the
study of the period. There have been excavations spread over several years
upon the big linear earthworks that are so outstandingly a feature of the
County. The following earthworks are shown in Fig. 21, starting with the
most north-easterly: Devil’s Dyke, Fleam Dyke (in two parts), Brent or
Pampisford Ditch, Bran or Heydon Ditch, and the Mile Ditches. Two
cemeteries have been discovered which belonged to the period of overlap
between the pagan and Christian periods. Small villages of both pagan
and Christian periods have been found and investigated either within or
not far beyond the boundaries of the County. Finally, several small
excavations have provided a very hopeful start with the study of the
pottery belonging to the last three centuries of the period. But, with the
exception of linear earthworks, the student of Anglo-Saxon England is
very much handicapped by having to wait till a chance find may give him
a clue upon which to work. There are no villages surrounded by great
earth-ramparts that are so helpful in the study of the Early Iron Age
in some parts of Britain. The great majority of Saxon villages are
beneath those of the present day, and are therefore irretrievably lost to
Archaeology. Manor-sites may perhaps offer a slightly better field for
study, but there again the chance of finding one not occupied by later
buildings is remote.
* By T. C. Lethbridge, M.A.
95
Archaeology
DARK AGES
SETTLEMENT
2
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1
ie
©
a
aa
3
96 Archaeology
(1) The Pagan Period. The evidence for this period in Cambridgeshire
is abundant. More than two dozen burial sites are known. Most of these
have produced a considerable number of graves (sometimes running into
hundreds), and most of the burials were accompanied by grave-goods.
There is therefore a very large collection of objects from these finds on
view in the University Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology.
The men were usually buried with their weapons and often with food
for the next world; while the women were dressed in woollen clothes
with numerous ornaments such as brooches on the breast, beads in long
festoons round the neck, girdle-hangers at the waist, and clasps at the
wrists. In some cemeteries (e.g. at Little Wilbraham) numerous cremation
burials have been found, but, on the whole, cremation seems to be the
exception rather than the rule in Cambridgeshire. Fig. 21 shows that the
cemeteries are confined to the fen margins and to the river valleys. No
cemeteries have, as yet, been found on the Boulder Clay covered uplands.
This raises several points which are difficult to explain, for although the
clay areas were apparently devoid of pagan Saxon settlement, yet the
Domesday Survey shows them to be as densely occupied as the river
valleys (see Fig. 22). It isnot clear whether this means that the uplands were
unpopulated in pagan times, or whether, perhaps, survivors of the Romano-
British population lived on them. Another phenomenon, as yet unex-
plained, is the scarcity of settlement along the River Ouse. Cemeteries are
so numerous in other Cambridgeshire valleys, and in those of the adjacent
parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, that one would have expected a similar
concentration along the Ouse. There are some burial sites along the river,
but they contain very few burials until Kempston is reached near Bedford.
Only one village of the Pagan Age hasas yet been explored in Cambridge-
shire. This is situated on the east bank of Car Dyke at Waterbeach, and its
rubbish overlay the silting of this Roman canal. The huts were of the same
semi-pit-dwelling type that has been noticed elsewhere. A village of the
Viking Age at St Neots just outside the County had huts of similar form.
It has not been definitely established whether these pit-like hovels were
really the living rooms of the period, or whether they were undercrofts to
upper stories as indicated in the Bayeux Tapestry.
Of the great linear earthworks of the County, the Devil’s Dyke is one
of the most spectacular monuments of its kind in Britain,’ while the Fleam
Dyke is little less remarkable. Not much can be seen now of the Bran
* The Devil’s Dyke is 7} miles long with a rampart 15 ft. high. It runs across the
open chalk country from the Fenland to the one-time wooded clayland, and has been
laid out in three straight sections, the north-westerly one of which was apparently
aligned on a Roman canal or lode which ran from Reach to Upware.
Archaeology 97
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
DOMESDAY
SETTLEMENTS
Miles
4 0
Fenland
Fig. 22.
From H. C. Darby, ““The Domesday Geography of Cambridgeshire”’, Proc.
Camb. Antiq. Soc. xxxvi, 39 (1936). The town of Cambridge is indicated by
a black circle. Compare the distribution of villages on the upland with the
empty clay areas of Fig. 21.
98 Archaeology
Ditch, while Brent Ditch has no bank. All four appear to represent
attempts to hinder communication along the open chalk downland during
the Pagan Age. Burials of warriors with their weapons have been found
at Devil’s Dyke and Fleam Dyke, beside the Worsted Street. Possibly
there were also burials in the Brent Ditch. At the Bran Ditch, groups of
decapitated skeletons have been found at two localities. They had associated
objects of this period. Excavations’ have shown that these linear earth-
works were, in all probability, constructed during the early wars of the
Heptarchy, when Penda of Mercia (c. 655) overthrew the rulers of
East Anglia.
Other indications of warfare in early settlement times may be deduced
by finds of early swords, spears, shields, and human bones in the Cam
at Clayhithe, opposite the end of the Car Dyke.
(2) The Early Christian Period. Generally speaking, this period has left
but the scantiest of material remains in the County. A few chance finds
may be seen in the University Museum. But in recent years extensive
cemeteries at Burwell and Shudy Camps have been explored. These appear
to belong to the period of overlap, and may perhaps have continued into
the eighth century. It is probable that another cemetery exists at Foxton,
while a burial at Allington Hill may perhaps be that of an important man
killed at the Dykes in the seventh century.
(3) The Viking Age. Finds of small objects, weapons, and human
skeletons, at Hauxton Mill probably indicate trouble there about the year
870. Pottery of the Viking Age is now being recognised from many
localities, especially in the town of Cambridge itself, and, to a less extent,
down the Ouse Valley, while small crosses and grave slabs characteristic
of the district have been widely noted.
But the chief finds relating to this period are the rich series of weapons
found in the rivers. For the most part, these may belong to the final
campaign when William I overcame the last resistance of Hereward the
Wake and his followers in the Isle of Ely. By this time, the Domesday
book (see Fig. 22) presents a complete picture of settlement in the County,
and sums up the economic activity of the Anglo-Saxon period.
* Objects of the later part of the Roman period were found beneath the Fleam
Dyke and Devil’s Dyke, while skeletons of the Anglo-Saxon period and late Roman
pottery were found under the vallum of the Bran Ditch.
CHAPTER SEVEN
TRH PLACE-N AME S.OF
CAMBRIDGESHIRE’
By P. H. Reaney, LITT.D., PH.D.
AMBRIDGE, GRANTCHESTER, AND ELY WERE RIGHTLY
derived some thirty years ago by the great Cambridge philologist
and pioneer of English place-name studies, the late Prof. Skeat.?
A few scholars in other fields hesitated to accept his etymology of Cam-
bridge but recent advances in the study serve only to confirm it. The
earliest reference to the town is Bede’s Grantaceastir (c. 730), ‘‘the Roman
fort on the Granta’’. This would normally become “‘Grantchester”’, but
the reference is undoubtedly to Cambridge and not to the modern
Grantchester which appears in early sources as Granteseta, “ the settlers on
the Granta”’. As early as 745, in Felix’s Life of St Guthlac, had come the
change in the second element which has given rise to the present-day
name of Cambridge (Grontabricc). The site of a Norman castle and a centre
of Norman administration, the town was subject to strong Norman
influence which had its effect on the name, until, through such forms as
Cantebruge (c. 1125), Cauntebrig’ (1230) and Caumbrigg (1353), the ancestor
of the modern spelling was reached in Cambrigge (1436).
Grantchester is an interesting example of phonetic change and popular
etymology resulting, ultimately, in the form that Cambridge should have
had. Grantsete became Gransete and Grancete, pronunciations which
suggested an analogy with such names as Leicester and Worcester. The
name was accordingly spelled Granceste, Grancestre, Granceter, and finally
Granchester, a spelling which has not yet been noted earlier than the
seventeenth century.
The river on which Cambridge stands is known in various parts of its
course as Granta, Cam, and Rhee. Granta, the real name, is unique and
pre-English, meaning, probably, “fen river’ or “muddy river”. When
Cambridge came to be known as Cantebrigge, this was interpreted as “ the
bridge over the Cante”’, an artificial back-formation found from 1340
onwards. Similarly, the modern Cam is a later back-formation from the
« This essay is based on a preliminary survey of material so far collected for a volume
on “The Place-names of Cambridgeshire” to be published by the English Place-
name Society. The discovery of further material may necessitate some modification
of detail.
2 W. W. Skeat, The Place-Names of Cambridgeshire (Camb. Antig. Soc. 1901).
7-2
100 Place-Names
spelling Cambrigge, and this was sometimes Latinised as Camus. Rhee is
from Old English éa “‘river”’; et b@re éa “by the river” became Middle
English at ther ee, which was wrongly divided as at the ree. In 1285,
William atte Ree lived by the Granta at Grantchester.
Ely occurs first, in Bede’s Ecclesiastical History, as Elge “eel-district”’.
The second element is the archaic ge, corresponding to the German gau,
found also in the names Surrey, Eastry, Lyminge, and Sturry in Kent, and
Vange in Essex. Here, too, popular etymology was early at work and,
already in the Anglo-Saxon version of Bede, the name appears as Elig
“eel-island”. Domesday Book records the yield of innumerable eels from
the fisheries of Ely and renders of eels were common elsewhere in the
island. In Sutton, too, was a place called Cappelode, a name identical with
the Lincolnshire Whaplode, “eelpout stream”’.
These names are of especial interest because of their age. Cambridge
and Grantchester contain the Celtic name of the river Granta. Grant-
chester, too, was a folk-name—‘‘the settlers on the Granta”, the second
element being that found in the names of such large districts as Dorset
and Somerset. Ely was the name of the whole island, called by Bede a
regio and in the Anglo-Saxon version Jéodlond. These names are of high
antiquity and may well date from the Anglian settlement which archaeo-
logists agree in placing in the latter half of the fifth century.
From the earliest periods, the estuary of the Wash has been a magnet
for successive hordes of invaders from beyond the sea, and its river valleys
have afforded an easy way inland. The Angles found the Fenland largely
unattractive for settlement. They pushed on, and clear evidence of their
former presence has been found in a number of cemeteries in the Cam
Valley, where the finds point clearly to a settlement by the end of the fifth
century. Numerous place-names of recognised early type might therefore
be expected here. But of the oldest type, that ending in -ingas, there is only
one, Kirtling, as against some twenty-four in the neighbouring county of
Essex, where, too, names pointing to heathen worship are common. Of
these, in Cambridgeshire there is not one. The probable explanation of
this curious contradiction—the absence of numbers of place-names of high
antiquity combined with clear archaeological proof of very early settle-
ment—is that the struggles for supremacy between East and Middle
Anglian and the Danish invasions resulted in such confusion, devastation,
and depopulation that memory of the names of all but the most important
places was utterly lost.
Names of early type do exist. Badlingham, Cottenham, Dullingham,
* R. G. Collingwood and J. N. L. Ayres, Roman Britain and the English Settlements
(1936), pp. 386-7.
Place-Names IOI
and Willingham, “homes of the followers of Baddel, Cotta, Dulla, and
Wifel’’, are of a very early type. Haslingfield, “the open country of the
dwellers by the hazel-wood”’, is an early name and the site of a fifth-
century cemetery. Armingford Hundred and Arrington, “‘the ford and
the farm of the people of Earna’’, to whom Ermine Street also owes its
name, are early formations, and the occurrence of their name in three
distinct places suggests that the Earningas were of some importance.
The element ham is, on the whole, earlier than tun, but some
-fon-names are older than some in -ham. Sawston, earlier Salsingetune,
“the farm of the followers of Salsa’’ (a personal-name otherwise unknown
in England), and Hinxton, deriving from Hengestingatun, “the farm of the
followers of Hengest’’ (a name known to have been borne by one of the
earliest of the invaders of Kent), are undoubtedly of greater age than such
names as Fordham, Coldham, and Downham; whilst from their very
meaning the three examples of Newnham and the two of Newton must
be comparatively late. So, too, are place-names which provide evidence
for women as landholders: Wilbraham (the site of a cremation cemetery)
and Wilburton, “the ham and tun of Wilburg”’ and Babraham, “the ham
of Beaduburg”’.
Although Cambridgeshire was part of the Danelaw, it was never so
thoroughly Scandinavianised as Norfolk and Lincolnshire. Caxton and
Croxton contain the Scandinavian personal-names Kakkr and Krékr
respectively. Conington is a Scandinavianising of an English Kington, and
Carlton of Charlton, “the farm of the ceorls’’. “Toft” is a Scandinavian
word meaning “the site of a house and its buildings’, or ““homestead’’. It
survives as the name of a parish, and formerly occurred as a field-name
in eight other parishes. But, in general, the parish-names of the County
give no such clear evidence of Danish influence as do those of Lincolnshire.
Minor names, however, suggest that Danish influence was not negligible,
and that, in places, it was strong. Denny, “‘the island of the Danes”,
implies that Danes were not numerous in the neighbourhood. Such words
as holm “‘small island or dry land in a fen”’ (a common field-name), and
bigging “building” (e.g. Biggin Abbey in Fen Ditton), while Scandinavian
in origin, are no criterion of Scandinavian settlement. But Clipsall in
Soham, together with three field-names, contain the Scandinavian
personal-name Klippr, and Hoback Farm is a hybrid, “the beck or stream
in the hollow”. On the borders of Huntingdonshire there are two
examples of lundr “‘a grove’’, and several of krdkr “a bend”. But more
interesting is the occurrence of the Scandinavian kirk and its interchange
* They (and Toft below) may well point to a late settlement by Scandinavians in
this wooded area. For the woodland see p. 52 above.
102 Place-Names
with the English church. In Tydd St Giles, both Kirkgate and Church
Lane occur, and in Thriplow to-day there is a Church Street where in the
thirteenth century a neighbouring field was Kirkefeld. So, too, in Newton-
in-the-Isle, the modern Church Croft is paralleled by the seventeenth-
century Kyrkelandefield, and other lost field-names give further examples
of Scandinavian influence. A similar interchange occurs in the second
element of Landwade. The modern spelling represents the English wed
“ford” but early forms often have the Scandinavian vad.
In the north of the County, on the Lincolnshire border, there are such
names as Gate End Bridge (Parson Drove), Eaugate Field, Fengate Field,
Kirkgate, and Newgate (all in Tydd St Giles). These contain the Scandi-
navian gata “‘road”’, common in such street-names as Waingate in Shefhield,
Briggate in Leeds, etc. It is often impossible to distinguish this from the
common word gate. Kirkgate, for example, might well mean “church-
gate’, but Eaugate and Fengate can hardly mean “‘gate leading to the
river or the fen”’, nor does the common gate make much sense in Gate End
Bridge. Clear proof, however, is forthcoming from Kyrkestrete (1393) in
Leverington described in 1486 as “regiam viam vocatam le Kirkgate”, and
from a “highway called Crossegate”’ in 1438 at Tydd St Giles.
In the Isle of Ely there is no parish-name of Scandinavian origin. The
evidence suggests the naming of minor places in a more or less settled
time, and the substitution of English terms by similar, corresponding
Scandinavian ones, some of which were common to various districts
where the settlement was not strong.
French influence is much less in evidence. Marmont, the name of a
priory in the fens in Upwell, was transferred from France, mirum montem
“the famous hill”. Not far away, in Elm, is Beauford, “the fair ford”’,
whilst in Willingham an old earthwork, Belsars Hill, is identical in origin
with the Durham Bellasis and the Belsize of Hertfordshire and Northamp-
tonshire; these are derived from bel assis “‘the fair seat’’, and the name thus
loses its historical associations with the fictitious Belasius, the knight who,
in the campaign against Hereward, acted as the Conqueror’s Commander-
in-Chief.
Apart from these names, French influence is confined to the com-
memoration of the Norman families of Everard de Beche in Papworth
Everard; Agnes de Papworth in the erroneously canonised Papworth
St Agnes; the Colvilles in Weston Colville; the Bolebecs in Swaffham
Bulbeck; and in such manorial names as De Fréville Farm in Great
Shelford, D’ovesdale Manor Farm in Litlington, Lacy’s Farm in Duxford,
and Lacies Farm in Grantchester (from the Lacis, earls of Lincoln).
* E. Conybeare, Highways and Byways in Cambridge and Ely (1910), pp. 283, 292.
Place-Names 103
Southern Cambridgeshire consists of three well-defined areas, two belts
of clay on east and west, with an intervening stretch of chalk (see Fig. 29).
The claylands were presumably wooded in early times, but the chalk was
always open country, along which ran the Icknield Way (see Fig. 19). By
Domesday times, wood had disappeared neither from these clay areas of
the upland nor from those of the fen islands (see Fig. 17). Earlier evidence
is not wanting. The most common woodland terms found in English
place-names are -ley ‘‘a wood’ or, later, “a clearing”’; hay “‘enclosure”’,
and often ‘‘enclosed wood”; stubbing “clearing”; and stocking “‘land
cleared of stocks’’. The clay areas of southern Cambridgeshire each contain
parishes with names ending in -/ey.t In these, as well as in neighbouring
parishes, other names have survived, as well as a number of field-names
containing all four of the above elements. In the intervening belt of chalk,
there is a solitary lost Jey in Little Wilbraham, another in Fulbourn, and
“The Leys” in Burwell—a marked contrast with Ashley-cum-Silverley,
on the eastern clay, with its four additional examples of ley, two of hay,
and one of stubbing.
Croydon Wilds and Hatley Wilds, on the western clayland, are names
of particular interest in connection with Cambridgeshire woodland. The
first occurs in 1285 as in Waldis de Craudenn’ and, as late as 1760, as Croydon
Wold; the second is found in 1277 as in Weldis subtus boscum de Hayley, i.e.
Hayley Wood in Little Gransden. Both are on high ground and both
names contain weald, wald, used in Old English of forest-land, especially
of high forest-land. Other evidence of the wooded nature of the ground
is to be found in the names Hatley and Hayley, and in Longehay and
Dreyhirst, in Little Gransden. Farther north, there was a Woldeslande and
a Grenewold in Elsworth, while Dry Drayton was formerly called
Walddraiton. Between Croydon and Elsworth there are references to
Berstunesweald and Kakestunesweald in Caxton and in Waldis de Brune
(i.e. Bourn). There can thus be little doubt that this district was once
known simply as Weald or Wold.
The clay islands of the fen were also well wooded. The first element in
Chatteris and Chettisham is probably the British cet “wood”. Near
Chatteris is Langwood Fen, whilst medieval woodland is frequently
mentioned at Chettisham. On these clay islands there are examples not
only of the terms already discussed, but also of hyrst and holt, two other
names for a wood. The last two elements are often difficult to recognise
without early forms. Holt occurs in Singlesole at Thorney; Throckenhole
‘ In the east are Ashley-cum-Silverley, Brinkley, Cheveley and Westley Waterless.
In the west are Childerley, Eltisley, Graveley, East Hatley, Hatley St George and
Madingley.
104 Place-Names
in Parson Drove; and Apes Hall in Littleport; hyrst in Shrewsness Green in
Upwell; and Boleness in Wisbech St Peter. The occurrence of hyrst, leah,
and holt on the peat and silt is noteworthy.
From the Isle of Ely, too, comes an example of wold covering a wide
area in which other names indicative of the former existence of woodland
are to be found. In early medieval documents, numerous references are
found to a place Walde or Wolde in Witchford. According to Bentham,
the name Wold survived in his day as that of certain arable and pasture
lands in Witchford,’ but it was undoubtedly once used of an extensive
district. In the west of the Isle, at Sutton, was a hythe or landing-place in
the wood known as Waldhethe, and in the same parish there were two hills
called Waldun and Waldelowe, while a Woolden Lane still survives
in Haddenham. From Witchford, this forest-land stretched into Ely
where both le Wold and Woldeffeld are mentioned, whilst in Downham,
too, there is Brodwold. A road or track called Waldehethewey ran across
this wold which must have included most of the high clayland of the Isle
of Ely; part of this, at least, in Wilburton and Witcham, was known as
Bruneswold at the end of the thirteenth century.
Much more that is of topographical and historical interest may be
gathered from the place-names of the Isle of Ely. Seadike Bank and Sea
Field in Leverington recall the memory of the sea-wall that once protected
the coast of Cambridgeshire from Tydd St Giles to Wisbech, and that gave
name in Norfolk to Walsoken, West Walton, and Walpole. Coveney,
“the island in the bay”, is a reminder that the West Fen was once marsh
and water; the coast of the ancient bay can easily be traced from the
contours. Not far away is Wardy Hill, “the island from which watch was
kept”’, a name that may be of some historical significance for it is on the
line of the long, narrow island running north to March, “‘the boundary”,
probably that between East and Middle Anglia. Among the other
numerous islands are Shippea and Quy where sheep and cows were
pastured, Henny and Cranney, frequented by wild fowl and herons, and
Manea near where the parishes of the neighbourhood pastured their
cattle in common.?
Around the island ran innumerable watercourses, the Old and the South
Eau, unetymological Gallicisings of the Old English éa “river”, already
noted in the Rhee (or Cam) and surviving also in Welney and Wissey.
Bradney House in Benwick, and Bradney Farm in March, are both near
* J. Bentham, The History and Antiquities of the Conventual and Cathedral Church of
Ely (and ed. 1812), p. 75.
* Manea means “island or low-lying land held in common or where commoning
took place”’.
‘
Place-Names 105
the old course of the Nene, here once known as bradan éa “the wide river’.
The extensive area known as Byall Fen was formerly called Byee from a
river which formerly flowed across the fen from Chatteris to Downham."
Very common, too, are the terms lode and gote (meaning some kind of
stream), ditch, delph, used of an artificial watercourse, and lake, “a sluggish
stream”.
Of the numerous fenland meres, Whittlesey Mere and Soham Mere
were probably the largest. But the names of others survive, and many
more are lost. With the draining of the fens, these meres became marshland
and now often appear as moors. Redmoor was “the reed-mere?’, Gosmoor
was frequented by geese, and Foulmire was the home of wild fowl.
Fisheries, too, were common, and were called weirs as at Upware. There
are many references also to landing-places, or hythes, not always easy to
recognise in their modern form, e.g. Horseway, Willey, Aldreth, Swavesey,
and Witcham Hive. The old industries of the fens, digging for peat
(always called turf by the fen folk), the cutting of sedge for thatch, and
the growth of fodder for cattle, are commemorated in the common names
Turf Fen, Sedge Fen, Fodder Fen, and Mow Fen. The Joist Fen at Water-
beach was one in which cattle were agisted, i.e. allowed to feed for a fixed
rate per head.
Many fenland names owe their origin to the exigencies of draining or
commemorate the reclaimers of the fens. Adventurers’ Land and The
Undertakers represent part of the land assigned to the Earl of Bedford
(after whom the Bedford Level is named) and his associates in return for
their undertaking, and adventuring upon, their immense task.* “The Lots”’
preserve a common term “‘the lot or dole”’ used of the allotment of land
in the fens, while Lockspit Hall owes its name to the lockspits or small
trenches used to divide these lots. Cradge Bank was so called because it
was backed with clay to prevent water from trickling through. Stampfen
Drove, Gravel Dike, and The Stacks, preserve local names for “‘letts or
impediments hindring the fall of the waters”. Other terms of interest are
found, particularly in names now lost, but with these there is not space to
deal. Sufficient evidence has, however, been given in this brief and in-
complete survey to show that the place-names of Cambridgeshire and the
Isle of Ely are full of interest and that the nomenclature of each locality has
its peculiar characteristics.
* This is marked on Saxton’s Map of Cambridgeshire (in W. Camden’s Britannia,
1607) as The fyrth dyck, so called, no doubt, from Doddington Frith.
2 For “Undertaker” and “Adventurer” see p. 181 below.
CHAPTER EIGHT
THE VIELAGES OF CAM BRIDGESHIRE
By John Jones
hundred and sixty.’ There are, in addition, some half-dozen urban
areas, but many of these only contain overgrown villages. Nearly
all of them are mentioned in the Domesday Book. It is certainly true to say
that the village geography of the County has been stable through the
centuries. Fig. 22, showing the distribution of Domesday settlements,
represents quite well the pattern, if not all the detail, of the present-day
village distribution as shown in Fig. 23. The main difference between the
two maps is the addition of a number of villages upon the silt area of the
northern Fenland.?
"| VILLAGES OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE NUMBER ABOUT ONE
LOCATION OF VILLAGE SITES
Even a cursory glance at Fig. 23 shows that these villages are not evenly
distributed. Three stretches of country appear villageless: a district in the
north of the County; an east-west strip south of the Ely cluster of villages;
and a north-east—south-west strip in the south-eastern quadrant of the
County. On the other hand, the area with the most dense distribution of
villages occupies the south-western quadrant.
Four physical features are reflected in this variation: the Fenland and its
islands; the upland with its contrast between clay and chalk; the river
valleys; and the narrow strip of country between fen and upland which
may be conveniently designated the “‘fen-line”’. From the point of view
of location, therefore, the villages fall into four groups:
(1) Fen villages.
(2) Upland villages.
(3) Valley villages.
(4) Fen-line villages.
Naturally, these groups are not mutually exclusive, for some sites claim
admission to more than one group. Take Cambridge town itself, for
example. It is on the fen-line, but it is also in the valley of the Cam, and
* For a fuller account, see J. Jones, A Human Geography of Cambridgeshire (1924).
* For a discussion of these differences, see H. C. Darby, “The Domesday Geography
of Cambridgeshire”, Proc. Camb. Antig. Soc. xxxvi, 35 (1936).
Villages 107
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
MODERN
SETTLEMENTS
Scale of miles
eae
Cc
EE
N ee:
W Wisbech
Fig. 23.
108 Villages
owing to the latter fact it has outstripped in size the other fen-line settle-
ments.
South-eastern Cambridgeshire. Fig. 24 gives details of the country between
Cambridge town and the eastern County boundary. It covers an area of
170 square miles, and all the village sites and watercourses are inserted.
Besser i
25 Lt
Wilbrahaer
Fig. 24.
Villages to the east of Cambridge.
The figures in the area below the 50 ft. contour are spot heights above O.D.
The relief is indicated by the so ft. and 300 ft. contours. At the time of
the settlement, this part of the County most probably included three zones
of vegetation. To the north-west, there was a marsh of reeds and rushes,
interspersed with patches of better drained land. The country between the
two contours was a dry area, with large open spaces of grass, dotted here
and there with hawthorn bush, and probably with some beech woods.
The 300 ft. contour line agrees very closely with the edge of the Boulder
Villages 109
Clay which overlies the Chalk on the top of this upland area (see Fig. 29), and
which, most probably, was covered with deciduous woodland (see Fig. 17).
The outstanding feature of this district to-day is the considerable area,
running north-east—south-west, that is villageless and also streamless until
the River Bourn is reached in the south. This belt is the wide strike
exposure of the porous chalk country. In its completely dry character lies
the explanation of its unpeopled state. To the south, near the Bourn and
Granta rivers, come the valley villages. Some of them have “ford”’
terminations; in each case, the precise site was determined by rising ground
safe from flood. In the east, very near to the 300 ft. contour and between
woodland and open country, are the upland villages. Until recently,
some of these villages have used for domestic purposes the surface rain-
water that drains into hollows on the impervious clay; wells have to be
sunk so deep before reaching the bottom of the chalk, that they are
expensive items. Along the edge of the clayland, then, most of the upland
villages are situated. The advantages of a site on the edge of the wood,
rather than within it, can be readily appreciated. Finally, the so ft. contour
marks, roughly, the junction between chalk and fen. Along this line,
springs gush out from beneath the chalk, and so, following the fenland
edge, is a string of eleven villages from Burwell in the north to Cherry-
hinton in the west. To the north-north-west of these fen-line sites, recti-
linear watercourses indicate the drained fen. There, on the drier spots,
are other marginal villages; a few spot heights have been inserted.
South-western Cambridgeshire. Fig. 25 gives details of villages and streams
in the country to the west of Cambridge town, and it covers the same acre-
age as Fig. 24. The Cam Valley occupies the south and east of the map. In
the middle west is a small plateau over 100 ft. above sea-level; this contains
two ridges (above 200 ft.) that run east-west to form the boundaries of the
Bourn Brook Valley. The surface of the plateau is almost entirely composed
of clay of various kinds, mainly Boulder Clay and Gault, but also Kimeridge
and Oxford Clays (see Fig. 29) ; presumably it was wooded in early times."
Generally speaking, the plateau forms the watershed between the tribu-
taries of the Ouse and those of the Cam; many of the streams marked on
the map are only a foot or two in breadth, but, even so, their presence
shows this to be a district quite different from that on the eastern side of the
County.
The top of this plateau is almost villageless. The villages are set around
the edges. The elements important in their distribution seem to be as
follows:
(1) The valley sites of the Bourn Brook and of the Cam explain
* For Domesday Woodland, see Fig. 17 above; for earlier evidence, see p. 103.
TIO Villages
themselves; the Hatley’s and the Gransden’s to the west belong also to
this category.
(2) With a west-to-east dip, the lower limit of the Chalk (i. the
spring-line) is at a higher level than in the east of the County. To some
extent, it coincides with the too ft. contour, but it does rise to 200 ft.
B5¢ Michael
4 Oakington
eG g
Histon impington
Fig. 25.
Villages to the west of Cambridge.
Following interrupted outcrops of the Chalk, along the eastern and
southern edges of the plateau, are the villages of Madingley, Coton,
Barton, the Eversden’s, Harlton, Haslingfield, Barrington, Orwell,
Arrington, and Croydon.
(3) In the north, the village sites still follow the 100 ft. contour, which
roughly marks the junction between the Boulder Clay and a varied series
of Gault, Lower Greensand, Kimeridge Clay, and Ampthill Clay. It is
interesting to note that these upland villages lie off the Via Devana.
Villages TT
(4) To the north, and outside the map, come the fen-line villages—
Cottenham, Rampton, Willingham, Over, Swavesey. These lie much
lower than the corresponding villages in the east of the County, where
the chalk escarpment borders the peat and brings the so0-ft. contour
near to it. :
Northern Cambridgeshire. In the undrained Fenland the islands were the
critical sites determining settlements. An eighth-century monk, Felix,
records that:
There is in Britain a fen of immense size, which begins from the river Granta
[Grante] not far from the city, which is named Grantchester [Granteceaster]. There
are immense marshes, now a black pool of water, now foul running streams, and
also many islands, and reeds, and hillocks and thickets, and with manifold windings
wide and long it continues to the north sea..."
By the eleventh century, however, as the Domesday map shows (Fig. 22),
the Fenland was not without villages. But settlement was prohibited upon
the peatlands because the soil provided no stable foundations on which to
build. Judged by the analogy of later times, even those portions that
escaped winter flooding were subject to an annual heaving motion as the
swollen peat absorbed more and more water. Consequently, not one
Domesday village was located in all the peat area, with the sole exception of
Benwick, and there only because a local gravel substratum approached
within a few inches of the surface. The open unoccupied area to the north
of the County, shown on Fig. 23, is an expanse of peat. So is the east-west
strip of country south of the Ely cluster of villages; here, in pre-drainage
days, the Old West River carried part of the Ouse around the island of Ely
and hence to the Wash.3 The villages were all upon the islands. But the
silt area, to the north, was composed of a substance more solid than fen
peat, and offered better opportunities for continuous settlement. It is true
that, in Domesday times, Wisbech alone stood here, but on the modern
map, the silt area bears a number of additional villages.
PARISH BOUNDARIES
Not only the sites of villages, but also the size, shape, and boundaries of
parishes, are related to the geographical circumstances of a country. Fig. 26
shows the modern parish boundaries in Cambridgeshire. The parishes vary
considerably in size. There are eleven parishes each containing less than
? Felix, Life of St Guthlac (Anglo-Saxon version), edited by C. W. Goodwin
(1848), p. 21. Grantchester here refers to Cambridge itself.
2S. B. J. Skertchly, The Geology of the Fenland (1877), p. 4.
3 See footnote 1, p. 183 below.
112 Villages
1000 acres—all in the southern part of the County; while ten parishes
cover more than 10,000 acres each—all on the Fenland. This latter fact
arises from the scarcity of sites in the fens. Thus, just below the northern-
most part of the County, Whittlesea and March together stretch 15 miles
across a part of the County whose total width is only 17 miles. Whittlesea
and March stand 26 ft. and 20 ft. respectively above sea-level, and in this
district there is now no other spot more than 10 ft. above sea-level.
The parish boundaries are partly natural and partly artificial. The Cam
itself is a good example of the former. It is used as a boundary for almost
its entire length from its source to where it joins the Old West River (i.e.
the Ouse) in the Fenland. Its tributary, the Bourn Brook, coming from
the south-western plateau, also forms the boundary between many parishes,
despite the fact that it is of no great width; on the other hand, the wider
River Bourn, coming from the south-east, flows right through the middle
of several parishes. In the Fenland, many parish boundaries are so straight
because they follow artificial watercourses; and in some cases, apparently,
adjustments were made when the drains were cut.
In a county of low relief, there cannot be many boundaries fixed by a
crest-line, but there is one well marked in the south-west, and lettered
A-B on Fig. 26. It runs along the ridge separating Bourn Brook from the
upper Cam Valley. This is also the line of an old trackway, the Mare Way,
leading from Ermine Street to the Cam Valley at Harston. The line C-D
is not exactly along the crest of the ridge to the north of Bourn Brook,
but it is yery nearly so. In any case, it runs along the Cambridge-St Neots
Road, and although this is not usually claimed to be an ancient way, still
it does seem to date from the time when boundaries were being established.
The Via Devana also formed parish boundaries during a great portion of
its length (line E-F). It is part of the Roman road from Colchester to the
Midlands. From where it enters the County at E, for a distance of 11 miles,
it separates parishes; and it continues this function to the north-west of
Cambridge along the line G-H, which here forms the main road from
Cambridge to Huntingdon. Ermine Street, also, helped to define boun-
daries (line K-L). Probably the oldest track in the County is the Icknield
Way," which is represented to-day by a section of the London-Newmarket
road (line M-N). The parish boundaries, it is true, do not strictly follow
the road, but that does not indicate that the way was not in existence
when the boundaries were established.? Another straight boundary that
attracts attention on Fig. 26 is the line P-Q. This is not a road, but the
Devil’s Dyke, that is a parish boundary for 10 miles.
* See p. 84 above.
2 See Fig. 19.
II3
Villages
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
PARISH
BOUNDARIES
2
(
:
\
‘
a=
Scale of Miles
0
ir.
“fe saeed
od
II2.
efer to the sites named on p
Qr
The letters A
DBA
114 Villages
The shapes of parishes are so varied that they defy classification. The
chances of topography and of time cannot be reduced to generalisation.
But the configuration of parishes in the south-east of the County certainly
stands out as something peculiar. The upland villages of Fig. 24 are seen,
on Fig. 26, to form a group of long narrow parishes lying side by side.
They are oriented down the slope and not along it. This arrangement
gives to each parish a variety in soil and vegetation. If the parishes had
been, say, square, any single one might have contained nothing but clay
(and woodland), while its neighbour could have consisted entirely of open
chalk down. Beyond the boundary M-N, there is a second tier of parishes,
lower down the slope. This side-by-side arrangement secures for them,
also, two types of terrain—an area of chalk and an area of fen. South of the
line E-F the parishes are oriented at right angles to the Via Devana; this
gives to each a stretch of chalk upland as well as a share in the valley
alluvium. A somewhat similar arrangement is found in the parishes of the
Bourn Brook Valley.
All these indications of order in the parish map are but stray hints and
glimpses; from them, however, we can see reason at work when the early
settlers laid down the foundations of the present village geography of the
County.
PARISH CHURCHES
The prominent centre in every village was the parish church, and it is
interesting to see how the churches, like their parishes, reflect the geo-
graphical circumstances of their environment. The four maps of Fig. 27
show the main types of material used in their construction; naturally this
classification is based only upon the chief materials used. Very often, a
clunch or flint church has imported stone pillars and arches. For it should
be remembered that Cambridgeshire is not very rich in good building
stone. Even so, facilities of transport have not destroyed the local back-
ground. Flint churches are located mainly along the southern boundary
of the County, where the flint was obtained from the Upper Chalk (see
Fig. 4). Clunch, out of the Lower Chalk, is easily weathered, but, in the
absence of better stone, it has been used to help build a number of churches.
Rubble, probably consisting of stones gathered from the Boulder Clay and
mixed with mud, has been used in thirty churches, but these often have
stone dressings. The remaining churches are built of imported stone; most
of the fen churches come within this category, for transport was com-
paratively easy along the fen waterways.
Villages 115
CLUNCH
fry
7? RUBBLE
agetecwete ot?
. +
o
Segoe?" ee,
etm mence
~.
arses eres oF
o,
Fig. 27.
Cambridgeshire: Building materials used in churches.
CHAPTER NINE
CAMBRIDGESHIRE IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY
By H. C. Darby, M.A., PH.D.
PICTURE OF CAMBRIDGESHIRE ABOUT THE YEAR I800 CAN
A be gained from two reports made to the Board of Agriculture.
Both have the same title—the General View of the Agriculture of the
County of Cambridge. The first was written by Charles Vancouver, and was
published in 1794. The second was written by W. Gooch, and, although
its Preface is dated 1807, the book itself was not published until 1813.
Taken together, these two surveys supplement one another to provide an
outline of the main features of the geography of the County in 1800.
Both reports are accompanied by what is substantially the same map of
land utilisation (Fig. 28). Comparison with the geological map of the
County (Fig. 29) provides an explanation. The outstanding contrast was
between the northern Fenland and the southern upland. Conditions in the
upland area reflected directly the geological division. Between the “close
heavy, compact Clay”’ in east and west, the belt of chalk country stood out,
running south-west—north-east. Where the chalk outcrop was almost
waterless, there was “heath”; while the “valley through which the
river Cam flows to Walton, is chiefly laid out into dairy farms, and hence
it has its name, i.e. the Dairies”’.t In the Fenland, to the north, the islands
stood out. Of the peat fens around, some were “under cultivation”’,
others were “drowned or waste”’. Finally, the silt area of the extreme
north maintained its reputation as “‘rich pastures”’.
One of the main objects in the making of these reports was an enquiry
into measures necessary for improvement. In Cambridgeshire, there were
two agricultural controversies that reflected the geographical circumstances
of the time. One was associated with the need for an improved drainage;
the other with the need for an increased enclosure of the common open-
fields.
Vancouver estimated* the total acreage of the County as 443,300,
divided as shown in the following table. The correct area of Cam-
bridgeshire is 553,555 acres; but, even so, the proportion between the
* C. Vancouver, p. 87. Walton, on the north bank of the river, and lying to the
south-east of Orwell, is marked on John Cary’s map of 1818.
* Ibid. p. 193.
The Nineteenth Century 117
different districts, and their relative values as given by Vancouver, are
probably accurate enough to be indicative.
Hesston’ af laid Number of | Rental or value
acres per acre
Ls. di
Enclosed Arable 15,000 18 o
Open Field Arable 132,000 I0 O
Improved Pasture 52,000 Teo. 4
Inferior Pasture 19,800 I0 9
Wood Land 1,000 ESTO
Improved Fen $0,000 E5040
Waste and Unimproved Fen 150,000 4 0
Half Yearly Meadow Land 2,000 185, to
Highland Common 7,500 Ton.0
Fen or Moor Common 8,000 ete (6)
Heath Sheep Walk 6,000 276
DRAINING THE FENLAND
The condition of the Fenland towards the end of the eighteenth century
was far from satisfactory,’ and the phrases that Vancouver used to describe
the fen parishes were monotonously similar. The fens of Fordham were
“in a very bad state’’; those of Bottisham were “in a deplorable situation,
and subject to frequent inundations”; those of Burwell, too, were “con-
stantly inundated”. So were those of Ely and Upwell and Outwell. At
Elm, cultivation was “very uncertain’’; at Littleport, it was “extremely
precarious”. And so the tale of woe continued throughout the whole of
the Isle of Ely. Only in a few parishes were the fens “tolerably well
drained”; and even then often at “very considerable expense’. The
tragedy was all the greater because some parts of the fen under improved
cultivation yielded “‘a produce far beyond the richest high lands in the
county’’.
These deplorable conditions were attributed by the men of the time
to the “want of a better outfall through the haven of Lynn”’.3 Within
3 miles of Lynn, the Ouse made a great bend following a course of about
6 miles or so. The channel of this river was of varying width and was full
of shifting sandbanks. In some places it was as much as a mile wide,
comprising a number of uncertain streams; and, during floods, the flow of
the river was much impeded. Many people believed that the only solution
' See p. 187 below.
2 C. Vancouver, pp. 202-3. This estimate was based upon conditions in 50,000 acres
of fen around “Chatteris, Elm, Leverington Parson Drove, Wisbich, St Mary’s, and
Thorney”’. Compare with the general information given in Vancouver’s table above.
3 Ibid. p. 139.
4 See p. 191 below.
118
Ak wnN
The Nineteenth Century
THE AGRICULTURE OF
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
AFTER C.VANCOUVER (1794)
AND
W. GOOCH (1813)
SSRs
em
a
OD
Ze
RK rates
Reeeeatixe S09
ares
>
O
2
PS
yo Oo
8
Fig. 28.
Land Utilisation in Cambridgeshire about A.D. 1800.
Part of Newmarket Heath, the Valley called the Dairies; and rich pastures
produced from the Sea around Wisbeach.
Chalky, Gravelly, Loam and tender Clay.
Close heavy, compact Clay upon a Gault.
Fen under Cultivation and in the High Land Sand.
Drowned or waste Fen but all very capable of being reclaimed.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
SURFACE GEOLOGY
jncxii of Miles
x6
Fen Silt
Peat
[__] Chalk
Pay) Clay (Boulder, Gault,
Ampthill, Kimeridge.
Oxford)
Gravel
fii Greensand
RSS Corallian Limestone
DO, agape,
Fig. 29.
This map is based upon that of the Geological Survey. The boundary between
the fen silt and peat is taken from the map accompanying S. B. J. Skertchly’s The
Geology of the Fenland (1877). This boundary is “very obscure, for the peat thins out
insensibly. ..” (p. 129).
120 The Nineteenth Century
was to eliminate the great bend by a new straight cut made large enough to
take quickly out to sea the whole body of the Ouse water. The Eau Brink
Act, authorising the cut, was obtained in 1795. Disputes and delays
followed, and the work was not completed until 1821.
It was therefore in an atmosphere of controversy that the two reports
of 1794 and 1813 were compiled. Indeed, one of Vancouver’s main objects
was to see “how far the proposed measure, of diverting the course of the
river Ouze, from its present channel between Eau-brink, and the Haven of
Lynn, would embrace all the objects so fondly anticipated by the promoter
of that measure”. Gooch, too, dealt with the desirability of an Eau Brink
Cut. As he pointed out, the opinions were varied enough. But, at any
rate, “all were agreed that something must be done or the country will be
lost”. During the succeeding years of the century, the straight line of the
Eau Brink Cut was continued seawards by the Marsh Cut of 1852, and,
later, by training walls built to carry the Ouse waters out to sea amid the
shifting banks of the estuary.”
Complementary to the outfall question was the problem of the internal
drains. Internal drainage during the eighteenth century had been accom-
plished by windmills that pumped water from the lowering peat surface
into the high-riding river channels.3 But, in the report of 1813, there is a
hint of changes to come. The mills, depending on wind, were “‘often
useless when most wanted’”’,4 and the proprietors consequently sustained
‘material injury”. To remedy this, steam engines had been recommended,
and, declared Gooch, “I found many persons in the county entertaining
an opinion that they would answer”. It was argued that the advantages
to be obtained from the introduction of steam to the fen country were
“almost incalculable”. But there was delay and hesitation. Not until
1820 was the first steam-driven mill set up at Bottisham Fen. Succeeding
years’ but verified the prophecy of Gooch that “until a power can be
commanded at will, for the drainage of the fen-country, it can never
attain its full prosperity”’.
The improvements in draining that marked the nineteenth century
were paralleled by improvements in agricultural practice. Owing to
continued shrinkage and wastage, the surface layer of peat in the southern
Fenland was becoming so thin, that, in some districts, the underlying clay
was within easy reach of the plough.® Thus the virtues of clay were dis-
covered,’ and so potent did they prove to be that, where the clay was too
* C. Vancouver, p. 8. * See pp. 191 and 201 below.
3 See p. 187 below.
4 See W. Gooch, pp. 239 ef seq. for the quotations that follow in this paragraph.
3}
See pp. 188-9 below. ® See pp. 131 and 186 below.
7 J. M. Heathcote, Reminiscences of Fen and Mere (1876), p. 90.
The Nineteenth Century 121
deep down for the plough, the practice of digging for it became frequent. In
1811, there was being advocated the use of the “most excellent clay marl”
that underlay ‘‘the greatest part if not the whole of the Bedford Level”’.*
By 1830, the practice was “so very modern” that Samuel Wells found
“some difficulty in giving an accurate account of its singular process”’.
But the practice had come to stay; so much so that, in 1852, J. A. Clarke
could write:
Within the last 30 years the system of digging and throwing up this clay where it
is too deep for the plough has been introduced into universal operation. The new
husbandry quickly extended itself: farmers may be cautious of new improvements,
but this was too obvious for dispute, too near at hand for refusal.3
Wherever clay could be found tolerably near the surface, “claying the
land became the acknowledged mode of cultivation in the Fenland’’.4 The
peat lands thus became “the most productive of soils yielding the most
luxuriant crops of wheat, oats, coleseed and turnips”’.5
ENCLOSING THE COMMON-FIELDS
Of the 147,000 acres of arable land in Cambridgeshire in 1794, 132,000
acres lay in open-fields, and followed the traditional open-field husbandry
of the English plain. Of course it is possible that some of the 52,000 acres
of “Improved Pasture”, recorded in Vancouver’s estimate, included land
laid down to grass on enclosure. But even with this allowance, there can
be no doubt about the unenclosed character of the Cambridge country-
side. Corroboration is provided by the fact that of the ninety-eight
parishes described in detail by Vancouver, eighty-three were still open;
only fifteen had been enclosed. And Vancouver considered that no
improvement was possible until the intermixed strips “dispersed in the
common open fields” had been brought together into compact holdings.
Enclosure appeared “‘to be indispensably necessary” and urgent.
“T have made it my particular care”, he wrote, “to mix and converse with the
yeomanry of the county, and in their sedate and sober moments, to possess myself
fully of their experience, and local knowledge; and finally to ascertain the general
sentiment as to this important innovation upon the establishment of ages.’ ’°
In some places, people were doubtful; thus at Teversham the idea of
enclosing was ‘“‘not all relished’’.7 In other places, “the most thinking
R. Parkinson, The Agriculture of the County of Huntingdon (1811), p. 299.
2 §. Wells, History of the... Bedford Level, i, 442 (1830).
3 J. A. Clarke, Fen Sketches (1852), pp. 244-5.
4 J. M. Heathcote, op. cit. p. 90. See p. 152 below.
( 5 | Clarke, “On the Great Level of the Fens”, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. vii, 92
1848).
6 C. Vancouver, p. 195. 7 Ibid. p. 47.
122 The Nineteenth Century
farmers’? were very much in favour of “the laying of the intermixed
property together in the open fields’’.» And Vancouver was emphatic in
demonstrating the improvement in crop yields that resulted from enclosure.
Want of enclosure was also felt in the Highland Common which “in
severalty”” would have been doubled in value; while the Half Yearly
Meadow Land, “‘dispersed through the hollows of the open fields”,
would even more than double in value “by proper draining and being put
into severalty”’3
The report of 1813 by W. Gooch showed that “most of the arable
husbandry of this county” was still foreign ‘“‘to present practice in the best
cultivated countries”. Many people still believed that the older methods
were the best, and “‘this bigotry” was widely spread. But something had
certainly been done to redeem the County “from the imputation it has so
long lain under, of being the worst cultivated in England’’.5 By 1807, the
open-field arable was ‘‘much lessened”, and a great part of “the waste
and unimproved fen, half-yearly meadow, highland common, fen or
moor common, sheep-walk heath”, had become enclosed arable and
pasture. In the case of open-field conversion, the total rental had more
than doubled: on other lands it had trebled at least.®
But more still remained to be done. In 1822, when William Cobbett
travelled along the Old North Road from Royston to Huntingdon, much
of the country was still treeless and hedgeless, full of “those very ugly
things, common-fields’’, and looking “bleak and comfortless”’ to the eye.7
Still later, in 1830, between Cambridge and St Ives, Cobbett again saw
“open unfenced fields”.* But Cambridgeshire was coming into line with
the rest of the English plain. By 1847, all its open common-tields, “with
the exception of five or six parishes’’,? had been enclosed.
THE CURVE OF PROSPERITY
The fluctuations of agricultural fortune in Cambridgeshire during the
nineteenth century reflected, very largely, variations in the prosperity of
* C. Vancouver, p. 53. ? Ibid. p. 147. 3 Ibid. p. 204.
4 W. Gooch, p. viii. 5 Ibid. p. 56. ® Ibid. p. 2.
7 W. Cobbett, Rural Rides (Everyman’s edition), i, 80-2: “Immediately upon
quitting Royston, you come along, for a considerable distance, with enclosed fields
on the left and open common-fields on the right... .The fields on the left seem to have
been enclosed by act of parliament; and they certainly are the most beautiful tract of
fields that I ever saw. Their extent may be from ten to thirty acres each. Divided by
quick-set hedges, exceedingly well planted and raised” (p. 80).
8 Ibid. ii, 236.
9 S. Jonas, “On the Farming of Cambridgeshire”’, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1847),
p- 38. G. Slater gives nine parishes enclosed after 1847 (The English Peasantry and
the Enclosure of the Common Fields (1907), p. 273). But for at least ten, see E. M.
Hampson, ‘“‘Cambridge County Records”’, Proc. Camb. Antigq. Soc. xxxi, 143 (1931).
The Nineteenth Century 123
the country as a whole. Generally speaking, these variations can be
summed up by saying that the period 1815 to 1837 was marked by
depression; that of 1838 to 1874 was marked by improvement and
prosperity; while after 1874 the century was again characterised by adver-
sity and difficulty. Ic is in the light of this general curve that the evidence
for Cambridgeshire must be examined.
The County shared with the rest of England in the disastrous effects of
the Napoleonic wars. The year 1815 brought peace and beggary. Between
1814 and 1816, agriculture passed suddenly from prosperity to extreme
depression. As Richard Preston asked, “‘ Was Great Britain ever before in
so reduced and impoverished a condition?”? As for Cambridgeshire,
Lord Brougham, speaking in the House of Commons on 9 April 1816,
said:
The petition from Cambridgeshire presented at an early part of this evening,
has laid before you a fact to which all the former expositions of distress afforded
no parallel, that in one parish, every proprietor and tenant being ruined with a
single exception, the whole poor-rates of the parish thus wholly inhabited by
paupers, are now paid by an individual whose fortune, once ample, is thus entirely
swept away.”
In the same year, it was said that “a detestable spirit of conspiracy” was
manifesting itself “in the counties of Norfolk, Suffolk, Huntingdon and
Cambridge, directed against houses, barns and rick-yards, which were
devoted to the flames”.3 This was generally ascribed to a “want of agri-
cultural employment, joined to the love of plunder”’.3 In some localities,
the general unrest broke out into riots, and the number of labourers,
committed to the county gaol under the Vagrancy Law for “refusing to
work for the customary wages’’, rapidly increased from the twenties
onwards.*
In December 1829, came a petition from the farmers of Ely to Parlia-
ment. It could but repeat what was well known already. The labourers,
“‘no longer able to maintain themselves by the sweat of their brows”,
were driven “to the scanty pittance derived from the parish funds’’.5
Frequently, their distress sought a violent outlet. There was an outbreak of
™ Richard Preston, “Review of the Present Ruined Condition of the Agricultural
and Landed Interests”, Pamphileteer, vii, 150 (1816).
2 Speeches of Henry, Lord Brougham, i, $04 (1838). Lord Ernle notes that, in 1815,
nineteen farms in the Isle of Ely were without tenants; and that the number of arrests
and executions for debt in the Isle increased from $7 in 1812-13 to 263 in 1814-15
(English Farming Past and Present (1932), pp. 322-3).
3 Annual Register (1816), p. iv.
4 See E.M. Hampson, The Treatment of Poverty in Cambridgeshire, 1597-1834 (1934),
p- 196.
5 See ibid. p. 215.
124 The Nineteenth Century
rick-burning in Cambridgeshire, as in England generally. The com-
missioners appointed to investigate the causes of these disturbances found
“distress and want of employment”’ all through the County.!
Of course, all years were not equally bad, and amidst many variations
of statement and opinion, it is difficult to assess the degree of distress at any
particular moment.? But the weight of Mr Thurnall’s evidence, in 1836,
leaves no doubt about the general picture.3 Land in a neglected state was
“every day increasing in quantity”? owing to the “‘low price of agricul-
tural produce’’.4 On the other hand, he thought that, as yet, no land had
been “thrown out of cultivation”’. Still, the condition of the tenantry
was “verging on insolvency”’.5 Rick-burning was frequent, and several
of his best and honest labourers were threatening to rob on the highway
before they would “‘go to the union work house”. They were “‘ripe for
everything in the world”, ready to be stirred into “‘a state of revolution”.
The accession of Queen Victoria in 1837 coincided with the beginnings
of improvement. The formation of the Royal Agricultural Society in the
following year was at once a symptom of revival and an aid to prosperity.
Despite ups and downs, the decade that followed was marked by an
advancement that reflected itself in one of England’s most agricultural of
counties. In his survey of 1847, Samuel Jonas declared that ‘few counties,
if any, have improved more in cultivation than Cambridgeshire has lately
done’’.®
All the open common-fields have been enclosed (with the exception of five or
six parishes), and instead of a system of cropping so exhausting to the land as a
fallow and two white-straw crops in succession, with other men’s flocks of sheep
eating up your food and preventing improvement, we now sce the land farmer
on the four course system—the best that can be adopted, unless on very fine land.
* Parliamentary Papers (1834), xxxiv, Appendix B, Pt. v, to the Report on Poor
Laws, pp. 49-72.
* Thus a calculation of the amount of unemployment in Cambridgeshire in 1830-
1831 stated that “the total number of unemployed labourers in 156 parishes [out of a
total of 164] in Cambridgeshire was 811; not one sixteenth of the total number of
labourers, very little more than five men being so reckoned to a parish, and one man
to a population of 169”. And, again, “we cannot suppose any to remain unem-
ployed during the three months which hay and corn harvest last”. Parliamentary
Papers (1834), xxxvii, Appendix C to the Report on Poor Laws, pp. 72-3.
3 Rep. Select Committee on Agricultural Distress (1836), viii, Pt. 1, pp. 115 et seq.
4 He attributed this to the contraction of the currency; “that is the main cause;
Irish produce is another cause; want of protection against foreign corn is another; but
I should say that the contraction of the currency is the main cause”. (Ibid. p. 121.)
5 For this, and the remaining quotations in the paragraph, see Rep. S.C. Agricultural
Distress (1837), v, 129.
® For the quotations that follow, see S. Jonas, ‘On the Farming of Cambridgeshire”,
Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1847), p. 35.
The Nineteenth Century 125
Large flocks of sheep were fattened with corn and cake for the London
markets; indeed, Mr Jonas Webb of Babraham was “one of the first and
most justly celebrated breeders of Southdown sheep in existence”. Large
numbers of cattle were also to be seen. “Comparing the present system
with the former,” wrote Jonas, “it is astonishing to mark the increased
wealth our present improved system brings to the state; not only thus
largely increasing the national wealth, but also giving full employment for
our labourers.”
Jonas divided Cambridgeshire into four districts:
(1) “The southern and central part of the county, extending from
Ickleton to the north side of Newmarket, is light Jand, consisting of chalk,
sands, tender loams, and gravels.” On these “thin-skinned, poor, light,
hungry lands”’, where turnips formed part of the rotation, the application
of bones and guano had done much; at Duxford and Whittlesford were
“two very extensive and most excellent bone-mills”’.
(2) The eastern side of the county, adjoining parts of the counties of
Essex and Suffolk, up to Cheveley, near Newmarket, was heavy clayland
of various qualities, “‘all well hollow-drained, and generally speaking well
farmed’’.
(3) Thirdly, came “the Fen district, an accumulation of vegetable
deposit resting on the fen-clay’’. The improvements in this district due to
draining and claying the land were “truly wonderful. Drainage condenses
the land, and claying consolidates it’’.*
(4) Lastly, “the western side of the county, adjoining Bedfordshire,
Hertfordshire, and Huntingdonshire, consists of a tough tenacious clay of
little value on the hills,” but the flats are good, strong, deep, staple lands’”’.
This area was not as well managed as the eastern clayland, “particularly
as relates to draining”.
But although, generally speaking, “improvements and high farming”
were bringing prosperity to the County, Jonas had to confess that “there
yet remained some districts that were badly cultivated”. He seems to have
had the western clays particularly in mind.
The picture that James Caird gave of the County in 1850-51 is quite
another impression:
In any district of England in which we have yet been, we have not heard the
farmers speak in a tone of greater discouragement than here. Their wheat crop,
last year, was of inferior quality, the price unusually low, and to add to this, their
live stock and crop are continually exposed to the match of the prowling incendiary.3
* For the importance of claying the fen peat, see p. 121 above.
2 See p. 27 above.
3 J. Caird, English Agriculture in 1850-51 (1852), pp. 477 et seq.
126 The Nineteenth Century
Fires “were “of almost nightly occurrence”. ‘“‘A few bad fellows in a
district are believed to do all the mischief, and bring discredit on the whole
rural population.” But this does not imply that the rural population
had no grievance; although employment was available, wages were low,
“7s. to 8s. a week being the current rate’”’.! Taken together, these two
pictures, by Jonas and Caird respectively, of technical improvement and
social discontent, may give some idea of conditions in Cambridgeshire
during the middle of the century.
However conflicting the evidence, nothing can gainsay the fact that
many parts of rural Cambridgeshire had a special boom of their own, after
about 1850, through the setting up of the “‘coprolite” industry for the
manufacture of manures. By origin, the word “coprolite” signifies
petrified dung, presumably of enormous reptiles, but the term came to
include phosphatised casts of vertebrate remains in general. Coprolites
were to be found in the Cambridge Greensand” that marked the base of
the Chalk, and that ran north-east—south-west through Soham, Burwell,
Swaftham, Horningsea, Cambridge, Grantchester, Barrington, and so
westward into Bedfordshire.3 The deposits were described by O. Fisher in
1873:
The Cambridgeshire phosphatic nodules, as is well known, are extracted by
washing from a stratum (seldom much exceeding a foot in thickness) lying at the
base of the lower chalk, and resting immediately, without any passage-bed, upon
the Gault. There is, however, a gradual passage upwards from the nodule-bed into
the lower chalk or clunch. The average yield is about 300 tons per acre; and the
nodules are worth about 50 shillings a ton. The diggers usually pay about £140 per
acre for the privilege of digging, andreturn the land at the end of two years properly
levelled and re-soiled. They follow the nodules to a depth of about 20 feet; but it
scarcely pays to extract them to that depth.‘
Generally speaking, the years between 1850 and about 1870 were pros-
perous ones for much of the County. A footnote in the Census Returns
attributes an increase of population at Orwell, between 1861 and 1871, to
the “‘demand for labour in the coprolite diggings”. The same cause, too,
was responsible for growth at Barton, Great Eversden, Harston, Hasling-
field and Trumpington; and at Wicken the increase was likewise “attri-
buted to the extensive coprolite digging having attracted numbers of
labour”. By the end of the century, however, the coprolite beds had
* J. Caird, op. cit. p. 468. 7 See p. 13 above.
3 The Lower Greensand phosphatic deposits were also being worked about the
years 1866-68, chiefly near Wicken. W. Keeping, Fossils of the Neocomian Deposits
of Upware and Brickhill (1883), pp. 1-2. See p. 11 above.
4 O. Fisher, “On the Phosphatic Nodules of the Cretaceous Rocks of Cambridge-
shire”, Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. xxix, 52 (1873). A detailed account of coprolite digging,
based upon direct observation at Burwell, is given by C. Lucas, The Fenman’s World
(1930), p. 25.
The Nineteenth Century 127
become practically exhausted," and were only temporarily revived during
the Great War of 1914-18.
Despite the coprolite prosperity, Cambridgeshire shared in the general
ebb that marked English agriculture from the seventies onwards. An
idea of the nature of farming in the County is provided by the following
figures,” derived from the Agricultural Returns of 1874:
|
Cambridge | England
Percentage of corn crops to cultivated land 53°4 31°4
Number of cattle per 100 acres 9:9 170
Number of sheep per 100 acres 67°4 80-0
The type of farming indicated by these figures made the district very sus-
ceptible to the depression that started3 between 1875 and 1879. Mr Druce,
who visited the County in 1880, attributed the depression, first and
foremost,
to a succession of four or five years’ deficient harvests [due to wet seasons], accom-
panied with extremely low prices, occasioned by the excessive importations from
America. Among the contributory causes were increased rates of wages and the
difficulty of obtaining juvenile labour due to the Education Acts.‘
In those districts of the County where attention had been directed to
the production of meat, the depression was not so much felt; but the
tenor of Mr Druce’s report leaves no doubt about the general situation.
In the Fenland, “‘one-half the farmers were absolutely insolvent, and the
other half greatly reduced in circumstances”’. On the upland, “there were
considerable quantities of land unlet and which could not be let”.
Nor did the story end there. In another report, made in the following
year, Mr Druce found “‘that the depression has very much increased” ;5
and he added that the Agricultural Returns for 1881 “afford confirmatory
evidence of the continuance and depth of the depression in this county”.
The numbers of stock were continuing to decrease, notwithstanding an
earlier decrease since 1875. Mr Druce graded the intensity of the depres-
‘sion among the counties that comprised his district as: (1) Huntingdon,
(2) Essex, (3) Cambridge.
1 E. Conybeare, A History of Cambridgeshire (1897), p. 269. See also T. M. Hughes
and M. C. Hughes, Cambridgeshire (1909), p. 112.
2 F. Clifford, The Agricultural Lock-Out of 1874 (1875), pp- 339-40.
3 Royal Commission on Agriculture: Report on Cambridgeshire, Report by Mr Wilson
Fox (1895), p. 25.
4 Royal Commission on Agriculture, Report by Mr Druce (1881), p. 365.
5 Royal Commission on Agriculture, Report by Mr Druce (1882), pp. 14-20.
128 The Nineteenth Century
South
Witchford
/
22s 1 pgs 6g
“*~74 acres
Thousands
Staine
“eene*" 99 474
acres
1801112) 3141 4b 6) 7) -81 91 1901) Zi
Fig. 30.
Population changes in three rural hundreds of Cambridgeshire, 1801-1931. I am
indebted to the Editor of the Victoria County Histories (Mr L. F. Salzman) for access
to the Population Tables (by G. S. Minchin) in the forthcoming Cambridgeshire, vol. ii.
The Nineteenth Century 129
This second half of the nineteenth century was also marked by another
feature in the rural circumstances of the County. During the earlier half of
the century, population had continued to grow despite distress and unem-
ployment. But before the middle of the century, this situation was changing.
A hint of things to come is provided by that footnote, in the 1841 Census
Returns, which states that, from Willingham, “upwards of 100 persons
have emigrated to the United States since 1831”. At Wimpole, a decrease
was “attributed to several large families having left the Parish, and others
having emigrated since 1831”. The 1851 Returns noted that the decrease
at Croxton was also due in part to emigration, as was that at Wimpole
and West Wratting. The 1861 Returns have very many of these references.
One footnote tells its own story:
General decrease of population throughout the district of Caxton and especially
in the parish of Caldecote is mainly attributed to emigration and migration owing
to lowness of wages, etc.
Similar causes helped to account for a decrease in thirty other villages in
the County. The reason stated was sometimes ‘‘emigration”; sometimes
“migration of labourers to towns’’, or to “manufacturing districts”, or to
“London and the north of England”, or to “ Manchester and its vicinity”,
or, again, to “the metropolis and other large towns”’. It is true that the
Census footnotes also record some increase due to “‘the erection of new
cottages on a recent enclosure’, as at Gamlingay and Hardwicke; or due
to a temporary influx of labour employed upon railway construction at
Great Shelford and Harston, or employed upon a new cut at Clench-
warton.’ At Sawston and Whittlesford, the increase was “due to the
paper mill and parchment factory at Sawston”’. Then, too, there were the
attractions of the coprolite diggings”; there were also some miscellaneous
explanations.
After 1871, the explanatory footnotes cease to appear in the Census
Returns, but the figures themselves tell their own story. Fig. 30 sums
up the evidence for three rural hundreds in the County, and shows quite
clearly how the countryside was emptying itself. The difference between
this diagram and that of Fig. 31 is explained by the growth of Cambridge,3
Wisbech, Ely, March, and Whittlesey, and also by local circumstances
(e.g. jam-making at Histon). By the end of the century, the urban and
semi-urban centres had grown; the rural settlements had become smaller.
A full picture of rural conditions towards the end of the century is
given in the Cambridgeshire section of the Report of the Royal Commission
on Agriculture (1895). This drew a great distinction between north and
south Cambridgeshire :
* The Eau Brink Cut; see pp. 120, 191. * See p. 126 above. 3 See Fig. 41,
DBA 9
130 The Nineteenth Century
In the north there are a number of districts where the fen land has depreciated
but little, and some where it has not depreciated at all, while in the south there are
large tracts where the deteriorated state of the land is painfully apparent to all,
being practically worthless to owner and occupier alike, and scarcely able to be
designated as cultivated. Between Cambridge and Huntingdon the state of the land
is as bad as in the worst districts in Suffolk, and in some other localities it is little if
any better.’
230
220
210
200
190
180
170
160
150
Thousands
=~
L=>}
90
80 es
Ol hl aa ol a St 6) 7 TST OP 1o0le) eae
Fig. 31.
Population changes in Cambridgeshire (including the Isle of Ely), 1801-1931. Iam
indebted to the Editor of the Victoria County Histories (Mr L. E. Salzman) for access to
the Population Tables (by G. S. Minchin) in the forthcoming Cambridgeshire, vol. ii.
On the upland areas of the County, it was generally acknowledged that
there was “a great deal of rough land very nearly out of cultivation”.
Captain Hurrell of Madingley, “in a nine mile run with the hounds”’,?
* W. Fox, Royal Commission on Agriculture: Report on Cambridgeshire (1895),
pp. 25-6. “‘Between Cambridge and Huntingdon” was heavy clayland (see Fig. 29).
See also R. Bruce, ‘Typical Farms of East Anglia”, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1894),
p. 497, for details of farms at Barton, Bourn, Linton, Little Eversden, Littleport,
Trumpington, and Whittlesford.
* See W. Fox, op. cit. pp. 26-7 for the quotations that follow in this and the next
paragraph.
The Nineteenth Century 131
ee
rode over only nine arable fields; “‘most of it had been seeded down”’.
On “the boulder clay formation to the west of Cambridge, a considerable
area”’ had been left uncultivated.’ There were also “‘much fewer stock and
sheep being kept in the county”. Mr Dymock, who farmed 600 acres at
Waterbeach, said that the condition of the land had been going back for
twelve years. “It began in the bad season of 1879, when the heavy land
got into a very bad state. Then bad prices came, and hence so much money
could not be spent on it.”” Mr W. J. Clark, of Thriplow, could “point to
farms that 10 years ago were patterns for cleanliness and good farming
that are now in a deplorable state”. Arrears and reductions of rent were
“undoubtedly large in number”’.? Mr Martin Slater, of Weston Colville,
thought that the land had “very greatly gone back in condition during the
last 25 years in his district’’. Of the land outside the Fens, “the turnip and
barley land near Newmarket”’ (i.e. light land) was said to have suffered least.
The evidence from the Fenland was less doleful. It was true that some
localities had deteriorated, “partly from the effect of the seasons and partly
from want of capital”. Since the depression, fewer cattle and sheep had
been kept. At Chatteris, it was stated that “‘the high lands and gravel lands
have certainly gone back”’. That all was not desolation, however, can be
seen from the following statement made at a meeting of farmers at Wisbech
in 1894:
Generally speaking, the strong land has deteriorated. The wet seasons had a great
deal to do with it, as well as loss of capital. Last year [1893] did a lot to help the
strong land. Men will not put money into strong land farming. The acreage of
wheat crop has decreased by 25 per cent in this district. The fen land has gone back
very little in condition; but it is not clayed so much, partly from want of capital,
but partly because it is becoming stronger on account of the peat disappearing
owing to the drainage? The marsh land has not gone back a bit between Wisbech
and Long Sutton; there has been the means of enabling the people to escape from
the depression. They are able to grow the best class of potatoes, vegetables, and
fruit. The men in the marsh have been hit to some extent by prices, but are better
off than other people occupying land.
Thus was a new element called in to redress the balance of the older
economy. The first orchard had been planted in the Wisbech area as early
as the fifties; now, in the eighties and nineties, many farmers found them-
selves forced to adopt a fresh form of husbandry, and so turned to market
gardening and fruit farming.* The new crops had also been spreading on
the upland.5 The Chivers’ enterprise around Histon dates from the middle
* See p. 56 above. SW a OX OY Gil. 2.34. 3 See p. 120 above.
# See C. Wright and J. F. Ward, A Survey of the Soils and Fruit of the Wisbech Area
(1929), pp. 25-7.
5 J. F. Ward, West Cambridgeshire Fruit-Growing Area (1933), pp. 29-33-
132 The Nineteenth Century
of the century;* while, at Rampton and Cottenham, a considerable amount
of fruit was being grown by the villagers. In 1873, there were about 1000
acres of fruit within 10 miles of Histon; by 1894, this acreage had in-
creased to 3000. The other fruit-farming area on the upland was around
Meldreth and Melbourn, where, during the fifties, a substantial acreage of
fruit had been planted.
It is little wonder, then, that the Report of 1895 could state that the
profits made from fruit growing and market gardening “‘have in the last
few years been more satisfactory than those from ordinary farming”’.?
From the depression of the nineteenth century, the twentieth was to inherit
at any rate some beginnings of prosperity.
NOTE ON RAILWAY CONSTRUCTION
“The principal rivers are the Cam or Granta, and the Ouse: the latter
river is navigable from Cambridge to Lynn, in Norfolk, to which port
large quantities of the grain produce of this county hitherto have been sent
by this navigation; but it will soon be a question whether the corn-produce
will not in future travel to London by the railroad”’.3 Thus wrote S. Jonas
in 1847, two years after the opening of the London-Cambridge-Norwich
main line. The other railway lines quickly followed.
The lines passing through the County mostly formed part of the Great
Eastern system. But three other railway companies also ran over lines of
the G.E.R. Co. to Cambridge: the Great Northern from Hitchin via
Shepreth; the Midland from Kettering via Huntingdon; and the London
and North-Western from Bedford and Bletchley via Hills Rd. Junct.
Cambridge; while, in the north of the County, the Peterborough,
Wisbech, Sutton Railway was part of the Midland and Great Northern
Joint Committee’s line. The various lines (see Fig. 32) were opens! at
the following dates:
1. The G.E.R. main line from London to Norwich,
entering the County at Chesterford, and leaving it
after passing through Cambridge and Ely. 30 July 1845.
2. Ely to March and Peterborough. 9 December 1846.
3. March to Wisbech. 3 May 1847.
* H. Rider Haggard, Rural England (1902), ii, 51. In 1873, the manufacture of jam
was started at Histon. See p. 156 below.
7 W. Fox, op. cit. p. 6.
3 S. Jonas, “On the Farming of Cambridgeshire”, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1847),
238.
* For this information I am much indebted to Mr J. H. Wardley of King’s Cross
Station. Mr E. D. Robinson of Cambridge has also given me help in this connection:
an older list is in E. Conybeare’s A History of Cambridgeshire (1897), p. 279.
The Nineteenth Century [33
To Sutton Bridge
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
RAILWAYS
The opening year of each line
(ducag if 19 bie is
recorded,
Scale of Miles.
0
4
: -
‘ nae hy ee
Ne 4 Benwick
HUNTINGDON
om. Hitchin
Fig. 32.
I am indebted to Mr J. H. Wardley of King’s Cross Station for the information
on this map.
34 The Nineteenth Century
. Cambridge to St Ives and Huntingdon."
. Ely to Lynn.
. March to St Ives.
(a) Chesterford to Newmarket.”
(b) Newmarket to Bury St Edmunds.
. (a) Hitchin to Royston.
(b) Royston to Shepreth.
. Shepreth to Shelford.3
. Cambridge to Six Mile Bottom.4
. Bedford to Cambridge (L.N.W.R.), entering the
County north of Potton.
. Shelford to Haverhill (Suffolk).
. March to Spalding.5
. (a) Ely, Haddenham and Sutton.
(b) Sutton to Needingworth (Hunts).
. Peterborough, Wisbech, and Sutton.
WAWS
17 August 1847.
26 October 1847.
1 February 1848.
4 April 1848.
1 April 1854.
2 October 1850.
3 August 1851.
25 April 1851.
9 October 1851.
1 August 1862.
I June 1865.
1 April 1867.
6 April 1866.
10 May 1878.
1 August 1866.
16. Ely to Newmarket.
17. (a) Cambridge (Barnwell) to Fordham.
(b) Fordham to Mildenhall.
18. (a) Goods line from Three Horse Shoes Junction to
(b
1 September 1879.
2 June 1884.
t April 1885.
Burnt House Siding.
t September 1897.
) Burnt House Siding to Benwick.
2 August 1898.
* By agreement of 26 June 1864, the Midland trains ran from Kettering to Cambridge
over this line.
* The section of this line from Chesterford to Six Mile Bottom (about 12 miles in
length) was closed on 9 October 1851, upon the opening of the line from Six Mile
Bottom to Cambridge. It was abandoned by the Eastern Counties Railway Act of
1858. The deserted cuttings and embankments are still striking features of the land-
scape.
3 The G.N.R. were compelled by their Act to permit the G.E.R. to meet them at
Shepreth, and did not get running powers over the line to Cambridge until 1866.
Before the Shelford and Shepreth line was made available, the G.N.R. used to run
coaches from Shepreth to Cambridge by road, in connection with their trains, timed
to do the distance (9 miles) in 40 minutes.
4 To join the unabandoned section of the Chesterford-Newmarket line. There was
an extension from Newmarket to Bury St Edmunds on 1 April 1854. The junction
at Cambridge Station was taken out when the present diversion line over Coldham’s
Common was opened on 17 May 1896.
5 Originally a G.N.R. line, but owned jointly with the G.E.R. up to the Railways
Act of 1921.
CHAPTER TEN
LBRE AGRICULTURE OF
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
By R. McG. Carslaw and J. A. McMillan
(A) THE PERIOD 1900-1936
By R. McG. Carslaw, M.A., PH.D.
since the beginning of the century have been well marked in
Cambridgeshire:
(i) The pre-war years up to 1914, when, on the whole, profits and
wages were gradually rising. During this time, adjustments in cropping,
in livestock policies, and in methods of production, were being methodi-
cally, if slowly, evolved.
[= FOUR PHASES EVIDENT IN THE FARMING OF THE COUNTRY
(ii) The abnormal war, and immediately post-war, years of 1914-20,
characterised by scarcity prices, by high profits, and by the improvisation
of methods to meet a shortage of labour and raw materials.
(iii) The post-war depression of 1921-31, with heavy capital losses, with
statutory minimum-wage legislation, and with much searching for new
methods and types of farming, e.g. the development of sugar-beet
growing, poultry, motor tractors, etc.
(iv) The years 1932-36, marked by the combined effect of (a) Govern-
mental action, e.g. subsidies, tariffs, and quotas; (b) Marketing Boards
(milk, pigs, potatoes, etc.); (c) cheap feeding stuffs; and (d) improved
technical efficiency. This period, too, has been characterised by better
profits and by rising wages.
Between 1900 and 1936, there was a decrease of over 20,000 acres
(about 4 per cent) in the area under crops and grass (from 490,306 acres in
1900, to 467,980 acres in 1936). Rather more than one-half this decline
can be attributed to the deterioration of cultivated land, particularly since
1920, into “rough grazings’’; but as much as 10,000 acres was lost to
agriculture as a result of the encroachment of buildings, roads, etc. In
spite of this decline in cultivated area, there is reason to believe that the
’ The figures in sections A and B of this chapter are derived largely from
Ministry of Agriculture Statistics.
136 Agriculture
aggregate agricultural production has not diminished. The principal “cash
crops’’ for farmers in the County are wheat, barley, sugar beet, and potatoes.
As the following table shows, the combined area of these crops has
increased. considerably:
I900 I91O 1920 1930 1936
acres acres acres acres acres
Wheat 95439 100432 96091 81552 104790
Barley $2484 $3821 $6071 47703 32995
Potatoes 22790 26865 36416 32152 41324
Sugar beet = = —* 43970 41458
Total 170713 181118 188578 205377 220567
* Less than 50 acres were grown in 1919.
The increased acreage devoted to “cash crops”’ has been secured by re-
ducing the area under crops grown primarily for fodder—turnips,
swedes, mangolds, oats, and rotational grasses. As the table below shows,
there has been a steady decline from 1900 to 1936 in these principal fodder
crops:
1900 I9IO 1920 1930 1936
acres acres acres acres acres
Turnips and Swedes 15755 I4II4 9461 5868 2830
Mangolds 17858 16934 15184 9336 6952
Oats ; 49619 47220 46303 41456 33540
Clover and rotational
grasses $7166 44305 40813 38770 28746
Total 140398 122573 II1761 95430 72068
This very startling reduction in the acreage of fodder crops has been
accompanied by a large reduction in the number of sheep and a marked
decrease in the cattle population:
Live stock 1900 1910 1920 1930 1936
number | number | number | number | number
Cows and heifers in 17835 17206 16610 16434 18704
milk and in calf
Other cattle 39277 41873 30459 29235 26631
Sheep 208272 | 168778 73543 71926 62548
Pigs 46180 $1959 $2021 72653 I18051
Poultry a 564794 T | 5085344] 791637 | 926716
Horses for agriculture 21808 23609 19987 18552 15461
* Not known. Tt 1913. £ 1921.
Agriculture 137
On the other hand there have been increases in pigs and poultry, types of
live stock for which special fodder crops are seldom grown, and which are
primarily dependent on concentrated feeding stuffs. The crude figures in
the annual 4th June statistics show, between 1900 and 1936, decreases of
12,000 in cattle, and 146,000 in sheep, and increases of 72,000" in pigs, and
possibly 400,000 in poultry. Though it is very difficult to reduce the
different categories of live stock to a common denominator, it seems
probable, on balance, that the monetary value of the livestock output
may even have increased during the period.
The explanation of this apparent anomaly is naturally complex. Un-
doubtedly, farmers have become increasingly dependent upon purchased
feeding stuffs for their live stock, particularly after 1930. The expansion in
livestock commitments took place chiefly in pigs and poultry—two
categories primarily dependent on concentrated feeding stuffs. The decline
in livestock numbers has been in sheep and beef cattle, which in arable
districts commonly consume large quantities of home-grown bulky foods.
The number of sheep has fallen by two-thirds, and “‘other cattle’”’ by
one-third, as compared with a decrease of 50 per cent in the acreage of
fodder crops. Undoubtedly the development of sugar beet has con-
tributed, particularly in the case of sheep, to the maintenance of the fodder
supply, for the ‘“‘tops”’ have replaced large acreages of “sheep keep” (e.g.
turnips, kale, etc.) formerly grown to be close-folded. Further, the
reduction in the number of working horses (from 23,600 in 1910 to 15,500
in 1936) must have liberated a considerable area, perhaps as much as
20,000 acres, formerly required for growing horse feed. This latter economy
has, of course, been at least partly off-set by increased expenditure on
machinery, oil, paraffin, etc.
Judged by money values, the crop output of the County in 1936
appears to have been substantially greater than at the beginning of the
century, while the livestock output was at least not smaller. Further, the
area under fruit, on holdings of one acre or more, increased from some
6000 acres in 1900 to 15,000 acres in 1936. This apparent expansion in total
agricultural output was secured despite a decline in the number of workers
employed, and a decrease in the number of horses used for agriculture.
Statistics of employment are not available for years earlier than 1921,
when the number of workers (including casuals) stood at 24,610. It seems
probable that in 1900 the number was larger, but by 1930 it had fallen to
23,068; and in 1936 it stood at 21,644. Thus between 1921 and 1936 there
was a decline of nearly 3000 workers (12 per cent). Output per worker
* With two gestation periods in the year, this figure should be approximately
doubled to determine the rise in the annual pig output.
138 Agriculture
must therefore have increased very markedly during the period, partly as
a result of increased mechanisation (particularly tractors), partly as a resuit
of the alterations in the types of commodities produced, and partly also,
owing to greater skill in the supervision of labour.
These changes have undoubtedly been most pronounced since the war,
particularly after 1930, when legislation prevented agricultural wages
from falling proportionately with the drop in commodity prices. Faced
with the problem of wage rates fixed at roughly double their pre-war level,
farmers were forced to devise means of increasing the output per worker.”
Broadly speaking, the years 1920-36 probably constitute a period of un-
precedented rate of change both in the internal and external organisation
of farming in the County.
(B) GENERAL SURVEY
By J. A. McMillan, B.sc.
Organiser of Agricultural Education, Cambridgeshire
County Council
Cambridgeshire and the Isle of Ely are now separate administrative units.
When it will be convenient to refer specifically to one or the other, the
Administrative County of Cambridge will be termed “the County”,
as opposed to “‘the Isle of Ely”. Taken together, they have an area of
$53,555 acres. Of this, in the year 1937, some 466,600 acres were “under
crops and grass” and 12,671 acres were “rough grazings”. There are 34
acres of arable land to every acre of grassland, a concentration only
exceeded in England by the Holland Division of Lincolnshire, where the
proportion is four to one. A markedly rural character is reflected also in
the population figures. The total population in 1931 was 217,702, a density
of 260 per square mile, which compares with a density of 690 per square
mile for England and Wales asa whole. Of the total employed persons over
fourteen years of age, 28 per cent were engaged in agricultural occupations,
compared with 6 per cent for England and Wales.
MAIN CROPS
“Holdings of 1 acre and upwards” returned in 1937 numbered 7257;
and three-quarters of these fall in the group class from one to fifty acres;
while there are many holdings of less than one acre, which are not included
7 R. McG. Carslaw, “The Changing Organisation of Arable Farms”, Econ. Jour.
xvii, 483 (1937). Ona group of 150 farms, the physical output per worker in-
creased by some 27 per cent between 1931 and 1936.
Agriculture 139
in the official returns. Though in some districts large farms stretch as far as
the eye can see, Cambridgeshire as a whole may be regarded as a county of
small farms, small-holdings, and market or cottage gardens. Of the
ordinary farm crops, excluding rotation and permanent grass, the most
important on an acreage basis are wheat, barley, oats, potatoes, and sugar
beet, which together covered 245,000 acres in 1937, more than two-thirds
of the total arable acreage. Fig. 33 shows the acreage of each of these crops
in 1913 and from 1919 to 1937.
2 80
ee
Oo
Cc
om
=, 60
mo)
=
: a Sa oe ee a
g Le a te eee Oe
a pee eee
: . ee
20
0 a oar ee J Sugar Beet
seen 2o) 2) 22235 24 25626 T2728. 29°30 Si" 32 955834635 360 37
Fig. 33.
Acreages of Main Crops, 1913-37 (Ministry of Agriculture Statistics).
The Wheat acreage has been maintained fairly well in recent times, except
during a period of low prices just before 1932. The effect of the Wheat Act
of that year was to check the decline, and later to increase the acreage to a
little above the pre-war level. The wide variations in soil type lead to an
equally wide variation in the choice of seed. Some of the more common
varieties are Little Joss, Squarehead’s Master, Victor, Wilhelmina, Yeoman,
and Rivett’s. In the County, a distinctive feature is the large proportion of
wheat which is grown after a one year’s sainfoin or clover leyer. If the
latter has not been heavily folded with sheep, it is customary to apply a
dressing of farmyard manure prior to ploughing for the wheat crop. In
the Fenland wheat usually follows a fallow crop and receives no special
manuring in the autumn.
The Barley acreage has been declining gradually in recent years. In the
County, the acreage has been fairly constant between 30,000 and 37,000
140 Agriculture
acres. In the Isle, however, where there are greater difficulties in growing
a good malting sample, the area under barley is now only one-quarter of
the pre-war figure. On the lighter and better barley soils it is indeed rare
to find a field sown with any other variety but Spratt Archer. On the
heavier soils and in the Fens, some choose Plumage Archer.
The Oat acreage is distributed fairly evenly between the County and the
Isle. In the former, the greater part of the oats is autumn-sown, and Grey
Winter is a popular choice. Though inclined to “lodge”’ at times, this
variety proves a reliable cropper, and is liked by those who buy for the
racing stables at Newmarket. Marvellous and Resistance, often sown in
the very early spring, are also widely grown. Spring oats, when sown in
March, crop reasonably well as a rule, and are grown on a limited area.
Victory is the variety most in favour.
Potatoes. Rather more than nine-tenths of the 40,000 acres of potatoes
are grown in the Isle (see Fig. 34), where this is one of the principal crops
contributing to farm income. The tendency in recent years has been to
concentrate potatoes on those soils proved to be best suited to the crop,
and to manure more intensively than formerly. Now, too, only a few
proved varieties are grown at all widely; recent reports of the Potato
Marketing Board indicate that well over 30,000 acres are planted with
Majestic and King Edward VII. The cultivation of early varieties is
limited to some 3000 acres on the lighter and more silty soils, Eclipse being
the most commonly grown.
The Sugar-beet acreage has increased very considerably since the thirty-
nine acres that were grown in 1919. Some two-thirds of the total acreage
is now grown on the richer fen soils (see Fig. 35), where yields considerably
above the average for the country are obtained in most seasons. It is
rather remarkable how this new crop has taken its place in the farm rotation
without any considerable upheaval in farming practice. It has replaced
fodder crops, rotation grasses, mustard for seed, oats, and barley, the latter
particularly in the Isle. Its introduction has resulted in busier times in early
summer and late autumn. On those farms where it is grown on any exten-
sive scale, it is necessary to employ casual labour to assist the regular farm
staff.
Leyers are to be found almost exclusively in the County, where they are
a definite feature of the light and heavy land rotations. On chalk soils, a
one year’s ley of sainfoin or broad red clover is extremely common, the
crops being either folded and seeded, hayed and seeded, or merely folded.
Grass and clover mixtures are not now so popular, partly on account of
the smaller demand and lower prices for this type of hay in recent years,
and partly because the crops which follow appear to yield less well after
Agriculture 141
mixtures. On both light and heavy soils, the leyers are ploughed up after
one year, except on certain of the latter soils where there is a growing
appreciation of the value of the system of alternate husbandry. The failure
of the leyer on the lighter soils may well prejudice the yields of the other
crops in the rotation and in consequence great importance is attached to
its proper establishment and careful management.
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
SUGAR BEET
1928
CAMBRIDGESHIRE
POTATOES
° 1928 ©
Each dot
Each _ dot
represents 25 acres
represents 25 acres
Fig. 34. Fig. 35.
Redrawn from M. Messer, An Agricultural Atlas of England and Wales (1932).
Mustard for seed is also an important crop. It may take the place of a
cereal or fallow crop, and in a catchy season the land upon which it is to
be sown may not be determined until late spring. The heavier yields are
obtained on the fen soils, but excellent results are also recorded on the
lighter and heavier soils, which carry some 50 per cent of the 8000 odd
acres grown each year. A further considerable acreage is sown each year
with mustard for folding or for ploughing in.
Beans, long regarded as a standard crop of a heavy land rotation, are not
now entitled to a place of prominence. The 6000 acres grown in 1937
represented only one-quarter of the area under this crop in 1913. There is
142 Agriculture
little doubt that the change has arisen from a desire to grow crops giving
a higher gross return per acre than can normally be obtained from the
bean crop.
Mangolds and the various types of Brassicae for sheep feed are grown to
a less extent each year. The combined acreage under these crops in 1937
was only 12,000 acres, the lowest return of post-war years. Though the
larger decline in 1937 may in part be due to adverse weather conditions,
there is little doubt that the establishment of the sugar-beet crop and the
reduction in the number of arable flocks of sheep and of winter-fed bullocks
have played the major part in the gradual reduction of the acreage under
these crops.
Market-Garden Crops occupy a relatively small acreage, but make no
mean contribution to the gross income per acre in those areas specially
selected for their cultivation. With the exception of crops such as asparagus,
and of very limited areas (e.g. on the Gamlingay Greensand), market-
garden crops are taken generally in the ordinary farm rotation. The two
principal crops of this nature, celery and carrots, are grown chiefly in the
Isle. Celery thrives well in the cool, deep and moist black fen soils and its
cultivation now covers over 3000 acres—three times the area in 1913 and
more than one-third of the total celery acreage in England and Wales as
a whole. Carrots, chiefly of the stump-rooted type, are grown extensively
in certain well-defined areas, e.g. around Chatteris. Other crops of some
importance are peas and beans for pulling, grown chiefly in the Isle,
Brussels sprouts (grown mainly on some of the stiffer soils in the County),
cabbages, cauliflower, broccoli, and asparagus, though the latter has not
been grown so widely of late years.
It will have become evident that the rotations to accommodate the large
number of crops already mentioned must show some considerable varia-
tion. In general they vary from three to six courses. On the one hand, a
three-course system of two fallow crops and a corn crop is common on the
best fen soils. At the other extreme, there is the light land three- or six-
course rotation of the mechanised farmer, who hopes to grow corn on
two-thirds of his arable acreage each year. Then there is the standard
four-course rotation of the heavy-land farmer, where 50 per cent of the
land is cropped with corn; and the common rotation of the chalk farm,
viz. fallow crop, corn, corn, seeds, corn, though in this case there are
modifications in the arrangement of the crops and some still prefer the
Norfolk four-course rotation.
Fruit growing and flower culture are concentrated in certain well-defined
areas, which were mainly under grass, or part of an ordinary mixed farm
rotation, until some sixty years ago. With certain notable exceptions, fruit
t See pp. 131 and 153.
Agriculture 143
and flower growing are in the hands of small-holders, quite a number of
whom cultivate less than one acre, and as the available statistics do not
include these small units, it is difficult to arrive at a reasonable estimate of
the total acreage and production of these crops. One interesting feature
of these comparatively new developments is the growth in the number
of carriers and commission agents, who collect, arrange transport for, and
sometimes bulk, the marketable produce.
Strawberries are the most important soft fruit in the area. The greater
proportion of the 4000 odd acres is grown in the Isle around Wisbech. In
the County the bulk of this fruit comes from small growers in the
Cottenham, Willingham, and Histon districts. Varieties in favour are
Royal Sovereign, Sir Joseph Paxton, Oberschelien, and Brenda Gautrey.
Gooseberries still take second place in point of acreage, even though there
has been a considerable falling off in the past few years. Black and red
currants and raspberries were also widely grown at one time, but their
cultivation is now confined to a few of the smallest holdings.
A feature of the last decade has been the development of bulb growing
in the Wisbech district and of the culture of flowers, e.g. pyrethrums,
scabious and outdoor chrysanthemums, in the Cottenham, Willingham,
and Fordham areas. Here and there, too, nurseries have been established
for the raising of fruit trees and shrubs.
A number of growers has recently erected. glasshouses for the produc-
tion of tomatoes, bulbs, forced mint, and indoor chrysanthemums, and
though production has not yet reached large figures, development in this
line is taking place steadily year by year.
Recently the Land Settlement Association has acquired two estates in
Cambridgeshire and these have been equipped for the production of
certain fruits and vegetables both indoors and under glass.
Over 10,000 acres are planted with top fruit, plums predominating in
the County and apples in the Isle. On the whole, the climate is not all that
might be desired, especially for apples, because the high winds and late
frosts occasionally cause serious reductions in the crop yields. River's
Early, Czar, Victoria, and Monarch are the more common varieties of
plums; and of apples, most of which at present are of the cooking varieties,
Bramley Seedling is a favourite, though Emneth Early was more popular
in the old days. There is now a slow but steady change from culinary to
dessert apples. An important area of fruit (particularly greengages) is to be
found in the parishes of Melbourn and Meldreth, and other scattered
areas of top fruit occur on the chalk soils in the south of the County,
and on the gravels, peats, and skirt-soils near Burwell, Exning, and
Fordham, apart from the larger areas around Cottenham, Histon,
Rampton, Willingham and Wisbech.
144 Agriculture
Possibly in no other direction has research yielded such striking results
or suggested such revolutionary changes as in fruit production. There is a
definite tendency to grub up old orchards, planted before this new know-
ledge was available, and to replant with newer varieties on improved
stocks and under conditions more conducive to the control of the many
pests which do so much to limit the production of high-grade fruit.
Many of the older orchards were mixed plantations of plums and apples,
an unsuitable combination under modern methods of management.
LIVE STOCK
The total number of Horses shows a steady decline from some 33,000 in
1913 to 20,000 in 1937 (Fig. 36), an experience which Cambridgeshire shares
with the other arable counties. Though this decline has been more marked
in the County than in the Isle, the replacement of the horse by the internal
140
wert
80
OSes
60
Numbers in thousands
--.
-_—- =
- -
oa =<
=--.--""
20 Horses
13% 199920) 21922),123'\ 424" 25: 26. 27-928: 29 3053132) 9338345 36 37
Fig. 36.
Main Live Stock, 1913-37 (Ministry of Agriculture Statistics).
combustion engine has been taking place quite as quickly in the latter part
of Cambridgeshire. The horse still proves an essential supplement to the
farm tractor, and now works even more constantly and effectively than
formerly. In fact, the introduction of newer types of light-draught
implements and of pneumatic tyres for farm carts and, in certain cases,
the construction of concrete farm roads have had much the same effect as
if there had been evolved by breeding and selection an animal of higher
horse power.
Agriculture 145
No less apparent, than the decline in numbers, is the steady improve-
ment in the type of horse to be found on the general farm. Pedigree
breeders of Shires, Suffolks, and Percherons, the three most common
breeds, find a good demand from local farmers as well as from those in
other industries where a good heavy draught horse still proves invaluable.
Quite a few, too, of even the smaller farmers, who have adequate facilities
for rearing, breed one or more foals each year and assist in maintaining
the high reputation gained during the last century by Cambridgeshire
breeders of heavy horses.
The breeding and training of race horses is a feature on a considerable
stretch of land around Newmarket both on the Cambridge and the
Suffolk sides of the border. The greater part of this area, apart from New-
market heath, is laid out in neat grass paddocks surrounded by shelter belts
of trees, which give a distinctive appearance to a wide tract of land that
otherwise would be featureless and rather bleak. Good paddock manage-
ment, a matter requiring considerable skill and experience, is aided by the
grazing of cattle in the summer and by the production of manure from
yard-fed stock in the winter. Though localised, this industry is one of
considerable importance to those who farm in the surrounding districts
from the point of view of the demand for certain products of the farm
and its requirements for labour.
The Cattle of Cambridgeshire are predominantly of the Shorthorn type,
but dairy herds of Red Polls, British Friesians, and Jerseys, are to be found
here and there, while Aberdeen Angus crosses occupy a number of the
fattening yards and boxes. The total number of cattle has changed. very
little since 1913, though in recent years there has been some decline.
Marked changes, however, have occurred in the cattle distribution and in
the relative importance of the two main products—milk and beef. The
number of cows in milk has increased slightly in the County and remained
fairly constant in the Isle, but there is evidence that the quantity of milk
coming on to the liquid market has increased very considerably, due
mainly to three changes in practice, viz. the better management of the
dairy herds; the almost complete suspension of farm butter-making; and
a restriction of calf rearing and of the amount of milk fed to calves.
To-day, Cambridgeshire dairy herds supply the local requirements for
liquid milk, and they yield, in addition, an exportable surplus, much of
which is consigned through local depots to London. These changes have
naturally had their effect on the general farming system in certain areas,
and there are many instances of the conversion of open yards, feeding-
boxes and outhouses to cowsheds and milk and sterilising rooms.
Beef production in the same period has declined, partly through the
DBA Io
146 Agriculture
utilisation of bullock-feeding yards for pork and bacon production and
partly through the change over to milk production. There has been a
steady decline in the number of older cattle fed for beef, especially in the
Isle. The majority of the animals is now marketed at or under two and a
half years of age and only a relatively small proportion at lighter weights
or when fully mature.
The Sheep numbered, in 1913, some 108,000 in the County and 26,500
in the Isle. In r919 the respective numbers were 74,500 and 14,000, and in
1937, 53,000 and 7500. These figures include a large number of lambs
nearly fat and take no account of those stores which are purchased, fattened
and sold during the winter season. Though there is little doubt that now
more stores are purchased than formerly, the figures may be taken to
indicate a general decline during the post-war period. This is an experience
not uncommon to counties where formerly a high proportion of the sheep
was maintained on arable land, and it represents a change in practice that
may have some effect on the maintenance of fertility of the lighter soils.
On the chalk soils there are many parishes, which contained five or six
large breeding flocks of folded sheep ten or twenty years ago, but which
now can boast of only one or two flocks of much-reduced size. Important
factors underlying this change undoubtedly have been the relatively high
cost of labour and the desire, often the dictate of necessity, to grow a large
acreage of direct cash crops. The introduction of sugar beet, a cash crop
with a useful feeding residue in the form of tops, certainly has tended to
check the decline in the arable sheep numbers during winter, for though
ewe flocks may have been dispersed, it is not an uncommon practice to
fold off the tops with store sheep.
The decline in the numbers of breeding sheep, however, cannot wholly
be attributed to the reduction of the arable flocks. At least four factors
have tended to a reduction of grass sheep, viz. (a) the more widely held
opinion that, within certain limits, the lighter the sheep stock the better
the health of the flock, (b) the increasing need for an adequate drainage of
much of the heavier grassland, which must take precedence over its
improvement by manuring and stocking, (c) the reduction in the number
of grass orchards formerly grazed by sheep, (d) the replacement of sheep
by pigs in many of the orchards which remain in grass.
Most of the arable flocks are of the Suffolk breed. In a number, kept
pure, the breeding of rams for sale is an important item of the gross
receipts from the flock; in others, the ewes are crossed with rams of another
Down breed, usually the Hampshire. The Half Bred predominates on the
grass farms. Generally the ewes of this breed are crossed with a Suffolk
for the production of fat or store lamb. Scattered flocks of Hampshires
Agriculture 147
are also maintained on arable land; South Downs run partly on grass and
partly on arable land; while cross-bred ewes of various types are kept on
a few of the grass farms.
The number of Pigs shows wide variations from year to year. Since
1932 the numbers have been considerably in excess of 100,000, which is
double the figures of 1913 and 1919. No one factor is wholly responsible
for this increase, but the greater part undoubtedly is due to the fact that
it has been more profitable to stock the yards with pigs than with
fattening cattle.
The stimulus to production given by the Pig Marketing Scheme has had
effects on the changes in method of pig management. To-day, pigs are
kept under very varied conditions, e.g. some are kept tethered out of
doors all the year round, while others spend most of the year in a modern
type of Danish piggery. Many barns, horse stables, and cattle yards have
been converted for the use of pigs, and in all such alterations an important
consideration has been to secure a layout which would allow of the
maintenance of the largest number of stock per unit of labour.
Most of the store or fat stock coming on the market from Cambridge-
shire farms are pure Large Whites or of the Large White-Large Black
cross. There are numbers of pedigree breeders who favour these two breeds
and who find a ready demand for the animals which they offer at their
annual sales. There are also a few herds of the Essex and Middle White
breeds.
Poultry Keeping has become an increasingly important branch of agri-
culture in Cambridgeshire as in other counties. It is mainly an activity of
small-holders and general farmers, who derive only a part of their income
from this source; but the number of specialist poultry farmers has
increased considerably in recent years. Most of these keep flocks of from
one to three or four thousand birds, and are interested both in egg pro-
duction and table poultry. There are few larger units or special hatcheries.
CONCLUSION
The post-war years have seen more far-reaching changes in Cambridge-
shire agriculture than in any other short period of its history." It is too
early, yet, to see clearly the effects of these changes on the fertility of the
soil or upon the livestock industry. There is little doubt that the scarcity and
high cost of labour have led farmers to think more and more on the lines
of mechanisation and to consider restricting the production of certain
commodities which make heavy demands on labour. A short time ago it
was not uncommon to find a number of farmers who were inclined to the
* See p. 135 above.
10-2
148 Agriculture
belief that soil fertility could be maintained, in successful arable farming,
without the use of animal manure. To-day, this view receives little support.
Though the labour problem is still as acute as ever, the tendency definitely
is towards systems of balanced farming. Although some farmers may
continue to deprecate the disappearance of the arable sheep flock and of
the yard filled with fattening bullocks, it should be remembered that
the larger numbers of folded store sheep and fattening pigs are proving
a compensating factor in the maintenance of soil fertility.
Cambridgeshire as a whole may be regarded as a fertile county, but it
includes considerable stretches yielding only a strictly limited amount of
produce, chiefly because of badly drained soils and the lack of hard-
bottomed roads. Field drainage, indeed, may be classed as one of the major
problems of local agriculture. Blockages in small streams, overgrown
ditches, bad outfalls (and, in consequence, blocked field drains) take a
heavy toll on the crops over large tracts of land, particularly on the heavier
soils. Most of the land in this condition has already been tile-drained
within the last seventy or eighty years. A number of these systems may
not be efficient, but there are many instances where the old drains function
really well when given the opportunity. It is unfortunate that the greatest
need for attention arises in those very districts where, through a variety of
circumstances, the landlord or the tenant is not in a position to undertake
the necessary work. The use of the mole drainer is helping to some extent,
but this is not solving the sometimes greater problem of removing the
water from the drained area.
There are also wide stretches of land (including some of the most
fertile), and many farms, set two or three miles from a-hard road and
served only by a muddy track. Farmers so situated find it necessary to
limit their production very largely to those commodities that can be carted
off the farm during the drier months of the year. It is not unreasonable
to suggest that over large areas the value of the crops might be increased
by quite 50 per cent if field drainage were adequate and if roads permitted
easy access all the year round.
Agriculture 149
(Cc) REGIONAL TYPES OF FARMING
By R. McG. Carslaw, M.A., PH.D.
Within the County boundaries there are marked contrasts both in the
organisation and in the productivity of the farming. These contrasts are due
primarily to differences in the nature of the surface soils, of which there is a
remarkable variety.* Four major districts, comprising three-quarters of the
land area of the County are to be discerned: (1) the chalks in the south and
south-east, (2) the clays in the south-west, (3) and (4) the peats and silts
in the middle and north (see Fig. 29). A brief comparative description of
farm organisation in these districts, based on surveys during the 1931-36
period, will provide some indication of the principal types of farming in
the County at this time.
(t) The Chalk Soils. In this area, farms and fields are large, many of the
latter extending to more than 100 acres. The working capital here required*
for stock, crops, and equipment (excluding value of land and buildings)
approximates {12 per acre; gross income amounts to {10-11 per acre;
and employment is at the rate of three workers per roo acres. Of the gross
income approximately half is derived from crops. Rents average roughly
21s. per acre. Little more than ro per cent of the farmed land is under
permanent grass, and a common rotation for the arable land is (1) sugar
beet, (2) barley, (3) barley, (4) seeds, (5) wheat. Barley is the principal
cash crop, and excellent malting qualities are grown. Wheat and sugar
beet are both important sources of income, while clovers and sainfoin
are the principal short ley crops.
Sheep are the type of live stock traditionally associated with this district,
and, formerly, large flocks of the heavier breeds (e.g. Suffolk) were kept
for manuring and consolidating the arable fields. But the high labour
‘costs entailed by close-folding, the decline in sheep prices, and the rela-
tively more favourable returns offered by growing sugar beet in place of
“sheep keep”’, have contributed towards reducing this practice. Indeed,
on some farms sheep as an aid to soil fertility have been entirely superseded
by artificial fertilisers and green manuring with rape or mustard. A rela-
tively large number of pigs is kept to consume tail barley, and to convert
straw into dung. Some cattle are yard fed during the winter months,
going out fresh or fat in the spring, but in recent years low prices have
kept many “yards” empty. Dairying is confined almost entirely to farms
situated near villages, where an opportunity for retailing occurs.
Mechanisation in crop cultivation has here proceeded comparatively
Poser ae ii.
> Cambridge University Farm Economics Branch, Report 24 (1937).
150 Agriculture
rapidly in recent years, partly, no doubt, owing to the presence of large
fields, and partly also because of the extensive areas of cereals (three-fifths
of the arable area) which are grown. Tractors and modern large-scale
tractor equipment are now comparatively common.
(2) The Heavy Clay Soils. This is the least productive and most
depressed agricultural district in the County. The soil is heavy and
intractable; much land is in need of re-drainage; road facilities are in many
places inadequate; derelict and semi-derelict fields are not uncommon.” In
one parish, in 1932, it was found that out of nine holdings over 20 acres in
size, five were uncultivated, one was vacated during the year as a result of
bankruptcy, and two changed hands within the year owing to the financial
difficulties of the occupiers. The Wheat Subsidy Act of 1932 gave a new
lease of life to farmers in the district.
A survey carried out during 1933 showed that roughly 60 per cent of
the farmed land is arable.? Working capital in stock, crops, and equipment
averages some £7 to £9 per acre, gross incomes £'5 to £7, rents I5s., and
employment little more than two workers per too acres. The soil is so
heavy that opportunities for diversified cropping are limited, and high-
value crops such as sugar beet and potatoes can seldom be grown. The
barley produced is generally of poor quality. There is a comparatively
high proportion of bare fallow, and a considerable amount of cross-
cropping. A not uncommon rotation is (1) wheat, (2) seeds with a bastard
fallow, (3) wheat, (4) bare fallow. Beans are the chief fallow crop, and a
limited area of field peas is also grown. Red clover is the main “short
leyer” crop, and second cuts are frequently taken for seed. Trefoil and
sainfoin are also found amongst the leyers. Wheat is the principal cash crop,
but where soil conditions permit small areas of fruit, potatoes, and market-
garden crops are grown.
Fewer live stock, particularly smaller numbers of pigs and sheep, are
produced here than on the chalk soils. The grazing season is relatively
short, perhaps owing to poor drainage and management, and the land
“poaches” badly in winter. In recent years, some movement has been
made towards developing a system of cropping involving long leyers of
3-5 years in place of the usual 1-year leyer. This lengthening of the rotation
into, say, 4 years plough followed by 4 years grass, appears to hold
opportunities for improving the organisation of farms in the district. But
there is an acute shortage of working capital amongst the farmers, and
improvements or adjustments necessitating capital outlay, such as fencing
and provision of water, can only be slowly adopted.
* See pp. 56 and 131 above.
7 Cambridge University Farm Economics Branch, Report 22 (1935).
Agriculture ISI
(3) The Black Peat Soils. The farms here tend to be rather smaller in
acreage than those on the neighbouring uplands, but the organisation of
production is much more intensive. Capitalisation, employment, and
output per 100 acres are high. A survey" made in 1936 showed that an
ingoing tenant requires some £25 working capital per acre of farmed land
(arable plus pasture), that employment is at the rate of about five workers
per 100 acres, and that gross sales amount to £20 per acre per annum.
Rents, including the tenant’s share of drainage rates, average 50s. per acre,
while the labour bill approximates 90s. per acre. These various measures
are roughly double the comparable data for upland farms in the south of
the County. Road facilities are in many cases poor, surfaces being un-
metalled and virtually impassable in winter, but the numerous waterways
provide an alternative means of transport.
The usual rotation is (1) wheat, (2) potatoes, (3) sugar beet. A few
acres of oats for horse feed are grown, while other crops commonly found
are celery, carrots, and mustard seed. There is very little temporary grass,
and permanent pasture consists mainly of off-lying “wash” grazings,
frequently flooded during winter. The outstanding cropping character-
istics are the large proportion of the farmed area which is cultivated, the
large proportion of the cultivated area which is devoted to cash crops, and
the concentration on crops giving a high money output per acre, e.g.
potatoes (see Fig. 34), sugar beet (see Fig. 35), and celery. Crop yields
per acre are high, probably averaging one-third above that on upland
farms; yields of 15 tons of sugar beet, 12 tons of potatoes, and 50 bushels
of wheat, per acre are not uncommon. These good crop yields are no
doubt mainly due to the inherent fertility of the soil, but liberal applications
of artificial fertilisers and good management contribute to the result. Most
of the dung and fertilisers is applied to the sugar beet, potatoes, and
celery. Potatoes, for example, are commonly dressed with 15-20 loads
per acre of farmyard manure, plus 6-10 cwt. of fertilisers, while sugar beet
may get 4-6 cwt. of fertilisers.
Of the gross sales from the black peat farms surveyed in 1936, crops
accounted. for three-quarters and live stock for one-quarter. Both the
absolute and relative importance of crops on the peats is thus very much
greater than on the chalks and clays in the south of the County. Sugar
beet and potatoes are the two major items of revenue, and together they
amount to more than half the total receipts, with wheat coming third in
importance. In cash values, pigs are the most important livestock enter-
prise, with cattle second.
~ R. McG. Carslaw, “Farm Organisation on the Black Fens of the Isle of Ely”,
Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. xcviii, 35 (1937).
152 Agriculture
A common practice in the cattle management is to buy stores in the
early spring, yard feed them for a few weeks before sending them to
summer grass on a ““ wash”’ pasture, and to bring them back to the yards in
October for fattening off during the winter. Where no cattle are fattened
pigs are usually kept to tread down the straw. Sheep are conspicuous by
their absence, and very little milk or poultry production is undertaken.
Although horse-breeding is associated with this district, sales of horses
amounted to only a little over 1 per cent of gross incomes on the farms
covered by the survey.
Considering the types of crops grown, the farmers are remarkably
independent of imported casual labour, as the wives and families of the
regular employees commonly assist with seasonal operations. Beet
thinning, potato and celery planting, and the beet and potato harvests are
generally let out at piece rates, and individual families of workers may earn
substantial sums at certain times.
Fenland farming depends, of course, on a complex system of artificial
drainage. On many farms, however, the drainage appears to be satis-
factory, the most usual complaint being that the water level is kept too
low during the summer months. Surface water-logging seems to be a
more serious difficulty to the farmers than any defect in the main drainage
system. Particularly on land where, owing to ““wastage”’ of the peat,! the
underlying clay is now close to the surface, pools of water form after heavy
rain. The crop will quickly deteriorate in these patches unless the surface
water is removed, and this is generally done by ploughing or hand-digging
water furrows to the nearest ditch.
The practice of “claying”’ the peat soils? is less frequently practised than
in the past owing to the high labour costs involved. In some cases wastage,
however, has proceeded so far that the clay is now being ploughed up and
mixed with the peat during the ordinary field cultivations.
(4) The Silt Soils. These extraordinarily fertile alluvial deposits vary
from a light to a heavy consistency according to the percentage of clay.
The economic organisation of farms in the district is in many ways similar
to that on the peats, but production is even more intensive; and capitalisa-
tion, output, and employment are generally higher. Rentals range from
£3 to £5 per acre. Compared with the black peats, less sugar beet is
grown, and potatoes (chiefly Majestics and King Edward’s) are a relatively
more important crop; further, the quality of the potatoes, and therefore
* See p. 186 below.
* See p. 120 above. It is generally carried out by digging narrow ditches across the
field down to the underlying clay, throwing the clay out and spreading it evenly over
the field, and then filling up the excavations to make all reasonably level. In 1936 the
operation cost from £10 to £15 per acre.
Agriculture 153
the price per ton received by growers, is better. The rotation approximates
to (1) potatoes, (2) sugar beet, mustard for seed, and various root seeds,
(3) wheat, but is widened by inserting oats, peas, or clover where
desirable. Considerable areas of root seed crops (turnips, swedes, mangolds
and sugar beet) are also grown. Fruit is important, particularly in the
vicinity of Wisbech." In 1936, over 3000 acres of strawberries, 3000 acres
of apples, 1400 acres of gooseberries, and 1400 acres of plums were grown
in the Isle of Ely, principally on these silt soils. Although some 500 acres
of bulbs were grown in 1936 this industry, together with market-garden
and glasshouse production, is less fully developed than in the Holland
Division of Lincolnshire which lies immediately to the north of Cambridge-
shire. Indeed, the silts which lie within Cambridgeshire are only a small
part of the large compact silt area surrounding the Wash, and which
includes the whole of the Holland Division.
(s) Other Districts. The four main areas already described cover approxi-
mately three-quarters of Cambridgeshire. The remainder of the County
includes a number of small areas of varying soil types.” In particular, no
account of the agricultural regions of the County would be complete
without reference to the fruit-growing area immediately to the north of
the town of Cambridge. This includes the parishes of Milton, Waterbeach,
Landbeach, Impington, Histon, Cottenham, Rampton, Long Stanton,
Willingham and Over.3 Since the middle of the nineteenth century, a
strong concentration of fruit growing (especially plums, apples and straw-
berries) has been developed here. In more recent years, fruit has been
supplemented by the introduction (often by underplanting the top fruit)
of market-garden produce (asparagus, cauliflowers, broccoli, dwarf beans,
and peas), and of cutting flowers (pyrethrums, scabious, iris, gladioli,
asters, marguerites, gypsophila, etc.). Small-holdings of 20 acres or less,
producing these intensive crops, are numerous in the district, while there is
a large number of “part-time” holdings, of an acre or so, in the occupation
of agricultural labourers and other wage-earners. Poultry and pigs are the
most usual types of live stock, and are kept largely to produce manure and
to utilise by-products.
™ See C. Wright and J. F. Ward, A Survey of the Soils and Fruit of the Wisbech Area
(1929). See p. 143 above.
2 See Chapter ii, and Fig. 29.
3 See J. F. Ward, West Cambridgeshire Fruit-Growing Area (1933). See p. 143 above.
4 See p. 131 above.
CHAPTER ELEVEN
THE INDUSTRIES OF -CAMBRIDGESHIRE
By F. M. Page, M.A., PH.D."
ANIEL DEFOE, WRITING IN 1724-26, SUMMED UP HIS
impression of Cambridgeshire by saying that “this county has no
manufacture at all’”’.? Although this is less true now than then, it
is still not surprising that industry should occupy a subsidiary place in one
of the most agricultural of counties. Chronologically, the industries of the
County fall into three groups. In the first place, there are the extinct
industries: thus during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the pro-
duction of saffron was flourishing in the south-east of the County, there
were two saltpetre factories at Cambridge and Barnwell, and bell-founding
was carried on in Cambridge. During the nineteenth century came the
digging of coprolites.3 At this time, too, there was the activity of the
various industrial schools; spinning establishments existed at Fowlmere,
Soham, and Histon, and in this last village, stockings were also made;
while at Wisbech and Linton hemp was made into rope. Perhaps the most
interesting of these extinct industries was the manufacture of woad at
Parson’s Drove, some 6 miles from Wisbech. Working ceased in 1914,
but the mill still survives. This mill together with two others near Boston
are the last representatives in Europe of an industry that dates from pre-
Christian times.
Secondly, come the industries with a long continuous history through
the Middle Ages to the present day. The best examples, perhaps, are basket-
making, printing and book-binding, quarrying for stone and clay. Finally,
there are the industries of recent growth, conspicuous elements in shaping
the modern economy of the County. In this class come the manufacture
of sugar, the canning and preserving of fruit and vegetables, and the
construction of scientific instruments and apparatus.
The account that follows does not profess to cover every commercial
undertaking in the County. It can deal only with the most important and
the most characteristic.
* For help in the preparation of this chapter, I am indebted to Mr F. J. Corbett,
the Secretary of the Cambridge Chamber of Commerce, to Mr R. S. Whipple, past
President of the Chamber, to Mr John Saltmarsh of King’s College, and to the
numerous firms who have given me information. I am indebted to the Editor
(Mr L. F. Salzman) for allowing me to use material prepared for the Victoria County
History of Cambridgeshire.
* D. Defoe, Tour through England and Wales (1724-26), Letter I.
3 See p. 126 above.
Industries 155
Agricultural Industries. The basket-making and wicker industry of the
County is very long-standing. One of the first things that struck Camden,
in 1587, was the “willows in great abundance, either growing wild or set
on the banks of rivers to prevent overflowing. It is of these that baskets
are made.’* This fen occupation survived the draining, and, to-day, the
chief centres are Ely, Soham, Chatteris, Over, and Somersham (Hunts).
Here are made wicker-chairs, bottle-containers, and every form of wicker-
work. A different kind of basket is made at the Wisbech saw-mills. A
good local market was provided by the surrounding fruit district. The
Wisbech and District Fruit Growers Association bought up all the baskets,
before the output increased sufficiently to supply a national market. The
most important firm was Messrs Dewsbury Bros. Now, the British Basket
and Besto Co. Ltd. carries on the industry, and the timber-working firms
themselves have established departments for it.
Timber-working at Wisbech was established during the nineteenth
century. The first cargo of foreign timber arrived at the port in 1824,
brought by an English barque. The next hundred years saw considerable
expansion. The leading firm in the development is Messrs English Bros,
Ltd., and its raw material is mainly Norwegian. There are branches at
Sutton Bridge, Boston, and Peterborough, as well as at Cambridge itself;
and the firm has been a pioneer in the use of creosote oil for making wood
weatherproof. The oil is forced into the timber by steam pressure in
air-tight cylinders, and, impregnated in this way, it withstands the effects
of damp without being coated either with tar or paint. Telegraph poles,
gateposts, and railway sleepers, submitted to this treatment, have remained
unrotted after fifty years’ exposure.
Characteristic occupations that have lingered into recent times are the
preparation of reed and sedge for thatching, the digging of turf for fuel,
the making of hurdles from willows; Reach and Burwell were the main
centres near Cambridge; but now these activities have almost disappeared.
Another product of the soil provided material for the straw-plaiting
industry. This once flourished in the south-west of the County at Little
Gransden and Littlington, but now the only firms are at Cambridge, Ely,
and Little Shelford. A more famous industry born of the soil has been
brewing. Cambridgeshire barley was at hand, and it seems as if malt, beer,
and ale were among the commodities for which the County was most
famous throughout the middle ages into modern times.
Sugar manufacture is a more recent, but a more important industry. The
encouragement of the sugar-beet industry by government aid in post-war
years had important consequences for the County. The acreage under
2 W. Camden, Britannia (1637 edition), p. 491.
156 Industries
sugar beet rapidly grew,’ and, now, the Isle of Ely and the County of
Cambridge together account for 66 per cent of the total acreage under beet
in Britain. In 1924, a factory at Ely was built in the centre of this agri-
cultural activity. In the beet “campaign” of 1933, Ely out of eighteen
competitors came second (with Peterborough) in “‘rated beet capacity’,
its figure being 240,000 tons; the factory came third in “through-put of
beet”’, producing 272,264 tons.
In addition to the production of sugar, there are useful by-product
industries. The beet tops are used for manure or for cattle feed; molasses
produced during refining are sold for distillation or for fodder; beet pulp
(fibre after extraction of the juice) also forms good cattle food, equivalent
to eight times its weight in mangolds; finally, the lime sludge is used for
manures.
Preserving and Canning. Fruit growing had long been famous in Cam-
bridgeshire, but the danger of over-production was great. Without some
method of preserving on a large scale, fruit that could not find a local
market had to be left to rot as it stood. Mr Stephen Chivers and his sons,
about the year 1873, decided to experiment with the surplus fruit of the
small farm at Histon that had been held by their family since the beginning
of the century. The first boiling took place in a barn that can still be seen.
A Cambridge grocer, greatly daring, volunteered to dispose of the jam,
and was apparently much surprised to find that it sold. Accordingly, in
1875, a small factory was built conveniently near the railway, in case the
venture might justify distribution to wider markets. Improvements in
equipment were steadily made. The Galloway boiler was introduced about
1885; and the introduction of electric light enabled fruit to be made into
jam as soon as it was picked. At this time 150 workmen were employed.
To-day, the Orchard Factory has between 2000 and 3000 employees; its
estates cover 8000 acres; its market is world-wide. It is estimated that
100 tons of jam can be produced daily. To this initial manufacture, other
commodities have been added—jelly tablets, custard and blanc-mange
powders, mincemeat, and marmalade. Thus an even pressure of employ-
ment is kept up throughout the year, in and out of the English fruit season.
Messrs Chivers & Sons were also among the pioneers of the canning
industry in this country. The first bottle of preserved fruit was produced
in 1890, and the first “tin” of fruit in 1893. By 1931, a new factory was
opened at Huntingdon to take over the canning of vegetables, the fruit
being still treated at Histon. It is interesting to note that all containers,
jam-pot covers, and boxes, etc. are made on the spot.
T See Fig. 33.
2 Report on the U.K. Sugar Industry (Blue Book, 1935), Table xvi, p. 30.
Industries 157
Recently, a branch of Messrs S. W. Smedley & Co. has been established
at Wisbech, the northern fruit and vegetable centre of the County. The
main attraction was the strawberries of the Wisbech district, and the plums
and greengages growing around Ely.
Agricultural Implements. In this agricultural setting, it is not unnatural
to find a number of firms manufacturing agricultural implements. As
early as 1884, the Falcon Works (John Baker Ltd.) at Wisbech were
notable for the invention and manufacture of corn- and seed-dressing
machines, at a time when mechanism was only slowly being introduced
into agriculture. Firms like Messrs Kidd of Willingham and Messrs Lack &
Sons Ltd. of Cottenham have also a long history as agricultural engineers;
while the chaff cutters of John Maynard of Whittlesford have reached
many parts of the world. Prominent, also, are Messrs Edwards & Sons
of Wisbech and Messrs Macintosh & Sons Ltd. at Cambridge. The only
iron foundry now in the district is that of John Hart at Cottenham.
Quarrying. Three geological formations are of importance in Cambridge-
shire industry. The Chalk contributes flints, chalk for limeburning and for
cement, and the soft building stone known as clunch. Surviving bursar’s
accounts show that when the Cambridge colleges were being built, con-
siderable amounts of stone were obtained from Haslingfield, Barrington,
Cherry Hinton, Reach, and Burwell. The stone for the Great Gate at
Trinity came from Burwell and Cherry Hinton; that of the Gate of
Honour at Caius came from Reach. Clunch was also much used in interior
decoration; examples may be seen in the fan-tracery of the Lady Chapel
at Ely Cathedral, or in St John’s College Chapel. Quarries are still to be
found along the line of this outcrop (Burwell Rock, or Totternhoe Stone)
in the Lower Chalk. Many of the old quarries at Isleham and elsewhere
are now disused, but clunch is still dug for road-making.
The Lower Greensand furnishes an easily dressed stone, known as
Carstone, which has been used for houses and churches, but there is no
great quantity, and it has seldom been carried for long distances.
Brick and Cement Works. The clays of Cambridgeshire have given rise
to pottery and brickworks. The potteries have disappeared but the brick-
works are very active. The bricks are of two kinds: the Gault produces a
yellowish grey brick, very common in Cambridge itself; while the
Jurassic Clays yield red bricks. At Cambridge, Ely, and Whittlesea, there
are a number of well-established brickworks. Clay mixed with chalk also
provides material for cement works at Shepreth, Meldreth, and Barrington,
and for the British Portland Cement works at Coldham’s Lane, Cambridge,
with a weekly output of about 2000 tons. Then, in addition, there are
several concrete manufacturers such as the Cambridge Concrete Co. of
158 Industries
Milton, with its own pit of gravel and sand, specialising in roofing tiles,
blocks and bricks; the Cambridge Artificial Stone Co., dealing mainly
with architectural specialities; the Atlas Stone Co., producing paving
slabs and kerbing; and Messrs Tidnams Ltd. of Wisbech, concerned with
a variety of concrete products.
Printing. Amidst much that is obscure and controversial, two facts
stand out clearly in the early history of Cambridge printing: first, that
John Siberch, a friend of Erasmus, started printing in 1521; and, secondly,
that the University received clear authority to “print all manner of books”’
under the charter granted by Henry VIII in 1534. During the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries the primary policy of the University was to
protect their printers’ privileges rather than to develop the business of
book distribution, and it was the common practice for Cambridge books
to be sold through London booksellers. At the end of the seventeenth
century, the University Press was organised as a University department.
Large-scale reorganisation was undertaken by Richard Bentley, who
secured the appointment of the first Press Syndicate; from 1698 to the
present day, the Press has been governed by a body of resident graduates
known as the Syndics of the Press. During the eighteenth century, the
Syndics felt their way towards publishing as well as printing. Their chief
stock-in-trade at this time consisted of Bibles and Prayer Books,’ but
some notable books, such as Newton’s Principia and Browne’s Christian
Morals, were also published in the early part of the century. Stereotyping
was introduced about 1734 and an improved method early in the next
century. The earliest printers carried on their work in various parts of
the town, and the first University printing house was on the site of the
present lodge of St Catharine’s College. In 1804 a new building was
erected on the south side of Silver Street, and in the course of time the
Press has gradually absorbed the whole of the site between Silver
Street and Mill Lane, the most prominent feature being the Pitt Press,
erected in memory of Pitt in 1833, and recently reconstructed. A
publishing department was inaugurated in London in 1873, and the
University Press now employs about 320 men in the printing house at
Cambridge and about 120 in Bentley House, the headquarters of its
London publishing. -Its catalogue contains the titles of about 5000
books and journals which are distributed to booksellers throughout the
world from Bentley House. All these are issued with the imprimatur of
the Syndics of the Press.
* In common with the King’s Printers and the Oxford University Press, the Syndics
retain the privilege of printing the Authorised Version and the Book of Common
Prayer—a privilege exercised by virtue of the charter granted by Henry VIII in 15 34,
and confirmed by Charles I in 1628.
Industries 159
Apart from the history of the University Press, there is very little
authentic record of printing in Cambridge until near the middle of the
eighteenth century when a weekly newspaper, The Cambridge Journal &
Weekly Flying Post, was published in September 1744. Eighteen years
later, in 1762, The Cambridge Chronicle was first issued, and about four
years afterwards The Journal was incorporated. This paper had no rival
until 1839, when The Cambridge Advertiser (which subsequently became
The Independent Press) first saw the light. These local newspapers were
mainly responsible for general commercial printing, although in the early
years of the reign of Queen Victoria, one or two small printers established
themselves in the town, but their activities never assumed large proportions.
The Cambridge Express also came into being; but with the advent of The
Cambridge Weekly News in 1887, the three other local newspapers were
absorbed, The Chronicle being the last to be incorporated a few years ago.
The printing department of the latter now survives as “St Tibb’s Press’.
A few of the old private firms remain without having shown much expan-
sion, with the exception of Messrs W. Heffer & Sons Ltd., who started
by taking over the small jobbing section of The Independent Press, and who
now have one of the most up-to-date works in the Eastern Counties.
Instrument-Making. When Sir Michael Foster was appointed to the
University Chair of Physiology in 1883, he found a startling lack of medical
equipment of British and modern design; most instruments needed to keep
pace with medical discovery had to be imported from German firms.
Consequently he started to design and manufacture instruments on a small
scale with the aid of two former pupils, Dr Dew Smith and Mr Francis
Balfour. Soon, the co-operation of Sir Horace Darwin was obtained, and
this was the beginning of the Cambridge Instrument Company Ltd. It
was not until 1895, however, after the retirement of the senior partner,
that the business registered itself as a company under the chairmanship
of Darwin. Among the important inventions of those early days were
the bifilar pendulum form of seismograph, and the rocking microtome for
the rapid preparation of specimens for the microscope; then again there
was the thread-recorder for marking the path of a moving pointer.
After the changes in reorganisation, the business was removed from
St Tibb’s Row to Chesterton Road, where it has remained, adding block
to block, until the present day. Darwin took a leading part in the
study of aviation. In 1912, he was appointed a member of the Advisory
‘ There are of course printers at work outside the town of Cambridge itself. Thus
“the earliest newspaper bearing a Wisbech title—the Lynn and Wisbech Packet—came
into existence on January 7th, 1800”. For the subsequent newspaper history of the
town, see F, J. Gardiner, History of Wisbech and Neighbourhood (1898), pp. 65-74.
160 Industries
Committee on Aeronautics, and the Company began to produce height-
finders and instruments to locate the presence of aircraft. When war broke
out, experimental effort was redoubled. A special thermometer was pro-_
duced for testing the temperature of water in an aeroplane radiator—a very
important invention when flying at great heights became normal. Other
aircraft instruments were also produced.
Another Cambridge firm specialising in the manufacture of scientific
apparatus was the “‘Granta’’ Works founded by W. G. Pye about 1897.
In addition to supplying equipment to laboratories for teaching purposes,
many pieces of apparatus were manufactured for some specific experiment,
and the demand grew. Graduates from Cambridge, in equipping labora-
tories elsewhere, looked for apparatus similar to that which they had used
in their training. Particular attention had been paid to electricalinstruments,
and in order to provide work for men returning from active service in
1919 and 1920, apparatus was developed for teaching the principles of
wireless telegraphy. Broadcasting commenced, and, soon, the teaching
panels were in great demand for listening-in. With their circuit lines
engraved in white on ebonite panels, they took principal place in many
drawing rooms. Later developments, and especially the advent of the
portable receiver, resulted in very great extension of wireless production,
and in 1929 it was decided to separate the two activities. The Radio
department was disposed of to the Pye Radio Co. Ltd. The original business
of scientific instrument-making was carried on in modern premises in
Newmarket Road; later, an Aeronautical Instruments Section was added,
retaining the style as W. G. Pye & Co. Ltd.
A more recent instrument-making firm is Messrs Unicam Ltd. This was
started in 1933 at St Andrews Hill, but has recently moved to enlarged
premises at Arbury Road. Finally, Clifton Instruments Ltd., founded at
Bristol in 1929, was transferred to Cambridge in 1938. This is concerned
with physiological instruments.
Paper-Making, etc. The Sawston Paper Mill is one of the oldest paper
mills in the country, and the only one now in existence in East Anglia.
The mill is known to have been making paper in 1664, and possibly the
manufacture had been carried on from a much earlier date.
The name of Fourdrinier is found in association with the Mill as early
as 1780, and it is certain that one of the earliest paper-making machines in
the country was installed at Sawston. In 1836 the Mill passed into the
Towgood family, who made paper continuously from that date to 1917,
and who built up a reputation for a very high grade of paper. In 1917,
the Mill was incorporated as a Limited Company, under the name of
Edward Towgood & Sons Ltd., and passed into the possession of the
Industries 161
well-known London Stationers, Spicer Bros. Ltd., now Spicers Ltd.
Spicers Ltd. have developed on this estate a flourishing group of factories,
where Woodpulp Containers, Envelopes, Waxed Wrappings, D’oyleys,
Account Books, and other products of the stationers’ craft are made.
Forming part of the factory extension at the Sawston Mills is the
activity of Dufay-Chromex Ltd. Over the last ten or twelve years,
experimental work in connection with the manufacture of non-inflammable
colour film, under the Dufaycolor process, has been developed, and the
manufacture of this well-known colour film is proceeding.
There are also other activities at Sawston. The manufacture of chamois
(‘“shammy’’) leather has been carried on for over a hundred years.’ Like
that of paper, it was no doubt started here because of the good supply of
water and the easy means of transport. The refuse from the skins goes to
make soap, glue, dubbin, or manure for fruit trees. Glove-making is also
carried on, making Sawston a unique example of an industrial village in
Cambridgeshire.
Miscellaneous Industries have sprung up spasmodically in Cambridgeshire
with no particular reason for their location. Wisbech provides example
of an extensive tent-manufacture, which was of great importance in
providing equipment for the Boer War, as well as for flower-shows, fairs,
garden-parties, and camps. In this town there is also a label factory
(Messrs Burall) which was one of the first firms to produce the clip-on
. type of label as opposed to the more usual eylet-and-string model.
At Littleport, Messrs Hope Bros. have recently set up a factory for shirt-
making giving employment to over 300 people; at Whittlesford there is
vinegar-brewing; while at Whittlesford and Pampisford there are artificial
manure works.
- In Cambridge itself there are some famous firms manufacturing brushes
—the Cambridge Brush Company, the Kleen-e-ze Company, and the
Premier Company. The Cambridge Tapestry Company is important for
the special study that has been made of the repair of ancient fabrics and
upholstery, by means of which many medieval treasures have been saved
for posterity. Finally there must be mentioned the firms of box-manu-
facturers, turners, and furnishers, the Cambridge Metal Stamping Company,
and the Cambridge Gas Company. But this does not exhaust the list.
‘ For a description of the process, see T. M. Hughes and C. Hughes, Cambridgeshire
(1909), p. 103.
DBA It
CHAPTER TWELVE
THE GROWTH OF CAMBRIDGE
By J. B. Mitchell, m.a.
of Cambridge: its position on the Cam at the junction of Fenland
and Upland and its relation to the open chalk country and gravel
terraces controlling the land routes. The Cam, navigable from Lynn to
Cambridge, was a main artery of communication through the Fenland:
sea-going vessels were still discharging their goods at Cambridge quays and
hithes in 1295, while river traffic remained of great importance until the
competition of the railways ruined the watermen in the nineteenth
century. Cambridge also owes much to its land routes. A slight transverse
fold in the south-easterly dipping chalk throws a finger from the chalk
escarpment north-west across the valley of the Cam," the severed tip of
this finger forming the chalk outlier of Castle Hill. This ridge capped and
extended by gravel-spreads provided a ford across the river, and constituted
a south-east—north-west land route from East Anglia to the Midlands
crossing the north-east—south-west river route at Cambridge. The main
kz ESSENTIAL ELEMENTS NEED STRESS IN THE SITUATION
Roman road of the area, the Via Devana, exactly followed this ridge: the .
modern roads south of the river approach along the gravel terraces of the
valley but continue north-west along the ridge to-day (Fig. 37).
The site itself, where chalk and gravel approach the river, afforded the
essentials of solid banks for bridging and dry ground for building, and was
partially protected by the sweep of the river and its marshes. The distribu-
tion of the gravels, which largely determine the minor elevations (com-
pare Figs. 37 and 38),3 assume a great importance on a site as low and liable
to flood as Cambridge. The gravels within the meander consist essentially
of the Higher Terrace gravels of Trumpington to the west and of Barnwell
to the east rising to 50 ft., separated by a spread of Lower and Intermediate
Terrace gravels lying approximately at 30 ft. o.p. Along the centre of the
* Le. the Gogmagog Hills which are shown up clearly in Fig. 8.
* On Fig. 37, the 100 ft., 50 ft. and 20 ft. contours have been traced from the
Ordnance Survey 6 in.sheets: form lines, at 10 ft. intervals, have been interpolated
from the O.S. 25 in. plans (1925 edition). The unequal intervals of the layer colouring
have been deliberately chosen for comparison with the built-up areas.
3 Fig. 38 is based on the 1 in. Geological Survey sheets (Drift edition) of the area.
For access to the 6 in. map of the southern part of the area, and to a map of the
Geology of Cambridge, by A. J. Jukes-Brown, I am indebted to the Director of the
Geological Survey. :
— awe
The Growth of Cambridge 163
Height above sea level
40-6Oft. [a 80-100ft.
60-8Oft. [RRR over 1OOft.
Railways
Roads
Fig. 37.
The Cambridge Area: Relief.
A=The Castle. B=St Bene’t’s Church. N=Newnham. G=Grantchester.
T=Trumpington. C=Cherryhinton. Ch=Chesterton. For sources see footnote 2,
p- 162.
II-2
164 The Growth of Cambridge
Intermediate Terrace gravels runs a depression occupied by Hobson’s
Brook in the south and followed in part by the King’s Ditch in the north.
To the east, these gravels are separated from the Higher Terrace gravels of
Barnwell by an outcrop of Chalk and Gault which coincides markedly with
the eastern belt of open land formed by the University Sports Ground
(Fenner’s), Parker’s Piece, Christ’s Pieces and Butt’s Green. North and
west of the river are gravel-spreads equally important to the settlement of
the area; the Higher Terrace gravels at Grantchester are comparable to
those of Trumpington; Intermediate and Lower Terrace gravels stretch
from thence to the valley of the Bin Brook and are separated by an outcrop
of gault from the high-lying Observatory gravels of Castle Hill. East of
Castle Hill lies a wide spread of Intermediate and Lower Terrace gravels
reaching to Chesterton and beyond. The Cam River is bordered by
alluvium, once marsh, but now largely drained and raised to form a belt
of open land to the west and north of the town, comprising Sheep’s
Green, Coe Fen, the Backs, Jesus Green, Midsummer Common, Chesterton
Fen and Stourbridge Common.
The gravels not only afforded well-drained building sites, but, para-
doxically, gave the early town an ample, if not always sanitary, water
supply. The underground seepage of water towards the Cam, held up by
the impervious Gault, was tapped by shallow wells in the gravels, and
provided until the seventeenth century a water supply considered adequate
for all needs. In modern times,’ two sources of water supply have replaced
the easily contaminated surface wells; artesian water from the Lower
Greensand and, more important, water from the Chalk.
THE MEDIEVAL PERIOD?’
Evidence of a pre-Roman settlement at Cambridge is lacking, but Bronze
Age finds, beakers, and burials, clustered near the ford, point to its use at
this date; and in Roman times a fortified settlement mounted guard on
Castle Hill over the important crossing at its foot. In Anglo-Saxon times,
a flourishing settlement, or more probably settlements, developed in
association with the river bend: (1) to the south of the river the Saxon
* (a) “This year [1610] the Town and University completed a new river from a
place called Nine Wells in the Parish of Great Shelford to the Town of Cambridge.”
C. H. Cooper, Annals of Cambridge, iti, 36 (1845). ‘This year [1614] Henry King and
Nathaniel Craddock with the King’s sanction, and at the joint charge of the University
and the Town, undertook to convey water by pipes from the new river to the Market
Place, and there to erect a conduit of stone.” Ibid. iti, 62.
(b) The Cambridge Town and University Waterworks Co. was formed in 1853.
* 'The theories regarding the early history of the town are discussed in an admirable
paper by H. M. Cam, “The Origin of the Borough of Cambridge”, Proc. Camb.
Antiq. Soc. xxxv, 33 (1935). i,
INSSj
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
°
|
ByneaEEzEy’ a
A
PECEE EE EHEEEEEECHEH HH
FHHH HHH HHH HH
PH
i He
a Bas
so
“i
YA Hed
[| Alluvium
Lower and Intermediate
Terrace Gravels
Higher Terrace Gravels
Fig. 38.
The Cambridge Area: Drift Geology.
22
Oz
08
30
CP
So
Ca
a>
“a
Era4 Chalk
NSS Gault
= Grantchester.
Newnham. G
Chesterton. For sources see footnote 3,
St Bene’t’s Church. N
Cherryhinton. Ch
B=
Castle.
The
Trumpington. C
A=
p. 162.
ag
166 The Growth of Cambridge
tower of the Church of St Benedict bears witness to the early date of the
occupation of the gravels of Market Hill and Peas Hill, between the Cam
and the King’s Ditch depression; (2) to the north of the river, Castle Hill
had also been early built upon; Domesday Book records that there were
fifty-four tenements in Castle Ward. There also appear to have been two
smaller settlements; (3) to the west on the rising ground of the river
terrace at Newnham, the Mill at Newnham is mentioned in the Domesday
Survey; and (4) to the east on the northern edge of the gravels at Barnwell.
The main ford of the river at the foot of Castle Hill, where gravel and
chalk afford firm banks, was early bridged; the Great Bridge of the
documents was situated here. The Small Bridges, near the Mill Pool,
connecting the settlement within the meander with that of Newnham, are
also of early date. The medieval town was formed by the expansion of the
two centres at Castle Hill and at Market Hill; but it was not until modern
times that the settlements at Newnham and Barnwell were Spiel
absorbed.
The medieval town so formed may have been bounded eastwards by
the King’s Ditch (see Fig. 39), cut, most probably, primarily for the
defence of the crossing, not for the safety of the settlements. By the
thirteenth century, the town had grown beyond these limits: the parish
of St Mary the Less to the south and that of St Andrew the Great to the
east both lay almost entirely outside the town as defined by the King’s
Ditch, and both had a considerable population. The further extension of
medieval Cambridge was, however, confined on the one hand by the
alluvial marshes of the river, and, on the other, by the inviolability of the
town fields. Already by the end of the thirteenth century, the edge of the
gravels was being raised and drained to provide extra building sites without
sacrificing valuable agricultural and meadow land: the chapel and in-
firmary of the Hospital of St John (later the site of St John’s College) and the
nunnery of St Radegund (later the site of Jesus College) encroached on the
alluvial land of the western and northern slopes of the Intermediate gravels.
The University, already powerful at this period, did not, however,
possess elaborate buildings. The great period of University and Collegiate
building belongs to the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries. By this date,
most of the desirable gravel sites within the King’s Ditch boundary had
been occupied, and thus the Collegiate buildings fall into two groups:
those upon good gravel sites on the outskirts of the medieval town, and
those upon “‘made”’ ground along the western edge of the river terrace
where the gravel descends below the alluvium.”
* T. McKenny Hughes, “The Superficial Deposits of Cambridge and their effect
on the distribution of the Colleges”, Proc. Camb. Antig. Soc. xi, 293 (1907).
~~
c SOOT SSS SS
SSS SSS NS a
AARAALE SERRE ER
before 1798 WY, 1901-1925
1798 - 1858 1925 - 1937
1858 - 1901 Commons etc.
Fig. 39.
The Growth of Cambridge.
A=The Castle. B=St Bene’t’s Church, N=Newnham. G=Grantchester.
T=Trumpington. C=Cherryhinton. Ch=Chesterton. The white line curving from
below B to the river opposite A represents the course of the King’s Ditch. Commons,
etc. includes Commons, the Backs, Playing Fields, Recreation Grounds and Cemeteries.
The area shown in solid black was covered with houses by 1574. For sources see foot-
note 2, p. 168.
168 The Growth of Cambridge
The first group of Colleges chose the easier solution; Peterhouse (1284)
and Pembroke (1347) were built upon gravels on the southern edge of the
town, while the monastic buildings of the Friar Preachers (1240), later
utilised by Emmanuel College, indicates the extension of building to the
gravels on the east of the King’s Ditch depression. Many of the earlier
buildings of the second group (Michael House, 1324, Clare Hall, 1326,
Gonville Hall, 1348, Trinity Hall, 1350) are clustered around slightly
higher ground indicated by the modern name of Senate House Hill, upon
which was built the first University buildings, the Grammar School, the
Law School, and the Arts School. Lower sites to the north and south were
soon utilised, King’s Hall (Trinity College) was built in 1337, King’s
Chapel in 1446, Queens’ College in 1448, and St Catharine’s College in
1473. As the river Colleges have grown and extended their buildings in
modern times, the alluvial river marshes have been drained and raised, and
the Cam has been canalised, resulting in the stretch of College gardens,
playing fields and commons which constitute the Backs to-day. St John’s
College, in the nineteenth century, placed new buildings west of the river
on a purely alluvial site; but Clare College, in the twentieth century,
preferred to separate its new buildings from the old and placed them on
the rising ground of the gravel terrace west of the river.
THE PERIOD 1500-1800
The built-up area of the medieval town can be deduced only indirectly
from archaeological and literary sources, but its extent from the later
sixteenth century onwards is clearly revealed in the excellent series of
plans and maps of varying dates which have survived.! The earliest extant
of these detailed plans, those of Lyne (1574) and Hammond (1592), have
been taken as the basis of the map showing the growth of Cambridge
(Fig. 39).? These early plans raise complex architectural questions which
are not important here: they provide, at any rate, a reliable picture of the
extent of the town in the later sixteenth century.
In the south, a few houses flanked the two main roads into the town,
Trumpington Street and St Andrew’s Street, separated by marshy ground
of a depression in the gravels occupied then by St Thomas’ Leys and by
Swinecroft. This area was known later as the Downing site and was not
1 J. W. Clark and A. Gray, Old Plans of Cambridge, 1574-1798 (1921).
* Fig. 39 has been constructed from the plans of Richard Lyne, 1574, John Hammond,
1592; the surveys of David Loggan, 1688, William Cunstance, 1798, George Baker,
1830, Richard Rowe, 1858; and the 6 in. editions of the Ordnance Survey of 1885,
1901, 1925. For the extension of the built-up area between 1925 and December 1937,
I am indebted to the Cambridge Borough Engineer and Surveyor for permission to
use plans in his possession.
————— ee
The Growth of Cambridge 169
built over until the nineteenth century. On the east, Parker’s Piece, Christ’s
Pieces and Butt’s Green marked the edge of the built-up area and are
shown as cornlands. No buildings of note extended beyond Jesus College;
and north of the river the gravel-spread towards Chesterton was entirely
open; but houses had crept down the west side of Castle Hill to the edge
of the alluvium of the Bin Brook. The Backs are shown as completely
rural on the maps; grazing animals on the alluvium suggest meadow,
conventional grain fields on the flanking terrace suggest arable land. The
river was bridged at Silver Street, but, beyond the bridges, the road was
replaced by field paths leading to the small settlement around the Mill at
Newnham.
Cambridge at the end of the sixteenth century, then, covered much the
same area as the medieval town; the further changes in area, as shown on
the plans of Loggan (1688) and Cunstance (1798), are so slight as to be
perforce omitted from the Growth of Cambridge map (Fig. 39). These
show a few more buildings on the outskirts of the town; but the rural
environs as sketched for the sixteenth century remain essentially the same.
This almost complete halt in territorial growth during the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries is most striking.
During these centuries, however, there is evidence of a large increase
in population within the existing built-up area. The Poll Tax Returns for
1377 record 1902 persons more than fourteen years of age for the Cam-
bridge Borough.’ Cooper quotes estimates and counts of population
out of the Colleges? during the early modern period which may be
summarised thus:
1749 1794 1801
6131 8942 9276
These figures suggest a considerable increase during the later Middle
Ages, followed by a period of slow growth during the seventeenth century
changing to relatively rapid growth in the second half of the eighteenth
century. The details of the figures for the eighteenth century show that,
although there was a general increase of population density, the changes
in the central parishes, where the density of population was highest, were
not great. A marked increase, however, characterised the parishes with
land on the outskirts; the figures for the parish of St Giles show the first
1587 1728
4990 6422
* E. Powell, The East Anglia Rising in 1381 (1896), p. 121.
* C. H. Cooper, op. cit. ii, 435 (1842); iv, 203, 274, 451, 470 (1852). The
number of hearths in the town in 1662 was recorded as 4031. Ibid. iii, sor.
170 The Growth of Cambridge
sign of growth to the north of the river, later to assume such astonishing
proportions.
The growth of the University during this period can best be seen from
the Matriculation figures (Fig. 40).' These figures fluctuate considerably,
but between 1600 and 1675 average 307 per annum; numbers decline
during the last quarter of the century, and remain below 200 per annum
(average 161) throughout the eighteenth century. This suggests a resident
2000
1500
Matriculations
(=)
S
w
S
i=)
1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 1800 1850 1900 1935
Fig. 40.
Matriculations in the University of Cambridge, 1550-1935.
I am indebted to Dr J. A. Venn for permission to reproduce this graph.
University population of about 1220 in the seventeenth century” and 650
in the eighteenth. The curve of Matriculation shows an upward trend in
the second half of the eighteenth century and the Census Returns for
1801 record 811 resident members of the University.
The. increase of population within the Borough between 1500-1800,
without a corresponding increase in the built-up area, indicates therefore
a steadily increasing density of population,3 and the lack of territorial
expansion reflects strongly the building restriction caused by the marshes
and by the open-fields around the town. The enclosure of the open-fields
between 1801 and 1807 was followed at once by a great increase in the
built-up area, which represented, in part, the relief from cramped and
* C. H. Cooper, op. cit. iti, 553, quotes an estimate made by John Ivory in 1672
which gives 2522 as the number resident in the Colleges, including Fellows, Scholars
and Servants.
7 J. A. Venn, “Matriculations at Oxford and Cambridge, 1544-1906”, The Oxford
and Cambridge Review, No. 3, p. 48 (1908).
3 F. W. Maitland, Township and Borough (1898), pp. 101-s.
The Growth of Cambridge I7I
overcrowded conditions in the old town. The population of the Borough
was also increasing rapidly in the nineteenth century (Fig. 41).
Curve for area before 1912 Extension.
# 4 1912-1935.
+44ee+ o 4 "©" since 1935.
Pee seis 4b G1 OT Sl SP 90a ih 217 eal
Fig. 41.
The Population of Cambridge, 1801-1931.
The break in the curve between 1851 and 1861 is due to the fact that between 1811-
1 the University was in Residence on Census Night, and from 1861-1911 in Vacation.
In 1921, Census Night was 19/20 June at the beginning of the Vacation; in 1931 the
Census was taken in Full Term. The population in 1921 and 1931, within the area of
the Borough as extended in 1935, is shown in addition to that of the area of the
Borough at the time of the Census. The official estimate of the population of the
Borough in 1936 was 76,760; and in 1938, including the “overspill” beyond the
Borough boundary, the population is about 90,000. I am indebted to Dr J. A. Venn
for these later figures. é
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
Fig. 39 shows the area built over between the publication of the plan of
William Cunstance in 1798 and that of Richard Rowe in 1858. North of
the river there was a small extension to the south-west of Castle Hill, but
the striking growth of the town was southward and eastward. A large
area on the Intermediate Terrace gravels, on either side of the central
depression of the Downing site, was built upon during this period. Beyond
172 The Growth of Cambridge
the clay strip, largely occupied by the open commons, streets of small
houses appear on the western portion of the Higher Terrace. The move-
ment of population to the periphery, and the relief of congestion in the
central parishes, are clearly shown by the Census Returns for the nineteenth
century (Fig. 42). The 1851 Returnsattribute the decrease in Great St Mary’s
20
St.Clement,
St.Mary the Great
and St.Michael,
Thou isands
0
180111 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91190111 21 31
Fig. 42.
Population curves of two central parishes, showing decline in numbers due to
movement into the suburbs. (N.B. The break in the curve between 1911 and 1921
indicates a change in the parish boundaries.)
parish to “‘the recent destruction of houses on Market Hill by fire and
not rebuilt”; while, in the parish of the Holy Sepulchre, “the decrease of
population is caused by the demolition of a number of old and unsafe
tenements”. The peripheral growth is seen in the population curve for
the parish of St Andrew the Less (Fig. 43), where, says the Census
Returns, “the marked increase is due to the erection of public buildings
and the enlargement of the Colleges and therefore an increase in the
number of labourers and mechanics. Several streets of small houses have
been built.”
The growth of the town in size and numbers in the first half of the
nineteenth century was probably due largely to the progress of medicine
and sanitation. Cambridge had suffered in the past repeatedly and severely
from pestilence. The increase in University numbers and the building
activity of the Colleges added to the prosperity of the town, and there also
The Growth of Cambridge 173
appears to have been an increase in its importance as a market for the rural
areas. The Hay Market in 1820 and the Cattle Market in 1842 were
removed from the centre of the town to more spacious sites on Pound
Hill (the western slope of Castle Hill). The old Corn Exchange on St
’ Andrew’s Hill was also opened in 1842. The outlying villages, Newnham,
Grantchester, Trumpington, Cherryhinton, Chesterton, also show in-
7
Thousands
Faumiiaz) ot.4t-3) Oleal ol Ol Ol tl 2h 3
Fig. 43.
Population curve for the parish of St Andrew the Less, including after 1845 the
parishes of St Paul (1845), St Matthew (1870), St Barnabas (1888), and St Philip (1903).
crease of population (Fig. 44) and area at this period; in the case of Cherry-
hinton, the 1821 Census Report specifically attributes the increase to
enclosures.!
The expansion of Cambridge in the second half of the nineteenth
century was even greater (Fig. 39). The town continued to grow rapidly
* As was the case with other villages of the County. See p. 129 above.
174 The Growth of Cambridge
eastwards upon the gravel forming higher ground between Hobson’s
Brook and Coldham’s Brook. The railway, built along the summit of the
ridge, was opened in 1845.’ The railway fostered development in this
area; as early as 1851 the competition of railway transport was causing a
shift of population. The riverside parish of St Clement showed a decline
in numbers, and the 1851 Census Report declared “many families have
left as the Eastern Counties Railway is absorbing the trade of the Cam”’.
Industrial enterprises were attracted to sites near the railway; and the strip of
Gault, appearing beneath the gravels in the area between Coldham’s Brook
12
1]
10
Thousands
180111 21 31 41 51 61 ZI 8l 91190111
Fig. 44.
Population curves for the outer parishes largely added to the Borough by the
Extension Acts of 1911 and 1934 (see Fig. 46).
and the Cam, was utilised for brick and tile works. The parish of St
Andrew the Less grew rapidly (Fig. 43), and was subdivided repeatedly
during the nineteenth century. Much of this area became a district of
mean streets and small, crowded houses, forming in the twentieth century
one of the most densely populated areas in Cambridge (Fig. 45).
The other area with a density of more than thirty persons per acre at the
beginning of the twentieth century lies to the north of the river on the
Intermediate and Lower Terrace gravels which raise the ground above the
* See pp. 132-4 above for the opening dates of the various railway lines.
* Fig. 45 has been constructed from the Census figures, using the wards before the
1935 changes as the unit areas. These units were chosen in preference to the existing
wards because they are smaller, and figures for three decades, 1911, 1921 and 1931, are
available.
The Growth of Cambridge 175
jel elle) wiles
| mile
Persons per acre
[less than 5 [||] 10-20
5-10 WIZ, 20-30
Fig. 45.
Cambridge: Density of Population, 1911-1931.
A=The Castle. B=St Bene’t’s Church. N=Newnham. G=Grantchester.
T=Trumpington. C=Cherryhinton. Ch= Chesterton.
The parish churches marked + are: 1. St Giles’. 2. St Clement's. 3. St Michael’s.
4..Great St Mary’s. 5. Little St Mary’s. 6. St Paul’s (New Town). 7. St Andrew’s the
Less (Barnwell). 8. St Matthew’s. 9. St Barnabas’ (Petersfield). 10. St Philip’s
(Romsey Town).
176 The Growth of Cambridge
20 ft. contour and so above the flood level. This district was also largely
built up, during the second half of the nineteenth century, to provide
accommodation for the growing working-class population: indeed, by
the end of the century it had stretched out and joined the expanding village
of Chesterton. The remarkable growth in the Chesterton district was
already foreshadowed in 1851. The Census Returns attribute a decrease
in the non-collegiate population of St Giles’ to “the removal of many
families to the neighbouring suburb of Chesterton”; and the return for
Chesterton noted that “‘upwards of 200 houses have been erected in the
last ten years principally inhabited by persons attracted by low rents and
light taxation to reside there, though engaged in business in the town of
Cambridge”’. Finally, there was also a considerable expansion of the
residential area during this period. Building proceeded apace to the south,
along the higher ground on either side of Hobson’s Brook, to the west,
along the Newnham gravel terrace, and to the north, along the Castle Hill
ridge.
Three factors account, in the main, for the growth of the town at this
period: (1) the development of railway communication, (2) the develop-
ment of industries, and (3) the marked growth of the University.
The negotiations between the Town and University authorities took a
long and arduous course. A suitable site for a station was very much
discussed: that of the Eastern Counties Railway, the first opened, occupied
the present site, but it was felt “it was so exceedingly bad that altogether
the advantages of the railway were almost superceded by the disadvantage
of the station’’.* The Midland and Eastern Company “ proposed to remedy
that evil” and “‘to run their line through Coe Fen and bring their station
to the very heart of the town”. Numerous sites were considered, Sheep’s
Green, Butt’s Green, Midsummer Common among them, but eventually
“the difficulties likely to stand in the way of obtaining a site easily acces-
sible and convenient to all the railways likely to branch off from the town
and at the same time not interfering with the beautiful walks around the
town or with College grounds”’ proved insuperable. The project for a
central station, which might have radically altered the town plan of
Cambridge, was abandoned.
It was urged that the railway would “afford unquestionable advantages
to a large district hitherto shut out from the benefit of railway communica-
tion”’ ;? and it was argued that “the river would feed the railway and the
railway feed the river’’.3 The opening of the railway did bring Cambridge
* Report of a Railway Meeting, Cambridge Chronicle, 22 Nov. 1845. The remaining
quotations in this paragraph are also taken from this report.
* Cambridge Chronicle, 11 Feb. 1843.
3 Jbid. 3 Oct. 1834.
The Growth of Cambridge 177
into closer touch with the London market but, in spite of assurances to
the contrary, it had a devastating effect on the trade of the Cam; the long
lines of barges carrying coal, wood, and stone soon disappeared.
Concurrently with the development of communications came the
development of industries. Brick and tile works at Cherryhinton and
Coldham’s Lane, cement works at Romsey Town, are conveniently
placed near the railway. Flour-milling, sausage-making, brewing and
malting occupied increasing numbers, and Chivers’ jam factory, opened
at Histon in 1873, also drew workers from Cambridge. Printing, an old-
established industry in the town, occupied 286 men in 1901 and in 1881 the
Cambridge Instrument Company was founded. Building and construc-
tion work provided employment for a large number of industrial workers.
The two main industries, building and printing, together with retail
trade, are in fact closely connected with University development; and the
marked expansion of the University, in the second half of the nineteenth
century, was the most important single factor in the growth of the town
at this period. The numbers of undergraduates rose steadily:
1861 1871 1881 1891 I9OI IQII 1921 1931
1529 2097 2688 3029 2958 3781 4748 $204
With this increase went a corresponding increase of teaching and
administrative officers. After 1871 the abolition of religious tests by
the University and Colleges was, at any rate, one among many causes
that lay behind the increase. College buildings became inadequate to
house the growing numbers, and the demand for lodgings grew. Then,
again, in 1882 came the abolition of the rule that Fellowships must be
surrendered on marriage; and the same Statutes decreed that Fellowships
were to be conditional on active work in the Colleges or the University,
thus necessitating residence in Cambridge. These changes could not but
affect the growth of the town; married Fellows needed house accommoda-
tion as well as rooms in College and this was doubtless a factor in the
development of the residential suburbs.
THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
The twentieth-century extensions of area are shown on Fig. 39 for two
periods. The first quarter of the century is differentiated from the develop-
ment of the last ten years in order to emphasise present tendencies. The
period 1901-25 was characterised by rapid development along the main
roads; the last ten years by an attempt to control ribbon development and
to fill in the empty areas between these roads.
DBA I2
178 The Growth of Cambridge
In 1906 it was said that “our town is mostly built’’;* even in 1925 it
could be stated “Cambridge is still to an appreciable extent a rural town-
ship’’. Present development is rapidly changing these conditions. Twice
at short intervals, in 1912 and 1935, the Borough boundaries (Fig. 46)
have been considerably extended—boundaries hitherto unchanged
throughout the centuries. The additions to the Borough show the position
and amount of the extension:
By Extension Order Act of 1911.
Parish Area Population
Chesterton (whole) 1,173 acres 11,330 persons
Cherryhinton (part) 388 2,749
Trumpington (part) 497 $27
Grantchester (part) 166 1,179
By Extension Order Act of 1934.
Parish Area Population
Cherryhinton (whole) 1,671 acres 1,254 persons
Trumpington (part) 1,439 1,179
Gt. Shelford (part) 188 74
Fen Ditton (part) 441 437
Impington (part) $70 341
Milton (part) 294 95
The most rapid growth is now in the south, and along the gravels to the
north of the river. The tendency to move out from the medieval nucleus
has largely ceased and the recent extension of College buildings will result,
if anything, in a rise of population density in this area during term time.
But the general movement to the periphery continues. The residential
areas to the south and west are still growing. There is also a marked
movement from the eastern and northern slums of the nineteenth century
to the adjoining areas. The wards of South Chesterton, Petersfield and
St Matthew, which had a density of more than 40 persons per acre in 1911,
showed a decrease to 37-3, 38:8, and 37-8 persons per acre respectively in
1931. During the same period the density increased in the rest of Chesterton
and in Romsey Town (Fig. 45). A new factor is at work here, the twentieth
century demands better standards in housing conditions and looks askance
at the crowded buildings of the previous one. This factor is additional to
the continued development of the University, and to the continued
increase in industries, largely of a skilled character: the Cambridge
* E. M. Jebb, Cambridge. A Brief Study of Social Questions (1906), p. 25.
* A. Gray, The Town of Cambridge (1925), p. 167.
The Growth of Cambridge 179
fs ZA
SSR, Wy
<.
iy
1
% yy
(YN Area to1912 (HA Added 1912 [] ]]Added 1935
Fig. 46.
Cambridge: Extensions of the Borough.
The Borough boundaries are taken from the town plans of Cambridge published
by Mr W. P. Spalding. The Extension Order Acts are dated 1911 and 1934; they
» came into effect in 1912 and 1935.
A=The Castle. B=St Bene’t’s Church N=Newnham. G=Grantchester.
T=Trumpington. C=Cherryhinton. Ch= Chesterton.
180 The Growth of Cambridge
Instrument Company now employs 700 hands and the Pye Radio Works
is a new and important industry.”
The laissez-faire development of the nineteenth century has been taken
in hand. The Town Planning Department is in full working order, and
the Borough land has been tentatively allotted to various purposes.
Building schemes of twelve houses to the acre are a feature of the east and
north-east, to which area, with its good railway sites, it is hoped to confine
new and expanding industrial enterprises. In the west it is planned to
curtail the density of building to, at most, four houses to the acre.
There was a proposal of the Town Council in 1841 to enclose portions of
the Commons for building sites and market gardens.” Fortunately for the
beauty of Cambridge and the preservation of the individuality of the old
town, this was turned down by a meeting of the townsmen “characterised
by extreme noise and tumult’’.3 Medieval Cambridge is thus largely
separated from the expanding Cambridge of to-day by a ring of open
land formed by the Commons and the Backs.
* See pp. 159-60 above.
* Report read to a meeting of the Town Council, April 1841. Quoted by C, H.
Cooper, op. cit. iv, 633.
3 C. H. Cooper, op. cit. iv, 634.
: BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
(1) C.H. Cooper, Annals of Cambridge, 5 vols. (1842-53).
(2) R. Willis and J. W. Clark, The Architectural History of the University of
Cambridge, 4 vols. (1886).
(3) J. B. Mullinger, The University of Cambridge, 3 vols. (1873-1911).
(4) F. W. Maitland, Township and Borough (1898).
(s) F. Ry Maitland and M. Bateson, The Charters of the Borough of Cambridge
190T).
(6) A. cee The Town of Cambridge (1925).
(7) A. Gray, Cambridge University. An Episodical History (1926).
CHAPTER THIRTEEN
THE DRAINING OF THE FENS
A.D. 1600-1850
By H. C. Darby, M.aA., PH.D.
URING THE MIDDLE AGES THE DRAINING OF THE 1300
square miles of the Fenland had remained largely a matter for
local concern. When necessity arose, owing to the ravages of the
sea or to the overflowing of the watercourses, the Crown granted a com-
mission to remedy the evil. A succession of Commissions of Sewers
combined. with local custom to maintain the medieval economy. The
upkeep of any single channel involved many interlocking interests, and
the dissolution of the monasteries in 1539 served only to increase the
confusion of divided responsibilities. But, as Samuel Hartlib wrote, “in
Queen Elizabeth’s dayes, Ingenuites, Curiosities and Good Husbandry
began to take place”. The time was becoming ripe for a “‘greate designe”
in the Fenland. During the later years of the sixteenth century, various
schemes and experiments prepared the way. At last, in 1600, there was
passed “An Act for the recovering of many hundred thousand Acres of
Marshes. ..”. Of the many stretches of marsh in the kingdom, that of the
great Fenland itself provided the most spectacular transformation.
Many schemes were afoot during the early years of the seventeenth
century, and there was great opposition from those with vested interests
in the fen commons and in the fenland streams. There was also much
debate about ways and means. Nothing effective was done; general
dissatisfaction was felt everywhere. The net result was that some fenmen
approached Francis, 4th Earl of Bedford, the owner of 20,000 acres near
Thorney and Whittlesea, who contracted within six years to make “good
summer land”? all that expanse of peat in the southern Fenland, later
known as the Bedford Level. An agreement was drawn up in 1630. In
the following year, thirteen Co-Adventurers* associated themselves with
the earl; and in 1634 they were granted a charter of incorporation. Their
hope was to turn this expanse of “great waters and a few reeds” into
“pleasant pastures of cattle and kyne”’; and they secured the services of the
Dutch engineer Vermuyden, who had been at work upon the reclamation
* T.e. Land free from floods in summer. This is the story told by C. Vermuyden in
A Discourse touching the drayning the great Fennes (1642).
* So called because they “adventured” their capital. See p. 105 above.
182 The Draining of the Fens
of the Axholme marshes. Under his direction, cuts, drains, and sluices
were made. Chief among these was the Old Bedford River extending
from Earith to Salter’s Lode, 70 ft. wide and 21 miles in length.
In 1637, at a Session of Sewers in St Ives, the Level was judged to have
been drained according to the true intent of the agreement of 1630. But
complaints and petitions showered upon the Privy Council, and royal
feeling turned against the Corporation. The inner history of this change
in royal favour is obscure; at any rate, in the following year, the award
was set aside. The Level still remained subject to inundation in winter, ©
and so it was maintained that the contract of 1630 had not been fulfilled.
The king himself, now, planned to drain the Fens “‘in such manner as
to make them winter grounds”, and he retained the services of Ver-
muyden. Soon, however, the fen difficulties were overshadowed by
greater troubles. The country was at war within itself.
During the Civil War the draining was in abeyance, but the project
had not been forgotten. After many committees and sub-committees, an
“Act for the draining the Great Level of the Fens” was passed in May
1649; and the sth Earl of Bedford and his associates were “‘declared to be
the undertakers of the said work’”’. In his Discourse of 1642, Vermuyden
had divided the Great Level into three areas:
ce
1. The one from Glean to Morton’s Leame.
2. From Morton’s Leame to Bedford River.
3. From Bedford River southwards, being the remainder of the level.
29
These became the North,? the Middle, and the South Levels respectively
(see Fig. 47). Despite continued hostility, activity was restarted under
Vermuyden. The earlier works were restored; banks were made; sluices
built; and channels scoured. In particular, the New Bedford River was
cut running parallel to the Old Bedford River.3 Between the two
Bedford Rivers, a strip of land was left open to form a reservoir for
surplus water in time of flood (see Fig. 48). The old course of the Ouse
was sluiced at Earith (the Hermitage Sluice) and at Denver, so that it
became merely the drain for the fens in the Isle of Ely. The New Bedford
e
* Before this, the Old West River carried part of the Ouse in a circular course
around the Isle of Ely and so to Denver, and thence to the sea at Lynn. Now, this
water reached Denver directly through the Old Bedford River.
* Later, however, the North Level did not extend beyond the Welland.
3 The New Bedford River was alternatively known as the Hundred Foot River, and,
for the greater part of its course, ran half a mile to the east of the older cut.
4 This became known as ‘‘The Wash”, ‘The Washes’, or “The Washlands”’.
High “barrier” banks on the outer sides of the two cuts kept the water within definite
limits. It could be run off at convenience; in the early part of the nineteenth century
Welmore Lake Sluice was built to facilitate the run-off into the New Bedford
River above Denver Sluice.
The Draining of the Fens 183
THE FENLAND
To show the extent of the
Bedford Level
XY Peat Upland &
Islands.
Silt
Fig. 47.
S.B. J. Skertchly, in The Geology of the Fenland (1877), p. 129, noted that the precise
boundaries of the peat and silt were “very obscure, for the peat thins out insensibly
along its borders.” The limits of the Bedford Levels are taken from Samuel Wells’
map of 1829 on a scale of 14 miles=1 inch.
184 The Draining of the Fens
THE SOUTHERN
FENLAND
To Show the Main Drains.
THE WASH
The Upland & Islands are shaded
0 6 12
Fig. 48.
The approximate dates of the drains are given. In some cases there was an
appreciable interval between the start of a project and its completion.
The Draining of the Fens 185
River became the main channel of the Ouse. The Seven Holes Sluice at
Earith' kept the waters of the Ouse from flowing into the Old Bedford
River (see Fig. 49). The final warrant of adjudication came in March 1652.
Successive changes in the administration of the realm witnessed the com-
pletion of the machinery for preserving the works of the drainers, until,
finally, there was passed the General Drainage Act of 1663.
+ Earith Bridge
Highest Point to which
Hermitage Sluice Ee ee
250 500 Yards
—— |
Fig. 49.
Seven Holes Sluice and Hermitage Sluice.
The highest point to which high spring tides flow is at Brownshill Staunch, some
24 miles above Earith Bridge.
At first, great success followed upon the works of the drainers. Culti-
vation was introduced on land that, as far as record went, had never before
known a plough. As Thomas Fuller wrote in 1655, “the best argument
to prove that a thing may be done is actually to do it’’. But time was not
to fulfil these hopes. Despite many praises, it soon became evident that all
’ Thus it protects the Washlands. But if the water coming down the upland Ouse
is considerable it is opened—in summer rarely, in winter more often.
186 The Draining of the Fens
was not well in the Bedford Level. Some of the complaints that followed
the final adjudication in 1652 were only to be expected—disputes about
the allotment of the reclaimed land, and about the management of the new
drains. These were problems of routine administration; they could be
settled by negotiation and compromise. But there were other difficulties
of a much more fundamental character, difficulties that brought the very
success of the drainers near to disaster. Right up to the present day these
difficulties have remained important in all discussions about draining. They
are of two kinds.
THE LOWERING OF THE LEVEL OF THE FENS
The first group of difficulties resulted from the drying up of the peat fen.
As the peat was drained it rapidly became lower in level. This lowering
was due in part to the shrinkage of the peat, and in part to the wasting
away of the peat surface owing to bacterial action and owing to cultivation.
As a result, the surface of the peat soon became lower than the level of the
channels into which it drained. The channel beds were lined with silt, and
so, escaped as rapid a lowering. This difference in height can be seen to-day
along many of the fen rivers; they are at a higher level than the land
through which they flow. The small drains right in the heart of the peat
area suffered most. In time, they came to flow at a lower level than the
main cuts into which they tried to discharge their waters! And the more
these evils were combated by more effective draining, the more rapidly
the peat surface continued to sink. Thus it was that the works of one
generation became inadequate for the needs of the next.
An idea of the amount of this lowering can be seen to-day from Holme
post in Huntingdonshire just outside the boundary of Cambridgeshire,
along what was the south-western margin of Whittlesea Mere. In 1851,
the top of this iron column was even with the surface of the ground. By
1870, nearly 8 ft. was exposed. To-day, it stands about 11 ft. high. This
case is fairly extreme. The amount of shrinkage in any particular locality
depends upon the original thickness of the peat as well as upon the intensity
of the drainage operations. Even a shrinkage of half an inch per annum is
important. It may be viewed with equanimity from one year to another,
but the result over a period of years becomes critical.
Further, not all the Fenland is peat. This only made matters worse. The
coastal areas are composed of silt (see Fig. 47), less liable to shrinkage and
wastage than peat. Before the draining, the silt zone was over § ft. lower
than the peat area that lay inland. To-day, the silt area is about to ft.
higher than the peat. As a result of this differential shrinkage, the beds of
the outfall channels became almost as high as the peat fen behind.”
* See p. 191 below.
The Draining of the Fens 187
The consequences of these fundamental difficulties were apparent even
before the seventeenth century was over. Soon, disaster was abroad
everywhere. What had seemed a promising enterprise in 1652 had become
a tragedy by 1700. There was but one way to save the situation—the
substitution of an artificial for a natural drainage. Water was pumped out
from small dyke to drain, from drain to river, and so to sea.
An early mode of fen drainage was the horse mill, but the only satis-
tactory source of power at hand was the wind. The introduction of wind-
mills for pumping purposes was, in fact, the critical factor that saved most
of the Fens from being re-inundated. As the seventeenth century passed
into the eighteenth, windmill drainage became more and more frequent.
The whole of the Fenland came to consist almost entirely of small sub-
districts, each pumping its water into one of the larger drains that traversed
the region. For example, a pamphlet of 1748, written by Thomas Neale,
stated that there were no less than 250 windmills in the Middle Level.
“In Whittlesey parish alone, I was told by some of the principal inhabitants
there are more than fifty mills, and there are, I believe, as many in Don-
nington (sic) with its members. I myself, riding very late from Ramsey
to Holme, about six miles across the Fens, counted forty in my view.”
But the windmill was far from being the perfect engine. It was at the
mercy of gale and frost and calm. It was never very powerful, and soon
it ceased to provide a satisfactory solution to the problem of clearing water
from the drains. For as the surface level continued to subside, the wind-
mill became increasingly ineffective. Inundations grew frequent. It is
easier to put down statistics relating to these “drownings” than to imagine
the bankruptcy and distress when crops not merely failed but completely
disappeared beneath the rising waters. By the end of the eighteenth
century, according to Arthur Young," there were many fens “all waste
and water’, where twenty years previously there had been “buildings,
farmers and cultivation’’. Some places had been particularly unfortunate:
“three years ago five quarters of corn an acre; now sedge and rushes, frogs
and bitterns”. It was with dismay that he viewed the scene spread before
him in the summer of 1805:
It was a melancholy examination I took of the country between Whittlesea and
March, the middle of July, in all which tract of ten miles, usually under great crops
of cole, oats and wheat, there was nothing to be seen but desolation, with here and
there a crop of oats or barley, sown so late that they can come to nothing.
He predicted the ruin of the whole flat district.
The fens are now in a moment of balancing their fate; should a great ood come
within two or three years, for want of an improved outfall, the whole country,
fertile as it naturally is, will be abandoned.
* A. Young, Annals of Agriculture, xliii, $39 et seq. (1805).
188 The Draining of the Fens
Other evidence bears out the impression of desolation.’ As one traveller
of 1833 could write: ““ We arenowin the very perfection of the fen-country,
being several feet below the level of the great running streams, upon land
subject to frequent inundation.”
In addition to land that had deteriorated, some patches of original fen
remained; in the west, for example, were the large reed-bordered lakes of
Whittlesea Mere and Ramsey Mere. The great copper butterfly was not
yet extinct; nor were all the species of fen birds; nor yet was the ague
against which the fenmen took their opium pills. Indeed, many people
were still ‘fearful of entering the fens of Cambridgeshire lest the Marsh
Miasma should shorten their lives”. That was in 1827. By 1858, the
complaint had become “infrequent”. The improvement was generally
ascribed to better drainage.
Not only malaria, but many other distinctive features of the Fens
disappeared before the changes of the nineteenth century. The time came
when “‘sportsmen from the University’’ were no longer able to indulge
a passion for shooting in the fens of Teversham, Quy, Bottisham, and
Swaffham. And, in 1854, Henry Gunning was “happy to say that these
incentives to idleness no longer exist. Thousands and tens of thousands of
acres of land, which at the time I speak of produced to the owners only
turf and sedge, are now bearing most luxuriant crops of corn.”
The important factor that was giving the fen country of the nineteenth
century this more stable economy was the advent of the steam-engine.
The possibility of steam-driven pumps for draining had been discussed
before 1800, but the idea was slow in gaining support. At length, John
Rennie induced the proprietors of Bottisham Fen to erect a small engine
to help their windmills.? There, in 1820, the first Watt engine was applied
to work a scoop-wheel. Despite predictions of failure, other steam-engines
followed and soon justified their introduction. An inscription on a
pumping station along the New Bedford River is dated 1830, and reads:
These fens have oftimes been by water drowned,
Science a remedy in water found,
The power of steam she said shall be employed,
And the Destroyer by Itself destroyed.
It was a premature claim, but by 1838 Joseph Glynn, one of the pioneers
of steam pumping, certainly had “‘the pleasure to see abundant crops of
wheat take the place of the sedge and the bulrush”. The “swamp of
marsh, exhaling malaria, disease and death’’ had been converted into
* See p. 117 above. * See p. 120 above.
2. =).
The Draining of the Fens 189
“fruitful cornfields and verdant pastures’. By the middle of the century,
according to one estimate, the number of steam-driven pumps between
Cambridge and Lincoln was about 64; the number of windmills had
declined from about 700 to about 220.
Further improvement was at hand. Among the great sights that
“astonished the visitors” to the Great Exhibition of 1851 was Appold’s
centrifugal pump; and its application to fen problems was immediately
realised. One of the new Appold pumps was erected to drain Whittlesea
Mere. And so, witnessed by “‘large crowds of people”’, there disappeared
the last remaining large stretch of water in the Fenland—a stretch of water
that had enjoyed considerable reputation as the scene of regattas in
summer and of skating in winter. The wind which, “in the autumn of
1851 was curling over the blue water of the lake, in the autumn of 1853
was blowing in the same place over fields of yellow corn”?
The success of the steam-engine in the Fenland did not mean that all
difficulties were over. The lowering of the peat surface necessitated a
constant building-up of the river banks. In the absence of easily accessible
clay, many banks had been made of peat or light earth, and, during floods,
they were subjected to considerable hydrostatic pressure. Breaches were
frequent. The paradox was that an effective draining only increased the
lowering of the peat surface. What this meant in terms of pumping can be
seen from a solitary example. Methwold Fen, until 1883, had drained
naturally into the Ouse through a dyke, Sam’s Cut.? In that year, owing
to the lowering of the fen, artificial drainage became necessary, and a
pump was erected. During the years that followed the fen continued to
sink so rapidly that a second pump had to be installed in 1913. Then, it
was estimated that the surface had sunk “‘s to 6 feet within the last 50
years”. This one example illustrates conditions generally. It was the steam-
engine that turned the desolation of 1800 into some prospect of prosperity.
OUTFALL PROBLEMS
The second group of changes that marked the nineteenth century was
associated with the outfalls of the fen rivers into the Wash. In a normal
river, the current of water is strong enough to force its way out to sea.
But the fenland rivers were far from normal. The downward force of the
fresh waters in the gently graded streams was no match, especially in
summer, for the strong tidal flow twice each day. With swift flood tides
and weak ebb tides (see Figs. 50 and 51), deposition was inevitable, and the
* W. Wells, “The Drainage of Whittlesea Mere”, Jour. Roy. Agric. Soc. (1860),
Pp. 140-1.
* See p. 196 below. ©
190 The Draining of the Fens
Seg 9 I Ka ea
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Fig. 50.
Tidal Curves for the Great Ouse Outfall.
Reproduced by the courtesy of the Chief Engineer of the River
Great Ouse Catchment Board.
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Fig. 51.
Tidal Curves for the Great Ouse Outfall.
Reproduced by the courtesy of the Chief Engineer of the River
Great Ouse Catchment Board.
The Draining of the Fens IQI
beds of the estuaries were continually being raised. This fact, combined with
the lowering of the peat surface in the interior of the Fenland (see Fig. 47),
made the outfall channels almost as high as the peatlands behind.’ The fresh
waters found great and greater difficulty in reaching the sea, and the main-
tenance of a clear channel seawards became of paramount importance. As
Colonel Dodson wrote in 1664, just after Vermuyden’s draining: “if we
cannot be masters there, all other endeavours signifie nothing”. The great
controversies of the eighteenth century were outfall controversies, con-
cerned with topics like the disposition of sluices, the mechanics of silting,
the formation of sandbanks, and the nature of tidal scour. Thomas
Badeslade’s pamphlet of 1729 was but one of very many. As he said:
all parties acknowledge the misfortune, for they all suffer; but all do not agree in
the cause of this general calamity, nor in the method that must be put in practice
to relieve them; but all agree and declare, that if something be not done, this
country will be rendered uninhabitable.
By 1800, the Ouse reached the sea through a channel of varying width,
filled with shifting sandbanks; in the Nene, “‘ships of large burden could
no longer reach” Wisbech ; the Welland estuary, too, was full of shoals;
that of the Witham was in no better plight. During the nineteenth
century, various remedies were tried. New cuts were made, straightening
and improving the lower tidal courses of the rivers. The estuary most
affecting the Cambridgeshire fens was that of the River Ouse. Above King’s
Lynn, the Ouse (carrying so much of the water of the Bedford Level) made
an extensive bend of about 6 miles to St Germans (see Fig. 48). The channel
was nearly a mile wide in places, and comprised a number of uncertain
streams. During floods, the flow of the river was much impeded, and
it was clear that no improvement could result until the obstructions had
been cleared. The remedy was to cut off the great bend of the Ouse; to
make the new channel large enough to contain the whole body of the
river; and, incidentally, to increase the velocity of the current by shortening
the line of the stream.? An Act was obtained in 1795 enabling the cut to
be made, but the work was not started until 1817. Finally, in 1821, seventy
years after it had been first proposed, the Eau Brink Cut was opened. It
had an immediately beneficial effect upon the Middle and South Levels—
until further accumulations of silt made new improvements urgent. In
1852, further straightening was secured by means of the Marsh Cut
towards the sea. Some years before this (in 1846), the Norfolk Estuary
Company had been established. Intended to recover land from the Wash,
the primary object of this body became the maintenance of an extension
seawards of the Eau Brink Cut. Training walls were built to induce the
* See p. 186 above. 2 See p. 117 above.
192 The Draining of the Fens
River Ouse to keep a defined channel among the shifting shoals that,
accumulating in the estuary, interfered with the effective discharge of
\)
Yards ; 9
0 250 500
~— The Outer Line represents
High Water Mark of Ordinary Tides
Salter’s Lode Sluice
Old Bedford Sluice =
8
K s
cree 2
WELL 5
9
»,
ey
§
Fig. 52.
The Sluices near Denver.
water from the two Levels.* But the nineteenth century brought no
solution to this problem.
Important features of the outfalls were the sluices necessary to prevent
the tidal waters from passing up the rivers. On the Witham, were
* See p. 201 below.
The Draining of the Fens 193
the Grand Sluice and the Black Sluice; on the Nene, the North Level
Sluice; on the Ouse, the St Germans Sluice and Denver Sluice.! Upon
Denver Sluice depended the safety of the South Level. Its importance
will be apparent from E. G. Crocker’s summary in 1913: ‘‘The level of
the top of the banks is from 12 to 13 feet above 0.p. whilst an ordinary
spring tide rises to 14 feet above o.p. at the sluice, the highest recorded
tide being 17-51 feet above 0.D., so that should anything occur to prevent
these gates closing in a spring tide, practically the whole of the Fens of the
South Level would be flooded.” There was a further complication.
Immediately below Denver Sluice, the waters of the Hundred Foot River
(carrying the upland Ouse from Earith) fell directly into the estuary
(see Fig. 52). Consequently, when there was a great volume of upland
water passing down the Hundred Foot River, the level of water in the
Ouse outfall (on the seaward side of the sluices) never fell low enough for
the sluicegates to be opened to provide an adequate run-off for the waters
of the South Level. These waters could only accumulate within the
straining banks of their dykes and drains. A crisis was, therefore, always
liable to be produced by the combination of (1) adverse wind conditions,
(2) a high spring tide and (3) heavy land floods.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
The older works of most general interest are:
The following more recent accounts give detailed sources for the facts
recorded in this chapter:
(6) H. C. Darby, “Windmill Drainage in the Bedford Level”’, Official Circular
No. 125, Brit. Waterworks Assoc. (1935); also The Engineer, clx, 75 (1935).
(7) H. C. Darby, “The Draining of the Fens a.D. 1600-1800” in An Historical
Geography of England before 4.D. 1880 (1936).
(8) H. C. Darby and P. M. Ramsden, “The Middle Level of the Fens and its
Reclamation”, Victoria County History of Huntingdon, iii, 249 (1936).
® In addition to the sluices at the outfalls of the Old Bedford River and Well Creek
(see Fig. 52).
DBA 13
CHAPTER FOURTEEN
MODERN DRAINAGE PROBLEMS:
1850-1938
By Oscar Borer, B.E. (N.Z.), M.INST.C.E., A.M.I.MECH.E.
Chief Engineer, The River Great Ouse Catchment Board
ESPITE THE ADVENT OF THE STEAM-ENGINE IN THE
nineteenth century, it was reported that windmills were still used
in parts of Norfolk in 1913; indeed, at Soham Mere, in Cam-
bridgeshire, a windmill still supplements the steam plant. But these are
exceptions. In general, the last hundred years have witnessed many
changes in fen pumping. After the introduction of the centrifugal pump
in 1851, the scoop-wheel was gradually discarded, but not before its
diameter had in many cases increased to 36 ft., and even to 50 ft., to
accommodate the lowering surface of the land.’ Its efficiency, however,
was always low, being in the region of about 30 per cent. Still, scoop-
wheels were old friends, and with all their splashing they had handled
large quantities of water against low heads.
There have also been other changes in the steam-driven plants. Gradu-
ally, more modern types replaced the beam and the old low-pressure
steam-engine.* Thus at Prickwillow (near Ely) a new pumping engine
was installed in 1897 to replace a side-lever condensing engine of 60
nominal horse-power. This had been erected in 1833; it had used steam at
a pressure of 6 lb. per sq. in:; and it had driven a scoop-wheel 33 ft. 6 in.
in diameter. The capacities of the old and new machinery are of interest:
Steam : Water
pressure |Revolutions| jf in lifted
Type of plant Date (Ib. per of engine ft. in. | (tons per
sq. in.) _|(per minute) minute)
Side-lever conden- | 1853 6 25.5 9 10% 68-9
sing engine driving
scoop-wheel
Vertical compound | 1897 76 132 13 4 153°2
condensing marine
engine direct-
driving horizontal
centrifugal case-
pump
* See p. 186 above.
* For a description of some of the older types of engines, see R. W. Allen, “Modern
Pumping Machinery for Drainage of the Fens”, Proc. Inst. Mech. Engin. (1913), p. 787-
Modern Drainage Problems 195
The increase in lift, owing to the lowering surface, stands out. By 1913,
this had become rs ft. 4 in—or an increase of nearly 6 ft. over a period of
80 years. Some of the older engines still exist to-day, standing near the
modern pumps. There is one at Upware; another (installed about 1840)
stands alone in the Glassmore district of the Middle Level.
Crude oil or Diesel engines were introduced for pumping purposes
about the year 1913. The weight per unit horse-power is much less than
for steam—a great advantage in an area of soft earth where foundations
aie expensive. There are, however, other advantages of special moment.
Most of the pumping stations are, of necessity, near river banks and hence
away from hard roads. The cartage of coal, particularly if extra supplies
are required during winter, is expensive. But the great loss with steam
comes in starting-up and stand-by costs. Pumping for drainage is mainly
seasonal, and even then spasmodic. With heavy rainfalls, the pumps must
be under way by the time the water has percolated into the drains. When
this water has been discharged from drain to river, the engine must ease
down, or even stop, for some hours until the drains fill up again. With a
steam-driven plant, steam must first be raised in the boilers in anticipation
of pumping; then, when the pump has shut down, the fires must be either
banked or drawn until the plant is required again. This involves unneces-
sary fuel consumption and may at times require the services of an extra
driver. On the other hand, the use of oil-driven plants does mean that,
in the event of hostilities, provision will have to be made for a supply of
fuel-oil. It is possible, therefore, that the steam-engine could be kept, with
advantage, as a stand-by, and this is the practice adopted by some of the
best managed Internal Boards.
The pumps installed since 1919 show an increase in horse-power and
capacity, not entirely accounted for by the necessary increase in lift. The
average lift in 1913 was between 7 and 15 ft. Higher lifts are more generally
met with to-day, rising to 21 ft. for the plants in the Swaffham, Bottisham,
Littleport, and Downham districts, and even up to 26 ft. in the North Side
district, Wisbech. This increased lift is only partly accounted for by the
lowering surface; it is also due to the modern practice of deepening and
enlarging the drains so that the water can be kept lower. This provides greater
storage capacity, and at the same time gives better drainage. Some of
these leading drains are of considerable size, so that the pumps need not
run so frequently.
It is difficult to generalise about the size of pumps used. About 1926,
the size rose to 42 in. pumps with a capacity of 150 tons per minute;
requiring about 250 horse-power; but more recently the size of pumps
installed has fallen to 24 in. with a capacity of 70 tons per minute. This is a
13-2
196 Modern Drainage Problems
reasonable size; the smaller unit is more economical for normal use, while
the possibility of duplicating the plant allows for additional safety.
An outline of pumping installation in the Littleport and Downham
district, a well-managed Board, gives some idea of the constant struggle
to maintain internal drainage. The district has a taxable area of 26,000
acres, but the total area drained is of the order of 35,000 acres. It includes
approximately 26 miles of drains. The district was among the first to adopt
steam-driven pumps. A 30 h.p. engine and scoop-wheel was originally
erected on the Ten-Mile River bank; this was increased to 80 h.p. in 1843.
A similar engine had been installed on the Hundred Foot River bank in
1829, seven miles away. Both these were condensing beam-engines, the
steam pressure being 15 lb. per sq. in., and the scoop-wheels about 41 ft.
in diameter. Owing to the lowering surface, these scoop-wheels were
increased in size to 50 ft. in 1882, and they weighed 75 tons each. In 1912,
at the Ten Mile station, the Commissioners installed two double-acting
open compound condensing engines of 200 h.p. directly coupled to 48 in.
Allen pumps, each with a capacity of 150 tons per minute. While in 1914,
at the Hundred Foot River station, a 400 h.p. steam-engine was installed
to drive a 0 in. Gwynne pump handling 212 tons per minute against a
total head of 21 ft. This was supplemented in 1925 by a Mirrlees
Diesel engine with a 36 in. Gwynne pump lifting 110 tons per minute.
Finally, in 1937, the Ten Mile set was further improved; 340 h.p.
Allen engines replaced the older unit, but the existing pump casing was
maintained.
Irregular surface lowering may cause an entire change in the direction
of the drainage. That has been the fate of the Methwold and Feltwell
Board. To aid the original drainage through Sam’s Cut, a pump was
installed in 1883 where the cut joined the Ten Mile River at Hunt’s Sluice.
In 1913, it was felt advisable to erect an additional pump. This was the first
crude oil engine in the Fenland, and was installed by the Campbell Gas
Engine Co. By 1928, however, this ancient system had to be abandoned,
and the drainage was taken across country to the River Wissey. A Mirrlees
engine and an Axial flow pump (another newcomer) was installed, and
this has now been supplemented in 1938 by two Allen engines and pumps,
developing, between them, a total of 260 h.p. and capable of pumping
170 tons per minute. This improved drainage has necessitated a deepening
and widening of the drains, which now flow in an opposite direction to
the original layout. Certain drains and culverts have had to be abandoned
because they can no longer function owing to the lowering of the peat
surface.
* See p. 189 above.
Ee
Modern Drainage Problems 197
ADMINISTRATION
The outstanding difficulty of the past has been the lack of a single
controlling authority and the absence of co-operation amongst existing
authorities. The problem of finance has always been a very great stumbling-
block to concerted action. In 1850, there were three principal bodies
controlling the southern Fenland: (i) The Bedford Level Corporation
controlling the North Level; the Hundred Foot and Old Bedford Rivers;
and the Middle Level. (ii) The South Level Commissioners controlling
the South Level as then defined. (iii) The Eau Brink Commissioners
controlling the remaining portions of the Tidal River (below Denver),
but with rights vested in the several ad hoc authorities.
In 1858, the North Level separated and now falls principally within the
purview of the Nene Catchment Board. In 1862, the Middle Level
separated from the Bedford Level Corporation. Bills were introduced
into Parliament in 1877, 1878, 1879, and 1881, concerned with the idea
of setting up Conservancy Boards, but difficulties of rating were among
the main reasons that prevented their establishment.
The functions of the Eau Brink Commissioners were, in general,
divided between the Ouse Banks Commissioners, the Lower Ouse Drainage
Board, the Ouse Outfall Board, the Denver Sluice Commissioners,
and the South Level Commissioners. In addition, there existed the Norfolk
Estuary Company, which built and controlled the Marsh Cut and training
walls; and also there was the King’s Lynn Conservancy Board, mainly
concerned with the port of King’s Lynn and its navigation. In 1920, the
functions of the Bedford Level, South Level, Denver Sluice Commissioners,
Ouse Outfall Board, Lower Ouse Drainage Board, and the Ouse Banks
Commissioners, were transferred to one Authority termed the Ouse
Drainage Board, which had powers of direct rating over the area controlled.
Under the Land Drainage Act of 1930, the River Great Ouse Catchment
Board was instituted to take over the functions of the Ouse Drainage
Board. It also had control over the remaining portions of the River Ouse
Catchment Area (excluding the Norfolk Estuary Company and the King’s
Lynn Conservancy Board), but without the powers of direct rating. The
area covered by the Board is over two million acres, having a rateable
value of over £3,350,000, and running into twelve administrative counties.
Its income is derived partly from precepts laid on the Internal Boards as
far as may be considered fair, and partly from precepts laid on the County
Councils, with a statutory limit of 2d. in the £. It has been found necessary
to levy this full rate, as the total income from the two sources is not
sufficient to meet the onerous duties which fall on the Board.
198 Modern Drainage Problems
The area covered by the Internal Drainage Districts is approximately
276,063 acres, with an annual value, for drainage rates, of about £635,000.
These Internal Drainage Boards, which number go, are responsible for
local drainage.
The total mileage of main river for which the Board is responsible
amounts to about 500 miles, of which 306 are in the Upland Area, and
190 in the Fenland itself. Work in the Upland Area rivers is similar to that
carried out by other Catchment Boards, but with the strict necessity of
bearing in mind the fact that these rivers discharge into the Fenland. In
upper Cambridgeshire, the Board is responsible for the Rivers Cam and
Rhee, which are now kept in as satisfactory a state as the funds will permit.
The fenland areas are roughly at Ordnance Datum level, and the upland
streams are carried through this area as embanked rivers above the level
of the land on either side. The Internal Drainage Boards have, therefore,
to pump the water up into the river above their own ground, and the
pumps must be capable of lifting to a height sufficient to reach the flood
levels within the banks.
THE MIDDLE LEVEL
The Middle Level lies between the Old Bedford River and the River
Nene (see Fig. 47). It contains 165,000 acres of ground, of which about
120,000 acres are actual fen with 150 miles of main waterways. Most of
its fifty Internal Districts discharge by pumping into the Middle Level
Drainage System, for which the Middle Level Commissioners are respon-
sible. But the area of the Sutton, Mepal, Manea, and Welney Internal
Boards has separate pumping stations discharging into a Counterwash
drain that runs parallel with the Old Bedford, separated from it by a low
bank. This drain has a gravity outfall just below Denver Sluice.
Some portions of the Middle Level fall to 4 ft. below Ordnance Datum;
and it must be remembered that the high-tide levels outside rise to some-
thing of the order of 13 or 17 and even to 18 ft. above 0.D. Prior to 1848,
the Level discharged by Tong’s Drain into the Ouse below Denver; but,
on the advice of Messrs Burgess and Walker, a twelve-mile cut was made
through Norfolk Marshland, and the Middle Level waters discharged into
the Ouse through a new sluice at St Germans, eight miles below Denver
Sluice. The cost of this scheme amounted to £450,000.
The reduced low-tide levels that resulted from these measures proved
satisfactory for many years. In 1862, however, the sluices at St Germans
“blew up”’; the river banks broke down, and tides flowed up the cut to
flood some 6000 acres. Sir John Hawkshaw devised a dam with a series of
Modern Drainage Problems 199
16 syphons, each 3 ft. in diameter. This arrangement lasted until 1880,
when a new sluice was erected to take the place of the syphons; the total
cost of this disaster, and the improvement of 1880, amounted to £250,000.
By 1912, low water in the Ouse was not as low as it had been in 1880,
due to a general deterioration of the river and its outfall into the Wash.
In the meantime, the old scoop-wheels had been replaced by modern
pumps so that the water had to be got away more quickly. The floods of
1916, 1923, and 1926 confirmed the Middle Level Board in its opinion
that the position in time of heavy flood was becoming more dangerous. In
1923, Major R. G. Clark, as Engineer to the Commissioners, recommended
the installation of improved sluices; but by 1928 it was decided to install
a pumping station at St Germans, and this, after due negotiation, was
completed in 1934. The new sluice has only two sluice gates each 35 ft. in
width, thus securing 50 per cent greater width for discharge than in 1880.
These sluices are assisted by three pumping units, and provision has been
made for the installation of a fourth. The pumping plant was erected by
the Premier Gas Engine Co.; each unit consists of a horizontal eight-
cylinder Diesel engine developing 1000 h.p. driving a Gwynne centrifugal
pump 8 ft. 6 in. in diameter, capable of discharging up to 1000 tons per
minute at low heads or 840 tons per minute against a static head of ro ft.
THE SOUTH LEVEL
The problems of the Middle Level, intricate as they are, are very much
simpler than those of the South Level. Those of the Middle Level are
concerned mainly with the rainfall that falls on its own area, while the
South Level has to arrange for the drainage of nearly one-half of the
catchment basin of the Ouse.
Before the institution of the Ouse Draifiage Board, the maintenance of
banks was the responsibility of the Internal District Commissioners.
During high floods, the better drained and richer areas were fairly well
protected, because they had been able to maintain their banks in a satis-
factory condition; but Internal Districts, whose financial position was not
so strong, were liable to breaches in the banks. Some districts were flooded
at frequent intervals; Hockwold Fen, for example, was drowned in 1912,
1915, and again in 1916. In 1919, three breaches occurred in the River
Cam, and in 1928 there was a serious breach in the right bank of the River
Wissey, when some 2000 acres were flooded. It was about this date that
the Ouse Drainage Board received a grant of £276,000 from the Ministry
of Agriculture to enable it to carry out extensive dredging and embanking
throughout the South Level.
200 Modern Drainage Problems
By 1934, this sum had been expended, and it became necessary to
prepare a supplementary scheme of £103,000 to carry on the work. Early
work under both these schemes was mainly confined to dredging. The
dredged material was not of much use for embankment work, and for
this purpose the Board, following the practice of the Internal Boards,
obtained its clay from the Roswell Pits near Ely. Photographs of the pits
in 1913 show work being done by hand, but gradually operations have
been mechanised and fully organised. It has also been found economic to
open up subsidiary pits. As a general rule, the banks are heightened and
breasted. or faced with clay to prevent them being washed away under
wave action caused by high winds on the flood waters.
In floods prior to that of 1937, one bank at least had always broken. But
during the floods of March 1937 no breach of any consequence took place,
so that water levels in the streams rose higher than hitherto. The danger
is that these high-water levels create a head sufficient to force water under
the banks. It is therefore felt advisable to strengthen the banks, and future
work will carry the clay breasting down the front of a bank by trenching
on to the clay below. Previously, in weak places, this has been done by
hand; but now, with a new and more extensive programme, it is being
undertaken by trenching machines.
The floods of 1936 and 1937 yielded much valuable data, from which it
has been possible to re-design the section for the main river from Littleport
to Denver, to which all the other rivers in the South Level are tributary.
This stretch is to be widened and some half a million yards will be
dredged away. It is calculated that this widening will reduce flood
conditions at Littleport, when the river is discharging, by a matter of ro in.
This in turn will provide greater storage capacity for the periods when
Denver Sluice is closed by tidal waters.‘ The cost of the scheme will
amount to £266,000, and a 75 per cent grant has been obtained from the
Ministry.
The Hundred Foot River and the Old Bedford River are also receiving
attention. The Middle Level Barrier Bank, which protects the Middle
Level area from the flood waters from the Uplands, was heightened under
a scheme completed in 1933. The Old Bedford River, too, is now being
improved; and, consequent upon damage during the unprecedented flood
of 1937, most of the Middle Level Barrier Bank is being protected with
clay at the cost of about £60,000.
Denver Sluice was partially remodelled in 1923, when one large eye,
34 ft. in width, was installed instead of two smaller discharging sluices.
* See p. 193 above.
Modern Drainage Problems 201
The result is that Denver Sluice can now take the full discharge from the
South Level without any loss of head.
The outlet from the Washlands between the two Bedford Rivers is by
means of Welmore Lake Sluice.! This was rebuilt in 1930, and subsequent
observations, taken during flood conditions, have shown the advisability
of increasing by so per cent the discharge capacity at this point, by the
installation of a third sluicegate 24 ft. wide, which it is hoped will be
constructed next year.
THE TIDAL RIVER SECTION
The so-called tidal river section (i.e. the estuary below Denver Sluice) has
been the subject of much controversy and of many reports during past
centuries. The Eau Brink Cut of 1821 and the Marsh Cut of 1852 were
especially successful because they shortened the length of the river.?, Much
benefit also resulted from the activities of the Norfolk Estuary Co., which
was compelled by an Act of Parliament to carry training walls through
Vinegar Middle Shoal (in the estuary) before it commenced reclamation.
The walls were completed in 1857, by which time the company had spent
£250,000 on the improvement of the estuary. The Norfolk Estuary
Co. was intended originally to recover land from the Wash. Fig. 53 shows
the result of its activity and of similar effort in Lincolnshire during the
nineteenth century.
After a series of flood years during the nineteenth century, Mr W. H.
Wheeler was consulted by the Denver Sluice Commissioners; and his
report, issued in 1883, recommended that the river should be widened
from Denver Sluice down as far as the Eau Brink Cut. The Eau Brink
and Marsh Cuts were, apparently, in very good condition at that time.
There were comparatively low-water levels under normal conditions, but
the river was not wide enough to deal with flood waters—hence the
necessity for the report. Had Mr Wheeler’s scheme been carried out at
the time, the result should have been very satisfactory, but unfortunately
the banks and channels of the Wash were changing, and, in consequence,
the estuary conditions have become steadily worse.
Comparison between Fig. 54 and Fig. 55 will show the change in the
channels of the Wash between 1871 and 1936. The tide on the eastern side
of the Wash follows a circulatory movement in an anti-clockwise direction
and the channels follow this tidal flow. Thus, the water flowed in by the
Lynn Channel and, following this circulatory motion, discharged by the
Bulldog Channel. The channels were then well defined. At some later
See footnote 4, p. 182 above. 2 See p. 191 above.
202 Modern Drainage Problems
period the Teetotal Channel widened and the Daseley Channel broke
through, while at the same time, for some cause which is as yet unknown,
the inward end of the Bulldog Channel began to silt up. The full implica-
tion of these changes is not yet known; further investigation is now
proceeding.
RECLAMATION
AROUND THE WASH
0 | 2 3 4 5
Miles
Norfolk Estuary Cos.
Enclosures since
The coastal “marshes” were recovered before the nineteenth century. The inner
banks, marked by toothed lines, represent the limits of still earlier enclosures.
Further flooding of the Fenland occurred during the period of the Great
War, and, at the request of the Lower Ouse Drainage Board, Mr Havelock
Case issued a report in 1917. Mr Case, like Mr Wheeler, recommended
the widening of the river from Denver to the sea; he also advocated the
installation of a larger sluice at Denver, which, as noted above, was not
carried out until 1923. He also found that the conditions in the Wash were
so bad as to require the further construction of training walls.
The position was again discussed in 1918, when Mr Preston held an
enquiry at King’s Lynn. A proposal was put forward for the construction
of a barrage instead of training walls, but the enquiry showed that there
was not sufficient technical evidence to make a decision.
In 1925, a Commission of enquiry was set up by the Ministry of Agri-
culture, and their technical adviser, Mr Binnie, put forward a scheme for
training walls. He believed that the training walls should be sufficiently
high to carry the river water through to the Hull Sand Beacon, some
a eee eee ee
Modern Drainage Problems 203
5 miles out to sea. His contention was that the silting of the river was due
to material in suspension and that this should be excluded. A further
report was subsequently prepared by Sir Alexander Gibb, but the financial
burden was impossible for the Ouse Drainage Board to carry.
By 1930, the original short training walls had seriously deteriorated.
But the Ouse Drainage Board felt that it could not finance any improve-
ment, which was, therefore, undertaken by the Lynn Conservancy Board
with Government assistance. The principle adopted was to protect the toe
of the existing walls by means of brushwood mattresses and to heighten the
tops by a combination of brushwood and stone. This particularly suitable
method of repair was put forward by a firm of contractors of Dutch origin,
who were operating in this country. Subsequently, the firm called in two
eminent Dutch engineers, and the result was the so-called “Dutch
Scheme’’, which was considered by the Labour Government in 1931. By
this time, conditions in the estuary had become so bad that it was estimated
that it would cost five and a half million pounds to put it right.
The “Dutch Scheme”’ provided, as before, for the widening of the
river from King’s Lynn to Denver and Welmore Lake Sluice. It also
advocated the cutting through of Magdalen Bend and the widening of
the Hundred Foot River. Because the upper section of the tidal river had
probably been silted up by material coming in from the Wash, it was
proposed to construct a set of sluices across the Hundred Foot River in
the neighbourhood of Welmore Lake Sluice. From here down to the sea
the toe of the banks was to be protected by mattresses, and their slopes
pitched with concrete blocks. To take the river out to deep water, training
walls over 5 miles long were suggested. The lower portion was to be made
with mattress work, and the upper portion was to consist of caissons of
concrete blocks. The height was to be brought up to at least neap-tide
level, and, in order to regulate the depth of channel, a series of groynes
was to be constructed inside the new walls. Although the Government
offered a 90 per cent grant, it was again felt that the Catchment Board
which had just come into existence, in 1930, could not face the financial
burden.
But, at this time, the Catchment Board had to face the reconstruction of
training walls for a length of 1 mile on the eastern side. This had to be done
under difficult financial conditions. Work was undertaken in 1932 and
cost the Board £85,000. It was felt advisable to reconstruct a new wall
slightly behind the old wall, and to carry it up to a somewhat higher level.*
During the dry summers of 1934-35, silt travelled* steadily up-river
Both the east and the west training walls were extended a short distance in 1937.
2 See p. 189 above.
204 Modern Drainage Problems
APPROACHES TO KINGS LYNN
187]
Scale of Miles
Fig. 54.
Based upon British Admiralty Charts.
Modern Drainage Problems 205
a,
Old Bell Middle
ee tO. CHEY TO KINGS LYNN
With additional Surveys 1935&1936
0 Scale of Miles 5
Fig. 55.
The 1917 data were based upon British Admiralty Charts. The data of 1935 and
1936 were obtained from the surveys of the River Great Ouse Catchment Board.
206 Modern Drainage Problems
until the bed at Denver had risen some 8 ft.; indeed, at certain inlets the
bed had risen a matter of 13 ft. This meant a blocking-up of the river by
over a million cubic yards. The flood conditions of 1936 scoured out a
certain amount of this accumulation, otherwise the flood of 1937 would
have been disastrous. The general effect of this heavy flood of 1937 was to
scour down the river bed for a distance of about 8 miles below Denver.
A great quantity of silt must have been carried out to sea, although the
percentage of silt in suspension in the river current in the Wash seems to
have been somewhat low. A vast quantity of silt, however, did not reach
the sea, but was deposited in Marsh Cut, which, due to neglect, has been
steadily widening since its original construction. In fact, the section of the
Marsh Cut is now about 60 ft. wider than it was in 1860, and its bed has
risen some 8 to 10 ft.
The bed of Marsh Cut is now higher than the bed of the river upstream;
and, in order to remedy this state of affairs, the Board (with the assistance
4
of the Ministry) has agreed to a scheme (1) for lining the banks with stone
‘
‘
F
:
a YY
pitching to prevent further erosion, and (2) for the construction of groynes
throughout the length of the Cut to provide a narrowing channel at
low-water level. This work, extending for about 4 miles to the Free
Bridge at King’s Lynn, is being done by contract at a cost of one-quarter
million pounds. Although, as the result of deposition, the bed between
the training walls out to sea rose a certain amount, it is still lower than that
of the Marsh Cut, thus showing the benefit of the training walls.
THE TIDAL MODEL
Since 1932, the Catchment Board has been engaged on an investigation
of the many problems of the estuary. For this purpose, a large tidal model
has been built at Cambridge; this, at the time of its construction, was the
largest tidal model in the world. It is essentially a model of the Wash out
to a line drawn from Hunstanton to Friskney Flat near Skegness.
The technical particulars" are as follows:
Horizontal scale I 12500
Vertical scale See 100
Vertical exaggeration ... I : 41-7
Time scale ce eee /
Velocity scale ... ee eS Thy :
Tidal period ... — ... 138 seconds ;
One year of tides ... 27°1 hours "
The tides are produced by a plunger, weighing 14 tons, which displaces
water from a large trough; the water, flowing over the model area of the
? These particulars are taken from the brochure issued in connection with the Model.
Modern Drainage Problems 207
Wash, correctly reproduces the tide. The mechanism operating the plunger
incorporates a special cam which enables the production of the correct
tidal cycle to be obtained. The flow from the various rivers is controlled
by valves which may be set, so that a correct volume of water flows
down the model channels which accurately represent the actual rivers.
The correlation of the model hydraulic conditions with those found in
nature was undertaken first from data collected by the Admiralty in 1917,
and again from data collected by the Board in 1935. The model was
moulded to reproduce these conditions respectively. The satisfactory
results of these correlation tests enabled those in charge of investigations
to take a step forward, and to determine the changesin hydraulic conditions
(and in the configuration of the channels) likely to result from schemes
carried out in the rivers of the Wash. Tests of certain proposals have been
made.
Results have shown that the problem is much more involved than
appears at first sight. A careful study is being made not only of the con-
ditions in the Wash, but of similar works which have been undertaken
elsewhere, particularly in Holland and Germany. Investigation has been
somewhat handicapped by the lack of finance. For the design of the
groynes in the Marsh Cut, together with other alterations proposed in the
section running through to Denver, a secondary model is under con-
struction. This will have a horizontal scale of 1: 240 and a vertical scale
of 1: 100. As the model includes the length of river up to Denver, it
will be about 360 ft. long, and must be constructed in the open air. The
plunger for the creation of the tide weighs 43 tons; and the tidal period
will be 31 minutes. This secondary model will enable experimental work
to be done on a larger scale.
CHAPTER FIFTEEN
Lik BRECKLAND
By R. R. Clarke, J. Macdonald, and A. S. Watt
(A) HISTORICAL AND ECONOMIC BACKGROUND
By R. R. Clarke, B.a.
paralleled in Western Europe by the heaths of Denmark, Holland,
north-west Germany, and the Rhine Valley. Roughly speaking, it
covers some 400 square miles in the counties of Norfolk and Suffolk, while
its south-western extremity impinges on the eastern boundary of Cambridge-
shire.” The precise limits of the region are not easy to define, for, save on
the south-west where it marches abruptly with the peat and clay of the
Fens, the Breck district shades imperceptibly into the regions of gravel and
chalk that elsewhere surround it. The borders of Breckland therefore
present mixed physical characters with many outliers (Fig. 57), but Fig. 56
will serve to indicate the location of the main area.
This main area is mostly a low plateau rising between 100 and 200 ft.
above sea level. It owes its geographical personality to a remarkable pall
of sand that covers its complex sub-soil of chalk, gravel, sand, loam and
chalky boulder clay out of which the lime has been dissolved by rainwater.
The Breck soil is, with a few insignificant exceptions, arid and highly
permeable. Combined with a relatively dry climate,3 these characteristics
have produced its peculiar vegetation and fauna, and have controlled
human activity in the district. But for human agency, Breckland would
be, under present climatic conditions, largely a treeless steppe, and any
woodland that might flourish would be open in character and free from
scrub. Besides its characteristic vegetation, and insects,+ the Breckland
heaths are important ornithologically,5 and form one of the chief strong-
holds of the stone curlew and the ringed plover, while other rare birds nest
by its heathland pools and meres.
In this arid region, human settlement is very dependent upon water
Brsiees IS A NATURAL REGION UNIQUE IN BRITAIN BUT
* Full bibliographies of recent work on the district are contained in: (1) W. G.
Clarke, In Breckland Wilds, second revised edition by R. R. Clarke (1937); (2) H.
Schober, Das Breckland: eine Charakterlandschaft Ost-Englands (Breslau, 1937).
* Naturally, any boundary-line must be arbitrary. Country with some “‘breck”
characteristics can be found outside the Breckland proper. .
3 See p. 43 above. 4 See p. 70 above, 5 See p. 62 above.
The Breckland 209
THE LOCATION OF THE
BRECKLAND
Baa Forestry Commission Areas
(///) Breckland :
The County Boundaries are marked.
B =Brandon, M =Mildenhall,
T = Thetford.
Scale of Miles
THE WASH
oBury St Edmunds
<)
" Cambridge
Fig. $6.
This figure shows the main location of the Breckland. Outliers with some typical
Breck features occur beyond this arbitrary frontier, e.g. in Cambridgeshire, to the
north of Newmarket.
DBA 14
210 The Breckland
supply provided by the valleys of the Wissey and the Little Ouse-Thet that
run through the middle of the district, and by those of the Nar and the
Lark, near its northern and southern margins—all of which empty into
the Fens and so to the Wash. From prehistoric times, settlement has been
focused on these valleys and their tributaries, and only four parishes
(Swaffham, Elveden, Ingham, and Wordwell) appear never, in historic
times, to have had access to stream or fen or mere. The meres of Breckland
provide a tolerable substitute in the absence of rivers. The biggest and most
typical of these curious sheets of water lie in five parishes in Norfolk, and
the best known are Fowlmere, Langmere, Ringmere, and the Devil’s
Punchbowl]; the largest of all, Mickle Mere (294 acres), is near-by in West
Wretham Park. With one exception, the water level in these meres has no
visible inlet or outlet, and is subject to remarkable fluctuations. At times,
the meres are completely dry for several years; at other times, they over-
flow adjacent roads. There can be little doubt that their waters are derived
from the surrounding chalk, and that they rise and fall with the saturation
level in the underlying rock. Rainfall is thus solely responsible for their
fluctuating levels. Some at least of the meres may have been formed from
“pipes”’ in the chalk filled with drift-sand. The importance of the meres
as sources of water is shown by the numerous parish boundaries which
meet at them. At Rymer Point, 4 miles south of Thetford, no less than
nine parishes meet, and here, formerly, was a considerable natural sheet of
water.
The palaeolithic flint implements found in its gravels and brickearths;
the important neolithic flint mines at Grime’s Graves; the flint implements
scattered by the million over the surface of its heaths and arable fields;"
its extensive mileage of primitive trackways; its impressive dykes and its
numerous barrows and other relics of early cultures which are constantly
being discovered—all these evidences indicate that insome of the prehistoric
periods Breckland must have been one of the most thickly populated
districts in Britain.” The principal attraction of the region to early man lay
in the absence of heavy woods which he was unable to clear. In addition,
the margins of the Fenland and of the heathland meres yielded fish and
fowl; while, for tool-making, the chalk provided unlimited quantities of
the finest flint in Britain. Then, too, the Icknield Way,} along the chalk
* The working of flint in this district has probably been continuous from prehistoric FE
times. To-day, Brandon supports the last surviving flint-knapping industry in Britain.
The mines at Lingheath still produce some of the raw material required for the manu-
facture of gun-flints—see R. R. Clarke, ‘‘The Flint-Knapping Industry at Brandon”,
Antiquity, 1x, 38 (1935).
* Well shown by the distribution maps of Sir Cyril Fox. See (1) The Archaeology
of the Cambridge Region (1923), (2) Proc. Prehist. Soc. E. Anglia, vii, 149 (1933).
3 See p. 85 above.
The Breckland 211 |
7
Wee at a
4,
Ye
a
BRECKLAND
y 1934
FOREST
HEATHLAND
MILES
Fig. $7.
o12 The Breckland
ridge, offered easy intercourse with the rich cultural province of Wessex.
It was probably during the Bronze Age that Breckland became one of the
chief centres of population in Eastern England, but as Iron Age man
acquired the power to subdue and exploit the more stiff but richer soils
of adjacent regions, the cultural focus of “East Anglia” moved south-west
leaving Breckland as a backwater for a thousand years. Not until the late-
Saxon period did Breckland acquire a new strategic status, when the
deforestation of the claylands of Norfolk and Suffolk again swung the
economic pendulum north-eastward. Though still a poverty-stricken
steppe, as the Domesday Book attests, it was now the gatehouse of a
wealthy East Anglia commanding the Icknield Way, still the main line of
approach from the civilised south. Although a waste-land it was a frontier
zone through which communication was essential. The rise of Thetford?
to the zenith of its importance as the eleventh-century capital of East
Anglia, with its cathedral and its mint, was due to its location on this
highway, at the confluence of the Rivers Little Ouse and Thet.
Place-names indicate that most of the present primary settlements of
Breckland are of Anglian origin; there are 8 -ings and -inghams, 20 -hams,
13 -tons, and 8 -fords. The importance of the rivers for water supply is
demonstrated by the concentration of these nucleated villages in the
valleys. Two villages are associated with the Nar, 28 with the Wissey, 16
with the Little Ouse, 10 with the Thet, and 9 with the Lark, each including
its tributaries. Secondary settlements consisting of heathland farms, with
their satellite cottages, and isolated houses for warreners and gamekeepers,
only came into existence, in most cases, with the growth of enclosures and
tree-planting during the nineteenth century.
What were the main features of the economy of Breckland prior to the
modern enclosures? Recent investigation has shown that in West
Wretham,3 and also several other parishes in the heart of the region,
something akin to the Scottish infield-outfield system was common,
though the border parishes are likely to have conformed to the custom of
the normal Norfolk and Suffolk village-community. The essence of the
system was a division of the arable land of a village into two unequal parts:
a small infield probably cropped continuously, near the village; and a
larger outfield comprising five to ten temporary enclosures from the waste
* See H. C. Darby, “The Domesday Geography of Norfolk and Suffolk”, Geog.
Jour. Ixxxv, 432 (1935).
* It is interesting to note that the Domesday Book numbers the burgesses of
Thetford as 720, compared with 665 at Norwich and 70 at Yarmouth.
3 J. Saltmarsh and H. C. Darby, “The Infield-Outfield System on a Norfolk
Manor”, Economic History, iti, 30 (1935).
ee or
—— ee
yas Asap at He sebece.;
The Breckland 213
(called brakes, folds or faughs), of which one was broken up every year,
cropped continuously for a few seasons (with the aid of sheep manure and
marling), and then allowed to revert to its former condition until its turn
came to be ploughed again. Fig. 58 shows the fields at West Wretham in
the mid-eighteenth century, and illustrates conditions generally. These
outfields were large, but few can have equalled those at Northwold in the
seventeenth century when men ploughed straight for 12 furlongs.’
RA Infield ane
/// Outfield THE SEVENTH
|_| Heath BRAKE L
x = Mar] Pit
LA
we
Fig. 58.
Field System at West Wretham (Norfolk), 1741.
From J. Saltmarsh and H. C. Darby, ‘“‘The Infield-Outfield System on a Norfolk
Manor”, Economic History, ii, 34 (1935). This is diagrammatised from the original
map on two sheets of vellum pasted together, and measuring 534 36}in. It is
preserved in the Muniment Room of King’s College, Cambridge.
According to W. G. Clarke, “parts of almost every area of heathland were
at one time cultivated, but have become derelict. Both these areas and the
large sandy open fields are known as “brecks’, and their number, and the
fact that they are characteristic of all parishes, induced me in 1894 to give
the district the name of Breckland.”* Thus it seems that the name by which
the whole area is known may mean nothing other than “the land of
outfields”’.
* Mentioned by Sir Philip Shippon, 1671, Norfolk Archaeology, xxii, 176 (1925).
2 W. G. Clarke, In Breckland Wilds (1925), p. 22. The term “The Brock District”
-was used by Prof. A. Newton in the introduction to H. Stevenson’s, The Birds o
Norfolk, vol. i (1866).
214 The Breckland
The crops of the district were as characteristic as its field system and its
waste lands. Rye was the commonest cereal, but the yield of barley was
often the largest, with oats next. The wheat crop was small. Large flocks
of sheep were kept in every parish for fertilising the soil while there was
“no where better Mutton than this barren Land affords, the Sheep being
not liable to the Disease called the Rot”. Pre-enclosure travellers were
very impressed by the abundance of rabbits. ‘‘A large portion of this arid
country is full of rabbits, of which the numbers astonished me’’, wrote the
Duc de la Rochefoucauld in 1784. ‘“We saw whole troops of them in
broad daylight; they were not alarmed by noise and we could almost
touch some of them with our whips. I enquired of this prodigious number
and was told that there was an immense warren which brought in 200
guineas a year to the owner, being let to a farmer.”? The penalties for
poaching were severe, because the farming of rabbits formed the economic
mainstay of many of the landowners. Some farmers still pay their rent
from what they realise by the sale of rabbits, but the number caught is
rapidly decreasing with the spread of afforestation, which necessitates the
extermination of all rabbits within its confines.
One of the common features of Breckland in the pre-enclosure period
was the prevalence of disastrous sandstorms. A notable storm in 1668 blew
sand for 5 miles from Lakenheath Warren to Santon Downham, almost
overwhelming the village and obstructing the navigation of the Little Ouse.3
John Evelyn, in 1677, also referred to “the Travelling Sands about ten
miles wide of Euston, that have so damaged the country, rolling from place
to place, and, like the lands in the Deserts of Lybia, quite overwhelmed
some gentlemen’s whole estates”. The open and unrestricted appearance
of this region, before enclosure and afforestation wrought such drastic
changes in its scenery and economy, is well described by an eighteenth-
century traveller, William Gilpin. Between Brandon and Mildenhall, he
declared that:
Nothing was to be seen on either side but sand and scattered gravel without the
least vegetation; a mere African desert. In some places this sandy waste occupied
the whole scope of the eye; in other places, at a distance we could see a skirting of
green with a few straggling bushes which, being surrounded by sand, appear’d
like a stretch of low land shooting into the sea. The whole country indeed had the
appearance of a beaten seacoast, but without the beauties which adorn that species
* F. Blomefield, An Essay towards a Topographical History of the County of Norfolk,
i, 553 (1739). ;
2 F. de la Rochefoucauld, A Frenchman in England, 1784 (1933), p- 212.
3 T. Wright, “A curious and exact relation of a Sand-floud, which hath lately
overwhelmed a great tract of land in the County of Suffolk”, Philosophical Trans-
actions, No. 37 (July 1668).
4 John Evelyn, Diary, 10 Sept. 1677.
‘hoteewtt tgs een,
x.
The Breckland iS
of landscape. In many places we saw the sand even driven into ridges; and the road
totally covered, which indeed was everywhere so deep and heavy, that four horses
which we were obliged to take could scarce in the slowest pace drag us through it.
It was a little surprising to find such a piece of absolute desert almost in the heart
of England."
It must be remembered, however, that casual travellers through the district
may have exaggerated its wild and barren character, for the main track-
ways crossed the heathlands remote from the more fertile valleys.
Even so, if this barren soil was ever to be cultivated it was essential to
plant trees. The enclosure movement, towards the close of the eighteenth
century, was accompanied by the planting of belts of dwarfed hedges of
conifers, especially of Scots pine, to shelter the fields from winds. But
tree-planting on a large scale only began about 1840. The incidence of
enclosure in Breckland varied with the soil, and its effects were more
marked in the border parishes. There, holdings were consolidated into
large estates, corn production was increased by more intensive cultivation,
and population expanded rapidly. Sheep manure and marl had helped to
feed the hungry sands of Breckland; the outfield rotation was a device for
concentrating upon a small area the “tathe”’ of a flock supported by the
grazing of the whole township.” But the introduction of the four-course
shift of the new Norfolk husbandry brought changes. Under turnips and
artificial grasses, the sand produced more fodder than ever before; more
sheep could be carried to the acre; their “tathe’’ would consequently be
richer and the crops heavier. It was probably the introduction of the new
convertible husbandry that ousted the infield-outfield system from West
Wretham.
But there were yet other changes to come. The agricultural crises of the
nineteenth century from 1813 to 1837, from 1874 to 1884, and during the
1890's, saw the decline of arable farming, and the acquisition of vast
estates by great landowners, a few of whom owned almost the whole of
Breckland. One estate covered 34 square miles, another 20 and a third 18.
Many tried to counteract their agricultural losses by developing the leasing
of the sporting rights, and, to facilitate their disposal, tree-planting was
encouraged as it provided cover for game. To-day, there is less land under
the plough than there was one hundred and fifty years ago. This decline
is due primarily to economic causes, but it may well have been hastened
by soil impoverishment. Artificial manures on these poor soils are not
always productive of good crops, while ploughing breaks up the chalk
and assists its disappearance from the upper layers of soil. Fertility can then
™ W. Gilpin, Observations on several parts of Cambridge, Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex...
made in 1769 (1805), p. 28.
2 J. Saltmarsh and H. C. Darby, art. cit. p. 43.
216 The Breckland
be maintained only by marling or by introducing humus to absorb the
artificial manures. Both mustard and lupins are often ploughed in for this
purpose.
The tillage of poor land, like that of the Breck country, is lucrative only
when prices are high, and this factor has encouraged experimental crops in
what is, economically, a marginal area. In recent years, mature tobacco
has been grown on the deeper sands at Croxton, Icklingham and Meth-
wold, but the experiment failed, partly because the leaf could not be dried
without artificial means. The introduction of sugar beet has been more
successful as the sugar content is high, and beet is now the principal crop
on soils which have been matured. Quite recently, black currants and
asparagus for canning have been grown successfully on a large scale on the
Kilverstone estate, where the light soils are fertilised with pig manure.
Among the older established crops, barley is of most importance, though
its yield is the lowest in East Anglia. Other crops are potatoes, lupins and
mustard for sheep feed, buckwheat for game, lucerne and rape, peas,
clovers, vetch and sainfoin, swedes, turnips and mangolds. Good pasture
is rare even in the small fertile valleys, and so the density of live stock is
only about half that of the adjacent districts. Cattle are few, though dairy
animals have increased since the war, while sheep are below the average,
being grazed usually on mere rough pasture.
Significant as are recent attempts to increase the agricultural and horti-
cultural productivity of Breckland, they are less interesting than the post-
war afforestation. This is the most fundamental vegetational change in the
region in historic times, equalled only by the planting and enclosing of its
treeless, grassy steppes at the close of the eighteenth and the dawn of the
nineteenth centuries. To-day, the largest single forest area created in
Britain in modern times is growing to maturity, and has wrought a
revolution in the natural and economic equilibrium of the region.
Breckland is now the least densely populated region of its size between
the Pennines and the New Forest. With the stimulus of enclosures, its
population rose during the early nineteenth century, and, despite agri-
cultural depression, this reached a total of over 40,000 in 1851. The sub-
sequent depressions helped to depopulate the countryside, though the
towns of Thetford, Brandon, Mildenhall, and Swaffham maintained the
position they gained in the earlier part of the century. By 1931, the total
population of the area was only just over 30,000; and, if the urban popula-
tion of about 12,000 is subtracted, the remaining 18,000 are scattered over
its heaths and valleys at about sixty to the square mile—less than one-tenth
the average density for England and Wales.
|
The Breckland 217
(B) AFFORESTATION IN THE BRECKLAND
By J. Macdonald, B.sc.
Divisional Officer, H.M. Forestry Commission
The Forestry Act of 1919 initiated something new in the rural economy
of this country when it set in motion the work of afforesting large areas
of land under the control of the state. The Forestry Commission, estab-
lished under the Act, was set the task of safeguarding the national supplies
of timber and other forest produce by creating in Great Britain an area of
woodland large enough to tide the country over a period of emergency of
about three years. For this purpose it was estimated that, in addition to the
existing areas of woodland, mostly privately owned, it would be necessary
to create about one and three-quarter million acres of entirely new forest.
The land for this enterprise must be capable of growing trees to a size
at which they can be utilised. This means that large areas of land in this
country, at present contributing little to the national resources, have had
to be excluded from consideration because they are too exposed and high
lying and because their soils are too poor even for the less exacting species
of tree. On the other hand, it would not be in the national interest to
include good agricultural land, although thisis generally capable of growing
excellent trees, particularly hardwoods. Consequently, the land for
planting has been sought where possible in areas which are not too exposed
or too high lying, and yet which are uncultivated or on the margin of
economic cultivation.
The Breckland is a good example of the type of country into which
forestry can be introduced without displacing, or threatening, any vital
national interest. So far as can be known, the district has always been poorly
wooded, although the plantations which have been made since the middle
of the eighteenth century have shown that numerous species are capable
of making good growth and reaching timber size. A great part of the area
has not been cultivated within memory but has remained as open heath,
formerly a pasturage for sheep but given over latterly to game and rabbits.!
It is estimated that about 19 per cent of the total area planted by the
Commissioners in Breckland has been at one time or another under the
plough. Much of this, however, has in recent years been cropped only for
game feed, while a considerable part was broken up during the war under
the “Food Production” schemes.
t See p. 214 above.
218 The Breckland
Work began in the district in the winter of 1921-22 south of Brandon
and at Cockley Cley near Swaffham. Since that time, the acquisition, and
planting, of land have gone on steadily, and at the present time the
Commissioners are in control of an area of 52,807 acres almost wholly in
Breckland proper (see Fig. 56). There are three Forest units—Thetford,
Swaffham, and the King’s Forest; and details of these are given in the
following table.
Total area planted
to 30. iv. 1938
Forest Total area acquired
Thetford
Swaftham
The King’s
40,869
5,948
5,990
28,875
4,879
2,421
Thetford Forest is now the largest planted area in England. It is composed
of a central block which extends from Methwold, on the north, to Elveden,
and from Hockwold, on the west, to Croxton, together with outlying
areas at Hockham, West Harling, and Mildenhall. Swaffham Forest
consists of various blocks to the south-west and south of the town of
Swaftham, as well as of an area at Didlington, north of Mundford. The
King’s Forest lies to the north of Bury St Edmunds. It was acquired in
1935 and owes its present name to its selection as one of the forests chosen
to commemorate the Silver Jubilee of King George V.
In all three forests planting has been carried out mainly with coniferous
species, among which Scots pine and Corsican pine preponderate. There
are several reasons for this concentration on conifers. In the first place the
Commissioners must pay attention to the type of timber that is most
required in industry. At the present time, more than 90 per cent of the
timber and wood products used in this country comes from softwood or
coniferous trees, and there is no sign that in the future there will be any
marked change in this proportion. It is reasonable therefore that most of
the planting, not only in Breckland, but all over the country, should be
done with conifers.
In the second place, the soils of Breckland are generally suitable for the
growth of conifers. These soils, it is true, vary widely and form, roughly,
a series running from a very thin sand over chalk, to deep, podsolised
sands on some of the heaths where chalk is a long way from the surface.’
On the last type, conifers are the only choice. On soils where chalk is at a
moderate depth, and where sufficient soil moisture is available, good crops
of oak could be raised; while on the thin soils, immediately over the chalk,
beech would grow, although it is nowhere very vigorous in this district.
™ See p. 223 below.
The Breckland 219
But, for reasons connected with the local climate, these and other broad-
leaved species, as well as conifers such as Douglas fir and European larch,
are often extremely difficult to establish when planted in the open. The
two principal factors which work against them are frost and drought.
Frosts in the late spring and early summer are a normal feature of the
climate of Breckland. These are often quite sharp (up to 10 degrees of
frost is not uncommon in the second half of May), and they fall with
great severity on oak, beech, and other hardwoods. Douglas fir and
European larch also suffer in the same way though less severely.
Drought also plays an important part in checking the growth of young
broad-leaved trees and of conifers such as the larches. The rainfall is low
and the soil unretentive of moisture, while, on the grass-covered areas,
the dense sward leads to an intense local competition for supplies of
moisture and, at the same time, acts as a covering which prevents much of
the rainfall from actually reaching the soil. The high temperatures of the
summer also tend to have an injurious effect on beech planted in the open,
as this species is apt to suffer from sun scorch. The pines, and especially the
Scots pine, are remarkably resistant to frost and drought, and for this
reason alone they are likely to remain the principal species used in new
planting in Breckland.
At the same time the importance of establishing broad-leaved trees on
those soils which are really suited to them has not been overlooked and
much experimental work is being carried out on this subject. In particular,
methods of introducing beech into young plantations of pine have been
studied in some detail.
The earlier plantations of Scots pine dating from 1922 and 1923 are
developing rapidly, although there is much variation in growth, which
can probably be correlated with variations in the soil. Already, there are
trees up to 25 ft. in height, and a preliminary thinning has yielded produce
in the form of fencing stakes, pit-props, small poles, and firewood. The
pine plantations have not suffered much damage from fungi apart from
the death of small groups of trees apparently killed by Fomes annosus, and
by the fairy-ring fungus, Paxillus." Damage by insects has however been
more severe, and, in the Scots pine plantations, the pine shoot moth
Evetria buoliana has been a dangerous pest for a number of years.? The
attacks of this insect have led to the distortion of a large number of trees,
and, although the damage has turned out to be less serious than was at one
time feared, it has been sufficiently important to make special treatment of
-! TR. Peace, ‘Destructive fairy rings associated with Paxillus giganteus in young
pine plantations”, Forestry, x, 74 (1936). < ;
2 Studies on the Pine Shoot Moth, Forestry Commission Bulletin, No. 16 (1936).
220 The Breckland
the crops a necessity. The Corsican pine, although not immune to attack,
is much less frequently damaged, and plantations of this species are full of
vigorous, straight poles.
Most of the plants used in the afforestation in Breckland have been
raised locally in the Commission’s own nurseries, the most important of
which are situated at Weeting, Lynford, Harling, and Santon Downham.
These extend to 88 acres, and at the end of September 1937 they contained
five million transplants and fourteen million seedlings. About eight
thousand pounds of seed are sown annually.
One important side of the work is protection against fire, which, on
account of the dry climate and the inflammable nature of the crop, is a
serious menace particularly in the spring and summer. There are two
observation towers manned in periods of danger, and connected by
telephone with the central office at Santon Downham; while patrols are
also put along the roads. In order to prevent fires spreading from road
or railway, strips are ploughed and kept free from vegetation, while
similar strips are also ploughed along rides through the forest. These
ploughed strips are generally sufficient to prevent the spread of a ground
fire in its early stages. Broad-leaved crops are less inflammable than
conifers, and for some years it has been the policy to plant belts of hard-
wood trees along roadsides to serve as a protection. These will also have
the effect of adding to the amenity of the countryside, and to promote
this, various ornamental trees like the red oak and the wild cherry are now
being planted, in addition to the common species such as oak, birch, beech, —
and sycamore. 7
In addition to their programme of afforestation, the Commissioners
were charged with land settlement, which they have been carrying out by
means of their forestry-workers’ holding schemes. Holdings are generally
created in the proportion of one for every 200 acres. Each holding
consists of a house, buildings, and land which does not as a rule extend to
more than ten acres. The holders are guaranteed 150 days’ work in the
year, but many of them obtain almost full-time employment. There are
at present 188 of these holdings in the Breckland forests, and they house
630 persons, of whom 134 are workers in the plantations. At the end of
1937, the value of the live stock on these holdings was estimated at £7980.
The number of workmen employed by the Commissioners in Breckland
during 1937 varied between 300 in the winter months and 225 during the
summer months, when the amount of work available normally falls off.
In addition to the holdings there are within the boundaries of the forests
twenty-four farms let on agricultural tenancies. These are not likely to be
planted.
—
The Breckland 221
(C) THE ECOLOGY OF BRECKLAND
By A. S. Watt, PH.D.
From west to east in England, as the oceanic influence decreases, there is a
fall in the Atlantic element of our flora, and a new element—not homo-
geneous, but commonly referred to as the “continental” element—
becomes significant. Breckland is its headquarters in this country;' on
the Continent it ranges from the far north of Europe to the south, and
eastwards to the steppes of Russia and beyond. In a climate which is
permissive to it, two other sets of factors condition its survival, namely, a
soil with a high base status and/or freedom from competition. This last is
freely offered by abandoned arable fields, disturbed soil, and open com-
munities.
Freedom from competition very likely explains the presence of the
liverworts, Lophozia barbata and L. hatcheri, and the lichens, Cladina
rangiferina and Stereocaulon evolutum, in this outpost to the south-east of the
main area of their occurrence in this country. It also explains the high
percentage of annuals in the flora: half the “continental”? element are
annuals, and so are 40 per cent of the flora of the grasslands described later
in this chapter.
The flora is essentially heliophilous and xerophytic. The annuals are
drought evading, the perennials drought resistant. In soil preferences,
there is a wide range represented, but calcicoles and species of slightly
acid soils are numerous, while calcifuges are few and there are noteworthy
absentees, e.g. Erica cinerea. The same numerical representation character-
ises both the continental element and the annuals: the bulk of each class is
_ found on soils with a relatively high base status, a few only grow on very
acid soils. But interest in the rarer species ought not to blind us to the fact
that most of the species in Breckland have a wide English and British
distribution.
- THE VEGETATION
While the interest of the flora of Breckland is enhanced by the presence
and frequency of the continental contingent, the dominants of the vegeta-
tion do not suggest continentality: rather the reverse. These dominants
are Festuca ovina and Agrostis* spp., the chief constituents of the variable
* See p. 43 above; and also A. S. Watt, ‘“‘Studies in the Ecology of Breckland.
I. Climate, Soil and Vegetation”, Jour. Ecol. xxiv, 117 (1936). iz
2 The species of Agrostis require revision as the result of W. R. Philipson’s work.
Jour. Linn. Soc. li, 73 (1937).
229 The Breckland
“grass-heath”’, Carex arenaria, Calluna vulgaris, Pteridium aquilinum and,
locally, Ulex europaeus. Of these species, Carex arenaria and Ulex europaeus
are West European; while Calluna vulgaris, although it stretches far east-
wards to the plains of Russia, attains its best development in the west; and
the cosmopolitan Pteridium aquilinum tends, in those parts of Europe with
a continental climate, to become a woodland plant. But the behaviour of
some of these plants shows an insecurity of tenure suggesting that as
dominants they are near their limit.
With the exception of the community dominated by Ulex europaeus,
which is local and has not been studied, there are four major easily
recognisable plant communities forming a somewhat bewildering patch-
work, whose pattern formed the subject of the first ecological investigation
of Breckland. Farrow in a series of illuminating papers’ dismissed soil
variability as the primary cause, and from experimental and. detailed
observational evidence he explained the pattern in terms of the intensity
of rabbit-grazing. All the dominants except Preridium are grazed. Their
palatability and power of withstanding grazing vary, and the differential
effects of diminishing intensity of grazing can be seen in a series of zones
with grass-heath the most heavily grazed, followed by a zone of Carex,
and that in turn by Calluna.
In interpreting the vegetation of Breckland, the importance of the
biotic factor must be recognised, but too great emphasis upon it obscures
primary relationships between the different dominants. By taking cog-
nisance of soil variation and the varying behaviour of the dominants on
different soil types, the way is opened to a more exact understanding of
plant behaviour and the distribution of the plant communities. The soils
of Breckland have this in common that their physical properties vary
within a rather narrow range. Open, porous, with a high percentage of
coarse particles, and with an almost negligible amount of silt and clay,
they have a low water-holding capacity, although this varies with the
amount of chalk stones present. And primarily because of the chalk there
is considerable chemical variation.
The soil over much of Breckland is derived from the chalky boulder
clay, which contains roughly 50 per cent of CaCO, and 50 per cent of
sand with small amounts of silt and clay. By leaching, the CaCO, is
removed from the surface downwards. Following its removal the change —
in acidity brings about the initiation of podsolisation, the leaching of
bases, the mobilisation of the sesquioxides of iron and aluminium and their
transference to lower layers. These changes result in a complete series of
stages in the development of a podsol, from shallow and highly calcareous
* E. P. Farrow, Plant-Life on East Anglian Heaths (1925). :
The Breckland 223
soils at one extreme to well-developed podsols at the other. Seven stages
in this series may be recognised.
Besides the soil variation brought about in this way, there is a further
variation resulting from erosion. The leached soils, having lost their
binding material, and supporting a vegetation inadequate to maintain
stability, are eroded, often in the form of blow-outs, thereby exposing at
the surface different horizons of the podsol profile.’ The transported sand
forms a blanket of variable thickness covering considerable areas and
overlying intact as well as truncated profiles.
GRASSLAND TYPES
The recognition of soil variation throws great light upon the distribution
and behaviour of the four major communities. They can be illustrated by
a brief account of the variation shown by grass-heath on the seven stages
in the development of a podsol, and by reference to the communities
dominated by Calluna, Carex, and Pteridium. The “‘grass-heaths”’ (grass-
lands) and the corresponding soils are provisionally designated by the
letters A to G: these symbols have nothing to do with the notation used
in soil science.
The chief features of these seven stages are summarised on the following
page. The perfectness of the series is spoiled in the last four members by
the deposition of blown sand, but the soil has been stable for some time
and the blanket of sand seems to have assumed properties appropriate to
the underlying soil. The first five stages show a well-marked gradient of
fertility: F and G are similar to E. The grassland communities described
occur on Lakenheath Warren. They are all heavily grazed by rabbits and
are thus comparable within themselves; and they differ in some important
respects from ungrazed grassland.
Grassland A. The highly calcareous shallow soil bears an open vegetation
of species tolerant of chalk or exclusive to it. Festuca ovina is the most
abundant species, Agrostis is occasional only. Several species are confined
or almost confined to this type: Botrychium lunaria, Calamintha acinos,
Galium anglicum, Ditrichum flexicaule var. densum, Bilimbia aromatica,
Lecanora lentigera, Placodium fulgens, and Psora decipiens. There are no
liverworts. Locally there is more sand, and Cladonia silvatica occurs.
Grassland B. Of all seven types, this is the richest in species, and its close
turf is the nearest approach to chalk pasture found in Breckland. Charac-
teristic species include Avena pratensis, Arabis hirsuta, Cirsium acaule,
Daucus carota, and Hypnum chrysophyllum. The bulk of the turf consists of
* A. S. Watt, “Studies in the Ecology of Breckland. II. On the origin and develop-
ment of blow-outs”’, Jour. Ecol. xxv, 91 (1937).
The Breckland
224
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The Breckland 225
Festuca ovina and Agrostis spp.; but an effective, and sometimes colourful,
contribution is made by Asperula cynanchica, Astragalus danicus, Campanula
rotundifolia, Carex praecox, C. ericetorum, Galium verum, Koeleria gracilis,
Linum catharticum, Lotus corniculatus, and Thymus serpyllum. There are many
species of bryophytes but both they and the lichens play a subsidiary part.
Cladonia silvatica is frequent as “‘individuals”, but never forms pure
patches.
Grassland C. This type, briefly, is Grassland B without its large calci-
colous element; but many exacting species remain. The surface soil is now
acid, and Galium saxatile, Rumex acetosella, Teesdalia nudicaulis and Hypnum
schreberi appear in considerable numbers. The turf is more grassy and
coarser than in B: Festuca ovina and Agrostis spp. make up its bulk, but
Campanula rotundifolia, Carex praecox, and Galium verum, are frequent to
abundant. There are many species of bryophytes including the character-
istic Bryum roseum. The most abundant lichen is Cladonia silvatica, and it
occasionally forms small pure patches under which are found the dead
remains of higher plants.
Grassland D. A further drop in soil fertility is reflected in the absence
of many exacting species, leaving only thirty-seven higher plants. More-
over, the grassy turf is not continuous, and the vegetational cover consists
essentially of patches of higher plants and patches of lichen with Cladonia
silvatica dominant. Again, Festuca ovina and Agrostis spp. are the chief
plants: the relatively exacting Campanula rotundifolia and Galium verum are
less frequent than in C, while the calcifuges Galium saxatile, Rumex aceto-
sella and Teesdalia nudicaulis are more frequent than in C. There are many
fewer species of bryophytes.
Grasslands E, F and G. These three types are essentially the same. Eight
tolerant significant species of higher plants grow in patches, or scattered in
a carpet of lichen composed almost entirely of Cladonia silvatica. These
species are Agrostis spp., Aira praecox, Festuca ovina, Galium saxatile, Luzula
campestris, Rumex acetosella and Teesdalia nudicaulis. The greater number of
species (higher plants and bryophytes) which differentiate E and F from G
are found largely on soil thrown up by rabbits, thus expressing the finer
chemical differences in the three stages of podsolisation represented.
Everywhere, underneath the lichen carpet, occur the remains of grasses,
Rumex, Luzula, and occasionally Calluna vulgaris.
A study of the full lists of species and their distribution among the types
of grassland brings out very clearly that from B to G the flora is an attenu-
ating one: there is a fractional elimination of species rather than a radical
change. First the calcicoles go; then the more exacting, followed by the
less exacting, until finally in G only the tolerants survive. Only a small pare
DBA 15
226 The Breckland
of the change is due to the appearance of calcifuges. Deschampsia flexuosa,
Nardus stricta and Potentilla erecta, although present in Breckland, are absent
from E, F, and G, and also from large areas of Breckland where the soils
are certainly acid enough for them. The intimate relation between the soil
and the grassland community it bears is thus established. Similar relation-
ships can be seen in Breckland between the soil and communities of
bracken, heather, and sand sedge.
CYCLIC PHENOMENA
Grass-heath. In Grassland G, local disintegration of the lichen mat leaves
the soil exposed. The rebuilding of the plant cover is initiated by Aira
praecox, Festuca ovina (seedlings) and Agrostis spp. (vegetative spread).
These afford anchorage for the lichens, which re-establish a continuous
cover. In time, the grasses at the centre of a patch die, and death spreads
centrifugally until the lichen mat, after a temporary dominance (which
may last some years), disrupts.
This cycle of change is a feature of Breckland, and can be well seen in
the plant-succession upon bare almost humus-free soil exposed by local
erosion in the form of blow-outs.’ Details cannot be given here, but
periodically during the succession there is built up a stage with Festuca
ovina and Agrostis spp. set in a carpet of lichen. As in Grassland G, the
grasses die from the centre of a patch outwards, and the pure lichen carpet
eventually disintegrates, exposing the soil to erosion. On a partially
eroded soil the full succession is telescoped; a new lichen-grass community
is built up only to disintegrate once again; and the wave-like advance is
repeated until a relatively stable grass-heath emerges upon soil containing
about 3 per cent of humus.
But even in a relatively stable grass-heath there is variation from place
to place and from year to year. Thus the number of Agrostis shoots counted
per square metre, in fourteen plots of 0-05 sq.m. selected at random over a
uniform grass-heath was 2320, 870, 3004 in the years 1935, 1936, and 1937
respectively: and in two other types of grass-heath the same sequence was
obtained. Over the same period the number of shoots of Rumex varied
inversely, 263, 1299, and 276.
Calluna vulgaris, absent from Grassland A, is present on the remaining
soil types, and is capable of assuming dominance from C to G. Its ultimate
height varies from about 6 in. to about 30 in. according to the soil. The
plant lives to an age of about twenty-five years, and (it is important to
note) on the poorer soils, at least, the Calluna community goes through a
™ A. S. Watt, “Studies in the Ecology of Breckland. Ill. The origin and develop-
ment of the Festuco-Ageostidetum on eroded sand”’, Jour. Ecol. xxvi, 1 (1938).
ia
The Breckland 227
cycle of change—a stage of invasion, followed by dominance for a number
of years, then widespread death. During the tenure of the ground,
humus accumulates forming a black peaty mor up to 2 in. thick. With the
death of the heather and the decay of its stems, the mor disintegrates and
erosion exposes the mineral soil, which itself may be eroded until the
process is checked by the accumulation of flints forming an erosion pave-
ment. On this bare soil a series of communities leads eventually to the
establishment of grass-heath, which, if the biotic factor permits, is invaded
and replaced by heather. Here there is a retreat of heather for which
rabbits are not responsible. Large areas of grass-heath of the poorer types
occur, where the only evidence of the former dominance of Calluna is the
occasional dead stems under the lichen carpet together with the purple
stain typical of Calluna-heath soils.
Pteridium aquilinum. The distribution of bracken in Breckland very
strongly suggests a spread from nuclei moist enough for its establishment
by spores. Large circumscribed areas of bracken contain either woods, or
houses surrounded by trees, from which the spread may have taken place.
It is excluded from some areas of cold-air drainage by frost, or it invades
them marginally only with extreme slowness, and its vigour varies with
the microclimate. But even on soils with similar microclimates variation
in height and behaviour is found. Bracken grows in all the seven stages;
in height, it varies from approximately 15-18 in. on soil A, increasing
through stages B and C to a maximum of about 50 in. in stage D, falling
again to about r4 in. in stage G. Incidentally, on the same soil type there
is variation from year to year. The bracken also shows a curious patchiness,
the patches varying in size from soil type to soil type, but in any one type
forming a series in a cycle of change. Some patches have few, deep-set
fronds; others have more numerous taller fronds with the part of the
petioles showing above ground of intermediate length; while still others
carry dense tall fronds with long petioles. In series the average depth of
origin of the fronds in the soil becomes less and less. In the last type,
death spreads centrifugally from the centre of a patch outwards, and the
vacated ground is occupied once more by a scattered population of fronds
deep set in the soil.
It has been shown that the rhizome system of bracken is sympodial and
that numerous relatively small individual plants make up an area of bracken.
It is a typical travelling geophyte: as the rhizome advances in front, it dies
away behind, throwing off live branches which thus become independent
plants. The number of fronds carried by any one plant is small—approxi-
mately one frond to 8 ft. of rhizome.
Carex arenaria. The main areas of Carex in Breckland lie in the parts of
15-2
228 The Breckland
the Little Ouse and Lark Valleys next the Fenland, and upon the blown
sand between the large blow-out on Lakenheath Warren and the village &
of Santon Downham. But it is widely distributed in small and large _
patches, and it grows, although it does not necessarily become dominant,
on all the seven soil stages.
Light has been thrown on this interesting distribution by Mr C. E. M.
Tidmarsh," of the Botany School, Cambridge, who has shown that for
the successful germination of the seeds a continuous 12 to 20 days’ water
supply (depending on the temperature) is necessary, and that for the
successful establishment of the seedlings similar moist conditions are
needed. These requirements limit the establishment of Carex to the neigh-
bourhood of water—of rivers like the Lark and Little Ouse, of meres, or
of temporary (but not too transient) bodies of water appearing in lower-
lying parts when the water table is high.2 Even if these conditions are
satisfied, the establishment of a seedling will be checked by rapid recession
of the water table leaving the soil too dry for its survival: thus temporary
water-logging offers a somewhat precarious start for Carex.
From these points d’appui, Carex spreads to soils that are essentially dry.
The recognition of its early behaviour (the retention by seed and seedling
of needs that once may also have characterised the adult), not only explains
much of its distribution on Breckland, but also its development on sand
dunes near the coast, where it becomes established first in the slacks and
later spreads to the dunes. Once established, it spreads freely by rhizomes,
and most successfully on loose soil. There are, however, patches of Carex
in Breckland whose relation to a place suitable for its establishment is not
clear. These may be scattered vestiges of a former continuous area in which
retrogression has taken place through the activity of rabbits. Just how far
Carex may degenerate, like Calluna and Pteridium, without the help of
animals like rabbits and mice, is not known. Its behaviour on sand dunes —
along the coast certainly suggests a loss of vigour with age, but whether
this proceeds to the point of annihilation in small or large patches is not
yet determined.
The varying height of bracken from year to year; the changing density
of Agrostis; the results from the application of water to Agrostis during dry
years; the negative results obtained during the abnormally wet year 1937;
and the periodic phenomena already described—all these suggest a causal
relation with climate and, in particular, with the rainfall. There is abundant
evidence suggesting that scarcity of water is a major difficulty to plant life
in Breckland. But the relation between the cyclic phenomena and rainfall
* In unpublished work.
As, for example, in the spring of 1937 after a long wet spell.
The Breckland 229
is not simple, for at any one time cycles in all stages are found, and the
period of the rhythm varies from species to species. Up to the present, the
data suggest a rhythm explicable partly in terms of the structure and biology
of the species, and partly in terms of the effect produced by its own
accumulated humus and litter (and for Agrostis by the carpet of lichen) on
the penetration of rainfall during the summer, when the absolute rainfall
is low and the evaporation high. Reversal of the soil-moisture gradient
in summer is, in fact, acommon occurrence. It is relevant to note that
Agrostis, Calluna, Pteridium, and Carex form a series with increasing rooting
depths; in suitable soils the roots of Carex descend to 11 ft., and it is the
only species for which a cycle of change has not been demonstrated.
SUCCESSIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
In the edaphic series A to G, nothing has been said about the causes of
the change. This does not imply that long-continued occupation of the
ground by grassland could bring about the change from a calcareous soil
to a well-developed podsol. On the other hand, the presence of the remains
of Calluna in D, E, F, and G, and the purple colour of the soils in E, F,
and G (slight stain in D), strongly suggest podsolisation under heather,
although the heather no longer dominates. In other places, eroded and
similarly free from heather, truncated podsols with recognisable remains
of heather have been sealed up by a deposit of blown sand. It may be,
therefore, that heather was much more widespread than it is now. What
is put forward here as a working hypothesis is that leaching has proceeded
to produce a brown forest soil, whose further change to a podsol is the
work of Calluna, that may, in the last analysis, be dominant owing to man.
The varying behaviour of the dominants of the four major communities
on the different soils makes it impossible to put forward any simple scheme
outlining their relationships to each other. Further work is needed. At
the moment, all that can usefully be said is that the relations Festuca-
Agrostis|Carex, Calluna, Pteridium, and Carex/Calluna, Pteridium, and
Calluna|Pteridium, vary according to the soil, and for bracken, at least,
according to microclimate.
But the work of E. P. Farrow! and the facts presented in this account make
it plain that these communities are not in stable equilibrium with their
inorganic environment. The exclusion of rabbits is followed by vegetational
change. In different parts of Breckland there are places free, or relatively
free, from rabbits and on these areas woody plants have colonised. Of
shrubs, the most important is the gorse (Ulex europaeus), and of trees the
most important are pine, oak and birch. There is little doubt that on certain
soils, at least, woodland of some kind would eventually be formed.
* E. P. Farrow, Plant-Life on East Anglian Heaths (1925).
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INDEX
References to addresses, reports, and papers printed in extended form are
given in ttalics.
* Indicates that the title only of a communication is given.
When a page reference to a paper is given in italics, it is to a note of its
publication elsewhere, or to a note of other publications by the author
on the same subject.
References preceded by the abbreviation Appdx. will be found in the appendix
immediately preceding this index.
Aborigine, Australian, and adminis-
tration, by Dr. Donald Thomson,
463.
Aborigines of Chota Nagpur plateau,
by Prof. H. J. Fleure, 444*.
Acock, A. M., Vegetation and soil
phenomena of Spitzbergen, 506*,
508.
Adaptive appearance and _ inter-
specific relationships, by Dr. H. B.
Cott, 440, 539.
Adinoles of Dinas Head, by S. O.
Agrell, 421.
Administration in public education, by
J. Sargent, 235, 513*.
Adrenal cortical hormones, com-
pounds related to, by Dr. T.
Reichstein, 408, 538.
Afforestation, ecological aspects of,
discussion by Dr. A. S. Watt,
Dr. H. M. Steven and R. Ross,
496*, 510.
Afforestation in Breckland, by J.
_ Macdonald, Appdx. 217.
_ Afforestation in hill country, by
Dr. H. M. Steven, 510*, 544.
AGRELL, S. O., Adinoles of Dinas
Head, 421.
Agriculture and national employ-
ment, discussion by C. S. Orwin,
Prof. J. A. Scott Watson, S. J.
Wright, Dr. F. Kidd and Prof.
R. G. White, 517, 545.
Agriculture of Cambridgeshire, by
Dr. R. McG. Carslaw and J. A. |
McMillan, Appdx. 135.
Aircraft, vibration in, by Major |
B.C. Carter, 462, 541.
EL AuarILy, Dr. Y. A. S., Die-back
and canker of roses, 505*.
Alkali-rocks of Nyasaland, by Lt.-
Col. W. Campbell Smith, 416,
539-
Allzsthetic. characters and _ sense
perception in animals, by Dr. J.S.
Huxley, 440.
ALLEN, Dr. J. F., Properties of
liquid Helium II, 388.
ALLEN, R. W., Scale models in
general engineering, 459, 541.
Alloys, superconductivity of, by
Dr. H. Jones, 389*, 537.
Alpha particles, resonance scattering
of, by S. Devons, 385*.
American psychology, trends in, by
Prof. H. S. Langfeld, 488*.
Analytic deformations, by Dr. G. D.
Birkhoff, 395*.
Anatolia, prehistoric, by Miss W.
Lamb, 475, 542.
ANDREW, G., Central Eastern Desert
of Egypt, granitic intrusions in,
421; upper pre-Cambrian of,
422.
Androstane derivatives, by Prof. L.
Ruzicka, 405.
Animal groups in British Lower
Paleozoic fauna, by Dr. C. J.
Stubblefield, Dr. G. L. Elles,
Dr. A. Lamont and Dr. W. K.
Spencer, 415.
Animal locomotion, réle of environ-
ment in, symposium by Prof. J.
Gray, J. E. Harris, Dr. Lissmann,
Dr. F. S. J. Hollick and Dr. C.
Horton-Smith, 442*, 539.
x
232
Animal production, discussion on,
by Prof. R. Rae, Prof. F. A. E.
Crew, Dr. E. L. Taylor, and
Dr. J. Hammond, 521, 545.
Annual meetings, table, x.
Anthropological research in Aus-
tralia, by Prof. R. A. Radcliffe-
Brown, 464.
APPLEYARD, Dr. E. T. S., The
superconductivity of thin mercury
films, 389*.
Arabia, Pleistocene terraces and
paleoliths in, by Miss E. W.
Gardner, 475*.
Archeological correlation, by Dr.
J. G. D. Clark, 412.
- Archeology of Cambridgeshire, edited
by Dr. J. G. D. Clark, Appdx. 80.
ArMsTRONG, A. L., Middle Palzo-
lithic in Rhodesia and South
Africa, 473.
Artemia salina, report on, 335.
Ascorbic acid, determination of, by
photoelectric principles, by Dr.
K. K. Nygaard and Dr. Th.
Guthe, 402.
ASHMEAD, J., Intense magnetic fields
for magnetic cooling experiments,
389%.
Arxins, Dr. W. R. G., Measurement
of light in plant growth and dis-
tribution, 492, 539.
Atomic clock, rate of moving of, by
Dr. H. E. Ives, 384, 537.
Australia, discussion by Dr. Donald
Thompson, Prof. A. R. Radcliffe-
Brown and others, 463.
Bacterial diseases of plants, by Dr.
C. G. Dowson, 506*.
BalLey, Dr. E. B., Caledonian tec-
tonics in Skye, 422, 539.
Tectonics, erosion and deposi-
tion, 423, 539.
Balances, the temperature coefficient
of, by Dr. K. T. Fischer, 387*.
Batcuin, W. G. V., Chalk water table
south-east of Cambridge, Appdx. 20
BaLutarD, Dr. P. B., Educational
significance of cinema and wire-
less, 516.
Ballistic measurements in incre-
mental magnetism, by Dr.C.G.A.
Sims and J. Spinks, 460, 547.
INDEX
BarKER, Dr. J., Temperature and
starch-sugar balance in potatoes,
494. |
Barley, anion and cation absorption _
by, by E. K. Woodford and ~
Prof. F. G. Gregory, 495, 544.
BAWDEN, F. C., Isolation and pro-
perties of some plant viruses, 503,
507*. 2
Behaviour in difficult tasks, by —
Miss D. Gandine-Stanton, 489.
BeLtamy, Miss E. F., The Inter-
national Seismological Summary,
390%.
BENNET-CLaRK, Prof. T. A., Os-
motic pressures in regulation of
cell turgor, 493.
BERNAL, Prof. J. D., Crystallo-
graphic relations of seismology, —
392.
The hydroxyl bond in clay
minerals, 404.
BERTRAM, G. C. L., King George
VI Sound, 445, 540.
BEVERIDGE, Sir WmM., Unemploy-
ment in relation to the trade cycle,
455, 540.
Bexon, Miss D., Osmotic pressures
in regulation of cell turgor, 493.
BickLEy, Dr. W. G., Computation
from series, 394.
Bird courtship and aggressive be-
haviour, by Mr. D. Lack, 441.
Bird flight, by Dr. C. Horton Smith,
442*.
Birds, field experiments on, by F. B.
Kirkman, 487, 539.
BIRKHOFF, GarRETT, Lattice forms,
398*, 538.
BirkHorF, Dr, G. D., Analytic de-
formations, 395*.
Birth customs in East Anglia, by
Miss B. Newman and L. F.
Newman, 480.
BLACKETT, Prof. P. M. S., High alti-
tude cosmic radiation, 386*, 537.
Blastocladiales, life cycles in the, by
Dr. Ralph Emerson, 498, 506*,
543.
Blood groups, report on, 345.
Bog peat, by Dr. H. Godwin, 506*.
Bour, Prof. N., Nuclear pa
381.
Bou O., Modern drainage prob-
lems, Appdx. 194.
INDEX
Borer, O., The Wash, 449.
BoswELL, G. J., Catechol oxidase
system, 495.
Botany of Cambridgeshire, by Dr. H.
Godwin, Appdx. 44.
Botue, Prof. W., New results in
cosmic rays, 387*, 537.
Nuclear levels, 381.
Bow .er-KeELtey, Mrs. A., Stone
Age industries in S.W. Africa,
474-
Brachiopods, by Dr. A. Lamont,
414, 539.
BraD ey, Dr. A. J., X-ray structure
and ferromagnetism, 385.
Bracc, Prof. W. L., Atomic struc-
ture of silicates, 403, 538.
Magnetic alloys and X-rays,
384.
Braking of railway trains, by C. H.
Edgecombe, 460*.
Breckland, by R. R. Clarke, J. Mac-
donald and Dr. A. S. Watt,
Appdx. 208.
Breckland, Hemiptera-Heteroptera
in, by Mrs. M. D. Brindley, 428,
Appdx. 67.
Breckland, significance of, in British
forestry, by Dr. A. S. Watt, 510,
544.
BRENCHLEY, Dr. W., Toxicity of
inorganic plant poisons, 493, 543.
BRETHERTON, R. F., Public invest-
ment and trade cycle policy, 452.
BreuiL, M. L’Arpe, Thirty metres
terrace of the Somme, 476, 541.
BRIGHTON, A. G., Mesozoic rocks of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 6.
Brinptey, Mrs. M. D., Hemiptera-
Heteroptera in Breckland, 428,
Appdx. 67.
BristowE, Dr. W. S., Arachnida of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 66.
Brockway, Prof. L. O., Organic
chemistry of metals, 399.
Brooks, Prof. F. T., Die-back and
canker of roses, 505*.
Broom, Dr. R., Pleistocene anthro-
poid apes of S. Africa, 482, 547.
Brown, Dr. M. R., Physiologic
races of Puccinia coronata-
avenez, 506*.
Brown, Dr. W., Psychological prob-
lems of the mature personality,
485, 542.
233
Bucuan, Dr. S., London’s under-
ground water supply, 418, 539.
BucuanaNn, Dr. R: O., The regional
concept, 449*.
Budgerigars, colour in, by Prof.
R. C. Punnett, 434.
BuLiarD, Dr. E. C., Underground
structure of Cambridge district,
Appdx. 4.
Butter, Prof. A. H. R., Sexual pro-
cesses in rust fungi, 495, 543.
BurcuaM, Dr. W. E., Disintegration
of fluorine by protons and deu-
terons, 385*.
Burces, Dr. A., Sporotrichium in-
fection by rats, 506*.
BurRKILL, I. H., Insect vision and the
perception of flowers, 441.
BurkiTT, M. C., on Derbyshire caves,
343.
—— The Middle Paleolithic, 471,
542.
Bush differential analyser, by Prof.
J. E. Lennard-Jones, 394*.
BuT Ler, Dr. C. G., Phases in locusts,
441.
Calceolaria, nutrition of embryo sac,
by K. V. Srinath, 507*, 509.
CALDWELL, Dr. J., Stripe disease of
narcissus, 501, 543.
Calendar customs in the eastern
counties, by K. Jackson, 480.
CaLMAN, Dr. W. T., on Plymouth
Laboratory, 334.
on Zoological Record, 334.
Cambridge, growth of, by J.
Mitchell, Appdx. 162.
Cambridge, some sociological as-
pects of, by Dr. M. Murray, 471.
Cambridge district, geology of, by
Prof. O. T. Jones, 410*.
Cambridgeshire, agriculture of, Ap-
pdx. 135.
Cambridgeshire, archeology of, Ap-
pdx. 80.
Cambridgeshire, botany of, Appdx. 44.
Cambridgeshire, climate of, Appdx.
B.
Bir
Cambridgeshire, geology of, Appdx. 1.
Cambridgeshire, industries of, Appdx.
154.
Cambridgeshire,
Appdx. 116.
nineteenth-century,
234
Cambridgeshire, place of,
Appdx. 99.
Cambridgeshire, soils of, Appdx. 25.
Cambridgeshire, villages of, Appdx.
106.
Cambridgeshire, zoology of, *Appdx.
60.
CaMERON, Prof. T. W. M., Fish-
carried trematodes in Canada, 426.
CAMPBELL, Dr. H., The range of
natural selection, 479.
Cancer-producing polycyclic hydro-
carbons, by Prof. J. W. Cook, 407,
538.
Canterbury Plains, irrigation of, by
Miss M. F. Davies, 451.
Capital movements, international
short term, by P. Barnett Whale,
457-
Carbonate rocks associated with
alkali-rich intrusions, discussion
by Dr. H. von Eckermann, Lt.-
Col. W. Campbell Smith, S. I.
Tomkeieff and Prof. C. E. Tilley,
416, 538.
Carboniferous bony fishes, by Dr.
T.S. Westoll, 425.
CarsLaw, R. McG., Agriculture of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 135.
CarTER, Major B. C., Vibration in
aircraft, 462, 541.
Casimir, Dr. H. B. G., Low-tem-
perature properties of matter, 387.
Spin-lattice interaction, 389*.
CaTCHESIDE, Dr. D. G., Chromo-
somal isolation, 439.
Genetics of ‘Oenothera, 506*.
Catechol oxidase system, by G. J.
Boswell and G. C. Whiting, 495.
CaToN-THompsON, Miss G., Arch-
zological work in the Hadhra-
maut, 463, 475, 542.
CaTTELL, Prof. R. B., Inheritance of
temperament, 486*.
Cell walls of leaf mesophyll, physical
nature of outer surface, by Prof.
F. J. Lewis, 492.
CuHapwick, Mrs. N. K., Ritual and
tradition, 483.
Chair, Welsh light on development
of the, by I. C. Peate, 480, 542.
CuHapMaN, Dr. V. J., Marine alge,
506*.
Character gradients, by Dr. J. S.
Huxley, 435, 539.
names
INDEX
Chemical analysis, modern methods
of, symposium by Dr. J. J. Fox,
Prof. W. Gerlach, Prof. F. Feigl,
Dr. J. Matthews, Dr. H. Jackson,
Dr. K. K. Nygaard and Dr. Th.
Guthe, 400, 538.
CHESTERS, Dr. C. G. C., Photomicro-
graphs, 506%.
CHILDE, Prof. V. G., The Orient and
Europe, 181, 474*.
Childhood, social psychology of, by
Prof. C. W. Valentine, 484, 543.
Chlorophyll deficiencies and flower
colour, by Capt. R. D. Williams,
433-
Chota Nagpur plateau, by Prof.
A. G. Ogilvie and Prof. H. J.
Fleure, 444.
Curiss, Miss M., The Mersey en-
trance, 448, 540.
CHRISTOPHERSON, D. G., Relaxa-
tion method for the solution of
Poisson’s Equation, 459*.
Chromosomal isolation, by Dr. D.G.
Catcheside, 439.
Cinema and wireless, discussion on
educational significance of, by
R. C. Steele, Dr. P. B. Ballard,
Dr. S. J. F. Philpott and Miss
L. M. Holt, 490*, 516, 544.
Cirque formation in Iceland, by
W. V. Lewis, 446, 540.
Crark, Dr. J. G. D., Archeological
correlation, 412.
Archeology of Cambridgeshire,
Appdx. 80.
—— Recent excavations in the Fens,
465 *
Oulu Prof. W. E. Le Gros, The
Swanscombe fossil, 469, 542.
CiarKE, R. R., Breckland, Appdx.
208.
CLARKE-HALL, D., Tendencies of
school design, 5II.
Clays, discussion on, by Prof. W.L
Bragg, Dr. G. Nagelschmidt,
Dr. R. K. Schofield and Prof.
J. D. Bernal, 403, 538.
Climate of Cambridgeshire, by Dr.
A. S. Watt, Appdx. 31.
Cockcroft, Dr. J. D., High-voltage
lab. and cyclotron in nuclear
research, 381.
COLLIN, J. (on , Diptera of Cambridge-
shire, Appdx. Ws
INDEX
Colour-blindness, acquired, by Dr.
F. W. Edridge-Green, 487, 543.
Colour pattern, sense perception and
evolution of, symposium by Dr.
J. S. Huxley, Dr. H. B. Cott,
D. Lack and I. H. Burkill, 440.
Combinatorial mathematics, sym-
posium by Dr. C. C. Craig, H. W.
Norton, Dr. W. J. Youden,
F. Yates and W. L. Stevens, 393,
538.
Communities classified by occupa-
tion, by Dr. E. H. Selwood,
449.
Computation from series, by Dr. W.
G. Bickley, 394.
Computational labour, estimation of,
by D. H. Sadler, 393.
Conference of Delegates, report, 523.
Conifers, female cone of palzozoic,
by Dr. R. Florin, 497, 506*.
Consequential evolution, by Dr.
P, D. F. Murray, 438.
Cook, Major F. C., Road develop-
ment in Great Britain, 460%,
542.
Cook, Prof. J. W., Cancer-pro-
ducing polycyclic hydrocarbons,
407, 538.
Cook, Prof. S. A., Re-discovery of
the ancient Orient, 474, 542.
Cook, Dr. W. R. I., Phycomycete
flora of Glamorgan, 499, 506*.
Cooke, A. H., Attainment of low
temperature, 389*.
Coompss, J. E. M., Suppression of
radio -interference by trolley
buses, 459*.
Co-operative Societies in the social
movement, by Prof. Dr. E.
Griinfeld, 456.
CorNisH, Dr. VAUGHAN, Preserva-
tion of Sidmouth coast scenery,
450, 540.
Preservation of Crown lands at
Camberley, 533.
Correlations and culture, by Prof.
Griffith Taylor, 103, 444*.
Cosmic radiation in high altitudes,
symposium by Prof. P. M. S.
Blackett, Prof. W. H. Furry,
Prof. W. Bothe and Dr. E. J.
Williams, 386.
Cosmic ray particles, properties of, |,
by Prof. W. H. Furry, 386.
235
Cost and price, business view of the
relationship between, by R. L.
Hall, 456, 540.
Cost, interpretation and allocation
of, by G. F. Shove, 456.
Cott, Dr. H. B., Adaptive ap-
pearance and interspecific re-
lationships, 440, 539.
Council Report, 1937-8, xvi.
Craic, Dr. C. C., Remarks on
randomisation, 393.
Craik, K. J. W., Sensory adapta-
tion in vision, 487, 542.
Cramp, Prof. W., Incremental meas-
urements, 460*.
Crew, Prof. F. A. E., Animal breed-
ing, 521*. :
Crop pests and diseases, by C. T.
Gimingham, 521, 545.
Crop production, discussion on, by
J. A. McMillan, Prof. F. L.
Engledow, C. 'T. Gimingham and
Sir John Russell, 521, 545.
Crown lands, preservation of, by
Dr. Vaughan Cornish, 533.
CrRowTHER, Dr. E. M., Maintenance
of soil fertility, 519. ‘
Crystal growth, by Dr. R. W. Wood,
*
Crystallised clay minerals, structure
and properties of, by Dr. G.
Nagelschmidt, 403.
Crystallographic relations of seis-
mology, by Prof. J. D. Bernal, 392.
Cutis, Prof. W., Education for a
changing society, 516, 544.
Cyclotron and high-voltage lab. in
nuclear research, by Dr. J. D.
Cockcroft, 381.
Cyprus, prehistoric skulls of, by
M. M. Rix, 480.
Cytology and genetics, report on, 341.
Cytology of Narcissus, by Miss
D. J. Heppell, 505, 506*.
Dactylotheca plumosa and Senften-
bergia ophiodermatica, by N. W.
Radforth, 498, 543.
Dalradian succession of the Southern
Highlands, by Dr. S. M. K.
Henderson, 424.
DanieL, Dr. G,. E., Portholed
megaliths of the British Isles, 465,
542.
236
Darsy, Dr. H. C., Cambridgeshire in
the 19th century, Appdx., 116.
Draining of the Fens, 446%,
Appdx. 181.
DarRLINGTON, Dr. C. D., Genetic
isolation, 439, 539.
Darwin, Dr. G., Logic and
probability in physics, 21, 383*.
Davunt, J. G., New experiments on
transfer effect, 389*.
Davis, J. G. W., Place of interests
in vocational adjustment, 487*,
543.
Daviss, Miss M., Education for a
changing society, 514, 544.
Davies, Miss M. F., Irrigation in
the Canterbury Plains, N.Z.,
451.
Dawson, Miss R., Education for a
changing society, 514, 544.
DeBENHAM, Prof. F., ‘The
graphical Laboratory, 445.
Decompositions of groups, by Dr.
B. H. Neumann, 397.
Derr, Dr. P. I., Excited states of
light nuclei, 382, 537.
Deep foci and aftershocks, by Dr.
H. Jeffreys, 391, 537-
Dennis, Dr. R. G. W., Virus content
of Peruvian potatoes, 503.
Derbyshire Caves, report on, 343.
Design of schools, discussion by
S. E. Urwin, W. G. Newton,
Denis Clarke-Hall and W. D.
Seymour, 511.
Development and Evolution, by Prof.
H. H. Swinnerton, 57, 416*.
Devons, S., Resonance scattering of
a particles, 385*.
Dickinson, Dr. R. E., The regional
concept, 449*, 540.
Differential equation, st by vey
integration of, by Dr. J. C.
Miller, 395, 538.
Differential equations, by Dr. Olga
Taussky, 397, 538.
Diffraction gratings, by Prof. R. W.
Wood, 383.
Driver, Capt. C., Polymorphism, 437.
Division for social relations of science,
XXiil.
Dosss, Dr. C. G., Plants of Spitz-
bergen, 506*, 508.
Dopps, Prof. E. C., Synthetic
cestrogenic compounds, 405, 538.
Geo-
| EDRIDGE-GREEN,
INDEX
DoNISTHORPE, H.St.J. K., Coleoptera
of Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 70.
Down House, report, 1937-8, xxi.
Dowson, Dr. W. J., Bacterial
diseases of plants, 506*.
Dress, survivals in, by Rt. Hon.
Lord Raglan, 481.
Drosophila, colours in, by Miss U.
Philip, 433.
East Anglia and the Civil War, by
F. Walker, 445.
East, W. G., The Humber and
Humberside in historical times,
448.
Eccies, G. C., Moving coil vi-
brometer, 460%, 542.
VON ECKERMANN, Dr. H., Carbonate
rocks associated with alkali-rich
intrusions, 416.
Ecological isolation, by Dr. W. B.
Turrill, 438, 544.
Economics, scope and method of, by
R. F. Harrod, 139, 453%.
EpcEcoMBE, C. H., Braking of rail-
way trains, 460*.
Dr. F. W., Ac-
quired colour-blindness, 487, 543.
Education for a changing society,
discussion by W. H. Robinson,
Miss Ruth Dawson, Dr. P. T.
Freeman, Miss M. Davies, J.
Paley Yorke, Dr. W. A. Richard-
son, Mr. F. Pick and Prof. W.
Cullis, 513, 544.
Epwarps, W. N., Tertiary vegeta-
tion of Inner Hebrides, 496, 506*.
Ehringsdorf and Wallertheim, lithic
industries of, by Dr. D. A. E.
Garrod, 473.
EILENBERG, Dr. S., Continuous
mapping into spheres, 399.
Elasticity imperfections in rocks, by
Dr. D. W. Phillips, 390.
Electric charges on clay particles,
origin of, by Dr. R. K. Schofield,
404.
Electron, the heavy, by Dr. E. J.
Williams, 387*.
Electronic waves, recent experiments
on, by Sir J. J. Thomson, 389*.
Exes, Dr. G. L., Graptolites, 414.
Elliptic functions, by. Prof. A.
Speiser, 397.
INDEX
Extis, Prof. C. D., Resonance levels |
in slow neutron processes, 385*.
Emerson, Dr. R., Life cycles in the
Blastocladiales, 498, 506*, 543.
Emotion and ritual, by A
Hocart, 482, 542.
Engineering instruments, by C. C.
Mason, 463*, 547.
Engineering science, Changing outlook
of, by Prof. R. Vv. Southwell, 163,
459*.
ENGLEDOW, Prof. F. L., Plant
physiology and plant breeding,
520.
Environment, réle of, in animal
locomotion, symposium by Prof.
J. Gray, J. E. Harris, Dr. Liss-
mann, Dr. F. S. J. Hollick and
Dr. C. Horton-Smith, 442*, 539.
Evening discourses, 535.
Evolution, mechanism of, discussion
on, by Dr. J. S. Huxley, Prof.
R. A. Fisher, Prof. A. E. True-
mane |. ZZ. Young, , Capt...C.
Diver, Dr. P. D. F. Murray and
others, 435, 492*, 494*, 539.
Evolution and development, by Prof.
H. H. Swinnerton, 57, 416*.
Experiments below r° abs.,
Simon, 388.
, by Dr. N. Kurti, 389*.
Eye and brain as factors in visual
perception, by Dr. R. H. Thouless,
197, 487*.
M.
Factor psychology, a curious pitfall
in, by Prof. C. Spearman, 488,
543.
Farm produce, preservation, storage |
and transport of, by Dr. F. Kidd,
518*, 545.
FarMER, E., Social implications of
vocational guidance, 486.
Farming, systems of, ahs = (eeAv
Scott Watson, 518*, 5
Fawcett, Prof. C. B., ees India,
444.
FEATHER, Dr. H., Neutron-produced
radio activities, 382, 537.
FEIGL, Prof. F., Spot analysis, 401.
FeL_ton, A. L., Cultivation of the
Beech, 509*, 544.
Fenland, foraminifera
Dr. W. A. Macfadyen, 411, 539.
by Dr. F. |
from, by |
|
237
Fenland, history of, by Dr. H.
Godwin, 535.
Fenland in Roman times, by C. W.
Phillips, 412, 465.
Fenland, Roman occupation of, by
C. W. Phillips, 465.
Fenland waterways, weapons from,
by T. C. Lethbridge, 466.
Fenlands, discussion on post-glacial
history of, by Dr. H. Godwin,
Dr. W. A. Macfadyen, H. S. P.
Jolly; DraiaG: Ds Clark, Cow,
Phillips and Prof. H. H. Swin-
nerton, 410, 492*, 539.
Fens, drainage of, by Dr.
Darby, 446*, Appdx. 181.
Fens, modern drainage problems of, by
O. Borer, Appdx. 194.
Fens, recent excavations in, by Dr.
J. G.D. Clark 4bs*™.
Frercuson, Prof. A., on Quantitative
estimates of sensory events, 277.
Ferromagnetism and X-ray struc-
ture, by Dr. A. J. Bradley, 385.
Ferromagnetism, general theory of,
by Dr. E. C. Stoner, 384, 537.
EG
| FrouLkKss, Cuas., Equipment of the
soldier throughout the ages, 481.
Fietp, Dr. H., Physical characters
of modern peoples of Iran, 466,
542.
Films,
om:
Fiscuer, Dr. K. T., The tempera-
ture coefficient of balances, 387*.
FIsHER, Prof. R. A., Combinatorial
mathematics, 393,* 539.
on Artemia salina, 335.
—— Selective intensities in nature,
436. old
Fisheries, rational exploitation of,
by M. Graham, 426.
Fisheries research, physico-chemical
environment in, by Dr. J. B.
Tait, 426*, 539.
Fishery survey of the Patagonian
continental shelf, by E. R.
Gunther, 443, 539-
Fishes, biology of British food, by
C. F. Hickling, 426.
Flax experiment, the Sandringham,
by G. O. Searle, 505, 506*.
Fieure, Prof. H. J., Aborigines of
Chota Nagpur plateau, 444*.
on Blood groups, 345.
exhibition of biological,
x 2
238 INDEX
FLorIN, Dr. R., Female cone of
palzozoic conifers, 497, 506*.
Flower pigments, by
Lawrence and J. R. Price, 429.
FLuGEL, Prof. J. C., The Hormic
Theory, 490, 543.
Fluorine, disintegration of, by
protons and deuterons, by Dr.
W.E. Burcham, 385*.
Foraminifera from Fenland deposits,
by Dr. W. A. Macfadyen, 411, 539.
Forpbe, Prof. C. D., Stability of uni-
lineal kin groups, 476.
The regional concept, 449*.
Forestry at Cambridge University,
by C. H. Thompson, 511*, 544.
Fortes, Dr. M., A religious ‘ racket ’
on the Gold Coast, 477.
Fossil pollen in Scottish Jurassic
rocks, by Dr. J. B. Simpson, 425.
Fox, Dr. J. J., Modern methods of
chemical analysis, 400, 538.
FrEcHET, Prof. M., Hilbert space,
399*, 538.
FREEMAN, Dr. P. T., Education for
a changing society, 514, 544.
Fritscu, Prof. F. E., on Windermere
Biological Station, 340.
Fryer, J. C. F., Lepidoptera of Cam-
bridgeshire, Appdx. 68.
Furry, Prof. W. H., Cosmic ray
particles, 386.
GALL, D. C., Instruments for incre-
mental magnetic measurements,
460*, 541.
GANDINE-STANTON, Miss D., Be-
haviour in difficult tasks, 489.
Ganz, Dr. E., Thermal conductivity
of Helium II under pressure, 389*,
537.
GarDINER, Prof. J. S., Natural his-
tory of Wicken Fen, 428*, 539.
GARDNER, Miss E. W., Pleistocene
terraces and palzoliths in South
Arabia, 475*, 542.
GarroD, Miss D. A. E., Lithic
industries of Ehringsdorf and
Wallertheim, 473.
— The Swanscombe fossil, 469.
GASKELL, T. F., Seismic exploration
of eastern England, 391.
Gates, Prof. R. R., Colour inheri-
tance in Man, 435.
General Treasurer’s Account, Xxxviil.
Generalised foreign politics, by
L. F. Richardson, 488, 543.
Genetic isolation, by Dr. C. D.
Darlington, 439, 539.
Genetical experiments with garden
peas, by Mrs. BE. R. and Dr. F. W.
Sansome, 505, 544.
Genetics and chemistry of pigments,
exhibition by W. J. C. Lawrence,
. R. Price, R. D. Williams,
Miss U. Philip, Dr. J. N. Pickard,
M. S. Pease, Prof. R. C. Punnett
and Prof. R. R. Gates, 428.
Geographical isolation, by Dr. E. B.
Worthington, 438, 540.
GERLACH, Prof. W., Spectrochemical
analysis, 401*.
Germany, economic recovery of, by
Dr. C. W. Guillebaud, 451, 540.
Gipson, Prof. C. E., Chemistry of
gold, 35, 399*.
GILBERT, E. W., Growth of health
resorts, 449, 540.
GiLson, H. C., Lake Titicaca, 442,
539.
GImMINGHAM, C. T., Crop pests and
diseases, 521, 545.
GrnsBERG, Prof. M., The present
position of sociology, 453*.
Glamorgan, phycomycete flora of,
by Dr. W. R. I. Cook, Miss E.
Morgan and Miss P. E. Thomas,
499.
GtaziErR, E. V. D., Measurements of
rings and cores in incremental
testing, 461, 541.
Gopwin, Dr. H., Bog peat, 506*.
— Botany of Cambridgeshire,
Appdx. 44.
—— History of the Fenland, 535.
—— Postglacial deposits of Fenland,
Appdkx. 17.
Postglacial history of the
Fenlands, 410.
Gold, chemistry of, by Prof. C. E.
Gibson, 35, 399*.
Gold Coast, a religious ‘ racket’ on
the, by Dr. M. Fortes, 477.
GoLDHABER, Dr. M., Radioactivity
produced by nuclear excitation,
385*.
Gorpon, Prof. W. T., Tetrastichia-
bupatides, 497, 506*, 543.
Gott, Dr. J. P., Scale models, 459*.
INDEX
Government storage of foodstuffs
and raw materials, by J. M.
Keynes, 453, 540.
GRAHAM, M., Rational exploitation
of fisheries, 426.
Granitic intrusions in the Central
Eastern Desert of Egypt, by
G. Andrew, 421.
Graptolites, by Dr. G. L. Elles, 414.
Gray, Prof. J., Animal locomotion,
442*.
GREATREX, F. B., Transients in
transformers, 459*, 541.
GreEEN, F. H. W., Hydrographic |
factors of Southampton, 447, 540. |
Grecory, Prof. F. G., Anion and |
cation absorption by barley plants,
495, 544. ;
—— Hormone system of rye grain,
494, 543.
Grecory, Sir R., on Content of
school curricula, 511*.
of
on Informative
education, 348.
Greic, J., Harmonic power in iron
testing, 461,.54I7.
Grieve, Dr. B. J., Stimulation phe-
nomena in plants, 506*.
GriFFiTHs, Dr. E., on Thermal con-
ductivities of rocks, 271.
Groups, generalisation of, by J. H. E.
Whitehead, 398.
Groups, verbal classification of, by
P. Hall, 397.
GRONFELD, Prof. Dr. E., Co-opera-
tive Societies in the social move-
ment, 456.
GUILLEBAUD, C. W., The economic
recovery of Germany, 451, 540.
GUILLEBAUD, W. H., Experimental
work on hard woods, 509*, 544.
GuNTHER, E. R., Fishery survey of
the Patagonian continental shelf,
443, 539.
GutHE, Dr. Tu., Deaveniiation of
ascorbic acid, 402.
Gwynne-VAUGHAN, Dame HELEN,
on Cytology and Genetics, 341.
content
Hadhramaut, archeological work in,
by Miss G. Patel eh oS aatal
463, 475, 542.
Hatt, Sir Daniet, Soil fertility,
519*.
239
Hatt, P., The verbal classification
of groups, 397.
HALL, R. L., Business view of price
and cost, 456, 540.
Ha.tey, Miss E. M.,
506.
HammMonn, Dr. J., Animal produc-
tion, 522*.
HAN _ey, F., Soils of Cambridgeshire,
Appdx. 25.
Hardwoods in Britain, symposium
by D. W. Young, A. P. Long,
A. L. Felton, J. Macdonald, A. H.
Popert, W. H. Guillebaud and
W. A. Robertson, 509, 544.
Harmonic , integrals, by
W.V.D. Hodge, 396.
Myxomycetes,
Prof.
| Harmonic power in iron testing, by
J. Greig and J. E. Parton, 461, 547.
Harris, J. E., Locomotion of aqua-
tic forms, 442*.
Harrop, R. F., Scope and method of
economics, 139, 453*.
Harvey, Miss S. M., Reliability of
the interview, 491.
Hawkes, C. F. C., Archzological
associations of the Swanscombe
skull, 468, 542.
Hawkins, Prof. H. L., Humanity in
geological perspective, 546.
Hayes, G., The Mersey entrance,
448, 540.
Health resorts, growth of, by E. W.
Gilbert, 449, 540.
Hearing, sensory adaptation in, by
R.S. Sturdy, 488.
| Hebrides, early Tertiary vegetation
of Inner, by Sir Albert Seward,
W. N. Edwards, and Dr. J. B.
Simpson, 496, 506*.
Helium II and low-temperature
physics, by Dr. H. B. G. Casimir
and others, 387, 389.
Hemiptera-Heteroptera
land, by Mrs. M. D.
428.
HENDERSON, Dr.
Dalradian Succession
Southern Highlands, 424.
in Breck-
Brindley,
S. M. K., The
of the
| Heprett, Miss D. J., Cytology of
Narcissus, 505, 506*.
Heredity and mental hygiene, by
Dr. L. S. Penrose, 484, 543.
Hick.ine, C. F., Biology of British
food fishes, 426.
240
High-altitude cosmic _ radiation,
symposium by Prof. P. M. S.
Blackett, Prof. W. H. Furry,
Prof. W. Bothe and Dr. E. J.
Williams, 386.
Hilbert-space, by Prof. M. Fréchet,
399*, 538.
Hitt, Sir ArtrHuR, on Transplant
experiments, 347.
Hinton, M. A. C., Faunal evidence
relating to the Swanscombe skull,
468*.
Hocart, A. M., Ritual and emotion,
482, 542.
Hopce, Prof. W. V. D., Harmonic
integrals, 396.
Hoitpen, Dr. H. S., Rachis of
Rachiopteris cylindrica, 497*.
Hollerith and National machines,
by Dr. J. Wishart and D. H.
Sadler, 394*.
Ho tick, Dr. F. S. J., Insect flight,
442*.
Hollies, apparent reversions in varie-
gated, by Prof. F. E. Weiss, 504.
Hott, Miss L. M., Educational
significance of cinema and wire-
less, 517, 544.
Hooke, Prof. S. H., Ritual and
myth, 483, 542.
Hopkins, Prof. Sir F. G., Synthetic
organic chemistry and _ biology
and medicine, 405*.
Hormic theory, by Prof. J. C. Flugel,
490, 543.
Hormone system of rye grain, by
R. S. de Ropp and Prof. F. G.
Gregory, 494, 543.
Hormones, multiple biological ac-
tivities of, by D. A. S. Parkes, 406.
HorneELL, J., Polygenetic origins of
plank-built boats, 470, 542.
Horton-SmiTH, Dr. C., Bird flight,
442*.
Hucues, J. S., The International
Seismological Summary, 390*.
Humanity in geological perspective,
by Prof. H. L. Hawkins, 546.
Humber and Humberside in his-
torical times, by W. G. East, 448.
Humpueey, Prof. G., The direction
of thought, 484*.
Huxiry, Dr. J. S., Allezsthetic
characters and sense perception in
animals, 440.
INDEX
Huxtey, Dr. J. S., Character
gradients, 435, 539.
Hydrogenation, technique of, by
Dr. H. Jackson, 402.
Hydroxyl bond in clay minerals, by
Prof. J. D. Bernal, 404.
Imms, Prof. A. D., Zoology of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 60.
Incremental magnetic measure-
ments, discussion on, by Prof. W.
Cramp, C. E. Webb, D. C. Gall,
Dr. L. G. A. Sims and others,
389*, 460, 540.
India, geographical impressions of
scientific delegation to, by Prof.
A. G. Ogilvie, Prof. H. J. Fleure,
J. McFarlane, and Prof. C. B.
Fawcett, 444.
India, Report of Delegation to, xvi.
Industries of Cambridgeshire, by
Dr. F. M. Page, Appdx. 154.
Industries, Middle Palzolithic, in
S. England, by T. T. Paterson,
474*.
Informative content of educatioh,
report on, 348.
Incuis, Prof. C. E., Resonance and
mechanical vibrations, 462*.
Insect flight, by Dr. F. S. J.
Hollick, 442*.
Insect vision and the perception of
flowers, by I. H. Burkill, 441.
Instruments for incremental mag-
netic measurements, by D. C.
Gall, 460*.
Intermarriage, local, and stability of
rural population, by R. F. Peel,
479*, 542.
Interview, reliability of the, by Miss
S. M. Harvey, 491.
Investment and trade cycle policy,
by R. F. Bretherton, 452.
Iran, physical characters of modern
peoples of, by Dr. Henry Field,
466, 542.
Isolation and speciation, discussion
by Dr. E. B. Worthington, Dr.
W. B. Turrill, Dr. W. H. Thorpe,
Dr. C. D. Darlington, Dr. D. G.
Catcheside and Dr. S. C. Har-
land, 438. :
Ives, Dr. H. E., Rate of moving of
an atomic clock, 384, 537.
INDEX
Jack, Homer A., Zoological field
stations of U.S.A., 427.
Jackson, Dr. H., Technique of
hydrogenation, 402.
Jackson, K., Calendar customs in
the eastern counties, 480.
James, A. L., Stripe disease of
Narcissus, 501, 543.
Jamshedpur, by J. McFarlane,
*
Jerrreys, Dr. H., Deep foci and
aftershocks, 391, 537.
Jotty, H. L. P., Levels and bench
marks, 411.
Jones, Dr. H., The superconduc-
tivity of alloys, 389*, 537.
Jones, Dr. H. SPENCER, Atmospheres
of the planets, 557.
Jones, Joun, Villages of Cambridge-
shire, Appdx. 106.
Jones, Prof. O. T., Geology of
Cambridge, 410*, 438, Appdx. 1.
Jones, Prof. W. N., Soil and growth
on Wareham heaths, 506*, 511.
Katharometer, modification of the,
by J. K. Scott, 506*.
KAUFFMANN, Dr. B., Topological
methods, 396.
KeitTu, Sir ArtHur, Early Palestin-
ians, 479.
Men of the Middle
lithic, 472.
on Kent’s Cavern, 347.
Piltdown problem, re-examin-
ation of, 478.
Swanscombe fossil, 468.
Kemp, Dr. S., Oceanography and
fluctuations of marine animals, 85,
426*.
Kent’s Cavern, report on, 347.
Kerricu, G. J., Hymenoptera of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 74.
Keynes, J. M., Government storage
of foodstuff and raw materials,
453, 540.
Kipp, Dr. F., Preservation, storage
and transport of farm produce,
518*, 545.
Kin groups, stability of unilineal, by
Prof. C. Daryll Forde, 476.
King George VI Sound, by G. C. L.
Bertram, 445, 540.
Palzo-
241
Kinc, Prof. W. B. R., Geological
evidence relating to the Swans-
combe skull, 467, 542.
KINNEAR, N. B., Wicken Fen, 529.
Kinvic, R. H., Film, Bombay to
Jamshedpur, 446*.
KirKALpy, J. F., Pebble beds of
Lower Cretaceous rocks of Eng-
land, 424. ]
KirKMAN, F. B., Field experiments
on birds, 487, 539.
KnicutT, R., Background
problem child, 486.
Kurti, Dr. N., Experiments below
1° abs., 389*.
Kusura, excavations at, by Miss W.
Lamb, 475, 542.
of the
Labour, demands for, in agriculture,
by C. S. Orwin, 517, 545.
Labour, measurement of the
mobility of, by Dr. J. Marschak,
454, 540. :
Lack, D., Bird courtship and
aggressive behaviour, 441.
Lams, Miss W., Prehistoric Ana-
tolia, 475, 542.
Lamont, Dr. A., Brachiopods, 414,
539.
LANGFELD, Prof. H. S., Trends in
American psychology, 488*.
Latin squares, by H. W. Norton,
393-
Lattice forms, by Garrett Birkhoff,
398*, 538.
Lattice squares, use of, in plant
improvement, by F. Yates, 394.
LawreNceE, W. J. C., Flower pig-
ments, 429.
Lea, Prof. F. C., Torque converter
for motor cars, 460*, 547.
Leason, P., Quaternary cave art, 471.
LEFSCHETZ, Prof. S., Fixed points of
transformations, 395.
LEHMANN, Miss I., Characteristic
seismograms, 390*.
LENNARD-JONES, Prof. J. E., Bush
differential analyser, 394*.
LETHBRIDGE, T. C., Anglo-Saxon
period in Cambridgeshire, Appdx.
94
“Weapons from Fenland water-
ways, 466.
242
Leucite rocks of Kimberley, by
Dr. A. Wade and Dr. R. T.
Prider, 419.
Levels and bench marks, by H. L. P.
Jolly, 411.
Levisoun, Dr. I., Pinus root fungi
and Sitka Spruce mycorrhiza,
506*.
Lewis, Prof. F. J., Outer surface of
leaf mesophyll cell walls, 492.
Lewis, W. V., Chalk water table
south-east of Cambridge, Appdx.
20.
Cirque formation in Iceland,
446, 540.
Ley-farming and a long-term agri-
cultural policy, by Prof. R. G.
Stapledon, 245, 518*.
Light, measurement of, in relation to
plant growth and distribution, by
Dr. W. R. G. Atkins, 492, 539.
Light nuclei, excited states of, by
Dr. P. I. Dee, 382, 537.
Linpcren, Dr. E. J., Winter life in
Swedish Lapland, 469.
Liquefier, construction of a standard
expansion, by Mr. Pickard, 389*.
LissmaN, Dr., Terrestrial animal
locomotion, 442*.
Lockyer Lecture, by Dr. H. Spencer
Jones, 557.
Locomotion of animals, réle of en-
vironment in, symposium by
Prof. J. Gray, J. E. Harris,
Dr. Lissmann, Dr. F. S. J. Hollick
and Dr. C. Horton Smith, 442*,
539.
Locusts, phases in, by Dr.
Butler, 441.
Logic and probability in physics, by
Dr. C. G. Darwin, 21, 383*.
Lonpon, Dr. H., Investigation of
liquid Helium II by a Knudsen
manometer, 389*, 537.
Lone, A. P., Cultivation of the oak,
509*.
Low-temperature physics, discus-
sion by Dr. H. B. G. Casimir,
Dr. J. F. Allen, Prof. H. Van
Vleck, Dr. F. Simon and others,
387, 389, 537-
Lownpes, A. G., Crustacea of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 77.
LuyetT, Prof. B. J., Vitrification of
colloids and of protoplasm, 506*.
C. G.
INDEX
MacCieMent, W. D., Dissemina-
tion of plant viruses, 501.
MacponaLp, J., Afforestation
Breckland, Appdx. 217. j
Cultivation of the ash and
sycamore, 509%, 544.
MacDonnell Ranges of Central
Australia, by F. A. Singleton, 446.
MacDouca.Li, G. D. A., Overhead
costs and economic welfare, 457.
MacrapyEn, Dr. W. A., Foramini-
fera from Fenland deposits, 411,
in
539
Mer arane Wes Jane 444*.
MacGrecor, Dr. A. G., West
Indian tridymite and cristobalite,
422.
McMittan, J. A., Agriculture of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 135.
Crop husbandry, 520.
Magic and ritual, by Prof. H. J.
Rose, 483.
Magma, réle of carbon dioxide in,
by S. I. Tomkeieff, 417.
Magnetic alloys and X-ray structure,
symposium on, by Prof. W. L.
Bragg, Dr. E. C. Stoner, Dr. A. J.
Bradley and others, 384, 386, 537.
Magnetic materials, improvements
in, by C. E. Webb, 460*.
Magnetic measurements, discussion
on, by Prof. W. Cramp, C. E.
Webb, D. C. Gall, Dr. L. G. A.
Sims, J. Spinks, J. Greig, J. E.
Parton and E. V. D. Glazier,
389*, 460, 540.
Magneticsaturation intensities, varia-
tion of, by Dr. W. Sucksmith, 386,
537.
Mallock machine, by M. V. Wilks,
394*.
Man, colour inheritance
Prof. R. R. Gates, 435.
Mann, Dr. F. G., Organic chemistry
of metals, 399.
Manx house types, by B. R. S.
Megaw, 470*.
Marginal and waste land, problems
of, by Dr. W. G. Ogg, 518.
Marine alge, by Dr. V. J. Chapman,
506*.
Marscuak, Dr. J., Measurement of
the mobility of labour, 454, 540..
MarsHALL, T. H., Professionalism,
453, 540.
by
in,
INDEX
Marshland of E. Lincs, by Prof.
H. H. Swinnerton, 413, 539.
Marston, A. T., The Swanscombe
find, 466.
Martensitic permanent magnet
steels, by D. A. Oliver, 386.
Mason, C. C., Engineering instru-
ments, 463*, 541.
Mason, Dr. T. G., Effects of pres-
sure on properties of protoplasm,
493.
Mathematical tables, reports on, 269.
Matter, low-temperature properties
of, by Dr. H. B. G. Casimir, 387.
MattuHews, Dr. J., Microanalysis,
401, 538.
Medusz, diversification of form in,
by F. S. Russell, 443.
Mecaw, B.R.S., Manx house types,
470*.
Men and machines, by S. J. Wright,
518, 545.
Men of Middle Palzolithic, by Sir
Arthur Keith, 479.
MENDELSSOHN, Dr. K., Recent de-
velopments in superconductivity,
389*.
Mental hygiene, by Dr. T. A.
Williams, 490.
Mercury films, superconductivity of,
by Dr. E. T. S. Appleyard, 389*.
Mersey entrance, by G. Hayes and
Miss M. Chriss, 448, 540.
Metagalactic gradients and expand-
ing universe, by Prof. H. Shapley,
383.
Metals, symposium on _ organic
chemistry of, by Dr. F. G. Mann,
Prof. L. O. Brockway, and Prof.
N. V. Sidgwick, 399, 538.
METcALFE, G., Watermarked wil-
lows, 506*, 511.
MicuotteE, Prof. A., Motor learning
and morphology of the responses,
487*.
Microanalysis, by Dr.
Matthews, 4o1, 538.
Middle Palzolithic, symposium on,
by M. C. Burkitt, Sir Arthur
Keith, Dr. F. E. Zeuner, Miss
D.A.E. Garrod, A. L. Armstrong,
Dr. K. P. Oakley and T. T.
Paterson, 471, 541.
Miter, Dr. J. C. P., Integration of
a differential equation, 395, 538.
Janet
243
Mining sites in Wales, report on, 342.
MITCHELL, Miss J. B., Suffolk agri-
culture in the Middle Ages, 445.
MITCHELL, J. B., Growth of Cam-
bridge, Appdx. 162.
Molecular field and low tempera-
tures, by Prof. J. Van Vleck, 388.
Money, primitive, by Mrs. A. H.
Quiggin, 477.
Moon, Dr. P. B., A slow neutron
velocity spectrometer, 385*.
Morant, Dr. G. M., The Swans-
combe fossil, 469.
Morcan, Miss E., Glamorgan Sa-
prolegniales, 500, 507*.
Morton, A. G., Soil and growth on
Wareham heaths, 506,* 511*.
Motor learning and the morphology
of the responses, by Prof. A.
Michotte, 487*.
Mourne Mountains granites, re-
placement veins in, by Dr. S. R.
Nockolds and Dr. J. E. Richey,
420.
Muccocn, Miss H. M., Dispersal
of Mnium hornum spermato-
cytes, 506*.
Mull, interbasaltic plant beds of, by
Sir Albert Seward, W. N.
Edwards and Dr. J. B. Simpson,
506*.
Murray, Dr. Margaret, Sociological
aspects of Cambridge, 471.
Murray, Dr. P. D. F., Consequen-
tial evolution, 438.
Myth and ritual, by Prof. S. H.
Hooke, 483, 542.
Myxomycetes, by Miss E. M. Halley,
506*.
NAGELSCHMIDT, Dr. G., Imperfectly
crystallised clay minerals, 403.
Narcissus, cytology of, by Miss D. J.
Heppell, 505, 506*.
Narcissus, stripe disease of, by
Dr. J. Caldwell and A. L. James,
501, 543.
Narrative of Meeting, xiv.
National Parks, importance of, in
Great Britain, by Rt. Hon. Earl of
Onslow, 523.
National Trust and East Anglia, by
N. B. Kinnear and Dr. D. H.
Valentine, 529.
244 INDEX
Natural selection, the immense range
of, by D. H. Campbell, 479.
Neumann, Dr. B. H., General de-
compositions of groups, 397.
NEVILLE, Prof. E. H., on Mathe-
matical tables, 269.
Newton’s method of approxi-
mation, 392*.
Preparation of mathematical
tables, 394*.
Newman, Miss B., Birth customs in
East Anglia, 480.
Newman, L. F., Birth customs in
East Anglia, 480.
Newton, W. G., Tendencies of
school design, 511, 544.
Newtonian root evaluations, sym-
posium by Prof. A. Ostrowski,
Prof. E. H. Neville and D. H.
Sadler, 392.
Newton’s method of approximation,
by Prof. A. Ostrowski, 392.
NicHo.son, H. H., Soils of Cam-
bridgeshire, Appdx. 25.
Noble metals, symposium on organic
chemistry of, by Dr. F. G. Mann,
Prof. L. O. Brockway and Prof.
N. V. Sidgwick, 399, 538.
Nockotps, Dr. S. R., Replacement
veins in Mourne Mountains
granites, 420.
Norton, H. W., Latin squares, 393.
Nuclear collisions, loss of energy by
fast particles in, by Prof. E. J.
Williams, 385*.
Nuclear levels, by Prof. W. Bothe,
381.
Nuclear physics, symposium on, by
Prof. N. Bohr, Prof. W. Bothe,
Dr. J. D. Cockroft, Dr. P. I.
Dee, Dr. N. Feather and others,
381, 385, 537-
Nycaarp, Dr. K. K., Determination
of ascorbic acid, 402.
Oak_ey, Dr. K. P., Palzolithic flake
industries in the Thames valley,
473, 542.
Oceanography and fluctuations of
marine animals, by Dr. S. Kemp,
85, 426*.
(Cnothera, genetics of, by Dr. D. G.
Catcheside, 506*.
(Estrogenic compounds, by Prof.
E. C. Dodds, 405, 538.
Officers and Council, v.
Officers, Sectional, viii.
Occ, Dr. W. G., Problems of
marginal and waste land, 518.
OcILviE, Prof. A. G., Chota Nagpur
plateau, 444.
OLDFIELD, R. C., Verbal problems
connected with definition of per-
sonal qualities, 491*.
Ouiver, D. A., Martensitic per-
manent magnet steels, 386.
OnsLow, Rt. Hon. the Earl of, Jm-
portance of National Parks in
Great Britain, 523.
Organisation and environment, re-
lationship of, by J. Z. Young,
437*.
Orient and Europe, by Prof. V. G.
Childe, 181, 474*.
Orient, rediscovery of the ancient,
by Prof. S. A. Cook, 474, 542.
Orthogenesis, by Prof. A. E. True-
man, 436.
Orthogonalised squares, by W. L.
Stevens, 394.
Orwin, C. S., Demands for labour
in agriculture, 517, 545.
Osmotic pressures in regulation of
cell turgor, by Prof.’ TT. A. Bennet-
Clark and Miss D. Bexon, 493.
OstrowskI, Prof. A., Newton’s
method of approximation, 392.
Overhead costs and economic wel-
fare, by G. D. A. MacDougall,
457- :
Overseas delegation fund, xx.
Pact, D. F. M., Industries of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 154.
PaceT, Sir R., Influence of sign
language on civilisation, 477, 542.
Palestinians, Early, by Sir Arthur
Keith, 479.
Palisade diabase sill, New Jersey,
by Dr. F. Walker, 419.
Patmer, S. J., Stresses in welded
pipes, 463*, 54I.
Paramagnetic relaxation below 1°
abs., by E. S. Shire, 389*, 537.
Parasitic diseases of animals, by
Dr. E. L. Taylor, 521, 545.
a
INDEX
ParKER, Dr. H. W., Systematics in
relation to biology, 531.
Parkes, Dr. A. S., Multiple bio-
logical activities of hormones, 406.
ParToN, J. E., Harmonic power in
iron testing, 461, 547.
Measurements on rings and
cores in incremental testing, 461,
542.
Paterson, T. T., Middle Palzo-
lithic industries of S.E. England,
474*.
—— Pleistocene deposits of Cam-
bridge district, Appdx. 15.
PeakKE, H. J. E., on Mining sites in
Wales, 342.
on Sumerian copper, 345.
Pease, M. S., Yellow fat in rabbits,
434.
PeaTE, I. C., Development of the
chair, 480, 542.
Pebble beds of Lower Cretaceous
rocks of England, by J. F.
Kirkaldy, 424.
Pedler Lecture,
Hawkins, 546.
PEEL, R. F., Local intermarriage and
stability of rural population, 479*,
542.
PEIERLS, Prof. R., Resonance in high
energy reactions, 385*.
PENROSE, Dr. L. S., Heredity and
mental hygiene, 484, 543.
Personal qualities, verbal problems
connected with, by R. C. Oldfield,
491*.
Peruvian potatoes, virus content of,
by Dr. R. W. G. Dennis, 503.
Puitip, Miss U., Colours in Dro-
sophila, 433.
Puituies, C. W., Conditions in
Fenland in Roman times, 412.
Roman occupation of Fen-
land, 465.
Romano-British times in Cam-
bridgeshire, Appdx. go.
Puituies. Dr. D. W., Imperfections
of elasticity in rocks, 390.
Puituies, Dr. F. C., Tarskavaig
Moines, 420.
Puituis, Dr. E., Effects of pressure
on properties of protoplasm, 493.
PuiLpoTt, Dr. S. J. F., Educational
significance of cinema and wire-
less, 517.
by ‘Prof., Hep is:
245
Photomicrographs, by Dr. C. G. C.
Chesters, 506*.
Phycomycete flora of Glamorgan,
by Dr. W. R..I. Cook, Miss E.
Morgan ang Miss P. E. Thomas,
499.
Physiography of N.W. Norfolk, by
J. A. Steers, 446*, 540.
Physiological isolation, by Dr. W. H.
Thorpe, 439*, 540.
Physiology of the plant cell in pure
and applied botany, by Prof. W.
Stiles, 213, 492*.
Pick, F., Education for a changing
society, 515, 544.
PickarD, Mr., Construction of a
standard expansion liquefier, 389*.
PicKaRD, Dr. J. N., Rabbit coat-
colours, 434.
PICKFORD, Miss G. E., Vampyro-
morpha, 427.
Pigments, genetics and chemistry of,
exhibition by W. J. C. Lawrence,
J. R. Price, R. D. Williams, Miss
U. Philip, Dr. J. N. Pickard,
M. S. Pease, Prof. R. C. Punnett
and Prof. R. R. Gates, 428.
Piltdown problem, re-examination
of, by Sir Arthur Keith, 478.
Piriz, N. W., Virus disease of
plants, 507*.
Place-names of Cambridgeshire, by
Dr. P. H. Reaney, Appdx. 99.
Planets, atmospheres of, by Dr. H.
Spencer Jones, 557.
Plank-built boats, polygenetic origin
of, by J. Hornell, 470, 542.
Plant poisons, toxicity of inorganic,
by Dr. W. E. Brenchley, 493, 543.
Plant viruses, modes of dissemina-
tion of, by Dr. K. M. Smith and
W. D. MacClement, sor.
Pleistocene anthropoid apes of S.
Africa, by Dr. R. Broom, 482, 547.
Pleistocene terraces and palzoliths
in S. Arabia, by Miss E. W.
Gardner, 475*, 542.
Plymouth in the sailing ship era, by
A. E. Stephens, 448
Plymouth Laboratory, report on, 334.
Poisson’s Equation, relaxation
method of solving, by D. G.
Christopherson, 459*.
Polymorphism, by Capt. C. Diver,
437-
246
PoperT, A. H., Cultivation of the
alder and birch, 509*.
Population, stability of rural, by
R. F. Peel, 479*, 542.
Portholed megaliths of the British
Isles, by Dr. G. E. Daniel, 465.
Ports and estuaries in their geo-
graphical setting, symposium by
F. H. W. Green, A. E. Stephens,
G. Hayes, Miss M. Chriss, W. G.
East and O. Borer, 447.
Potato, protection against virus
diseases of, by Dr. R. N. Salaman,
502, 507,* 544.
Potatoes, temperature and starch-
sugar balance in, by Dr. J. Barker,
494.
Presidential Address, The, by Rt.
Hon. Lord Rayleigh, 1.
Price, J. R., Flower pigments, 429.
Price and cost, business view of the
relationship between, by R. L.
Hall, 456, 540.
PripER, Dr. R. T., Leucite rocks of
Kimberley, 419.
Problem child, background of the,
by R. Knight, 486.
Professionalism, by 'T. H. Marshall,
453, 540.
Protoplasm, effects of pressure on
properties of, by Dr. T. G. Mason
and Dr. E. Phillis, 493.
Psychological problems of the mature
personality, by Dr. W. Brown,
485, 542.
Public education, Administration in,
by J. Sargent, 235, 513*.
Puccinia coronata-avene, physio-
logic races of, by Dr. M. R.
Brown, 506*.
PuNNETT, Prof. R. C., Colour in
budgerigars, 434.
Pygmy language, Congo, by Rev.
E. W. Smith, 463*, 542.
Quarterly Report, Proposals for, xxiv.
Quaternary cave art, by P. Leason,
471.
QuiccIn, Mrs. A. H., Primitive
money, 477.
Rabbit coat-colours, by Dr. J. N.
Pickard, 434.
INDEX
Rabbits, yellow fat in, by M. S.
Pease, 434.
Rachiopteris cylindrica, rachis of,
by Dr. H. S. Holden, 497*.
RADCLIFFE-BROWN, Prof. R. A.,
Anthropological research in
Australia, 464.
RaprortH, N. W., Dactylotheca
plumosa and Senftenbergia ophio-
dermatica, 498, 543.
Rapiceg, E. A., Variations in savings
in Great Britain, 458.
Radioactivities, _neutron-produced,
by Dr. N. Feather, 382, 537.
Radioactivity produced by nuclear
excitation, by Dr. M. Goldhaber,
385*.
Radio interference by trolley buses,
by J. E. M. Coombes, 459*.
Rag, Prof. R., Animal husbandry,
521, 545.
Racian, Rt. Hon. Lord, Survivals
in dress, 481.
Randomisation, by Dr. C. C. Craig,
393-
RAYLEIGH, Rt. Hon. Lord, Vision in
nature and aided by (Science:
Science and Warfare, 1.
Rayner, Dr. M. C., Pinus root fungi
and Sitka Spruce mycorrhiza,
506*,
ReEANEY, Dr. P. H., Place-names of
Cambridgeshire, Appdx. 99.
Regional concept, discussion on, by
Dr. S. W. Wooldridge, Dr. R. E.
Dickinson, Dr. R. O. Buchanan,
Miss H. G. Wanklyn and Prof.
C. Daryll Forde, 449*, 450*.
REICHSTEIN, Dr. T., Compounds
related to adrenal cortical hor-
mones, 408, 538.
Retr, E. F., Scale models, 459*.
Religious ‘racket’ on the Gold
Coast, by Dr. M. Fortes, 477.
Reports on State of Science, 263.
Research Committees, liii.
Research Committees’ Reports, 263.
Resolutions and Recommendations,
lviii.
Resonance in high energy reactions,
by Prof. R. Pierls, 385*.
Resonance levels in slow neutron pro-
cesses, by Prof. C. D. Ellis, 385*.
Respiration in parasitic insects, by
Dr. W. H. Thorpe, 444*, 540.
INDEX
Rhodesia and South Africa, Middle
Paleolithic in, by A. L. Arm-
strong, 473.
Ricuarps, Dr. P. W., Mosses with.
dwarf males, 506*.
Ricuarpson, Dr. L. F., Generalised
foreign politics, 488, 543.
Ricuarpson, Dr. W. A., Education
for a changing society, 515, 545.
Ricury, Dr. J. E., Replacement
veins in Mourne Mountains
granites, 420.
Rings and cores in incremental
testing, by E. V. D. Glazier and
J. E. Parton, 461, 542.
Ritual, symposium by A. M. Hocart,
Mrs. N. K. Chadwick, Prof. S. H.
Hooke and Prof. H. J. Rose,
482, 541.
Rix, M. M., Prehistoric skulls of
Cyprus, 480.
Road development in Great Britain,
by Major F. C. Cook, 460,* 54r.
Road haulage, economics of, by
G. Walker, 454.
Rosertson, W. A., Utilisation of
home-grown hardwoods, 509%,
544.
RosBInson, Sir Roy, The home-
grown timber supply, 509*.
Rosinson, W. H., Education for a
changing society, 513, 545.
Rott, Prof. E., Trend of Britain’s
balance of payments, 458.
DE Ropp, R. S., Hormone system of
rye grain, 494, 543.
Rose, Prof. H. J., Ritual and magic,
483.
Ross, R., Colonisation of abandoned
agricultural land, 510, 544.
RussEL_L, F. S., Diversification of
form in meduse, 443.
RussELL, Sir JoHN, Crop produc-
tion, 521*.
Rust fungi, sexual processes in, by
Prof. A. H. R. Buller, 495, 543.
Ruzicka, Prof. L., Androstane de-
rivatives, 405.
SapDLeER, D. H., Estimation of com-
putational labour, 393.
Hollerith and
machines, 394*.
National
247
SALAMAN, Dr. R. N., Protection
against virus diseases of potato,
502, 507*, 544.
SaALisBuRY, Prof. E. J., Mechanism
of evolution, 438*.
Sandringham flax experiment, by
G. O. Searle, 505, 506*.
SANSOME, Mrs. E. R. and Dr. F. W.,
Genetical experiments with garden
peas, 505, 544.
SARGENT, J., Administration in public
education, 235, 513*.
SAUNDERS, Miss E. R., Neglect of
anatomical evidence in systematic
botany, 503, 506*, 544.
Savings in Great Britain, measure-
ment of variations in, by E. A.
Radice, 458.
Scale models in general engineering,
by R. W. Allen, 459, 547.
ScHOFIELD, Dr. R. K., Origin of
electric charges on clay particles,
404.
Science and warfare, by Rt. Hon.
Lord Rayleigh, 1.
Scope and method of economics, by
R. F. Harrod, 139, 453*.
Scott, J. K., Modification of the
katharometer, 506*.
SEARLE, G. O., The Sandringham
flax experiment, 505, 506*.
Seismic exploration of eastern Eng-
land, by T. F. Gaskell, 391.
Seismograms, by Miss I. Lehmann,
390*.
Seismological investigations, report on,
263.
Seismology, symposium by Dr.
F. J. W. Whipple, S. J. Hughes,
Miss E. F. Bellamy, Prof. O. T.
Jones, Miss I. Lehmann, Dr.
D. W. Phillips, T. F. Gaskell,
Dr. H. Jeffreys, Dr. R. Stoneley
and Prof. J. D. Bernal, 390, 537.
Selective intensities in nature, by
Prof. R. A. Fisher, 436.
SELWoop, Dr. E. H., Classification
of communities by occupation,
449.
Sense perception and evolution of
colour pattern, symposium by
Dr. J. S. Huxley, Dr. H. B. Cott,
D. Lack and I. H. Burkill, 440.
Sensory events, report on quantitative
estimates of, 277.
248 INDEX
Settlement analysis of engineering
structures, by A. W. Skempton,
463*, 541.
SEwarD, Sir A., Tertiary vegetation
of Inner Hebrides, 496, 506*.
SrymMour, W. D., Tendencies of
school design, 511, 545.
SuHapLey, Prof. H., Metagalactic
gradients and expanding universe,
383.
Ships, vibration in, by Dr. F. H.
Todd, 462, 541.
Sure, E. S., Paramagnetic relaxa-
tion below 1° abs., 389*, 537.
Suove, G. F., Interpretation and
allocation of cost, 456.
Sipewick, Prof. N. V., Organic
chemistry of metals, 400.
Sidmouth coast scenery, preserva-
tion of, by Dr. Vaughan Cornish,
450, 540.
Sign language, influence on civilisa-
tion, by Sir Richard Paget, 477,
542.
Silicates, atomic structure of, by
Prof. W. L. Bragg, 403, 538.
Smwon, Dr. F., Experiments below
1° abs., 388.
Simpson, Dr. J. B., Fossil pollen of
Jurassic dicotyledons, 425, 507*.
—— Tertiary vegetation of the
Inner Hebrides, 496, 506*.
Sims, Dr. L. G. A., Ballistic
measurements in incremental
magnetism, 460, 541.
SINGLETON, F. A., MacDonnell
Ranges of Central Australia,
446.
SKEMPTON, A. W., Settlement analy-
sis of engineering structures, 463%,
54l.
Slow neutron velocity spectrometer,
by Dr. P. B. Moon, 385*.
SmitH, Rev. E. W., A Congo
pygmy language, 463*, 542.
SmiTH, Dr. K. M., Dissemination
of plant viruses, 501, 507*.
Situ, Lt.-Col. W. C., Alkali-rocks
of Nyasaland, 416, 538.
Social relations of Science, establish-
ment of division for, xxiii.
Sociology, the present position of,
by Prof. M. Ginsberg, 453*.
Soil fertility, maintenance of, by
Dr. E. M. Crowther, 5109.
Soils of Cambridgeshire, by H. H.
Nicholson and F. Hanley, Appdx.
25.
Soldier, equipment of the, through-
out the ages, by C. Ffoulkes, 481.
Somme, thirty metres terrace of,
by M. l’Abbé Breuil, 476, 547.
Sorbus, British forms of, by Dr.
E. F. Warburg, 507.
Southampton, hydrographic factors
of, by F. H. W. Green, 447, 540.
South Arabia, pleistocene terraces
and palzoliths of, by Miss E. W.
Gardner, 475*, 452.
South India, by Prof. C. B. Fawcett,
444.
SOUTHWELL, Prof. R. V., Changing
outlook of engineering science, 163,
459™. :
SPEARMAN, Prof. C., Pitfall in factor
psychology, 488, 543.
Spectrochemical analysis, by Prof.
W. Gerlach, 401*.
SPEISER, Prof. A., Elliptic functions,
3990
SPENCER, Dr. W. K., Starfishes and
Cystids, 415.
Spheres, continuous mapping into,
by Dr. 5S. Eilenberg, 399.
SPINKsS, J., Ballistic measurements
in incremental magnetism, 460,
54f.
Spin - lattice interaction,
H. B. G. Casimir, 389*.
Spitzbergen, vegetation of, by
Dr. C. G. Dobbs and A. M.
Acock, 506*, 508.
Sporotrichium infection by rats, by
Dr. A. Burges, 506*.
Spot-analysis, by Prof. F. Feigl, 4or.
SRiINATH, K. V., Nutrition of Cal-
ceolaria embryo sac, 507*, 509.
STAPLEDON, Prof. R. G., Ley-
farming and a long term agricul-
tural policy, 215, 518*.
Starfishes and Cystids, by Dr. W. K.
Spencer, 415.
STEELE, R. C., Educational sig-
nificance of wireless, 516, 545.
Steers, J. A., Physiography of
N.W. Norfolk, 446*, 540.
STEPHENS, A. E., Plymouth in the
sailing ship era, 448.
STEvEN, Dr. H. M., Afforestation in
hill country, 510*, 544.
by Dr.
INDEX
Stevens, W. L., Orthogonalised
squares, 394.
Stites, Prof. W., Physiology of the
plant cell in pure and applied |
botany, 213, 492*.
Stimulation phenomena in plants,
by Dr. B. J. Grieve, 506*.
Stone Age industries in S.W.
Africa, by Mrs. A. Bowler-Kelley,
474.
STONELEY, D. R., Times of travel of
the L phase, 391, 537.
Stoner, Dr. E. C., General theory
of ferromagnetism, 384, 537.
Stresses in welded pipes, by S. J.
Palmer, 463*, 542.
Stripe disease of Narcissus,
Dr. J. Caldwell
James, 501, 543.
STUBBLEFIELD, Dr. C. J., Trilobites,
ADS.
Sturpy, R. S., Sensory adaptation
in hearing, 488.
SucksmiTH, Dr. W., Variation of
magnetic saturation intensities,
386, 537.
Suffolk agriculture in the Middle
Ages, by Miss J. B. Mitchell,
445.
Sumerian copper, report on, 345.
Superconductivity, recent develop-
ments in, by Dr. K. Mendelssohn,
389%.
Swanscombe skull, symposium on,
by A. T. Marston, Prof. W. B. R.
King, M. A. C. Hinton, C. F. C.
Hawkes, Sir Arthur Keith, Prof.
W. Le Gros Clark, Dr. G. M.
Morant and Dr. D. A. E. Garrod,
466, 541.
SwINNERTON, Prof. H. H., Develop-
ment and evolution, 57, 416*.
Marshland of E. Lincs., 413,
539. -
Synthetic organic chemistry, reper-
cussions on biology and medicine,
discussion by Prof. Sir F. Gowland
Hopkins, Prof. E. C. Dodds, Prof.
L. Ruzicka, Dr. A. S. Parkes,
Prof. J. W. Cook, Dr. T. Reich-
stein and Prof. A. R. Todd, 405,
538.
Systematic botany, neglect of ana-
tomical evidence in, by Miss
E. R. Saunders, 503, 506*, 544.
by
ana An. As
"249
Systematics in relation to biology,
by Dr. H.W. Parker, 531.
Tait, Dr. J. B., Physico-chemical
environment in fisheries research,
426*, 539.
Tarskavaig Moines, by Dr. F. C.
Phillips, 420.
Taussky, Dr. O., Differential equa-
tions, 397, 538.
Taytor, Dr. E. L., Parasitic dis-
eases of animals, 521, 545.
Tay.or, Prof. Griffith, Correlations
and culture, 103, 444*.
Tectonics, by Dr. E. B. Bailey, 422,
423.
Temperament, inheritance of, by
Prof. R. B. Cattell, 486*.
Tetrapods and bony fishes, by Dr.
T. T.S. Westoll, 443.
Tetrastichia bupatides, by Prof.
W. T. Gordon, 497, 506*, 543.
Thames valley, Palaeolithic flake
industries in, by K. P. Oakley,
473, 542.
Thermal conductivities of
report on, 271.
Tuomas, Dr. H. H., Jurassic plant
remains, 507*.
Works of Richard Bradley,
507*.
Tuomas, Miss P. E., Glamorgan
Monoblepharidales, 501, 507*.
Tuompson, Dr. A. J., Printing of
mathematical tables, 395.
THompson, C. H., Forestry at
Cambridge University, 511*, 544.
TuHompson, Dr. Donald F., The
Australian aborigine and adminis-
tration, 463, 542.
Film of Australian life, 465*.
THOMSON, Sir J. J., Recent experi-
ments on electronic waves, 389*.
Tuorpe, Dr. W. H., Birds of Cam-
bridgeshire, Appdx. 61.
Physiological isolation, 439*,
540.
rocks,
Respiration in parasitic in-
sects, 444*, 540.
Thought, direction of, by Prof. G.
Humphrey, 484*.
Tuou.ess, Dr. R. H., Eve and brain
as factors in visual perception, 197,
487*.
250°
TIL.ey, Prof. C. E., Carbonate rocks
and alkali-rich intrusions, 418*.
Timber, the home-grown supply, by
Sir Roy L. Robinson, 509*.
TINBERGEN, Prof. J., Trade cycle
mechanism, 452, 540.
Titicaca, flora of Lake, by T. G.
Tutin, 507*.
Titicaca, Lake, by H. C. Gilson,
442, 539.
Topp, Prof. A. R., Vitamin B, and
its synthetic analogues, 410, 538.
Toop, Dr. F. H., Vibration in ships,
462, 541.
TOMEEIEFF, S. J., Réle of carbon
dioxide in igneous magma, 417.
Zonal olivines, 418, 539.
Topological methods, by Dr. B.
Kauffmann, 396.
Torque converter for motor cars, by
Prof. F. C. Lea, 460*, 547.
Toxicity of inorganic plant poisons,
by Dr. W. E. Brenchley, 493, 543.
Trade cycle and unemployment, by
Sir Wm. Beveridge, 455, 540.
Trade cycle mechanism, statistical,
testing of, by Prof. J. Tinbergen,
452, 540.
Trade cycle policy and public in-
vestment, by R. F. Bretherton,
452.
Tradition and ritual, by Mrs. N. K.
Chadwick, 483.
Train running times, calculation of,
by D. M. Wilcox, 460*, 54r.
Transfer effect, new experiments, by
J. G. Daunt, 389*.
Transformations, fixed points of, by
Prof. S. Lefschetz, 395.
Transformers, transients in, by
F. B. Greatrex, 459*, 541.
Transplant experiments, report on,
347:
‘Trematodes, fish-carried, in Canada,
by Prof. T. W. M. Cameron, 426.
Trend of Britain’s balance of pay-
ments, by Prof. E. Roll, 458.
Tress, R. C., Local diversity of
industry and rate of unemploy-
ment, 455.
Tridymite and cristobalite of West
Indies, by Dr. A. G. Macgregor,
422.
Trilobites, by Dr. C. J. Stubblefield,
413.
INDEX
'TRUEMAN, Prof. A. E., Orthogenesis,
436.
TurrRILL, Dr. W. B., Ecological
isolation, 438, 544.
Toutin, T. G., Flora of Lake
Titicaca, 507*.
Underground water supply of
London, by Dr. S. Buchan, 418,
539.
Unemployment and the trade cycle,
by Sir W. M. Beveridge, 455, 540.
Unemployment, rate of, related to
local diversity of industry, by
R. C. Tress, 455.
Urwin, S. E., Tendencies of school
design, 5II.
VALENTINE, Prof. C. W., Social
psychology of childhood, 484,
543.
VALENTINE, Dr. D. H., Hybrids of
Viola, 507*.
Wicken Fen, 530.
Vampyromorpha, by Miss G. E.
Pickford, 427.
VaN VLECK, Prof. J. H., The mole-
cular field and low temperatures,
388, 538.
Variegated hollies, apparent rever-
sions in, by Prof. F. E. Weiss, 504.
Vibration, symposium on, by Prof.
C. E. Inglis, Dr. F. H. Todd and
Major B. C. Carter, 462, 547.
Vibrometer, moving coil, by G. C.
Eccles, 460*, 547.
Villages of Cambridgeshire, by J.
Jones, Appdx. 106.
Virus research, discussion by Dr.
K.M. Smith, W. D. MacClement,
Dr. R. N. Salaman, F. C. Bawden
and Dr. R. W. G. Dennis, 501,
543.
exhibitions, 507*.
Vision in nature and aided by Science,
by Rt. Hon. Lord Rayleigh, 1.
Vision, sensory adaptation in, by
K. J. W. Craik, 487, 542.
Visual perception, eye and brain as
factors in, by Dr. R. H. Thouless,
197, 487*.
Vitamin B, and its synthetic ana-
logues, by Prof. R. A. Todd,
410, 538.
a
INDEX
Vitrification of colloids and proto-
plasm, by Prof. B. J. Luyet, 506*.
Vocational adjustment, place of
interests in, by J. G. W. Davies,
487*, 543.
Vocational guidance, social implica-
tions of, by E. Farmer, 486.
Wape, Dr. A., Leucite rocks of
Kimberley, 419.
Waker, F., East Anglia and the
Civil War, 445.
Wa rer, Dr. F., Differentiation of
New Jersey palisade diabase sill,
419.
WALKER, G., Economics of road
haulage, 454.
WANKLYN, Miss H. G., The regional
concept, 449*.
Warsurc, Dr. E. F., British forms
of Sorbus, 507.
Wareham heaths, soil and growth
on, by Prof. W. Neilson Jones and
A. G. Morton, 506*, 511*.
Warfare and science, by Rt. Hon.
Lord Rayleigh, 1.
Warnock, P., Parasitic fungi on
Rosa, 507*.
Wash, The, by O. Borer, 449.
Watermarked willows, by G. Met-
calfe, 506*, 511.“
Watson, Prof. D.M.S., Mechanism
of evolution, 435*.
Watson, Hugh, Molluscs of Cam-
bridgeshire, Appdx. 65.
Watson, Prof. J. A. S., Systems of
farming, 518*, 545.
Watt, Dr. A. S., Climate of Cam-
bridgeshire, Appdx. 99.
Ecology of Breckland, Appdx.
Bot.
—— Morphology of bracken, 507*.
Significance of Breckland in
British forestry, 510, 544.
Weapons from Fenland waterways,
by T. C. Lethbridge, 466.
Wess, C. E., Improvements in soft
magnetic materials, 460*, 541.
Weiss, Prof. F. E., Apparent rever-
sions in variegated hollies, 504.
WELLs, H. G., on Content of school
curricula, 511*.
WESTOLL, Dr. T. S., Carboniferous
bony fishes, 425.
251
WESTOLL, Dr. T. S., Tetrapods and
bony fishes, 443.
WHippLe, Dr. F. J. W., on Seis-
mological investigations, 263, 390*.
Wuate, P. B., International short
term capital movements, 457.
Waite, C. M., Scale models, 459*.
White, Prof. R. G., Agriculture and
employment, 518*.
WHITEHEAD, J. H. C., Generalisation
of groups, 398.
WuitTinec, G. C., Catechol oxidase
system, 495.
Wuaitinc, H.E., Fishes of Cambridge-
shire, Appdx. 64.
Wicken Fen, by N. B. Kinnear and
Dr. D. H. Valentine, 529, 539.
Wicken Fen, natural history of, by
Prof. J. S. Gardiner, 428*.
Witcox, D. M., Calculation of train
running times, 460*, 547.
Witxs, M. V., Mallock machine,
394*.
Witiiams, Prof. E. J., Loss of
energy of fast particles in nuclear
collisions, 385*.
The heavy electron, 385*.
WIL.tI1AMs, Capt. R. D., Chlorophyll
deficiencies and flower colour,
433
Witiiams, Dr.
hygiene, 490.
Windermere Biological Station, re-
port on, 340.
Winter life in Swedish Lapland, by
Dr. E. J. Lindgren, 469.
Wireless and cinema, discussion on
educational significance of, by
R. C. Steele, Dr. P. B. Ballard,
Dr. S. J. F. Philpott and Miss
L. M. Holt, 490*, 516, 544.
Wisuart, Dr. J., Calculating ma-
chines, 394*.
Newtonian root evaluations,
392*.
Woon, Dr. R. W., Crystal growth,
387*.
—— Diffraction gratings, 383.
WooprorD, E. K., Anion and cation
absorption by barley plants, 495,
544.
Woo .pripce, Dr. S. W., Regional
concept, 449*.
WorTHINGTON, Dr. E. B., Geo-
graphical isolation, 438, 549.
T. <A., Mental
252
WRIGHT, S. J., Men and machines,
518, 545.
X-rays and ferromagnetism, by Dr.
A. J. Bradley, 385.
X-rays and magnetic alloys, sym-
posium on, by Prof. W. L. Bragg,
Dr. E. C. Stoner, Dr. A. J.
Bradley and others, 384, 537.
YaTES, F., Use of lattice squares in
plant improvement, 394.
YORKE, J. PaLeEy, Education for a
changing society, 515*.
YoupDEN, Dr. W. J., Complex square
designs in plant physiology, 393.
INDEX
Younc, D. W., Position of hard-
woods in British forestry, s509*,
544.
Younc, J. Z., Relationship of
organisation and environment,
437".
ZEUNER, Dr. F. E., Geological evi-
dence of the Middle Palzolithic,
472, 542.
Zonal olivines, by S. I. Tomkeieff,
418, 539.
Zoological field stations of U.S.A.,
by Homer A. Jack, 427.
Zoology of Cambridgeshire, edited by
A. D. Imms, 60.
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Enamels and Cellulose Finishes; Oils, Fats and Waxes; Cosmetics.
Full prospectus on application to the Director of Education.
APPLICATION FOR ADVERTISING
SPACE IN THE
Preliminary Programme
of the
Dundee Meeting
(Aug. 30—Sept. 6, 1939)
should be made at once to
THE ADVERTISEMENT MANAGER,
British Association,
Burlington House, London, W.!.
THE BRITISH ASSOCIATION
SEEKS TO PROMOTE
GENERAL INTEREST IN
SCIENCE AND ITS APPLI-
CATIONS, AND ITS ANNUAL
MEETING AFFORDS UNIQUE
OPPORTUNITY FOR
CONFERENCE AND CO-
OPERATION BETWEEN
SCIENTIFIC WORKERS AND
OTHERS INTERESTED IN
ALL DEPARTMENTS OF
SCIENCE.
THE ASSOCIATION RELIES
UPON A FULL MEMBER-
SHIP AND ATTENDANCE
AT ITS MEETINGS TO
ASSURE THE SUPPORT OF
THE NUMEROUS SCIENTIFIC
RESEARCHES AND OTHER
ACTIVITIES CARRIED ON
UNDER ITS AUSPICES.
(D2 JAN 1939)
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